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WOMEN WORKERS

IN TEN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS
AND
THEIR POSTWAR EMPLOYMENT PLANS

«
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
WOMEN'S BUREAU

BULLETIN NO. 209

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
L. B. SCHWELLENBACH, Secretary

WOMEN’S BUREAU
FRIEDA S. MILLER, Director

★

WOMEN WORKERS
IN TEN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS
AND
THEIR POSTWAR EMPLOYMENT PLANS

Bulletin of the Women’s Bureau
No. 209

UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1946

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.

Price 15 cents

CONTENTS
Page

Letter of Transmittal............................... ..........................................................
vn
I. Major Findings................................... ...........................................................
1
II. Plan of Report....................................................................................................
1
III. Areas and Workers Surveyed......................................................................
1
PART I

Increase in the Employment of Women and Major Sources of Increase.........
Increase from 1940 to 1944 or 1945 in the number of women employed..
Prewar employment status..........................................................................
Length of work experience..........................................................................
Prewar residence..........................................................................................
Extent to which wartime-employed women planned to remain in the
labor force, in war areas or elsewhere.................................................
Relation of prewar employment status and length of work experience to
postwar employment plans.......................................................................
Relation of prewar residence to postwar employment plans.....................

3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5

PART II

Changes in Industries and Occupations..................................................................
7
Increase in the employment of women in specific industries from 1940 to
the war period............................................................................................
7
Changes in the industry and occupation of women employed both before
and during the war....................................................................................
8
Wartime distribution by industry and occupation of women not in the
prewar labor force.................. :............................................................
10
Proportion of wartime-employed women in different industrial and
occupational groups whoplanned to remain in the labor force....
11
Extent to which wartime-employed women who planned to remain in
the labor force wanted postwar work in the same industries and
occupations............................................................................................
11
Comparison of the number of war-employed women in each industrial
group who planned to remain in the area labor force with the number
employed in 1940......................................................................................
12
PART III

Earnings of Wartime-Employed Women...............................................................

PART IV

Personal Characteristics..........................................................................................
Marital status...............................................................................................
Age....................................................................................................................
Race......................... ....................................................................................
Education..........................................................................................................

17
17
17
18

PART V

Responsibility for Family Support.........................................................................
Reasons wartime-employed women planned to remain in the labor force. .
Regular contributions to family expenses by women workers living in
family groups.............................................................................................
Regular contributions to the support of others by women workers living
alone..........................................................................................................
Income other than wages.................................................................................
Care of children of women wartime workers..................................................

19
19
19
21
21
21

PART VI

Postwar Problems and Outline of Action Needed................................................

APPENDIX A

Scope and Method.............................................
Summary information of areas surveyed............... .............................................
Table I.—Population and employment, 14 years and over, for specified areas—
March 1940.....................

Page

26
27
28

APPENDIX B-TABLES

Part I. Increase in the Employment of Women and Major Sources of Increase
1. Number of women employed in 1940 and 1944-45 and percent of
increase, by area.....................................................
2. Employment status the week before Pearl Harbor of women employed
in 1944—45, by area.......................................................
3. Length of work experience before 1944-45 of women employed in the
war period, by area..........................................................
4. Number and proportion of women employed in the war period who
were in-migrants, by area............................
5. Number of women employed in 1944 45 and number and percent who
planned to continue work and to continue work in the respective areas
by area..................................................
6. Comparison of the number of women employed in 1940 and the
number employed in 1944—45 who planned to continue work in the
respective areas, by area.....................................
7. Employment status the week before Pearl Harbor of wartimeemployed women who planned to continue work, by area.................
8. Percent of wartime-employed women with specified types of employ
ment status the week before Pearl Harbor who planned to continue
work after the war, by area.....................................
9. Length of work experience before 1944^45 of wartime-empioyed
women who planned to continue work, by area............................ .
10. Percent of women employed in the war period who planned to continue
work, by length of work experience and area......................................
11. Proportions of in-migrant women employed in the war period who
planned (1) to continue work, (2) to stay in the war area, and (3) to
continue work in the war area, in areas where in-migrants were an
important part of the employed women...........................
12. Number and proportion of in-migrants among the women employed
in the war period who planned to continue work in the same area, in
areas where in-migrants were an important part of the employed
women...........................................
Part II. Changes in Industries and Occupations
1. Percent of women employed in specified industrial groups in 1940
and 1944—45, by area......................................................
2. Number of women employed in selected industrial groups in i 940
and 1944—45, by area..............................................
°f shifts in industrial group by women employed both in
31944-45 and the week before Pearl Harbor, by area..........................
4. Extent of shifts in occupational group by women employed both in
1944—45 and the week before Pearl Harbor, by area...................
5.. Industrial distribution in 1944—45 of women who were in school or
engaged in their own housework the week before Pearl Harbor, by area
6. Occupational distribution in 1944—45 of women who were in school
or engaged in their own housework the week before Pearl Harbor
by area......................................................
7. Percent of women employed in the war period in specified industrial
groups who planned to continue work, by area..................................
8. Percent of women employed in the war period in specified occupa
tional groups who planned to continue work, by area........................
9. Percent of war-employed women planning to remain in the labor
force who planned to continue work in the same industrial group as
their wartime employment, by area.....................................................
10. Percent of war-employed women planning to remain in the labor
force who planned to continue work in the same occupational group
as their wartime employment, by area................................................
11. Comparison of the number of women employed in 1940 in specified
industrial groups with the number employed in the war period who
planned to remain in the area labor force, by area............................

29
29
29
30
30
31
31
32
32
33
33

35
36
37
38
39
40
41
41
42
42
43

APPENDIX B—TABLES—Continued
Page.

Part, III. Earnings of Wartime-Employed Women
1. Average weekly take-home earnings of women employed in the war
period in selected industrial groups, by area...................... ................
2. Average weekly take-home earnings of women employed in the war
period as operatives and clerical workers in factories making war
goods and in factories making consumer goods, by area....................
Part IV. Personal Characteristics
1. Marital status of women employed in the war period and of women
who planned to continue work, by area...............................................
2. Percent of women employed in the war period who planned to con
tinue work, by marital status and area...............................................
3. Age of women employed in the war period and of women who planned
to continue work, by area........................... ........................................
4. Percent of women employed in the war period who planned to con
tinue work, by age and area....................... .................................... .. •
5. Race of women employed in the war period and of women who
planned to continue work, by area............. ........................................
6. Percent of women employed in the war period who planned to eon
.
tinue work, by racial group and area...................................................
7. Extent of school education of women employed in the war period and
of women who planned to continue work, by area..............................
8. Percent of women employed in the war period who planned to con
tinue work, by extent of school education and area............................
Part V. Responsibility for Family Support
1. Reasons women employed in the war period planned to continue work,
by marital status and area....................................... ...................... ■ ■
2. Living arr angements among all women employed in the war period
and among women who planned to continue work, by marital status
and area.......................................................................................... . ■
3. Percent of women living in family groups who contributed regularly
to family expenses, among all women employed in the war period and
among women who planned to continue work, by marital status
and area..................................................................................................
4. Percent of women living in family groups and contributing regularly
to family expenses who contributed specified proportions of takehome earnings, among all women employed in the war period and
among women who planned to continue work, by marital status
and area....................................................................... .........................
5. Percent of take-home earnings contributed to family expenses by
women who lived in family groups and contributed regularly to family
expenses, among all women employed in the war period and among
women who planned to continue work, by marital status and area. .
6. Percent of women living in family groups who were the sole contribut
ing wage earners and who were one of two contributing wage earners
in the family group, among all women employed in the war period and
among women who planned to continue work, by marital status and

8.
9.

10.
11.

regularly to the support of others among all women employed in the
war period and among women who planned to continue work, by
marital status and area............................... ........................................
Percent of women employed in the war period who reported income
from sources other than wages or service allotments, by area. .....
Percent of women employed in the war period and living in family
groups who had children of their own under 14 years of age in the
household, and percent of married, widowed, or divorced women who
had children of their own in the household, by area......................
Percent of war-employed women living with own children who had
specified number of own children in household, by area.....................
Arrangements for care of children under 14 years of age of waremployed women who lived with own children, by area....................

44
44

45
45
46
46
47
47
48
48

49
50

54
54

55
55
56

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

XJ. S. Department

Labor,

Women’s Bureau,

Washington, June 7, 1946.
Sir: I have the honor of transmitting the results of a survey among
women employed in the war period in 10 war-congested manufacturing
areas located throughout the country. This report presents the mani
fold war-wrought changes in the employment of women—the unpre
cedented increase in their numbers, their industrial and occupational
distribution, earnings, and personal characteristics. By interviewing
th^ women workers in their homes, the Women’s Bureau obtained a
panoramic picture of their dependence on their own earnings for a liveli
hood, for themselves and the families they help to support or support
unaided.
.
The need to work of an overwhelmingly large proportion of the
women and their expressed intentions to remain in gainful employment
after the war pose a variety of postwar readjustment problems. It is
hoped that the evidence gathered in this survey will aid in the formula
tion of national and local programs to meet these problems.
The report was written by Sylvia R. Weissbrodt, Economic Editor,
based on an analysis prepared by Constance Williams, Chief of the
Bureau’s Research Division. The survey was planned by Bertha M.
Nienburg, former Chief Economist of the Bureau, and Mary Elizabeth
Pidgeon, Chief of the Economic Studies Section. The field work was
under the supervision of Eloise Ewing, Field Supervisor, and the statis
tical work was directed by Isadore Spring, Chief of the Statistical
Section.
Frieda S. Miller, Director.

Hon. L. B.

SCHWELLENBACH,

Secretary of Labor.

VII

WOMEN WORKERS IN TEN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS
AND THEIR POSTWAR EMPLOYMENT PLANS
I. Major Findings

Three conclusions of particular postwar significance stand out from
the series of home interviews by representatives of the Women’s Bu
reau with women who were employed in 10 war production areas in
1944 and 1945.
First, the war brought about great increases in the number of women
employed in each of the 10 areas and in the number of women who
planned to remain in the labor force in the respective areas.
Second, there were tremendous increases in the proportions of women
employed in industries producing directly for war purposes, and the
take-home earnings of these women considerably exceeded the takehome earnings of women employed in other industries.
Third, a high proportion of the women employed during the war
period reported that they carried heavy economic responsibilities at
home, and a high proportion of those who planned to continue working
after the war gave economic reasons for their decisions.
II. Plan of Report

The findings on which these conclusions rest are presented in Parts I
through V. Part VI is devoted to the postwar problems posed by this
survey.
Because the chief contribution to postwar planning lies in the em
phasis the findings place on the common problems and characteristics
of women workers in the war production areas as a whole, rather than
in the details for individual areas, the text deals with the 10 areas
combined. Following the text is a series of tables showing in detail the
results of the investigation. Each table is preceded by a statement
pointing up its over-all significance. Readers interested in the relative
standing of individual areas on particular questions can gain this infor
mation by reference to the tables themselves, which follow the same
sequence as the text.
Since the postwar problems of women workers in these war produc
tion areas are primarily the result of war changes in their number, per
sonal characteristics, industrial distribution, earnings, and economic
responsibilities, it is hoped that this survey by the Women’s Bureau
will help in developing postwar programs to meet these problems and to
enable women workers to contribute most effectively to local and
national prosperity.
III. Areas and Workers Surveyed

_The 10 areas chosen for survey represented wide geographical dis
tribution and varying types of war production centers, differing greatly
in size. Three areas were in the eastern part of the United States: the
Springfield-Holyoke area in Massachusetts, the Baltimore metropoli
tan area (excluding Annapolis) in Maryland, and Erie County, or the

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

Buffalo area, in New York State. Four areas were in the north and
west central part of the country: the Dayton-Springfield area in Ohio,
the Detroit-Willow Run area in Michigan, the Kenosha area in Wis
consin, and the Wichita area in Kansas. One southern area was in
cluded, Mobile metropolitan, Alabama, and two areas from the west
coast, the Seattle-Tacoma metropolitan area in Washington and the
San Francisco-Oakland metropolitan area in California.1
By size of population (14 years of age and over) in 1940 the areas
ranged from the Detroit area with a population of nearly two million
to the Kenosha area with a population of a little less than 40,000. The
San Francisco area had over a million population in 1940, the Balti
more area, over 800,000, and the Buffalo area, over 600,000. The Seattle
area had about half a million; three areas had between 100,000 and
400,000, whereas the Mobile area had slightly less than 100,000. De
tails on population and employment in 1940 are shown for each of the
areas in Table I of Appendix A.
Over 13,000 employed women were interviewed by representatives
of the Women’s Bureau in the 10 areas in 1944 or 1945. In general
the midwest areas were interviewed in the spring of 1944, the eastern
areas next, and Mobile and the west coast areas last, in early 1945.
The women workers interviewed in each area were representative
of all industries and occupations except household employment. House
hold employees were omitted because of the difficulty in conducting in
terviews in the homes of their employers. The data presented in this re
port, therefore, exclude household employees unless otherwise specified.
For further discussion of the methods of sampling and collection
see Appendix A.
1 Hereafter the areas will be identified by the names of the principal cities only, as follows:
Springfield, Baltimore, Buffalo, Dayton, Detroit, Kenosha, Wichita, Mobile, Seattle, and San
Francisco.

PART I. INCREASE IN THE EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN AND
MAJOR SOURCES OF INCREASE
INCREASE FROM 1940 TO 1944 OR 1945 IN THE NUMBER OF WOMEN EMPLOYED

An unprecedented increase occurred during the war in the number
of women employed in work other than household employment in the
10 war production areas surveyed. In 8 of the 10 areas the employment
of women approximately doubled or more than doubled from 1940
to the time of the survey in 1944 or 1945. In the other two areas
the employment of women increased by more than one half.2
Quantitatively, the increases were greatest in the two areas which
were among the foremost of the Nation’s war-producing centers. The
Detroit area absorbed almost 205 thousand additional women workers
between 1940 and 1944-45 (outside household employment), or an
increase from 182 thousand to about 387 thousand. In the San Fran
cisco area approximately 137 thousand additional women joined the
ranks of working women, swelling the 1944-45 total to about 275
thousand. Relatively, the increase was most marked in the Mobile
area where only 7,800 women were employed outside household employ
ment in 1940, compared to 27,000 at the time of the survey, or more
than three times the 1940 level. The lowest percentage change, though
sizable enough, was in the Springfield area with an increase of 55
percent.
PREWAR EMPLOYMENT STATUS

Almost half of the women employed in the war period in most of
the 10 areas had not wanted jobs the week before Pearl Harbor.3 Of
these wartime entrants into the labor force, a little over half had
been engaged in their own housework 4 and the rest had been in school.
The Wichita and Seattle areas drew most heavily on these sources.
Here women previously engaged in their own housework or attending
school constituted 55 and 50 percent respectively of the wartimeemployed group.
Of the women employed in the war period, almost all who had
wanted jobs the week before Pearl Harbor had been employed; only
about 2 percent of all the wartime-employed women had been unem
ployed and seeking work the week before Pearl Harbor.
The fact, however, that almost half of the war-employed women
were not in the labor force the week before Pearl Harbor does not
necessarily mean that their wartime employment represented their
first jobs. Some of them had worked in former years but had since
2 The employment of women (including household employees) in the United States as a whole
increased almost 60 percent between 1940 and 1945, or from a little over 11 million to 17% million
(figures as of March for the 2 years). Figures excluding household employees are not available
for the country as a whole, but if they were, the percent of increase would be greater, for it is
known that many women workers who were engaged in household employment in 1940 went into
other work during the war period.
3 Since Pearl Harbor was December 7, 1941, this information is for the first week of December
1941. It should be noted that while the first section in part I discusses changes between 1940 and
the time of the survey, this section and others in part I discuss changes between December 1941
and the time of the survey. Moreover, while the earlier section compares total employment,
excluding household employment, in 1940 and 1944-45, this section discusses only the changes
between 1941 and the time of the survey which were experienced by the women who were employed
at the time of the survey.
4 A very few women who were not in the labor force the week before Pearl Harbor, and gave
reasons other than school or their own housework, were counted in this group.

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

withdrawn from the labor market. When war conditions created the
need for their work and an opportunity for employment, they again
took their place among the working women.
LENGTH OF WORK EXPERIENCE s

Despite the influx of many newcomers into the labor market during
the war period, the group of wartime-employed women contained a
markedly high proportion of women with extended work experience.
Wartime employment for these women was not, therefore, a venture
into something new but rather part of their continuing work experience.
In the 10 areas, on the average, almost half of the wartime-employed
women had had at least 5 years’ experience at the time of the survey,
and almost 30 percent had had at least 10 years’ experience. In four
areas particularly, women with 10 or more years’ experience consti
tuted over one-third of the wartime-employed group—Springfield,
Kenosha, and the two west coast areas.
^ The remaining half of the war-employed women, those with less than
5 years’ experience, was about equally divided between the women
with 2 to 5 years’ experience and those with less than 2 years’
experience.
PREWAR RESIDENCE

Evidence of the large scale geographical shifts in the working popu
lation which took place during the war period is offered by the sub
stantial number of in-migrants among the wartime women workers.
Although each area was not affected to the same degree, the fact
that such large numbers of in-migrants were attracted to several of
the war production areas raises a special problem that awaits postwar
solution.
There was a particularly heavy influx of women workers from other
parts of the country into four areas where in-migrants represented
40 percent or more of the entire group of wartime-employed women;
in the Wichita area they were 57 percent, in the Mobile area they
were 47 percent, in the San Francisco area, 46 percent, and in the
Dayton area, 40 percent. In the Seattle and Baltimore areas in
migrants were about a third of the employed women, and in the Detroit
area, about 14 percent. In only three areas—Buffalo, Kenosha, and
Springfield—did in-migrants represent less than 12 percent of the
war-employed women.
EXTENT TO WHICH WARTIME-EMPLOYED WOMEN PLANNED TO REMAIN
IN THE LABOR FORCE, IN WAR AREAS OR ELSEWHERE

The outstanding postwar question in any war production area is,
of course, how many of the wartime workers will want jobs and how
many will want them in the same area.
That very large numbers of wartime women workers intend to
work after the war is evidenced by their statements to interviewers.
On the average, about 75 percent of the wartime-employed women in
the 10 areas expected to be part of the postwar labor force. The pro
portion was even higher, 80 percent or more, in four areas: Mobile.
Springfield, Baltimore, and Buffalo. Between 70 and 80 percent
planned on continued employment after the war in the Detroit, Dayton,5
5 Previous work in paid household employment was counted as part of work experience.

INCREASE IN EMPLOYMENT

and Kenosha areas. Although anticipated withdrawals from the labor
market were somewhat higher in the three remaining areas, Seattle, San
Francisco, and Wichita, substantial numbers—between 60 and 70
percent of the -wartime-employed women—intended to remain at work.
These prospective postwar women workers did not, for the most
part, contemplate out-migration from their areas of wartime employ
ment. Over 90 percent of them, in most areas, looked forward to
continued employment after the war in the same areas where they
had worked during the war period.
A guidepost to the adjustments necessary to achieve full employ
ment after the war is provided by a comparison of the number of
women who expressed their intention to remain in the area labor force
with the number employed there in 1940. In each area, the number
of wartime-employed women who intended to work in the same area
after the war greatly exceeded the number of women employed in the
area in 1940. In the Detroit area, for example, for every 100 women
who were working in 1940, excluding household employees, 155 women6
will want postwar jobs. About two and one-half times as many women
wanted to continue working in the Mobile area as were employed
in 1940. In the Buffalo area, there will have to be three jobs in the
postwar period which women can fill, outside household employment,
for every two jobs in 1940. In the seven other areas the increases,
from the number of women employed in 1940 to the number of wartimeemployed women with postwar employment plans in the area, ranged
from 22 to 49 percent inclusive.
RELATION OF PREWAR EMPLOYMENT STATUS AND LENGTH
OF WORK EXPERIENCE TO POSTWAR EMPLOYMENT PLANS

The highest percentage of prospective postwar workers in most
areas came from the group of women who had been employed before
Pearl Harbor, rather than from those who had been in school or
engaged in their own housework at that time. On the average over
four-fifths of the women who had been employed both before Pearl
Harbor and in the war period intended to keep on working after the
war. Among the war-employed women who had not been in the labor
force the week before Pearl Harbor, over three-fourths of the former
students expected to continue working, while over half of those for
merly engaged in their own housework had such plans. In other
words, withdrawals from the labor market were expected to take
place primarily among those wartime women workers previously en
gaged in their own housework.
The majority of the women who said they wanted jobs after the war
were not those who had been swept into the labor force during its
wartime expansion, but rather those who had always been working,
both before and during the war period, and they hoped to find jobs
after the war too. These women can, therefore, be considered as among
the permanent wage earners in the economy.
This expectation of continuity of employment was found especially
among the women whose first jobs antedated Pearl Harbor by a good
many years. A higher proportion of the war-employed women with
6 All figures cited in this paragraph on postwar job needs are based solely on the expressed inten
tions of the women interviewed in this survey. The figures do not include the normal increments
to the labor force from among those who were not yet working in 1944-45, nor exclude the normal
separations from the labor force; neither do they take into account the postwar job needs of
women employed as paid domestics during the war.

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

10 or more years experience at the time of the survey intended to con
tinue work than of those with less experience. On the average, among
the war-employed women with 10 or more years’ experience, about 86
percent planned to continue work, whereas among the groups with
less experience, about 70 percent planned to continue.
RELATION OF PREWAR RESIDENCE TO POSTWAR EMPLOYMENT PLANS

Very large proportions of the in-migrant women workers planned to
continue work in the areas where they-had been employed during the
war. Although in comparison to resident women employed in the war
period smaller proportions of the in-migrants planned to remain in the
labor force, the bulk of the in-migrants who did expect to work
wanted to do so in the same area where they had been employed dur
ing the war. Consequently in the areas where in-migrants were im
portant during the war, they also constituted a substantial proportion
of the women who intended to work in the area after the war. In four
of the seven areas where in-migrants were important, in-migrants con
stituted between 32 and 44 percent of the total group of women who
planned to continue work; and in the other three areas where in
migrants were important, they represented between 10 and 26 percent
of the women who planned to continue.

PART II. CHANGES IN INDUSTRIES AND OCCUPATIONS
INCREASE IN THE EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN SPECIFIC
INDUSTRIES FROM 1940 TO THE WAR PERIOD

The outstanding war-wrought change in the industrial distribution of
employed women, excluding household employees, was the spectacular
increase in the proportion who were employed in the manufacturing
industries. The expansion of female employment in manufacturing
was so marked that in four areas more women were employed in manu
facturing alone in 1944 than in all industries combined in 1940 (Buf
falo, Detroit, Kenosha, and Wichita). Government employment also
provided an important field for women wartime workers and in some
areas attracted substantially more than its prewar share of the female
employed population. Trade and service industries, the traditional
women-employing categories, in the prewar year of 1940 accounted for
an average of roughly three-fifths of the employed women in the 10
areas. In the war period the trade and service industries dropped to
second in importance to manufacturing in most areas.
Manufacturing industries in the war period employed from 25 to
58 percent of the working women in the 10 areas, in contrast with 1940
when only 7 to 43 percent of them found jobs in manufacturing. In view
of the large numerical increases in the total employment of women
(outside household employment) a comparison of these _ percentages
emphasizes the remarkably high numerical increases in the em
ployment of women in manufacturing from 1940 to the time of
the survey. In the Detroit area, for example, the number of women
employed in manufacturing industries increased from about 47,000 to
215,000, and in the Baltimore area, from about 26,000 to about 79,000.
In the Wichita area, where war industries grew almost from scratch,
there were in 1940 only 1,200 women employed in manufacturing in
dustries, and at the time of the survey there were 20,500.
Although the dominant change in the war period was the importance
manufacturing industries assumed in the employment of women, as
distinguished from the prewar period of high concentration in the
trade and service industries, there were considerable differences among
the areas in the degree to which this change occurred and in the extent
to which the other nonmanufacturing industries were affected, reflect
ing, among other things, the industrial pattern of the area. In the Buf
falo area, for example, there were 54,300 more women employed in
all industries, outside household employment, in 1944 than in 1940.
Virtually all of this increase, or 52,800, was absorbed by the manufac
turing industries. Female employment in the trade and service indus
tries declined between these two dates. On the other hand, employ
ment gains were more widely distributed in the Seattle area. Of the
increase of 68,500 women, roughly one-half was accounted for by
the expanded female employment in manufacturing; one-fourth, by
government employment; and the remaining fourth, by trade and
service industries.
Under the impact of war needs, the government necessarily expanded
its functions and services. Concurrently the number of women who
found work in government employment increased sharply. Especially
in the areas of Dayton, Mobile, Seattle, and San Francisco, where

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

relatively insignificant numbers of women had been employed in gov
ernment in 1940, tins field provided employment for a sizable segment
of the group of wartime women workers. In two of these areas, Day
ton and Mobile, there were more women employed by government in
the war period than had been employed in the trade and service indus
tries in 1940. In _ the two west coast areas government employment
provided substantially more jobs for women in 1945 than had been
provided by manufacturing industries in the peacetime year of 1940
Ihe trade and service industries, although constituting a lower pro
portion of the total group of employed women, nevertheless held their
own m actual numbers, and in some areas enjoyed material expansion
in female employment in the war period. The slight decrease noted
earlier m the Buffalo area was in fact the only decrease in the 10 areas.
In all other areas women’s employment in trade and service increased
from 1940 to 1944-45, and in four areas, Wichita, Mobile, Seattle,
and San hrancisco, the increases were substantial. This virtual
absence of a decline in the number of women employed in trade and
service industries in the 10 war production areas was by no means
identical with stability of their personnel. On the contrary, as will be
discussed m the following section, the trade and service industries were
hit hardest during the war period by the exodus of regular employees
1o other industries, in addition to the loss of men workers to the
armed forces generally experienced by all industry. That the female
employment level did not decline, in the face of such an exodus, gives
some indication of the turn-over in personnel which occurred.
CHANGES IN THE INDUSTRY AND OCCUPATION OF WOMEN
EMPLOYED BOTH BEFORE AND DURING THE WAR

As has already been pointed out, a little over half of the women
who were employed at the time of the survey had also been employed
the week before Pearl Harbor. An analysis was made of the changes
between these two periods in the industry and occupation of the women
whose prewar employment had been in industries other than domestic
service.
Changes from one industrial group to another were more common
than changes from one occupational group to another. Available
measures of these changes, however, underestimate the extent of change
because they show shifts only between broad industrial and occupa
tional groups and not within these groups. Thus, shifts from a con
sumer-goods manufacturing industry to an industry manufacturing
directly for war purposes were not counted as industry shifts; nor were
changes within occupational groups, due to upgrading for example,
counted as occupation shifts.
All the war production areas surveyed were affected by vast move
ments of women employees from one industrial group to another.
Transfers from the trade and service industries were so widespread
that among the women who had been employed both before Pearl
Harbor and in the war period as many as one-half, roughly, of those
whose prewar employment had been in trade or personal service, and
almost two-thirds of those who had worked in eating and drinking
places, were found to be working in other industries at the time of
the survey. The majority of the women who made such shifts entered
war manufacturing or government employment. Most of the women

CHANGES IN INDUSTRIES AND OCCUPATIONS

who shifted from one industry to another learned new skills and
earned considerably higher wages than previously. Although the bulk
of those wrho said they expected to work after the war expressed the
desire for jobs in the same industry as their wartime employment, it
may be doubted that the peacetime economy will be able to absorb
ah of them at the same level of skill they exercised during the war.
Wartime labor shortages in trade and service, however, will not be
lelieved, even after the war, unless the wage levels are sufficiently
high to attract either former or new workers. In the midst of the
war period some trade and service industries in several areas were still
paying substandard or near substandard wages.
As would be expected, women who had already been employed in
manufacturing or government before Pearl Harbor tended to remain
m the same industrial group. In seven areas less than one-fifth of
the women employed at the time of the survey who had been employed
in manufacturing before Pearl Harbor changed their industrial group.
This relative stability in manufacturing is in sharp contrast with the
near upheaval experienced by eating and drinking establishments
(restaurants, cafeterias, refreshment stands, etc.). Among the war
time-employed women previously employed in eating and drinking
places, almost two-thirds were no longer working in the same industry.
Other trade and service industries, though not affected as severely as
the eating and drinking places, were not much better off. On~ the
average in the 10 areas, out of every 100 wartime-employed women
who had been working before Pearl Harbor in establishments commonly
grouped as personal service (e.g., laundries, cleaning and dyeing estab
lishments, and beauty shops), no less than 51 left for other industries.
War manufacturing claimed most of them.
The extent of the exodus from retail and wholesale trade 7 establish
ments differed considerably among the areas. Out of every 100 waremployed women whose pre-Pearl Harbor employment had been in this
branch of industry, the Buffalo area was able to retain only 34 women,
losing fully 66 to other industries. The other areas retained higher pro
portions, ranging from 41 out of every 100 in Detroit to 77 out of every
f 00 in Wichita. It will be recalled that Buffalo was the only area which
suffered a decline in female employment in the trade and service indus
tries from 1940 to 1944. Wartime exodus from retail and wholesale
trade establishments also was most severe in that area. This shift may
be related to the fact that the wartime average weekly take-home
earnings, reported by the women employed in this branch of industry
in 1944, were lower in the Buffalo area ($18.90) than in any of the
others.
Although changes from one occupational group to another were not
as common as industry shifts, there was considerable out-movement
from the sales and service occupations to the machine operative and
clerical occupations. Just as industry shifts showed relative stability
among the women already employed in groups wffiich in the war period
attracted workers from other industries, so too do occupation shifts
show a corresponding pattern. Among the war-employed women who
had been working in clerical and operative occupations before Pearl
Harbor, over four-fifths were found working in the same occupational
groups in the war period. On the other hand, transfers from the sales1
1 The classification of retail and wholesale trade, throughout, excludes eating and drinking places.

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

occupations were widespread. Out of every 100 war-employed women
who had been saleswomen before Pearl Harbor, as few as 37, on the
average, remained in this occupation in the war period; in the areas
of Kenosha and Buffalo the numbers who remained were amazingly
low—22 of every 100 in Kenosha and 25 of every 100 in Buffalo.
In the service occupations, an average of slightly more than half
“stuck” to these occupations in the war period, among the women for
whom comparisons were made. The former saleswomen who trans
ferred chose the two occupational groups of operative and clerical work
in substantial numbers. Transferees from the service occupations
favored the operative occupations in most areas.
WARTIME DISTRIBUTION BY INDUSTRY AND OCCUPATION
OF WOMEN NOT IN THE PREWAR LABOR FORCE

The two major groups of women who were employed in the war
period who had not been in the labor force the week before Pearl
Harbor were women who previously had been in either home house
work or school. Women who had been engaged in their own house
work the week before Pearl Harbor constituted on the average about
a fourth of the wartime-employed women, and the women who had
been in school, about a fifth.
_
_
The majority of the women previously engaged in their own house
work entered the manufacturing industries, primarily those producing
directly for war purposes, where they comprised about a third of the
female working force. In half of the 10 war production areas surveyed
(Springfield, Buffalo, Detroit, Kenosha, and Wichita) the women pre
viously engaged in their own housework literally flocked to the manufacting industries—63 to 73 percent of them entered manufacturing,
where the bulk of them chose jobs as operatives. This overwhelming
preference for the manufacturing industries was not equally character
istic of the southern area of Mobile, or of the west coast areas. Al
though the women formerly engaged in their own housework were
represented in substantial numbers in the manufacturing industries
in these three areas, they chose trade and service more often than
manufacturing.
_
Former students who sought work in the war period entered a labor
market that offered many job opportunities unknown or little known
to women in peacetime. These young workers, with a choice of em
ployment far wider than the more restricted field of “women’s jobs,”
entered the manufacturing industries in greater numbers than they
would have in normal years. The postwar period will therefore find
many of them with employment histories markedly different from
those of women who served for varying numbers of years in traditional
women’s jobs at lower pay before entering the manufacturing industries
in wartime.
.
In contrast with the former homemakers who were so highly con
centrated in manufacturing, the former students chose jobs in manu
facturing industries and in the trade and service group in almost equal
numbers. A sizable proportion also entered government employment.
If we assume that the former school girls would normally have dis
tributed themselves industrially according to the pattern that prevailed
for all women in 1940, we find in each area in the war period higher
proportions in the manufacturing industries and government employ
ment, and lower proportions in the trade and service industries, than

CHANGES IN INDUSTRIES AND OCCUPATIONS

the 1940 peacetime distribution of employed women. Substantial
proportions, however, on the average about 38 percent, did enter the
trade and service industries in the war period, although relatively few
made this choice in the areas of Dayton and Detroit.
The former school girls showed a distinctly greater tendency to
favor clerical jobs than did the women who had been engaged in their
own housework. On the average in the 10 areas almost half of the
former students went into clerical jobs, whereas only about a fifth
of the former homemakers were attracted to this occupational group.
Though not as popular as clerical work, nevertheless machine operative
jobs attracted almost a third of the former students. These jobs as
operatives were found primarily in manufacturing industries but also
m other industries, e.g., laundries and types of government employment
involving manufacturing.
PROPORTION OF WARTIME-EMPLOYED WOMEN IN DIFFERENT INDUSTRIAL AND
OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS WHO PLANNED TO REMAIN IN THE LABOR FORCE

It will be recalled that on the average about 75 percent of the
women employed in the 10 areas planned to continue work after the
war. Although considerable numbers of the women in war manufac
turing expected to remain in the labor force, those who planned to
withdraw were in a somewhat higher proportion than in other indus
tries. This picture is influenced largely by the concentration in war
manufacturing of the former homemakers, more of whom intended to
retire from the labor market than of other groups of war-employed
women. A higher proportion of the women employed in eating and
drinking establishments expected to stop working after the war than
m other trade and service industries. In view of the fact that these
establishments suffered the sharpest exodus of regular employees in
the war period (see p. 9), it is evident from the stated intentions
of the wartime workers in this branch of industry that eating and
drinking establishments will again be faced with the need to recruit
large numbers of employees after the war.
In general, larger proportions of the women employed in the war
period in professional and semiprofessional occupations planned to
continue work.than did women in other occupations. These occupa
tions, such as nursing, teaching, and managerial work, often requiring
long periods of training, would obviously contain a higher proportion
of the stable labor force than other occupations. On the other hand
the wartime sales group will be sharply decimated in several areas
by the voluntary withdrawal after the war of large numbers of women.
In the Kenosha and Wichita areas, for example, as many as 56 and 50
percent respectively of the wartime saleswomen expected to stop work
ing after the war.
EXTENT TO WHICH WARTIME-EMPLOYED WOMEN WHO PLANNED TO REMAIN IN THE
LABOR FORCE WANTED POSTWAR WORK IN THE SAME INDUSTRIES AND OCCUPATIONS

The nature of postwar employment, problems is influenced not only
by the number of wartime workers who expect to remain in the labor
force but also by their expressed desires for work in particular indus
tries and occupations. Postwar job openings as cafeteria bus girls, for
example, are not apt to prove attractive to women who are seeking
work as screw-machine operators.

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

The bulk of the prospective postwar workers interviewed in this
survey, or 86 percent, wanted their postwar jobs in the same in
dustrial group as their wartime employment, and about the same pro
portion wanted to remain in the same occupational group. Postwar
shifts to other industries were contemplated on a somewhat larger
scale, however, among the wartime employees in restaurants, cafeterias,
and similar establishments, as well as in the personal service industries
in certain areas. In the Dayton area, for example, among the waremployed women who expected to remain in the labor force, fully 36
percent of those in eating and drinking places and 30 percent of those
in personal service industries said they wanted jobs in other industries
after the war. In some areas, therefore, the contemplated industry
shifts, however small, when combined with the voluntary retirements
from the labor market, will result in a serious depletion of the wartime
working force. For example, in the Springfield area, of every 100 waremployed women in the personal service industries (chiefly laundries),
17 intended to stop work after the war. Of the 83 who expected to
remain, 27 wanted postwar jobs in other industries, which would
leave only 56 of the original 100 women (without allowing for possible
out-migration from the area). The success that these industries will
achieve in restoring the working force to its wartime level, which in
itself was probably inadequate for normal peacetime operation, will
depend, among other factors, on the wages offered. Women wartime
workers in the laundry industry in the Springfield area reported weekly
take-home earnings which averaged only $18.95.
Although there were variations in some areas, the women who in
tended to work after the war showed a steadfastness, on the whole,
to their wartime occupations. Only 9 percent of those in clerical occu
pations who expected to keep on working after the war indicated they
wanted a change in occupation. A somewhat higher proportion, 18
percent, wanted a change from the operative occupations. But even
this percentage is very low in the light of the tremendous wartime ex
pansion of women employees in the machine operative occupations.
Among the relatively few prospective postwar workers who expressed
a desire for a change from their wartime industries or occupations, the
chief reason offered was interest in other types of work. Other reasons
frequently given were, “more money,” and “present work too hard.
Some women said they wanted to change because they disliked their
present jobs, wanted a"job with a better future, wanted their own busi
ness, were impelled by health reasons, or wanted shorter hours.
COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF WAR-EMPLOYED WOMEN IN EACH INDUSTRIAL GROUP
WHO PLANNED TO REMAIN IN THE AREA LABOR FORCE WITH THE NUMBER EMPLOYED
IN 1940

Although the data collected in this survey do not furnish estimates of
the total number of women who might want postwar work in particular
industries and areas, they do suggest that to a large extent the women
who planned to remain in the area labor force in the 10 war production
areas would have to shift from manufacturing to nonmanufacturing
industries, and also from government employment to other industries.
Despite the fact that a higher proportion of the war-employed womra
in the manufacturing industries than in other industries intended to
withdraw from the labor market, the actual number of women em
ployed in manufacturing was so high that, even after making allowance

CHANGES IN INDUSTRIES AND OCCUPATIONS

lor these withdrawals as well as for contemplated out-migration from
the area, the resultant number of prospective postwar workers in the
lespect.ive areas greatly exceeded the 1940 female employment in
manufacturing in these areas. Similarly, the number of women in
government service in the war period who wanted to continue work in
individual areas was far greater than the number of women in govern
ment employment in these areas in 1940. In contrast with this po
tential surplus of postwar women workers in manufacturing and gov
ernment are the large scale potential job openings for postwar women
workers in the other industries, particularly trade and service. In
most areas the number of wartime-employed women in industrial
groups other than manufacturing and government who intended to
work in the same area after the war was less than the 1940 female
employment in these industrial groups; and in the trade and service
group, materially less.
These estimates of the number of wartime-employed women in each
industrial group who planned to remain in the area labor force do not
take into account the postwar industry shifts which some of the women
said they expected to make. It should also be noted that reference
to 1940 is not intended to offer an exact basis for determining the
number of postwar jobs that will exist in the particular industries in
each area. Although the assumption has been made that the 1940
industrial alinement of employed women can provide some guide to
the postwar pattern, it is recognized that postwar employment in
various industries will be influenced by many factors and the industrial
distribution of women workers may differ greatly from 1940.

PART 111. EARNINGS OF WARTIME-EMPLOYED WOMEN

Undoubtedly the opportunity for higher earnings offered by the
war-manufacturing industries impelled many prewar-employed women
to leave peacetime jobs for work in war-manufacturing plants and also
motivated many who were not in the labor force at the outbreak of
war to choose jobs in war-manufacturing rather than other industries.
Women were also influenced by patriotic motives in entering plants
manufacturing directly for war purposes.
In this survey, information on earnings was not obtained from pay
rolls, but from the women workers themselves who were asked how
much money they took home with them after their most recent typical
full week’s work. These take-home earnings represented, not the total
wages earned, but what was left of the total earnings after deductions
such as Social Security and income taxes, war bonds, union fees, and
work-clothing fees. The reported take-home earnings, because of these
deductions, are only partially indicative of the actual wage level in
the area, industry, or occupation. They nevertheless represent the
working woman’s statement of how much she had with which to meet
current living expenses.
_ In each area, the average weekly take-home earnings of the women
employed in the war-manufacturing industries exceeded by far the
take-home earnings of women workers in either the consumer
manufacturing industries or various trade and service industries. In
5 of the 10 areas weekly take-home earnings reported by the women
in war-manufacturing plants averaged over $35—as high as $40.35 in
the Detroit area—and in no area were they less than $29. On the
other hand, with the exception only of the west coast and Detroit,
weekly take-home earnings in each of the other areas averaged mate
rially' less than $29 in all other major women-employing industrial
groups, and as low as $13.95 and slightly over $16 or $18 in specific
service industries in the Mobile, Baltimore, Springfield, Buffalo, and
Dayton areas.
.
.
Generally, high take-home earnings in war-manufacturing industries
were accompanied by relatively high earnings in other industries. Thus,
the three highest-paying areas in war-manufacturing industries (De
troit, San Francisco, and Seattle) were among the highest-paying areas
in all other industrial groups studied—consumer manufacturing, retail
and wholesale trade, hotels, eating and drinking places, and laundries.
The most clear-cut exception to this general pattern wras found in the
Mobile area. Although it ranked next in line to the three highestpaying areas in war-manufacturing earnings, Mobile was the lowestpaying area in three of the other five industrial groups. It is signifi
cant that in the Mobile area, which contained a higher proportion of
Negro working women (31 percent) than any of the other areas, not
one Negro woman was found working as an operative in the war fac
tories at the time of the survey.
In sharp contrast with the reported take-home earnings in war-manu
facturing plants were the earnings in consumer-manufacturing plants
(women in four areas averaged less than $25 per week) and the sub
standard or near substandard earnings in the trade and service indus
tries in many areas. Compared with earnings in the trade and service

EARNINGS

industries, those in consumer manufacturing were relatively uniform,
varying within the 10 areas by not more than about $8 ($23.30-$31).
On the other hand, in some service industries average take-home earn
ings in the highest-paying area were twice as high, or almost twice as
high, as those in the lowest-paying area.
In each of the trade and service industries studied, average earnings
tended to cluster at a relatively low level in the majority of areas,
whereas in the few higher-paying areas, average earnings were materi
ally higher. Thus, in eating and drinking establishments, earnings in
the four top areas averaged $28 a week and up to $31.55, but only
$25.30 or less in the other areas, and as low as $13.95 a week in the
Mobile area. Similarly, in the retail and wholesale trade group (pri
marily retail stores), reported weekly take-home earnings averaged
almost $25 and up to $30.40 in the three top areas of Detroit, Seattle,
and San Francisco; whereas earnings in the other seven areas lagged
behind at a level of $21.30 or less, and as low as $18.90 in Buffalo.
Little wonder that the regular employees in the trade and service
industries left these industries in droves for better-paying jobs during
the war period when the cost of living was mounting slowly but stead
ily. Wartime controls on wages, exercised by the National War Labor
Board, and in effect at the time of the survey, were obviously not a
factor in keeping the wage level low in many areas because there was
plenty of room for upward movement to the level below which wages
were considered substandard—a permissable adjustment under wartime
controls. The National War Labor Board determined that wages
below 50 cents an hour or $20 for a 40-hour week, and subsequently
55 cents an hour or $22 for 40 hours, were substandard. Although the
data gathered in this survey do not provide hourly rates of gross pay,
the weekly take-home earnings reported by the women at the time of the
interview fell so far short of the substandard level in so many areas
that it is safe enough to use, as a basis of comparison, gross earnings for
a standard 40-hour week. Weekly take-home earnings under $22 were
widespread. Take-home earnings reported by women workers in retail
and wholesale trade (where weekly hours generally exceeded 40)
averaged $21.30 a week or less in seven areas; in hotels, the averages
ranged from $16.25 to $21.50 in six areas; in laundries they ranged
from $16.05 to $21.65 in six areas; and in eating and drinking places,
from $13.95 to $21.15 in four areas. The prevalence of substandard
earnings is even more evident when we bear in mind that the earningsfigures cited are averages. This means that substantial numbers of
women workers in each area earned less than the average earnings for
the area.
Turning to the analysis of earnings in broad occupational groups,'we
find the higher earnings in war manufacturing distinctly reflected.
Women who worked in the war-manufacturing plants as machine
operatives and at clerical occupations earned considerably more in each
area than the women in the corresponding occupational groups in con
sumer-manufacturing plants. It is recognized, of course, that dif
ferences in job content and hours worked, among other factors, also
raised the earnings-level in the war factories. Average weekly takehome earnings of operatives in war factories ranged from $29.45 in
Springfield to $43.45 in Mobile and were on the average about 40 per
cent higher than those of operatives in consumer factories, where

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

average weekly take-home earnings ranged from $22.90 in Mobile to
$31.45 in San Francisco. Women clerical workers in war factories also
enjoyed a marked earnings-advantage over their counterparts in the
consumer factories, earning about 20 percent more.
Higher average earnings in the operative rather than the clerical
occupations characterize the usual relationship between these two occu
pational groups. Although this relationship was found to exist in
the war period in the war-factory group separately, it was reversed
not only between these two groups of factories (war and consumer)
in almost every area, but also within the consumer-factory group itself
in half the areas. The higher earnings of war-factory operatives
apparently tended to pull up the level of war-factory clerical workers;
so much so, that in all areas except Kenosha war-factory clerical
workers earned, on the average, 20 percent more than consumer-factory
operatives. These higher earnings of clerical workers in war factories
in turn tended to pull up the earnings of consumer-factory clerical
workers, so that even the latter, in five areas, averaged more in takehome earnings than the consumer-factory operatives.

PART IV. PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
marital status

Many more married women entered the labor market during the war
period than would normally have done so, with' the result that the usual
latio among working women of single to married did not prevail in
war areas. This change was particularly marked in the two west coast
areas where the group of wartime workers contained substantially
more married than single women.
J
In 1940 in the country as a whole, according to the Census, there
ZrJlmn7e smSle+than married women employed, or about 48 percent
i’u 1 Cr<iei?t ™arne(t and 15 percent widowed or divorced On
the other hand, in the war period for the 10 war areas, on the average,
the proportions of single and married women were the same, or about
44 percent single, an equal proportion married s, and about 12 percent
widowed or divorced. About 11 percent of the married women had
husbands absent due to service in the armed forces. These proportion*
however, varied considerably among the 10 areas.
Because so many more of the married women than either of the
other groups expressed the intention to retire from the labor market
a ter the war, the 1940 ratio of single to married women would be
approximately restored among the prospective postwar workers in
most areas. On the average in the 10 areas, about 87 percent of the
single women employed in the war period and about 94 percent of
the widowed or divorced women planned to continue work, whereas
"l Percent of the married women expected to work after the war, and
the proportion was considerably lower, as would be expected, among
servicemens wives. Because of these differing intentions, the married
women who planned to remain in the labor force were in no higher
proportion generally than those who had been there in 1940. Married
women constituted 37 percent of the employed women in 1940 in the
country as a whole, and among the prospective postwar workers inter
viewed in this survey married women constituted 37 percent or less .
of the group in all but two areas.
AGE

There were no significant differences in the age distribution of the
women employed m the war period compared to those who expected
to keep on working after the war, except for a decrease in the pro
portion of women between 20 and 29 years (due primarily to service
men s wives and other young housewives leaving the labor market)
and a slight increase in the proportion of women 45 years and over
On the average in the 10 areas about 40 percent of the wartimeemployed women (excluding household employees) were between 20
and 29 years of age; 14 percent were under 20 years; 22 percent be
tween 30 and 39; and 24 percent, 40 years or over.9
because the hu“ were the
^reS>etween°20**and *29
ll^ercent^were

under 20 jeais, 24 percent were between 30 and 39 years, and 31 percent were^O years or over

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

RACE

In the Mobile area almost a third of the women employed in the
war period were Negro. In four other areas between 10 and 19 percent,
inclusive, were non-white (including some oriental in San Francisco).
In the remaining five areas less than 10 percent of the war-employed
women were Negro or of other non-white races.
In each of the nine areas where there were enough non-white em
ployed women in the war period to make comparison valid, a much
higher proportion of the Negro women planned to continue work than
of the white women. In six areas 94 percent or more of the Negro
or other non-white women who were employed in the war period
planned to continue after the war.
EDUCATION

For approximately 60 percent of the war-employed women in each ofthe areas the extent of schooling was graduation from high school or
attendance at high school. About 30 percent had not been beyond
grade school, and about 10 percent had had some college work. This
ratio, roughly 3-6-1 according to grade school, high school, and college,
respectively, remained about the same among the women with postwar
employment expectations, although in several areas a slightly larger
proportion of women who had discontinued their schooling before
completing grade school intended to remain at work than of those with
more school education.

PART V. RESPONSIBILITY FOR FAMILY SUPPORT
REASONS WARTIME-EMPLOYED WOMEN PLANNED TO REMAIN IN THE LABOR FORCE

Responsibility for the support of themselves or themselves and others
was the outstanding reason given by war-employed women for planning
to continue work after the war. As already pointed out, about threefourths of the wartime-employed women in the 10 areas (excluding
household employees) planned to keep on working after the war. Fully
84 percent of them had no other alternative, as this was the propor
tion among them who based their decision on their need to support
themselves and often, other persons as well. Right percent offered
special reasons for continuing at work, such as buying a home or
sending children to school; and only 8 percent reported they would
remain in the labor force because they liked working, or liked having
their own money.
Virtually all of the single women and of those who were widowed
or divorced (96 and 98 percent, respectively) who intended to remain
in gainful employment after the war stated they would do so in order
to support themselves or themselves and others, whereas 57 percent
of the married wartime workers who expected to remain at work gave
this reason. The remaining married prospective postwar workers inter
viewed offered reasons of the special purpose type, such as buying a
home, about as often as those of the “like-to-work” type. Because
married women differed so much on this issue from women in other
marital-status groups, differences from area to area in the proportions
of prospective postwar workers who offered each of the three sets of
reasons reflect largely the relative concentration of married women in
each area.
REGULAR CONTRIBUTIONS TO FAMILY EXPENSES BY
WOMEN WORKERS LIVING IN FAMILY GROUPS10

On the average, about four-fifths of the wartime-employed women
lived in family groups of two or more persons. This living arrange
ment was found most often, as would be expected, among the married
wartime-workers, and more often among the single than the widowed
or divorced women workers. Variations among the areas on this score
were found primarily among the single women; in the Buffalo and
Kenosha areas, virtually all of the single women lived in family
groups, whereas in the three areas of Dayton, Wichita, and Mobile
about 40 percent of them lived alone.
Very few women indeed, of those who lived in family groups, kept
all of their earnings for their own personal use. On the contrary,
over 90 percent of them, in each of the marital groups, reported that
they contributed regularly to family expenses. These regular contri
butions went primarily toward household expenses, but some women
said they contributed regularly toward the support of persons outside
the household in addition to making regular payments to the house
hold.
Some women turned over a larger share of their earnings toward
10 TIiis section is based on the total group of wartime-employed women, but the picture was
found to be approximately the same among them as among the women who expected to remain
at work after the war.

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

family expenses than others. On the average in the 10 areas, of every 100 women who lived with their families and contributed regularly
toward expenses, 37 gave all of their earnings, 22 gave half or more
but not all, and 41, less than half. The proportion contributing all
of their earnings was highest in the Springfield area, where 51 out of
every 100 working women turned over all the money in their pay
envelopes each pay day to the family.
The proportion of earnings contributed were found to vary consider
ably with marital status. On the average, 55 percent of the married
women gave all their earnings to the family and 24 percent gave less
than half, whereas among single women, 14 percent contributed all and
G5 percent, less than half. The pattern among widowed or divorced
women was much more like that among married than among single
women. Differences, however, in economic responsibility between the
single working women and those in the other marital groups, as
measured by the share of their respective earnings contributed toward
family expenses, are not necessarily as sharp as would appear from a
simple comparison of the figures. They doubtlessly reflect, in some
measure, differences in custom and family-budget methods and therefore
cannot be used as a yardstick for determining what proportions of the
earnings were expended on purely personal upkeep as distinguished from
contributions toward other expenses, such as rent. Where there is more
than one wage earner in a family, it is sometimes the practice among
married persons to pool their earnings initially and then withdraw
the amounts needed for personal upkeep, such as carfare, lunch money,
clothing, and so forth; whereas single persons more commonly retain
what they require for personal upkeep and allocate the remainder to
the family budget.
When the actual money represented by all these varying contribu
tions was added up, it was found that, on the average, almost twothirds of the money earned by the women who regularly helped support
their families went toward family expenses. Although both the married
and widowed or divorced women contributed substantially larger pro
portions of their earnings than the single women, the latter were not
without continuing financial responsibility toward the family. The reg
ular contributions of the single women were not of the “token” variety
either;—in no area was less than one-third of the total money in their
pay envelopes earmarked for family expenses, and in the eastern areas
of Springfield, Buffalo, and Baltimore, over one-half to almost twothirds of their pay-money was thus allocated.
That the need to work is just as pressing among some married women
as among some single women was highlighted by the replies from the
war-employed women on the number of wage earners in the family
group. Out of every 100 married women who were living in family groups
of two or more persons, 11 said they were the only wage earner sup
porting the family group. This was almost identical to the proportion
of sole supporting wage earners among single women living with their
families. The state of marriage, therefore, does not, in itself, always
mean there is a male provider for the family. More heavily, how
ever, than on either the single or married working women did the
financial burden of being the only wage earner supporting the family
group fall on the widowed or divorced women, of whom over a third
carried this responsibility.

FAMILY SUPPORT

In addition to the women who were the only wage earners, many
other women were sharing the family expenses with only one other
wage earner. On the average, about one-half of the wartime-employed
women who lived in family groups shouldered the responsibility of
meeting expenses with one other wage earner.
REGULAR CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SUPPORT OF OTHERS
BY WOMEN WORKERS LIVING ALONE

The women workers who lived alone were not always scot free in the
use of their earnings. In addition to having the necessary expenditures
for their own support, many of them were found to be contributing
regularly toward the support of other persons.
The group of women who lived apart from family groups was large
enough in 8 of the 10 areas so that a special analysis could be made
of their contributions to other persons. The proportions of , these
women who contributed regularly to the support of others varied widely
among the different areas; in the Mobile area, among the wartimeemployed women, it was about 40 percent, in the Detroit and Balti
more areas, about 30 percent, and in the Springfield and Wichita areas,
only about 8 percent. Among those who planned to continue work
after the war, the proportions who contributed regularly to the support
of others were slightly greater in most areas than for the war-employed
group.
INCOME OTHER THAN WAGES

All but about 13 percent of the women employed in the war period
reported that they or their families had no income other than wages
or service allotments. In five of the areas the percent of women re
porting income from other sources was between 14 and 16 inclusive:
and in the other five areas, it varied from 9 to 13.
The major sources of additional income were payments by boarders
and roomers. In the Detroit, Springfield, San Francisco, and Buffalo
areas, about equal amounts were received from either rentals or
roomers and boarders.
CARE OF CHILDREN OF WOMEN WARTIME WORKERS

The problem of providing for children under 14 years of age involves
more than just financial support. There is also the responsibility for
seeing that meals are cooked and that play and daily living take place
in an atmosphere of security. It is well known that these latter needs
are not always adequately met and that conditions were particularly
bad during the war.
Among the wartime-employed women who were living in family
groups of 2 or more persons, on the average 59 percent were married,
widowed or divorced. Of these almost a third had children of their own
under 14 years of age in the household. In each of the areas, over half
or more of the working mothers whose children were less than 14 years
old had one child in the household, about a fourth on the average had
two children, and almost a sixth had three or more children in the
household—all under 14 years of age. This situation presented in the
war period and continues to present a serious problem to the com
munities in which these women live and to the Nation at large, par
ticularly in view of the fact that such a large proportion of women
work because of economic necessity.

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

The women interviewed were asked what type of care was provided
for these young children in the mother’s absence. In most areas a
large proportion of the working mothers left the care of their children
under 14 to relatives in the household other than the husband or older
school children. This was the arrangement made by 30 to 45 percent
of the working mothers with young children in the household in all
areas except Kenosha. In Kenosha only 12 percent of the working
mothers left the care of their children to relatives in the household,
and 38 percent arranged for husband and wife to work on separate
shifts, thus enabling the father to look after the children while the
mother worked. The practice of husband and wife working different
shifts in order to care for children was fairly common also in the
Detroit and Springfield areas, where 16 and 18 percent respectively
made this type of arrangement.
_
Among other types of care provided for young children of working
mothers were the use of older school children, relatives outside the
household, a maid in the household, a neighbor, and nursery school.
Relatively few used nursery schools—none at all in the Kenosha area,
and in no area more than 11 percent.
The fact stands out, however, from examination of the reports on
the care of young children of wartime-employed mothers, that in a
substantial proportion of the households no real provision was made for
their care while the woman vmrker was absent. This was true par
ticularly in the west coast and Wichita areas.

PART VI. POSTWAR PROBLEMS AND OUTLINE OF ACTION
NEEDED

This survey serves to underscore the imperative need for serious con
sideration of the postwar employment problems of women workers.
We must take cognizance, even more than before, not alone of their
presence in the labor force, but also of their greatly increased numbers.
The number of women in gainful employment has been increasing over
a long period of years—a development which the war experience ac
celerated and brought into sharp relief. We can neither escape the
fact that women need to work nor deny them the right to a job.
Will there be jobs for those seeking work, and in the areas
where the labor supply is concentrated?
Will there be jobs in the industries and occupations the women
workers want? Will women workers be enabled to make the
fullest possible contribution to the economy by using their
highest skills? Or must we look forward to a waste of pro
ductive power?
Are there adequate placement, counseling, and training
facilities at hand for guiding and controlling the labor force
into those channels which will best serve the needs of em
ployers and employees alike?
How can the effect on the pay envelope of curtailed employ
ment in the higher-paying war factories be minimized?
Women workers must support themselves and also carry
heavy financial responsibilities. If the postwar period
means a shift to consumer manufacturing and trade and serv
ice industries for them, must it also mean a return to low or
substandard wages in hotels, laundries, restaurants, and
retail stores?

These are the major problems which stand out most sharply from
this survey of women workers in war production areas. Similar prob
lems undoubtedly exist in regard to men, but all too often those who
seek to provide employment and decent wage rates for men do not
realize that women have the same needs. Scientific industrial genius
is brought to bear on the problems of machinery reconversion. We
must approach the problems of the gigantic labor reconversion no less
seriously and with even greater effort, because the cost of failure to
act, or wrong action, is human suffering and industrial strife. It is
hoped that the evidence presented in this study will show the need for
action to meet these various employment problems. Some of them can
be solved only in the long run, whereas others require shorter time,
but immediate steps can be undertaken on all of them.
Action on a national and regional basis, as well as on a local scale,
will be needed in order to meet the postwar problems resulting from
the manifold changes caused by the war in women’s employment.
Foremost is the need for a full employment program that will provide
jobs for women as well as men. Moreover, the jobs must be available
in the areas and types of work that local labor supplies can fill, or

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

special provisions must be made to move job seekers to the areas where
employment is available.
The postwar reshuffling of female labor from one industry to another
and from one occupation to another calls for a strengthened and com
prehensive employment service which will enable job seekers and em
ployers to become acquainted with each other’s needs.
A placement service, in order to promote full employment and maxi
mum production, must, moreover, be coordinated with adequate train
ing and counseling facilities. Women workers should be helped to
acquire new skills in those lines of work where demand is expanding.
They need guidance in transferring their wartime skills to peacetime
employment.
'
It is not enough, however, for a coordinated placement, training, and
counseling service to function locally. Such a service should be con
cerned, not only with assisting local employers and employees to know
each other’s requirements and qualifications, but also to apprise in
dividual job seekers, who cannot be placed locally in jobs for which
they are trained, of openings in their line of work in other geographic
areas. Although relatively few of the women workers interviewed in
this survey signified their intention to leave the war-production areas,
the postwar labor market may force more of them to migrate than
originally planned to do so. Unless these job seekers are provided with
authoritative fore-knowledge of specific labor shortages in other areas,
there will be chaotic and not always fruitful moving about in the hunt
for work.
In addition, educational work is needed among employers regarding
the present and potential abilities of women as workers. Women work
ers made an outstanding contribution in the war period, receiving ful
some praise for their achievements at that time. Work is now needed
to show employers that in peacetime they should not and need not
discriminate against women as such, or against older women, married
women, Negro women, or others with particular characteristics; but
that women, like men, should be hired for particular jobs on the basis
of their individual abilities.
Unless wage rates are adequate, however, women workers will not
be assured of a decent standard of living, for themselves and for the
families they help to support or support unaided. The danger of in
adequacy is even greater in peacetime than it was during the war,
because wage rates in consumer-manufacturing, trade, and service in
dustries were far lower, even in the war period, than the war-goods in
dustries. Among the available means of raising rates are legislation
and collective bargaining.
Minimum-wage laws should be enacted in those States which do not
yet have such a law. Existing laws require further implementation by
establishing wage orders in industries not yet covered, and by revising
previously established minimum-wage rates in order to bring them into
line with the current cost of living. State action is sorely needed in
industries not engaged in interstate commerce, as is shown by the war
time earnings of women in the trade and service industries. Federal,
action on minimum wages in other industries will also facilitate the
transition to consumer-manufacturing jobs.
Another type of legislation, which would guarantee to women rates
equal to those paid men for comparable work, would eliminate a par

POSTWAR PROBLEMS

ticularly unfair form of discrimination against women. Only seven
States now have such a law and the proposed Federal law has not yet
been passed.
Collective bargaining can go further than the area covered by wage
legislation. Adjustments of wage rates by collective bargaining can
take into account, not only minimum rates and the elimination of wage
differentials based on sex, but also inequities in rates above the mini
mum. Particularly required are the establishment of differentiated job
classifications and the setting of wage rates for each job classification
commensurate with the skill and training required for the job.
Where women who have young children at home must work, more
than an adequate money income is needed to provide for the care of
these children. That relatively few working mothers were able to use
nursery schools or trained mothers’ assistants in the war period, sug
gests that such services were either too expensive or not available.
Certainly there seems need for far-reaching action to provide this type
of care.
The war production areas surveyed, in making local plans to deal with
the increased number of women in the labor force, must examine the
broader aspects of the problems. These problems resulted, not from
the individual action of the community, but from national changes due
to the war and therefore demand the coordination of local and national
programs to meet them. These programs must aim, not only to promote
the employment of women who want to work, but also to provide
women workers with adequate income to support themselves and their
families.

APPENDIX A
Scope and Method

This report presents the results of a sample survey conducted by field
agents of the Women’s Bureau. More than 13,000 women employed in
10 war-congested manufacturing areas were interviewed in their homes
by Women’s Bureau agents.
Selection of areas.—The areas selected were located throughout
the country. Each area represented a particular type of war-manufac
turing center. The criteria for choosing the areas were geographic lo
cation, size of area, type of war product, and special industrial and
social characteristics. The sample was not designed to be used as a
basis for national estimates.
Date of survey.—Field work for the survey was started in Detroit,
Michigan, in February 1944. The study extended over a period of ap
proximately 16 months and was completed with the survey of the
San Francisco-Oakland area in May 1945.
The summary on the following page presents for each area the date of
the survey, the extent of the area, and the geographic and industrial
characteristics.
_
Sampling procedure.—Estimates of the number of women in each
area employed in the various war and consumer-goods manufacturing
industries, in the non-manufacturing wrnr industries, and in the trade
and service industries (except household employees1) wTere compiled
from official and non-official sources. These estimates were used as a
control, and the sample was proportioned to contain the proper ratios
of women employed in the various industries.
Tract maps from the Bureau of the Census and current data from
local governmental and private agencies supplied the necessary informa
tion in each area on: (1) The vicinities in which women workers of
the various industries lived; (2) the location of the old and new housing
developments; and (3) national and racial characteristics of neighbor
hoods. In addition to the Bureau of the Census, other sources of infor
mation used were such agencies as War Housing Centers, City Plan
ning Commissions, Chambers of Commerce, and the United States Em
ployment Service.
Computation of averages for totals.—In arriving at total averages,
each area was given equal weight in order to represent equally the
individual types of war industry centers.
Take-home earnings.—Take-home earnings represent the amount in
the pay envelope of the worker after Social Security and income taxes,
union fees, fees for work clothing, etc., have been deducted. Take-home
earnings used in the sample were reported by the worker and covered
her last typical full-time pay period before the interview.
1 Women employed as household employees at the time of the survey were not interviewed and
were excluded from all estimates and tabulations, unless otherwise noted.

APPENDIX

Summary information of areas surveyed
Area

Date of survey

Extent of area

Type of war industry center

Springfield-Holyoke
Metropolitan Area,
Mass.
Baltimore Metropoli
tan Area, Md.

June and July
1944.
Sept, and Nov.
1944.

Cities and towns within
25 mile radius of
Springfield.
Baltimore City and
southern districts of
Baltimore County.

Erie County, N. Y... .

June 1944

Buffalo and rest of Erie
County.

Day ton-Springfield,
Ohio.

April and May
1944.

Detroit-Willow Run,
Mich.

Feb.-April
1944.

Five counties: Mont
gomery, Clark,
Green, Champagne,
and Preble.
Four counties: Wayne,
Oakland, Macomb,
and Washtenaw.

New England area—Home of
Springfield Armory and other
ordnance plants.
Eastern coast city—'Large scale
employment of women in ship
building and aircraft during the
war.
Before the war, many
women were employed in con
sumer-goods plants.
Major eastern aircraft center—An
area where in peacetime com
paratively few women are em
ployed in manufacturing plants.
Midwestern war center—Location
of large army air installations
employing many women.

Kenosha, Wis.

Aug. 1944

Kenosha City

Wichita, Kans.

May 1944

Mobile Metropolitan
Area, Ala.

Nov. 1944

Eight places: Augusta,
El Dorado, Newton,
Oxford, Holstead,
Winfield, Wellington,
Wichita.
City of Mobile and part
of Mobile County.

Seattle-Tacoma Met
ropolitan Area,
Wash.
San Francisco-0 akland Metropolitan
Area, Calif.

Dec. 1944Feb. 1945.

Same as defined in 1940
Census.

Feb.-May 1945

Same as defined in 1940
Census except Santa
Clara County not
included.

Midwestern city—Effect of war
production on women’s employ
ment in a normally man-employ
ing, one-industry city—automo
biles.
Middle West—A small wartime
production center.
Large midwestern aircraft center.

Southern city where comparatively
few women in peacetime are em
ployed in manufacturing and
where the mushroom growth was
due to demand for women workers
in shipyards and air service in
stallations. Area also representa
tive of the wartime employment
opportunities of Negro women
workers in the South.

)

Represent the two major west coast
shipbuilding centers and debarka
tion points. In Seattle, aircraft
was also an important war in
dustry.

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

The following table presents for each area population and employ
ment data for March 1940.
Table I.—Population and employment, Hyears and over, for specified areas-March 197,0
[Source—Bureau of the Census, Population 1940, Second Series]1

Number employed12

Population

Total

Springfield-Holyoke Met
319,948
ropolitan Area, Mass.
825,531
Baltimore Metropolitan
Area, Md.
Erie County, N. Y.............
633,693
Dayton-Springfield, Ohio.
376,468
Detroit-Willow Hun, 1,917,724
Mich.
Kenosha, Wis......................
38,815
181,294
Wichita, Kans.....................
Mobile Metropolitan
87,626
Area, Ala.
Seattle-Tacoma Metro
508,131
politan Area, Wash.
San Francisco-Oakland 1,208,664
Metropolitan Area,
Calif.

population

Total
Percent
Number of total

Number

Percent
of total

164,885

146,053

44,736

418,258

412,861

118,552

319,613
188,457
935,534

50
50
49

269,762
169,970
917,447

69,386
40,848
211,679

26
24
23

22
22
23

19,303
93,552
46,311

50
52
53

16,486
80,172
42,571

4,243
19,830
13,156

26
25
31

22
21
28

253,259

228,891

61,760

596,484

573,172

155,132

1 Figures were adjusted to conform with areas as defined in this survey.
2 Includes household employees.

Percent em
ployed females

Female

Female
Area

APPENDIX B
PART I.

INCREASE IN THE EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN 1 AND
MAJOR SOURCES OF INCREASE

The number of employed women increased greatly from 1940 to 1944-45 in each of
the 10 areas.

Table

1-1.—Number of women employed in 194-0 and 1944~45 and percent of increase,
by area
Number of employed women
Area2
1940

Springfield-Holyoke.................................................................
Baltimore Metropolitan...................................
Firie County, N. Y...................................................................
Day ton-Springfield......................................................
Detroit-Willow Run................................................................
Kenosha....................................................................................
Wichita...........................................................
Mobile Metropolitan.................................
Seattle-Tacoma Metropolitan............................................
San Francisco-Oakland Metropolitan................................

1944-45

39,700
93,700
59,700
34,700
182,300
3,800
1(5,500
7,800
54,500
137,700

Percent increase
1940 to 1944-45

61,500
164,500
114,000
70,700
387,000
7,500
44,000
27,000
123,000
274,500

55
76
91
104
112
97
167
246
126
99

1 Women employed in domestic service were excluded from both 1940 and 1944-45 figures.
2 On all subsequent tables the areas will be identified by the names of the principal cities only, as
follows: Springfield, Baltimore, Buffalo, Dayton, Detroit, Kenosha, Wichita, Mobile, Seattle, and
San Francisco.

In most of the 10 areas at least half of the wartime-employed women were women who
had also been employed the week before Pearl Harbor; a few had been unemployed and
seeking work; the rest were women who had not wanted jobs the week before Pearl
Harbor—some had been keeping house and others going to school.

Table

1-2.—Employment status the week before Pearl Harbor of women employed in
1944~45, by area
Percent of wartime-employed women with specified types of
employment status the week before Pearl Harbor
Area

In the labor force

Not in the labor force

Total
Employed

Unemployed
and seeking
work

Engaged
in own
housework1

In school

All areas..............................................

100

Springfield........................................................
Baltimore.........................................................
Buffalo............................................................ .
Dayton.............................................................
Detroit..............................................................
Kenosha...........................................................
Wichita.............................................................
Mobile...............................................................
Seattle...............................................................
San Francisco.................................................

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

60
54
59
55
51
52
44
51
49
52

1
2
2
2
3
2
1
4
1
1

18
23
28
24
28
24
31
23
33
30

21
21
11
19
18
22
24
22
17
17

1 A very few women who were not in the labor force the week before Pearl Harbor, and gave reasons
other than school or home housework, were counted in this group.

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

Women with at least 5 years of work experience before 1944-45 constituted a substantial
part of the women employed in the war period.

Table 1-3.—Length of work experience1 before 1944~45 of women employed in the

war period, by area
Percent of women with specified years of work
experience before 1944-45
Area

Total

10
and
over

5, less 3,less 2, less 1, less
than than than than
5
3
10
2

Less
than
1

All areas..................................................................

100

Springfield...........................................................................
Baltimore............................................................................
Buffalo..................................................................................
Dayton.................................................................................
Detroit..................................................................................
Kenosha...............................................................................
Wichita................................................................................
Mobile...................................................................................

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

36
28
25
28
22
34
21
30
35
34

18
20
16
18
17
22
20
15
18
21

17
16
19
15
15
14
14
15
14
16

12
12
14
13
11
5
13
12
13
11

10
12
16
14
14
11
15
13
11
10

7
12
10
12
21
14
17
15
9
8

San Francisco.....................................................................

1 Previous work in paid household employment was counted as part of work experience.

In several areas in-migrants formed a large proportion of the women employed in the
war period; in a few areas there were relatively few in-migrants.

Table 1-4.—Number and proportion of women employed in the war period who

were

in-migrants, by area
Women employed in 1944-45
Area

Springfield.........................................................................................
Baltimore...........................................................................................
Buffalo................................................................................................
Dayton...............................................................................................
Detroit................................................................................................
Kenosha.............................................................................................
Wichita..............................................................................................
Mobile................................................................................................
San Francisco..................................................................................

In-migrants
Total number

61,500
164,500
114,000
70,700
387,000
7,500
44,000
27,000
123,000
274,500

Number

Percent of total

6,800
49,400
2,500
28,300
53,000
600
25,000
12,600
40,200
127,000

11
30
2
40
14
9
57
47
33
46

APPENDIX

A very large proportion of the women employed in the war period planned to continue
work after the war and most of these women planned to continue work in the respective
areas where they had been employed during the war.

1-5.—Number of women employed in 191+1+1+5 and number and percent who
planned to continue work and to continue work in the respective areas, by area

Table

Number of women who planned to continue work

Area

Number of
women
employed
1944-45

Total

Number

Percent
of women
employed
1944^5

All areas..............................................
Springfield........................................................
Baltimore.........................................................
Buffalo...............................................................
Dayton.........................................................
Detroit..............................................................
Kenosha............................................................
Wichita.............................................................
Mobile...............................................................
Seattle...............................................................
San Francisco..................................................

In same area

Number

Percent of
women
employed
1944-45

75
61,500
164,500
114,000
70,700
387,000
7,500
44,000
27,000
123,000
274,500

50,800
133,300
91,200
55,500
302,000
5,700
26,800
22,600
75,500
190.200

83
81
80
78
78
73
61
84
61
69

48,600
124,900
89,800
48,700
283,000
5,500
24.600
19,500
70,200
167,500

79
76
79
69
73
73
56
72
57
61

The number of wartime-employed women who planned to continue work in the respective
areas where they were employed in the war period, in each of the 10 areas, greatly ex
ceeded the number of women employed in 1940.

1-6.—Comparison of the number of women employed in 191+0 and the number
employed in 191+1+-1+5 who planned to continue work in the respective areas, by area

Table

Number of women
Area

Springfield...........................................................
Baltimore............................................................
Buffalo.................................................................
Dayton.................................................................
Detroit.................................................................
Kenosha...............................................................
Wichita................................................................
Mobile.................................................................
Seattle.................................................................
San Francisco....................................................

Employed
1940

Employed 1944-45
and planned to con
tinue work in same
area

39,700
93,700
59,700
34,700
182,300
3,800
16,500
7,800
54,500
137,700

48,600
124,900
89,800
48,700
283,000
5,500
24,600
19,500
70,200
167,500

Percent of increase
between 1940 em
ployment and number
who planned to con
tinue work in the
same area

22
33
50
40
55
45
49
150
29
22

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

The group of wartime-employed women who planned to continue work contained a
higher proportion of women who had been employed before Pearl Harbor than the total
group of wartime-employed women. Compare Tables 1-2 and 1-7.
Table

1-7.—Employment status the week before Pearl Harbor of wartime-employed
women who planned to continue work, by area
Percent of war-employed women who planned to continue
work with specified types of employment status the week
before Pearl Harbor
In the labor force

Area

Not in the labor force

Total
Employed

Unemployed
and seeking
work

Engaged
in own
housework

In school

All areas..........................................

100

Springfield....................................................
Baltimore.....................................................
Buffalo...........................................................
Dayton..........................................................
Detroit..........................................................
Kenosha........................................................
Wichita..................................................
Mobile...........................................................
Seattle...........................................................
San Francisco..............................................

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

62
58
67
59
56
56
57
55
57
57

i
2
3
2
3
2
1
5
1
1

14
18
17
19
21
21
20
19
25
24

23
22
13
20
20
21
22
21
17
18

Among women employed both in the war period and the week before Pearl Harbor, the
proportion who planned to continue work was higher than among women employed in
the war period who had not wanted jobs the week before Pearl Harbor.

1-8.—Percent of wartime-employed women with specified types of employment
status the week before Pearl Harbor who planned to continue work after the war, by area
Table

Percent of women in specified groups the week before Pearl
Harbor who planned to continue work
In the labor force

Area

Not in the labor force

Total
Employed

Unemployed
and seeking
work

Engaged
in own
housework

In school

All areas..........................................

Springfield....................................................
Baltimore.....................................................
Buffalo...........................................................
Dayton..........................................................
Detroit..........................................................
Kenosha........................................................
Wichita.........................................................
Mobile...........................................................
Seattle...........................................................
San Francisco..............................................

83
81
80
78
78
73
61
84
61
69

85
87
91
85
85
79
78
90
71
77

83
84
100
94
90
100
67
96
92
83

65
63
49
62
58
64
39
70
46
55

91
86
97
79
85
68
58
83
62
71

APPENDIX

Ihe group of wartime-employed women who planned to continue work contained a
slightly higher proportion of women with at least 5 years of work experience before 1944
45 than the total group of wartime-employed women. Compare Tables 1-3 and 1-9.

Table 1-9.—Length of work experience1 before 1944-45 of wartime-employed, women

who planned to continue work, by area
Percent of war-employed women who planned to
continue work with specified years of work expe
rience before 1944-45
Area
Total

10
and
over

All areas

100

Springfield........
Baltimore.........
Buffalo...............
Dayton.............
Detroit..............
Kenosha...........
Wichita.............
Mobile...............
Seattle...............
San Francisco..

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

38
31
29
34
25
40
27
32
42
40

16
19
16
17
17
19
23
15
19
20

15
15
19
14
15
12
15
15
11
15

12
12
16
12
11
4
11
12
ii
10

11
11
13
12
14
10
12
13
9
8

8
12
7
11
18
15
12
13
8
7

5, less 3, less 2, less 1, less
than than than than
10
5
3
2

Less
than
1

1 Previous work in paid household employment was counted as part of work experience.

Among women employed in the war period with 5 or more years of work experience
before 1944-45, the proportion of women who planned to continue work was in general
greater than among women with fewer years of work experience.

Table

1-10.—Percent of women employed in the war period who planned to continue
work, by length of work experience and area
Percent of women employed in war period with
specified years of work experience who planned
to continue work
Area
Total

10
and
over

5, less 3,less 2, less
than than than
10
5
3

1,less
than
2

than
1

All areas.................................................................

Springfield...........................................................................
Baltimore.............................................................................
Buffalo..................................................................................
Dayton.................................................................................
Detroit.................................................................................
Kenosha............................... ...............................................
Wichita................................................................................
Mobile..................................................................................
Seattle..................................................................................
San Francisco.....................................................................

83
81
80
78
78
73
61
84
61
69

88
91
91
91
89
87
79
90
74
81

75
77
79
73
80
62
71
86
61
68

73
76
82
75
77
66
67
81
46
62

83
77

86
79
66
70
75
63
46
83
52
60

94
79
63
74
67
77
44
73
58
58

74
78
70
51
85
53
65

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

Among in-migrant women employed in the war period the proportion who planned to
continue work was slightly less than among all war-employed women, but substantial
proportions of the in-migrants planned to stay in the war areas and to continue work
in these areas. Compare Tables 1-5 and 1-11.

1-11.—Proportions of in-migrant women employed in the war period who
planned (1) to continue work, (2) to stay in the war area, and (3) to continue work in
the war area, in areas where in-migrants were an important part of the employed women1

Table

Percent of in-migrant women employed in the
war period with specified postwar plans

Area
To continue to To continue work
in area
live in area

To continue
work
Baltimore....
Dayton..........
Detroit...........
Wichita.........
Mobile...........
Seattle . . ....
San Francisco

77
77
72
57
81
57
64

63
55
50
43
58
46
46

69
61
62
54
64
64
56

1 Springfield, Buffalo, and Kenosha areas not shown because of the relatively small number of in
migrants.

In the areas where in-migrants were an important part of the women employed in the
war period, in-migrants also formed a substantial part of the women who planned to con
tinue work in the area. Compare Tables 1-4 and 1-12.

Table 1-12.—Number and proportion of in-migranls among the women employed in
the war period who planned to continue work in the same area, in areas where in-migrants
were an important part of the employed women1
Women employed in war period who
planned to continue work in war area
In-migrants
Total number

124,900
48,700
283,000
24,600
19,500
70,200
167,500

Number

Percent of total

31,100
15,600
29,700
10,800
7,300
18,500
58,400

25
32
10
44
37
26
35

1 Springfield, Buffalo, and Kenosha areas not shown because of the relatively small number of
in-migrants.

PART II. CHANGES IN INDUSTRIES AND OCCUPATIONS
The proportion of women employed in manufacturing industries and government increased markedly from 1940 to 1944-45 while the proportion in
trade and service decreased.

Table IT—1.—Percent

of women employed in specified industrial groups1 in 1940 and 1944-4$> by area

Springfield

Baltimore

Buffalo

Dayton

Kenosha

Detroit

Wichita

Mobile

Seattle

1940 1944

1940 1945

San Francisco

Industrial group

All industries1................................................

1940

1945

100

39
59
2
3
48
19
16
3
29
7
22
6
0

58
42
5
2
32
13
11
2
19
5
14
3

28
69
4
4
54
25
20
5
29
8
21
7
3

48
52
8
4
36
18
13
5
18
6
12
4

23
74
3
4
62
28
23
5
34
9
25
5
3

58
42
4
4
31
14
11
3
17
4
13
3

32
66
4
3
55
26
19
7
29
8
21
4

40
60
28
2
28
12
8
4
16
7
9
2

26
72
3
4
<*)
27
(*)
(*>

56
44
8
4
(*)
12
10
2

43
57
(*)
pi
(*)
<4)
p)
(*)
<4)
(•)
(*)
(<>

56
44
3
2
36
13
11
2
23
9
14
3

7
90
3
4
73
32
22
10
41
13
28
10
3

46
54
3
5
44
22
15
7
22
12
10
2

16
84
3
7
67
29
20
9
38
14
24
7

25
75
27
4
42
25
14
11
17
8
9
2

11
87
4
5
67
33
25
S
34
10
24
11
2

33
67
15
5
42
22
17
5
20
8
12
5

15
82
4
7
60
26
21
5
34
11
23
11
3

27
73
14
8
45
26
18
8
19
7
12
6

Other industries13..............................................
2

38
)
2

(
l

A PPE N D IX

1940 1944 1940 1944 1940 1944 1940 1944 1940 1944 1940 1944 1940 1944

1 Excludes domestic service.
2 Excludes eating and drinking places.
3 Includes finance, insurance, and real estate.
4 Not available.

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

From 1940 to 1944-45 increases in the number of women employed in manufactur
ing were particularly marked in each of the 10 areas, and in most areas increases in the
number of women employed in government were also very great.
Table

II-2.—Number of women employed in selected industrial groups1 in 1940 and
1944-45) by area
Number of women employed in specified industrial groups

Industrial group

Springfield
1940

1944

Baltimore
1940

1944

Buffalo
1940

1944

Dayton
1940

1944

Detroit
1940

1944

All industries1.... 39,700 61,500 93,700 164,500 59,700 114,000 34,700 70,700 182,300 387,000
Manufacturing............. 15,300 35.500 26,100 78,600
Government..................
900 3,000 3,900 13.500
Trade and service .... 19,100 19.500 50,500 59,900
Other12.............................. 4,400 3,500 13,200 12.500

13.700 66,500 11,200 28,000 46,800 215.000
1,900 4,000 1,200 20,000
5,500 33,000
36.700 36,000 18,900 20,300 jl30,000
139.000
7,400 7,500 3,400 2,400

Number of women employed in specified industrial groups
Industrial group

Kenosha
1940

All industries1...........

1944

Wichita
1940

1944

Mobile
1940

1944

Seattle
1940

1945

San Francisco
1940

1945

3,800 7,500 16,500 44,000 7,800 27,000 54,500 123,000 137,700 274,500

Manufacturing.................. 1,400 4,200 1,200 20,500 1,300 6,700 6,200 40,800 20,100 73.600
Government...................... I
(
500 1,500
200 7,200 1,900 18,300 5,600 37.600
Trade and service............ 2,400 3,300j 11,900 19,000 5,300 11,500 36,600 50,900 83,400 125,300
Other2...................................
2,900 3,000 1,000 1,600 9,800 13,000 28,600 38,000
1 Excludes domestic service.
2 Includes transportation, communication, public utilities, finance, insurance, real estate, and other.

APPENDIX

In 6 of the 10 areas 40 percent or more of the women who were employed both in the
war period and the week before Pearl Harbor 1 changed their industrial group be
tween these dates. Most of the changes were by women who left trade or service indus
tries to enter war-manufacturing industries.

Table II-3.—Extent of shifts in industrial group by women employed both in 1944~4&

and the week before Pearl Harbor/ by area

San Francisco
j

Seattle

Mobile

W ichita

Kenosha

D etroit

D ayton

Buffalo

Baltimore

areas

All

Industrial group in which employed week
before Pearl Harbor and shifts in the war
period

Springfield

Percent of women who continued in the same industrial
group or shifted to new group

Total women1............................................... 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Stayed in same industry.................. 02 70 07
55 57
00 52 58 75 69
Shifted to other industry................. 38 24 33 40 48 42 25 31
45 43

100
55
45

100 100
361 74

100
61

Government—Total................................................ 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Stayed in same industry............................... 00 48 75 50 83 73 75 40 50 54

100
49

Retail and wholesale trade12—Total....................
Stayed in same industry...............................
Shifted to—War manufacturing.................
Government..............................

m 100 100 100
(s) 77 48 51
14
18
<»> 23
13
25
ib>

100
55
15
7

100 100 100
34 48 30
24
15 30
11
13
3

100
44
24
6

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
42 48 45 55 45 40 60 50 52
36 25 45
7 23
12 40 50 24
14
5
1
14
8

100
53
18
4

Manufacturing—Total........................................... 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Stayed in manufacturing.............................. 81 92 83 97 82 90 91
83

100 100 100 100 100 100
^52 04 53 34 43 41
427
23 20 50 22 44
7
410
0
28

Eating and drinking places—Total................... 100 100 100 <■> 100 100
Stayed in same industry............................... 438 35 38
33 41
Shifted to—War manufacturing................. 430 35 32 ■ <s) 29 51
Government.............................. 47
3 m 20
2
Personal service—Total......................................... 100
Stayed in same industry............................... 49
Shifted to—War manufacturing................. 28
Government..............................
5

(**)
c>
(»)

....

1 Excludes not only women whose wartime employment was in domestic service but also those who,
though not employed in domestic service in the war period, had been in domestic service before
Pearl Harbor.
2 Excludes eating and drinking places.
2 In addition 27 percent shifted to government installations which were chiefly manufacturing.
* Represents areas for which data justified computation.
6 Base too small to justify computation.

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

In 7 of the 10 areas a fourth or more of the women employed both in 1944-45 and
the week before Pearl Harbor1 changed their occupational group between these dates.

Table II-4.—Extent of shifts in occupational group hy women employed both in 1944~4&

and the week before Pearl Harbor,x by area

Total women1............................................... 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Stayed in same occupation............. 73 83 77 74 76 69 74 66 69 74
Shifted to another occupation........ 27 17 23 26 24 31
26 34
26
31
Clerical and kindred.................
8
7
4
7
10
7
9
13
12
Operative and kindred............. 12
9
11
15
10
19
9
11
16 11
Sales..............................................
2
1
2
<12)
1
1
3
3
1
Service..........................................
3
2
2
2
2
3
7
2
2
2
Clerical and kindred................................................ 100 100 100 100 100 100
Stayed................................................................. 87 90 87 88 92 81
Shifted to—Operative and kindred...........
8
7 10
10
4
14

San Francisco

Seattle

Mobile

W ichita

Kenosha

D etroit

Dayton

Buffalo

Baltimore

Springfield

Occupational group in which employed week
before Pearl Harbor and shifts in the war
period

All areas

Percent of women who continued in the same occu
pational group or shifted to new group

100
63
37
11
10
3
11

100 100 100 100
93 76 84 93
7
13
6
2

10)
88
7

Operative and kindred........................................... 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Stayed................................................................. 82 93 83 92 86 90 82 86 67 75
Shifted to—Clerical and kindred............... 11
4
8
8
10
5
11
14
18 17

100
66
14

Sales............................................................................. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Stayed........................................................
37 50 43 25 39 30 22 29 52 38
Shifted to—Clerical and kindred............... 27 22 23 31 24 22
11
28 37 34
Operative and kindred ........... 32 22 31 44 29 41 66 43
11
23

100
45
34
9

Service..........................................................
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Stayed................................................................. 55 54 47 46 55 55 80 43 67
Shifted to—Clerical and kindred............... 12
14
11
L2
8
12
6
Operative and kindred........... 30 38 33 34 31
37 20 35 25

100
57
11
25

100
46
22
26

Manufacturing industries in 1944-45 employed a very large proportion of the women who had been engaged in their own housework the week before
Pearl Harbor and a large proportion of the former school girls. Government employed a larger proportion of the former school girls than of the women
formerly engaged in their own housework.

Table II-5.—Industrial distribution1 in 1944-45 of women who were in school or engaged in their own housework the week before Pearl Harbor, by area
Percent of women with specified employment status the week before Pearl Harbor employed in 1944—45 in specified industrial groups

Industria 1 group

Springfield

All areas

Baltimore

Buffalo

Dayton

Detroit

Kenosha

Wichita

Mobile

San
Francisco

Seattle

All industries1...

100

War manufacturing... .
Consumer manufactur-

8
15

8
9

18
2

17
1

11
11

14
6

6
6

9
22

4
18

3
4

10
39

1
1

6
29

8
26

5
23

6
11

4
23

8
13

19
5

12
6

19
3

13
5

18
3

15
6

23_^
5

9
2

9
3

8
5

14
1

7
2

6
4

23
4

13
11

16
16

17
10

18
4

19
6

18
8

19
9

Other............................

6
8

8
7

4
9

4
6

4
13

7
5

6
11

6
7

3
5

6
9

15
5

12
1

17
4

16
8

4
7

7
3

3
5

6
8

3
9

9
10

2
10

7
ii

0 th er ndustries3...........

Trade:
Retail and wholesale1
2
Eating and drinking
places.
Service:

1 Excludes domestic service.
2 Excludes eating and drinking places.
#
3 Includes transportation, communication, public utilities, finance, insurance, real estate, and other.

A PPE N D IX

Own
Own
Own
Own
Own
Own
Own
Own
Own
Own
Own
School house School house School house School house School house School house School house School house School house School house School house
work
work
work
work
work
work
work
work
work
work
work

Table II-6.—Occupational distribution1 in 1944~4o of women who were in school or engaged in their own housework the week before Pearl Harbor,

by area
Percent of women with specified employment status the week before Pearl Harbor employed in 1944—45 in specified occupational groups

Occupational group1

All areas

Springfield

Baltimore

Buffalo

Dayton

Detroit

Kenosha

Wichita

Mobile

Seattle

San
Francisco

100

Clerical and kindred. . .
Sales.................................
Operative and kindred.
Service.............................
Other12..............................

46
8
31
10
5

21
8
52
16
3

36
9
45
7
3

14
8
64
13
1

44
6
34
9
7

22
8
53
14
3

44
10
29
9
8

22
5
60
11
2

54
5
29
8
4

23
3
52
20
2

45
8
33
7
7

12
5
67
15
1

30
9
53
2
6

9
6
60
19
6

52
5
24
14
5

19
9
54
18

37
11
29
22
1

25
14
38
20
3

1 Excludes domestic service.
2 Includes professional, semiprofessional, and other

100

8
21
11
6

29
11
37
15
8

60
10
13
13
4

3i
12
31
20
6

W O M E N W O R K E R S I N W A R P R O D U C T IO N A R E A S

The most common occupation in the war period for women who had been engaged in their own housework the week before Pearl Harbor was
that of operative, while for war-employed women who had been attending school the week before Pearl Harbor clerical occupations were more common.

APPENDIX

In^lZTnerpTonnTd^VcLruTVoT'^n did’^
lecturing for war purposes

Ul0c,Ur-

WOme" emPlo^d i" industries menu-

Table ll-7.~Percent of women employed in the war period in specified industrial

groups who planned to continue work, by area
Percent of women in specified industrial groups who
planned to continue work
Industrial group
oj
c3

Manufacturing:
War........... .
Other......

68
79

Government...............
Transportation, etc..
Trade:
Retail and wholesale1...........
Eating and drinking places.
Service:
Personal....................
Other...............

2
cC
5b
c

£>
O
1

sJ
w

0
2
id
«

a
0
>>
cS

80
86

76
84

72
93

75
76

"0
(w
o>
0

72
88

5
2
EE

0
.a
a
&

0
s

<3
m

03
m

71
65

50
71

73
84

52
67

03
-d
0

62
75

278

(*>

277

(■)

77
273

84
70

81
78

91
78

92
72

87
77

70
(3)

61
67

78
92

60
60

70
65

w
(<i

83
88

90
/92
84 j94 \67
•

85
90

60
87

85
76

90
90

73
66

80
73

1 Excludes eating and drinking places
a n«Lr?,fnt8 arna.S £?r Slich data justified computation.
. xt!6 t°o small to justify computation.
4 Not available.

5 rh-~ -

than did women in other occupations. ,B

“ "0ther"- Planned »o continue work

Table II-8—Percent'. of women employed in the war period in specified occupational

groups who planned to continue work, by area
Percent of women in specified occupational groups who
planned to continue work

Springfield

Baltim ore

Buffalo

D ayton

D etroit

Kenosha

W ichita

Mobile

Seattle

Clerical and kindred..
Sales...............................
Operative and kindred
Service...................
Other1.............

All areas

Occupational group

75
72
72
78
84

88
80
80
78
88

79
76
81
86
85

77
92
79
91
84

79
90
74
84
81

81
81
73
81
91

78
44
74
63
96

69
50
54
73
80

83
79
78
93
90

62
57
58
61
70

1 Includes professional, semiprofessional, and other.

68
64
72
70
75

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

Most of the women employed in the war period who expected to remain in the labor
force planned to continue work in the same industrial group in which they had been em
ployed in the war period.

II-9.—Percent of war-employed women1 planning to remain in the labor force
who planned to continue work in the same industrial group as their wartime employment,
by area

Table

Percent of women employed in specified industrial
groups and planning to remain in the labor force who
planned to continue work in same group
Industrial group

All industries1..................
Manufacturing..............................
Government...................................
Trade:
Retail and wholesale2.........
Eating and drinking places
Service:
Personal.................................
Other.......................................

a>
o

rd
JZ
O
a

«36
CO

85
79

84
c)

76
<♦)

87
88

77
88

78
87

93
64

86
80

(*>
w

90
73

93
62

93
80

88
79

70
82

81
96

(*)
w

90
86

88
85

93
97

86
92

o
f-<
V
A

85.

87
83

86
89

89
75

88
86

390
378

87
93

85
84

91
89

382
391

67
90

81
95

78
93

84
384

>>
C6
A

£
1

S3
m
3
«

cl
5.

.a
yft
03

o
BB
a
o3
A
d
s3
CO

1 Excludes women employed in domestic service.
2 Excludes eating and drinking places.
3 Represents areas for which data justified computation.
4 Base too small to justify computation.

Most of the women employed in the war period who expected to remain in the labor
force planned to continue work in the same occupational group in which they had been
employed in the war period. These proportions were particularly high for women who
were in clerical and kindred occupations or in professional and semiprofessional occupations.

11-10.—Percent of war-employed women1 planning to remain in the labor force
who planned to continue work in the same occupational group as their wartime employment,
by area

Table

All areas

Springfield

Baltim ore

Buffalo

D ayton

D etroit

Kenosha

W ichita

Mobile

Seattle

Occupational group

San Francisco

Percent of women employed in specified occupational
groups and planning to remain in the labor force who
planned to continue work in same group

91
386
82
381
392

91
81
84
89
89

92
79
86
83
96

95
97
85
76
90

88
86
88
67
87

85
84
80
91
95

92
(<>
87
(*>

88
71
76
78
91

93
90
78
76
93

92
88
78
85

93
91

—
1 Excludes women employed in domestic service.
2 Includes professional, semiprofessional, and other. f
3 Represents areas for which data justified computation.
4 Base too small to justify computation.

APPENDIX
The number of
— W°|rk "It
women employed
°
Jf ,he
vtry greraln)dU

women employed in manufacturing in the war period who planned to
e some °rea.was' in
very much greater than the number of
.n manufactor.ng ,n the area in 1940. (This does not allow for the fact
w°me" employed in manufacturing in the war period planned to shift
' b
^
a" allowance been made, the difference would still be

Table 11-11. Comparison of the number of women1 employed in 1940 in svedUed
industrial groups with the number employed in the war period who planned to Remain
in the area labor force, by area2
—

Number of women in specified groups
Springfield

Industrial group

Baltimore

Buffalo

Em
Em
ployed
ployed
in war
in war
Em period Em period Em
ployee
and
ployed and ployed
1940 plannee 1940 planned 1940
to con
to con
tinue
tinue
work in
work in
area
area

Dayton

Detroit

Em
Em
ployed
ployed
in war
in war
period Em period
Em
and
ployed and
ployed
planned 1940 planned 1940
to con
to con
tinue
tinue
work in
work in
area
area

All industries1 39,700 48,600 93,700 124,900 59,700
89,800 34,700 48,700 182,300
Manufacturing......... 15,300 27,500 26,100 58,200 13.700
49,300 11,200 20,100 46,800
900 2,300 3,900 9,900 1,900 2,800 1,200
12,200
5,500
Trade and service ... 19,100 16,100 50,500 46,800 36.700
Other industries3___ 4,400 2,700 13,200 10,000 7,400 31,600 18,900 15,000 f130,000
6,100 3,400
1,400

Em
ployed
in war
period
and
planned
to con
tinue
work in
area
283,000
148,000
21,000
114,000

Number of women in specified groups
Kenosha

Wichita

Mobile

Seattle

San Francisco

| Em

Industrial group

Em
Em
Em
Em
ployed
ployed
ployed
ployed
ployed
in war
in war
in wat
in war
in
war
Em period
Em
period Em period Em period
Em
period
ployed and
ployed
and
ployed and
and
ployed
and
1940 planned 1940 planned 1940 planned ployed
1940 planned 1940 planned
to con
to con
to con
to con
to con
tinue
tinue
tinue
tinue
tinue
work in
work in
work in
work in
work in
area
area
area
area
area

All industries1 3,800
Manufacturing.........
Government..............
Trade and service...
Other industries3___

1.400
2.400

5,500 16,500 24,600 7,800 19,500 54,500
2,800 1,200 8,800 1.300 4.000 6,200
500
700
200 5.000 1,900
2,700 11,900 13,100 5.300 9,200 36,600
2,900 2,000 1,000
1,300 9,800

70,200 137,700 167,500
20,400 20,100 40.500
11,300 5,600 18.500
30,800 83,400 81,900
7,700 28,600 26,600

2 twJ „ J+Jt•? m aomeftlc service were excluded from both 1940 and 1944-45 figures

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

PART III. EARNINGS OF WARTIME-EMPLOYED WOMEN
In each of the 10 areas the average weekly take-home earnings of the women employed
in the war period in plants manufacturing war goods considerably exceeded the average
weekly take-home earnings of women employed in plants manufacturing consumer goods
or in non-manufacturing industries.

Table

III-l.—Average weekly take-home earnings of women employed in the war
period in selected industrial groups, by area

Seattle

1
is

Mobile

Kenosha

D etroit

D ayton

Buffalo

Springfield

Industrial group

Baltimore

Average weekly take-home earnings
o
6
*£
(3
c3
£
a
03
GG

$24.95 $27.30 $28.50 $27.45 $34.70 $28.40 $29.30 $24.85 $31.80 $32.50
Manufacturing:

29.00 33.80 33.90 31.50 40.35 31.40 35.35 36.80 38.60 38.95
23.75 24.10 24.50 26.90 28.75 26.45 26.45 23.30 30.10 31.00
Retail and wholesale trade2.. 19.55 20.90 18.90 19.90 24.85 20.75 21.30 21.25 26.40 30.40
18.20 16.25 20.05 18.25 24.45 21.50 24.20 19.45 24.85 27.65
Eating and drinking places.. 19.30 25.30 18.20 23.05 29.75 28.00 21.15 13.95 31.50 31.55
18.95 20.70 21.65 21.50 24.10 21.25 25.05 16.05 29.10 30.15
1 Excludes domestic service.
2 Excludes eating and drinking places.

In each area the average weekly take-home earnings of women employed as operatives
or clerical workers in factories making war goods exceeded the average weekly take-home
earnings of women employed in corresponding occupations in factories making consumer
goods. Moreover, in all but one area the average weekly take-home earnings of women
employed as clerical workers in war factories exceeded the average weekly take-home
earnings of women employed as operatives in factories making consumer goods.

III-2.—Average weekly take-home earnings of women employed in the war
period as operatives and clerical workers in factories making war goods and in factories
making consumer goods, by area

Table

San Francisco

Seattle

Mobile

W ichita

Kenosha

a
O
>>
03
Q

D etroit

Buffalo

Baltimore

Occupation and type of
manufacturing

Springfield

Average weekly take-home earnings

Operatives:
$29.45 $34.40 $35.00 $32.10 $41.35 $33.75 $36.50 $43.45 $39.90 $42.75
War manufacturing.
Consumer manufacturing. 24.00 24.00 24.10 28.10 27.95 27.45 25.75 22.90 29.50 31.45
Clerical:
War manufacturing .
Consumer manufacturing.

26.75 31.60 31.00 28.35 35.05 22.55 32.75 30.30 36.25 32.60
21.75 24.35 25.50 24.30 29.35 20.75 27.10 27.00 26.20 29.75

APPENDIX

PART IV. PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
The proportion of married women was larger among all women employed in the war
period than among the women who planned to continue work. The areas differed widely
from each other in the proportions of married, single, and widowed or divorced women
both among all women employed in the war period and among the women who planned
to continue work.
K

Table

IV-1 —Marital status of women employed in the war period and of women who
planned to continue work, by area
Percent of women with specified types of marital status
All women employed in the war period1 Women who planned to continue work1
Area

Married2

Total Single

Married2
Widowed
Widowed
Total Single
or
or
Total Husband divorced
Total Husband divorced
absent,
absent,
in service
in service

All areas

100

Springfield.........
Baltimore..........
Buffalo...............
Dayton...............
Detroit...............
Kenosha.............
Wichita..............
Mobile...............
Seattle................
San Francisco..

100
100
100
100
100
100

52
48
50
46
45
59
43
40
31
29

39
43
40
40
45
33
43
47
54
55

11
12
11
10
10
7
13
9
16
14

9
9
10
14
10
8
14
13
15
16

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

58
53
60
52
53
64
53
45
40
36

32
36
28
32
35
26
27
39
37
42

100
100
100

1 Excludes women employed in domestic service.
wer™?errm«riefd°m
hUSbands WauSe the hu“

A smaller proportion of the married
continue work than of the single women
hon of married women who planned to
who had husbands absent, in the armed

Table

IV-2.

_____

5
5
5

5
5

6
7

in ™ « *™ other reasons

women employed in the war period planned to
or the widowed or divorced women. The proporcontinue work was particularly low among those
forces.

Percent of women employed in the war period who planned to continue
work, by marital status and area
Percent of women employed in war period
with specified types of marital status who
planned to continue work

Area

]

Married1

Total Single
Total

Husband
absent,
in service

All areas................
Springfield.......................
Baltimore................
Buffalo...............
Dayton....................
Detroit.....................
Kenosha...................
W ichita...........
Mobile...................
Seattle.............
San Francisco.............

Widowed
or
divorced

94
46

39
«
38

98
95
96
92
91
100
87
100
92
93

ere'wunted^s married?” thdr hllsbands because the husbands were in service or for other reasons
2 Base too small to justify computation.

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

The proportions of the war-employed women in various age groups differed very little
from the corresponding proportions among women who planned to continue work. In
general, among the women who planned to continue work there were smaller proportions
of women between 20 and 29 years of age and larger proportions 45 years of age and
over, than among the total group of women employed in the war period.
Table IV-3.—Age

of women employed1 in the war period and of women who planned
to continue work, by area
Percent of women with specified age
Women who planned to continue
work1

All women employed in the
war period1
Area
Total

All areas....................
Springfield.......... ;.................
Baltimore...............................
Buffalo.....................................
Dayton...................................
Detroit....................................
Kenosha..................................
Wichita...................................
Mobile.....................................
Seattle.....................................
San Francisco........................

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

Under 20
29
20
14
18
18
11
15
15
15
18
17
11
8

40
34
44
41
39
44
39
39
42
34
40

40 45 and Total
44
over

30
39

22
19
22
27
22
21
22
19
23
20
26

8
6
7
8
7
11
6
7
11
9

Under 20
29
20

30
39

40 45 and
44
over

100

21
10
14
16
13
13
18
11
24
17

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

20
19
13
16
16
15
19
17
11
8

31
41
43
36
43
34
34
41
31
37

18
22
23
22
21
25
22
23
20
26

8
7
8
8
6
11
4
7
11
10

23
11
13
18
14
15
21
12
27
19

1 Excludes women employed in domestic service.

In general smaller proportions of women employed in the war period between the ages
of 20-29 years planned to continue work than did either the older or younger women.

Table IV-4.—Percent of women employed in the war period who planned to continue

work, by age and area
Percent of women employed in war period with
specified age who planned to continue work
Area

45 and
over

Under
20

20-29

30-39

40-44

83
81
80
78
78
73
61
84
61
69

93
87
97
83
83
72
66
85
64
72

75
76
85
74
76
63
52
81
55
64

78
83
68
78
77
85
68
84
61
69

82
85
85
82
71
78
46
86
62
75

90
88
74
85
81
85
71
92
69
77

Total

—

APPENDIX

In five of the nine areas for which race was analyzed, Negro or other non-white women
workers constituted at least 10 percent of the total women 1 employed in the war period.
In seven of the nine areas there was a higher proportion of Negro or other non-white em
ployed women among the women who planned to continue to work than among the waremployed women as a whole.

Table IV-5.—Race of women employed1 in the war period and of women who planned

to continue work, by area
Percent of women in specified groups
All women employed in the
war period1

Area2

Total

Wichita............................................................

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

White

Women who planned to
continue work1

Negro or
other
non-white

95
81
96
84
83
94
69
98
90

Total

White

Negro or
other
non-white
5
22

4
16

18
19

6
31
10

100
100

1 Excludes women employed in domestic service.
2 Kenosha excluded because base too small to justify analysis.

The proportion of Negro or other non-white women employed in the war period who
planned to continue work was considerably higher than the proportion of white women.

Table IV-6.—Percent of women employed in the war period who planned to continue

work, try racial group and area

Area1

Percent of women employed in the war
period in specified racial groups who
planned to continue work
Total

Springfield. . .
Baltimore___
Buffalo...........
Dayton..........
Detroit...........
Wichita..........
Mobile...........
Seattle...........
San Francisco
1 Kenosha excluded because base too small to justify analysis.

83
81
80
78
78
61
84
61
69

White

82
78
79
77
75
60
79
61
67

Negro or other
non-white
96
94
100
88
89
71
95
95
95

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

Education, as measured by the last grade attended in school, did not differ greatly in
the individual areas between the total group of women employed in the war period and
the women who planned to continue work.

Table IV-7.—Extent of school education of women .employed in the war period and of

women who planned to continue work, by area
Percent of women whose last grade attended in school was as specified
All women employed in the war period

Grade school

Area
Total

All areas . . .
Springfield...............

Wichita...................
San Francisco........

High
school

Women who planned to continue work

Grade school

College
Total

Less 4 Less 4
8
Less
than 8 grades than years than years
4
grades
4
or
years
years more

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

High
school

College

Less 4 Less 4
Less
8
than 8 grades than years than years
4
grades
4
or
years more
years

100

17
19
13
9
14
10
4
18
4
10

17
17
21
17
18
18
18
13
15
11

25
27
29
24
28
22
23
32
19
22

34
28
30
40
32
42
38
29
46
42

3
4
4
6
4
3
11
6
9
11

4
5
3
4
4
5
6
2
7
4

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

18
19
14
10
14
10
6
19
5
12

16
18
20
18
17
18
18
12
17
11

24
27
29
22
29
23
24
32
19
21

34
27
31
40
32
42
36
28
43
40

4
4
3
7
4
3
9
7
8
11

4
5
3
3
4
4
7
2
8
5

In general a slightly higher proportion of the women employed in the war period who
attended less than eight grades of school planned to continue work than did women with
more education.

Table IV-8.—Percent of women employed in the war period who planned to continue

work, by extent of school education and area
Percent of women employed in the war period with, specified last grade of
school attended who planned to continue work

t
Total

All areas......................
Baltimore.................................

Seat-tie.......................................
San Francisco..........................

College

High school

Grade school

Area

Less than
4 years

4 years
or more

Less than
8 grades

8 grades

Less than
4 years

4 years

83
81
80
78
78
73
61
84
61
69

89
85
86
86
73
76
94
89
71
82

80
84
78
82
74
71
61
80
69
70

77
79
81
72
79
75
62
83
62
69

83
79
81
79
79
74
59
82
57
66

94
76
60
86
74
83
50
92
60
70

89
85
80
73
84
60
73
87
69
74

part

V. RESPONSIBILITY FOR FAMILY SUPPORT

or to support themselves and'“others!1*6ATmos^a'l!”l/tht ring™'t Imen "and* o7°the wide aSd,heir,:eaS°n for sueh Plans ,he
they must support themselves or themselves on, others, while o smeller proportion of ttZSZ?
Table V-l.

to support themselves

£££vT

Reasons women employed in the war period planned to continue work, by marital status and ,

Percent of women giving specified reasons
Total

Area

All areas
Springfield.........
Baltimore..........
Buffalo...............
Dayton..............
Detroit...............
Kenosha............
Wichita.............
Mobile...............
Seattle...............
San Francisco..

•

100

100
100
100
100
100

Married

Widowed or divorced

Support
Like
Support
Like
Support
Like
self or employ Other1 Total self or employ
Other1 Total self or employ Other1 Total
self and
ment
self and
ment
self and
others
ment
only
others
only
others
only

89
89

7
5
4

85
86
86

77
82

80
76

2
11
11

100

97
97
97
94
95
99

100

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

buying a bome or sendiag chUdren tarhoo‘-

97
98
96

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

70
75
55
62
68

49
37
59
50
47

12
21

24
23
46
20

Support
Like
self or employ Other1
self and
ment
others
only

100

10
13
24
14
9
5
43
25
28
38

100

100
100
100
100
100

100
100
100
100

A P P E N D IX

I Total

Single

99
96
97
100
100

100

99
98

(*)

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

Most of the women employed in the wor period lived in family groups of two or more
persons. The proportion was particularly high among married women and higher among
single women than among widowed or divorced.
The proportion of employed women who lived in family groups was about the same
among women who planned to continue work as among all women employed in the war
period.

Table V-2.—Living

arrangements among all women employed in the war period and
among women who planned to continue work, by marital status ana area
Percent of employed women living in family groups of
two or more persons
Women who planned to
continue work

All women employed in
war period

Area

Married |
Total Single Married

82
Baltimore....................................

85
75
98
58
78
95
61
64
80
76

86
81
96
73
81
95
75
76
83
78

91
92
90
95
91
90
100
90
87
90
85

Widowed Total Single
or divorced

Widowed
or divorced

68
72
82
71
61
76
74
73
63
60

85
81
95
71
80
94
71
75
81
77

85
76
98
58
79
94
58
64
80
76

82
71

74
60

Of the women employed in the war period who lived in family groups of two or more
persons, a very high proportion contributed regularly toward meeting the expenses of the
family. In most areas the proportion of the women who lived in family groups and con
tributed regularly to family expenses was higher among widowed or divorced women than
among married or single women.

Table V-3.—Percent of women living in family groups who contributed regularly to
family expenses, among all women employed in the war period and among women who
J
planned to continue work, by marital status and area
Percent of employed women living in family groups who contributed
regularly to family expenses

Area

Total Single Married

San Francisco............................

Women who planned to
continue work

All women employed in the
war period

95
96
95
91
92
93
86
87
92
93

92
95
98
99
90
92
97
81
86
90
95

91
94
95
90
91
91
89
87
86
91

Widowed Total Single Married Widowed
or divorced
or divorced
96
98
98
91
97
99
85
98
97
98
98

95
97
95
93
93
97
90
88
94
92

94
98
98
91
93

98
98
91
98
99
100
100
97
98
97

utin9mz

el^ ,oii;; ^JLrr,and TTed re9ularly ,o fami,y —-,he p~p~«»

or fhe widowed or divorced.

earnings to fc.rn.ly expenses was cons.derably greater among single women than among the married

ex^ waS ~ ^ea^^
tion of single women among those who planned to continue work.

Total

Area
Total

100
percent

Single

50 percent,
Less
less than than 50
100 percent percent

Total

100
percent

doubt' to the higher propor-

Married

50 percent,
Less
less than than 50
100 percent percent

Total

100
percent

Widowed or divorced

50 percent,
Less
less than than 50
100 percent percent

100

Total

percent

50 percent,
less than than 50
100 percent percent

Springfield.........
Baltimore..........
Buffalo...............
Dayton..............
Detroit...............
Kenosha............
Wichita.............
Mobile...............
Seattle...............
San Francisco. .

100
100
100
100
100

100

51
34
43
42
37
32
38
27
26
37

All areas.

100

Springfield..........
Baltimore............
Buffalo.................
Dayton................
Detroit.................
Kenosha...............
Wichita...............
Mobile.................
Seattle..................
San Francisco...

100

50
35
39
40
34
33
33
27
24
36

100

100
100

100

24
30
19
16
17
13
16
32
29
28

25
36
38
42
46
55
46
41
45
35

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

28
19
23
11
15
10
10
6
4
11

37
29
24
17
17
20
11
21
14
20

35
52
53
72
68
70
79
73
82
69

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

74
48
65
61
55
68
64
37
36
48

100

12
30
12
15
16
3
16
37
35
31

14
22
23
24
29
29
20
26
29
21

100
100

78
43
75
53
51
31
23
33
31
44

8
32
10
14
16
8
25
42
35
33

14
25
15
33
33
61
52
25
34
23

100
100

100
100
100

100

A PPE N D IX

All woinen employe i in the wcir perio
All areas

Women who planned to continue work

100
100
100
100
100

100
100
100
100

100

25
29
21
16
17
14
13
30
28
28

25
36
40
44
49
53
54
43
48
36

100
100
100

100
100
100
100
100
100
100

28
19
23
12
16
13
13
7
4
11

37
29
25
18
18
19
14
21
14
22

100

35
52
52
70
66
68
73
72
82
67

100

81
52
68
62
55
83
78
42
39
52

10
30
14
15
17
3

9
18
18
23
28
14
22
24
22
17

100

78
43
74
52
48
31
24
33
32
44

8
31
10
15
17
8
24
42
34
34

14
26
16
33
35
61
52
25
34
22

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

34
. 39
31

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

Among the women employed in the war period who lived in family groups and con
tributed regularly to family expenses, the single women in each area contributed a smaller
proportion of their take-home earnings to the family expenses than did the married women
or those who were widowed or divorced.

Table V-5.—Percent

of take-home earnings contributed to family expenses by women
who lived in family groups and contributed regularly to family expenses, among all women
employed in the war period and among women who planned to continue work, by marital
status and area
Percent of earnings contributed to family expenses by employed women
living in family groups and contributing regularly to family expenses

Women who planned to
continue work

All women employed in
war period

Area

'
All areas.........................

San Francisco............................

Total Single Married

64
75
64
68
64
62
57
60
61
59
68

46
63
53
55
42
47
42
34
44
34
43

77
87
72
82
78
73
77
79
70
69
78

Widowed Total Single Married Widowed
or divorced
or divorced
71
88
70
84
72
70
60
55
70
66
76

62
75
64
65
62
60
57
55
61
57
68

63
53
56
42
48
42
37
44
35
43

91
72
83
79
74
77
84
72
73
81

88
70
83
73

APPENDIX

Of the war-employed women who lived in family groups some were the onlv wr.r,„
contrlbuthia,ribUtm^ '° f°mily ,<!xPentes- The Proportion of women who were the sole
the sina : or m6 'T*" W"S ,S ^ “"’'T9 *he widowed or divorced women than among
9
r married women. In general, the proportion varied very little between the
women employed in the war period and those who planned to continue work.

ZaTeZarnerTanTwho °LWOmen f™9 in f<TilV <>rouPs who were <*« sole contributing
wage earners and who were one of two contributing ivage earners in the family armin
among all women employed m the war period and among women who planned lo^mtinue
work, by marital status and area
Percent of employed women with specified positions as wage earners
contributing to family expenses
All women

Single

1
Sole 1 One other

Sole

Widowed or
divorced

Married

One other

Sole

One other

Sole J One other

All women employed in the war period
All areas....
Springfield...........
Baltimore. .
Buffalo...........
Daytron.............
Detroit. . .
Kenosha..........
Wichita....
Mobile.............
Seattle...............
San Francisco .. .

34
46
39
47
37
40
33
35
42
48

16
12
12
8
10
11
6
12
14
13

49
58
61
59
59
47
68
58
62
61

24
28
35
31
31
0)
40
41
48
44

52
47
30
50
41
0)
29
31
43
43

13
13
11
10

14
15
15
10
17

II omen who planned to continue work
15
Springfield...............
Baltimore............
Buffalo.............
Dayton.................
Detroit...............
Kenosha..........
Wichita...
Mobile..................
Seattle................
San Fran cisco..........

1 Base too small to justify computation.

12
14
11
11
12
14
18
17

54
15
11

34
46
38
48
38
42
33
34
43
49

15
14
12
9
10
8
4
15
16
15

54
57
02
61
58
46
59
54
65
62

24
29
37
31
33
0)
42
41
48
46

52
45
27
52
43
(0
26
31
44
42

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

In half the areas with groups large enough to justify analysis at least a fifth of the
women employed in the war period who lived apart from family groups contributed regu
larly to the support of others. The corresponding proportions among women who planned
to continue work did not differ very much from the proportions among all women employed
in the war period.

Table V-7.—Percent

of women living apart from family groups who contributed regularly
to the support of others among all women employed in the war period and among women
who planned to continue work, by marital status and area
Percent of women living apart from family groups who contributed
regularly to the support of others
Women who planned to
continue work

All women employed in
war period

Area1

Total Single Married

San Francisco............................

8
27
18
30
8
41
14
20

8
25
19
32
9
35
5
16

36
14
23
56
23
19

Widowed Total Single Married Widowed
or divorced
or divorced
pi
26
19
33
15
41
14
24

9
28
20
31
11
41
13
23

(>)
39
(!i
24

8
26
20
32
11
36
5
18

58
(?)
29

(2)
35
15
41
13
24

1 In two areas, Buffalo and Kenosha, the group of women who lived apart from family groups was too
small to justify analysis.
,
2 Base too small to justify computation.

In most areas between 10 and 15 percent of the women employed in the war period
reported that they or their family groups had some income from sources other than wages
or service allotments.

Table V-8.—Percent

of women employed in the war period who reported income from
sources other than wages or service allotments, by area

Percent of women
Area

Total

With additional With no additional
income
income

100

100
100
10f>
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

14
13
10
11
9
16
9
15
15
14

86
87
90
89
91
84
91
85
85
86

APPENDIX

u„iSU1b;,an,ial P:°Por,.ion Lof *he "omen IWng in fcmily groups had children of their own
under 14 years of age in the household.

Zhn hJ'^PerCe?\^- WOmm em7>l°yed in the war period and living in family groups
Zhnrrirf ch}^ren °f thefr
under 14 years of age in the household, and percentof
married, widowed, or divorced women who had children of their own in the household
■
by area
~------------ —------------------------------------Percent of war-employed women living in family groups with own
children
All women employed in the war
period

Area

Total

All areas......................
Springfield...............
Baltimore...........
Buffalo....................
Dayton.....................
Detroit.............
Kenosha..................
Wichita...................
Mobile..................
Seattle.......................
San Francisco.............

Married, widowed or divorced
women employed in the war period

With own No children
children of own under
under 14 in 14 in house
household
hold

Total

With own No children
children of own under
under 14 in 14 in house
household
hold

100

100
100
100
100

84
79
87
82
80
87
72
78

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

28
37
38
25
35
31
32
34
31
33

72
63
62
75
65
69
68
66
69
67

100
100
100
100
100

°ver half the war-employed women who had children of their own under 14 years of
age in the household had only one child.
"
Table

V-10.—Percent of war-employed women living with own children who had specified
number of own children in household, by area

Area

Percent of women living with own children under
14 years of age with specified number of children
Total

All areas
Springfield.........
Baltimore.........
Buffalo...............
Dayton...............
Detroit...............
Kenosha.............
Wichita...............
Mobile................
Seattle.................
San Francisco. .

1 child

2 children

3 or more children

100

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

57
58
56
50
61
58
52
54
66
62

29
26
30
38
26
23
33
22
27
27

16
14
12
13
19
15
24
7
11

WOMEN WORKERS IN WAR PRODUCTION AREAS

About half of the war-employed women living with children of their own under 14
years of age arranged for the care of the children by relatives m the household. Other
arrangements for caring for children varied widely.

Table V-ll.—Arrangements for care of children under H years of age of war-employed

women who lived with own childreny by area
Percent of women with children of their own in the household providing specified
types of care
Area

No care
Other Relative Maid
Husband Older
Neigh Nursery Other while
in
Total on other school relative outside
worker
school
bor
house
house
in
house
children
shift than
is absent
hold
hold
hold
wife

All areas....
Springfield....
Baltimore........
Buffalo.............
Dayton............
Detroit.............
Kenosha..........
Wichita............
Mobile.............
Seattle.......
San Francisco.

100

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

32
39
38
45
40

7
9
7
16
38
6

4
8
8

8
21
10
15

35
42
42
30

148

27
☆

1
2
6
87
6
1
2

7
136
5
7
7

89
7
9

85
51
2
51

12
15

85
4
4
3
3
4

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1946---- 6985

12
6
12
22
16
25
28

Full text of Women Workers in Ten War Production Areas and Their Postwar Employment Plans : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 209

FRASER