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Working Paper Series

External vs. Internal Learning-by-Doing
in an R&D Based Growth Model

WP 98-01

Andreas Hornstein
Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond
Dan Peled
University of Western Ontario

This paper can be downloaded without charge from:
http://www.richmondfed.org/publications/

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67

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lq Krqru ri E1 I1 Kdoh|/ hg1 P1 Deudprzlw}1 Vwdqirug FD= Vwdqirug Xqlyhuvlw| Suhvv1
^5` Dofkldq/ D1 4<961 Uholdelolw| ri Surjuhvv Fxuyhv lq Dlu0Iudph Surgxfwlrq1 Hfrqrphwulfd
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phqwv1 Pdqdjhphqw Lqwhuqdwlrqdo Uhylhz 9= 980<91
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Hfrqrplf Jurzwk1 Lq QEHU Pdfurhfrqrplfv Dqqxdo 4<<6/ hgv1 R1 M1 Eodqfkdug dqg
V1 Ilvfkhu/ 480:71 Fdpeulgjh PD= PLW Suhvv1
^43` Froh/ U1 4<8;1 Lqfuhdvlqj Xwlol}dwlrq ri wkh Frvw Txdqwlw| Uhodwlrqvkls lq Pdqxidfwxu0
lqj1 Mrxuqdo ri Lqgxvwuldo Hqjlqhhulqj <= 4:604::1
^44` Frqzd|/ U1/ dqg D1 Vfkxow}1 4<8<1 Wkh Pdxidfwxulqj Surjuhvv Ixqfwlrq1 Mrxuqdo ri
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^47` Kluvfk/ Z1 ]1 4<851 Pdqxidfwxulqj Surjuhvv Ixqfwlrqv1 Uhylhz ri Hfrqrplfv dqg Vwd0
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68

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