The full text on this page is automatically extracted from the file linked above and may contain errors and inconsistencies.
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
L. B. SCHWELLENBACH, Secretary
WOMEN'S BUREAU
FRIEDA S. MILLER, Director
Women's Occupations
Through Seven Decades
By
JANET M. HOOKS
Women's Bureau Bulletin No. 218
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
W A S H I N G T O N : 1947
For Sale by the Superintendent of Documents,
TJ. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C.
Price 45 Cents
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OP LABOR,
WOMEN'S BUREAU,
Washington, June 9,1947.
SIR: I have the honor to transmit a report on trends in
women's occupations. Because underlying social and economic
forces have made women an important part of the labor force,
such information has far-reaching general significance. Moreover, accurate knowledge about the work women do and the direction of changes in their work is vital in dealing in a realistic and
constructive way with current employment problems of women
workers.
The Women's Bureau has made an analysis of women's occupational distribution after each decennial census. The present
study, based on census data, is the third of this nature prepared
by the Bureau and is more comprehensive than earlier reports.
The first showed the changes in women's occupations from 1910
to 1920. The second traced the occupational progress of women
from 1910 to 1930. The present study covers a much longer
period, from 1870 to 1940, and presents to a greater extent than
heretofore long-time trends in particular fields.
The cooperation of the Bureau of the Census in furnishing the
Women's Bureau with adjustment indexes for women's occupations is gratefully acknowledged, as are the helpful suggestions
made by Census officials in the course of consultations with them.
The analysis was made and the report written by Janet M.
Hooks, of the Bureau's Research Division. Computations were
made and checked by Caroline E. Brooks, in the early stages of
this work, and by Elisabeth D. Benham and Emily L. Banker.
Elsie Katcher assisted in library research.
Respectfully submitted.
FRIEDA S . MILLER, Director.
H o n . L . B . SCHWELLENBACH,
Secretary of Labor.
CONTENTS
Letter of Transmittal
Page
iii
INTRODUCTION A N D SUMMARY
Progress and Change
—
3
Women Workers in 1940
—
4
Broad Changes in Fields of Work
5
Changes in Individual Occupations
6
Factors Affecting Change in Women's Occupations
~
7
1. Need for expanding labor supply
7
2. Women's economic and social status
.—
7
3. The traditional spheres of women-—.
— — .
8
4. Public policy
—
—
9
5. Technology
.
——
——
—~
9
6. Occupational barriers
——
—
^9
7. Wars ...
— 1 0
8. Immigration
—
11
9. Living standards, tastes, and styles
.
11
Data on Which this Report is Based
—
—
12
Labor force and gainful workers.
————
12
Data for specific occupations, 1870-1940-—.——
—
~
13
Occupational classification in 1940—,—
—
——
13
Changes in census dates.—
*
14
References cited
—
——14
L
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS IN 1940
Employment Status of Women in 1940
——
15
General Fields of Work of Women in the Labor Force
——
17
Clerical, Sales, and Kindred Occupations
19
Operatives and Kindred Workers—
21
Domestic Service Workers
23
Service Workers, Except Domestic and P r o t e c t i v e — 2 3
Professional and Semiprofessional Workers.
—_— -—
25
Principal Individual Occupations of Employed Women in 194026
Principal Individual Occupations with Women in Demand
29
II.
GENERAL TRENDS IN NUMBERS A N D CHARACTERISTICS
OF W O M E N WORKERS
Progress of Women in the Labor Force
33
Trends Among Age Groups
36
White and Negro Women Workers
—, ~ — - — 3 8
Residence of Women Workers
—
38
Changes Among Married and Single Women Workers.. _ —
39
III.
TRENDS IN SOCIAL-ECONOMIC GROUPS, 1910 and 1940
Social-Economic Groups
Major Shifts in Women's Work
Relative Growth of Women Workers in Different Fields
IV
45
46
48
IV.
THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN
Page
Census Techniques as a Record of Occupational Change
History of census data on women's occupations
Leading individual occupations at each census
Occupation names that have disappeared
Occupational Position of Women, 1910 and 1940.-—,
Occupations with notable growth or decline
Occupational concentration of women
__—,___
Women's occupational concentration relative to men _
V.
53
53
56
60
62
62
65
67
CHANGES IN INDIVIDUAL OCCUPATIONS OF W O M E N , 1870-1940
The Advance of White-Collar Workers____
The woman "office worker"
Bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers
Telegraph and telephone operators
Attendants, physicians' and dentists' offices
Agents, collectors, and credit men
Messengers, errand, and office boys
Sales occupations
Hucksters and peddlers
Insurance agents and brokers
Real estate selling-—
Newsboys
.
Changes Among Operatives and Laborers
Food manufacturing
_
Beverage industries
Tobacco manufacturingTextile manufacturing
Clothing workers
_
-—:
Hats, except cloth and millinery ,
_
Woodworking industries
Paper making
Printing and publishing
_
Chemical manufactures
Rubber workersFootwear manufacture
Leather tanning and currying
Leather products, except footwear.
Glass workers
—
The pottery industry
Structural clay products
Metal trades workers.Electrical machinery and equipment
Fruit and vegetable graders and packers.
_
.
71
74
78
79
81
82
82
83
87
88
—
89
89
91
94
101
101
^ 103
112
117
117
— 119
120
122
123
.
124
125
126
126
127
128
129
132
133
Trends in Service Occupations—
Service workers in private households and in public housekeeping
—
Laundry workers.
—Barbers, beauticians and manicurists
—Practical nurses and midwives
-
V
137
137
144
147
148
Page
Elevator operators
.
Janitors and sextons — —-,
Attendants, ushers, operatives, amusement and recreation
Boarding house and lodginghouse keepers—___.
Opening Doors in Professional Work
_
~
The teaching field™
- ,
Trained nurses
.
.
Social and welfare workers, religious workers, and
clergymen
Music, art and entertainment———
——.
Literary occupations—
The "learned professions" and related fields.—
Some professional occupations related to science and
industry — —
Other professional occupations-...
Businesswomen
Food and dairy products stores
Eating and drinking places
Other trade
—
General merchandise, apparel, and shoes
Proprietors, managers, and officials, primarily in industry
Hotels and lodging places
——„
Government officials and inspectors-Postmasters
————
Druggists and pharmacists . _ — — — _ —
Banking and other finance
—
Officials, lodge, society, union, etc
Insurance
.
Agricultural Workers
Women in Trades and Crafts
...
_
Foremen
Decorators and window dressers...
,
Painters
Paperhangers
Upholsterers
—
Protective Service Workers
—
Selected References on Women's Occupational Trends
Index
~~
149
150
151
151
155
151
161
164
166
169
171
175
178
f 180
181
182
183
184
185
185
186
187
187
188
189
189
190
196
196
197
198
198
199
200
201
253
TEXT TABLES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Occupation group of women who were employed (except on public
emergency work) or were experienced workers seeking work,
and percent distribution of women and of men, 1940
—
Detailed occupations with 50,000 or more employed women 14 years
old and over, numbers employed in each, and percent women of
total employees, 1940
Trends in the labor force, 1870-1940
Number and proportion of women 14 years old and over in the labor
force or gainfully occupied, by marital status, 1900 to 1940
VI
18
27
34
39
Page
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Increase in number of nonagricultural workers 1910-1940 and percent women of total in 1910 and 1940, by social-economic group..
Number and percent distribution of women clerical, sales, and kindred workers in selected occupations, 1870 and 1940
Number and percent distribution of women operatives and kindred
workers and laborers, except farm, in selected occupations, 1870
and 1940
Number and percent distribution of women service workers, except
protective, in selected occupations, 1870 and 1940
...
Number and percent distribution of women professional and semiprofessional workers in selected occupations, 1870 and 1940
Number and percent distribution of women proprietors, managers,
and officials, except farm, in selected occupations, 1870 and 1940..
49
73
92
138
156
181
APPENDIX TABLES
I.
IIA.
IIB.
Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force (except new
workers) in 1940, and gainful workers 14 years old and over
in 1930, in 1920, and in 1910, classified into social-economic
groups, by sex, for the United States.....
Occupations of women workers, 1870 to 1940
._
Occupations of all workers, 1870 to 1940
206
208
224
CHARTS
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VL
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
Occupations of women workers, 1940.
.facing 1
Proportion of all workers who were women, 1870-1940
32
Number of women workers and of all workers, 1870-1940
35
A social-economic grouping of women workers 14 years and over,
1910-1940
__________
44
The leading 10 occupations of women workers, 1870-1940__.
52
Proportion of all women workers in each tenth of 252 comparable
occupations or occupation combinations, 1940 and 1910
66
Proportion of all workers who were women in each of 246 comparable occupations or occupation combinations
68
Women in selected clerical occupations, 1870-1940
70
Women in selected operative and laborer occupations, 1870-1940
90
Women in selected service occupations, 1870-1940
136
Women in selected professional occupations, 1870-1940
154
VII
CHART I.—OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN WORKERS, 1940
Women who were employed (except on public emergency work)
or who were experienced workers seeking work
CLERICAL, SALES. AND
KINDRED WORKERS
OPERATIVES AND
KINDRED WORKERS
DOMESTIC SERVICE
WORKERS
PROFESSIONAL AN a
SEMIPROFESSIONAL
WORKERS
SERVICE WORKERS,
EXCEPT DOMESTIC
AND PROTECTIVE
SL
T
T
fa
mi
T
T
T
tfc «& «& to,
O
OTHER OCCUPATIONS
T
2.
f
£>
H
O
T ¥
6
I
i
£> o
H R
w 1
Each symbol represents 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 women worktrf
Source:
Table 1.
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN
DECADES
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
The emergence during World War II of the woman welder,
barber, truck driver, lathe operator, riveter, blast furnace topman, railroad sectionman, and her sisters in many other occupations formerly unusual for women focused attention anew on
the whole question of the extent of women's paid occupation and
the nature of the work women do. From the attack on Pearl
Harbor in December 1941 to March 1944 some 6V2 million women
newly entered the labor force. Because new women entrants
greatly exceeded those who withdrew from the labor force in the
same period, the number of women in the civilian labor force rose
markedly.1 At the war peak in July 1944 women in the labor force
totaled 20.6 million, compared with 13.8 million in March 1940.2
Not only was there a considerable net influx of women into
the labor force during the war, but there were also notable shifts
in the types of work they were doing. From March 1940 to
March 1944 the proportion of employed women who were craftsmen, foremen, operatives, and nonfarm laborers and the proportion who were clerical and kindred workers rose. Women in professional and semiprofessional occupations, on the other hand,
though they increased slightly in absolute numbers, decreased in
proportion to the total, and women domestic service workers
showed both a relative and an absolute decline.
During the war considerable numbers of women entered the
labor force for the first time, unemployed women obtained jobs,
and many of those already working changed from one occupation to another. After the end of the war, the numbers of women
workers soon receded from the high wartime levels to about 16
or 17 million, and the occupational pattern resulting from the
rapid shifts dictated by the war began to return to a peacetime
model.
1
war.
U. S. Department of Labor.
By Mary Elizabeth Pidgeon.
Women's Bureau.
Changes in women's
Special Bulletin 20.
employment
during the
Washington, U. S. Government Printing
Office, 1944, pp. 2-3.
2
Revised figures.
U. S. Department of Commerce.
ment, and unemployment
Bureau of the Census. Labor force,
in the United States, 1940 to 1946.
employ-
P-50, No. 2, Washington 25, D. C. [1947].
1
2
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
Whether the work undertaken by women in World War II
will hasten the broad stream of women's occupational history
along its course or whether it will to some extent divert that course
cannot be told as yet. It well may be that the character of women's work in World War II will intensify and speed up long-time
trends. An analysis of developments in women's gainful work
helps to answer some significant questions, vital to all those interested in the broad problem of women's social and economic
status as well as to individuals and groups more directly concerned with employment opportunities for women in the present
and future.
The questions most frequently asked about trends in women's employment refer to the number and proportion of women
in the labor force, the particular industries and occupations where
women work, and the relative advantages and disadvantages of
these jobs among all women workers and among women in relation to men. This report seeks primarily to describe in detail
changes in the numbers of women in particular occupations and
the relative importance of women to men in these occupations.
The extent of paid work among women, the fields that offer
them special opportunity, the rise in some fields, and the decline
in others will also be examined in this report. Changes in the
various occupations will throw light on the extent to which women
are entering "men's work" or are expanding in fields in which
they always have worked; on the degree to which the needs of
the population for goods and services depend upon formal employment activities by women; and on the economic needs and
abilities of women as evidenced by their occupational distribution
at various periods.
The detailed analysis is introduced, in Part I, by a description of the occupations of women in 1940, which serves as a
bench-mark against which the description of changes can be more
readily understood. Part II presents general trends among women in the labor force, with brief analyses of changes in various
age, racial, residence, and marital groups. As an indication of
broad occupational changes a summary of trends from 1910 to
1940 in "Social-economic groups" is given in Part III. In Part IV
the discussion deals with historical changes in occupational terminology and with conclusions on whether or not the occupational
distribution of women is becoming less concentrated. Part V
is the core of the report. It presents, for individual occupations,
long-time trends in numbers of women, the amount of detail varying with the importance of the occupation.
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
3
These introductory pages will summarize certain of the main
conclusions that appear in the body of the report and will give
some background regarding underlying factors which will help
to explain detailed changes in occupations. At the conclusion of
this introduction a short technical note is given, pointing out differences in concepts and methodology at the various censuses.
PROGRESS AND CHANGE
The great growth in the number of women workers over the
past seven decades shows the effect of changing economic and
social conditions under which it has become increasingly customary for women to work. In 1870 less than 10 percent of the
total female population of all ages were gainful workers, whereas
in 1940 the proportion in the labor force was nearly 20 percent.
The rise of the contemporary mass-production economy with all
its attendant modern conveniences and sales techniques, the
broadening of educational opportunities, the development of urban
centers, the decline in the birth rate, and the accompanying
changes in customs and modes of living are among the primary
forces that brought about the growth in numbers of women workers, from less than 2 million in 1870 to over 13 million in 1940. In
part the numerical growth is due also to the increase in the female
population, which tripled in the period. To some extent the expansion has resulted from a shift in the age distribution, such
that nearly three-fifths of all females were in the ages from 20
to 64 years in 1940, compared with less than half in 1870. This
is the age range from which the labor force is largely drawn.
The long-time increase in the proportion of women at work
has occurred despite a drop in the proportions at work among
certain groups of women. A smaller proportion of women under
20 years, of those 65 years and over, and of Negro women worked
in 1940 than in previous decades. However, among women from
20 to 64 years, as among white women and among married women,
the factors tending to raise the rate of participation in paid work
have been dominant.
The vast and important developments in the country's economic structure have been of vital significance in occupational
trends. The predominance of agriculture and of the extractive
industries in the early days of the country's history gave place at
first to rapidly expanding manufacturing, construction, and transportation industries. Such industrial expansion was followed by
the growth of commerce, trade, and service industries.
These successive changes have brought tremendously increased occupational opportunities for women. Outlets for worn-
4
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
en's employment, limited in an economy primarily concerned with
agricultural activities, became greatly enlarged as industrial production grew in volume and variety and particularly as consumer
demand rose for items whose production is particularly suited to
women. The development of activities still another step removed
from agriculture and industry likewise made prominent additional
types of work in clerical and service fields, for which women are
particularly well adapted. The importance of certain aspects of
women's work in 1940 reflects the results of the evolution of the
country's economic structure along these lines.
WOMEN WORKERS IN 1940
One-fourth of the nearly 51 million women aged 14 years and
over in 1940 (13 million) were in the labor force. Most of the
remaining 38 million were engaged in their own home housework,
though some were in school, unable to work, or in institutions.
Of every 10 women who were employed or seeking work, 3
were clerical, sales, or kindred workers; 2 were operatives or
kindred workers.; 2 were domestic service workers; 1 was a professional worker; and 1 was a service worker in other than domestic or protective service work.
Within each of the major fields of work for women one or
two occupations accounted for a considerable proportion of the
women who were employed or seeking work. Nearly one-third
of women classed as clerical, sales, and kindred workers were
stenographers, typists, or secretaries; over three-fourths of women professional workers were nurses or teachers; nearly fourfifths of the women operatives and kindred workers were in manufacturing, and of these well over one-half were engaged in the
production of apparel and textiles; and nearly half of the service
workers, except domestic and protective, were waitresses or beauticians.
Information on the occupations of employed women shows
that, on the basis of the detailed census classification, over fourfifths of these women were in 35 occupations, in each of which
over 50,000 women were employed. The concentration of employed women in a limited number of occupations was more
marked than among men, for less than three-fifths of the latter
were in the 35 leading men's occupations. Women constituted
over half of the workers in 38 out of a total of 451 occupations
listed in the 1940 census. In nearly 100 fields over 99 in 100
workers were men.
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
5
From 1900 to 1940 married women rose from 15 percent of
all women workers to over 35 percent. At the latter date their
occupational distribution differed significantly from that of single
women. Over one-third of the single women were in clerical and
sales occupations, compared with less than one-fourth of the married women. Over one-sixth of the single women were professional and semiprofessional workers, compared with about onetwelfth of the married women. About 55 percent of the married
women were in more or less routine manual jobs working as operatives or as domestic and other service workers. Occupations
in which more than half of the women workers were married included those of several groups of operatives in manufacturing industries. A large proportion of the women in boarding house and
lodginghouse keeping, work carried on in the home, were married,
as well as of those in several proprietor-manager occupations,
which may frequently involve the operation of small establishments near to the family living quarters. In addition more than
half the charwomen, janitors, and porters and more than half
the cooks who were not working in private families were married
women.
BROAD CHANGES IN FIELDS OF WORK
In the 30-year period from 1910 to 1940 women workers
showed significant changes in terms of the social-economic groups
to which they were attached.3 These groups are based partly on
social and partly on economic criteria and differ from the major
occupational groups of the 1940 census. Broad groups of nonmanual and manual workers may be distinguished. While only
28.2 percent of all women workers were nonmanual workers in
1910, the proportion had risen to 45.5 percent by 1940. The rise
among women engaged in nonmanual work resulted primarily
from the swelling proportions that streamed into the group of
clerks and kindred workers. Dwindling proportions among manual workers reflect the slackening flow of women into work as
farm laborers and in the servant classes.
Farmers and farm laborers are omitted from the discussion
of specific social-economic groups because comparable data from
1910 to 1940 are lacking. Each of the remaining nonagricultural
social-economic groups had more men and women in 1940 than
in 1910. The number of women in all nonagricultural social-eco3 Groups developed by Dr. Alba M. Edwards, long an outstanding expert on occupational statistics in the Census Bureau, as follows: Professional persons; proprietors, managers, and officials;
clerks and kindred workers; skilled workers and foremen; semiskilled workers; and unskilled workers. See Part III for further details. Data for social-economic groups are available for 1910 to
1940 only.
15
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
nomic groups increased by about 94 percent from 1910 to 1940.
Considerably higher rates of increase occurred among women
who were clerks and kindred workers (238 percent) ; nonfarm
proprietors, managers and officials (207 percent); and professional persons (114 percent). Among clerks and kindred workers and among professional persons, the rate of growth in the
number of women outstripped that of men, so that women had
a greater share of these fields relative to men in 1940 than in
1910. Notably less rapid growth for women than for men occurred in the servant classes, a subgroup of unskilled workers.
Women also were losing out relatively among semiskilled workers.
CHANGES IN INDIVIDUAL OCCUPATIONS
The nature of the work done by women in this Nation showed
marked changes between 1870 and 1940 as the modern economic
and industrial structure evolved. Indicative of this evolution is
the replacement of occupations of leading importance for women
as reported by the census before 1900—such as those of tailoress
and dressmaker, agricultural worker, cotton and woolen mill operative, and laundress—with a number of clerical and sales occupations, with the occupation of operative in the apparel industry,
and with that of housekeeper in private families in 1940. At the
same time there has been a tendency for occupations typical as
women's work to continue to be so. Domestic service remained
the largest single occupation for women at every decennial census
from 1870 to 1940; teaching was among the first ten occupations
throughout the period; and nursing was among the leading fields
of work both in 1870 and in 1940.
Many of the occupations reported as separate types of work
done by women in the earlier period seem quaint or relatively
unimportant in the present state of development. The rise of
new mass-production industries, the use of new materials, and vast
technological changes have lessened the relative importance and
distinctiveness of numbers of women's occupations formerly reported in detail by the Census.
At all periods women have tended to cluster in a relatively
few occupational fields, as was shown for 1940 on page 27. However, indications are that there has been a slight, tendency toward less marked concentration. A smaller proportion of all
women workers were in the leading women's occupations in 1940
than in 1910. Over the same period women tended to advance
slightly in occupations where they had formerly constituted insignificant proportions of all workers in the occupation, and simultaneously men tended to form slightly higher proportions in
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
7
"women's" occupations. In occupations with significant proportions of both men and women, increases in proportions of
women from 1910 to 1940 tended to counterbalance decreases.
FACTORS AFFECTING CHANGE IN WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS
It is not proposed to summarize here in detail the trends in
individual occupations pointed out in the body of the report.
Such changes appear to be tied up with a multitude of underlying
factors that act and interact. A brief discussion of some of the
forces having special importance in specific fields and illustrative
examples of the occupations in which they appear to have played
a part are presented in the following paragraphs.4
1. NEED FOR EXPANDING LABOR SUPPLY
At various periods in the history of the country economic
developments along certain lines seemed to be reaching an advanced stage, whereupon the beginnings of new developments
along unprecedented lines burgeoned forth. Such, for example, was
the situation in the nineteenth century, when the system of household manufacturing began to give place to factory production.
At that time much of the population was occupied with agriculture. The need for a wholly new source of labor was imperative
if the potentialities offered by the infant factory system were to
be realized. Then it was that industry turned to women and
children, welcoming them into the cotton establishments and pointing out the value to the community and to themselves of taking
up work as textile weavers and spinners.
Again toward the end of the nineteenth century the achievement of vast industrial progress paved the way for great industrial concentration and for large-scale business organization and
distribution systems. Here again a new source of labor was vital
to integrate the activities of the great business network, and here
too women, released by the greatly expanded products of industry
from the former more laborious and time-consuming household
duties, constituted an important share of the needed supply.
2. WOMEN'S ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL STATUS
The rise of a highly industrialized economy has been accompanied by vast and fundamental social changes, which have been
* For a summary of eleven factors affecting occupational trends, see Anderson, H. Dewey and
Davidson, Percy E.
Occupational trends in the United States.
University Press, 1940, pp. 51-63.
Stanford University, Calif., Stanford
The list comprises 1) public policy, 2) technology, 3) occupa-
tional barriers, 4) "Acts of God," 5) depletion, 6) labor disputes, 7) alterations in working conditions, 8) the business cycle, 9) age and sex composition of the labor force, 10) access to capital,
11) tastes and styles.
These factors undoubtedly affected women as a part of the general group of
workers, but certain of them more particularly affected women and possibly in somewhat specialized ways.
Furthermore, other factors appear to have been even more important in occupational
trends among women.
8
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
both cause and effect. Among such changes are significant developments in the social and economic status of women. In the
pioneer period most women were expected to and did exercise
their capacities in production and service for the needs of the
family—the social unit that performed indispensable economic,
educational, recreational, and protective functions. As time went
on, spinning and weaving, food preparation, clothing manufacturing, laundering, and many personal services came to be done
commercially. Child training and recreational activities were
taking place within- the family circle to a smaller extent than before. Agencies other than the family came more and more to
be concerned with the care of the aged or the ill and with the protection of the child from excessive labor or inadequate education.
All these shifts meant an increasing need on the part of the
family for money income. New attitudes and customs in regard
to the status of women opened the way for women's entrance into
types of activity that would enable them to contribute to the family
by means of money income. Gradually women were offered more
extensive opportunities to obtain education and higher training.
It became increasingly commonplace, when work opportunities
were not available at hand, for young women to proceed to the
localities where jobs were to be found, though women continued
to be less mobile in the labor market than men. It came to be
generally accepted that commercially supplied food, clothing, and
other necessities should be utilized by the family, a development
that both enabled women to take up paid employment more easily
and at the same time swelled the demand for women workers to
produce these necessities.
3. THE TRADITIONAL SPHERES OF WOMEN
Social changes take place slowly, on the whole, and occur in
such a way that the new developments are built on the foundations
of the old. Consequently as activities formerly carried on in the
home came to be done in the factory and by the commercial agency,
the most natural trend was for women to continue, in new surroundings, the activities they had formerly performed for their
own families. The production of cloth and clothing, the preparation of food, the care of the sick, and the training of children have
been women's activities both in the pioneer period and in the
present highly developed industrial economy. But the methods
by which women have performed these vital family and social
services differ vastly in these two ages.
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
9
4. PUBLIC POLICY
Legislation and government programs have had both direct
and indirect effects on opportunities for the employment of women. The spread of compulsory education, for example, required
more teachers, and public health programs, more nurses. Welfare
programs, more and more developed on a State and National scale,
have brought increased opportunities for social case workers and
also have added greatly to the need for clerical and other services
both by Federal and local governments.
5. TECHNOLOGY
The inventive genius of the American people has been noted
many times, and the peculiar conditions that fostered it described.
Numerous inventions have had special importance for women's
work. Some inventions, such as the typewriter and the telephone,
have opened up entirely new groups of jobs for women. Others
have caused skilled occupations to give way to more routine jobs,
carried on under considerably greater pressure. This was true
of the sewing machine, which led ultimately to the substitution of
factory-made clothing for the former custom product of the dressmaker. In some instances, as in cigar and cigarette manufacturing, the introduction of machines resulted in the replacement of
men by women, or, as in textile weaving, the use of heavier machinery tended to bring men into women's places. Inventions that
served to lighten the physical effort required in the performance
of jobs have been introduced into a variety of fields of work, thus
tending to eliminate physical requirements as the overriding consideration in employing men rather than women for a particular
job.
6. OCCUPATIONAL BARRIERS
Entrance to many types of work is limited by standards developed by those already engaged in the field. Thus, many of
the craftsmen's occupations require a long apprenticeship, and
the number of apprentices who may enter is limited. Along with
other factors, these restrictions have kept the numbers of women
in these fields at low levels. Furthermore, in manual work of all
degrees of skill there are many jobs that require greater physical
strength than the average woman has. In professional occupations the long training required and the difficulties encountered
in becoming established, which have affected both men and women,
formerly barred women almost completely, and in more recent
years they have tended in many instances to keep the number of
women small.
747639°—48=2
10
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
The attitude on the part of the public and of employers that
certain types of work are not appropriate for women has also
restricted their opportunities. It has sometimes been considered
more suitable for a man to deal with the public, to work on jobs
that require considerable traveling, or to supervise a group of
male workers, even though women otherwise qualified may be
available and may have done such work successfully in a limited
number of instances. Prejudice against the employment of married women, due to unawareness of their economic problems as
well as to traditional social attitudes, toward their employment,
tends to limit the advancement of women to the more responsible
positions by requiring them to leave jobs frequently when the
training and experience acquired might equip them for higher
grades of work.
7. WARS
The emergencies of war sweep aside established traditions
and customary ways of doing things. With the increased need
for manpower and the siphoning off of men for military duties,
women are called upon to undertake various tasks generally considered unsuitable for them. Peacetime readjustments bring a
tendency to revert to the prewar situation, but inevitably an extension of the range of occupations open to women takes place.
The Civil War brought women into the schoolrooms to replace
men, caused numbers of them to undertake nursing duties, and
gathered groups of them together in "sewing rooms" to manufacture clothing and other articles required for military personnel.
World War I greatly advanced women's employment in factories
and raised their numbers in metal and machinery and other plants
making war implements. Even more important, it offered to
women the opportunity to undertake occupations of a more skilled
nature than they had previously been permitted to do. While
their numbers dropped after the end of the war, some women
continued in these fields. World War I also emphasized women's
special aptitudes for assembly and inspection operations and ensured their continuance in such a developing industry as that of
electrical manufacture. In certain occupations, such as that of
elevator operator, the wartime experiment led to the retention
by women of a considerable portion of the field. World War II
again broadened the scope of women's employment activities.
While it is still too soon to determine what will be the more permanent effects, it appears likely that women will retain an established
position in the aircraft industry, in the armed forces, and in various fabricated plastic industries, to name but a few fields.
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
8.
11
IMMIGRATION
The waves of immigration that poured into the United States,
their changing character, and later their virtual cessation have
affected the occupational trends among women. Over many years
immigrant women provided a steady supply of recruits for domestic service and other less attractive occupations. At some
periods the influx turned native-born women to new fields. In
the early days of the cotton textile industry, for example, the
workers at many New England textile mills were native-born
girls of rural families. Such young women at a slightly later
period tended to seek employment as teachers, nurses, or whitecollar workers, thus helping to meet the rising demand in these
fields, while the Irish and French Canadian, immigrants entered
textile manufacturing. Along with this shift went an increasing
utilization of men in textile production.
Similarly in the clothing industry a shift to increasing proportions of men occurred. The immigration of the 1880's brought
into the United States groups who were non-English-speaking and
who therefore tended to crowd into occupations already followed
by family members and friends who had preceded them. The employment of whole family groups in the garment trades under
the unfortunate conditions of the contract system had the effect,
along with various other circumstances, of causing the proportions
of men in the industry to rise.
Domestic service had long offered opportunities for the newly
arrived immigrant to obtain a living despite language handicaps
and even without occupational training or experience. As opportunities in industry grew and later when but small numbers of
immigrants were admitted, this source of household workers dis^
appeared. The declining supply of immigrants was among the
causes of a downward trend in the numbers of women in servant
occupations.
9. LIVING STANDARDS, TASTES, AND STYLES
Broad changes in production, prices, and wages have had important effects on consumption habits. As the standard of
living has risen, there have been increasing refinements in the
material aspects of daily life. The sparse furnishings of the pioneer cabins have been replaced by innumerable comforts and conveniences. The self-sufficiency of the pioneer family disappeared
as whole new industries and services placed the fruits of their endeavors at the command not only of the few most well-to-do but
even of the average citizen.
12
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
The greater variety of material comforts available made
possible choices of alternate methods of meeting particular needs,
developed the creation of new demands, and enhanced the importance of styles and fashions in all sorts of commodities. All these
factors affect occupational trends. Thus a flourishing industry
met the demand that arose out of the widespread acceptance and
use by women of cosmetics and the beautician's services; employment for numbers of women was occasioned by the spread of the
cigarette smoking habit; and new opportunities for women workers appeared with the everyday use of silk hosiery, as changes in
clothing styles made this item more prominent in women's costumes.,
DATA ON WHICH THIS REPORT IS BASED
This report is based upon data published by the U. S. Bureau
of the Census. The material does not, however, derive from a
single set of consistent figures available for the 70-year period.
Not only do trend data cover varying periods, depending on the
availability of comparable occupational classifications at various
censuses, but they are subject to general effects arising from basic
changes in census concepts and procedures,
LABOR FORCE AND GAINFUL WORKERS
In the 1940 census a very considerable change from preceding years was made in the entire basic concept of the labor force,
a term then introduced for the first time. Consequently many
difficulties arise in comparing 1940 with earlier years, in terms
both of total figures and of specific occupations. The 1940 data
were based on the labor force activity of persons during the week
of March 24 to 30, 1940. The gainful workers reported in 1930
and earlier were persons reported as having a gainful occupation
regardless of their activity at the time of the census. The 1940
labor force figures thus excluded seasonal workers not employed
or seeking work during the census week, inmates of institutions,
and retired and disabled persons, groups included in 1930 and
earlier if they reported a gainful occupation. In 1940 new workers seeking their first jobs were included, whereas they had not
been included among previous gainful worker data. Further
differences arise because in 1930 some persons failed to report
their occupation and were not counted as gainful workers, while
in 1940 some persons failed to report their employment status
and others, especially some employed on public emergency work,
were improperly returned as not in the labor force. No adjustments
have been made in figures for individual occupations to eliminate
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
13
thesp differences. However, with the possible exception of farm
laborers, it is unlikely that failure to exclude seasonal workers
prior to 1940 affects significantly the comparisons for women
workers, since the tendency was for a woman not actually working
to report, or for the census enumerator to assume, that she was
engaged in housework. New workers do not affect occupational
data because, though included in the total count of the labor force
in 1940, they were omitted from occupational data, and other differences appear to be of minor significance in trend data for
individual occupations.
DATA FOR SPECIFIC OCCUPATIONS, 1870—1940
Usually data for specific occupations in 1930 and earlier
cover gainful workers 10 years old and over, and corresponding
1940 occupational data are for experienced persons in the labor
force 14 years old and over included in that occupation. By this
procedure practically all workers at the various periods are included.
Because of innovations in the 1940 occupational classification
direct comparisons cannot be made of most 1940 occupations
with those in 1930 and earlier years. The types of work
covered by each of the 1940 occupation classifications frequently
differ from the types covered by the same or similar classifications used in 1930 and previous censuses. The Census Bureau has
worked out adjustment factors for the figures on total workers
and on women workers. These factors can be applied to the 1930
figures on individual occupations (and to previous figures comparable with 1930) to obtain a comparable series. Before applying the adjustment factor it is often necessary to group a number
of occupations in earlier censuses to make the earlier figures comparable with those in 1940.
Because of the application of adjustment factors and because
of this grouping of occupations, data appearing in this report on
occupations in 1870 to 1930 may differ considerably from figures
published in the decennial census volumes. Detailed notes enabling
persons interested to follow the method of deriving these figures
are included with Appendix Tables II A and II B.
OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATION IN 1940
The number of different titles in the occupational classification has varied from one census to another. In 1940 there were
451 detailed occupations. In addition the census presented certain
tabulations for a condensed classification, the "intermediate list,"
which was derived by combining those of the 451 titles that were
14
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
closely related or numerically small. For women, this intermediate list consisted of 76 titles. The use of the 76-title list is confined in general to Part I of this report. Both the detailed and
the intermediate lists may be grouped into 11 major occupational
groups. Further subdivisions of certain of the major occupational
groups bring the number of major groups discussed in some sections to 13.
CHANGES IN CENSUS DATES
No adjustments have been made in figures for individual occupations to allow for changes in the date at which the census
was taken. The chief occupations affected by changes in census
dates include those of farm laborers, whose numbers are at a
low point in midwinter, rising to a peak at crop-planting and
harvesting time; food processing occupations such as those of operatives and laborers in the canning and preserving industry and
of fruit and vegetable canners and graders; and the occupations
of saleswomen and other retail store workers, whose numbers are
greatly increased at the pre-Christmas and pre-Easter periods.
Many manufacturing industries reach a high level of employment
in the fall, but no censuses were taken during this part of the year.
Census months were as follows:
1940
..March
1900
__June
1930
April
1890
__-_.____.June
1920
January
1880
.June
1910
April
1870
.June
REFERENCES CITED
It has not been the purpose of this report to present a comprehensive or exhaustive treatment of individual occupations.
Further information about general trends in women's occupations
can be found in the selected list of references given at the end of
the report, though only the most significant publications have
been listed. In the text an effort has been made to cite for the
more important individual occupations of women outstanding
studies dealing with general trends or with special factors affecting women's employment. In addition to substantiating statements in the text, these citations serve to indicate the leading
literature on the subject.
I. WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS IN 1940
Census data for 1940 represent a point of reference against
which long-time trends in women's occupational activities may
be measured. Comprehensive statistics from the decennial census
are available for this date, the last peacetime year before the
United States entered World War II. The 1940 picture also serves
as background for consideration of changes that may be anticipated for the future. While there is little doubt that the occupational activities of women workers will be affected in the years
ahead by the wartime experiences and by the level of economic
operation at any specific period, it likewise is probably true that
basic underlying tendencies will continue to have effect.
EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF WOMEN IN 1940
Of the nearly 51 million women aged 14 years or over in
1940, over 11 million were at work during the week of March 24
to 30 or had jobs from which they were merely temporarily absent.
In addition, there were over a million women actively seeking
employment and almost half a million employed on public emergency work. These 13 million constituted all the women who were
in the 1940 labor force. They were over one-fourth of all women
aged 14 years or over.
Men in the population participated in the labor force to a
greater extent than did women. The number of men in the labor
force totaled almost 40 million, and they constituted four-fifths
of all men aged 14 years or over in 1940. For most of these men,
their labor force activity was their primary concern, and it would
probably continue to be so for most of their adult lives. This was
true also of numbers of the women workers. However, a larger
group among the women than among the men workers were employed less than full time, and somewhat greater proportions of
women worked for only part of the year, though not always
through choice.
Almost three times as many women were outside the labor
force (38 million) as were in it. Most of them were engaged in
doing housework in their own homes. If these are combined with
the numbers in the labor force, 82 percent of all women who were
14 years or over may be considered as contributing (or seeking to
contribute) to the well-being of the Nation through either paid
or unpaid work. The remainder were in school or were not working because of physical disability or other reasons. The distribution of the women in the population in the United States in 1940
is shown in the summary following.
15
16
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
Number of women in
the United States
Women 14 years and over
In the labor force
Employed
On public emergency work
Seeking work
Experienced workers New workers
Not in the labor force.—
Engaged in own home housework
In school
Unable to work
in institutions
Other and not reported
_____ 50,549,176
Percent
distribution
100.0
_
12,845,259
25.4
.
11,138,178
457,512
1,249,569
22.0
0.9
2.5
944,588
304,981
1.9
0.6
37,703,917
74.6
28,664,744
4,419,712
2,302,502
409,519
1,907,440
56.7
8.7
4.6
0.8
3.8
.
Millions of women, therefore, have as workers a great concern in the state of the economy, in the nature of work opportunities available, and in the wages, hours, and working conditions
in the enterprises of the country. However, society depends to
a greater extent upon men for the paid work done on farm and in
factory and upon women for the unpaid work carried on in the
home. The relative proportion of women among all persons of
each employment status reflects this difference of function.
Though the population of working age was about equally divided
between men and women in 1940, men constituted over threefourths of all persons in the labor force. On the other hand, the
persons engaged in home housework were, in practically all instances, women.
By custom and tradition women are responsible for the care
of the home. Even when women enter the labor force, many of
them must continue with their unpaid services in the home, thus
carrying a double burden. If they lose their jobs, or if they
consider their employment of minor importance, experience has
shown that they may be reported in the census in their alternative
type of activity (engaged in home housework), rather than as
being employed or as seeking work. This is at least part of the
reason for the relatively low proportion of women among those
designated in the census as experienced workers seeking work—
only one in five, compared to one in four among the employed.
The difference in the extent of women's participation in the various activities of the 1940 working-age population appears in the
following summary.
17
OCCUPATIONS IN 1940
Percent women
of total
50.0
Persons 14 years old and over.
24.3
In the labor force
24.7
Employed
On public emergency work.
Seeking work
18.1
24.5
21.8
Experienced workers
New workers
39.7
78.0
Not in the labor force-
99.1
49.0
43.7
34.8
48.6
Engaged in own home housework.
In school
—
Unable to work
In institutions
Other and not reported
GENERAL FIELDS OF WORK OF WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE1
The largest proportion of the 12,082,766 women who were
employed or seeking work during the week of March 24 to 30,
1940, were clerical, sales, or kindred workers (28.0 percent). (See
Table 1.) Among the occupations in which women in this group
were engaged were the routine office activities of typists,. file
clerks, office machine operators, telephone operators, etc., and the
work in stores of saleswomen and sales clerks. Another 18.5 percent were designated as operatives and kindred workers, a classification that includes manual occupations requiring not more than
a short period of training and requiring only moderate judgment,
dexterity, or force. Domestic service occupations accounted for
17.9 percent of all working women, and service occupations in
other than domestic and protective service, for 11.3 percent. For
women the latter field includes cleaning services in buildings
other than private homes, and personal services such as those
of waitresses, cooks, beauticians, practical nurses, etc. Women
in professional occupations were 11.7 percent of all working
women.
In brief then, of every 10 women employed or seeking work
in 1940, 3 were in clerical, sales, or kindred occupations, 2 were
operatives or kindred workers, 2 were in domestic service, 1 in
professional work, and 1 in service work other than domestic or
protective. Eight other groups of workers (semiprofessional
1
Occupational data from the 1940 census discussed on pp. 17 to 26 apply to the 12,082,766 women
who were employed or who were experienced workers seeking work. These data exclude workers
employed on public emergency work and new workers. Experienced workers seeking work were classified by last occupation of 1 month or more.
Because data for experienced women workers seeking
work by last occupation were not presented by the census in greater detail, the intermediate list of
76 occupations is the basis for the discussion on these pages.
(See Introduction, p. 13.)
18
W O M E N ' S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADitS
workers, farmers, the proprietor-manager group, the craftsmen
group, protective service workers, farm laborers, unpaid farm
family workers, and laborers other than farm) accounted for relatively few women.
Table 1.—Occupation Group of Women W h o Were Employed (Except on
Public Emergency Work) or Were Experienced Workers Seeking Work,
and Percent Distribution of Women and of Men, 1940
Occupation group
Total employed (except on emergency work) and
seeking work (experienced).
Women
Number
Men
Percent
Percent
12,082,766
100.0
100.0
Professional workers
Semiprofessional workers
Farmers and farm managers
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except f a r m . .
Clerical, sales, and kindred workers..
1,414,037
105,609
152,532
430,075
3,383,623
11.7
0.9
1.3
3.6
28.0
4.2
1.0
13.4
9.1
12.5
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Operatives and kindred workers.
Domestic service workers
....:. v..........
Protective service workers.
..
Service workers, except domestic and protective..
114,202
2,241,476
2,165,478
4,535
1,364,238
0.9
18.5
17.9
0)
11.3
14.8
18.4
0.4
1.9
4.5
Farm laborers (wage workers) and farm foremen.
Farm laborers (unpaid family workers)
Laborers, except farm.
Occupation not reported
114,882
225,853
116,013
250,213
0.9
1.9
1.0
2.1
5.6
2.6
10.2
1.4
Source: U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. 16th census of the United
States: 1940. Population. Vol. I l l , The labor force. Part I, United States summary, table 61.
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1943.
1 Less than 0.05 percent.
The five major groups in which almost 9 out of every 10
women were concentrated accounted for only about 4 men out
of every 10 who were employed on other than public emergency
work or were seeking work as experienced workers. The proportion of persons classified as operatives or kindred workers was
similar for men and for women, about 18 percent. The proportion of women in domestic service, however, was over 40 times
that for men, while the proportion of women in clerical, sales, or
kindred work, in service work other than domestic and protective
service, and in professional service was in each group over twice
as high as the proportion of men so employed.
On the other hand, much higher proportions of the men than
of the women were farmers or farm managers; craftsmen, foremen, or kindred workers; proprietors, managers, or officials; and
laborers, except farm.
Women were approximately one-fourth of all workers in
1940, but their proportions varied considerably from one occupation group to another. Domestic service work, for example, was
19
OCCUPATIONS IN 1940
preeminently a woman's field; more than 9 out of 10 domestic
workers were women. In contrast, five fields were almost exclusively men's province; in these considerably less than 1 worker
in 10 was a woman. The five fields included protective service
workers; craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers; farmers and
farm managers; laborers, except farm; and farm laborers (wage
workers) and farm foremen.
In the largest occupational field for men and women combined—operatives and kindred workers—the proportion of women
was about the same as the proportion of women among all workers, nearly 25 percent. Three of the Six remaining occupation
groups had higher proportions of women than this average :
women constituted somewhat under half of the professional workers, 4 out of 10 of those classified as clerical, sales, or kindred
workers, and between 4 and 5 out of 10 service workers, in other
than domestic and protective service. Among semiprofessional
workers and among unpaid family workers engaged in farm labor,
about 1 worker in 5 was a woman, less than the average proportion for all occupations combined. Only slightly more than 1
worker in 10 was a woman among nonfarm proprietors, managers,
and officials. The proportion in each occupation group was as
follows:
Total employed (except on emergency work)
and seeking work (experienced)
Domestic service workers
_
Professional workers
Clerical, sales, and kindred workers
Service workers, except domestic and protective
Operatives and kindred workers
i
Semiprofessional workers
Farm laborers (unpaid family workers)—.
._
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Farm laborers (wage workers) and farm foremen.
Laborers, except farm________
..
Farmers and farm managers...
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Protectiye service workers——
Occupation not reported,
total workers
.24.4
-
93.1
—47.4
___.42.0
44.8
-24.6
.21.4
19.1
11.2
5.2
„__ 3.0
. 2.9
2.0
0.6
„ 32.6
CLERICAL, SALES, AND KINDRED OCCUPATIONS
The present economic pattern requires large numbers of
people to carry on such office activities in plants and businesses
as preparing and caring for written communications and records,
compiling data, operating office machines or telephones, and
20
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
assisting in other ways. Others are needed to sell the many commodities and services available to the consumer.
Well over 3 million women were engaged in these and similar
activities in 1940. Almost one-third of them were stenographers,
typists, or secretaries. Another 23.6 percent were "clerks" in
stores, demonstrators, or saleswomen not elsewhere classified by
the census. One-fifth were women engaged in "other clerical and
kindred" work—as agents, mail carriers, messengers, shipping
and receiving clerks, library assistants, physicians' or surgeons'
attendants, collectors, or similar workers. Fourteen percent of
them were bookkeepers, accountants, or cashiers, and 5.8 percent
were telephone operators. These five occupational classifications
accounted for over 95 percent of the women who were grouped together as clerical, sales, and kindred workers. Over one-fourth
of the men were in other fields than these, mainly as real estate,
insurance, or other sales agents and brokers. The proportions of
women and of men were as follows:
Clerical, sales, and kindred
workers, employed (except
on emergency work) and
seeking work (experienced)
Women
Men
Number
Percent
Percent
3,383,623
100.0
100.0
Stenographers, typists, and secretaries- 1,055,663
"Clerks" in stores, demonstrators, and
salesmen and saleswomen (not else799,154
where classified
Other clerical and kindred workers
736,878
Bookkeepers, accountants, cashiers,
and ticket agents
472,797
Telephone operators
195,648
Office machine operators
54,829
Telegraph operators
8,448
All other sales workers
60,206
31.2
1.6
23.6
21.8
24.1
38.1
14.0
5.8
1.6
0.2
1.8
10.2
0.2
0.2
0.7
24.8
Over 9 out of every 10 persons working as telephone operators or as stenographers, typists, or secretaries were women.
Women were also predominant among office machine operators,
constituting well over 8 in every 10 such workers. Among the
residual group of salespersons, designated in the census as "all
other sales workers," women were only a small proportion of the
workers. Taken together, canvassers, peddlers, and news vendors,
as well as insurance, real estate, and other sales agent and brokers
were men in 95 cases out of 100. As the summary following
shows, women formed a higher proportion of the total in each of
six specified clerical and sales occupations than the over-all average of 24,4 percent in all occupations combined.
OCCUPATIONS IN 1940
21
Percent women of
Clerical, sales, and kindred workers, employed (except
Telephone operators
_
Stenographers, typists, and s e c r e t a r i e s — .
Office machine operators.
_
- — - —
Other clerical and kindred workers
Telegraph operators
All other sales workers
-
-
-
94.6
93.4
86.1
29.2
20.3
4.9
OPERATIVES AND KINDRED WORKERS
In general, operatives are defined as workers engaged in
manual work usually requiring only a short period or no period
of preliminary training and only a moderate degree of judgment,
manual dexterity, or muscular force. The present machine civilization depends to a great extent on this type of worker.
About 2*4 million women were in this group, well over threefourths of whom worked in factories. Among women, in fact,
only two groups of nonmanufacturing operatives were of any significance in 1940. Women employed or seeking work as dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory) numbered 145,773, and
women laundry operatives and laundresses, excluding those working for private families, numbered 178,329. Women manufacturing operatives totaled 1,750,990, leaving only 166,384 in all
other fields.
The majority of the women factory operatives were concentrated in two industries in 1940. The manufacture of apparel and
other fabricated textile products accounted for 28.5 percent of all
women operatives in manufacturing, and textile manufacture provided work for 26.0 percent more. Men working as operatives in
apparel and other fabricated textile product plants were only 6.0
percent of all male factory operatives. The proportion of men in
textile manufacture, 17.5 percent, was likewise lower than the
corresponding proportion of women.
In none of the other 11 industry classifications in manufacturing were the women operatives as much as 10 percent of all
women operatives in manufacturing, though the manufacture of
iron, steel, nonferrous metal products, and machinery accounted
for 9 percent. From nearly 5 to over 7 percent of the women operatives were in the production of food and kindred products; of
footwear, except rubber; and of paper, paper products, and printing.
22
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
The iron, steel, nonferrous metal products, and machinery industry classification, third in importance for women in manufacturing, was the most important classification for men. The
proportion of all women factory operatives in these industries
was 9.1 percent, compared to 22.1 percent of the men. The second
largest proportion of operatives, both of men and women, were
in the manufacture of textile-mill products. The figures for various industry classifications in 1940 were as follows:
Manufacturing operatives and
kindred workers, employed (exwomen
cept on emergency work) and
Number
Percent
1,750,990
100.0
seeking work (experienced)
Apparel and other fabricated
textile products
Textile-mill products1
Iron, steel, nonferrous metal products,
and machinery
Food and kindred products
Footwear industries, except rubber
Paper, paper products, and printing
Tobacco manufactures
Chemicals, and petroleum and
coal products
Transportation equipment
Leather and leather products,
except footwear
Stone, clay, and glass products
Lumber, furniture, and lumber products
Rubber products
Other manufacturing industries
Percent
100.0
499,108
455,487
28.5
26.0
6.0
17.5
158,532
130,216
97,217
82,969
57,429
9.1
7.4
5.6
4.7
3.3
22.1
8.7
4.7
5.8
1.0
34,793
29,947
2.0
1.7
4.9
9.9
28,030
26,471
25,836
23,910
101,045
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.4
5.8
2.1
3.8
6.5
2.4
4.7
1 Includes cotton, silk and rayon, and woolen and worsted manufactures, knit goods, and other
textile-mill products.
Women generally formed a high proportion of the operatives
in consumer-goods industries. Over three-fourths of the operatives in the manufacture of apparel and other fabricated textile
products were women in 1940, and about 70 percent of the workers in tobacco manufacture were women. Just over half of the
operatives in all types of textile production were women, as were
about 45 percent of those in the footwear industries. The proportion of women was well below one-fourth of the operatives in the
basic manufacturing industries, such as iron, steel, nonferrous
metal products, and machinery; stone, clay, and glass; chemicals
and petroleum and coal; lumber, furniture, and lumber products;
and transportation equipment. Detailed data are as follows:
23
OCCUPATIONS IN 1940
Manufacturing operatives and kindred workers,
employed (except on emergency work) and
seeking work (experienced)
Apparel and other fabricated textile products
Tobacco manufactures
Textile-mill products1
-—
Footwear industries, except rubber
Food and kindred products
Paper, paper products, and printing
—_
Leather and leather products, except footwear
Rubber products
Iron, steel, nonferrous metal products, and machinery
Chemicals, and petroleum and coal products.
Stone, clay, and glass products
Lumber, furniture, and lumber products
Transportation equipment
Other manufacturing industries
Percent women of
total workers
40.9
76.7
-70.3
50.7
44.9
37.0
—36.3
__34.9
—28.5
—_22.1
___22.0
21.6
13.5
10.7
_46.2
1 Includes cotton, silk and rayon, and woolen and worsted manufactures, knit goods, and other
textile-mill products.
DOMESTIC SERVICE WORKERS
Domestic service workers are engaged in personal service in
private homes. They may be housekeepers, laundresses, cooks,
chambermaids, children's nurses, day workers, general houseworkers, and so forth, in private families. In 1940, 93.1 percent of
these workers were women, who numbered over 2 million.
SERVICE WORKERS, EXCEPT DOMESTIC AND PROTECTIVE
In the total group of service workers were about 1 1 / 3 million
women who were not employed in private homes or engaged in
protecting life or property. These women, as waitresses, cooks,
or practical nurses, for example, perform services for other persons, or they carry on cleaning and janitor services in stores, offices, factories, hotels, and other buildings. Among the women
in this occupation group 29.6 percent were waitresses, most important numerically in this field for women and second most important for men. Beauticians and manicurists were 15.9 percent
of all women service workers (except domestic and protective).
The census-designated occupation of "servant, except private family," which includes maids, helpers, and similar workers in hotels,
restaurants, and institutions, accounted for 13.8 percent of all
women in the group.
Janitors and porters were most numerous among the men,
comprising 32.0 percent of all men in service work, other than
domestic and protective. In contrast only 5.8 percent of the
women were charwomen, janitors, or porters. Other differences
24
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
and similarities between men and women can be seen from the
following:
Service workers, except domestic
and protective, employed (except on emergency work) and
seeking work (experienced)
Waiters, waitresses, and bartenders.
Barbers, beauticians, and manicurists _
Servants, except private family
Cooks, except private family
Practical nurses and midwives
Boarding house and lodginghouse
keepers
Charwomen, janitors, and porters
Housekeepers, stewards, hostesses,
except private family
Elevator operators
Other service workers, except domestic
and protective
Women
Number
Men
Percent
Percent
1,364,238
100.0
100.0
404,141
217,557
188,108
124,532
103,661
29.6
15.9
13.8
9.1
7.6
19.1
13.0
9.6
11.4
0.3
100,895
79,167
7.4
5.8
0.6
32.0
65,249
13,615
4.8
1.0
1.1
4.2
67,313
4.9
8.7
Whereas more than 9 out of 10 domestic service workers were
women and all but a negligible proportion of protective service
workers were men, both men and women had a substantial share
in other service work. Of the group as a whole 44.8 percent were
women, and 55.2 percent were men. Just half of those grouped
as barbers, beauticians, and manicurists were women, and half
were men. Proportions of women in nine specific occupation
groups ranged from 12.9 percent in that of charwomen, janitors,
and porters to 95.7 percent in that of practical nurses and midwives. Only in two of these nine did women constitute less than
a fourth of the workers.
Percent women of
total workers
Service workers, except domestic and protective, employed (except on emergency work) and seeking work
(experienced)
44.8
Practical nurses and midwives
Boarding house and lodginghouse keepers
Housekeepers, stewards, hostesses, except private family
Waiters, waitresses, and bartenders
Servants, except private family,Barbers, beauticians, and manicurists
Cooks, except private family- .———.Elevator operators —__
-—
Charwomen, janitors, and porters
Other service workers, except domestic and protective
——95.7
—_90.3
77.6
-55.7
53.8
50.0
39.5
16.2
12.9
-31.5
25
OCCUPATIONS IN 1940
PROFESSIONAL AND SEMIPROFESSIONAL WORKERS
A professional worker, according to the census definition, is
one who "performs advisory, administrative, or research work
which is based upon the established principles of a profession or
science, and which requires professional, scientific, or technical
training equivalent to that represented by graduation from a college or university of recognized standing." Semiprofessional
workers work in a restricted field of science or art and become
qualified for this work on the basis of training, or experience, or
both.
About 11/2 million women were in professional or semiprofessional fields, but for most of these women opportunities are
limited to two lines. Over three-fourths were teachers or nurses
in 1940; teaching accounted for 52.1 percent and nursing for 23.8
percent of all women in professional and semiprofessional work.
In no other occupation were as many as 10 percent of the professional and semiprofessional women engaged.
Professional and semiprofessional
workers, employed (except on
Women
emergency work) and seeking Number
Percent
work (experienced)
1 ,519,646
100.0
Teachers (not elsewhere classified)
(including county agents)
Trained nurses and student nurses
Semiprofessional workers
_
_
Musicians and music teachers
Social and welfare workers
College presidents, professors, and
instructors
___
Artists and art teachers
Authors, editors, and reporters
Librarians
All other professional workers
792,375
361,215
105,609
63,723
46,559
20,097
19,738
19,671
33,302
57,357
52.1
23.8
6.9
4.2
3.1
1.3
1.3
1.3
2.2
3.8 J
Men
Percent
100.0
13.3
0.4
19.8
4.3
1.3
2.8
2.0
2.8
53.2
Certain types of work appear to be "women's occupations,"
and other types are dominated by men. The women in seven
occupations (librarians omitted), each having more than 1 percent
of all the women in professional and related work, constituted 87.1
percent of all such women. In contrast, only 26.9 percent of the
men were in these fields. Only 6.9 percent of the women but 19.8
percent of the men were in semiprofessional work, and only 6.0
percent of the women but 53.2 percent of the men were among
"all other professional workers" (librarians included). The traditional learned professions of law, medicine, and theology accounted for almost 24 percent of the men grouped as professional
747639°—48 — 3
26
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADitS
and semiprofessional workers, but the proportion of women in
these fields was relatively so insignificant. (all of them together
less than 1 percent) that these are not shown separately on the
preceding summary.
As noted previously, about 25 percent of all workers in all
occupation groups in 1940 were women. Among professional and
semiprofessional workers this proportion was exceeded in each of
seven specific occupations having more than 1 percent of all
the women in this group. In nursing, women dominated the field
almost to the exclusion of men, and women also formed considerable proportions of the teaching and the social welfare groups.
Details are as follows:
Professional and semiprofessional workers, employed
Percent women of
(except on emergency work) and seeking work
(experienced)
Trained nurses and student nurses
Teachers (not elsewhere classified) (including county agents)
Social and welfare workers
Musicians and music teachersArtists and art teachers
College presidents, professors, and instructors
Authors, editors, and reporters
Semiprofessional workers
All other professional workers
total workers
43.7
97.8
75.3
64.2
42.8
33.7
.26.6
26.2
21.4
8.0
PRINCIPAL INDIVIDUAL OCCUPATIONS OF EMPLOYED W O M E N IN I9402
Among 442 detailed occupations in each of which women were
employed, by far the largest group was that of private family
servants, who numbered 1,420,469. (See Table 2.) Stenographers,
typists, and secretaries, with 988,081 women, were second in numerical importance, and in no other occupation did the number of
employed women approach a million. In each of the 3 occupations
next in numerical importance between 500,000 and 800,000 women
were employed. These women were teachers,3 clerical and kindred
workers,3 and saleswomen.3 These 5 occupations accounted for
38.8 percent, or nearly two-fifths, of the employed women.
Nearly three-fifths (56.2 percent) of all employed women
were in the 10 occupations of greatest numerical importance—
those with over 300,000 women each. In addition to the 5 just men2
The analysis in this section is based on the complete detailed occupational list of 451 titles,
designated in the census as "detailed" occupations. The 1940 census presents detailed occupation data
for 11,138,178 employed women.
Because of greater refinement in classification, some of the occupa-
tional titles in the detailed list differ from those based on the intermediate list of 76 titles used in
previous sections.
3
Not elsewhere classified in census.
27
OCCUPATIONS IN 1940
tioned, these included bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers; operatives in apparel and accessories manufacturing; housekeepers,
private family; waitresses, except private family; and trained
nurses and student nurses.
Table 2.—Detailed Occupations With 50,000 or More Employed Women 14
Years Old and Over, Numbers Employed in Each, and Percent
Women of Total Employees, 1940
W o m e n employed
Occupation
Rank
Percent of total
employed persons
Number
Servants, private family
Stenographers, typists, and secretaries
Teachers (not elsewhere classified)
Clerical and kindred workers (not elsewhere
classified)
Salesmen and saleswomen (not elsewhere
classified)
Bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers
Operatives, apparel and accessories
Housekeepers, private family
Waiters and waitresses, except private f a m i l y . . .
Trained nurses and student nurses
Farm laborers (unpaid family workers)
Barbers, beauticians, and manicurists
" C l e r k s " in stores
Telephone operators
Launderers and laundresses, private family
Servants, except private family
Laundry operatives and laundresses, except
private family
Operatives, cotton manufactures
Farmers (owners and tenants)
Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory). .
Cooks, except private family
Operatives, knit goods
Boarding house and lodginghouse keepers
Farm laborers (wage workers)
Operatives, footwear industries, except r u b b e r . . .
Practical nurses and midwives
Proprietors, managers, and officials, food stores,
except dairy products
Proprietors, managers, and officials, eating and
drinking places
Operatives, electrical machinery and equipment.
Housekeepers, stewards, hostesses, except
private family
Musicians and music teachers
Operatives, miscellaneous manufacturing
industries
Operatives, tobacco manufactures
Operatives, woolen and worsted m a n u f a c t u r e s . . .
Office machine operators
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Source:
States:
1940.
U. S. Department of
Population.
Vol.
Commerce.
Ill,
The
1,420,469
988,081
772,044
91.3
93.5
75.7
630,471
35.7
515,539
446,205
425,534
362,431
356,036
348,277
223,279
206,592
201,281
189,002
186,183
174,724
40.8
52.1
77.5
99.2
67.6
97.9
19.2
49.7
42.5
94.6
98.2
55.3
167,967
167,155
151,087
133,627
116,310
115,106
100,355
96,491
91,251
87,198
77.7
47.0
3.0
98.3
42.0
66.9
90.5
5.1
46.1
95.7
Bureau of the Census.
labor force.
Part I,
65,860
13.9
65,064
63,600
24.5
46.1
62,351
59,456
78.8
46.0
52,988
51,658
51,538
51,454
48.2
71.9
49.7
86.1
16th
census
of
the
United States summary,
United
table 58.
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1943.
Twenty-three occupations, comprising all those with over
100,000 women each, together accounted for 75 percent of all employed women. Thirty-five occupations, comprising all those
with over 50,000 women each, together accounted for 83 percent of
all employed women. Thus the rest of the employed women, 17
28
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
percent of all, were dispersed among the remaining 407 of the 442
occupations in which women were employed.
The concentration of women in a limited number of fields
was thus considerable. It was more marked than among men.
While the leading 10 occupations of women employed 56 percent
of the women, the leading 10 men's occupations employed less than
40 percent of the men. Seventy-five percent of the women were
employed in the 23 leading women's occupations, but only half the
employed men were concentrated in the 23 leading men's occupations.
Rank of occupation
for each sex
1
1
1
1
to 5
to 10
to 23
to 35
Proportion of all
employed women
Proportion of all
employed men
38.8
56.2
75.4
82.6
29.2
38.1
51.1
58.2
Not only was the degree of concentration less marked among
men than among women, but the primary occupations of men were
for the most part different from women's, though certain fields
were important for both. Seven out of every ten men employed
in 1940 were in occupations each of which had less than 1 percent
of all employed women. Nearly three-fourths of the women employed in 1940 were engaged in occupations that were especially
significant for women, in that each of these occupations had more
than 1 percent of all employed women (111,138 women). A comparison of the 10 leading occupations for men with those for
women reveals that only 2—clerical workers (not elsewhere classified) and salesmen and saleswomen (not elsewhere classified) —
are on both lists. Most of the other foremost occupations of employed men appear well down the list for women.
The 10 leading individual occupations of employed men in
1940 were as follows:
Men
employed
Farmers (owners and tenants)
Farm laborers (wage workers)
Clerical and kindred workers (not
elsewhere classified)
Chauffeurs and drivers, bus, taxi,
truck, and tractor
Farm laborers (unpaid family workers)
Salesmen (not elsewhere classified)
Mine operatives and Laborers
Traveling salesmen and sales agents
Carpenters
Machinists _
_
Percent men
of total persons employed
4,955,624
1,803,924
97.0
94.9
1,134,933
64.3
__ 1,115,157
941,841
747,881
649,226
579,423
556,918
472,769
99.5
80.8
59.2
99.7
97.8
99.8
99.0
29
OCCUPATIONS IN 1940
It may be noted also that in 8 of the 10 leading occupations
for women a preponderance of the employees were women and
that 8 of the leading occupations for men had a considerable majority of men workers. The exceptions are the 2 occupations just
referred to that are among the leading fields for both men and
women.
The degree to which employed women are concentrated in a
limited number of occupations should not completely overshadow
the fact that many women are engaged in a wide variety of other
fields of work. Though over four-fifths of employed women were
in the leading 35 occupations for women, women in the remaining
occupations numbered nearly 2 million in 1940. Many of these
women were doing interesting types of work. Among them were
social and welfare workers, editors and reporters, librarians,
laboratory technicians and assistants, store buyers and department heads, building managers and superintendents, attendants
in physicians' and dentists' offices, insurance agents and brokers,
real estate agents and brokers, elevator operators, attendants in
hospitals and other institutions—to name some of those with over
10,000 women each. This indicates clearly that training opportunities for girls and young women should not be confined to the
occupations of teacher, stenographer, nurse, beautician, and others
of the leading fields, but should be much broader.
PRINCIPAL INDIVIDUAL OCCUPATIONS WITH WOMEN IN DEMAND4
In 11 individual occupations more than 90 percent of all persons employed were women. These included the two largest
groups of women—servants in private families; and stenographers, typists, and secretaries. All except one of these occupations—attendants in physicians' and dentists' offices—-employed
more than 50,000 women. In 27 other occupations women were
more than half of the persons employed.
On the basis of the actual 1940 distribution it thus appears
that in only 38 occupations was women's labor more in demand
than men's. These occupations, furthermore, fall within a relatively limited range. All 3 domestic service occupations were included among them, while 7 were in other personal service fields;
15 were in operatives' work in nondurable goods industries ; 7 in
clerical, sales, and kindred occupations; and 6 in professional and
semiprofessional work. None of these 38 occupations was among
those classified as craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers; protective service workers; proprietors, managers, and officials;
4
These occupations are based on the complete detailed list of 451 titles.
See footnote 2, p. 26.
30
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
farmers and farm managers; or farm laborers. The occupations
in which women predominated Were as follows :
Percent
•women
Housekeepers, private family
99.2
Dressmakers and seamstresses
(not in factory)
98.3
Laundresses, private family-98.2
Trained nurses and student
nurses
_—.,
—__
97.9
Practical nurses and midwives „95.7
Attendants, physicians' and
95.3
dentists' offices
-94.6
Telephone operators
.94.2
Milliners (not in factory) —
Stenographers, typists, and
secretaries
_
.93.5
_91.3
Servants, private family
Boarding house and lodgingJ) 0.5
house keepers
-89.5
Librarians
—...
^
86.1
Office machine operatorsDemonstrators
_
82.6
Dancers, dancing teachers, and
chorus girls
80.6
Housekeepers, stewards, hostesses, except private family
78.8
Attendants and assistants, library 78.2
Laundry operatives and laundresses, except private family 77.7
Operatives, apparel and
accessories
77.5
Teachers (not elsewhere
classified)
.
75.7
Percent
women
Operatives, miscellaneous
fabricated textile products..
-75.7
Religious workers
74.6
Operatives, tobacco manufactures 71.9
Waiters and waitresses, except
private family __._
_ .67.6
Operatives, knit goods
66.9
Operatives, confectionery
_;66.6
Social and welfare workers
64.3
Operatives, canning and preserving fruits, vegetables, and sea
food
___________„____ __
63.7
Fruit and vegetable packers and
graders, except cannery
57.8
Operatives, miscellaneous paper
and pulp products-i_—__ _______________ 56.8
Attendants, professional and personal services (not elsewhere
classified)
56.6
Operatives, silk and rayon
manufactures
__55.4
Servants, except private family - 5 5 . 3
Charwomen and cleaners
+,54.4
Bookkeepers, accountants, and
cashiers
_
52.1
Operatives, not specified textile
mills
52.0
Operatives, paper board containers and boxes
-.51.3*
Operatives, bakery products—
-51.2
In 60 other occupations women were above the average of 24.7
percent of all employed persons but less than half of the total.
These were for the most part in the same general occupation fields
as those in which women were in the majority, though there were
also a few occupations in the groups classified as proprietors,
managers, and officials; craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers; and laborers.
There were in all relatively few occupations in which Women
appear to be preferred or even in more than average demand. In
fact, in nearly 4 out of every 5 (353) of the 451 individual occupations listed by the census, men outnumbered women by more than
3 to 1, and in over half of the occupations by more than 9 to 1.
Nearly 100 types of work were almost or entirely restricted
to men. In addition to the 89 occupations in which more than 99
OCCUPATIONS IN 1940
31
out of every 100 employed persons were men, there were 9 occupations in which no women at all were employed. These latter included railroad conductors, baggagemen, locomotive engineers,
locomotive firemen, railroad and car shop mechanics and repairmen, railroad brakemen, railroad switchmen, firemen in fire departments, and soldiers, sailors, marines, and coast guards. During
the war the barriers in all but 3 of these 9 were broken down.
Various reports indicated that by 1943 at least some women were
employed in these unusual types of work, except in the work of locomotive engineers, locomotive firemen, and firemen in fire departments.
CHART II.—PROPORTION OF ALL WORKERS WHO WERE WOMEN, 1870-1940
0
5
PERCENT
10
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
(070
Source: Table 3.
32
15
20
25
II. GENERAL TRENDS IN NUMBERS AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF WOMEN WORKERS
PROGRESS OF W O M E N IN THE LABOR FORCE
The preceding section has portrayed the nature of the activities in 1940 of the 18 million women workers—a number of about
the same size as the entire work force of the country 70 years
earlier, when there were 12,924,951 men and women gainfully
occupied.1
Many factors have contributed to the great increase in the
number of women in paid work. One of the most obvious is the
growth in the female population, which tripled from 1870 to
1940. The increase among women workers greatly outstripped
this, however, their number multiplying nearly seven-fold. In
almost every decade the rate of growth among women workers
exceeded that in the female population.
Percent increase in—
Women in the labor
Total female
force or gainfully
population
occupied1
of all ages
1870
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920
1930
1
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
18801890
1900__
1910
1920
1930
1940
„
.. .
_
. .
_
__
38.1
51.3
32.8
40.0
16.0
24.5
25.2
25.1
24.0
21,7
20.1
16.1
17.0
8.2
Decennial changes 1870-1930, 10 years old and over; 1930-1940, 14 years old and over.
At the close of the Civil War less than 10 percent of the total
female population was gainfully occupied; by 1940 the proportion
in the labor force was about one-fifth. (See Table 3.) At the
1870 rate, women workers would have numbered in 1940 only
about 6,400,000, or less than half the actual number reported. Because the increasing tendency for women to work occurred along
with less marked increases or with declines in the proportion
among men who work, women have constituted an increasing proportion of all workers. From 14.8 percent in 1870, they advanced
to nearly a fourth (24.4 percent) of the total labor force by 1940.
The rapid increase in the female population explains only
partially the greater numbers of women at work. In addition, a
small part of the increase is due to the aging of the female population. In 1870 the median age for the entire female population was
x T h e "adjusted" labor force
actually reported. This includes
not reported and for emergency
fully comparable with 1940 would
discussion of differences between
for women in 1940 was 13,015,000—170,000 larger than the number
the net adjustments for persons for whom employment status was
workers. Adjustments of gainful worker statistics to make them
probably reduce the 1870 figure given here. See pp. 12 and 13 for
the labor force and gainful workers.
33
34
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
20.1 years; by 1940 it had risen to 29.0 years. Various circumstances, such as the after-effects of immigration and the changing birth and death rates, have resulted in a population composed
to a greater extent than ever before of women within the age
range from which most of the workers are drawn. In 1940, 58.8
percent of the total female population was aged 20 to 84 years,
but in 1870 only 47.2 percent was in this age range. If the 1940
female population had been of the same age group composition
as in 1870, but with the same proportions of each age group at
work as in 1940, the number of women in the 1940 labor force
would have been about 1 1/3 million less than it actually was.
The proportion of the total female population who were workers
would have been 17.5 percent instead of the actual 19.6 percent.
To a major extent, however, the growth in the number of
women in the labor force stems from increasing participation in
gainful work of various age, racial, and marital groups rather
than from shifts in the composition of the population. At the
Table 3 . - Trends in the Labor Force, 1870-1940
Women
Total
persons
Year
Number
Percent of all
persons iri the
labor force or
gainfully
occupied
Percent of all
women of
ages
specified
Percent of the
total female
population of
all ages
Persons in the labor force 14 years,old and over
19401.
19301
53,299,000
47,404,000
13,015,000
10,396,000
1930..
1920
1910.
1900
48,594,592
41,236,185
37,271,360
28,282,610
10,679,048
8,429,707
7,788,826
5,114,461
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870...
48,829,920
42,433,535
37,370,794
29,073,233
23,318,183
17,392,099
12,924,951
10,752.116
8,636,512
7,444,787
5,319,397
4,005,532
2,647,157
1,917,446
24.4
21.9
25.7
23.6
19.8
17.1
24.3
23.3
25.2
20.4
17.6
16.3
17.4
13,8
22.0
21.4
21.5
18.8
17.4
14.7
13.3
17.7
16.7
16.7
14.3
13.1
10.7
9.7
Gainful workers 14 years old and over
22.0
20.4
20.9
18.1
Gainful workers 10 years old and over2
22.0
20.4
19.9
18.3
17.2
15.2
14.8
16th census of the United States:
Source: U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census.
1940.
Population.
Vol. I l l , The labor force.
Part I, United States summary, table 7; and Com-
parative occupation statistics for the United States, 1870 to 1940.
By Alba M. Edwards,
pp. 12, 91.
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1943.
1
Labor force for 1940 adjusted and labor force for 1930 estimated so as to be comparable.
Comparative
occupation statistics for the United States, 1870 to 1940, p. 12.
The unadjusted labor
force for 1940 was 52,789,499, of whom 12,§45,259 or 24.3 percent were women.
The women in the
labor force constituted 25.4 percent of all women 14 years old and over and 19.6 percent of the
total female population.
2
Data used are adjusted figures from Comparative
1870 to 1940, p. 91.
occupation
statistics for the United States,
NUMBERS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN WORKERS
35
CHART HI.—NUMBER OF WOMEN WORKERS AND OF ALL WORKERS, 1870-1940
MILLIONS
MILLIONS
60
60
50
50
40
40
TOTAL
30
30
20
20
WOM ENx
>
10
-—.
10
1
0
1870
i
I860
1890
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
Source: Table 3.
root of these trends are significant changes in social customs and
modes of living.2 As various types of productive activity—textile
manufacture, the making of clothing, food processing, and so
forth—were transferred from home to factory, women followed
them. Many of these commodities are made better and more
quickly in the factory, but the transfer means that families increasingly require money income to obtain goods and services
formerly provided by unpaid labor in the home. The trends toward urbanization of population,3 smaller families,4 increased
apartment-house living, higher education of women, as well as the
rise in the commercial world of occupations for which women have
special talent, have contributed to and are reflected in the growth
in numbers of women workers.
2 Other studies point out that most of the changes in the composition of the population have
operated to decrease the worker rate (such as increased proportions of whites and married women—
groups which have low worker rates), and that social-economic forces are the primary cause of
changing proportions in the labor force. A study of changes from 1890 to 1930 shows that, if women
15 years of age and over only are considered, even the shifting age distribution has tended toward
lower proportions of women at work, since, women's worker rates begin to fall after the 20-24 year
age group. See Wolfbein, S. L; and Jaffe, A. J. Demographic factors in labor force growth,
American sociological review II, No. 4, August 1946. For a comprehensive study of the factors in
the expansion of the labor force, in which an improved technique, multiple standardization, is
utilized, see Durand, John D. The labor force in the United States, 1890-1960, New York, Social
Science Research Council, 1948. 302 pp.
3
See discussion On p. 38.
* In an article on "Married Women in the Labor Force," in the American journal of sociology
for November 1946, Dr. John D. Durand concludes that "declining fertility has probably had a
substantial effect on the percentage of married women in the labor force, but the increase in that
percentage has been the result mainly of other factors."
36
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
TRENDS A M O N G A G E GROUPS
Data since 1900 show that the upward trend in the proportion
of women at work took place in spite of declining proportions of
certain age groups in the labor force. Young girls and women
over 65 were less frequently in the labor force in 1940 than in
1900, apparently reflecting the tendency toward longer schooling
and the advent of retirement schemes. The upward trend for
women was in contrast to the situation for men, who showed a decline in the proportion in the labor force from 1900 to 1940 as well
as among the youngest and oldest workers.
There are in general three broad groups of the population
who are outside the labor force—young people still in school, retired and disabled persons, and women engaged in their own
home housework. The divergent work experiences of men and
women become apparent early in the ages after 14 years. For the
bulk of workers entry into the labor market normally occurs between 14 and 24 years of age. It is during the same age period
that attendance at school usually ceases. For both boys and girls
the proportion who are neither in school nor in the labor market
is small at 14 years. For boys the proportion neither at school
nor at work in 1940 showed a small but steady rise to 29 percent
at 19 years, and then the proportion declined, as most of them entered paid work. For girls, on the other hand, the proportion rose
fairly rapidly to 50 percent at age 19 and then continued a steady
rise to over 60 percent at 24 years. In the ages from 25 to 64
all men, by and large, are in the labor force; the numbers of women withdrawing from the labor force to take up home housework
more than counterbalance those entering the labor force in the
early twenties, and the general tendency is for women increasingly to be concerned with other activities as they advance in years.
The proportion of women 20 to 24 years who were in the labor
force in 194Q exceeded that among women 25 to 44, which in turn
was larger than that among women 45 to 64 years.
Though the whole working-life pattern of men and women in
paid occupations differs markedly, differences have been narrowing since 1900. It is more common for women aged 20-24 to be
in the labor force than for those in any other age gfoup. In 1900
the proportion of all women 20-24 who worked was 32.1 percent,
and in 1940 it was 45.6 percent. The corresponding proportion
for men in the same age group was 91.7 percent in 1900, nearly
three times as large as that for women, and 88.5 percent in 1940,
somewhat less than twice as large as that for women. For men,
on the other hand, a larger proportion of those aged 25-44 than
NUMBERS A N D CHARACTERISTICS OF W O M E N WORKERS
37
of those in any other age group were in the labor force. The proportion among all men 25-44 who worked, approximately 96 percent in 1900 and in 1940, was over five times as large as that for
women (18.1 percent) in 1900, but this proportion was only about
three times as large as that for women (30.6 percent) in 1940.
Percent in the
labor force in—
Women, 14 years and over
14 to 19 years
20 to 24 years,
25 to 44 years
45 to 64 years
65 years and over
Men, 14 years and over
14 to 19 y e a r s - 20 to 24 years
25 to 44 years
——„
45 to 64 years
65 years and over
__
1
-
1940
11930
25.7
19.0
45.6
- 30.6
20.1
— 6.0
23.6
22.8
41.8
24.6
18.0
7.3
24.3
22.8
42.4
25.4
18.7
8.1
20.4
26.8
32.1
18.1
14.1
9.1
82.1
40.1
88.8
95.8
91.0
53.9
84.1
41.1
89.9
97.4
94.0
58.3
87.7
63.6
91.7
96.3
93.3
68.3
-
-
Percent gainful
workers in—
79.7
35.4
88.5
95.6
89.4
„__42.2
1930
1900
Estimated.
Important shifts in the age distribution of women workers
have resulted from both the changing age composition of the population and the increases in the proportions at work in certain age
groups. Women workers certainly cannot be said to have constituted in 1940 a group of temporary workers who did not continue
at work beyond the younger age* group. Increasingly women were
continuing to work beyond the younger age group and at those
ages which would enable them to make a contribution in the world
of work on the basis of experience and maturity.
Many of the rising occupational opportunities from 1910 to
1940 were in fields for which employers preferred the younger
woman, as in some of the less exacting clerical jobs. The growing
need, however, for employment opportunities for the increasing
proportions of women workers from 25 to 44 years of age and
from 45 to 64 years of age is sharply delineated in the following
figures.
Percent distribution
of women in the
labor force in—
14 years and over
14 to 19 years
20 to 24 years
25 to 44 years
45 to 64 years-65 years and over
1
Estimated.
.
.....
Percent distribution
of women gainful
workers in—
" 1940
n 930
1930
1900
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
10.7
20.7
46.9
-_„ 19.6
2.1
l u
22.3
42.4
17.7
2.3
14.9
22.0
42.6
18.0
2.5
"241
23.3
36.2
13.7
2.7
38
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADitS
WHITE AND NEGRO W O M E N WORKERS
The Increases in recent decades in the proportion of women
at work occurred despite a drop in the proportion among
Negro women who were workers. In 1920 over 42 percent of
the Negro women 14 years old and over were gainful workers.
By 1940 the proportion had dropped to 38 percent. Among white
women, in contrast, the proportion rose from 1920 to 1940.
Percent of women 14 years old
and over in the labor force1'
1940
a
1930 __________
1920
1
_,
_r
____
Figures for 1920 and 1930 are for gainful workers.
White
Negro
24.1
22.3
21.2
37.8
42.5
42.4
At the 1910 census, 21.4 percent of white
women 14 years old and over were gainful workers, and 57.7 percent of Negro women.
Because
of differences in definition and enumerative procedures the figures for that date may tend to distort trends and consequently have been omitted from the table.
RESIDENCE OF W O M E N WORKERS
Seventy years ago only 25.7 percent of the total population
were In urban areas, whereas in 1940, 56.5 percent of all persons
and 58.0 percent of females were so classified. Women living in
urban areas are much more likely to be in the labor force than are
those living in nonurban areas. For one thing, urban living requires money income to a far greater extent than is demanded on
the farm. Of the women 14 years and over in 1940 nearly one-third
of those in urban areas were in the labor force, compared to significantly lower proportions in rural nonfarm areas or in farm
areas.
Percent of population 14 years old
and over in the labor force1
,
1940:
Urban
Rural-nonfarm
Rural-farm
1930:
Urban
Rural-nonfarm
Rural-farm
1
__
Women
Men
31.2
20.7
12.1
79.6
74.9
81.3
29.7
19.0
13.5
84.7
80.0
85.8
Figures for 1930 are for gainful workers.
The lack of opportunity for young women in rural areas to
find employment has been remarked on by observers in the past.5
Long term differences between urban and rural areas are not
available. The accompanying data give evidence that from 1930 to
5
See, for example, Hatcher, O. Latham.
Rural girls in the
city for work.
Richmond,
Va.,
Garrett & Massie, Inc., 1930, pp. 41-44; also [U. S.] Works Progress Administration, Division of Social
Research.
Research Monograph X V .
Melvin and Elna N. Smith.
Rural youth:
Their situation
Sorokin, Pitirim A., Zimmerman, Carle C. and Galpin, Charles J.
sociology.
and prospects.
A systematic source book in rural
Minneapolis, Minn., The University of Minnesota Press, 1932.
By Bruce L.
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1938, pp. 28-29; and
Vol. III. p. 484.
NUMBERS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF W O M E N WORKERS
39
1940, at any rate, the extent of women's labor force activity in
farm districts remained limited.
CHANG.ES A M O N G MARRIED AND SINGLE W O M E N WORKERS
Even in 1900 it was fairly customary for the single woman
to assume economic responsibility for herself. The proportion
of all single women 14 years old and over who were gainfully occupied was 40.9 percent in 1900, compared to the proportion in
the labor force of 45.6 percent in 1940. (See Table 4.) Undoubtedly the increase is the result of counteracting factors; the general
trend of increasing gainful employment among women tended to
raise the proportion of single women at work, while the trend of
longer schooling (most of the girls still in school are single)
tended to lower it.
Table 4.—Number and Proportion of Women 14 Years Old and Over in the
Labor Force or Gainfully Occupied, by Marital Status, 1900 to 1940 1
Women in the labor force, 1940, or
gainfully occupied, 1910-1930
Total
women
Marital status
1940
Total
Single
Married.
Widowed and divorced
1930
Total
Single and unknown
Married.
. . ....
Widowed and d i v o r c e d . . . . . . .
Total. . ,
1920
Single, widowed, divorced, and
unknown.
Married
Total
1910
Single and unknown
Married
Widowed and divorced
Total
1900
Single and unknown
Married.
Widowed and divorced
Source:
States:
9;
Vol.
1940.
IV,
Vol.
Characteristics
Ill,
by age.
Percent
distribution
50,549,176
12,845,259
25.4
100.0
13,935,866
30,090,488
6,522,822
6,349,474
4,560,835
1,934,950
45.6
15.2
29.7
49.4
35.5
15.1
44,013,048
10,679,048
24.3
100.0
12,534,937
26*170,756
5,307,355
5,781,646
3,071,302
l,826,i00
46.1
11.7
34.4
54.1
28.8
17.1
36,190,483
8,429,707
23,3
100.0
14,871,550
21,318,933
6,509,426
1,920,281
43.8
9.0
77.2
22.8
30,959,473
7,788,826
25.2
100.0
9,913,490
17,684,687
3,361,296
4,751,100
1,890,661
1,147,065
47.9
10.7
34.1
61.0
24.3
14.7
25,024,415
5,114,461
20.4
100.0
8,381,996
13,810,057
2,832,362
3,424,543
769,477
920,441
40.9
5.6
32.5
67.0
15.0
18.0
U. S. Department of Commerce.
Population.
Percent
of total
Number
The
Part I,
16th census of the
Bureau of the Census.
labor force.
Part I,
United States summary,
United States Summary,
tables 5, 8.
United
tables 7,
Washington,
U. S. Government Printing Office, 1943.
15th census
General report on occupations, p. 272.
1
of
the
Washington,
United
States:
Women 14 years old were included with single in 1900 to 1930.
1930.
Population.
Vol.
U. S. Government Printing Office, 1933.
V,
40
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
During the colonial period of this country's history, domestic
manufactures within the home supplied many of the family needs
not only for cloth and clothing but also for hardware, tools and
implements, furniture, shoes, and bedding.6 Production of some
of these things had left the home long before the Civil War. Constant inroads were made into whatever home production continued, such as baking, preserving, and the making of clothing for
the women and girls of the family. These changes constantly
lessened the economic role within the home of the housewife.
Today the family, particularly in urban areas, typically lives
in rented quarters, buys its clothing, its baked goods and many
other prepared foods, its household furnishings and equipment,
and pays for much of its recreation. The living standards of the
contemporary family constitute the very basis of the present industrial mass-production system, since wide markets are essential
to it. The well-being of the family, in turn, depends more and
more on the money income it receives, rather than on the industry
of the housewife and of other family members in directly providing for family needs within the four walls of the home. This situation, primarily, lies at the root of the changes among married
women workers, whose numbers multiplied nearly six times from
1900 to 1940 and who rose from about one-seventh to over onethird of all women workers. About 6 percent of all married women worked in 1900, compared to over 15 percent in 1940.
These changes indicate the increasing extent to which the industry of the country has depended on married women for its supply of women workers. They likewise point to the importance of
married women's employment both to the welfare of their families
and to the operation of an economy so highly developed as ours.
The growth in the numbers of married women workers compels
their recognition as a permanent part of the labor 8 force.
Nevertheless, it should not be overlooked that single women
workers still outnumbered married women more than 1 1/3 to 1
in 1940. Nor should it be forgotten that in 1940 between 8 and 9
out of every 10 married women in the population made their con6
Clark, Victor S. History of manufactures in the United States.
Book Co. Inc., 1929, Vol. I, p. 92.
New York, N. Y., McGraw-Hill
NUMBERS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN WORKERS
41
tribution to the family and to the economy in the time-honored
pursuits of household arts, the care of children, and the furthering of family welfare in other less tangible ways.
The pattern of married women's occupational activities, as
1940 census data show, tends to differ to a noticeable extent from
that of single women workers. Of all married women workers
who were employed or seeking work in 1940, about 55 percent
were in more or less routine manual jobs working as operatives or
as domestic and other service workers. Clerical, sales, and kindred occupations, with 34.4 percent of the single women workers,
accounted for 23.8 percent of the married women. Professional
and semiprofessional workers formed 17.3 percent of all single
women workers but only 8.5 percent of the married group.
In no major occupation group did married women constitute
as much as a third of all workers. Their proportion was greatest
in domestic service, in which 3 out of every 10 workers were married women, 4 were single women, 2 were widowed or divorced
women, and 1 was a man. In 4 other major occupation groups
married women were as much as 10 to 20 percent of the total
workers, both men and women. These 4 consisted of professional
and semiprofessional workers; clerical, sales, and kindred workers; operatives and kindred workers ; and service workers in other
than domestic and protective service.
In none of 76 occupations reported for women by the 1940
census were married women the majority of the total workers.7 In
6, however, they were the dominant group, exceeding each of the
other groups—the men, the single women, the widowed and
divorced women. These 6 fields included two occupations frequently carried on at home—boarding house and lodginghouse
keeping and dressmaking (not in factory)—and work as laundry
operatives and laundresses. The other 3 were groups of manufacturing operatives, engaged in the production of tobacco manufactures, of knit goods, and of apparel and other fabricated
textile products.
7 Occupation data by marital status of women were presented by the Census only for the 76
occupations on the intermediate list.
747639°—48—4
42
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
There are considerably more occupations in which married
women have an important share of that phase of the field carried
on by women. In 15 of the individual occupations for women in
1940 married women were more than half of the women workers
employed or seeking work -in! the occupation, as the following
summary shows.
Women who were employed
or seeking work (experienced)
Operatives, cotton manufactures ...
Proprietors, managers, and officials, eating and
drinking places
- —Operatives, tobacco manufactures
Operatives, woolen and worsted manufactures
Charwomen, janitors, and porters-—
—.
Boarding house and lodginghouse keepers
Proprietors, managers, and officials,
personal services
Proprietors, managers, and officials, other
wholesale and retail trade
Cooks, except private family^—
Operatives, transportation equipment
Operatives, footwear industries (except rubber)__
Operatives, knit goods
,__
Laundry operatives and laundresses.
Operatives, other textile-mill products
Operatives, lumber, furniture, and lumber products
Total
Percent married
176,826
65.7
66,198
57,429
59,016
79,167
100,895
61.1
58.4
57.0
56.4
54.6
32,180
54.3
170,692
124,532
29,947
97,217
122,491
178,329
50,332
25,836
54.0
52.9
52.7
52.3
51.9
51.6
51.5
51.2
Numerically the leading individual occupation in 1940 for married women, as for single women, was that of domestic service
worker. Second in importance for married women workers was
the occupation of saleswoman. Married women also formed high
proportions of all women workers in two groups of factory operatives (cotton and apparel), among waitresses, and among unpaid
family workers on farms. In teaching and in three clerical occupations married women were numerous, though not a large percentage of all women in the field. In all, there were 10 occupations
in 1940 each with over 100,000 married women workers. Together
the married women in these 10 fields totaled nearly 21/2 million, or
56.2 percent of all married women who were employed or who were
experienced workers seeking work.
NUMBERS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN WORKERS
43
Number of married women
who were employed or seeking work (experienced)
Domestic service workers
"Clerks" in stores, demonstrators, and saleswomen
(not elsewhere classified)
Stenographers, typists, and secretaries
Operatives, apparel and other fabricated textile products
Other clerical and kindred workers
Teachers (not elsewhere classified)
(including county agents)
Waitresses and bartenders
Bookkeepers, accountants, cashiers, and ticket agents
Operatives, cotton manufactures
Farm laborers (unpaid family workers)
—_
739,195
323,138
255,988
229,787
203,808
194,428
159,979
153,150
116,232
108,856
CHART IV.—A SOCIAL-ECONOMIC GROUPING OF WOMEN WORKERS
14 YEARS AND OYER, 1910-1940
MILLIONS
1910
MILLIONS
192 0
1930
Source: Appendix Table I.
44
1940
III. TRENDS IN SOCIAL-ECONOMIC GROUPS,
1910 and 1940
To obtain a bird's-eye view of the general shifts in women's
employment it is necessary to have a comparable series of figures
for the major types of work over a period of years. Up through
1930 the Census had followed a procedure of grouping the occupations under a few major industrial groups, on the basis of the
industry in which the occupation was usually followed. In 1940 a
purely occupational arrangement was made, with the detailed occupations grouped in 11 major occupation groups. Approximate
comparisons may be made between 1940 and earlier years of certain individual occupations. However, in numbers of instances
exact comparisons between 1930 and 1940 occupations cannot be
made, so that comparisons of major occupation groups in 1940 with
earlier years is not possible. Nevertheless, indications of broad
changes over the years do appear fairly clearly from comparisons
of data for social-economic groups for 1910 to 1940.1
SOCIAL-ECONOMIC GROUPS
Each of six social-economic groups into which the Census classified those in the 1940 labor force is a large, homogeneous group
of workers who require similar qualifications for their work. Moreover, each of these is
" . . . a large population group with a somewhat distinct
standard of life, economically, and, to a considerable extent,
intellectually and socially. In some measure, also, each group
has characteristic interests and convictions as to numerous
public questions—social, economic, and political . . ."2
Because the social and economic status of persons in a particular occupation are taken into account, the groups differ in
composition from that of the major occupation groups of the census, used in other sections of this report, which are determined by
the nature of the work performed. For example, hospital attendants, beauticians, and practical nurses are included in the social1
All 1940 data in this section apply to the occupations during the week of March 24-30, 1940, of
persons at work or with a job, the usual occupations of experienced persons seeking work,
the usual occupations
of public emergency workers.
The
usual occupation
of
persons
and
seeking
work and of public emergency workers is" considered more suitable for comparison with previous
censuses than the last occupation, which is the basis for the occupational classification in Part I. New
workers, who had never held a job and consequently could not be classified by occupation,
are
not included; most of them were excluded from the figures on gainful workers reported in 1930
and earlier. See pp. 12 and 13 for discussion of the labor force concept.
2
U . S. Department of Commerce.
Population.
Edwards.
Bureau of the Census.
16th census of the United States: 1940.
Comparative occupation statistics for the United States,
1870 to 1940.
By Alba
M.
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1943, p. 179.
45
46
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
economic group called "Semiskilled workers/' while in the 1940
occupation classification they are grouped with "Service workers,
except domestic and protective;" and advertising agents, store
buyers and department heads, and purchasing agents are grouped,
on a social-economic basis, with "Clerks and kindred workers,"
though the 1940 census occupation arrangement places them with
"Proprietors, managers, and officials." In some instances economic factors, in others social characteristics, are decisive- in the
arrangement of the social-economic groups.
Two of the six broad social-economic groups have three subdivisions each, making a total of ten divisions in all. There are
three groups of non-manual workers, including professional persons; proprietors, managers and officials ; and clerks and kindred
workers. The proprietor group is subdivided into farmers (owners
and tenants); wholesale and retail dealers ; and other proprietors,
managers, and officials. The other three broad groups cover the
manual workers, among whom three levels of skill are distinguished : skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled workers. Unskilled
workers are subdivided into farm laborers, nonfarm laborers, and
servant classes.
MAJOR SHIFTS IN WOMEN'S WORK
For women the primary change from 1910 to 1940, on the
basis of the 10 social-economic groups, is the fact that the whitecollar group emerged to take a leading position in 1940. Women
clerks and kindred workers, the fourth largest group in 1910, with
13.9 percent of all women workers, became the largest group in
1940, with 29.1 percent of all women workers. Those who were
semiskilled formed about the same proportion of all women workers in 1910 as in 1940, but they dropped from first to second place.
Also noticeable was the drop in the proportion who were among the
servant classes (from 24.9 percent to 21.4 percent). The lessened
importance of the servant groups among women workers doubtless reflects the trends away from the home of various activities
and the tendency for women to seek jobs other than as servants.
The proportion of women who were professional persons, a smaller
group, showed a significant relative increase from 1910 to 1940.
The declining importance of farm work among women is evidenced
by the fact that smaller proportions of women were farmers and
farm laborers in 1940 than in 1910. The drop among farm laborers is here exaggerated, however, because of an overcount in 1910
that affected the figures for women particularly. The broad trends
are apparent from the following distributions:
47
SOCIAL-ECONOMIC GROUPS, 1910 AND 1940
Perc,
All social-economic groups
,
Clerks and kindred workers
Semiskilled workers
Servant classes
,
Professional persons
Farm laborers
_
Other proprietors, managers, and officials
Wholesale and retail dealers
Farmers (owners and tenants)
Laborers, except farm
Skilled workers and foremen
.
100.0
100.0
293
28.5
21.4
12.2
2.7
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
13.9
27.9
24.9
9.2
16.4
0.7
0.9
3.5
1.4
1.2
Noteworthy among the differences in the trends for men and
women is the shift by women from manual to non-manual work, if
the professional, clerical, and proprietor groups are considered nonmanual workers, and the skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled groups
are considered manual workers. Manual workers were almost
three-fourths of all women workers in 1910, and non-manual workers were somewhat over one-fourth. In 1940 the two groups approached equal proportions, though the manual group were still a
majority. Men, on the other hand, experienced no change in the
proportions who were manual or non-manual workers, for about 60
percent of the men were manual workers at both dates:
1940
men:
Non-manual
Men:
Non-manual workers .
1910
100.0
100.0
... 45.5
54.5
28.2
71.8
100.0
100.0
40.1
59.9
40.1
59.9
Among women declining proportions among manual workers
arose largely from declining proportions among farm laborers and
servant classes, while increasing proportions among non-manual
workers represented increasing proportions in the clerical and
professional groups. The division into but two groups conceals
some significant shifts for men. The almost constant proportion
of manual workers resulted from substantial decreases in the proportions of men who were unskilled workers (farm laborers or
laborers except farm), offset by considerable increases in the proportion who were semiskilled and lesser increases in the proportion who were skilled. Likewise among the non-manual group the
declining proportions who were proprietors, managers, and offi-
48
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
cials offset the growing proportions who were professional persons
or clerks and kindred workers. (See Appendix Table I.) Farmers, the largest 1910 group for men, and farm laborers, the fourth
largest, were no longer leading by 1940. The predominant socialeconomic classes of men, in order of size in 1940, were semiskilled
workers, skilled workers (third largest in 1910), clerks and kindred
workers, and nonfarm laborers (second largest in 1910).
RELATIVE GROWTH OF WOMEN WORKERS IN DIFFERENT FIELDS
The shifts from 1910 to 1940 in the distribution of women
workers among social-economic groups make it evident that the
new recruits flocked into certain fields, much more than into
others. If agricultural workers are omitted from consideration,3
there was a net addition to the country's work force of nearly 6
million women and over 11 million men, distributed among all nonagricultural social-economic groups. The relative increases in the
various groups differed, as did the relative increases among women
compared to those among men, indicating that some fields were
particularly more favorable for women relative to others. (See
Table 5.)
The largest proportion of the additional numbers of women
workers (outside of agriculture) from 1910 to 1940 were clerks
and kindred workers. This group showed a net increase of more
than 2 % million women who formed just over half of the total net
increase of 5 million men and women that poured in. The net
effect was a rise in the proportion of the total workers who were
women from 28.4 percent in 1910 to 41 percent in 1940, The rate
of increase from 1910 to 1940 in the number of women clerks far
exceeded that of women in the population. This was also true of
men, but the field offered even more opportunities to women. For
every 10,000 women in the population of 14 years and over, there
were 374 more women clerks and kindred workers in 1940 than
in 1910; for every 10,000 men the number was 226 higher in 1940
than in 1910.
The maturing of the industrial economy in the United States
has increasingly required the services of many workers in specialized and technical types of work as well as in clerical and commercial fields. This is indicated not only by the increase in the
number of clerical workers but also by the growth in the number
of professional persons, whose numbers more than doubled from
1910 to 1940. The proportion of them who were women stood at
3
Farmers and farm laborers are omitted from subsequent discussion because the overcount of
farm laborers in 1910 (estimated at 630,985 women 10 years old and over and 165,557 boys 10 to 15
years) tends to distort the picture.
SOCIAL-ECONOMIC GROUPS, 1910 A N D 1940
49
about 45 percent at both dates, as there was a net increase of some
800,000 women and 900,000 men in this field in the interval.
Table 5.—Increase in Number of Nonagricultural Workers 1910-1940 and
Percent Women of Total in 1910 and 1940, by Social-Economic Group
Social-economic group
All nonagricultural
social-economic groups.
Professional p e r s o n s . . . . . . . . .
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farmers (owners and tenants)
Wholesale and retail
dealers
Other proprietors, managers, and officials
Clerks and kindred workers...
Skilled workers and foremen..
Semiskilled workers
Unskilled workers, except
farm laborers
Laborers, except farm
Servant classes
Population, 14 years
and over1
Percent increase
1910--1940
Increases in numbers
1910--1940
Women
Men
Women
Men
Percent women
of total
1940
1910
5,833,733
11,471,503
93.5
58.9
28.1
24.3
816,904
932,904
113.7
102.1
45.4
44.0
255,069
1,256,778
207.4
54.1
9.5
5.0
111,890
680,209
164.6
57.8
8.8
5.5
143,179
2,574,093
7,079
1,406,948
576,569
2,545,372
1,733,922
4,022,049
260.3
238.1
7.3
64.7
50.3
93.5
40.6
121.4
10.3
41.0
1.7
32.8
4.6
28.4
2.2
39.6
773,640
24,257
749,383
980,478
80,279
900,199
37.8
23.0
38.6
16.5
1.5
152.0
28.9
2.3
64.3
25.6
1.9
76.6
19,589,703
17,191,969
63.3
51.5
50.0
48.1
Source: Appendix Table I.
1 U. S. Department of Commerce.
Bureau of the Census. 16th census of the United States:
1940. Population. Vol. I l l , The labor force. Part I, United States summary, table 8. Washington,
U. S. Government Printing Office, 1943.
The economic developments of past decades have given rise
not only to flourishing clerical and technical groups but also to a
growing class of semiskilled workers. Technological advance
tended to make semiskilled work more important relative to both
highly skilled and extremely heavy types of work.4
In semiskilled fields women did not fare so well as men.
While the largest part of the npt addition of women to the nonagricultural work force from 1910 to 1940 were clerks and kindred
workers, and the second largest part were semiskilled workers,
most of the additional number of men were semiskilled workers,
and the clerks were in second place. In 1910 two-fifths of the semiskilled workers were women. In the next 30 years the field was
4
See President's Research Committee on Social Trends.
New York, N . a Y . , McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., 1933.
structure, pp. 805-807.
Recent social trends in the United States.
Vol. I, Ch. X V I , Labor groups in the social
By Leo Wolman and Gustav Peck.
For instances of the displacement of
skilled workers and reference to the decline of the completely unskilled, see [U. S.] Works Progress
Administration,
National Research Project.
Industrial
instruments
George Perazich, Herbert Schimmel, and Benjamin Rosenberg.
and changing
Report No. M - l .
October 1938, pp. 85-94; and [ U . S . ] Temporary National Economic Committee.
economy.
By Lewis L. Lorwin and John M . Blair,
ernment Printing Office, 1941, pp. 136-147.
Monograph No, 22.
technology.
By
Philadelphia, Pa.,
Technology
in our
Washington, U. S, Gov-
50
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADitS
entered by over 4 million additional men but under 11/2 million
women, causing the proportion of women to drop to one-third of
the group. The percentage increase from 1910 to 1940 was larger
for women in semiskilled work than in the other manual groups,
but it still was below the increase for nonagricultural workers and
only very slightly above the population increase for women. The
number of men who were semiskilled workers grew at a rate over
twice as fast as that of either the population or the nonagricultural workers.
Relative to the population and to other fields of work, skilled
workers and foremen and nonfarm laborers were declining groups,
even though both show absolute increases for men and for women.
Women were but 7,000 of the 1,700,000 persons added to the group
of skilled workers and foremen, dropping from 2.2 to 1.7 percent
of the total During the period as a whole from 1910 to 1940 the
total net increase in the laborers' group was less than 105,000.
Nearly one-fourth of these additional workers were women.
Women thus rose slightly from 1.9 to 2.3 percent of the group.
The broad field of work in which women were losing out to
men most markedly was that of servants. This group included not
only private family servants but service workers in hotels, restaurants, and hospitals. Women were 64.3 percent of the servant
classes in 1940, but 30 years earlier they had been 76.6 percent.
Far from constituting three-fourths of the recruits, the nearly
750,000 additional women in this field from 1910 to 1940 were outrun by 900,000 additional men. For every 10,000 women in the
population 14 years and over there were 627 servants in 1910, but
only 532 in 1940, or 95 fewer. For every 10,000 men in the population 14 and over the number who were servants increased by 117.
Smallest of all the social-economic groups throughout the period
from 1910 to 1940 were the wholesale and retail dealers and the
other proprietors, managers, and officials. Each of these two
groups grew from over 1 million to about 2 million. For women
the dealer group grew from 2 to 3 times as fast as did women in
the population 14 years old and over and considerably more rapidly
than did all nonagricultural workers. The group of women classified as other proprietors, managers, and officials expanded four
times as rapidly as women in the population and nearly three
times as rapidly as women nonagricultural groups. The rapid
growth in the number of women placed them in a more favorable
position relative to men to both fields. Women dealers rose from
5.5 to 8.8 percent of all dealer^ from 1910 to 1940, and women who
SOCIAL-ECONOMIC GROUPS, 1910 AND 1940
51
were "other" proprietors, managers, and officials rose from 4.6 to
10.3 percent of the total.
In summary, four groups added women workers at a rate
above the average increase in the total number of women nonagricultural workers—the two large fields of clerks and kindred workers and of professional persons, and the two small groups of wholesale and retail dealers and of "other" proprietors, managers, and
officials. In all four of these groups women also had an increasing
share of the field relative to men. The number of women in a
fifth group, semiskilled workers, increased at a rate below average
for all nonagricultural groups but slightly more than the population growth for women; the numbers of women grew much less
rapidly than the numbers of men. Women in the servant classes
and women skilled workers and foremen increased at a rate below
that for all nonagricultural workers and for the woman population, and women became less important relative to men in these
fields. Nonfarm laborers were also a relatively declining group
for women, though the slowing growth was even more marked for
men than for women. Women semiskilled workers and women
servant classes were declining groups in comparison with other
social-economic groups and with men, but because of their large
size these two groups still absorbed considerable numbers of
women.
In some of the broad groups it appears that the trend in the
labor force from 1910 to 1940 has been due to general underlying
economic causes that have affected men and women alike, though
to differing degrees. In other areas, the changes have apparently
affected the women workers differently from the men, absorbing
increasing proportions of the population of one sex and declining
proportions of the other. The servant classes, for example, constitute a relatively expanding field for men in the population and
a relatively declining one for women. The group designated as
other proprietors, managers, and officials, on the other hand, has
offered increasing opportunities to the women in the population,
but it has afforded relatively dwindling outlets for men. This does
not necessarily mean that one sex is now doing work formerly
performed by the other, though undoubtedly there are many instances where technological and social changes have operated to
bring this about. It may indicate rather that there has been a
relative decline in the need for workers in that part of an occupational field usually undertaken by one sex, or a relative expansion
in the demand for the products and services usually produced by
the other.
CHART V.—THE LEADING SO OCCUPATIONS OF W O M E N WORKERS, 1870-1940
In order of size, and as reported in each census
regardless of changes in definition
RANKL
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
Source: Decennial Census, 1870-1940
52
1880
1870.
IV. THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF W O M E N
CENSUS TECHNIQUES AS A RECORD CF OCCUPATIONAL C H A N G E
The arrangement of occupational data on a comparable basis
from one census to the next is in general a primary need in
tracing developments over the years. At each census a compromise must be made between the need for data comparable with the
past and the desire to make improvements that will give better
information about the population and its characteristics than had
been previously obtained. Something can be learned, therefore,
about the developing importance of women's work from the history
of census plans and procedures. Something can be learned also
about trends in occupations from changes in the occupational titles
in the census, even without regard to differences in meaning and
content of the titles from one census to another.
HISTORY OF CENSUS DATA ON WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS
The year 1870 marks the beginning of published census reports on the number of women at work in the various occupations.
This was not, however, the first time that women workers had
been enumerated. In 1820 and in 1840 the number of persons of
both sexes in each family engaged in certain classes of work was
obtained in connection with the population census, and the total
numbers in these groups were published but not separate numbers
of men and of women. In 1850, when occupational data were first
obtained on an individual rather than on a family basis, the questions were limited to free male inhabitants over 15 years of age.
At the next census information was sought on the nature of the
work done by both men and women over 15 years of age, but the
published report did not give the data separately for each sex.1
The census of 1870, milestone though it was, met with criticism in regard to certain errors and discrepancies and to its omission of the woman performing unpaid work in her own home, an
individual who went unrecognized until the 1930 census reported
numbers of "homemakers." After the 1870 census, officers of the
Association for the Advancement of Women requested Congress,
in legislating for the next census :
1
[U. S.] Department of the Interior.
Census Office.
[11th census of the United States: 1890.]
Report on population of the United States at the eleventh census: 1890.
Washington, [ U . S . ]
Labor.
Part II, pp. lxxv, lxxvi.
Government Printing Office, 1897; and [ U . S . ] Department of Commerce and
Bureau of the Census.
[12th census of the United States: 1900.] Special reports.
tions at the twelfth census, pp. xxix-xxxi.
Occupa-
Washington, [U. S . ] Government Printing Office, 1904.
53
54:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
"to make provision for the more careful and just enumeration
of women as laborers and producers; for a record of the wages
of men and women in all occupations; . . . and
"We further pray that you will enact such laws or amendments as may be requisite to secure the employment of a fair
ratio of suitable women as collectors of the centennial
census."2
From 1870 to 1930 the general plan of the census was an occupational classification grouped into several broad industry
groups, according to the industry in which an occupation was most
commonly pursued. Throughout the early p e r i o d , from 1870
through 1900, the arrangement was substantially on a comparable
basis. In 1910, for the first time, separate spaces were arranged
on the schedule for occupation and for industry. The resulting
classification was the basis of reports from 1910 through 1930.
Another fundamental change was made in 1940 when 11 major
occupation groups were substituted for the industrial divisions
which previously formed the framework of the classification. The
total 451 occupational titles listed by the census in 1940 represented 221 distinct and separate occupations and 230 industrial
subdivisions of 5 separate occupations. The major revisions necessitated considerable regrouping, and, even through the periods
when occupation information was substantially comparable, it was
necessary for the Census Bureau to do a certain amount of regrouping for any analysis of trends.3 With the increasing number
of persons in the labor force it would be anticipated that more
individual occupations would be distinguished as time went on,
Total number
of occupations1
Average number
of women
per occupation
451
534
572
428
303
218
265
338
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
29,446
21,334
16,083
19,337
18,093
18,630
12,143
7,318
1
Includes occupations in which no women were employed.
2
Senate Misc. Doc. 45th Congress, 2d Session, No. 84.
3
Rather extensive shifting was required to bring data for 1870-1900 into conformity with the
1910 classification.
Serial No. 1786, vol. 2.
For example, in 1910 several major groups were created that had not been
separately classified in 1900 (mining, transportation and communication, trade, public service, and
clerical occupations);
individual titles belonging in these fields had to be brought together from
almost every one of the previous major groups.
Shifts to enable comparisons of 1920 and 1930 data,
on the other hand, were minor in nature, such as the transfer to transportation and communication
of aeronauts (from professional service) and of postmasters (from public service).
THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN
55
but the opposite has been true since 1920. At the same time, the
average number of women in each occupation has become larger.
At every census there have been a number of fields of work
in which no women were reported. Changes in the total number of
such occupations cannot be taken, in themselves, as a measure of
the expansion or contraction in the kinds of work women do. The
nature of the occupational classification, the procedure followed
during census enumeration, and the elimination of reclassifications during later stages of the tabulation affect the trends. From
1910 through 1930, for example, there appears to be a decreasing
number of occupations in which no women at all were employed
(43, 35, and 30, respectively). However, if the classification is
placed on a comparable basis, the number of occupations not followed by any women declined from 39 in 1910 to 23 in 1920 and
then rose to 30 in 1930.4 In 1940 only 9 occupations were so clearly
closed to women that the Census Bureau reclassified those women
who may have been erroneously reported as following these occupations. Undoubtedly there may have been other occupations with
no women or fewer women than were actually reported. The
Census Bureau was of the opinion in 1940, however, that even had
a detailed check been made of all questionable occupation returns
for women, doubt would not have been eliminated on the occupation of some women, who either may have been actually engaged
in an occupation unusual for women or may have been misclassified.5 This opinion, in itself, reflects in part the relatively limited
restrictions on the scope of women's activities in recent years,
compared to 1870 when there were no women reported in over onefifth of the occupational designations then in use.
Occupations with
no women reported
at specified census
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
-
__
.
9
30
35
43
9
3
1880
47
1870
76
* U. S. Department of Labor.
1930. By Mary V. Dempsey.
Women's Bureau.
The occupational progress of women,
1910 td
Bulletin 104. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1933, p. 38,
®U. S. Department of Commerce.
Bureau of the Census. 16th Census of the United States: 19401
Population. Vol. I l l , The labor force. Part I, United States, mmr^ary, p. 9, Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office. 1943.
56
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
LEADING INDIVIDUAL OCCUPATIONS AT EACH CENSUS
A list of the ten occupations most important numerically for
women in each census year from 1870 to 1940 gives some indication
of the nature of women's work over this period, even though the
fields are not entirely comparable. (See Chart V.) Occupations
on these lists, taken from the census exactly as they are stated
without regard to change in meaning and content, are indicative
of changes in major fields of work arising from developments in
technology and production methods. For example, tailoresses and
dressmakers were important in the early years of the period, but
then they disappeared from among the leading occupations. In
their place in 1940 were the mass production occupations of the
clothing industry. Agricultural laborers occupied a prominent
position at the start but gradually dropped in importance and
finally no longer occurred among the leading ten occupations, reflecting the shift to an industrial and urban culture. Beginning in
1900, when saleswomen first appeared on the list of the ten leaders, there was a rise in importance of clerical and sales occupations. By 1940 four such occupations were in the top group, as
business and commercial activities reached a highly developed
stage. Only servants, teachers, and nurses were among the leading groups of women workers both in 1870 and 1940, illustrations
of the fact that certain types of activity for women tend to persist
even through periods of great development.
The changes in these lists do not necessarily reflect the decline
or rise of an occupation field, though such may be true in some
instances. In general the lists indicate which occupations were
outstanding for women in the particular industrial milieu of the
time, but the lists also may reflect the extent to which occupational development permitted specialized activities to be segregated
from a general field or perhaps merely improvements in census
methodology. The differences in classification may be considerable. For example, before 1900 the classification called nurses
comprised all those women in the nursing field—trained nurses,
midwives, practical nurses, and probably even nursemaids to a
considerable extent—while in 1930 and in 1940 this occupational
title was restricted to those who were student and graduate nurses.
Millinery, dress, and mantua makers were important in 1870, but
this combination was not used at all in later censuses. If an
attempt were made to obtain a comparable group in later years,
it is very likely that such a group would have been prominent for
some time following. The method of carrying out various censuses has also affected such lists. In 1910, for instance, the in
THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN
57
structions to enumerators concerning agricultural laborers were
especially liberal and served to bring in a great many women who
were not included at other periods. Consequently, agricultural
laborers on home farms took first place among women workers in
that year, owing to the fact that their numbers were much higher
than they would have been on a comparable basis with other years.
In this particular instance an exception was made to the general
practice of considering occupations exactly as reported, and an
adjusted figure was used in compiling the list for 1910.
The occupation of servants, by whatever title described, was
first in point of numbers in every year. In 1930 and 1940 the
occupational title was limited to household workers, in contrast to
the more inclusive grouping in earlier years. Nevertheless this
individual occupation still remained the most important numerically for women.
Other occupations rather closely related to the servant field
appeared toward the bottom of the lists of leading fields of work
at various dates. Cooks, who had previously been included with
servants, were seventh in importance in 1910, ninth in 1920, and
tenth in 1930. Women housekeepers and stewards were first
shown as a group in 1890 and were ninth in size, both at that
census and the following one. Previously stewards and stewardesses were reported separately in the census, but housekeepers
were probably largely classified as servants. After ^eing lost
from among the leading fields, housekeepers and stewards (private family) reappeared in ninth place in 1940. In 1940 waitresses
(except private family) were eighth on the list. Related to
waitresses are the employees of hotels and restaurants (not
clerks), who were in tenth position in 1880. From 1870 to 1910
laundresses evidenced a rise in their relative position among the
leading fields of work for women. The general group of laundresses was in seventh place in 1870. Laundresses (not in laundry) , a group that excluded the growing numbers of laundry workers in commercial establishments, was in third place in 1910. The
increased tendency for families to patronize commercial laundries
or to do their own laundry at home with the aid of mechanical
washing machines undoubtedly is related to the subsequent fall of
this group to sixth place in 1920 and to eighth in 1930.
Women agricultural laborers were in second place from 1870
through 1910. This occurred even though in 1900 and in 1910
the classification was less comprehensive than at previous censuses. In 1900 and 1910 the classification included only farm laborers (members of family), that is, unpaid family workers on
747639°—48— K
58:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
farms, whereas previously all agricultural laborers had been included in one group. The trend from 1910 on records the decline of
agriculture in the national economy, greater mechanization on the
farm, and the decrease in numbers of small, family-size farms.6 In
1920 unpaid farm family workers were the third largest group of
women workers, in 1930 the sixth, and in 1940 they had dropped
out of the picture of leading occupations. Women agricultural
wage workers, who were in seventh place in 1900, rose to sixth in
1910, and after that were no longer among the first ten occupations
of women. Women engaged as farmers and planters (and, in 1890,
as overseers) grew in importance from 1870 through 1890, rising
from ninth to fifth place. Then this group too receded, dropping
to sixth place in 1900, ninth in 1910, tenth in 1920, and subsequently it no longer appeared among the leading fields. Thus,
for the first time, in 1940 no agricultural occupation was among
the largest fields for women.
Traditionally the weaving of textiles and the making of
clothing has been women's work. Whether clothing was made by
skilled craftsmen or whether, as now, it is produced in the factory, this work has always been important to women. From 1870
through 1910 the occupations shown variously in different census
years as those of tailoresses and seamstresses, of milliners, dressmakers, and seamstresses, or of dressmakers and seamstresses
(not in factory), and so forth ranked among the leading fields of
women's work.
The shifts in designation, in themselves, indicate that the
lines between the various groups of clothing workers were not
clear cut and were gradually shifting. Up through 1910, however,
one or more of the fields was among the top ranking occupations
at each census. Then, owing to increasing use of ready-made
clothing, the hand trades dwindled in importance and disappeared
from the list. In 1940, however, operatives and kindred workers in
apparel and accessory factories were brought together in one
group. At that time they formed the sixth largest group.
Since 1890 no group of textile workers has been among the
leading ten occupations for women, possibly owing to the use of
rather detailed distinctions according to type of fiber involved.
Both cotton operatives and wool operatives were among the first
ten in 1870 and 1880, cotton in sixth place at both periods, and
6
See Baker, O. E. Agricultural and forest land, The trend in land utilization, in Recent social
trends in the United States, Vol. I. New York, N. Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., 1933, pp. 108-118.
THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN
68
wool dropping from eighth to ninth. In 1890 cotton mill operatives
formed the eighth largest group of women workers and after
that were surpassed by other types of workers.
The rising field of clerical work was heralded by the emergence, in 1890, of clerks and copyists in tenth place. The successive
appearance, among the leading occupations, of saleswomen in 1900,
of stenographers and "typewriters" in 1910, and of "other" clerks
as well as of bookkeepers and cashiers in 1920 mark the onward
advance of clerical and sales work. All of these occupations were
still important at the latest census, when stenographers, typists,
and secretaries formed the second largest group; clerical and kindred workers (not elsewhere classified) the fourth; saleswomen
the fifth; and bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers the seventh.
The teaching profession stands out as an occupation that has
appeared among the first ten at every census, and one that is
more important now than in the early period. In fifth place in
1870, it was consistently in fourth place for the next four decades.
In 1920 and in 1930 it was second only to servants, and in 1940 it
was third, with servants in the lead, followed by stenographers,
typists, and secretaries.
Only one other professional field has been among the primary
occupations of women. Nurses, including trained nurses, practical
nurses, or nursemaids, formed the tenth largest group of women
workers in 1870. In 1930 and 1940, after a long gap, they again
appeared in ninth and tenth places, respectively, despite the fact
that the occupation name was reserved for student and registered
graduate nurses.
The number of women in the ten leading occupations as reported at each census increased from 1870 to 1940. At the same
time the proportion the women in these leading fields constituted
of all women workers showed a general downward trend. On the
surface it would seem to indicate a lessening of the tendency for
women workers to concentrate in a few large fields. Undoubtedly
also it reflects greater refinement in census classifications and
greater diversity in the economic enterprises of the Nation. The
figures, which should be considered in the light of the fact that
they are not derived from comparable classifications, are as follows :
60:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
Number of women
in 10 leading
occupations at
specified census
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
_
6,964,547
5,857,390
4,543,630
4,368,543
3,630,549
3,029,816
2,285,268
1,688,054
Percent of all
women in the
labor force or
gainfully occupied
53.5
54.5
52.6
58.7
68.3
75.6
86.3
88.0
OCCUPATION NAMES THAT HAVE DISAPPEARED
Further indication of changes in the nature of work done by
women may be found in the names of some occupations that were
reported in early censuses but which are no longer important
enough to appear in recent years. A considerable number of these
appeared before 1900. Most of them are now parts of larger
groups, and most can be traced by reference to the latest index to
occupations used by the Census Bureau in coding individual jobs.
Thus, though no longer identified separately, most of these occupations are no obsolete. Some, however, would be meaningless
today if included in published lists. The mantua maker of 1870
is nonexistent today, though she may have modern counterparts.
The hoop skirt makers and the daguerreotypist represent occupations whose products is no longer in demand.
Among the titles that have been merged are several having
to do with agriculture; for example, apiarists, stock raisers, florists, gardeners, nurserymen and vine growers fruit growers milk
farmers stock herders, and dairy women. Today these are included in general classifications of either farmers or farm laborers.
A number of other titles no longer published are parts of
more inclusive occupational designations. For example, naturalists, once a separate occupation title, have become a part of a
broader designation in the professional group. Bathhouse keepers, livery stable keepers, publishers of books, maps, and newspapers, intelligence-office keepers, and traders in provisions form
parts of various occupations classed with proprietors, managers,
and officials. Lathemakers, w h e e l w r i g h t s , gunsmiths, locksmiths, and bell hangers are no longer distinguishable from the
more comprehensive craftsmen occupations of which they are a
part. Card writers, and bundle and cash boys are parts of certain
clerical and sales occupations. Woodchoppers, scavengers, whitewashers, steamboat women, canal-boat hands and boat-hands are
now united with related types of work in the laborers' group.
The bulk of the occupations that no longer have separate
designations are currently classified with operatives and kindred
workers. Some of the workers whose occupations are no longer
published were in various types of food production and are now
THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN
70
included with larger groups—macaroni and vermicelli makers,
cheesemakers, oyster packers, brewers and maltsters, distillers and
rectifiers, and bottlers and makers of mineral and soda water.
Others were engaged in occupations now allocated to textile or
apparel production—-oil cloth makers; galoon, gimp, and tassel
makers; and thread makers. At a period when textile products
were more limited in variety and when clothing and furnishings
were in general not ready-made, these occupations undoubtedly
represented types of work sufficiently important or distinctive
to be reported separately. Flax dressers, a separate group in 1870,
now are lost among miscellaneous textile manufactures, evidencing
the decline in relative importance of the linen industry in this
country. The occupations of workers in various chemical industries—ink makers, glue makers, perfumers, shot, cartridge, and
fuse makers, starch makers, salt makers, candle, soap and tallow
makers, and charcoal burners—were individually reported before
1900. The chemical industry had not yet developed to the point
where these were grouped together as a concerted activity.
Certain workers no longer receive special consideration due to
the relative decreases in their numbers because of inventions and
style changes. This may be true of umbrella and parasol makers
and whip makers. Changes in transportation methods have
eliminated carriage and wagon makers as a separate group; the
use of many new and varied materials makes bone and ivory
workers less important; and the widespread development of water
systems makes the well-borer too rare to be classed separately
at the present time.
For other workers the general title "operatives" replaced a
more specialized designation, as factory methods replaced the
hand work that set apart a group of workers in these early years.
Representative of this trend are the basket makers, window shade
makers, and wood turners and carvers, who gave way to operatives in wooden goods manufacturing; and the curriers, tanners,
and leather finishers and morocco dressers of yesterday who became operatives in leather goods. The development of the metal
and machinery industry has resulted in regrouping and combining
women once reported separately as Brittania and japanned ware
makers, nail makers, tool and cutlery makers, reed and shuttle
makers, stove, furnace and grate makers. Other occupations that
once seemed of significance but no longer receive special consideration include hair workers, gilders, mattress makers, comb mak-
62:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
ers, needle makers, screw makers, and mirror and picture frame
makers.
OCCUPATIONAL POSITION OF WOMEN, 1910 and I9407
For 389 of the 451 occupational titles presented in the 1940
census, comparable 1910 data can be obtained for both the total
number of workers and the women workers alone. In order to
make the comparison some individual occupations had to be combined with others. When grouped as required for comparison, the
number of occupations or occupation combinations is reduced to
252. In the 82 omitted occupations there were only 390,733 women
in 1940, who constituted but 3.3 percent of the 12,161,333s women
workers whose occupations were reported. Thus comparable data
are available for almost all of the occupations and for practically
all women.
OCCUPATIONS WITH NOTABLE GROWTH OR DECLINE
Among the 252 occupations or occupation combinations with
comparable data for 1910 and 1940, were 14 in which the number
of women increased in the 30-year period by more than 50,000. An
examination of the 82 occupations listed in the 1940 census for
which comparable 1910 data are not available indicates that probably there were no other fields among these 82 that could have
increased by as many as 50,000 women. To only one of the omitted occupational titles were more than 50,000 women allocated in
1940—operatives in miscellaneous manufacturing industries, with
60,708 women—and this title did not represent a single industry.
Undoubtedly the number of women in this field in 1910, had it
been possible to obtain a comparable grouping, would have been
large enough-so that the increase from 1910 to 1940 would have
fallen short of 50,000.
The occupations with exceptionally large increases fall into
6 major occupational groups. In the professional field were teachers (not elsewhere classified), nurses, and religious, social, and
7
All 1940 data in this section, except where otherwise specified, apply to the occupations during
the week of March 24-30, 1940, of persons at work or with a job, the usual occupations of experienced persons seeking work, and the usual occupations of public emergency workers.
The usual
occupation of persons seeking work and of public emergency workers is considered more suitable
for comparison with previous censuses than the last occupation, which is the basis for the occupational classification in Part I
of this report.
New
workers,
who
had never
held
a job
and
consequently could not be classified by occupation, are not included; most of them were excluded
from the figures on gainful workers reported in 1930 and earlier.
Data for 1910 have been adjusted
for comparability with 1940; see Appendix Tables IIA and IIB, footnote 3.
See also pp. 12 and 13
for discussion of differences between the labor force and gainful workers.
8
From the 12,574,078 women in the experienced labor force, 441,245 with occupation not reported
have been omitted, because such a group was not included in the 1910 census; in addition an estimated total of 28,500 girls 10 to 13 years of age were added to newsgirls, farm laborers
(wage
workers), and farm laborers (unpaid family workers) because these occupations were significantly
affected by the 1940 limitation to those 14 years old and over.
THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN
63
welfare workers. In clerical, sales, and kindred occupations major
increases occurred among stenographers, typists, and secretaries
(whose numbers increased more than in any other occupation) ;
saleswomen and related workers; bookkeepers, accountants, and
cashiers; "clerks" in stores; and telephone operators. In the
operative group large expansion for women took place in the apparel, the electrical machinery, and the knit goods industries.
The managerial, the domestic, and the personal service fields each
had 1 occupation among the 14 in which the number of women
had increased by more than 50,000—proprietors, managers, and
officials in eating and drinking places; cooks, waiters, and other
servants; and barbers, beauticians, and manicurists.
These sizable increases in certain fields are signposts of some
very significant trends in women's occupations. They are symbolic of the greatly expanded opportunities connected with recordkeeping, communication, and other indirect aspects of industrial
production, and with distribution; of the continuing transfer from
the household of such functions as education, care of the sick,
making of clothing, and the increased requirements for these
services with continued population growth; and of the development
of entirely new cultural traits due to style trends or new inventions, such as widespread use of cosmetics, of sheer full-fashioned
hosiery, and of electrical machinery and appliances.
The occupations or occupation combinations in which more
than 50,000 women were added from 1910 to 1940 were as follows:
Stenographers, typists, and secretaries; shipping and receiving clerks; clerical and kindred workers (not else- 1910-1940
where classified); and office machine operators
1,476,389
Cooks; housekeepers, stewards, and hostesses; servants;
and waitresses
_
1,223,095
Buyers and department heads, store; canvassers and solicitors ; traveling salesmen and sales agents; attendants,
filling station, parking lot, garage, and airport; and
saleswomen (not elsewhere classified)
372,756
Apparel and accessories, operatives..343,052
Teachers (not elsewhere classified)
325,400
Bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers
286,658
Trained nurses and student nurses
286,389
Barbers, beauticians, and manicurists
195,834
"Clerks" in stores
•
108,843
Telephone operators
108,800
Religious, social, and welfare workers
65,800
Electrical machinery and equipment, operatives
58,940
Knit goods, operatives
58,341
Proprietors, managers, and officials:
Eating and drinking places
53,497
64:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
At the same time that some women's occupations were showing phenomenal growth, others declined by considerable numbers.
It seems probable that all occupations that had declined by more
than 10,000 appear among the 252 comparable occupations or occupation combinations. This is evidenced by the fact that practically
all gainfully occupied women in 1910 are included in the 252 occupations or occupation combinations. Only 50,498 of all women
gainful workers in 1910 could not be distributed among the 82
occupational titles of the 1940 list that had to be omitted from the
comparison. Furthermore, an examination of the titles of these
82 occupations does not lead one to believe that any of them would
have showed large declines. They include, for example, laboratory
technicians, photographic process workers, operatives in rayon
manufacturing and in scientific and photographic equipment factories, hospital attendants, and other fields known to have been
undergoing rapid growth in recent years. They also include highly
skilled or heavy occupations in which the use of women has never
been customary, such as those of blacksmith, machinist, porter,
automobile repair service operative, and operative or laborer in
petroleum and coal, in nonmetallic mineral products, in ship and
boat building. In fact the number of women in the whole group
of omitted occupations was nearly eight times as large in 1940
as in 1910.
Among the 252 occupations of women included in the comparison, 11 declined by more than 10,000 from 1910 to 1940. The most
significant trend is the decline in the hand trades, which represents a long-time trend in American economy and is demonstrated
by the drop in numbers of women dressmakers and tailoresses; of
women proprietors, managers, and officials, dealing with various
items of clothing and general merchandise (most of whom were
milliners) ; and of miscellaneous apprentices (most of whom,
among the women, were apprentices to dressmakers, tailoresses,
and milliners). The decrease among laundresses likewise reflects
the replacement of hand by machine methods, both in the commercial laundry and in the rise of the home washing machine.
Mechanization also played an important part in the drop among
tobacco operatives.
The largest decrease for women occurred among farm laborers. This drop and that among women who were farmers evidence the trend toward urban living and the decline in agriculture.
The amounts of decrease in the foregoing and in other occupations that declined by more than 10,000 women from 1910 to 1940
were as follows:
65
THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN
Decrease
1910-1940
Farm laborers
——
Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory)—
Laundresses and laundry operatives
Farmers (owners and tenants)
—
Proprietors, managers, and officials: General merchandise,
apparel and accessories, and shoe stores ; milliners (not in
factory)
Boarding house and lodginghouse keepers ,
Tailoresses
Musicians and music teachers
Tobacco manufactures, operatives
Machinists* apprentices; apprentices, specified trades (not
elsewhere classified); apprentices, trades not specified
Practical nurses and midwives
527,352
388,498
223,074
119,895
81,293
40,141
24,280
18,222
13,909
12,650
11,608
6 C C U RATIONAL CONCENTRATION OF W O M E N
Whether the concentration of women workers in a limited
number of occupations is diminishing and, if so, to what extent,
are questions of considerable interest. It is certain that some specific types of work are more suitable for the average woman than
others. Women's lesser physical strength, their special aptitudes
for work requiring particular types of skill, and the continuing effects of traditions based on the division of labor between men and
women from time immemorial have served to direct women's
capabilities into some occupational lines rather than into others.
In addition, theoretical ideas on what is proper for women to do,
prejudices, and various artificial limitations have contributed to
channeling them into particular fields of work. The lower wage
level of women has led, in some areas of employment, to the extension of their opportunities because women were used as a
cheap labor supply, and in other areas it has limited their progress, as men workers were able to prevent the introduction of
women. At the same time, the competition among women within
those fields open to them is thought to have kept their wages at a
lower level.
On the other hand, the growing numbers of women at work
and the wider acceptance of the fact that many women need to
work have tended to lessen to a marked degree the suspicion and
doubt formerly evoked whenever a woman undertook a new type
of work. Furthermore, the experience of two world wars has
demonstrated conclusively the ability of women to perform a wide
variety of jobs in a wholly competent manner.
The 252 occupations for which comparable data for 1910 and
1940 are available were arranged in numerical order according
to the number of their women workers in each of these 2 years.
66:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
If the occupations as thus ranked in order of size are divided into
10 groups, each with an equal number of occupations, it will be
seen that the top tenth of the occupations or occupation combinations in 1940 included 86.7 percent of the women reporting occupations. (See Chart VI.) In 1910 the first tenth of the occupations or occupation combinations, as ranked in that year, included 90.2 percent of the gainfully occupied women. The conclusion that can be drawn from this distribution is that women
still were heavily concentrated in the largest women's occupational fields in 1940, though not quite so extremely as in 1910.
Furthermore, the spreading of women's employment has been
within the first half of the occupations in which women were engaged, rather than into the lower-ranking occupations. The second through the fifth groups of ranked occupations, composed of
those ranging in size from approximately 2,000 to 60,000 women
in 1940, included 12.7 percent o f the women workers. The corresponding groups in 1910, composed of occupations ranging in size
from approximately 1,000 to 30,000 women, included 9.4 percent
of the women workers in that year. Thus the decline in concentration in the highest tenth was made up by an intensified clustering of women in the remainder of the highest half of the ranked
occupations in 1940.
CHART VI.—PROPORTION OF ALL WOMEN WORKERS IN EACH TENTH OF
252 COMPARABLE OCCUPATIONS OR OCCUPATION COMBINATIONS,
1940 AND 1910
OCCUPATIONS
PERCENT
HIGHEST
SECOND
THIRD
FOURTH
FIFTH
SIXTH
SEVENTH
EIGHTH
NINTH
TENTH
Source: Appendix Table IIA.
THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN
76
In the smallest 126 occupations in 1910 there were only 0.4
percent of all women workers; by 1940 the 126 smallest women's
occupations still had only 0.7 percent of the women. Though, in
terms of aggregate numbers, the shift to these smallest fields appeared of slight consequence, the total number in these fields more
than doubled in the 30-year period, a much greater rate of increase
than in the highest half of the occupations, which increased by
only a little over a half.
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONAL CONCENTRATION RELATIVE TO MEN
Another aspect of the question has to do with changes in degree of concentration among women relative to men. It might
be that the slightly decreasing tendency for women to concentrate
in the highest tenth of the occupations and their dispersion into
some of the succeeding groups of occupations still left them segregated in "women's work" to the same extent in 1940 as in 1910.
This might indicate merely that, although the economy has more
diverse requirements now than formerly, the broadening opportunities were more numerous in fields in which women usually
work. On the other hand, it might be that the somewhat lessened
concentration of women involved a shifting of women into "men's
occupations," and of men into "women's occupations," so that the
occupational structure of the labor force of men and women showed greater similarity at the end of the period.
In Chart VII the proportion women constituted of the total
workers in each of 246 comparable occupations or occupation combinations in 1910 has been correlated with the corresponding 1940
proportion. Occupations in which women were less than 0.5 percent of the workers, both in 1910 and in 1940, have been omitted.
Each point on the chart represents one occupation or occupation
combination, unless there is a figure beside the dot, indicating
that it represents more than one. The proportion of women
among all workers in 1940 is plotted along the vertical axis and
the proportion in 1910 along the horizontal axis.
If the chart is considered to be divided by the intersection of
the 50-percent lines into fourths, it will be observed that most of
the points fall in the lower left quadrant of the chart; that is, in
most of the occupations women were less than half of the workers
both in 1910 and 1940. However, the grouping of a number of
points in the upper right quadrant indicates that in an appreciable
number of occupations more than half of the workers were women
both in 1910 and in 1940. Few points appear in the upper left
or the lower right quadrants, since it was seldom true that an occupation with women predominating in 1910 tended to have a minority of women in 1940, or vice versa.
68:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
If the proportion for each occupation or occupation combination were exactly the same in 1910 and in 1940, all the points
would fall on the diagonal line shown on the chart. Instead, as
was to be expected, the points scatter somewhat above and below
the line. In general the points above the line are somewhat more
numerous than those below. The proportion of women among all
workers increased from 1910 to 1940. The chart indicates that
this increase arose from an upward trend in the proportions of
women in many of the occupations, rather than from exceptional
increases in a few particularly large occupations.
The upward trend is not equally marked in all sections of the
chart, however. Among the occupations in which more than
three-fourths of the workers were women in 1910, the number of
CHART VII.-—PROPORTION OF ALL WORKERS W H O WERE W O M E N IN EACH OF
246 COMPARABLE OCCUPATIONS OR OCCUPATION COMBINATIONS
Proportion in 1940 related to corresponding proportion in 1910
(OO
*f5)
93
90
®
65
/
•
60
s)
/
75
/
<•>
A
/
@
r
/
t
•
/
•
®
•
tirS
<i)
/
•
*
•
a
y
(Si
ft ,'m
.
' *
'rSvft
15
20
•
/
•
:
•
%
25
30
0
Designates occupations with over 1 0 0 , 0 0 0
total workers in 1910. Numerals Indicate that
more than one occupation fell at the same
point; if one or more of such occupations
had over 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 total workers in I 9 I £ \
the numeral has been encircled.
Source: Appendix Tables IIA and IIB.
THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF W O M E N
78
occupations showing advances in the proportion of women approximately balanced the number showing declines. Thus women
may be said to have maintained their position in the fields that
were overwhelmingly "women's work," though this conclusion is
subject to the qualification that more of the occupations showing
declines in proportion were among the very large occupational
fields.
Among the occupations with 10 to 75 percent women in 1910
the proportion of women showed a drop in more fields than it
showed an increasein the 80-year period from 1910 to 1940, These
fields may be considered as being open to both sexes. (Since women were only about one-fifth of all workers in 1910, occupations
with as low as 10 percent women may be included with those offering opportunities to women.) In this middle section of the
chart, the fields in which men advanced outnumbered those in
which women advanced. Even more significant is the fact that
the broad band in which the points lie in this section of the chart
is in general parallel with the line of no change, and that points
representing fields of considerable total size also tend to be distributed both above and below the line, parallel with it. This
broad band shows no noticeable tendency to shift toward a position parallel with the horizontal axis of the chart, which would
happen if women's occupational pattern in these fields, which tend
to be the ones adapted to either sex, were becoming more like
men's.
Still another pattern appears in the group of occupations in
which less than 10 percent of the workers were women in 1910.
In this group the points above the diagonal line considerably outnumber those below it, and more of the points representing large
occupational fields are above the line. (Some of these points
represent several separate occupations, as the small digits beside
the dot indicate.)
Women thus showed a tendency (1) To infiltrate into the occupations that in 1910 had relatively few women; (2) To maintain, at the same time, their position in the fields where very large
proportions of women had already been accepted in 1910, though
to a greater extent in the small than the big fields; and (3) To
exhibit little diminution of segregation in fields apparently
adapted to workers of either sex. As a whole, there appears to
have been a slight tendency among women workers toward an
occupational distribution more like that of the entire labor force.
What might be called the single-sex occupations appear to have
offered somewhat greater opportunities to the minority sex, particularly when the size of the occupations is roughly taken into
account.
CHART VII!.—WOMEN IN SELECTED CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS, 1870-1940
THOUSANDS
2,000
1.500
1,000
THOUSANDS
THOUSANDS
THOUSANDS
25
20
Agents (not elsewhere classified);credit men; >
purchasing agents and buyers (not elsewhere
/
classified); county agents and farm
f —
demonstrators; and collectors,
/
bill and account
/
15
10
w
0)
en
THOUSANDS
30
25
Attendants, physicians' and
dentists' o f f i c e s
^ ^ ^ ^
Insurance agents a n d brokers
THOUSANDS
15.0
125
20
10.0
15
7.5
10-
5.0
5
25
0
Source: Appendix Table IIA.
70
V. CHANGES IN INDIVIDUAL OCCUPATIONS OF
WOMEN, I87Q-I94Q1
The broad outlines of the developments in women's occupational history obscure many of the various tendencies in particular occupations. Usually, however, the need is for information
on variations in a specific field: What are the past trends and
the present position of women working, for example, as shoe operatives, as insurance agents, as bookkeepers, as nurses? The
development of women's employment in almost every one of the
hundreds of occupations listed in the 1940 census might well be
the subject of a separate monograph, and many individual occupations have been.
In this section the discussion and analysis of the trends in
particular occupation are given only briefly, and the relationship
of the more significant changes to social and economic forces is
suggested rather than described in detail. No attempt has been
made to exhaust the various possible measures of changes in each
occupation, as the plan followed has been to analyze the occupations important for women more fully than the smaller fields.
The individual occupations are discussed under several broad
occupation groupings. However, a specific occupation may have
combined with it certain minor occupations belonging in another
general group, in order to achieve greatest possible comparability
over the years. Separate discussion of a minor occupation thus
grouped is presented in connection with the broader field with
which it has been combined, rather than in the general group in
which the census actually classified it in 1940. Comprehensive
data for all occupations are shown in Appendix Tables II A and
II B.
THE ADVANCE OF WHITE-COLLAR WORKERS
Women in "white-collar" work in 1940 were both numerous
and important in relation to those in other types of occupation.
As discussed here, this group includes, with some minor exceptions, those classified by the Census as "clerical, sales, and kin1
All 1940 data in this section, except where otherwise specified, apply to the occupations during
the week of March 24-30, 1940, of persons at work or with a job, the usual occupations of experienced persons seeking work, and the usual occupations of public emergency workers.
The usual
occupation of persons seeking work and of public emergency workers is considered more suitable
for comparison with previous censuses than the last occupation, which is the basis for the occupational classification in Part I of
this report.
New
workers,
who
had never held
a job
and
consequently could not be classified by occupation, are not included; most of them were excluded
from the gainful workers reported in 1930 and earlier.
Data for 1870 to 1930 have been adjusted for
comparability with 1940; see Appendix Tables IIA and IIB, footnote 3.
See also pp. 12 and 13 for
discussion of differences between the labor force and gainful workers.
71
72:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
dred" workers.2 Professional and semiprofessional workers,
sometimes included under the vague term "white-collar," are discussed later, pp. 155 to 179. The women in white-collar fields were
distributed among several general types of work in 1940, in contrast to heavy concentration in a single field in 1870. This is due
to the fact that 70 years ago clerical and sales work of the variety
and extent general in more recent years did not exist. It arose
with the need by business and industry for accurate record-keeping, with the development of large-scale business practices, and
with modern methods used in distributing the output of a vastly
expanded economy.3
It is significant that expansion in the white-collar field parallels the rise of the corporate system in the United States. Limited
chiefly to railroads, banks, insurance companies, and public utilities before the Civil War, the corporate form came to dominate
mining, quarrying, and manufacturing in the last years of the
nineteenth century and in the twentieth century, even extending
more recently into the mercantile, construction, personal service
and amusement, and real estate fields.4 The critical need of these
large scale enterprises was for coordination of their diversified
and manifold activities. The invention of the typewriter and
other office machines, in response to the growing needs of business, made it possible to carry out record keeping, communication,
and related activities on a tremendous scale. The result was the
creation of entirely new occupations, many of which women perform.
For certain clerical, sales, and kindred occupations there are
approximately comparable data for both 1870 and 1940. (See
Table 6.) The total figure for women in 1870 was but a fraction
of the 1940 number. The number of women in the specified white2
The term "white-collar" has been applied with varying degrees of inclusiveness.
In its broad-
est sense it may be used to designate "occupations of the class that is socially above manual labor,"
as in Horwill's Dictionary
Winston
dictionary,
of modern American
usage.
An intermediate meaning is given in
The
college edition, which couples the term with "those who are employed in the
better, but not the top, positions; clerks and subordinate executives."
Here the term is used in the
narrow sense suggested in Webster's New international dictionary, second edition, unabridged, which
defines it as "the class of salaried workers, esp. office and mercantile workers, as clerks, salesmen,
bookkeepers, etc., whose duties permit or require a well-groomed appearance,"
with the census category "Clerical, sales, and kindred workers."
or
synonomously
For purposes of comparison cer-
tain occupations that belong with clerical, sales, and kindred workers had to be omitted, and certain
others belonging in other occupational groups were included.
See Appendix Tables IIA and IIB,
footnote 47.
3
See Coyle, Grace L.
The annals of the American
Academy
The modern corporation and private
property.
Women in the clerical occupations.
of Political and Social Science 143: 181-2, May 1929.
1
Berle, Adolf A., Jr., and Means, Gardiner C.
New York, N . Y . , Macmillan Co., 1944.
Ch. II, The appearance of the corporate system.
WHITE-COLLAR
73
WORKERS
Table , 6.—Number and Percent Distribution of Women Clerical, Sales, and
Kindred Workers in Selected Occupations, 1870 and 1940 1
Occupation
Total selected clerical, sales, and
kindred workers..,
...
...
Stenographers, typists, and secretaries;
shipping and receiving clerks; clerical
and kindred workers (not elsewhere classified) ; and office machine operators. . . .
"Clerks" in stores; buyers and department
heads, store; canvassers and solicitors;
traveling salesmen and sales agents; attendants, filling station, parking lot,
garage, and airport; and saleswomen
(not elsewhere classified)
Bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers . . .
Telegraph, telephone, and radio and wireless operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Agents (not elsewhere classified); credit
men; purchasing agents and buyers (not
elsewhere classified); county agents and
farm demonstrators; and collectors, bill
and account
Demonstrators,
Messengers, errand, and office girls; telegraph messengers— . . . .
—...
Hucksters and peddlers . . . .
Newsboys.
Mail carriers..
Auctioneers.....
Source:
Number of women
1940
Percent distribution
1940
1870
1870
13,369
100.0
930
54.2
853,870
475,685
9,027
893
24.8
13.8
67.5
6,7
205,627
321
6.0
2,4
23,429
8,703
17
568
0.7
0.3
0.1
4.2
3,272
2,498
1,597
1,544
183
46
1,543
7
5
12
0.1
0.1
0.3
11.6
0.1
3,439,562
1,863,154
(22)
()
(2)
100.0
(2)
0.1
Appendix Table IIA.
The clerical,. sales, and kindred workers included in this distribution numbered 3,406,046 and
constituted 97.9 percent of the total 3,479,182 women classified as clerical, sales, and kindred
workers in 1940. In addition radio and wireless operators; credit men; purchasing agents and
buyers (not elsewhere classified); county agents and farm demonstrators; buyers and department
heads, store; and attendants, filling station, parking lot, garage, and airport, which were not
classified with clerical, sales, and kindred workers in 1940, were included for comparability with
1870.; These additional women numbered 33,516 and were 1.0 percent as large as the group
classified as clerical, sales, and kindred workers in 1940.
1
2
Less than 0.05 percent.
collar fields grew from 13,369 to 3,439,562, an increase of nearly
257 times. At the earlier date, nearly 7 out of 10 women in these
selected occupations were in the field consisting primarily of saleswomen of various types. Another 1 in 10 was a huckster or peddler. Thus the sales occupations predominated, with clerical work
in a minor position and employing only one woman in six of those
in this group. In contrast, over half of the women in the selected
white-collar fields in 1940 were stenographers, typists, secretaries,
and clerks of various kinds. This group together with bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers and withJtelephone, telegraph, and
radio operators accounted for three out of four women in all these
occupations in 1940, leaving selling jobs in the minority.
In 1870 the saleswomen group was almost ten times as numerous as the stenographic-clerical group. The 1910 census was the
747639°—48--6
74:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
first at which women in the stenographic-clerical group outran
the saleswomen in numbers. By 1940 the stenographic-clerical
field had more than twice as many women as the saleswomen's
occupations.
THE WOMAN "OFFICE WORKER"
General trends.—To the average person the term "office
worker" means a stenographer, typist, or clerk, who is in most
instances a woman. This was far from true in 1870. At that time
less than 1,000 women were estimated in the entire group that
comprised stenographers, typists, and secretaries; shipping and
receiving clerks; clerical and kindred workers (not elsewhere
classified); and office machine operators. Women constituted
only 3 percent of the total men and women in these four occupations.
The impetus to the tremendous growth in the number of women in office work arose from the invention of a practical typewriter, first marketed in the seventies. It was operated by women
from the very first.5 Later it was followed by a great variety of
other office machinery also operated to a considerable extent by
women.
In the thirty years following 1870 the number of women in
these office occupations grew by well over 100,000. In the 30
years just prior to 1940 nearly l1/^ million women were added to
these branches of work. The average decennial growth over the
70 years was 266,032, a figure exceeded in every census period
following 1900. The greatest numerical growth in any 10-year
interval occurred from 1910 to 1920 when 651,625 women were
added to the group, with the result that the number of women in
"office work" was nearly three times as large in 1920 as in 1910.
This was a period characterized by a rapid expansion in the use
of women during war. By 1940 the four fields combined had a
total of 1,863,154 women, of whom 58.8 percent were stenographers, typists, and secretaries, and 37.7 percent were clerical
workers (not elsewhere classified).
The greatest rate of increase for women "office workers" in
any decade occurred from 1880 to 1890. Women in these selected
office occupations multiplied nearly 20 times—a testament to the
growing acceptance of the typewriter and of the trained woman
typist. Since 1920 the rate of growth among women in these
fields has shown a marked decline, as is typical in the later stages
of a growth curve as it approaches a saturation point.
6
The story of the early days of the typewriter is told in Women in business: I.
50, July 1935.
Fortune
12:
WHITE-COLLAR
75
WORKERS
Women ' "office
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1,863,154
1,482,947
1,038,390
386,765
104,450
45,553
2,315
930
workers"1
Percent increase
over preceding
census
25.6
42.8
168.5
270.3
129.3
1,867.7
148.9
—
Includes stenographers, typists, and secretaries; shipping and receiving clerks;
kindred workers (not elsewhere classified); and office machine operators.
1
clerical and
Changes relative to population and labor force growth.—Toward the close of the nineteenth century, increasing attention was
given to the solution of problems of improved business efficiency
and of distribution, activities which necessitated an evergrowing
number of written communications and records in connection with
business operations and with salesmen, customers, advertising,
and so forth. The increasing number of larger business units and
the expanding functions and requirements of government also
contributed to greater and greater needs for office and clerical
work. The growing place of women in this vast network of business and distributive activities is indicated by the fact that where
in the four office occupations in 1870 there had been 1 woman to
every 42,800 persons in the country, by 1940 the ratio was 1 to 71
people. These activities absorbed even greater proportions of
women in the labor force. From a minute fraction of all women
workers, the proportion in stenographic-clerical occupations rose
to about one-seventh in 1940.
Number of persons in
population for each
woman "office worker>n
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
70.7
82.8
101.8
237.8
727.6
1,374.7
21,665.6
42,815.5
Women "office
workers"1
as percent of all women
in the labor force or
gainfully occupied
14.3
13.8
12.0
5.2
2.0
1.1
0.1
(2)
1 Includes
stenographers, typists, and secretaries; shipping and receiving clerks;
kindred workers (not elsewhere classified); and office machine operators.
2 Less than 0.05 percent.
clerical and
Changes relative to men.—In taking on the functions of clerical workers, women did not replace men. Rather they found entirely new opportunities. Over the same period that 1,862,224
women took up work as stenographers, typists, and other general
76:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
office workers, 1,550,526 men also did so. Women became relatively more important, rising from a minor fraction in 1870 to
well over half of the entire group in 1940. The proportion women
were of the total in the various general office occupations in 1940
ranged from 4 percent of the shipping and receiving clerks and
35.6 percent of the clerical workers, not elsewhere classified, to
85.8 percent of the office machine operators and 93.3 percent of
the stenographers, typists, and secretaries. Trends over the
years in the proportions of women among the workers in these
four fields combined were as follows:
Women as percent of
all "office workers'n
1940
1930
1920 _-____„_____
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1
Includes stenographers, typists,
_
and secretaries;
shipping and receiving clerks;
54.1
53.1
49.6
37.4
29.3
20.8
3.6
3.1
clerical and
kindred workers (not elsewhere classified); and office machine operators.
Shifts in particular occupations — Clerical jobs, because of
their high social status among the occupations, have had special
preference among women. The recent rapid growth in the number of office machine operators indicates that in certain respects
the character of these pursuits is changing, and the extent to
which they are "mental" occupations is open to question. The
figures for office machine operators are an index but not a complete measure of the trend. In the entire stenographic-clerical
group being discussed, there is considerable use of machines, and
there has been increasing break-down of the work into specialized
repetitive jobs.6
Office machine operators operate the addressograph, bookkeeping, calculating, card punching, card sorting, check writing,
computing, duplicating, mimeographing, tabulating, and various
other machines used in offices. As a special group they became
sufficiently important for separate listing in the census of 1930,
when there were 32,064 women, who constituted 88.6 percent of
the total men and women in the occupation. From 1930 to 1940,
23,010 women were added to the occupation, which brought them
above the 55,000 mark. Women, however, lost out slightly to
men, being 85.8 percent of total office machine operators in 1940.
6
The use of office machinery and its influence on conditions of work for staff.
labour review 36: 486-516, October 1937.
International
77
WHITE-COLLAR WORKERS
The distribution of women in "office work" in 1930 and 1940 was
as follows:
Percent distribution
Total women "office workers"
-
Stenographers, typists, and secretaries
Shipping and receiving clerksClerical and kindred workers
(not elsewhere classified)
.
Office machine operators
1940
1930
100.0
100.0
58.8 "
0.5 \
|
37.7
3.0
2.2
Age groups.—Of 2,610,263 women clerical and kindred workers7 in 1940 11.5 percent were over 45 years of age, compared with
22.2 percent among women workers in all occupations. The proportion of older women increased in recent decades, and the proportion under 20 years of age dropped sharply, as the following data
show:
Percent distribution
Women clerical and kindred
workers 14 years and over.
14 to 19 years.
20 to 44 years
45 years and over
1940
.100.0
8.5
80.0
11.5
____
1930
1920
100.0
100.0
17.4
26.6
*69.4
4.0
x76.0
6.6
Includes age unknown.
1
Marital groups.—In 1940, 27.9 percent of the women employed or seeking work in all clerical and kindred occupations were
married.8 Women in clerical work are less likely to have either
the more imperative financial incentive of industrial women workers to continue work after marriage or the desire of the professional woman for a career. Hiring and dismissal practices have
also tended to limit opportunities for married women in this field.
Consequently the proportion who were married tended to be below
that for all women workers. This tendency has been characteristic
of the clerical group since 1910, though the proportion married
has been rising among clerical workers, as well as among all
women workers.
7
Data by age group in 1940 are available for only the intermediate list of occupations. To match
occupations of earlier years with those of 1940, practically all the 1940 clerical occupations had to be
included.
Consequently it seemed desirable to bring in the remaining occupations and discuss the
whole group of clerical and kindred occupations.
8
Data by marital status in 1940 are available only for those who were employed (by current
occupation)
and who were seeking work
(by last occupation)
and for the intermediate list of
occupations only. (See footnote 1, p. 71, for basis of data used in other sections on "white-collar"
workers.)
T o match occupations of earlier years with those of 1940, practically all the 1940 clerical
occupations had to be included.
Consequently
it seemed
desirable to bring in the remaining
occupations and discuss the whole group of clerical and kindred occupations.
78:
W O M E N ' S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
Proportion of women workers 14 years
and over who were married1
Among clerical and
kindred workers
1940
1930
1920
-
-
Among all
women workers
27.9
18.8
9.2
35.5
28.8
22.8
In 1930 and 1920 women who were 14 years of age were counted as single.
1
BOOKKEEPERS, ACCOUNTANTS, AND CASHIERS
Bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers were long the elite
of the clerical group. Like the larger group of stenographers;
typists, and miscellaneous clerical workers, few of those in bookkeeping and related fields were women in 1870 and 1880, but
the proportion increased rapidly. The development of business
into larger units, the need for accurate knowledge of costs and
profits, the demand for data required by governmental authorities
because of income tax and other needs, and similar factors stimulated the introduction of machinery into the accounting field. In
turn, the use of machines has made it possible to perform work
that would be prohibitive in cost if done by hand.9
The largest numbers of women were added to the bookkeeper,
accountant, and cashier group between 1910 and 1920, when the
field increased by almost 174,000 women. The rate of growth,
however, had been highest from 1880 to 1890 and lessened appreciably in each succeeding decade. The 1940 number was actually
somewhat lower than in 1930. In 1870 there was one woman bookkeeper, accountant, or cashier to every 45,000 persons in the population ; in 1940 the ratio was one to 277 in the population. The
growth of day-to-day financial transactions in the economy and
of the need for recording and analyzing them and the resulting
opportunities for women in these activities has been considerable.
Women bookkeepers, accountants,
and cashiers
Percent change from
Number
preceding census
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
475,685
487,538
362,715
189,027
74,895
28,050
4,295
893
2.4
+ 34.4
+ 91.9
+152.4
+167.0
+553.1
+381.0
—
In accounting and bookkeeping, as in the more general clerical
fields, the increasing specialization and the use of mechanical de9
The use of office machinery and its influence on conditions of work for staff.
labour review 36: 515, October 1937.
International
WHITE-COLLAR
79
WORKERS
vices was accompanied by the increasing use of women to operate
them. By 1940 women in the total group of bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers slightly exceeded men, though in 1870
there had been over 40 times as many men as the 893 women in
these occupations. Though separate data were not available in
1940, undoubtedly the highly skilled work of the accountant constituted but a minor section of this field, with opportunities for
women in this specialized branch still relatively few. Trends in
the proportion of women among bookkeepers, accountants, and
cashiers from 1870 to 1940 appear from the following data:
Women as percent of all
bookkeepers, accountants,
and cashiers
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
_
-
_
-
-
-
51.1
51.9
48.9
38.5
29.1
17.4
5.7
2.3
TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE OPERATORS
The development of the telegraph, dating from the 1840's, and
of the telephone, beginning in the 1870's, opened new fields of
work for men and women.10 The number of women in these and
related occupations grew from 321 in 1870 (all in the service of
the telegraph companies) to 205,627 in 1940 (with nearly 96 percent in telephone operation).
Women telegraph, radio and wireless,
and telephone operators
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
.
—
-
205,627
246,590
190,181
94,015
20,387
7,627
1,148
321
Percent change from
preceding census
— 16.6
+ 29.7
+ 102.3
+361.2
+167.3
+564.4
+257.6
The introduction of the common battery switchboard in telephone operation about the turn of the century cut down consider1 0 Developments in methods of communication are described in U.
S. Department of Labor.
Women's Bureau. Effects of applied research upon the employment opportunities of American
women.
Bulletin 50.
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1926, pp. 37-42.
A short
discussion of trends since 1925 "is given in U. S. Department of Labor. Women's Bureau. The
woman telephone worker.
By Ethel Erickson. Bulletin 207. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1946, pp. 36-37.
80:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
ably on the time required to put through individual calls. However, the increased use of the telephone service as a means of
carrying on business activities led to the use of additional numbers
of operators in spite of the higher output per worker.11 Separate
data for telephone operators, available beginning in 1900, show
that high rates of increase among telephone operators occurred
before 1920. From 1920 to 1930 the rate of increase was very
much smaller, but further expansion of the telephone service requiring additional workers occurred even though the dial system
and other technological improvements were installed. The drop
in the number of telephone customers during the depression years
was countered by increased use of labor-saving devices, which
resulted in the employment of fewer workers when business conditions improved.12
Women telephone operators
1940
1930
1920
1910 -____
1900
____
__
_
Number
Percent change from
preceding census
197,062
235,259
178,379
88,262
15,327
- 16.2
+ 31.9
+102.1
+475:9
—
Though at the start telephone switchboards had been operated by boys, it was soon found that women were better suited to
the work.13 By the time of the 1910 census women were 90.2 percent of the operators, rising to 94.6 by 1940.
Women as percent
of all telephone
operators
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
.
94.6
94.5
93.8
90.2
80.0
Women telegraph operators in 1940 were a minor proportion
of women operating the three types of communication equipment
being discussed. Like women telephone operators, their numbers
declined from 1930 to 1940 and at an even greater rate. Separate
data beginning in 1930 for women radio operators show them an
insignificant part of the group.
1 1 U. S. Department of Labor." Women's Bureau.
Effects of applied research upon the employment opportunities of American women. Bulletin 50. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1926, pp. 38-39.
12
Anderson, H. Dewey,
and Davidson,
Percy E.
Occupational
trends in the
United
States.
Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press, 1940; p. 424.
13 See U . S . Department of Labor.
Women's Bureau. The change from manual to dial operation in the telephone industry.
By Ethel L. Best.
Bulletin, 110, Washington, U . S . Government
Printing Office, 1933, p. 1.
WHITE-COLLAR WORKERS
81
Percent distribution of women
Telegraph, radio
and wireless, and
telephone operators
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
Telegraph
operators
4.1
4.6
2 6.2
2 6.1
224.8
1
Less than 0.05 percent.
2
Radio and wireless operators included with telegraph operators.
Raaio and
wireless
operators
0.1
C)
O
(a)
(2)
Telephone
operators
95.8
95.4
93.8
93.9
75.2
ATTENDANTS, PHYSICIANS' AND DENTISTS' OFFICES
The number of women who were attendants in physicians'
and dentists' offices grew from less than 5,000 in 1910, when they
were first reported separately, to nearly 30,000 in 1940, more
than doubling from 1910 to 1920 and again from 1920 to 1930.
The lower rate of growth in the decade after 1930 may indicate
that doctors and dentists were less able to afford the services
of an assistant in the depression period, though it is also true that
nurses in doctors' offices were more apt in 1940 to be included
with trained nurses than with attendants.
Women attendants, physicians' and dentists' offices
Percent increase over
preceding census
Number
1940 1930
1920
1910
.
...
_„____
-
-____-___
29,702
24,720
10,669
4,658
20.2
131.7
129.0
—
The trend toward specialization, which appears in the practice among physicians and dentists of concentrating their abilities
on particular types of cases, has reached down to the activities
carried on within a single office. The attendant has taken over
some of the duties formerly done by the physician or dentist
himself, such as preparing the patients, keeping clerical records,
and making appointments.14 Women have been relied on increasingly for this specialized type of assistance, as the following data
indicate:
Women as percent of all
attendants, physicians'
and dentists' offices
1940 _•_-_„1930
1920
1910
14
_„„
95.2
95.8
83.4
80.9
_„_________________„___
For duties performed by these workers, see U. S. Department of Labor.
Physicians'
and dentists' assistants.
By Marguerite Wykoff Zapoleon.
ington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1946, pp. 2-6, 10.
Women's Bureau.
Bulletin 203, No. 11.
Wash-
82:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
AGENTS, COLLECTORS, AND CREDIT MEN
The estimated 17 women occupied in 1870 as agents, collectors, or credit "men" were succeeded in 1940 by 23,429 women,
classified as agents, credit men, purchasing agents and buyers,
county agents and farm demonstrators, and collectors (bill and
account). Most of the women entered this work after 1900. In
terms of numbers the largest growth for women occurred from
1930 to 1940, though the rate of growth after 1920 was considerably below the rates before that date.
Women agents, collectors, and
credit men1
Percent increase over
preceding census
Number
1940 __
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
23,429
14,132
11,339
4,133
1,815
838
75
17
,
65.8
24.6
174.4
127.7
116.6
1,017.3
341.2
— .
Includes agents (not elsewhere classified), credit men, purchasing agents and buyers (not
elsewhere classified), county agents and farm demonstrators, and collectors (bill and account).
1
The inclusion of county agents and farm demonstrators, a
professional occupation of comparatively recent development,
probably does not appreciably affect the proportions of women
among the whole agent group. Women were 42.9 percent of all
county agents and farm demonstrators in 1940 and 28.9 percent
in 1930, but the number of workers in this occupation was small
relative to all workers in the agent group. Though still a minority, women have been an increasing proportion of agents.
Women as percent of all
agents, collectors,
and credit men1
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1
_-_
____________
_-_
_
__
__
_________
...
Includes agents (not elsewhere classified),
,
credit men,
purchasing
11.1
7.8
- . 7.8
.... 5.1
_________________ 3.5
2.2
1.0
0.4
agents and
buyers
(not
elsewhere classified), county agents and farm demonstrators, and collectors (bill and account).
MESSENGERS, ERRAND, AND OFFICE BOYS
The number of messengers, errand, and office boys and girls
reached its peak in 1920. Girls were never very numerous in the
field and in 1940 constituted only about 4 percent of the total. (In
1920 the proportion had been nearly twice as great.) The con-
WHITE-COLLAR
83
WORKERS
tinued decrease from 1930 to 1940 may be somewhat exaggerated,
because girls 10 to 13 years were not included in the group in
1940, and furthermore differences in census processing may have
affected the figures. The number of girls who were telegraph
messengers was especially small, and they constituted less than
2 percent of those in the occupation in 1940. Undoubtedly the
undesirability of having young girls work under the circumstances
surrounding the delivery of telegraph messages was a limiting
factor. Some States (Minnesota, New Mexico, New York, Ohio)
prohibit the employment of girls under 21 years of age in the delivery of telegrams or personal messages.15 Changes in numbers
and proportions of women were as follows:
Women messengers, errand, and
office girls
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
__
,__
-
,
__ 3,272
5,280
8,559
6,512
3,798
1,658
228
46
Percent of all workers
in this occupation
4.2
5.5
7.9
6,2
6.0
3.6
1.8
0,6
Mail carriers.—In 1940, 1,544 women were returned as mail
carriers, compared to an estimated 5 in 1870. Only one-third of
the growth occurred from 1910 to 1940. Probably many of these
women work as carriers in rural regions under more specialized
circumstances than the majority of letter carriers. The proportion of women among all mail carriers never reached as much as
2 percent.
Women mail carriers
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
______
1890 ____________
1880
1870
____
_
____
1,544
1,106
1,294
_____„..__________ 991
_________ 259
_______ H I
24
5
Percent of all workers
in this occupation
1.3
0.9
1.4
1.2
0.9
0.5
0.2
0.1
SALES OCCUPATIONS
General trends.—In 1940 nearly 3 million persons were working as salesmen and saleswomen, buyers, sales agents, canvassers,
1 5 U. S. Department of Labor.
Women's Bureau, State labor laws for women, with wartime
modifications—explanation
and appraisal.
By Alice Angus.
Bulletin 202-V.
Washington^ U. S.
Government Printing Office, 1946, p. 59.
84:
W O M E N ' S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
garage and filling station attendants, or as "clerks" in stores.
Seventy years earlier there had been less than a quarter of a million in all the selling occupations. The tremendous increase in
this one group of occupations is evidence of the growth in the distribution network required to get goods into the hands of the consumer. So significant has this trend been, that it has led to the
expression "the Distribution Age."16 The number of women during the 70-year period increased from less than 10,000 to over
850,000 in the specified selling occupations. From 1870 to 1880 the
number of women reported more than tripled. Each decade
after that the rate of growth slackened. In terms of numbers of
additional women in the field, the most flourishing period was
from 1920 to 1930, when nearly 187,000 additional women swelled
the ranks.
The effect of the depression years appears to have been noticeable in these fields. The number of women added had been
larger in each successive decade until 1930, but from 1930 to 1940
the number fell off somewhat. The rate of increase from 1930 to
1940 was the smallest ever experienced since 1870, and for the
first time fell below the rate of growth among all women of working age.
Women in sales occupations1
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
-
853,870
720,434
533,645
372,271
216,810
- 98,820
31,738
9,027
Percent increase over
preceding census
18.5
35.0
43.3
71.7
119.4
211.4
251.6
—
1 Includes saleswomen, "clerks"
in stores, store buyers and department heads, canvassers and
solicitors, traveling salesmen and sales agents, and attendants in filling stations, parking lots, garages,
and airports.
Changes relative to population and labor force growth.—Intermediary between the producer and the consumer, the saleswoman has had a growing place in the economy as the distribution
function expanded. Beginning shortly after the Civil War new
demands fostered the successive introduction of the department
store, the mail order house, and the chain store.17 For each woman
16
Borsodi, Ralph.
This author,
The distribution age.
New York, N. Y., D. Appleton & Co., 1927.
in common with other writers, thinks that modern high
321 pp.
pressure marketing
has
exceeded desirable limits.
17 Schaller, Dr. O. E.
Bouck.
The development
pp. 865-881.
The retailing industry.
of American industry.
In Glover, John George, and Cornell, William
New York, N, Y., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1941,
WHITE-COLLAR
85
WORKERS
In selling occupations there were 4,411 persons in the general
population in 1870. The expansion in numbers relative to the
population continued over the years until in 1940 for each woman
in sales work there were only 154 persons. The growing prevalence of the saleswoman, however, has lagged behind that of the
clerical worker, of whom there was 1 for every 70 persons in the
population.
Indicative of the trend toward better-developed organization
in distribution is the contrast between the ratio of population to
women in general selling fields and the ratio to those engaged as
hucksters and peddlers (to be discussed subsequently). The latter decreased markedly relative to the population. The following
data show the trends:
Number of persons in population for—
Each woman in sales
occupations1
1940 __
1930
1920
1910 ___
1900
1890
1880
1870 ___1
Each woman huckster
and peddler
154
170
198
247
351
634
1,580
4,411
_
52,710
68,589
55,375
24,299
26,070
27,721
20,127
25,806
Includes saleswomen, "clerks" in stores, store buyers and department heads, canvassers and
solicitors,
traveling salesmen and sales agents,
and attendants
in
filling stations,
parking
lots,
garages, and airports.
Up through 1930 selling occupations offered exceptional opportunities to women workers in providing jobs for a constantly
larger section of the woman labor force. The proportion of all
women workers in the various selling occupations was 12 times
as great in 1940 as in 1870.
Women in sales occupations1
as percent of all women
in the labor force or
gainfully occupied
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
-
-
-
,
______
___._
-__
__
—
-
-
- -
6.6
6.7
6.2
5.0
__ 4.1
2.5
1.2
0.5
1 Includes saleswomen,
"clerks" in stores, store buyers and department heads, canvassers and
solicitors, traveling salesmen and sales agents, and attendants in filling stations, parking lots,
garages, and airports.
Changes relative to men.—In 1940, 94 percent of the women
in the various selling occupations were saleswomen or "clerks" in
stores. Among men, in contrast, only 54 percent were in these
86:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
fields. After 1900 a program of national distribution was developed by manufacturers, a trend which led to new techniques
in salesmanship and consequently shifted some of the employment
opportunities from customary retail outlets to organizations
formed for direct selling by producers.18 In 1940 traveling salesmen and sales agents constituted the second largest group in the
selling field. Women participated to a small extent in this newer
field, for they were but 2 percent of traveling salesmen and sales
agents, compared to over two-fifths of salesmen and saleswomen
and of "clerks" in stores. Continuing opportunities in those types
of sales work more generally open to women have apparently enabled women to maintain an important position in sales occupations as a whole. In 1940 the proportion of women among all
workers in the combined group of selling fields, though below the
1920 peak, was seven times greater than that in 1870.
Women as percent
of all workers in
sales occupations1
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
,
_
28.6
26.9
30.2
25.2
20.6
14.8
1880
7.7
1870
3.7
Includes salesmen and saleswomen, "clerks" in stores, store buyers and department heads,
canvassers and solicitors, traveling salesmen and sales agents, and attendants in filling stations,
parking lots, garages, and airports.
1
Age groups and marital status.•—Comparable data are not
available to determine changes from one census to another in the
age composition and marital status of those in any of the merchandising occupations or in all of them together. Data for
women employed in 1940 as "clerks" in stores, saleswomen (not
elsewhere classified), and demonstrators indicate that this group
of occupations was somewhat more favorable to the older woman
than was the clerical and kindred branch of white-collar occupations. In these three fields nearly one-fifth (18.4 percent) of the
women were 45 years old and over, compared to 11.5 percent of
women clerical and kindred workers. Married women, moreover,
apparently had exceptionally good opportunities in merchandis18
See Salesmanship.
1930-35.
Encyclopaedia
of the social sciences.
New York, N. Y. f Macmillan Co.,
WHITE-COLLAR
87
WORKERS
ing. Among all saleswomen, "clerks" in stores, and demonstrators about 40 percent were married, while in clerical and kindred
occupations only 28 percent were married.
Demonstrators.—Though many of the techniques of selling
are of relatively recent origin, the work of the demonstrator was
not unknown in 1870. This involves the explanation of the value
and operation of a particular product to potential buyers. From
less than an estimated 600 women in 1870 the numbers rose to
8,703 in 1940. The rate of increase has been steady and relatively
large except from 1910 to 1920.
In the sales occupations previously discussed women were less
than 3 out of every 10 workers. Among demonstrators, however,
women were always a majority and by 1940 were 4 out of 5 in
the group.
Women demonstrators
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
-
,
-
. 8,703
5,970
3,311
3,255
2,214
1,663
1,043
568
Percent increase
over preceding
census
45.8
80.3
1.7
47.0
33.1
59.4
83.6
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
82.7
76.9
66.6
72.2
66.8
63.8
60.4
58.7
HUCKSTERS AND PEDDLERS19
Hucksters and peddlers, in pioneer days the chief agents in
distributing manufactured goods, have for some time been declining in relative importance in the economy. The 56,695 hucksters
and peddlers in 1940 were not much more numerous than in 1880,
and the 2,498 women were practically identical with the number
of women in the group in 1880. A peak was reached in this occupation in 1910 followed by a sharp drop. For women there was
nearly a 50 percent decrease from 1910 to 1920. A smaller rate
of decrease occurred in the next decade. The marginal character
of this occupation may well have caused the maintenance of employment levels in this field from 1930 to 1940, when the depression years made jobs hard to find. Proportions of women have
fluctuated around 3 or 4 percent.
10
See p. 85 for number of persons in population for each woman huckster and peddler, 1870-1940.
8:
W O M E N ' S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
Women hucksters and peddlers
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
Number
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
2,498
1,790
1,909
3,785
2,915
2,259
2,492
1,543
4.4
3.0
3.6
4.5
3.6
3.6
4.4
4.2
INSURANCE AGENTS AND BROKERS
The occupation of insurance selling has been a small but
growing field for women, who numbered 13,321 in 1940 compared
with less than 2,500 thirty years earlier, when census data were
first available. From 1930 to 1940 the rate of increase among
women was small in comparison with previous decades.
Women insurance agents and brokers
Percent increase over
preceding census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
.
13,321
12,694
4,981
2,486
4.9
154.8
100.4
—
As an occupation in which maturity in age has advantages,
insurance selling does not discriminate against older women of
ability and enterprise.20 The median age of women employed in
this field in 1940 was 44.4 years, compared to a median of 32.3
years for all employed women.
The life insurance field has been expanding as the population increased, and such insurance has been put to new uses as
this type of saving has become more attractive than certain other
kinds. The advent of Social Security has possibly increased
rather than lessened consciousness of the need for insurance. Automobile, fire, health, and accident insurance are other growing
insurance fields. Women may have particular advantages as
agents if they specialize in selling, for example, to business and
professional women, to teachers, and to other women with independent incomes.21 Women have a growing foothold in the occupation and have constituted a slightly increasing proportion of the
total in each decade since 1910.
20
See National Association of Life Underwriters.
napolis
21
Ind.
Life u,nderwriting.
A career for women.
India-
The Insurance Research and Review Service, 1942, pp. 25-26.
For trends and opportunities in the insurance field, see National Association of Life Under-
writers, op. cit., esp. pp. 20, 89; also Anderson and Davidson, op. cit., pp. 461-462.
W H I T E - C O L L A R WORKERS
89
Women as percent
of all insurance
agents and brokers
1940
*
1930
1920
1910
5.3
5.0
4.2
2.8
-
REAL ESTATE SELLING
There were 43,108 women in real estate activities In 1940,
working as agents, or managers, or building superintendents.
This number was over 14 times that in 1910, the earliest date for
which comparable data can be obtained. The figures thus give
evidence of a considerable increase among women since 1910, with
the largest number added from 1920 to 1930.
Women
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
-
real estate workers
1
Percent increase over
preceding census
43,108
33,058
9,576
3,044
30.4
245.2
214.6
—
1 Includes real estate agents and brokers; real estate proprietors, managers, and officials; and
building managers and superintendents.
The number of families in the population for each woman in
real estate activities was 6,654 in 1910, compared to 814 in 1940.
As in the insurance field, enterprising women of maturity and
judgment are particularly likely to succeed, as appears from a
median age of 48.9 years for women employed as real estate agents
and brokers. Women have been an increasing proportion of all
workers in the field.
Women as percent
of all real estate
workers1
1940
1930
1920
1910
T
-
___
20.2
12.9
6.0
2.3
Includes real estate agents and brokers; real estate proprietors, managers, and officials; and
building managers and superintendents.
1
NEWSBOYS
The circumstances surrounding the occupation of newsboy,
similar in many respects to the undesirable features in messenger
work and in occupations in places of amusement, have undoubtedly
kept the number of girls in this field small also. Prior to 1940
girls had never numbered as many as 500. In 1940 there were
1,597, who constituted 2.4 percent of the total. The increase is
thought to have come partly from lack of comparability in the
figures.
747639°—48 — 7
CHART IX.—WOMEN IN SELECTED OPERATIVE AND LABORER OCCUPATIONS,
1870-1940
THOUSANDS
800
600
400
200
Apparel and accessories;
operatives and laborers;
tciloresses; and
dressmakers
x
and s e a m /
stresses
/
(not in
/
factory) /
/
Iron and steel and their products, nonferrous
metals and their products, machinery,
except electrical, a n d transportation
equipment: operatives and laborers
THOUSANDS
Footwear industries, except rubber: operatives
and laborers; shoemakers and repairers
(not in factory;
T o b a c c o manufactures;
operatives a n d
laborers
100
75
50
25
Source: Appendix Table IIA.
90
CHANGES A M O N G OPERATIVES AND LABORERS
The routine manual work done by the operative or laborer
is essentially typical of work in manufacturing, though jobs in
manufacturing industries range from professional to service occupations and though operatives and laborers are found in nonmanufacturing industries and services. Even before the Civil
War women were engaged in work on a wide variety of manufactured products.1 Some of it was in the nature of hand trades
carried on at home, but other work was performed in larger establishments.
Census data covering a large part of the women operatives
and kindred workers and the women laborers indicate that, as in
other major groups, women were important in a wider variety of
work in 1940 than 70 years earlier. (See Table 7.) In 1870 over
three-fourths of the women in selected operatives' and laborers'
occupations were either in the sewing trades group, which covered
tailors, dressmakers and seamstresses working outside of factories, and operatives and laborers in apparel and accessory factories, or in cotton manufacturing. Only one other group in 1870
had more than 5 percent of all women operatives and laborers, and
this also was a textile group—woolen and worsted manufactures,
miscellaneous textile goods, miscellaneous fabricated products, and
not specified textile mills. By 1940 the women in the two leading
fields had dropped to 46 percent of the total. Four other industries—food, knit goods, footwear, and the metal group—each had
more than 5 percent of all women operatives and laborers.
Nearly all women classified as manufacturing operatives and
laborers in the 1940 census were included among the occupations
for which comparable 1870 data were available.2 In contrast,
such a comparison could be made for only a few of the women
classified in 1940 as specified operatives and laborers or as operatives and laborers in nonmanufacturing industries and services.
The latter constituted only about 2 percent of all women in comparable operative and laborer occupations both in 1870 and 1940.
1
Edith Abbott concluded that women were engaged in the production of more than 100 different
products, on the basis of official reports between 1820 and 1840.
New York, N . Y., D. Appleton & Co., 1924, pp. 66-70.
Abbott, Edith.
Women in industry.
In 1850 "female hands" were reported in 45
of the 70 industries specified in the census of manufactures of that year.
This was the first census
of manufacturing establishments that gave at all complete data for the country as a whole, with
information by sex.
seventh census.
Abstract
of the statistics of manufactures
according
to the
returns
of
the
Senate, 35th Congress, 2d Session, Ex. Doc. No, 39.
2 Of the 1,921,840 women manufacturing operatives and laborers in 1940, 1,730,202 or 90 percent
are included in Table 7. Certain additional occupations, not classified as manufacturing operatives
and laborers in 1940, are included with them for purposes of comparison. These additional women
numbered 205,842 and were 10.7 percent as large as the group classified as manufacturing operatives
and laborers in 1940.
91
92:
W O M E N ' S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
Table 7.—Number and Percent Distribution of Women Operatives and Kindred
Workers and Laborers, Except Farm, in Selected Occupations, 1870 and 1940 1
Occupation
Total selected operatives and kindred workers and laborers, except
farm
Manufacturing
Nondurable goods manufacturing. . .
Apparel and accessories, operatives and
laborers; tailoresses; dressmakers and
seamstresses (not in factory)
Cotton manufactures, operatives and
laborers.
Food and kindred products, except beverage, operatives and laborers; bakers;
millers.
Knit goods, operatives and l a b o r e r s . . . . . . .
Woolen and worsted manufactures, miscellaneous textile goods, miscellaneous
fabricated textile products, and not specified textile mills, operatives and laborers.
Footwear industries, except rubber, operatives and laborers; shoemakers and repairers (not in factory)
Tobacco manufactures, operatives and
laborers.
Pulp, paper, and paperboard mills, paperboard containers and boxes, and miscellaneous paper and pulp products, operatives and laborers
Silk and rayon manufactures, operatives
and laborers
Compositors and typesetters; pressmen
and plate printers, printing; electrotypers and stereotypers; engravers;
photoengravers and lithographers; printing, publishing, and allied industries,
operatives and laborers
Rubber products, operatives and laborers. .
Miscellaneous chemical industries and petroleum refining, operatives and laborers.
Leather products, except footwear, operatives and laborers .
Carpets, rugs, and other floor coverings,
operatives and laborers
Rayon and allied products, operatives and
laborers
..
. . . .
Beverage industries, operatives and laborers.
.... .
Dyers; dyeing and finishing textiles, operatives and laborers
Hats, except cloth and millinery, operatives
and laborers.
Leather: tanned, curried and finished,
operatives and laborers
Durable goods m a n u f a c t u r i n g . . . . . .
Iron and steel and not specified metal industries, nonferrous metals and their
products, machinery (except electrical),
and transportation equipment, operatives and laborers; jewelers, watchmakers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths;
buffers and polishers, grinders, molders,
heaters, and rollers and roll hands, metal;
furnacemen, smeltermen, and pourers;
tinsmiths,
coppersmiths, and sheet
metal workers
Sawyers; furniture and store fixtures, sawmills and planing mills, and miscellaneous wooden goods/ operatives and
laborers
Glass and glass products, operatives and
laborers
Number of women
1940
Percent distribution
1870
1940
1870
1,970,294
369,442
100.0
1,936,044
361,669
98.3
97.9
1,740,740
355,551
88.3
96.2
100.0
727,552
216,616
36.9
58.6
183,538
65,486
9.3
17.7
150,028
124,696
2,460
1,971
7.6
6.3
0.7
0.5
121,530
27,163
6.2
7.4
101,626
9,645
5.2
2.6
61,245
4,290
8,1
1.2
56,047
6,242
2.8
1.7
48,255
2,302
2.4
0.6
1.2
0.5
42,553
4,397
2.2
26,191
1,832
1.3
25,316
403
1.3
0.1
24,510
744
1.2
0.2
13,107
5,948
0.7
1.6
0.5
10,834
7,587
19
0.4
6,942
1,310
0.4
<*>
0.4
4,735
4,637
0.2
1.3
4,448
86
0.2
(2)
195,304
6,118
9.9
1.7
136,882
5,217
6.9
31,902
534
14,213
180
1.6
1
0.7
0.1
(2>
93
OPERATIVES AND LABORERS
Table 7.—Number and Percent Distribution of Women Operatives and
Kindred Workers and Laborers, Except Farm, in Selected
Occupations, 1870 and 19401—Continued
Occupation
Durable goods manufacturing—
Continued
Pottery and related products, operatives
and laborers
Structural clay products, operatives and
laborers. . .
Stonecutters and stone carvers; cutstone
and stone products, operatives and
laborers
Nonmanufacturing.
Construction, miscellaneous transportation, and industry not reported, laborers;
longshoremen and stevedores
Chauffeurs and drivers, bus, taxi, truck
and tractor; deliverymen
Brakemen, railroad; baggagemen, transportation; conductors, railroad, bus, and
street railway; inspectors, railroad (including railroad repair shops); operatives and laborers in railroads (including
railroad repair shops), street railway and
bus lines, and trucking service; teamsters; locomotive engineers and firemen;
motormen, street, subway, and elevated
railway; switchmen, railroad; watchmen
(crossing) and bridge tenders; ticket,
station, and express agents
Mine operatives and laborers; foremen,
mining
Linemen and servicemen, telegraph, telephone, and power; foremen, operatives,
and laborers in communication
Lumbermen, raftsmen, and woodchoppers.
Automobile storage, rental, and repair
service, laborers; garage laborers and car
washers and greasers.
Fishermen and oystermen. .
Source:
Percent distribution
Number of women
1940
1870
1940
1870
10,082
105
0.5
2,036
82
0.1
189
(2)
34,250
7,773
1.7
2.1
12,892
7,414
0.7
2.0
10,029
105
0.5
(2)
5,739
162
0.3
(a)
2,608
8 56
0.1
0.1
1,510
567
467
438
(2)
36
(22)
()
(2)
Appendix Table IIA.
The women operatives and kindred workers and laborers, except farm, included in this
distribution numbered 1,927,966 and constituted 78.0 percent of the total 2,473,094 women classified
as women operatives and kindred workers and laborers, except farm, in 1940.
In addition
baggagemen, transportation; conductors, railroad; inspectors, railroad; locomotive engineers;
locomotive firemen; watchmen (crossing) and bridge tenders; ticket, station, and express agents;
foremen, communication; foremen, mining; bakers; millers, grain, flour, feed, etc.; tailoresses;
sawyers; compositors and typesetters; pressmen and plate printers, printing; electrotypers and
stereotypers; engravers, except photoengravers; photoengravers and lithographers; shoemakers and
repairers (not in factory); stonecutters and stone carvers; jewelers, watchmakers, goldsmiths,
and silversmiths; molders, metal; rollers and roll hands, metal; and tinsmiths, coppersmiths, and
sheet metal workers, which were not classified with operatives and kindred workers arid laborers
except farm in 1940, were included for comparability with 1870. These additional women numbered
42,328 and were 1.7 percent as large as the group classified as operatives and kindred workers and
laborers, except farm, in 1940.
1
2
Less than 0.05 percent..
3
Figure not adjusted for comparability. See Appendix Tables IIA and IIB, footnote 5.
94:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
By 1940 more of the women in routine manufacturing jobs
were working in the "heavy industries" than in 1870. This does
not necessarily mean that more women than formerly are working
on the same jobs as men. A single occupational classification may
include numbers of specific jobs, some of which are done by men,
others by women. Of all women operatives and laborers that can
be compared for the two dates, 96 percent were manufacturing
nondurable goods in 1870, with but 2 percent in durable goods
production. By 1940 the proportion in nondurable goods had
dropped to 88 percent, with 10 percent in durable goods production.
The discussion that follows presents the various groups of
manufacturing operatives and laborers in the order in which they
appear in Appendix Tables IIA and IIB, rather than according to
their importance for women. Women operatives and laborers in
nonmanufacturing industries and services were few in number.
Moreover comparable data for previous census years frequently
were not available. The trends in these occupations are not discussed, with one exception, "Fruit and vegetable graders and
packers" (see p. 133). Such data, however, as are available are
shown in Appendix Tables IIA and IIB.
FOOD MANUFACTURING
General trends.—In 1870 most of the workers of both sexes
in the food industry were millers and bakers; a minor proportion
of commercial preparation of food was concerned with confectionery, cheese, sugar refining, and meat packing. As a matter of
fact, most of the food consumed on the tables of the country's
families was prepared by the unpaid work of women in the home.
Cooking, baking, and preserving were among the major activities
of every household. Flour milling and baking, however, had forerunners as factory industries in the local grist mills, the merchant
flour mills, and the ship's bread of the prerevolutionary period.3
The introduction during the seventies of the roller process
and other improvements in flour milling as well as the development in the seventies and eighties of refrigeration and canning
processes in meat packing and preserving gave an impetus to the
development of commercial food production.4 Concurrently, increased urban living and various other social changes brought
greater demand for and consumption of factory-produced foods.
At the same time the availability of such foods was one of the
3
Clark, Victor S.
History of manufactures in the United States.
Hill Book Co., 1929, Vol. I, pp. 174-179.
* Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 504, 506.
New York, N. Y.,
McGraw-
95
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
factors making it possible for women to take up paid work more
easily.
As a result of the economic changes just discussed, the number of women operatives and laborers in food industries rose from
less than 2,500 in 1870 to more than 150,000 in 1940. Their numbers multiplied more than 8 times from 1870 to 1900, compared
with slightly more than three times in the 30 years just prior to
1940, indicating that the growth continued, though slackening in
rate.5
Women operatives and laborers:
food and kindred products1
Number
1940
1930 - - - - 1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
- -
- _
150,028
114,270
94,701
. 48,099
19,713
10,169
4,503
2,460
Percent increase
over preceding
census
31.3
20.7
96.9
144.0
93.9
125.8
83.0
__
Includes bakers; millers, grain, flour, feed, etc.; and operatives and laborers in the following:
bakery products; canning and preserving fruits, vegetables, and sea food; confectionery; dairy products; meat products; grain-mill products; and miscellaneous food industries.
1
Changes relative to population and labor force growth.—With
the increase in development of food industries, the number of persons in the population for each woman in food production dropped
greatly between 1870 and 1940. It would be impossible to say
how much change there has been in the aggregate time per person
in the population, both the paid time in commercial undertakings
and the unpaid time largely in the home, that has been put in by
all women in food preparation. Some of the unpaid food production done by women at home became paid food production in the
course of the 70 years. Commercial production of food is included in the total value of the national output, because it is possible to measure its value, but the unpaid portion of food preparation activities is not. This shift in itself does not represent an
increase in the value of goods and services consumed, except in
so far as it has resulted in greater efficiency. The drop in the
number of persons in the population for each woman operative
and laborer in the food industries was accompanied by a rise in
the number of women in this occupation among all women workers.
5 The food industries tend to be seasonal in nature, but shifts in the census dates probably do
not seriously affect comparability in the general long time trends in the group as a whole, though
they cause the total size of the food group to be somewhat understated. Up to 1900 the census was
taken in June of each year. Since then it has been taken in March in 1940, in April in 1930 and in
1910, and in January in 1920. Peak seasons in food industries usually occur in late summer or fall.
96:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
Number of persons in
population for each
woman operative and
laborer in food and
kindred products1
1940 ...
1930
1920
1910 1900
1890
1880
1870
—„
-
-
-
878
1,074
1,116
1,912
3,855
6,158
11,138
16,186
.
-
-
Women operatives and
laborers in food and
kindred products1 as
percent of all women
in the labor force or
gainfully occupied
1.2
1.1
1.1
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Includes bakers; millers, grain, flour, feed, etc.; and operatives and laborers in the following:
bakery products; canning and preserving fruits, vegetables, and sea food; confectionery; dairy products; meat products; grain-mill products; and miscellaneous food industries.
1
Changes relative to men—As the production of food moved
into the factory, women followed it there, thus continuing in new
surroundings a customary household activity. Among the food
factory workers (operatives and laborers) the proportion of
women has grown continually, rising from 2.8 in 1870 to 23.8
percent in 1940. The transfer of food-making from the home to
the factory, however, undoubtedly means that more men are concerned with food preparation as a whole today than 70 years
ago.
Women as percent
of all operatives and
laborers in food and
kindred products1
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1
_
....
„_.
-
-
23.8
21.4
19.4
15.8
9.7
6.3
3.6
2.8
Includes bakers; millers, grain, flour, feed, etc.; and operatives and laborers in the following:
bakery products; canning and preserving fruits, vegetables, and sea food; confectionery; dairy products; meat products; grain-mill products; and miscellaneous food industries.
Shifts in particular food industries.—From 1910 through
1940 women food operatives and laborers in six major branches
can be distinguished from census reports. The women workers
in bakeries, canneries, candy factories, milk and butter companies, meat packing houses, and in grain mill and other food factories increased by 101,929 from 1910 to 1940. About 32,000 of
the additional workers in the 30-year period went into canning,
and about 20,000 into meat products manufacture.
For women, the leading branch of food manufacture in 1940
was canning and preserving, with confectionery nearly as large.
97
OPERATIVES AND LABORERS
In 1910 women operatives and laborers in canning and preserving
were outranked both by those in confectionery and by those in
bakery products, on the basis of census figures. Even so, the
relative importance of canning workers among all women food
operatives and laborers is understated in 1940, for it should be
remembered that canning is a highly seasonal industry. The
census figures do not show the full size, since they relate to the
slack period6 and not to the period from May to September when
the industry rises to a peak and employs about SY2 times as many
workers as at the low period.7 In general, between 1910 and 1940,
a growing proportion of the women operatives and laborers in
food production were workers in canning or in meat products,
while a declining proportion worked in confectionery or in grainmill and miscellaneous food industries.
Percent distribution
Total women operatives and laborers:
food and kindred products
Canning and preserving fruits, vegetables,
and sea food, operatives and laborers
Confectionery, operatives and laborers
Meat products, operatives and laborers
Bakery products, operatives and laborers
Grain-mill products and miscellaneous food
industries, operatives and laborers
Bakers
Dairy products, operatives and laborers
Millers, grain, flour, feed, etc.
1
1920
1910
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
25.0
22.7
16.0
15.2
20.5
27.4
11.9
15.6
15.1
38.9
1-2.8
14.5
11.5
42.1
8.0
14.7
9.7
7.0
4.3
0.1
12.8
7.3
4.5
10.2
4.6
3.9
C)
0)
13.0
9.3
1.3
0.1
1930
1940
Less than 0.05 percent.
Canning and preserving.—The canning and preserving industry, whether of fruits, vegetables, or sea food, is affected by
limitations on time and place of production because the foods must
be handled near the area of production and at the time when they
are available. For this reason the industry has depended to a
great extent on the labor of women who live in the locality and
come into the factory at the canning season. The industry was
very little developed before the Civil War, preservation of fish and
oysters having been the main activity. By 1870 fish packing
houses were alternating fish packing in the winter with preservation of fruits and vegetables in the summer.8' The introduction of
machinery for the preparation of products to be canned and for
the sealing of the cans, as well as improvements in canning
6
The 1940 census was taken in March, those of 1930 and 1910 in April, and the 1920 census in
January.
7 Alderfer, E. B. and Michl, H. E. Economics
of American industry.
Hill Book Co., 1942, p. 76.
8 Clark, Victor S., op. cit., Vol. I, p. 485; Vol. II, p. 122.
New York, N . Y., McGraw-
98:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
methods and controls, formed the basis of expansion in this industry.9
Further changes that particularly affected women's work occurred after 1900, including the introduction of the sanitary can;
the use of machines to vine and shell peas, to husk, cut, and silk
corn, and to grade fruit and vegetables as to size; and the adoption of conveyor-belt systems. Though these changes have reduced the number of women needed for a given output, the great
expansion of the industry has far more than compensated for
any tendency toward reduced employment that might have arisen
from increasing productivity.10 Census data available beginning
in 1910, though underrepresenting the industry because of its seasonal nature,11 show a high rate of growth among women and an
increasing proportion of women among all canning operatives and
laborers.
Women operatives and laborers: canning and preserving
1940 .
1930
1920
1910
Number
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
37,454
23,422
14,292
5,517
59.9
63.9
159.1
—
46.4
44.1
37.2
30.3
Confectionery workers.—Women were a high proportion of
operatives and laborers in plants manufacturing candy and confectionery in 1940. The proportion had been increasing slightly
since 1910, when separate census data for this occupation were
first available. Operations such as hand and fork dipping, decorating, hand and machine wrapping, and machine feeding and operating are particularly suited to women.12 This is a seasonal industry,
with peak operation in the fall, so that figures reported in the
various censuses on women operatives undoubtedly somewhat understate the number of women in these operations.13 Trends since
1910 were as follows:
9
[U. S.] Department of Commerce and Labor.
States:
Bureau of the Census.
[12th census of the United
1900.] Vol. I X , Manufactures. Part III, Special reports on selected industries, p. 465. Wash-
ington, [U. S.] Government Printing Office, 1902.
10
See U. S. Department of Labor.
employment
Women's Bureau.
opportunities of American women.
Effects
of applied
research upon
the
Bulletin 50. Washington, U. S. Government Printing
Office, 1926, pp. 33-34.
1 1 See footnote 6, p. 97.
32
For a survey of the confectionery industry, see U. S. Department of Labor.
Labor conditions in the confectionery industry, 1941.
13
Women's Bureau.
June 1942. 66 pp. Mimeo.
Census data for 1910 to 1940 relate to a month in the spring, except for 1920 data which apply
to January.
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
Women operatives and laborers:
1940
1930
1920
1910
-
99
confectionery
Number
Percent change
from preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
34,021
31,233
36,850
20,263
+ 8.9
—15.2
+81.9
—
60.9
58.4
58.6
56.1
Meat products.—In the meat packing industry the trend has
been toward the development of by-products and specialties.
Women have not worked to any great extent in the slaughtering
and dressing of meat, which at one time was the chief activity
carried on. For the most part they have been employed in the
processing departments, where they perform trimming operations,
tie sausage, weigh and pack meat products, package lard, and perform similar operations.14 As the production of by-products and
specialties developed, and as higher standards of purity enabled
consumers to use these products with assurance, the jobs for
women increased. Between 1910 and 1940, 20,000 additional women
entered the meat products industry as operatives and laborers,
and the proportion of women relative to the total rose.
Women operatives and laborers: meat products
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
-
24,028
13,605
12,157
3,827
76.6
11.9
217.7
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
17.7
14.0
11.0
6,3
Bakery products.—Today bread is produced commercially,
for the most part, whereas formerly it was almost universally
baked in the home by women, except for the baked goods made
for shipboard use or for travelers. Women work mostly in hand
wrapping, packing, and finishing jobs, largely in the making of
cookies and crackers. Women are less numerous in bread, cake,
and pie production probably because of the heavy nature of much
of the work, the considerable amount of night work, and the small
number of workers in many establishments.15
The manufacture of crackers and biscuits, at first carried on
by hand and after 1840 by machinery, received an impetus from
the demand for hardtack during the Civil War. About the turn
of the century the organization of a number of cracker factories
14
U. S. Department of Labor.
meat packing.
Office, 1932.
15
Women's Bureau.
By Mary Elizabeth Pidgeon.
The employment
Bulletin 88.
of women in slaughtering and
Washington, U. S. Government Printing
210 pp.
U. S. Employment Service.
Job descriptions for the bakery products industry.
U. S. Government Printing Office, 1939.
pp. X I I - X I V .
Washington,
1 0 0 : W O M E N ' S O C C U P A T I O N S T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
into one company paved the way for increased specialization and
use of machinery and for the introduction of packaged products.
Packing, wrapping, and labeling activities opened many new job3
for women.16
Women were a higher proportion of the operatives and laborers in the bakery products industry in 1940 than in 1910, when
figures for these workers were first presented by the census. Their
proportion had declined from 1910 to 1930, indicating that their
not inconsiderable rate of increase in those years had been exceeded by men's.
Women operatives and laborers: bakery products
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
28.4
29.4
94.9
44.5
32.9
35.4
39.4
22,829
17,782
13,738
7,050
,
—
Grain-mill products and miscellaneous food industries.—The
transformation of the food industries from a type supplying rather
incidental services for only exceptional needs (most of the food
wants of the population having been met in the household) to their
present vital place in American life, affecting the diet of every
consumer in the Nation, is exemplified in the development of the
miscellaneous food industries, especially in the first 30 years of
the century, as well as in the development of the canning and
specialized meat products industries just discussed. Much of the
growth in commercial food production arose from the desire to
utilize the advantages of mechanization and specialization in new
fields of consumer goods manufacture, which could be done only
by supplanting former household production.17 Cereals and breakfast foods, baking powder, macaroni and potato chips are included
in the group being discussed, as are flour and sugar. Census data
available beginning in 1910 for this branch of the industry show
fluctuating trends for women, who were, however, more numerous
and a larger proportion of the total in 1940 than in 1910.
Women operatives and laborers: grain-mill
products and miscellaneous food industries
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
16
Report
Percent change
from preceding
census
14,597
14,651
, 9,602
- 6,244
on condition
of woman
and child wage-earners
— 0.4
+52.6
+53.8
—
15.6
17.7
11.0
12.7
in the United States.
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1910-1912, Vol.
Clark, Victor S., op. cit., Vol. I, p. 486.
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
18, pp.
163-164.
S. Doc. 645.
101
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
Dairy products.—During the last half of the nineteenth century a considerable share of dairy farming activities moved from
the farm to the factory, as creameries, condenseries, and cheese
factories took over conversion processes that had formerly been
done on the individual farm.18 More recently the production of ice
cream developed.
Data beginning in 1910 for operatives and laborers in the
dairy products industries show a rapid expansion among women
and increasing proportions of women among the total.
Women operatives and laborers: dairy
1940
1930
1920
1910
__
-
Number
Percent increase
over preceding
census
6,501
5,156
3,738
647
26.1
37.9
477.7
—
products
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
12.4
11.2
10.3
3.7
BEVERAGE INDUSTRIES
Trends among women operatives and laborers engaged in
the manufacture of liquors and beverages reflect the drastic
changes in the work force resulting from the Prohibition Act
(prior to the greater expansion of soft drink industries) and, subsequently, from its repeal. There was a drop in numbers of women
operatives and laborers from 1910 to 1920; from 1930 to 1940
there was a sharp increase. The proportion of women among all
workers was considerably higher in 1940 than it had been in 1930
and earlier.
Women operatives and laborers: beverage industries
1940
1930
1920
1910 __
1900
1890
1880
1870
__
__
Number
Percent change
from preceding
census
7,587
973
909
2,347
1,077
613
135
19
+679.8
+
7.0
— 61.3
+117.9
+ 75.7
+354.1
+610.5
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
11.5
4.9
3.4
4.6
3.1
2.0
0.6
0.1
TOBACCO MANUFACTURING
The total number of operatives and laborers in the tobacco
industry reached a peak in 1920, the same year in which numbers
of women in these occupations were at an all-time high. Increased mechanization and large-scale operation have occurred in
18
[U. S.] Department of Commerce and Labor.
1900.1
Bureau of the Census.
United
States:
p. 433.
Washington, [U. S.] Government Printing Office, 1902.
Vol.
IX,
Manufactures.
Part III,
[12th census of the
Special reports on selected
industries,
102:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
both the cigarette and cigar branches. In cigarette manufacture,
present-day completely automatic machines are in marked contrast to the hand rolling practiced until the 1880's.19 In cigar
manufacture, the machine-made cigar of 1940 contrasts with the
all-hand-made, long-filler cigar required by the discriminating
smoker in 1910.20 The shift to machinery in cigar-making, the
union policies pursued in resisting its introduction, the growing
preference for the cigarette, and other factors resulted in increasing proportions of women in the industry.21 Women rose from
10.4 percent of all workers in 1870 to 62.6 percent in 1940. Though
proportions of women continued to rise after 1920, the number of
women employed has declined since then. This gives evidence that
the growing market for cigarettes failed to compensate for increasing productivity in the tobacco industry, though the census
does not afford data for separate comparisons of these two
branches of the industry.
Women operatives and laborers: tobacco manufactures
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
.
.. „
61,245
74,599
98,784
______ 76,727
43,497
27,991
10,868
4,290
Percent change
from preceding
census
— 17.9
- 24.5
+ 28.7
+ 76.4
+ 55.4
+157.6
+153.3
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
62.6
59.6
54.3
45.4
33.1
25.1
14.1
10.4
Tobacco manufacturing has had an exceptionally high proportion of Negro women workers. Jobs done by numbers of
Negro women have included stemming and stripping as well as
the heavy or dusty operations involved in preparing the tobacco
for processing.22 In 1940, 23.9 percent of the women operatives
in this industry who were employed or were experienced workers
seeking work were Negroes, compared with 2.7 percent among
women manufacturing operatives and 14.2 percent among all women who were employed or were experienced workers seeking work.
Census data in 1940 were not presented in sufficient detail to pre19
Alderfer and Michl, op. cit., p. 494.
Baer, Willis N. The economic development
ter, Pa., Art Printing Co., 1933, p. 196.
20
of the cigar industry in the United States.
Lancas-
2 1 For a study of women in the tobacco industry see U. S. Department of Labor.
Women's
Bureau. The effects on women of changing conditions in the cigar and cigarette industries.
By
Caroline Manning and Harriet A. Byrne. Bulletin 100. Washington, U. S. Government Printing
Office, 1932. 187 pp. The history of women in cigar-making is described in Abbott, op. cit., Ch. IX,
Cigar-making, pp. 186-214.
2 2 U. S. Department of Labor.
Women's Bureau. Negro women in industry in 15 states. By
Mary Elizabeth Pidgeon. Bulletin 70. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1929, pp. 15-17.
103
OPERATIVES AND LABORERS
sent data by race for women laborers in tobacco manufacturing.
This is unfortunate, since proportions of Negroes among women
laborers are known to be considerably higher than among operatives. The proportion of Negroes among women tobacco operatives and laborers has been rising, as the available data show.
Proportion of Negroes
among women tobacco
operatives
1940
1930
1920
23.9
22.0
16.0
.
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING
General trends.—Historically, the entrance of women into
cotton manufacture led the way to the employment of Women in
manufacturing industries. If the production of automobiles, of
chemicals, and of electrical machinery and equipment are looked
upon as twentieth century industries, textile manufacture may
be considered rather a nineteenth century industry. By the beginning of the nineteenth century the first cotton mills, with their
revolutionary spinning machinery, had been established, and
within the first quarter of that century the power loom had been
introduced. Employment of women grew rapidly, a trend that received widespread approval as one which would keep women from
idleness and enable themto add to the wealth of the country.23 By
1870, 104,180 women textile operatives and laborers were recorded in the census.24 By 1940 the number more than quadrupled, reaching 498,068.
Women operatives and laborers: textiles1
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1
.
498,068
430,307
452,981
387,062
280,200
221,711
161,283
104,180
Percent change
from preceding
census
+15.7
- 5.0
+17.0
+38.1
+26.4
+37.5
+54.8
-r—
See footnote 24 for occupations included.
The decennial increase in the number of women textile operatives and laborers was between 50,000 and 70,000 in all decades
except from 1900 to 1910, when it was considerably higher, and
23
Abbott, op. cit., esp. Chs. IV, VI.
Operatives and laborers in some nine industries may be grouped together as textile workers:
cotton; silk and rayon; knit goods; dyers, and dyeing and finishing textiles; carpets, rugs, and
other floor coverings; woolen and worsted; miscellaneous textile goods; miscellaneous fabricated
textile products; and not specified textile mills.
24
104:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
from 1920 to 1930, when there was a decrease. The excess capacity, interregional competition, and other difficulties of the textile
industries in later decades25 were reflected in the lessened rates of
growth among women textile workers after 1910.
Changes relative to population and labor force growth.—-The
problems faced by the textile industry, in conjunction with growing opportunities for women in other occupational fields, resulted
in a decline in the proportion of women textile operatives and laborers among all women workers from the high point in 1880.
The number of persons in the population for each woman textile
worker fluctuated somewhat, but it was lower in recent years
than in 1870 and 1880.
Number of persons
in population for
each woman operative and laborer
in textiles1
1940
1930 — —
1920
1910 - - - - 1900
1890
1880
1870
1
—
264
285
233
— — 2 3 8
—
271
282
311
382
-
_
.
—
„
Women operatives
and laborers in
textiles1 as percent
of all women in
the labor force or
gainfully occupied
3.8
4.1
5.2
5.2
5.3
5.5
6.1
5.4
_
See footnote 24, p. 103, for occupations included.
Changes relative to men.—Because the textile industries have
required large numbers of workers who can learn the process in
a short while and who do not need great physical strength, considerable proportions of the workers have always been women.
In 1870, when only about 15 percent of all workers were women,
the textile industries had 42.6 percent women. By 1940 about a
fourth of all workers were women, while in textiles women were
nearly one-half. Women have, however, declined slightly relative
to the total in recent decades compared to 1910, when they were
exactly half of the workers.
Women as percent
of all textile operatives and laborers1
1940
1930
1920
1910 1900
1890
1880
1870
1See
25
.
——
—
-
—
— —
—
footnote 24, p. 103, for occupations included.
See Alderfer and Michl, op. cit., pp. 320-323.
-
—
—
.....
..„.—
47.5
46.7
48.4
50.0
48.9
48.4
45.4
42.6
OPERATIVES AND LABORERS
114
Shifts in particular textile industries.—The distribution of
women operatives and laborers among the various textile industries followed the same general pattern in 1940 as in 1910, when
a similar break-down was first available. The distributions are
approximate in nature, since the Census Bureau experiences considerable difficulty in allocating to the proper textile industry returns that are indefinite. In both years the largest proportion of
women were in cotton manufacturing, followed by knit goods, and
then by woolen and worsted and by silk and rayon manufactures.
The major part of the shift from the use of cotton to a variety of
other fabrics had already occurred between 1870 and 1910, when
the proportion of all women textile operatives and laborers who
were in cotton manufacturing dropped from 63 to 38 percent. Between 1910 and 1940, the proportion in knit goods steadily increased, and the proportion in silk and rayon, which reached a
peak in 1930, dropped quite low in 1940.
Percent distribution
1940
Total women operatives and laborers:
100.0
textiles
Cotton manufactures, operatives and
laborers
Knit goods, operatives and l a b o r e r s — — —
Woolen and worsted manufactures,
operatives and laborers—
Silk and rayon manufactures, operatives
and laborers
Carpets, rugs, and other floor coverings,
operatives and laborers
Miscellaneous textile goods, operatives
and laborers
Dyers; dyeing and finishing textiles,
operatives and laborers
Miscellaneous fabricated textile products,
and not specified textile mills, operatives
and laborers
1930
1920
1910
100.0
100.0
100.0
36.8
25.0
36.3
21.5
36.9
18.9
38.2
17.7
12.3
11.5
14.1
13.6
9.7
17.6
16.7
13.2
2.6
3.2
2.6
5.6
2.2
3.0
4.9
5.4
1.4
1.5
1.4
1.7
10.0
5.4
4.4
4.6
Cotton workers.—In all there were 183,538 women cotton operatives and laborers in 1940, nearly three times as many as in
1870. In five of the seven decades more than 19,000 additional
women had come into cotton manufacture. The largest number
was 27,914, entering between 1890 and 1900; the number was
smaller in the next two decades. From 1920 to 1930 a decline
occurred, but a recovery and advance was made from 1930 to 1940.
The retarded rate of growth after 1900 occurred in a period when
the introduction of improved machinery and later of scientific
management methods were increasing the productivity of the
747639°—48 — 8
106:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
workers, enabling a given number of workers to produce a greater
total of goods.26
Women operatives and laborers:
cotton manufactures
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
.
__
____
„__
____
__
___
Number
Percent change from
preceding census
183,538
156,129
167,179
147,782
121,809
93,895
92,394
65,486
4-17.6
~ 6.6
+13.1
+21.3
+29,7
+ 1.6
+41.1
—
Women were a considerable part of the work force from the
early days of cotton manufacture. In the home, spinning had always been women's work. This was true also in the early mills,
where ring spinning was the practice. The adoption of mule spinning, beginning in the 1840's, brought a growing replacement of
women by men. Though in the period of hand production men
generally did the weaving, with the introduction of spinning machinery and the Increased demand for weavers women undertook
power weaving, and through the middle of the nineteenth century weaving was considered a woman's job. By the time of the
1870 census factors causing the displacement of women were in
active operation. The use of constantly heavier types of machinery and the increasing speed at which they were operated, together with the enlarging supply of male immigrants, affected the
proportion of women in the industry.27
Each decade after 1870 saw a decreasing proportion of women
among all cotton workers as well as a downward trend in the
proportion of all women workers who were operatives and laborers in cotton manufacturing.
Women operatives and laborers in cotton
manufactures as percent of—
1940 ____
1930
1920
1910
1900 .„. __._
1890
1880
1870
20
Lahne, Herbert J.
Women in the labor force
or gainfully occupied
All workers in
this occupation
1.4
1.5
1.9
2.0
2.3
2.3
3.5
3.4
43.4
43.9
44.5
46.7
49.4
54*2
54.4
58.3
____ __
.__
.„_
The cotton mill worker.
New York, N . Y . , Farrar & Rinehart, Inc., 1944,
pp. 153-154.
27
For a discussion of the effect of cotton manufacture on employment of women in the nineteenth
century see Abbott, op. cit., Ch. VI, The cotton industry.
107
OPERATIVES AND LABORERS
In the early days of cotton-mill machinery, it was thought
advantageous to the community to have children taught its operation, and many of them were employed in the mills from the first.
Even children under 10 were both "helpers" and regular employees
on the pay rolls in southern mills as late as the turn of the century.28 As the disadvantages to children's health and welfare
were understood, the heavy reliance of the cotton industry on
child labor greatly diminished. This movement has been accelerated under the influence of child labor regulation, the increasing tendency toward longer schooling, the technological
changes that made it more difficult to utilize child labor, and the
developing minimum wage requirements that made it unprofitable
to employ children when a supply of older workers was available.29
The first diminution in child labor affected the youngest children.
In 1910 there were 5,130 girl cotton-mill operatives 10 to 13 years
of age; by 1930 this number had shrunk to only 107. Gradually
the age was raised; in 1910 nearly 30,000 girls under 18 were cotton mill operatives, but by 1940 less than 2,500 girls this young
were so employed, and scarcely any of these were under 16.
Since 1920, accompanying the marked decrease in the proportion of younger workers, there has been a marked increase in
the numbers and proportions who were 20 to 44 years of age as
well as a rise in proportions 45 years and over.
Percent distribution
nm
Women operatives and laborers in cotton
manufactures, 14 years and over—
14-15 years
16-17 years
18~19 years
20-44 years ,
45 years and over..
1
3
3
.
100.0
-
—
—
1930
(
2
)
1.4
5.9
79.3
13.4
1920
100.0
100.0
3.7
11.1
11.6
S62.8
10.8
6.7
13.2
11.8
s 58.4
9.9
Women who were employed or were experienced workers seeking work.
Less than 0.05 percent.
Includes age unknown.
The decrease in the number of girls among women cotton
operatives and laborers occurred simultaneously with an increase
in the proportion of women in cotton who were married. Work in
cotton mills has from the earliest days been to a considerable
extent an occupation that employed whole families. The effect
of this practice, largely peculiar to the cotton industry, appears in
the fact that its 1940 work force contained a higher proportion of
28
Report on the condition of woman and child wage-earners in the United States.
Vol. I, Cotton textile industry.
29
See Lahne, op. cit., pp. 105-124.
S. Doc. 645.
108:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
married women than any other of the 76 occupations on the intermediate list.30 Of all women cotton operatives 14 years old and
over who were employed or seeking work in 1940, 65.7 percent were
married. The proportion of married women among gainfully occupied women cotton-mill operatives 14 years old and over was
42.5 percent in 1930 and 34.6 percent in 1920.31
Part of the rise in the proportion of married women is due
to lessened employment of the younger workers, who are more
likely to be unmarried. If the age distribution in 1920 among
women operatives in cotton manufactures had been like that in
1940, the proportion married would have been 46 instead of 35
percent in 1920. Part of the upward trend in the proportion of
cotton operatives who were married reflects the general increase
of married women among all women workers, and part of it may
be due to factors peculiar to the cotton industry.
Knit goods production.—Women operatives and laborers in
knit goods numbered 124,696 in 1940, nearly 65 tiines as many as
in 1870. Improvements in machinery and growing demand following the Civil War caused a considerable expansion in the industry, a trend further advanced by the introduction of full-fashioned machinery in the eighties.32 The great increase in output
possible with the shift to machine methods33 was accompanied by
an expanding work force of women, whose rate of employment
growth continued at a high level up through 1910.
The knitting of stockings continued to be a home industry,
carried on in women's spare moments, considerably after cotton
textiles had become a factory product, except in Pennsylvania.
However, it remained largely women's work even after factory
production began to supplant home output.34 In addition to their
work in hosiery factories, women workers were employed in
knitted underwear and knitted outerwear plants. By 1900 the
number of women approached three-fourths of all knit goods operatives and laborers. Then they began to lose out to men, though
their numbers continued to rise, particularly after 1920, when
the phenomenal increase in output of full-fashioned hosiery was
30
See pp. 13 and 14 for discussion of occupational classification.
31
Women 14 years old were assumed to be single in 1920 and 1930.
32
Clark, Victor S., op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 443-445.
33
In a study in 1895-97, hand methods of producing hosiery and knit goods were found to
require from 4 to 280 times as long as machine methods.
report, 1898.
Commissioner of Labor.
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1899.
Thirteenth annual
Hand and machine labor, Vol. I,
pp. 288-290.
34
Meyer, Annie Nathan, Editor.
Co., 1891.
Woman's work in America.
Ch. X I , Women in industry, p. 277.
New York, N. Y., Henry'Holt &
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
109
taking- place.35 In the following figures the drop in the proportion of women after 1920 probably reflects the growth of the fullfashioned hosiery section of the knitting industry, which utilized
considerable numbers of men in skilled occupations.
Women operatives and laborers: knit goods
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
124,696
92,609
85,482
68,402
34,145
20,602
7,781
1,971
34.6
8.3
25.0
100.3
65.7
164.8
294.8
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
65.1
65.1
71.9
72.0
73.2
70.4
64.5
54.5
—
Wool and worsted manufactures—As one of the older textile
fibers, wool has been subject to production problems of, long
standing and to inroads by the newer types of textile materials.
The readjustments that had to be made after 192036 showed effects on the number of women in the industry, which underwent
a marked decline from 1920 to 1930.
Though new occupations for women arose (for example, that
of drop-wire girl) the "modernization" of the woolen and worsted
industry caused the number of workers needed for a given output
to become smaller.37 Data for woolen and worsted manufactures
available beginning in 1910 show that the number of women operatives and laborers declined slightly relative to men from 1910
to 1920 and then remained at a stable level. Even in 1940, however, women in this field were more than 2 out of every 5 workers.
Women operatives and laborers: woolen and
worsted manufactures
1940
1930 1920
1910
-
Number
Percent change
from preceding
census
61,022
49,458
64,013
52,621
+23.4
—22.7
+21.6
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
43.9
44.0
44.0
46.2
SilJc and rayon manufactures.—Silk and rayon have become
increasingly important for use in clothing relative to wool and
cotton, which alone were in general use as fabrics at one time. Before 1910 the silk and rayon industry was almost entirely a silk
85
hosiery
industry.
Mechanical changes in the woolen and worsted industries, 1910 to 1936.
Monthly
Taylor, George William.
Significant postwar changes in the full-fashioned
Philadelphia, Pa., University of Pennsylvania Press, 1929, p. 12.
36
Alderfer and Michl, op. eit., pp. 327-328.
37
Stern, Boris.
labor review 46: 58-93, January 1938.
110:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
industry, as the census title of that period indicates. After 1920
improvement in the product brought rayon into wider acceptance.
By 1940 so many mills were engaged in rayon weaving—either
silk or cotton mills that had shifted to rayon weaving or new mills
specially organized for rayon weaving38—that the industry became
known as "silk and rayon manufactures."
As early as colonial times women played an important part
both in the culture and weaving of silk. At that time bounties
were given to stimulate the silk industry, and these were often
paid to women, who were the mainstay of the industry.39 Though
the culture of silk never became important in the United States,
silk spinning and weaving developed as a factory industry employing considerable proportions of women.
Developments in the silk industry caused considerable shifting of the operations between the sexes at various times. About
1870 the hand looms for weaving broad silk, operated by men, were
gradually replaced by power looms, operated by women to a considerable extent. In warping, however, women had complete possession of the occupation at the time of the 1870 census, but before
1910 men usually were the exclusive operators of the horizontal
warping mill. In ribbon weaving the high-speed looms, on which
women were frequently employed, began about the turn of the
century to supplant looms on which it had been customary to employ men.40
Beginning from a low level in 1870, numbers of women silk
and rayon operatives and laborers reached a peak of 75,715 in 1930
but declined by more than a third in 1940. This decrease may
represent in part a shift to other materials and products in
response to changing consumer tastes, but it may also be due in
part to the difficulty experienced by the Census in attempting to
distinguish between persons working in silk and rayon manufactures and those engaged in the production of rayon and allied
products, classified as a chemical industry. The proportion of
women among all the operatives and laborers in the industry rose
for several decades after 1880 but then showed a steady drop
from 1910 to 1940.
38
Alderfer and Michl, op. cit., pp. 357-358.
39
Meyer, op. cit., p. 278.
Report on condition of woman and child wage-earners in the United States.
IV, The silk industry, pp. 31-42.
40
S. Doc. 645.
Vol.
111
OPERATIVES AND LABORERS
Women operatives and laborers: silk and
rayon manufactures
Percent change
from preceding
census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910 1900
1890
1880
1870
48,255
75,715
75,534
51,279
32,437
20,663
9,211
2,302
....
— 36.3
+
0.2
+ 47.3
+ .58.1
+ 57.0
+124.3
+300.1
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
50.4
55.7
60.4
62.4
60.2
59.9
51.5
71.4
Carpets and rugs.—The growth from 1870 to 1910 in the
number of women operatives and laborers engaged in the production of carpets, rugs, and other floor coverings, at the same time
that they increased in general relative to the total, occurred in a
rapidly expanding industry. The greater demand for these products represented one aspect of the rising standard of living, made
possible by technical improvements in carpet production and the
complete replacement of hand by machine weaving in the United
States.41
From 1910 to 1920 there was a sharp drop in the number
and percentage of women in this work. Since then the trends
among women have fluctuated.
Women operatives and laborers: carpets, rugs,
and other floor coverings
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910 ...
1900
1890
1880
1870
__
...... 13,107
13,904
12,003
21,722
.. ,, .... 15,476
11,616
7,674
.... 5,948
Percent change
from preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
- 5.7
+15.8
-44.7
+40.4
+33.2
+51.4
+29.0
—
37.1
34.5
36.4
44.2
48.5
43.4
37.5
31.3
Dyeing and finishing textiles.—As a factory industry, textile finishing dates from colonial days, for even at that period
"every community boasted three mills,—one for lumber, another
for flour and a third for finishing wool cloth."42 However, much
of the dyeing of home-produced cloth was done in the household
by women, and it is of interest to note that indigo was introduced
& See Clark, Victor S., op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 438-442.
Keir, Malcolm.
1920, p. 38.
42
Manufacturing
industries in America.
New York, N. Y., Ronald Press Co.,
112:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
as a crop by a woman, Eliza Lucas Pinckney, manager of her
father's South Carolina plantation.43
As textiles became factory products, the formerly limited
colors and patterns became diversified, and dyeing, printing,
bleaching, and other finishing operations constituted a wellestablished industry by 1870. Women constituted about oneSeventh of the operatives and laborers at that date, and though
their proportion fluctuated for a time, after 1910 it showed a
small but steady decline. From 1870 to 1940 less than 6,000 women
were added to the ranks of the workers.
Women dyers, and operatives and laborers: textile
dyeing and finishing
Number
Percent change
from preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
+ 9.3
— 1.5
2.7
+123.5
- 11.3
+ 85.4
+ 37.6
12.2
13.6
14,3
15,8
10.1
15.4
12.7
14.6
6,942
6,350
6,449
6,625
2,964
3,343
1,803
1,310
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
—
CLOTHING WORKERS
General trends.—In the early years of the Nation's development, clothing the family members was an important activity of
the women and girls of the family. Today, with nearly threequarters of a million women operatives and laborers, it is still
an important function for women, though no longer performed
almost entirely in the home. Inroads into the making of homeproduced and custom-made clothing were already considerable by
1870. The use of the sewing machine, invented in 1846, and the
development of standard sizes for uniforms during the Civil War
made possible great expansion in factory production of clothing.44 From an industry limited in scope before 1880 to the
needs of sailors in port, the men's clothing industry grew to such
size that by 1870 "the mass of the male population of the United
States was clad in ready-made clothing."45 In the women's
43 Beard, Mary R., Editor.
1933, pp. 33-41.
4 4 Hickman, Mildred M .
tion, 1929, pp. 2-5.
45
America through women's
eyes.
The clothing industry in Cleveland.
New York, N. Y . , Macmillan Co.,
Cleveland, Ohio, Board of Educa-
Clark, Victor S., op. cit., Vol. II, p. 431; for a historical discussion of the clothing industry
see Abbott, op. cit., Ch. X , The clothing industry, pp. 215-245; Report on condition of woman and
child wage-earners
in the United States, op. cit., Vol. 2, Men's ready-made clothing, pp.' 483-512;
[ U . S . ] Department of Commerce and Labor. Bureau of the Census.
States: 1900.1
Washington,
Vol. IX, Manufactures.
[12th census of the
[U. S.] Government Printing Office, 1902; Willett, Mabel Hurd.
women in the clothing trade.
United
Part III, Special reports on selected industries, pp. 296-302.
The employment
New York, N. Y., Columbia University Press, 1902. 206 pp.
of
113
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
clothing industry, the garments of the "mantuamakers" of colonial
days46 may be considered predecessors of cloaks, which were the
one such product generally manufactured in 1870. By 1900, however, the ready-made women's clothing industry extended to the
manufacture of suits, lingerie, and shirtwaists.
Women operatives and laborers in apparel factories, together with dressmakers and tailoresses, constituted the largest
single group of women in manufacturing in 1940, and their numbers were more than triple those in 1870. The 1870 and 1880
figures include milliners. If an allowance were made for them,
the figures would change somewhat, though the general longtime trends would not be radically affected. The number of
women operatives and laborers in apparel and accessories, together with tailoresses, dressmakers and seamstresses (not in
factory), grew from 1870 through 1910, though at a declining
rate. The drop in numbers from 1910 to 1930 was almost retrieved in 1940.
Women clothing workers1
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
-
-
-
-
i
1880
1870
„
.
.
/
^
Percent change
from preceding
census
727,552
527,128
557,610
797,665
671,240
584,408
+
~
+
+
+
389,231
-f 79.7
-F80.3
2 353,156
216'616
2195,908
38.0
5.5
30.1
18.8
14.9
50.1
—.
1 Includes apparel and accessories, operatives and laborers; tailoresses;
dressmakers arid seamstresses (not in factory).
2
Figure
adjusted to exclude estimated number of women milliners : 1870, 20,708; 1880, 36,075.
Changes relative to population and labor force growth.—The
numbers in the population for each woman clothing worker were
at lower levels from 1890 to 1910 than before or afterwards. This
was the period in which there were still many dressmakers, while
at the same time factory-made clothing was rapidly expanding
into new markets. Earlier a great deal of clothing, primarily
women's and children's, still was made by the unpaid labor of
women in the home. Later, custom-made clothing gave way to
the almost universal use of ready-made apparel, produced under
46 Instances of women as proprietors of important mantuamaking and tailoring establishments,
employing assistants and apprentices, are given in Spruill, Julia Cherry. Women's life and work in
the southern colonies. Chapel Hill, N. C., University of North Carolina Press, 1938, pp. 284-286.
114:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
more efficient methods and also with the labor of relatively more
men. Comparisons of hand and machine labor in the men's
clothing industry before 1900 showed tremendous gains in output
when hand work was supplanted by machines, particularly in the
cheaper grade of product. Hand methods required anywhere from
2 to more than 10 times as long as machine methods.47
Throughout the past 50 or 60 years the proportion of all
women workers who were clothing workers declined.
Number of persons
in population for
each woman
clothing worker1
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
-
1880
1870
1
.
Women clothing
workers1 as percent
of all women in
the labor force or
gainfully occupied
181.0
232.9
189.6
115.3
113.2
107.2
5.6
4.9
6.5
10.7
12.6
14.6
( 128.9
i 2142.0
213.3
/ 183.8
) 2203.3
210.2
14.7
11.3
Includes apparel and accessories, operatives and laborers; tailoresses; dressmakers and seam-
stresses (not in factory).
2
Figure adjusted to exclude estimated number of women milliners: 1870, 20,708; 1880, 36,075.
Changes relative to men.—The proportions of women relative to all clothing workers have always been high. The splitting up of what was formerly the work of the dressmaker, the
tailoress, and the seamstress and the assigning of cutting, pressing, basting, and other jobs to male workers have tended to decrease the proportions of women. The plentiful supply both of
inexperienced and of highly skilled male garment workers, available as a result of the various waves of immigration, has further
contributed to this trend. On the other hand, many of the operations are better performed by women in this industry in which
the deftness and skill needed to place and manipulate the garment
is even more important than actual stitching operations.48 Trends
since 1870 have been as follows:
47
Commissioner of Labor.
Thirteenth annual report, 1898, op. cit., Hand and machine labor,
Vol. I, pp. 197-204.
48
In the cotton garment industry studies show that from 67 to 85 percent of the total time taken
by workers to make the garment is spent in handling and manipulating.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. Productivity
ington, U. S, Government Printing Office, 1939, p. 36.
U. S. Department of Labor.
of labor in cotton garment industry.
Bulletin 662.
Wash-
OPERATIVES AND LABORERS
115
Women as percent of
all clothing workers1
1940
-
1980
-
1920
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1900
1890 ,
- --
72.6
79.2
81.8
-
„
m o
1
64.4
64.9
1910
.sso
-
{
«JJ
_j
™
Includes apparel and accessories, operatives and laborers; tailoresses; dressmakers and seam-
stresses (not in factory).
2
Figure adjusted to exclude estimated number of milliners:
1870, total, 20,908, women, 20,708;
1880, total, 36,330, women, 36,075.
Shifts in particular occupations.—The widespread adoption
after the Civil War of ready-made clothing for men and the subsequent use by women of ready-made clothing on an everincreasing scale have had significant effects on the work done by
women in the "needle trades." Women more or less competent
to produce a custom-made garment from the first cut to the final
button, making clothing with much hand work and outside of
factory walls, constituted nearly 7 in every 10 women clothing
workers in 1910, but only about 1 in 5 in 1940. The continuous
shift to the factory product and the resulting decline of the hand
trades, as specialized factory operations were substituted for
skilled work, appear from the following data:
Percent distribution of women clothing workers
Total
1940
1930
1920
1910
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Operatives and
laborers:
Dressmakers and
apparel and
seamstresses
accessories
(not in factory)
75.5
59.0
42.5
25.9
22.3
36.9
51.9
69.1
Tailoresses
2.2
4.1
5.6
5.0
Apparel workers.—Trends in the general clothing group,
which includes both hand trades and factory operations, obscure
changes within the various branches of the field. Separate data
for each branch, available from 1910 to 1940, show that the
number of women operatives and laborers in apparel and accessories has increased in each decade and at a successively greater
rate. The change from 1930 to 1940 is exaggerated, however,
because of the numbers of women public emergency workers who
were assigned to sewing projects, and who returned it as their
usual occupation, having had no other work experience. To this
situation also is due probably the considerable increase from 1930
116:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
to 1940 in the proportion of women among all apparel operatives
and laborers; furthermore, it is indicative of the fact that only
a few types of public emergency projects were available to women.
There has, however, been some tendency for the proportion of
women to increase in the 30-year period.
Women operatives and laborers: apparel
and accessories
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
-
549,588
311,506
236,731
206,923
Percent increase
over preceding
census
76.4
31.6
14.4
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
78.5
68.2
62.5
60.3
Dressmakers and seamstresses.—During much of the period
from 1910 to 1940 increases among women workers in apparel
factories were more than counterbalanced by large declines among
women in the skilled sewing trades. The dressmaking operations
were practically a monopoly of women. In garment factories,
on the other hand, some of the operations that contribute to the
completed article are done by men. Thus economic changes were
pushing women out of a former "women's occupation" and
obliging them to take up one in which both sexes were employed.
From 1910 to 1940 nearly 400,000 women left dressmaking
occupations, at the same time that nearly 350,000 additional
women entered apparel factories as operatives and laborers.
The rate of decrease has lessened, indicating that the decline in
the occupation has been tending to level off.
Women dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory)
1940
1930
1920
1910
-
Number
Percent decrease
from preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
162,247
194,251
289,688
550,745
-16.5
—32.9
—47.4
—
98.3
99.7
99.9
99.6
Tailoresses.—Like dressmakers, tailoresses were a group of
waning importance in the period from 1910 to 1940. This occupation is considered even more skilled than that of the dressmaker,
and the Census classifies it with craftsmen. Whereas the dressmaker group excludes all women working in factories, many of
the tailoresses were performing their highly skilled operations
in coat and suit factories, as well as in tailor shops and in clothing
or department stores. The declines among tailoresses represent a
lessening in importance of the occupation as a whole, with an
even greater effect on women than on men tailors.
OPERATIVES AND LABORERS
J
126
Women tailoresses
Percent decrease
from preceding
census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
,
15,717
21,371
31,191
39,997
-26.5
-31.5
—22.0
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
13.2
12.8
16.4
19.7
HATS, EXCEPT CLOTH AND MILLINERY
This industry is concerned with the production of straw and
felt hats. It is of interest to note that the method of bleaching
and braiding meadow grass and making it into a bonnet was the
discovery of a young Massachusetts girl, in 1789.49 The felt hat
industry is even older, dating back, in the form of hand-made
beaver hats, to the very early days of the colonies, but it was not
until the 1840's that machinery was adapted to it.50 By 1870,
4,637 women were engaged in the hat industry and were nearly
one-third of the total workers. Decreases among women after
1910 left the number of 1940 women operatives and laborers in
hat manufacture at about the same level as in 1870, but their
proportion relative to the total was lower.
Women operatives and laborers : hats,
except cloth and millinery
Percent change
from preceding
census
Number
4,735
9,641
12,712
14,214
10,234
8,843
6,357
4,637
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
-50.9
-24.2
—10.6
+38.9
+15.7
+39.1
+37.1
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
27.3
33.7
35.7
35.8
39.7
32.9
31.1
32.6
WOODWORKING INDUSTRIES
Women workers classified as sawyers and as operatives and
laborers in the production of furniture and store fixtures, in
sawmills and planing mills, and in the manufacture of miscellaneous wooden goods constituted an extremely small number in
1870 but increased in every succeeding decade. The largest numbers of women added were in the decades 1900-1910 and 1910-1920,
the latter probably having been affected by the tendency during
wartime to resort to greater employment of women in many
49
Meyer, op, cit, pp. 278-279.
50
[U. S.] Department of Commerce and Labor.
United States: 1900.]
109-111,
Vol. IX, Manufactures.
Bureau of the Census.
Washington, [U. S.] Government Printing Office, 1902.
[12th census of the
Part III, Special reports on selected industries, pp.
118:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
industries. In 1920 the proportion of women among the total
reached 5.5 percent, compared to only 0.5 percent in 1870. The
proportion was lower in 1930, but it rose again to 6.0 percent
in 1940.
Women operatives and laborers:
industries1
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1
31,902
28,307
27,326
18,142
7,898
6,918
1,138
534
..
Percent increase
over preceding
census
12.8
3.6
50.6
129.7
14.2
507.9
113.1
—
woodworking
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
6.0
5.3
5.5
3.5
2.9
2.7
0.7
0.5
Includes sawyers and operatives and laborers in furniture and store fixtures, sawmills and
planing mills, and miscellaneous wooden goods.
Of all women operatives and laborers in the woodworking
industries (excluding sawyers) in 1940, well over a third were
engaged in the manufacture of furniture and store fixtures, more
than half were in miscellaneous wooden goods, and but 1 in 10
were in sawmills and planing mills, whereas 62.2 percent of men
operatives and laborers in all woodworking industries were in
the latter field. Miscellaneous wooden goods include clothespins,
matches, baskets, wooden boxes, and similar items, articles which
are small, lightweight, and standardized, so that both production
operations and packing jobs are adapted for women. The distribution of women from 1910 to 1940 shows that a growing proportion
of women in the woodworking industries have been engaged in
the furniture and store fixtures branch.
Percent distribution of women operatives and laborers:
woodworking industries (excluding sawyers)
Total
1940
1930
1920
1910
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Furniture
and
store fixtures
37.9
36.9
34.7
22.9
Sawmills and planing
mills and miscellaneous
wooden goods
62.1
63.1
65.3
77.1
Furniture.—Although, as has been stated, few women were
employed in all of the woodworking industries combined in 1870,
in furniture manufacture production had shifted from a shop to
a factory basis beginning in 1840. With the growing mechanization and specialization in furniture manufacturing, more opportunities arose for women, in sewing machine operation in
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
J
119
sanding.51
upholstery departments, in assembling, and in
Data
for women operatives and laborers in furniture and store fixtures
manufacturing show that the number of women increased by more
than 7,000 since 1910, and women have constituted approximately
1 out of every 10 workers since 1920.
Women operatives and laborers: furniture and
store fixtures
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
—
11,969
10,416
9,466
4,159
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
14.9
10.0
127.6
11.0
9.5
10.8
6.4
—
PAPER MAKING
Machine production of paper was introduced in the United
States about 1827. Forty years later a process of extracting
cellulose from wood was discovered.52 Together these methods
made possible a low-priced product of widespread use.
In the period just prior to 1900 the paper box branch of the
industry showed a great increase in importance. The growing
custom of placing newly manufactured articles in individual boxes
led to a demand for a greatly expanded supply of such containers
at reasonable cost, which was met by the widespread introduction
of machinery in box-making. Because the product was light in
weight, and the machine operation required considerable dexterity,
women and girls became an important part of the work force.53
The growth df paper making and of paper box production and
the changing nature of the manufacturing process are reflected
in the addition of an average of 7,000 women in each decade
after 1870. Up through 1890 women were an increasing proportion of the operatives and laborers in paper and paper products
industries—pulp, paper, and paperboard mills, paperboard containers and boxes and miscellaneous paper and pulp products. By
1920 the proportion of women had become stabilized at about
one-fourth.
5 1 U. S. National Youth Administration of Illinois.
Furniture industry.
Occupational information research project No. 22 (Revised). Chicago, 111., 1938, Mimeo., pp. 19, 37.
5 2 Stevenson, Louis Tillotson.
The background and economics of American paper making.
York, N. Y., Harper & Bros., 1940. Ch. I, History and development of paper.
53 Report on condition of woman and child wage-earners
pp. 242-243.
New
in the United Statest op. cit., Vol. 18,
120:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
Women operatives and laborers : paper and
paper products1
Percent change
from preceding
census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
-
56,047
37,614
40,358
33,419
—.. 27,261
22,444
14,126
6,242
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
26.2
24.8
27.5
34.1
48.0
49.7
38.4
33.9
+ 49.0
— 6.8
+ 20.8
+ 22.6
+ 21.5
+ 58.9
+126.3
1 'Includes pulp, paper, and paperboard mills,. paperboard containers and boxes,
and miscellaneous paper and pulp products.
In 1940, women were about one out of every seven operatives
and laborers in pulp, paper, and paperboard mills. In paper manufacture women do primarily the nig sorting, counting, and finishing.54 Women were about one-half of those in the production of
paperboard containers and boxes and of miscellaneous pulp and
paper products. Data beginning in 1910 for the three branches
of the industry separately show that the first two branches mentioned above usually were the largest fields for women operatives
and laborers in this group of industries, and the manufacture
of miscellaneous paper and pulp products, which includes the
production of envelopes, cards, tags, paper bags, novelties, and
similar items of paper, was the smallest, except in 1930. However, women did not show extreme concentration in any of the
three branches.
Percent distribution of women operatives and
laborers: paper and paper products
1940
1930
1920
1910
Total
Pulp, paper,
and paperboard mills
Paperboard
containers
and boxes
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
33.9
42.7
38.7
35.5
39.9
25.0
36.7
42.2
Miscellaneous
paper and
pulp products
26.3
32.2
24.6
22.3
PRINTING AND PUBLISHING
The jobs carried on by the 42,553 women in the various
printing occupations in 1940 included work as operators of the
linotype and monotype machines in the composing room; as job
press feeders on the simple presses in some pressrooms; on some
machines and at most table work in the bindery.55 Up to 1910 the
number of women in the printing and publishing occupations
54
Glover, John George and Cornell, William Bouck.
The development
of American
industries.
New York, N. Y . , Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1941, p. 136.
55
Clark, Florence E.
book Co., 1939, pp. 91-92.
The printing trades and their workers.
Scranton, Pa., International Text-
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
J
121
grew at a rapid rate, as the work of the all-round printer became
subdivided into a number of separate skills. Women in the various
printing occupations numbered less than 5,000, or 8.0 percent of
all workers in these occupations in 1870. In 1910, the peak period
qf their employment relative to men, the 47,640 women constituted
nearly one-fifth of the various groups of workers in printing
and publishing. From 1910 to 1940 there was a net decrease of
about 5,000 women, and women in printing occupations at the
latter date were about one-eighth of the total.
Women printing and publishing workers1
Percent change
from preceding
census
Number
1940
1930 1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
—
-
42,553
44,922
48,436
47,640
32,938
24,640
9,322
4,397
_.
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
5.3
7.3
12.7
13.3
18.2
19.7
16.7
16.0
10.0
8.0
+
1-7
+ 44.6
+ 33.7
+164.3
+112.0
—
Includes operatives and laborers in printing, publishing, and allied industries, compositors and
typesetters, pressmen and plate printers, electrotypers and stereotypers, engravers, and photoengravers
and lithographers.
1
The chief work done by women in printing and publishing
is not the skilled occupation of compositor and typesetter, with
its 6-year apprenticeship, but rather it is the work of the operative,
particularly that of the bindery worker, with an apprenticeship
of 1 year.56 Data available for 1910 to 1940 show that more of
the women in printing and publishing went into the semiskilled
type of operation, while relatively fewer engaged in composition,
and only a minor proportion entered the more specialized printing
crafts.
Percent distribution of women printing and
publishing workers
Total
1940
1930
1920
1910
1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Operatives and
laborers
77.0
75.5
75.5
68.7
Compositors and
typesetters
Other printing
craftsmen1
18.8
22.4
22.9
28.9
1 Includes
pressmen and plate printers, electrotypers and stereotypers,
engravers and lithographers.
engravers,
4.2
2.1
1.6
2.4
and
photo-
Compositors and typesetters.—Between 1910 and 1940 the
use of machine composition and various mechanized operations
in pressroom work spread. Women had been employed in hand
56 Ibid., pp. 113-114.
747639°—48 — 9
122:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
composition but to a lesser extent in machine composition.57
Despite the ever-growing volume of printed matter in the country,
the total number of compositors and typesetters has dropped. The
diminishing needs for these skills affected women alone at first.
From 1930 to 1940 the numbers of both sexes declined, but women
were affected even more than men, dropping to less than 5 percent
of the total.
Women compositors and typesetters
Number
~
-
8,005
10,064
11,080
13,770
Percent decrease
from preceding
census
-20.5
— 9.2
—19.5
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
4.6
5.6
8.1
11.0
—
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES
In 1940 most of the women operatives and laborers in the
chemical, petroleum, and coal group were in the miscellaneous
chemical industries, a classification that includes the manufacture
of soap, candles, dyes, turpentine, celluloid, fireworks, fuses,
cartridges, drugs, and numerous other products. Another large
segment was engaged in the production of rayon and allied
products. Only relatively small numbers of women were in paint
and varnish manufacture, in petroleum refining, or in the production of miscellaneous petroleum and coal products.
Separate reporting of operatives and laborers in rayon manufacture dates from 1930, the few in 1920 having been classified
with "Not specified textile mills." In 1940 women numbered
10,834 and constituted 30 percent of all rayon and allied products
operatives and laborers; in 1930 the number of women had been
practically identical, but they had been 43.6 percent of the total.
Thus women did not appear to share proportionately in the expansion of this industry from 1930 to 1940, or else the classifications differed. It should be noted that the Census experienced
considerable difficulty in distinguishing between those working
in the rayon and allied products industry of the chemical group
and those in silk and rayon manufactures in the textile group.
The only chemical group with figures that can be followed
back to 1870 is that derived from combining figures for miscellaneous chemical industries with those for petroleum refining.
Before the Civil War "the trying kettle, the ash-leach, and the
candle-mold continued necessary features of every well-conducted
57
For a discussion of changes in technology and labor force, see Loft,
trades.
New York, N. Y., Farrar & Rinehart, Inc., 1944, pp. 37-71, 262-263.
Jacob.
The
printing
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
J
123
farm," 58 a fact indicating that women were closely concerned with
chemical processes at that date. The most important industrial
chemical before the Civil War had been the production of dyes
for use in textiles, and here, too, women had played a part, in
connection with the growing and marketing of indigo in the period
before cotton became a profitable crop.59 Up to the time of the
Civil War, in fact, dyestuffs were the principal industrial chemicals in demand, though some acids and salts, painters' colors,
and pharmaceutical preparations were also produced. In the two
decades prior to World War I there was tremendous expansion
in the chemical industries, as new processes were discovered and
new by-products utilized.60
Nearly 25,000 additional women entered the miscellaneous
chemical industries and petroleum refining from 1870 to 1940,
all but 3,000 of them after 1900, including nearly 12,000 in the
single decade from 1900 to 1910, when revolutionary developments
were taking place in these fields. Women's opportunities have
been in the lighter chemical lines, particularly in the finishing
and packing operations. In a study of the drug, medicine, and
toilet preparations industry, for example, it was found that filling
containers, labeling, and packaging were usually done by women,
while men usually performed the actual processing of the materials.61 Trends among women in the miscellaneous chemical
industries from 1870 to 1940 were as follows:
Women operatives and laborers: miscellaneous
chemical industries and petroleum refining
1940
1930 ...
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
Number
Percent change
from preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
25,316
19,907
21,758
15,198
3,427
2,140
862
403
+ 27.2
— 8.5
+ 43.2
+343.5
+ 60.1
+148.3
+113.9
—
11.8
10.6
13.0
17.3
12.9
11.8
5.9
5.1
RUBBER WORKERS
The 26,191 women operatives and laborers in rubber products
manufacture in 1940 were in contrast to a mere 1,832 in 1870;.
The discovery of the vulcanization process paved the way for
ss Clark, Victor S., op. cit., Vol I, p. 440.
58
See Ibid., Vol. I., p. 333.
The introduction of indigo is referred to on pp. 111-112 of this
bulletin.
50
Ibid., Vol. II, p. 129; Vol. I l l , pp. 284-289.
61
U. S. Department of Labor. Women's Bureau.
in certain toilet preparations.
ment Printing Office, 1939.
Wages and hours in drugs and medicines and
By Arthur T. Sutherland.
19 pp.
Bulletin 171.
Washington, U. S. Govern-
124:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
the production of myriad rubber products and articles formerly
unknown but today in such common use that they are regarded
as necessities.
Up to the time of the automobile the chief use of rubber was
in the manufacture of rubber footwear.62 During this period,
roughly before 1910, women constituted from one-third to nearly
one-half of all rubber workers. The rapid growth in mechanization of the rubber industry after 192063 has apparently contributed to the advancing position of women in the industry. By
1940, women's employment was extensive in tube building, a
highly mechanized branch of the industry, as well as in rubber
footwear production. Women's dexterity was also in demand in
connection with the smaller items in molded rubber goods manufacture. Finishing, inspecting, and packing jobs were commonly
done by women in all branches of the rubber industry.64
In the single decade from 1910 to 1920 more additional women
entered the rubber industry than during the entire 40 years before
that date. Numbers of men added from 1910 to 1920 were so
large, however, that tlie proportion of women in 1920 was the
lowest at any census date, below 17 percent. The expanding
opportunities for women in rubber manufacture appear in the
fact that, though numbers of men declined subsequently, women
workers continued to experience moderate gains.
Women operatives and laborers: rubber products
Number
26,191
24,209
22,823
11,592
7,300
6,391
2,037
1,832
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
Percent increase
over preceding
census
8.2
6.1
96.9
58.8
14.2
213.7
11.2
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
24.7
22.9
16.9
26.5
34.4
40.8
33.1
48.6
FOOTWEAR MANUFACTURE
The shoe industry was a sizable one even in 1870, when
172,811 boot and shoe workers, including shoemakers and repairers, were reported in the census. At that time, however, less
than 10,000 of them were women.
Women first became important in the shoe industry in the
latter part of the eighteenth century, when it was thfc practice
62
Clark, Victor S., op. cit., Vol. II, p. 479.
63
Alderfer and Michl, op. cit., pp. 272-274.
64
Ufford, Charles W .
'
p. 48.
Occupations in rubber.
Chicago, 111., Science Research Associates, 1942,
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
J
125
to give out the shoe uppers to be stitched and bound at home bywomen and children. Beginning in the mid-nineteenth century
labor-saving machines were introduced into shoe manufacture in
rapid succession. The use of the sewing machine in particular
brought the work of women into the factory, and at first their
work within the factory remained largely that of fitting and
stitching shoe uppers. Even after 1900 this was the primary type
of work done by women, though numbers of them also came to
be engaged on other operations.65
The greatest number of additional women entered shoe manufacture from 1900 to 1910, at the end of its transition from a
highly skilled handicraft to an industry mechanized in almost
all operations. From 1910 to 1930 both the numbers of additional
women entrants and the rates of increase became less at every
census, but the trend reversed from 1930 to 1940. Both the total
numbers of women in the industry and their proportion among
all shoe workers have constantly risen.
Women shoemakers and repairers (not in
factory) and operatives and laborers in
footwear industries (except rubber)
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
-
Number
Percent increase
over preceding
census
101,626
86,788
78,936
62,481
39,486
33,677
21,007
9,645
17.1
9.9
26.3
58.2
17.2
60.3
117.8
—-
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
34.0
28.5
25.9
24.0
19.0
15.8
10.8
5.6
LEATHER TANNING AND CURRYING
Up to 1890 the number of women workers in tanning, currying, and finishing leather had never reached 300. From 1890 to
1900 improved machinery in the tanning of leather resulted in
the employment of women and girls in place of men.66 From 1890
to 1920 large and rather erratic rates of increase brought the
number of women up to nearly 4,500. The numerical loss among
women from 1920 to 1930 was regained by 1940. Continuing
declines among men after 1920 resulted in gains for women
relative to the total workers in the industry.
65
For a history of women in shoe manufacture to about 1900, see Abbott, op. cit., pp. 148-185.
66
Ibid., p. 177.
126:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
Women operatives and laborers: leather,
tanned, curried, and finished
Number
1940
1980
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
4,448
4,178
4,452
2,245
1,765
295
202
86
Percent change
from preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
+
6.5
— 6.2
+ 98.3
+ 27.2
+498.3
+ 46.0
+134.9
9.8
9.1
7.5
4.1
4.1
0.8
0.7
0.3
—
LEATHER PRODUCTS, EXCEPT FOOTWEAR
The manufacture of leather products, other than footwear,
had only slightly more workers of both sexes than the tanning
industry in 1940. Women in the former industry, however, outnumbered women in primary leather processing by more than
5 to 1. Articles produced in the leather products industry include
not only pocketbooks and luggage but leather gloves and mittens,
with the many stitching operations on which women almost exclusively are employed.67 The proportion of women in leather
products relative to all workers rose steadily and rapidly from
2 percent in 1870 to nearly half (47.5 percent) in 1940.
Women operatives and laborers: leather
products, except footwear
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
24,510
14,081
15,381
_ 11,918
6,119
3,527
2,935
744
Percent change
from preceding
census
+ 74.1
— 8.5
+ 29.1
+ 94.8
+ 73,5
+ 20.2
+294.5
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
47.5
33.4
24.8
22.1
11.4
6.6
6.2
2.0
GLASS WORKERS
The 180 women operatives and laborers reported in the glass
industry in the 1870 census were but 1.8 percent of all workers.
Typical of the industry was the skilled glass blower, who remained prominent until the turn of the century. Though women
had been employed at least as early as 1832 in "painting glass/'
their opportunities in the glass industry were still primarily of
an auxiliary character by 1900. Finishing operations, inspecting,
and packing were typical work done by women, whereas the fur6 7 See U. S. Department of Labor. Women's Bureau.
Hours and earnings in the leather-glove
industry.
By Rebecca G. Smaltz and Arcadia N . Phillips. Bulletin 119. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1934, pp. 2-3.
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
J
127
nace room work, including pressing, molding, or blowing operations, was done by men.68 The introduction of a continuous
process of manufacture and the increasing mechanization during
World War I reduced the need for workers and made a change in
the type of skill needed. After 1920 numbers of both men and women declined, in spite of increased use of the three chief types of
products of the glass industry—containers, windows for buildings, automobiles, etc., and table and kitchen ware. Nevertheless
the proportion of women among the total workers continued to
increase, due to the shortage of male labor, the newer methods
of production, and the introduction of optical and scientific glass
manufacture.69 The introduction of safety glass, in whose manufacture women are employed to a considerable extent, and after
1930 its compulsory use in automobiles helped to reverse the
downward trend in numbers and raised the proportion of women
from 12.8 percent of all workers in 1930 to 18.7 percent in 1940.70
Women operatives and laborers:
glass and glass products
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
_„.
__
14,213
9,453
10,127
5,155
2,726
1,778
587
180
Percent change
from preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
+ 50.4
— 6.7
+ 96.5
+ 89.1
+ 53.3
+202.9
+226.1
18.7
12.8
11.9
6.1
5.3
5.0
3.2
1.8
—
THE POTTERY INDUSTRY
The handful of women operatives and laborers in the pottery
industry in 1870 had become 10,082 in 1940. This industry includes the production of tableware, sanitary ware, and other
porcelain and pottery articles.
In general the heavy or disagreeable industries or those with
exceptional danger to life and limb have not tended to employ
large proportions of women. Pottery, with its dangers from the
use of lead in glazes and its silicosis hazard, which are diseaserather than accident-producing, has employed women for many
68 Report
on condition of woman and child wage-earners in the United States, op. cit., Vol. 3,
Glass industry.
69 See U. S. Women's Bureau.
Effects
of American women, op. cit., pp. 24-27.
70
of applied research upon the employment
opportunities
For an outline of developments in the glass industry see Alderfer and Michl, op. cit., pp.202-215.
128:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
years.71 In Europe as well as in this country women traditionally
have worked in finishing operations, decorating, dipping, grinding and polishing, and other occupations in this industry, even to
some extent on firing, particularly on the smaller ware.72 However, considerable improvements in working conditions have taken
place through the years in which the employment of women has
advanced in pottery manufacture. The number of women has
consistently shown a sizable rate of increase. The impetus given
to the household china industry in the country by World War I
gave women an established place in the industry.73 By 1940 the
proportion of women was approaching one-third of all operatives
and laborers in the industry.
Women operatives and laborers:
pottery and related products
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
_
.....
Number
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
10,082
7,141
5,707
4,744
2,764
1,870
554
105
41.2
25.1
20.3
71.6
47.8
237.5
427.6
—
30.9
22.4
21.4
20.3
18.6
13.6
8.3
2.2
STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS
Though more than 50,000 operatives and laborers have been
concerned with the production of brick, tile, or terra cotta at
every census since 1890, women in the industry never numbered
more than slightly over 2,000. The heavy materials to be handled
In this industry make it generally unsuitable for women.
In 1940 women operatives and laborers in structural clay
products numbered 2,036 and constituted 3.8 percent of the total
workers. Though still quite small, this number of women was
25 times as large as in 1870, and the proportion had multiplied
13 times.
71
See summary of U. S. Public Health study in U. S. Department of Labor.
The occurrence and prevention
of occupational diseases among women.
Women's Bureau.
By Margaret T. Mettert.
Bulletin 184. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1941, pp. 37-39.
72
See the Report on condition of woman and child wage-earners in the United States, op. cit.,
Vol. 18, pp. 259-269, for occupations done by women about 1908-9.
At that date conditions in the
potteries visited were described as generally poor and in striking contrast to the carefully regulated
conditions in English potteries.
73
U. S. Women's Bureau.
American women,
Effects
op. cit, pp. 27-29.
of applied research upon the employment
opportunities
of
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
J 29
Women operatives and laborers:
structural clay products
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
Number
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
2,036
2,224
1,232
1,457
507
153
72
82
3.8
3.0
2.1
1.6
1.0
0.2
0.2
0.3
METAL TRADES WORKERS
In the metal, metal-products, and machinery industries (except electrical) women's activities in 1940 lay largely in the clock
and watch industry, in miscellaneous iron and steel industries,
in miscellaneous machinery, and in automobiles and automobile
equipment. Though women still have but a small foothold in the
manifold activities included in metal production, in spite of increases during war periods, whatever gains they have made are
due in large part to changes that affected the industry generally.
The introduction of special-purpose and combination machine
tools, the use of alloys for cutting tools, the improvements in the
form of machine tools, the improvements in accuracy of jigs and
fixtures, automatic lubrication, break-down of assembly operations among individuals specializing in a particular operation,
and so forth, were part of a general pattern of developments that
made it possible to employ semiskilled rather than skilled workers
to an increasing extent, a pattern which usually opens up opportunities for women.74
The proportion of women among metal manufacturing workers, always small, rose gradually from 3.1 percent of the total
in 1870 to 7.7 percent in 1940. From 1910 to 1920, 50,347 additional
women entered the metal industries as operatives and laborers,
the greatest number in any one decade, probably due to a great
extent to the accelerated activities of World War I. In the next
10 years (including the postwar period and early depression days)
the number of women added was relatively insignificant. This
trend affected men equally, since the proportion of women among
the total showed no drop.
74
See Alderfer and Michl, op. cit., pp. 107-123, for progress in methods of metal manufacture.
130:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
Women operatives and laborers:
metals, metal products, and machinery1
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1
-
„
136,882
107,200
106,555
56,208
- 21,335
15,232
7,668
5,217
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
27.7
0.6
89.6
163.5
40.1
98.6
47.0
—
7.7
6.2
6.2
4.8
3.9
3.7
3.0
3.1
Includes the occupations in Appendix Tables IIA and IIB from "Nonferrous metal primary
products" through "Ship and boat building and repairing, laborers."
More detailed classifications available for 1910 to 1940 show
that women metal workers were concentrated throughout the
period in the group that included iron and steel and not specified
metal industries, machinery (except electrical), and transportation equipment (except automobile). This group includes a great
variety of products. At one extreme, there is primary iron and
steel production, with less than 5 percent of all the women in metal
products, who worked almost entirely at sorting and inspecting
tinplate.75 In contrast, there are also numerous small metal
articles, such as tin cans, enameled ware, wire, cutlery and hardware, and other fabricated metal products, which offer more
opportunities to women. The second largest group of women had
been in the clock and watch industry in 1910, but by 1920 women
in automobile production had already moved to second place,
leaving women who worked in the manufacture of clocks, watches,
jewelry, and silverware to continue as the third largest group up
through 1940.
Percent distribution
Total women operatives and laborers:
metals and metal products
Nonferrous metals
Clocks, watches, jewelry, and silverware
Iron and steel and not specified metal industries; machinery, except electrical;
transportation equipment, except automobile
:
Automobiles and automobile equipment
All other
1940
100.0
1930
100.0
1920
100.0
1910
100.0
7.4
10.0
11.1
12.2
10.7
14.2
12.4
20.4
55.8
22.2
4.6
52.0
21.6
3.1
56.5
14.7
4.0
56.2
1.8
9.2
Specified metal workers.—A tremendous stimulus to the
employment of women in metal industries stemmed from the
country's needs in World War I. Many women were hired to
75 For the work of women during World War II in steel, see U. S. Department of Labor.
Women's Bureau. Women's employment in the making of steel. By Ethel Erickson. Bulletin 192, No, 5.
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1944. 39 pp.
OPERATIVES AND LABORERS
J
131
replace men and also to carry on new operations in the machine
shops of the metal-working industries—operating machines, inspecting, or doing miscellaneous handwork-—and in assembling
departments.76
The number of women workers in the various metal industries specified below nearly doubled from 1910 to 1920.
Though more than half of the women workers In all metal industries were connected with these particular fields, women were
less than 1 in every 10 workers in the industry group.
Women operatives and laborers: iron and steel
and not specified metal industries, machinery
(except electrical), and transportation
equipment {except automobile)
1940
1930
1920
1910
_
Number
Percent change
pom preceding
census
76,446
55,760
60,190
31,569
+37.1
— 7.4
+90.7
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
8.3
6.1
6.4
4.4
Clocks, watches, jewelry, and silverware.—In the various
metal and machinery industries, the use of women was limited
generally to those branches and those occupations which required
relatively light work. Such, for example, were the operations In
elock and watch making. The application of mass production methods to the manufacture of small arms, beginning about 1820, was
next introduced into the manufacture of clocks and watches.77
Consequently, by 1910, when comparable data were first available, women operatives and laborers already numbered 11,469
or 30.4 percent of all clock and watch operatives and laborers.
Women's proportion advanced to 4 out of every 10 workers in
the industry by 1940.
1940 _
1930 „
1920
_
_
_
_
1910
_
13,711
13,101
15,087
+ 4.7
—13.1
+31.5
38.3
33.0
31.0
_
-11,469
—
30,4
...
_
_
_
Automobiles„—In the manufacture of automobiles and automobile equipment there were only about 1,000 women in 1910,
and they were but a fraction of the total workers. The mushrooming of this industry appears in the tremendous Increase in
to For the effects of World War I on the employment of women during the war and afterwards,
see U. S. Department of Labor. Women's Bureau. The new position of women in American industry. Bulletin 12. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1920.. 158 pp.
»
77
Alderfer amd MichJ,
cit., 194a, pp. 117,
m.
132:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
the next decade among women, many of them actually at work
on such typical "women's work" as sewing in the upholstery departments rather than the heavier processes. Subsequently, as
the industry was becoming stabilized after its first tremendous
growth, rates of increase among women were lower, though they
still exceeded rates of population growth. Proportions of women
advanced steadily, reaching 10.6 percent in 1940.
Women operatives and laborers: automobiles
and automobile equipment
Number
1940
1930
1920 „„
1910
30,445
23,182
15,644
1,014
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
31.3
48.2
1,442.8
—
10.6
7.2
6.8
2.4
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
Radio, phonograph, spark plug, and other types of electrical
supply manufacturing had 74,185 women in 1940 who performed
assembling, machining, winding, inspecting, and many other jobs
as operatives or laborers. The effects of inventions in developing
a whole new Industry and, in fact, a new mode of living are well
demonstrated by the history of the electrical industry. The telegraph in the 1830's, the telephone in the 1870's, the dynamo, arc
lamp, and incandescent lamp in the 1870's and 1880's made possible the establishment of this industry. After 1900 the wireless,
the radio, and the constant new applications of electricity along
other lines brought further development and expansion.78
In the volumes of the census for 1900 and earlier one searches
in vain for any mention of operatives in electrical machinery and
supply manufacturing. The lamp-lighters are there in 1870, and
the candle and tallow makers are there at each census from 1870
through 1900. "Employees of telegraph companies (not clerks)"
are listed beginning in 1870, "officials and employes of telephone
companies" in 1880, "electrical engineers" (along with,the other
groups of engineers) and "electric light and power company
employes" (along with telegraph and telephone linemen) in 1890,
while "electricians" appear for the first time in 1900.
Not until 1910 were the operatives in electrical supply factories presented by themselves. At that time there were 12,093
women who constituted 35.9 percent of the total. The invention
and manufacture of incandescent lamps, electric fans, irons,
heaters, washers, and many other appliances had been proceeding
78 Hickman,
Mildred M. Electrical manufacturing in Cleveland.
"Board of Education Bureau of Educational Research, 1930, pp. 8-12.
Cleveland,
Ohio,
Cleveland
OPERATIVES A N D LABORERS
J 33
during the period from 1880 to 1910, and constant improvement
was made after that date.79
The use of electricity for light in particular opened a great
number of opportunities to women, because of the small size of
the parts and the delicacy of handling required.80 Even as late
as 1940 considerable numbers of women in the electrical industry,
aside from those in radio and communication equipment, were
in the branch manufacturing electric lamps. The beginning of
the radio industry in the 1920's opened new jobs to women on a
great variety of assembling and inspection operations.81
Though additions to the number of men caused the proportion
of women to drop slightly in 1920 and 1930, by 1940 women were
40.7 percent of all the operatives and laborers in electrical machinery and equipment, almost as high as in such a traditional
woman's industry as cotton.
Women operatives and laborers: electrical
machinery and equipment
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
-
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
56.4
65.0
137.7
—
40.7
33.1
33.7
35.9
- 74,185
47,439
28,751
12,093
FRUIT AND VEGETABLE GRADERS AND PACKERS
Today fresh fruits and vegetables are available to the consumer all year round, being shipped to the markets first from one
area, then another, as they ripen. Because fresh produce often
must be shipped long distances, it must be properly packed, and
a growing number of women worked at grading and packing
from 1910 to 1940. Since the peak season in agriculture is late
summer, census figures tend to understate the number of workers
in the occupation, and the figures may be affected by the weather
variations and the consequent conditions of the crops during the
census period in a particular year.82 In addition, difficulties
experienced by the Census in classifying workers in areas where
growing, canning, and wholesale shipping are all represented and
the more consistent inclusion in 1940 than previously of vegetable
70
U. S. National Youth Administration of Illinois.
mation research report No. 29.
Electrical
appliances.
8 0 U. S. Women's Bureau.
Effects of applied
can women, op. cit., pp. 35-37.
research upon
employment
8 1 See U. S. Department of Labor.
Women's Bureau. Fluctuation
industry.
By Caroline Manning.
Bulletin 83. Washington, U. S.
1931, pp. 27-28.
8 2 T h e various censuses were taken as follows;
March.
Occupational infor-
Chicago, 111., Revised, May 21, 1938, p. 2.
1910^ April;
opportunities
of
Ameri-
of employment in the radio
Government Printing Office,
1920, January;
1930, April; 1940,
134:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
graders and packers in this occupational classification have affected the comparability of the figures. The need for quickness,
dexterity, and careful handling as well as the fact that the
occupation is seasonal, tending to draw local workers for a
temporary period, have contributed to high proportions of
women.83
Women fruit and vegetable graders and
packers, except in cannery
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
14,972
6,695
3,364
2,221
Percent increase
over preceding
census
123.6
99.0
51.5
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
57.7
61.3
37.9
42.8
8 3 For a description of jobs and,conditions in apple and pear warehouses see U. S. Department of
Labor.
Women's Bureau.
Women in the fruit growing and canning industries in the State of
Washington.
By Caroline Manning. Bulletin 47. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office,
1926, pp. 145-159.
CHART X.—WOMEN IN SELECTED SERVICE OCCUPATIONS, 1870-1940
THOUSANDS
3,000
2,500
2,000
Charwomen and cleaners; cooks,
housekeepers, stewards, hostesses,
servants, and waitresses, private
family ond other
/
1.500
1,000
500
0
o
od
—
2
S^
2
THOUSAN05
25 0
THOUSANDS
150
125
Boarding house and
lodginghouse
keepers
THOUSAN OS
j
40
j
L
100
75
50
25
0
o
too
o
2
o
CVJ
THOUSANDS
14
Elevotor operators
12
10
8
/
/
/
6
4
/
o
CVJ
136
Source: Appendix Table IIA.
2
8
o>
0
TRENDS IN SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
Outstanding among women workers in the field of domestic
and personal service work in 1940 were service workers in private
families together with the women who performed activities
similarly concerned with the preparation and serving of food,
with cleaning, and with various other chores in public housekeeping fields, i. e., in hotels, restaurants, and other establishments.1
Concentration of service workers in these activities was less at
the recent period than 70 years earlier. The proportion that
household workers and service workers in public housekeeping
formed of all women service workers dropped from 92.0 percent
in 1870 to 76.1 percent in 1940. (See Table 8.) Indications are
that workers in the service field had increasingly shifted to types
of work of a specialized nature. Women laundresses, laundry
operatives, and other women workers in laundering, cleaning, and
dyeing services rose from 6.0 to 11.2 percent of the service group.
The proportions of women service workers that were barbers,
beauticians, and manicurists, or practical nurses and midwives,
or boarding house and lodginghouse keepers were somewhat
higher in 1940 than in 1870. Even within the group of workers
in private households and in public housekeeping there has been
a shift to increasingly differentiated types of work, performed
more and more outside the home, as will be seen from the discussion that follows.
SERVICE WORKERS IN PRIVATE HOUSEHOLDS AND IN PUBLIC HOUSEKEEPING
General trends.—From 1870 to 1940 the number of women
who were service workers in private or public housekeeping more
than tripled, growing from 901,954 to 2,831,874. The first published data for women showed "servants" largely as a sizable undifferentiated group, though 6,299 "Employees of hotels and
restaurants (not clerks)" and 85 "Stewardesses" were distinguished. The instructions given to the enumerators in 1870
read, "The Organization of domestic service has not proceeded
so far as to render it worthwhile to make distinction in the character of work. Report all as 'domestic servants.' " However, the
instructions went on to say, "Cooks, waiters, etc., in hotels and
1 Includes charwomen and cleaners, and the following workers, whether or not in private families: cooks, housekeepers, stewards, and hostesses; servants; and waitresses.
747639°—48 — 1 0
137
138:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
restaurants will be reported separately from domestic servants."3
By 1940 domestic service in the home was still considered more
or less unspecialized, except that the census report showed 393,031
private family housekeepers separately from the 1,600,169 private
family "servants."3 There was, however, a greater number of distinct occupations among service workers in public housekeeping,
covering 406,096 waitresses, 191,344 servants, 132,630 cooks,
68,451 housekeepers, and 40,153 charwomen and cleaners.
Table 8.—Number and Percent Distribution of Women Service Workers,
Except Protective, in Selected Occupations, 1870 and 1940 1
Number of women
Occupation
1940
Total selected service workers, except protective
Charwomen, cooks, housekeepers, servants,
waitresses, etc., private family and other.
Laundresses; laundry operatives; laundering, cleaning, and dyeing services: proprietors, managers, and officials, foremen, operatives, laborers
Barbers, beauticians, and manicurists
Practical nurses and midwives. .
Boarding house and lodginghouse keepers..
Janitors and sextons
Attendants, ushers, and operatives, amusement, recreation, and related services
Percent distribution
1870
1940
1870
3,722,991
979,921
100.0
100.0
2,831,874
901,954
76.1
92.0
417,215
218,132
104,338
100,835
39,041
58,683
1,548
10,486
7,052
151
11.2
5.9
2.8
2.7
1.0
6.0
0.2
1.1
0.7
11,556
47
0.3
(2)
(2)
Source: Appendix Table IIA.
1 The
service workers included in this distribution numbered 3,499,972 and constituted 97.7
percent of the total 3,584,021 women classified as service workers (except protective) in 1940. In
addition, foremen, personal services; laborers, laundering, cleaning, and dyeing services; laundry
operatives and laundresses, except private family; operatives, amusement, recreation, and related
services; operatives, laundering, cleaning, and dyeing services; proprietors, managers, and officials,
laundering, cleaning, and dyeing services, which were not classified with service workers (except
protective) in 1940, were included for comparability with 1870. These additional women numbered
223,019 and were 6.2 percent as large as the group classified as service workers (except protective)
in 1940.
2 Less than 0.05 percent.
The number of women service workers in private and public
housekeeping increased up through 1910. In 1920, following the
shift of women workers into fields more vital to the industrial
needs of World War I, the number of women in these occupations
was at a subnormal level.4 Accelerated rates of growth occurred
in the succeeding 20-year period.
2
[U. S.] Department of the Interior.
Census Office.
The statistics of the population of the United States.
9th census [of the
Vol. I, p. xxxiii.
United States:
Washington,
1870].
[U. S.] Gov-
ernment Printing Office, 1872.
3
Laundresses, private family, are in general considered subsequently with laundry workers and
are not discussed with service workers in private households and in public housekeeping,
except
in the sections on household workers, on age, and on race, pp. 142-144.
4
A similar shift occurred during World W a r II, when the number in domestic service declined
by 20 percent from 1940 to 1944.
employment
during the war.
U. S. Department of Labor.
By Mary Elizabeth Pidgeon.
Government Printing Office, 1944, p. 9.
Women's Bureau.
Special Bulletin 20.
Changes in
women's
Washington, U. S.
139
SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
Women service workers in private or
public housekeeping1
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
.
,
2,831,874
2,146,360
1,356,531
1,593,586
1,430,656
1,302,704
970,257
901,954
Percent change
from preceding
census
+32.0
+58.2
-14.9
+11.4
+ 9.8
+34.3
+ 7.6
—
Includes charwomen and cleaners, and the following workers, whether or not in
families: cooks; housekeepers, stewards, and hostesses; servants; and waitresses.
a
private
Changes relative to population and labor force growth.—
At all periods only a minority of families have had household
workers or have been able to substitute corresponding services
available commercially. In 1870 there was 1 woman service
worker in private or public housekeeping to every 8 families;
by 1920 the ratio was 1 to 18, and in 1940, 1 to 12. Part of the
change from 1870 to 1940, when the ratio of families per woman
worker in these fields was half again as large, is due to the
smaller size of families. The ratio of total population to each
woman service worker in private or public housekeeping showed
relatively less change over the period—44 to 1 in 1870 compared
to 47 to 1 in 1940.
Number of families
for each woman
service worker in
private or public
housekeeping1
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
-
12.4
13.9
18.0
12.7
11.2
9.7
10.3
8.4
Number of persons
in population for
each woman service
worker in private
or public housekeeping1
Women service
workers in private
or public housekeeping1 as percent
of all women in
the labor force or
gainfully occupied
46.5
57.2
77.9
57.7
53.1
48.1
51.7
44.1
21.8
20.0
15.7
21.4
26.9
32.5
36.7
47.0
1 Includes
charwomen and cleaners, and the following workers, whether or not
families: cooks; housekeepers, stewards, and hostesses; servants; and waitresses.
in
private
The 50 years from 1870 to 1920 was a period during which
service occupations both in private and public housekeeping appeared to be increasingly unpopular among women workers.5
From nearly one-half of all working women in 1870, women
service workers in private or public housekeeping dropped to less
5
The growing "servant problem" of this period was no new development.
Harriet Martineau,
commenting on the American scene over 100 years ago stated, "Boarding-house life has been rendered
compulsory by the scarcity of labour,—the difficulty of obtaining domestic service."
Salmon, Lucy Maynard.
Domestic service.
Quoted in
New York, N. Y M Macmillan Co., 1897, pp 55-56.
140:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
than one-third by 1890 and continued downward to less than onesixth in 1920. The trend was reversed after 1920, the relative
importance among all women workers of the group under discussion returning approximately to the 1910 level by 1940.
Changes relative to men.—Through the years women's share
of the private and public housekeeping occupations tended generally to decrease. Women were 86 percent of the workers in
these occupations in 1870. After reaching a low point of 76
percent in 1920 they recovered their ground only slightly in the
next 20 years.
Women as percent
of all service
workers in private
or public house-
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1
-
78.5
77.5
76.1
79.0
82.0
82.7
82.5
85.6
_____
_
_
Includes charwomen and cleaners, and the following workers, whether or not in private families:
cooks, housekeepers, stewards, and hostesses; servants; and waitresses.
The slight increase in the proportion of women relative to
all service workers in public housekeeping and in private households from 1930 to 1940 represents divergent trends in particular
occupations. Women's position remained about the same over the
decade among housekeepers and servants in private families,
among cooks not in private families, and among "servants" not in
private families. Among charwomen and cleaners women's proportion of total workers dropped perceptibly, while among housekeepers and waitresses outside of private families the preponderance of women became greater.
Women
Total service workers in private
or public housekeeping
Charwomen and cleaners—,
Housekeepers and servants, private family
Cooks, except private family
Housekeepers, stewards, and hostesses,
except private family
_
Servants, except private family.
_
_—_—_
Waitresses, except private family
as percent of all workers
mo
78.5
mo
77.5
53.8
92.7
39.5
59.8
93.0
39.8
77.5
54.2
67.1
71.6
54.0
56.9
Shifts in particular occupations.—From 1930 to 1940 there
was a net addition of approximately 690,000 women to the service
141
SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
occupations in private and public housekeeping, an increase of
nearly one-third. This gain came primarily from the swelling
ranks among service workers in public housekeeping—"servants,"
housekeepers, and waitresses, except private family. Women in
these three occupations increased at a rate far above that of
service workers in private and public housekeeping as a whole.
Consequently, the proportion of all women in service occupations
who worked for private families, either as housekeepers or other
domestic workers, fell. Waitresses not in private families rose
to a more prominent place; other changes were minor. These
shifts indicate that although the general group of household
workers is still very large, there has been a tendency toward increased specialization and toward the replacement of the worker
within the individual household by services provided commercially.
Percent increase
in number
Total women service workers in private
or public housekeeping
Charwomen and cleaners
.„_•_
Housekeepers and servants, private family
Cooks, except private family
Housekeepers, stewards, and hostesses,
except private family
Servants, except private family
Waitresses, except private family
Percent distribution
1930-1940
1940
1930
32.0
100.0
100.0
5.3
25.8
15.4
1.4
70.4
4.7
1.8
73.9
5.4
53.9
49.9
71.7
2.4
6.8
14.3
2.1
5.9
11.0
Such trends do not appear to be of recent origin. The general observer cannot fail to note the growing place of commercially supplied food, lodging, and similar services. At the same
time there has undoubtedly been a relative decline among women
in what have traditionally been known as "servant occupations,"
such as those of chambermaid, cook, maid, and general servant,
most of whom worked in private families.
The long-term downward trend among women in these "servant occupations" relative to other occupations has been explained by the reluctance of workers, in the face of growing opportunities in factories and shops, to enter a field with low standards of work and wages and with inferior social status. Demand
for such workers has become relatively lower as families have become accustomed to smaller dwelling units equipped with mechanical devices and have increasingly resorted to restaurant meals,
commercial laundries, and other services. The situation from 1910
to 1920 was affected further by the smaller supply of such workers
resulting from decreased immigration and from wartime shifts
142:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
to other occupations as well as by lowered demand because of
higher standards of wages for this work.6
jHousehold workers.—Numerically the most important group
of women service workers comprises those who work in private
families, commonly known as household workers. These include
laundresses,7 housekeepers, and "servants" in private families
which the Census grouped together in 1940 as "Domestic service
workers." From 1930 to 1940 about 14 million women were added
to domestic service workers, bringing the total number of women
in the field to 2,187,983 in 1940. Comparable census data for earlier
dates are not available. The figures for 1930-1940 are as follows:
Percent
change
Number
1940
Women domestic service workers
1930
1930-1940
2,187,983
1,927,527
+13.5
Housekeepers and servants, private family.. 1,993,200
Laundresses, private family
194,783
1,584,589
342,938
+25.8
-43.2
Problems of long hours, low wages, and poor working conditions are particularly acute in the field of household employment.
As a result women workers have tended, if at all possible, to undertake other occupations in preference. Under the depressed
conditions from 1930 to 1940 doubtless many women had no choice,
and though some families probably had to dispense with the household help to which they had formerly been accustomed, the figures
show a rise over the decade in the numbers of women household
workers. The number of persons in the population for each household worker was slightly smaller in 1940 than in 1930, indicating,
furthermore, that numbers of household workers increased more
rapidly than the population which they served. However, because
of the smaller average size of families, there was little change in
the number of families relative to each household worker. Even
though conditions may have tended to force women into these
occupations at this period, household workers declined in importance among all women workers.
The data on which these conclusions are based are the best
available for measuring changes among household workers from
1930 to 1940. Nevertheless it should be remembered that despite
adjustments for comparability, discrepancies in the figures remain
6 See U. S. Department of Commerce.
Women in gainful occupations, 1870 to 1920. By Joseph
A. Hill. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1929, pp. 36-39; and U. S. Department of
Labor. Women's Bureau. The occupational progress of women.
By Mary V. Dempsey.
Bulletin
104. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1933, p. 28.
7 Included in general in the discussion 6f laundry workers on pp.
service workers in private or public housekeeping.
144-146 rather than with
143
SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
due to the difficulty in distinguishing between "laundress, private
family" and other laundresses, and due to the fact that some of the
"housekeepers, private family," undoubtedly were in fact housekeepers in their own homes. However, the general trends indicated
by the figures are probably valid. A summary of some of the
figures follows :
Number of persons in population for each
woman domestic service worker
;
.
—
Number of families for each woman
domestic service worker
-—
Women domestic service workers as percent of all
women in the labor force or gainfully occupied
Women as percent of all domestic service workers
1940
1930
60.2
63.7
16.0
15.5
16.8
93.1
17.9
94.1
Racial groups.—To a considerable extent "servant occupations" have depended for their recruits on the less-favored members of the labor force. This was particularly true of housekeepers,
"servants," and laundresses in private families, 47.4 percent of
whom were nonwhite in 1940. Proportions of nonwhites were lower
in the public housekeeping occupations. In contrast to household
workers, only 14.4 percent of women in all occupations in the
experienced labor force were nonwhite. Data for both 1930 and
1940, which are only approximately comparable, indicate that the
reliance on nonwhite labor in these service fields was even greater
10 years previously.8
Proportion nonwhite
1940
Women service workers in public and
private housekeeping1
—
Domestic service workers2
Housekeepers, cooks, servants, waitresses,
except private family
...
Cooks, except private family
Housekeepers, stewards, hostesses, except
private family
Servants, except private family.
Waitresses and bartenders31
Excludes charwomen and cleaners.
2
Includes laundresses and housekeepers and servants, private family.
3
Bartenders were included in 1940 but not in 1930.
1930
38.6
43.2
47.4
48.9
14.8
22.8
19.8
30.4
5.8
33.4
5.1
5.4
37.8
8.3
These occupations were likewise the chief employment outlet
of the nonwhite group, and concentration of Negroes and other
nonwhite persons in these fields increased from 1930 to 1940.
Nearly two-thirds (64 percent) of all nonwhite women in the ex8
In 1930 Mexicans were included with nonwhite, whereas in 1940 they were included with white
workers; data for waitresses included bartenders in 1940 but not in 1930; and 1940 data apply to
women 14 years and over whereas 1930 data were for women 10 years and over.
ever, that these differences do not significantly affect the general conclusions.
It is believed, how-
144:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
perienced labor force in all occupations were in these fields in
1940; in 1930 the proportion had been 55 percent. In contrast only
17 percent of white women workers in all occupations in 1940 and
15.8 percent in 1930 were engaged in the group of occupations
shown in the preceding table.
Age groups,—Older women workers, another group with special problems of employment, found relatively greater opportunities in "servant occupations" in 1940 but to a less extent than in
1930. In 1940 women in the special group of occupations under
discussion who were 45 years and over constituted 28 percent of
of all women of this age in the experienced labor force; in 1930
the comparable proportion had been 31 percent. These fields figured more prominently in 1940 than in 1930 among women workers under 25 years of age also, as the proportion of all women 14
to 24 years in occupations composed primarily of "servants" rose
to 24 percent in 1940 from 18 percent in 1930. This was at a time
when it was becoming increasingly difficult for the younger, less
experienced workers to find work of any sort. The resulting
shifts in the age distribution of all women in these fields are indicated by the following figures:
Percent distribution
Women service workers in public and
private housekeeping1
14-24 years
25-44 years
45 years and over
1940
1930
100.0
100.0
30.6
43.5
25.9
243.1
29.3
27.7
Includes laundresses and housekeepers and servants, private family; and housekeepers, cooks,
servants, and waitresses, except private family. Excludes charwomen and cleaners. Bartenders were
included in 1940 but not in 1930.
1
2
Includes age unknown.
LAUNDRY WORKERS
General trends.—Just as women followed the transfer of
production from the home to the factory, they have followed the
transfer of services from the home to the commercial establishment. In laundry work two conflicting tendencies have occurred
in recent years. On the one hand, those factors that have caused
other household activities to shift from the home coupled with the
development of a high type of commercial laundry work at lower
prices have furthered the rise of laundry service. On the other
hand, the availability of a practical type of home washing machine
and prejudice against commercial laundries have served to keep
this type of work in many homes.9
9
Encyclopaedia
of the social sciences.
Macmillan Co., 1930-35.
Laundry and dry cleaning industry.
New York, N. Y.,
145
SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
The numoer of laundresses and of women in laundering,
cleaning, and dyeing establishments was over 10 times greater in
1910 than in 1870—606,409 compared with a mere 58,683. There
was a drop in numbers in 1920 (possibly partly due to an exodus
from this work to other fields during World War I), a recovery in
1930, and a further drop to 417,215 in these occupations in 1940.
The decennial rates of change among women from 1870 to 1940
were as follows:
Women in laundry
work1
Percent change
from preceding
census
Number
417,215
548,971
478,078
606,409
338,635
218,797
109,280
58,683
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
and related
Launderers and laundresses; laundry operatives; proprietors, managers,
operatives, and laborers in laundering, cleaning, and dyeing services.
1
~ 24.0
+ 14.8
- 21.2
+ 79.1
+ 54.8
+100.2
+ 86.2
—
officials,
foremen,
Changes relative to population and labor force growth.—In
the decades immediately following 1870 increases among women
in laundry occupations far outstripped the female population
growth. Up to 1910 the numbers grew every decade 50 to 100
percent. In 1870, there was 1 woman laundress or laundry, cleaning, and dyeing worker for every 679 persons in the population.
By 1910 only 152 persons had to depend on 1 woman worker. The
family wash thus came to be done by paid labor to a considerable
extent. After 1910 the trend was reversed, and by 1940 the ratio
of women workers to the population dropped to 1 to 316. The
proportion of all women in the labor force engaged in laundry
and related occupations was about 3 percent both in 1940 and 1870,
having risen to over 8 percent in 1910.
Number of persons
in population for
each woman in
laundry and
related work1
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
—
....
..„
„„
....
....
315.6
223.6
_„„_
3.2
5.1
5.5
8.1
6.4
5.5
4.1
3.1
221.1
151.7
224.4
....
286.2
459.0
678.5
Launderers and laundresses; laundry operatives; proprietors,
operatives, and laborers in laundering, cleaning, and dyeing services.
1
Women in laundry
and related work1
as percent of all
women in the labor force
or gainfully
occupied
managers,
officials,
foremen,
146:
W O M E N ' S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
Changes relative to men.—While women were still a considerable proportion of all workers in the field in 1940, over the years
they declined relative to the total. In 1940, 72 percent of laundresses and of personnel in laundry, cleaning, and dyeing work were
women, compared to 92 percent in 1870. The most noticeable
shift to the labor of men occurred following 1920, at a time when
the volume of family-bundle laundry business was growing tremendously, and there was a concentration of work in the larger
plants using labor-saving machinery.10 The home laundress was
always a woman, but in a commercial laundry the machine washing and certain other processes require considerable strength.11
The following data show trends among women in laundry,
cleaning, and dyeing occupations relative to men in these fields:
Women as percent
of all laundry and
related workers1
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
-
_
71.8
78.6
85.9
88.6
86.9
87.2
88.7
91.6
-
-
....
1 Launderers
and laundresses; laundry operatives; proprietors,
operatives, and laborers in laundering, cleaning, and dyeing services.
managers,, officials,
foremen,
Shift to commercial laundry service.—More detailed figures
for 1930 and 1940 indicate that there has been a shift from the use
of the paid home laundress to the use of commercial laundry service. The number of private family laundresses decreased by
nearly 150,000, while laundresses not in private families and laundry operatives rose slightly, from 219,790 to 233,763. At both
periods, however, it was difficult to distinguish private family
laundresses from others. Among women, private family laundresses dropped from two-thirds to about one-half of the two fields
combined.
Percent
1940
Total laundresses and women laundry
operatives
-
U. S. Department of Labor.
ers in 23 cities.
Women's Bureau.
A survey
By Ethel L. Best and Ethel Erickson.
100.0
52.0
67.0
48.0
33.0
Printing Office, 1930, pp. 1-6.
u U. S. Employment Service.
Government Printing Office, 1937.
Job
descriptions
of laundries
Bulletin 78.
for the laundry
1930
.__ 100.0
Laundresses, private family.
Laundry operatives and laundresses, except
private family
T
10
distribution
and their women
work-
Washington, U. S. Government
industry.
Washington,
U.
S.
147
SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
BARBERS, BEAUTICIANS, AND MANICURISTS
Following World War I a tremendous development took place
in the field of beauty culture work. The ranks of women barbers,
beauticians, and manicurists were swelled by nearly 80,000 additional women from 1920 to 1930 and by nearly 105,000 from 1930
to 1940. Eighty-five percent of the growth since 1870 took place
from 1920 to 1940. These occupations had a total of 218,132 women in 1940, over 140 times the mere 1,548 women in the same
fields in 1870.
Women
barbers, beauticians,
and manicurists
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
Percent increase
over preceding
census
218,132
113,194
33,246
22,298
7,284
3,691
3,463
1,548
92.7
240.5
49.1
206.1
97.3
6.6
123.7
—
Until the turn of the century only a minor proportion, less
than 8 percent, of workers in these fields were women. Beginning about 1920 the introduction of bobbed hair led more and
more women to patronize at first barber shops for cutting and
trimming and later the beauty parlor for hair waving and other
beauty treatments.12 Women workers, but 15 percent of the total
in 1920, rose to over 30 percent in 1930 and to almost half in 1940.
The continuing opportunity for women workers is further evidenced by the increasing proportion of all women workers who
were in this field. Never more than 0.1 percent through 1900, the
proportion rose subsequently in each decade, reaching 1.7 percent
in 1940. The advancing position of women in this field appears
from the following:
Women barbers, beauticians, and
as percent of—
All women in the labor force
or gainfully
occupied
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
12
-
U. S. Department of Labor.
Ethel Erickson.
Bulletin 133.
;
Women's Bureau.
A11 workers in
this occupation
49.6
30.2
15,4
11.4
5.5
4.3
7.6
6.3
1.7
1.1
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Employment
manicurists
conditions in beauty shops.
Washington, XI. S. Government Printing Office, 1935, p. 1.
By
148:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
In general, men work in barber shops patronized by men, and
women work in beauty shops to which women go. A small number of men do some specialized work in beauty parlors, and some
women work in barber shops, probably chiefly as manicurists.13
By 1940, for the first time, the female population was almost as
well served by the women in barber, beautician, and manicurist
work as the male population was by the men in these fields.
Number of females
in population for
each woman in
barber, beautician,
and manicurist
occupations
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
Number of males in
population for each
man in barber\
beautician, and
manicurist
occupations
300.8
535.7
1,558.4
2,002.0
5,104.1
8,278.1
7,114.3
12,726.6
_____.„_._
297.6
238.0
294.6
273.6
309.2
390.3
608.3
870.4
PRACTICAL NURSES AND MIDWIVES
From an estimated 10,486 women in 1870, practical nurses
and midwives expanded in numbers to a peak of 141,711 in 1930.
From 1930 to 1940 the figures show a drop of over 37,000, but
how much of this is a real decline in the field is open to question.
Because of the wage and educational data on the 1940 census
schedule, the return "nurse" was coded in many instances in 1940
as "Trained nurse" and included with professional workers. Similar information was not available in 1930.
Before 1900 the occupation increased at a rapid rate. In the 30
years from 1870 to 1900 the number of women engaged in practical
nursing and midwifery increased by over 800 percent. Slowing
rates of increase, which culminated in a decrease, caused a decline
of 10 percent in the 30-year period from 1910 to 1940.
Women
practical nurses and
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910 ...
1900
1890
1880
1870
13
tions.
-
-
... 104,338
141,711
_____ 136,057
115,946
.
96,669
36,818
_
12,819
10,486
-
_
_
_____
U. S. Employment Service. Job descriptions for domestic service and personal
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1939, pp. 102-104.
midwives
Percent change
from preceding
census
- 26.4
+
4.2
+ 17,3
+ 19.9
+162.6
+187.2
+ 22.2
—
service
occupa-
149
SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
The tremendous rise in the number of trained nurses relative
to the population reflects the marked shift from home to hospital
care of persons acutely or seriously ill and the concern with public
health.14 Most of the practical nurses and midwives, however,
were in private families, so that in a sense they represent a continuation of the care of the ill within the family. For every 10,000
of the population there were about 3 women practical nurses and
midwives in 1870, compared to about 13 in 1920, and 8 in 1940.
Corresponding figures for trained nurses, in contrast, were less
than 1 in 1870, rising to 28 in 1940. Sick care in the home was
done traditionally by the women of the family. Throughout the
period from 1870 to 1940 over nine-tenths of all practical nurses
and midwives were women. The following figures summarize
these trends.
Number of women
practical nurses or
midwives for each
10,000 persons in
the population
Women as percent
of {ill practical
nurses and midwives
95.5
97.1
93.3
93.7
95.2
92.1
98.0
99.2
7.9
11.5
12.9
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
________ 1 2 . 6
12.7
5.9
2.6
2.6
The occupation of practical nurse and midwife depends on
the older woman to a very great extent. Only 12 percent of the
women in this field were under 25 years of age in 1940, while 54
percent were 45 years or over. Corresponding proportions among
women in the experienced labor force were, respectively, 30 and
22 percent. The proportion among practical nurses and midwives
in the older group was even more marked in 1940 than in 1930.
Percent
Women practical nurses and midwives
14 years and over
14-24 years
25-44 years
45 years and over
1
.
distribution
mo
100.0
mo
100.0
12.0
34.3
53.7
12.5
"35.9
51.6
Includes age unknown.
ELEVATOR OPERATORS
Women elevator operators, first reported in the 1900 census
and negligible in number before 1920, totaled 13,986 by 1940.
u
See
discussion of trends among trained nurses, pp. 161-162.
150:
W O M E N ' S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
The great impetus toward the use of women as elevator attendants came during World War I with the need for replacing men
with women in various types of work.15 As a result, the proportion of workers in this job who were women rose from 0.1 percent
in 1910 to 18.0 percent in 1920. It remained at about this level
in 1930, declining to 16.4 percent in 1940. The increase in women's numbers from 1920 to 1930 amounted to 68 percent, far outstripping the growth among all women in the labor force as a
whole, but from 1930 to 1940 the 13 percent increase was considerably less than the rate for all women workers.
Women
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
elevator operators
Percent change
from preceding
census
13,986
12,359
7,337
25
30
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
+
13.2
+
68.4
+29,248.0
16.7
—
16.4
18.3
18.0
0.1
0.2
JANITORS AND SEXTONS
The 377,684 janitors and sextons reported in 1940, 39,041 of
them women, reflect the pervasiveness of urban life with its many
apartment houses and large office buildings. From 1870 through
1910 women in these occupations increased at a considerable
though declining rate and after 1910 at a smaller but still declining rate. Women rose from about 5 percent of all janitors
and sextons in 1870 to 19 percent in 1910 and then dropped back
gradually to slightly over 10 percent in 1940. Trends in recent
years thus indicate that openings in this work are more and
more for men rather than for women.
Women janitors and sextons
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
15
-
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
11.2
23.4
35.4
167.1
186.0
293.7
362.9
—
10.3
11.5
16.1
18.8
14.1
10.5
7.7
5.2
39,041
35,104
28,457
21,023
7,872
2,752
,„„__
699
151
„
In reporting to the Women's Bureau on occupations in which women were substituted for
men during the First World War, elevator operation was specified by employers in the manufacture
of chemicals, furniture, and shoes and leather goods. U. S. Department of Labor.
The
new position
of women
in American
industry.
Bulletin 12.
Women's Bureau.
Washington, U. S. Government
Printing Office, 1920, pp. 137-142.
In the Government service also examinations for the position of elevator conductor were opened
to women for the period of the war. U. S. Civil Service Commission. Annual
report, 1918, p. 57.
151
SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
ATTENDANTS, USHERS, OPERATIVES, AMUSEMENT AND RECREATION
Few women have entered these fields of work, partly because
certain of the occupations—such as that of stage hand or scene
shifter—require considerable physical strength, and partly because certain ones in which boys are frequently employed are
carried on in surroundings generally considered undesirable for
young girls—such as that of pin boy in a bowling alley, golf caddy,
or theater usher. However, a big relative increase took place
from 1930 to 1940, no doubt due to a considerable extent to expansion in commercialized amusement; the 11,556 women in these
fields in 1940 were over 3 times as many as the number in 1930.
Up through 1910 women numbered below 1,000 and were less than
5 percent of the workers in these occupations, but since then
they have been over 10 percent of the total.
Women attendants, ushers, and operatives:
amusement and recreation
Number
1940
1930 „
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
...
Percent increase
over preceding
census
11,556
3,631
3,081
715
352
220
108
47
218.3
17.9
330.9
103.1
60.0
103.7
129.8
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
13.6
10.6
13.7
4.3
3.8
3.5
2.9
2.2
BOARDING HOUSE AND LODGINGHOUSE KEEPERS
Differences in definition account in part for the drop from
1930 to 1940 in the number of women who were boarding house
and lodginghouse keepers. In 1940 only women with 5 or more
boarders or lodgers were returned as being in this occupation,
whereas in 1930 all women who depended on income from boarders or lodgers as their principal means of support were included.
Sample studies indicate that, if the 1930 reports had been on the
same basis as in 1940, the 1930 figure would have been 26.8 percent smaller. Among women, boarding house and lodginghouse
keepers would then have been 92,236 in 1930, and there would
have been an increase of 8,599 or 9.3 percent from 1930 to 1940.
Instead, the 100,835 women boarding house and lodginghouse
keepers in 1940 showed a decrease of one-fifth compared to the
1930 numbers actually reported.
Boarding and lodging houses provide a home at relatively
reasonable prices for the worker without a family. Historically
there was particularly great demand for temporary shelter at low
152:
W O M E N ' S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
rates when growth of urbanization and concentration of industrial
activity detached numbers of workers from their homes.16 As
urbanization progresses, boarding houses of the "small, intimate
home type" give way to restaurant service and the commercial
rooming house.17 The high point in numbers of women boarding
house and lodginghouse keepers occurred in 1910, when they were
nearly 20 times as numerous as in 1870.
Women boarding
and lodginghouse
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
.
—
—
„
- -
-
—
„
100,835
126,005
113,593
140,976
. . 58,860
32,267
12,190
7,052
—
-
.
- 20.0
+ 10.9
- 19.4
+139.5
+ 82.4
+164.7
+ 72.9
—
-
. —-
keepers
Percent change
from preceding
census
—
The general downward trend since 1910 reduced the number
of women boarding and lodginghouse keepers by 1940 to the same
proportion of all women workers as in 1890. The decrease did
not represent a shift from women to men in the occupation, however, for the proportion of women has risen continuously from
55.2 percent in 1870 to 90.3 percent in 1940.
Women boarding and lodginghouse
as percent of—
All women in the
labor force or
gainfully
occupied
1940 1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
16
-
—
—
— -
—
———
keepers
All workers in
this occupation
0.8
1.2
1.3
— „ 1.9
1.1
0.8
0.5
— 0.4
90.3
88.2
86.0
86.1
83.4
73.5
64.6
55.2
Shifts to war centers during World W a r II again brought acute demand for shelter of this type.
See U. S. Department of Labor.
Bulletin l i .
[Washington],
Women's Bureau. Boarding
homes for women
U. S. Government Printing Office, 1943.
war workers,
Special
This publication suggested
standards to be met by women operating boarding homes;
17
Encyclopaedia
1930-35.
of the social
sciences.
Lodging houses.
New York, N .
Y.,
Macmillan
Co.,
CHART XI.—WOMEN IN SELECTED PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS, 1870-1940
THOUSANDS
ipoo
Teachers, not elsewhere classif ied;
college presidents, professors,
and instructors
600
600
400
200
o
CD
o
<5»
~
o
CO
THOUSANDS
80
THOUSANDS
60
Actresses; dancers, showmen,tm$ c
motion picture projectionistsj proprietors,
managers, and officials, theaters and J
motion pictures, and miscellaneous A
amusement and recreation
THOUSA^
2$
THOUSANDS
25
Source: Appendix Table IIA*
m
OPENING DOORS IN PROFESSIONAL WORK
In the first census to report occupations of women in the
United States, one of the major groups was designated as "Professional and personal services." Over four-fifths of the women
in this group were classified as "Domestic servants." In 1940
women professional and semiprofessional workers were a separate
group of considerable size and importance.
For 20 occupations or combinations that are primarily professional and semiprofessional in nature there are substantially
comparable data for women for both 1870 and 1940. Of nearly
94,000 women in these selected fields in 1870, 9 in every 10 were
teachers or college educators. (See Table 9.) Only two other
fields had as much as 1 percent of the total—nurses, and musicians
and music teachers. At that time there were listed no women
chemists, technical engineers, veterinarians, library assistants, or,
needless to say, aviators.
Seventy years later there was much less concentration of
professional women in a restricted number of lines of work. In
1940 these same selected fields had almost 1,500,000 women.
Teachers and college presidents, professors, and instructors had
dropped relatively to 55 percent of the total (though their number
had increased almost tenfold), nurses constituted almost onefourth, while each of eight other occupations had 1 to 5 percent of
the women in all these fields. In addition, new importance had
come to certain occupations not included in the 20 that are comparable, such as that of technician and laboratory assistant, and
those of the large and varied groups of miscellaneous professional
and semiprofessional workers.
Women in these selected professional and semiprofessional
occupations were over 15 times as numerous in 1940 as in 1870.
To a major extent this phenomenal growth may be attributed to
the opening of opportunities in higher education for women beginning about the middle of the nineteenth century,1 and to the
subsequent development of these opportunities.
Among the distinguishing characteristics of a profession is
the prolonged and special training required. The functions of
passing on the cultural heritage to the next , generation and of
treating and caring for the sick have been carried out by women
at other periods in history and in other societies. As the Stande e
Meyer, Annie Nathan, Editor.
& Co., 1891.
Woman's work in America.
New York, N. Y., Henry Holt
Chs. II-IV trace the history of the education of women.
155
156
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
Table 9.—Number and Percent Distribution of Women Professional and
Semiprofessional Workers in Selected Occupations, 1870 and 19401
Occupation
Total selected professional and semiprofessional workers.
College presidents, professors, and instructors; teachers (not elsewhere classified)..
Trained nurses and student nurses
Clergymen, religious workers, and social
and welfare workers
Musicians and music teachers
Authors.
Librarians
Attendants and assistants, library
Actresses, dancers, showmen, and athletes
(including sports instructors); motion
picture projectionists; proprietors, managers, and officials of theaters and motion pictures and of miscellaneous
amusement and recreation.
Artists and art teachers
Physicians and surgeons; osteopaths;
chiropractors; healers and medical service workers (not elsewhere classified)....
Editors and reporters.
Designers and draftsmen
Photographers
Funeral directors and embalmers
Chemists, assayers, and metallurgists
Dentists
Civil engineers; surveyors; electrical,
mechanical, industrial, chemical, and
mining and metallurgical engineers
Architects
'..,.•;
.,
Veterinarians
Aviators .
Number of women
1940
Percent distribution
1940
1870
1870
1,493,247
93,712
100.0
100.0
822,388
362,897
84,548
1,154
55.1
24.3
90.2
1.2
77,731
66,256
4,606
34,546
16,668
65
5,806
115
43
5.2
4.4
0.3
2.3
1.1
0.1
6.2
0.1
(2)
28,346
21,147
780
418
1.9
1.4
0.8
0.4
20,671
544
15,890
43
10,425
13
5,063
137
2,174
20
1,734 . . . . . . . . . . .
1,067
25
1.4
1.1
0.7
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
991
497
99 . . . .
51
.:.
1
0.1
(2)
0.6
(0
(2)
0.1
(2)
...........
(2)
•<*)•..
(2)
(2)
Source: Appendix Table II A.
i T h e professional and semiprofessional workers included in this distribution numbered 1,472,401
and constituted 95.2 percent of the total 1,545,841 women classified as professional and semiprofessional workers in 1940. In addition, motion picture projectionists; proprietors, managers,
and officials, theaters and motion pictures; proprietors, managers, and officials, miscellaneous
amusement and recreation; and attendants and assistants, library, which were not classified with
professional and semiprofessional workers in 1940, were included for comparability with 1870.
These additional women numbered 20,846 and were 1.3 percent as large as the group classified
as professional and semiprofessional "workers in 1940.
2 Less than 0.05 percent.
ards for such work came to be more rigidly developed, women
began to perform these services on the basis of specialized training, meeting standards of competence and conduct, with a responsibility to the community, and as members of professional associations. Women's entrance to the professional stratum thus took
place by virtue of the development of some of their traditional
activities into professions.2 Furthermore, women's progress in
teaching and in the newer types of professional work stemming
from modern social and economic organization proceeded more
2 The attributes of a profession are presented in Adams, Elizabeth Kemper.
Women professional
workers. New York, N. Y., Macmillan Co., 1921, pp. 1-17. For a discussion of the effect of the
coming of science on the professions, see Carr-Saunders, A.M. and Wilson, P.A.
The professions.
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1933, p. 297.
157
PROFESSIONAL WORK
rapidly than their participation in the traditional professions of
law, medicine, and theology.
THE TEACHING FIELD
General trends.—Teaching is and always has been the outstanding professional occupation for women. The number of
women who were teachers or college presidents, professors, and
instructors increased about tenfold from 1870 to 1940—from
84,548 to 822,388. It is notable that women teachers numbered in
the tens of thousands in the first census publishing data for women's occupations.
By the time of the Civil War public education was coming to
be generally accepted, and the increasing availability of educational opportunities for women in the normal schools, high schools,
and seminaries produced a growing supply of women teachers.3
The 1870 figures reflect these trends as well as the fact that
women had made good in teaching when they were called upon to
replace men during the Civil War.4
The Civil War heightened the effect of factors previously
tending to make teaching a woman's profession, such as expanding
educational opportunities for women, introduction of the graded
system of education, and growing belief in the peculiar qualifications of women for teaching, including their superior character,
their greater permanence in the profession, and, above all, economy in their employment.5
Women's subsequent numerical growth in the teaching profession averaged over 100,000 a decade, despite the drop from
1930 to 1940. The greatest addition occurred during the period
1920-1930, at the end of which a peak number of 873,897 women
in this field was reached. The rate of growth, however, has
slackened, the greatest rates of increase having occurred at the
beginning of the census period. From 1930 to 1940 the number
of women teachers declined.
3
The development of education for women in these schools and of training for the teaching
profession is presented in detail in Woody, Thomas.
States.
New York, N . Y., Science Press, 1929.
A history of women's
education
in the
United
Vol. I.
* According to one writer, it was the occurrence of this war at the formative period of the public
schools that placed teaching overwhelmingly in the hands of women.
" T h e five years of the Civil
War, which drained all the northern and western States of men, caused wbmen teachers to be
employed in the public and private schools in large numbers and, in the first reports of the national
bureau of education, organized after the war, we see that there were already fewer men than women
teaching in the public schools of the United States . . .
Monographs on education in the United States, 7.
5
See Elsbree, Willard S.
The American
York, N . Y., American Book Co., 1939.
public schools.
teacher.
Thomas, M. Carey.
Education
of
women.
New York, N. Y., J. B. Lyon Co., 1904, p. 5.
Evolution
of a profession
in a democracy.
New
Ch. X V I I , The influx of women teachers in the American
158:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
Women teachers (not elsewhere classified) and
college presidents, professors, and instructors
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
.
_
^
,
..
...
.
......
_
.....
822,388
873,897
645,181
479,792
325,485
244,467
153,372
84,548
Percent change
from preceding
census
- 5.9
+35.4
+34.5
+47.4
+33.1
+59.4
+81.4
—
Changes relative to population and labor force growth.—The
progress of women in professional work was closely dependent
upon the spread of educational opportunities for women. In the
teaching field educational developments played a double role; the
extension of schooling among the population as a whole created
more demand for teachers, and the increasing availability of
training for women produced a growing supply of women teachers.
The teaching field, furthermore, is an illustration of growing
opportunities for workers resulting, at least in part, from public
policy implemented by legislation. Massachusetts adopted the
first compulsory school law in 1852, and when such a law was
passed in Mississippi in 1920, Nation-wide compulsory schooling
was achieved. Various child labor laws likewise furthered the
tendency for more and longer schooling.6 The effects of the extension of legal requirements along with the development of higher
standards in educational practices appear in the changing ratio of
the teaching force to the population of school age. Up until 1930
the number of women teachers for each 1,000 of the youth of the
country increased.
Although in 1940 there was less concentration of professional
women in the teaching field than in 1870, an increased proportion
of all women workers were teachers. This indicates that despite
the marked growth in professional fields outside of teaching,
reducing the relative importance of teachers among all women
professional workers, the growth in the number of women teachers was so great that the teaching field more than held its own
relative to the entire female labor force. Trends among teachers
relative to the population and to all women workers appear from
the following:
6
Encyclopaedia
of the social sciences.
Education. New York, N. Y., Macmillan Co., 1930-35.
159
PROFESSIONAL WORK
Women teachers (not elsewhere classified) and
college presidents, professors, and instructors
Number for each
1,000 of the populotion aged 5 to
24 years
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
.
....
Percent of all
women in the
labor force or
gainfully
occupied
17.7
18.6
_
.... 15.8
13.0
........ 10.2
8.9
6.3
8.1
7.5
6.4
6.1
6.1
1880
6.9
5.8
1870 ...
4.9
4.4
„
.....
,
....
___„_.
.
Changes relative to men.—Men have played the lesser role in
teaching. With the spread of public schooling women have carried the major share of the responsibility in the field of education. About two-thirds of all persons in teaching were women in
1870, and women took over more and more of this growing field
up through 1920, when four out of five teachers were women.
From 1920 to 1980 the extraordinary influx of men into this work
was relatively higher than the record increase for women, and
from 1930 to 1940 the continued increase among men contrasted
with the drop in numbers of women. As a result the proportion
of women declined at the last two censuses.
Women as percent of all
teachers (not elsewhere
classified) and college
presidents, Professors,
and instructors
1940
1930
72.1
79.0
1920
1910
1900 1890
1880
1870
82.1
-
-
78.5
73.5
70.9
67.9
65.9
Among college presidents, professors, and instructors the proportion of women reached a peak in 1930 and subsequently declined. This was due to the increasing numbers of men in these
advanced teaching fields, while the numbers of women remained
about the same. Less than 200 additional Women entered the
higher branches from 1930 to 1940, compared with the thousands
in each of the previous two decades. Women were never as much
as one-third of the persons in this smaller branch of the occupation, though they constituted the overwhelming majority of the
general teaching group.
160:
W O M E N ' S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
Women as percent
All college
presidents, professors,
and instructors
1940
1930
1920
1910
26.5
31.9
29.6
18.5
-
of—
All teachers
(not elsewhere
classified)
75.3
81.8
84.5
80.1
Shifts in particular occupations.—The entrance of women to
advanced teaching fields is a part of the general extension of
their activities into professional work. Opportunity for women
to study in graduate departments provided women with the qualifications to teach at the college level, just as availability of the
requisite legal and medical training enabled them to become lawyers and doctors. Women college presidents, professors, and instructors, first separately reported in 1910, constituted but an
insignificant fraction of all women teachers, rising to 2.4 percent
by 1940.
Percent distribution
Total
1940
1930
1920
1910
of women in teaching
Teachers (not
elsewhere
classified)
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
occupations
College presidents,
professors, and
instructors
97.6
97.7
98.5
99.4
2.4
2.3
1.5
0.6
Age and marital groups.—Available data indicate that women
teachers are older than the group of 40 years ago, and that more
of them are married. While under 9 percent of the group were
45 years old or more in 1910, nearly 23 percent were in this age
class in 1940.
Percent distribution
H940
Women teachers (not elsewhere
classified) 14 years and over
14-19 years
20-44 years
-
45 years and over.
„„„..„-.
1930
1920
1910
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
1.1
76.2
3.3
8.6
2 81.6
280*0
22.8
15.1
11.4
}
.
?
8.5
1
Includes county agents and farm demonstrators, who constituted less than 1 percent of the total.
2
Includes age unknown.
Apparently it has been a growing tendency for educational
systems to take advantage of benefits that may derive from retaining teachers with years of training and experience in their
vocation and with personal experience of marriage arid motherhood. Of women employed or seeking work as teachers in 1940
nearly a fourth were married, compared with 36.6 percent of all
women workers who were married.
161
PROFESSIONAL WORK
Proportion of women
teachers (not elsewhere classified)
who wire married
l 24.5
1940
1930
1920
1910
1 Includes
of the total.
17.9
9.7
2 6.4
county
agents
and
farm
demonstrators,
who
constituted
less
than
1
percent
2 Includes teachers (athletics, dancing, etc.) who constituted less than one-half of 1 percent of all
women teachers in 1910. Women who were 14 years of age were counted as single.
TRAINED NURSES
General trends.—The 362,897 women returned as trained
nurses and student nurses in the 1940 census are in striking contrast with the 1,154 estimated in 1870. Census data over the years
not only show the tremendous growth of this occupation but also
reflect its evolution as a profession. Before 1900 nurses frequently failed to report to the census enumerator whether they
were "trained" nurses or "practical" nurses. Since practical
nurses were more numerous, all were lumped together under the
title "nurses and midwives" and listed with domestic and personal
service occupations. In 1900 trained nurses were classified separately, though still grouped with domestic and personal service.
At that time there were nearly nine times as many nurses (not
specified) and midwives as trained nurses. By 1940 trained nurses
were nearly three and a half times as numerous as practical nurses
and midwives. The wage income and education entries on the
census schedules were used in 1940 to determine whether the return "nurse" should be coded "trained nurse." Thus this group
is probably delimited more accurately in 1940 than at previous
censuses.
The beginning of modern standards in nursing grew out of
experiences with the U. S. Sanitary Commission during the Civil
War. The opening of schools of nursing and the improvement
in hospitals that occurred in the years following gave the impetus
to the development of this field.7
Estimates for the period prior to 1900 indicate that the number of women engaged in trained nursing increased by an average
of nearly 330 additional nurses a year from 1870 to 1900. From
1900 on, the growth was much larger, averaging nearly 9,000^
year, with a record annual addition of nearly 15,000 during the
10-year period from 1920 to 1930, following the accelerated demand for nurses' services during World War I and the further
development of public health nursing and other public social
7
Encyclopaedia
of the social sciences,
op. cit. Nursing.
162:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
services. The largest rate of increase occurred from 1900 to 1910
when numbers of women in the occupation multiplied nearly seven
times, but in all decades from 1880 to 1930 the rate of growth
was remarkable.
Women trained niirses
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
...
...
„.
...
„.
...
Number
Percent increase
over preceding
census
362,897
288,737
143,664
76,508
11,046
4,206
1,464
1,154
25,7
101.0
87.8
592.6
162.6
187.3
26.9
—
Changes relative to population.—The rise in the number of
nurses serving the population marks the transfer of the care of the
seriously ill from the woman in the home to the trained professional worker both in home and hospital. It also reflects a
transition from the time when each family was responsible for
the general health of its members and perhaps of others in the
neighborhood, a responsibility that might or might not be met.
Social changes have taken place in many fields as problems
arose out of the modern urban industrial economy. In the field
of community and family health there has been a growing use of
the service of the public health nurse ; in industry, of the industrial
nurse. At the same time the older branches of nursing have developed. From less than 1 woman trained nurse for each 10,000
persons in the population in 1870, the number rose successively at
each census, reaching a figure of almost 28 in 1940. Authoritative observers of the nursing field have felt that failure to limit
numbers trained can be partially attributed to the practice by
hospitals of meeting their own nursing needs through the use of
student nurses. Even after 1920, though the wartime shortage
of nurses no longer existed, the stream of graduate nurses continued. The ratio rose from 14 women in nursing per 10,000
population in 1920 to 24 per 10,000 in 1930, until a condition of
oversupply existed relative to demand that could be paid for.8 At
8
The demand and supply of nurses before 1940, and the fields of public health and industrial
nursing are discussed in Brown, Esther Lucile. Nursing as a profession.
Sage Foundation, Second edition, 1940, pp. 89-104, 113-130.
New York, N. Y., Russell
For the shortage since 1940 and the
outlook for the postwar period, see U. S. Department of Labor.
Women's Bureau.
Professional
nurses.
Washington,
Government
By Marguerite Wykoff
Printing Office, 1946.
65 pp.
Zapoleon.
Bulletin 203, No. 3.
U. S.
PROFESSIONAL
163
WORK
the same time women nurses became more prominent among all
women workers, rising to nearly 3 percent of the whole in 1940.
Women trained
Number for each
10,000 persons in
the population
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
._„_„„_
nurses
Percent of all
women in the
labor force or
gainfully
occupied
2.8
2.7
1.7
1.0
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
27.6
23.5
... 13.6
8.3
1.K
0.7
. 0.3
0.3
Changes relative to men.—In the professional nursing field,
the contribution made by men has been of negligible proportions.
In fact, the services performed by male nurses may be considered
as quite specialized and distinct. Men have never constituted as
much as 10 percent of all trained nurses, while the 8,169 male
trained nurses in 1940 were but 2.2 percent of the total. From
1920 on trained nursing was almost entirely a woman's job.
Women as percent of
all trained nurses
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
97.8
98.1
96.3
92.9
93.6
91.7
95.3
95.8
Age groups.—Compared with all women workers, women
nurses have had a somewhat smaller proportion in age groups below 19 years and 45 years and over. Just as among all women
workers, the proportion of nurses in the age group of 45 and
above has been increasing, though in 1940 it was still below the
22.2 percent for all women in the experienced labor force.
Percent
1940
Total women trained nurses
14 years and over
1930
distribution
1920
1910
100.0
100.0
100.0
14-19 years
20-44 years
8.9
74.5
11.5
*75.4
7.4
*81.8
izr
45 years and over..._„„.
16.5
13.2
10.8
10.1
1
Includes age unknown.
100.0
>
89.9
64:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
Marital status.—Married nurses were only about one-fifth of
all nurses who were employed and seeking work in 1940, far below
the 37 percent who were married among all employed and experienced unemployed women and below the 25 percent among employed and experienced unemployed women workers in professional and semiprofessional occupations. The fact that a great
many nursing jobs are connected with hospitals and that the workers are expected to live in the quarters provided for them may
make it less feasible for married nurses to continue in their occupation. In private-duty nursing the traditional long hours may
have made it difficult for the woman with a home to continue a
career in nursing. However, the proportion of married nurses
has increased considerably since 1910.
Married nurses as percent of all women
trained nurses and
student nurses
19.5
12.5
7.5
1940
1930
1920
1910
1
Women 14 years old were counted as single.
SOCIAL AND WELFARE WORKERS, RELIGIOUS WORKERS, AND CLERGYMEN
For social and welfare workers, as for trained nurses, the
evolution of a census category may be said to reflect the development of a recognized profession. Social and welfare workers were
included with religious workers in the semiprofessional group in
1910 and 1920, while in 1900 and earlier none of these were
distinguished from clergymen. The combination of social workers with religious workers until a recent date doubtless stems from
the traditional connection between charitable work and religion,
or at least with the church organization, a tradition that still
persists.9
In 1930 social and welfare workers were separately listed as
professional workers, though not on a basis comparable with 1940.
This distinction in the census marks the recognition of social work
as a profession, a development furthered particularly by progress
in the field of training.10 The chief differences between 1930 and
1940 in the composition of the group classed as "Social and welfare
9
" A s previously pointed out, a large amount of philanthropic work is undertaken with the idea
of fulfilling a religious duty, thereby storing up personal grace and helping to elevate the soul."
Walker, Sydnor H.
Social
work
and the training
of social workers.
Chapel Hill, N. C., University
of North Carolina Press, 1928, p. 177.
10
Brown, Esther Lucile.
tion, 1936, pp. 19-23.
Social
work
as a profession.
New York, N . Y . , Russell Sage Founda-
Women in this field have apparently met higher training standards than men.
In 1940, 55 percent of employed women social and welfare workers had completed 4 or more years of
college, compared with 48 percent of the men employed in the field.
165
PROFESSIONAL WORK
workers" lie in the inclusion in this group in 1940 of those social
workers classed in 1930 with religious workers because they
worked for a religious organization, or with teaching, because
they were concerned with health education, and in the number of
new titles arising out of the relief and welfare programs of the
depression years. In addition all probation and truant officers,
formerly shown separately, were included with social workers
in 1940.
In the three fields together (those of social, welfare, and
religious workers, including clergymen), the number of women
rose from 65 in 1870 to 77,731 in 1940. Nearly nine-tenths of the
total numerical increase among women occurred after 1910, during the period in which social work was coming into its own.
The rate of growth has been declining since 1890, but by 1920 the
occupation had already grown to such size that lower rates of
increase represented large numerical additions.
Women social and welfare workers,
religious workers, and clergymen
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
--
-
-
77,731
47,069
28,109
9,308
3,204
1,086
157
65
65.1
67.5
202.0
190.5
195.0
591.7
141.5
In 1940 more than three-fifths of all the women in this group,
compared with one-sixth of all the men, were in the social and
welfare branch; nearly four-fifths of the men were clergymen.
Details available from the census since 1910 show that few of
the women were clergymen—less than 700 in 1910 and only about
3,300 in 1940. The distribution of women from 1910 to 1940 was
as follows:
Total women social and welfare
workers, religious workers,
and clergymen
Clergymen
„_____„
Social and welfare workers..
Religious workers
Percent
distribution
1940
1930
1920
1910
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
4.3
7.0
62.2 ^|
33.5 ,I 93.0
6.4
93.6
92.6
The number of women in the combined group of social, welfare, and religious workers, excluding clergymen, increased over
166:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
760 percent from 1910 to 1940, rising from 8,628 to 74,423. Additional entrants thus averaged more than 2,000 a year for women
alone. In 1940 women were 64.3 percent of all social and welfare
workers and 74.1 percent of all religious workers. In the two
fields together, their position relative to men became more favorable through 1930, but the large increase among women from
1930 to 1940 was matched by the growth among men, so that the
proportions were similar at the last two censuses.
Women social, welfare,
religious -workers
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
,
-
-
-
74,423
43,793
26,322
8,623
and
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
67.4
67.6
62.0
52.3
The growing opportunities for women in the social work
field are indicated by the declining ratio relative to the total
population. The number of persons for each woman social, welfare, and religious worker in the country was 6 times greater in
1910 than in 1940. At the latter date there was 1 woman social
and welfare worker for every 2,722 persons in the population* and
1 woman religious worker for every 5,054 persons. Trends since
1910 for the combined fields are as follows:
Number of persons in
the total population
for each woman
social, welfare,
and
religious worker
1940
1930
1920
,
1910
___„
-
1,769
2,804
4,016
10,666
The beginnings, of professional social work arose out of efforts to meet conditions accompanying the Industrial Revolution.
Because these conditions are intensified in urban areas and because in urban areas particularly impersonal assistance in meeting
problems is required, opportunities for social workers are largely
in urban localities, though recent years have seen notable increases in rural county welfare work as well. In 1940, 75 percent
of all women in the labor force were located in urban areas,
whereas 85 percent of women employed or seeking work as social
and welfare workers were in urban sections.
MUSIC, ART, AND ENTERTAINMENT
Because artists and musicians frequently combine teaching
with the exercise of their professions, no distinction is made in
the census between teaching and practicing in these two fields.
PROFESSIONAL W O R K
167
Actually a large proportion of women classed as musicians and
music teachers were probably teachers, since 53 percent of women
employed in this field in 1940 were reported as employers and
own-account workers, indicating that many of them were private
music teachers. Among men, in contrast, 60 percent of employed
musicians and music teachers were private wage or salary workers. Among artists and art teachers, women in the teaching
group were more likely to be connected with the public school
systems. This appears from the fact that 17 percent of the
women compared to 4 percent of the men were government workers in 1940. To some extent therefore, trends among men and
women workers are likely to differ because differing factors have
affected the teachers in these fields and those engaged in the more
direct application of their talents. Acting and dancing, as well as
music and art, have been affected by new modes of popular entertainment and by new applications of artistic techniques.
Musicians and music teachers.—Women musicians and music
teachers rose in number from 5,806 in 1870 to a peak of 84,478 in
1910. After a resurgence in 1930 they dropped back to 66,256 in
1940. This evidences new trends in cultural and recreational activities that brought about a decline in private music teaching,
which affected women particularly. The development of commercial entertainment and of radio, on the other hand, have expanded the field in which most of the men's activities lie. Consequently women, in 1910 three-fifths of all musicians and music
teachers, were only two-fifths of the total by 1940.
Women musicians and music teachers
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
_
66,256
79,611
72,678
84,478
52,359
34,519
13,182
5,806
Percent change
from preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
— 16.8
+
9.5
— 14.0
+ 61.3
+ 51.7
+161.9
+127.0
41.0
47.7
55.2
60.0
56.2
55.0
42.8
35.5
Artists and art teachers.—Art and art teaching, with 21,147
women in 1940, had only about one-third as many women as the
music field. Beginning with 418 women in 1870, their numbers
expanded irregularly to a peak in 1930 and then leveled off.
Growth since 1910 has been more sustained among men than
among women, with the result that the proportion of those in the
field who are women has been declining for the past 30 years.
168:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
Women artists and art teachers
Number
_ 21,147
21,860
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
.. 14,763
15,583
11,131
10,923
2,082
418
Percent change
from
preceding
census
— 3.3
+ 48.1
— 5.3
+ 40.0
+
1.9
+424.6
+398.1
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
33.8
38.2
41.7
45.7
44.8
48.6
22.9
10.1
Actresses and dancers.—Because of changes in census classifications over the years, comparable data for the actors' and
dancers' group actually include eight 1940 occupations—actors
and actresses; athletes; dancers, dancing teachers and chorus
girls; showmen; sports instructors and officials; motion picture
projectionists; proprietors, managers, and officials: theaters
and motion pictures; and proprietors, managers, and officials:
miscellaneous amusement and recreation. Of the women in these
fields in 1940, 27 percent were actresses and 38 percent were in
the dancer group, together accounting for nearly three-fourths
of all. Of the men 90 percent were in fields other than dancing
and acting.
Women in the entire entertainment field numbered 28,346 in
1940 compared to 780 in 1870. The rate of growth among women
was much more rapid in the 30 years after 1870 than in the tricennial period ending in 1940, though there was a spurt from 1920
to 1930 as the period after World War I brought new impetus
to the amusement field. In this field, as in music and art, a decline occurred among women but not among men from 1930 to
1940, a period marked by deep economic depression and subsequent efforts toward recovery.
Women actresses, dancers, etc.1
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1
-
...
28,346
29,164
19,904
15,438
7,093
4,652
2,027
780
Percent change
from
preceding
census
2.8
+ 46.5
+ 28.9
+117.7
+ 52.5
+129.5
+159.9
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
16.9
18.6
18.9
18.4
16.6
14.8
22.4
16.7
Actors and actresses; dancers, showmen, and athletes; motion picture projectionists; and pro-
prietors, managers, and officials of theaters and motion pictures and of miscellaneous amusement
and recreation.
PROFESSIONAL
169
WORK
LITERARY OCCUPATIONS
Authors.—Well before 1870 a considerable list of women writers, including names still notable today, could be made. Women
had been authors not only of cook books, novels, and poetry but
of thoughtful religious and philosophical volumes, and they were
among the contributors to the "great magazines" that date from
the 1850's.11 Nevertheless, only 115 women were returned as
authors in 1870. It is clear that creative writing formed a means
of livelihood for few women, even as today the writer, unless
among the relatively few highly successful ones, must often use
for literary pursuits "leisure time" snatched from more sure
means of support such as teaching, journalism, or other activities,
or from household responsibilities.
Women were one-fourth (25.2 percent) of the authors reported in 1870. After 1910, when they approached half of the
total, this proportion declined relatively to men's, even though
the number of women rose by 2,569 from 1910 to 1940.
Women
Number
1940
1930
1920 1910
_
4,606
5,393
2,976
2,037
—
authors
Percent change
from
preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
—14.6
+81.2
+46.1
32.6
43.8
45.1
47.1
—
Librarians and library attendants and assistants.—With but
43 women in 1870, who were one-fifth of the total, the occupation of librarian was of little significance for women workers. By
1940 numbers of women increased to 34,546. The growth of this
field for women attests to the rising educational and cultural level
of the population in the United States as well as to the increasing
participation of women in training for and carrying on the work
of the new occupations that resulted. Trends since 1910, when
separate data for librarians were presented in the census for the
first time since 1870, were as follows:
Women librarians
Number
1940
1930
1920 ......
1910
11
See Meyer, op. cit., Ch. V.
747639°—48 — 1 2
......
34,546
26,785
13,367
_
5,771
Percent increase
over preceding
census
29.0
100.4
131.6
—
170:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
A related occupation for women, though clerical rather than
professional in nature, was that of the library attendant and assistant. Up to 1930 this was a small field and in fact was smaller
in 1930 than in 1910. From 1930 to 1940 the number of women in
this occupation jumped from but 1,486 to 16,668. The phenomenal
rise evidences the effects of the public emergency work programs
developed during the depression. Many emergency workers had
never had any other occupation than the one provided by the project on which the government employed them. Consequently, some
of the tremendous increase from 1930 to 1940 among library
assistants and attendants may be considered abnormal rather
than due to growth in demand for women in this work.
Women library attendants and assistants
1940
1930 - . . .
.-v
1920
—
1910
Number
Percent change
from preceding
census
16,668
1,486
1,321
3,043
+1,021.7
+
12.5
~
56.6
—
The proportion of women among library attendants and
assistants has fluctuated since 1910, but among librarians the
proportion grew steadily through 1930 and then declined, though
the number of women continued to increase.
Women as percent of—
All librarians
1940
1930
1920
1910 _„„,
-
--——
-
—
—
— 89.5
91.4
88.3
78.5
All library
attendants
and assista?its
82.5
73.8
53.7
85.4
Editors and reporters.—-Among editors and reporters, as
among librarians, the expansion of educational opportunities has
played a dual role in trends affecting women. An educated population has developed an increasingly widespread demand for
newspapers and journals, and advance in the requisite training
facilities for women has enabled them to participate more fully
in vocational opportunities in these fields. Women have experienced a rapid and steady growth, from only 43 in 1870 to 15,890
in 1940. Two-thirds of the additional women in the 70-year period
entered the field after 1910. Except in the decade 1910 to 1920,
the field has expanded for men, too, but women have advanced
relatively even more.
PROFESSIONAL
171
WORK
Women editors and reporters
Number
1940
1930
1920 ..
1910 . „ . „ . - „ „ - „
...
1900
1890
-.„
...
1880
1870
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
7.5
108.1
37.1
90.7
147.0
208.4
730.2
25.0
24.0
17.5
12.7
7.6
4.2
2.4
0.7
15,890
14,786
7,105
5,184
2,719
..... 1,101
357
43
—
THE "LEARNED PROFESSIONS" AND RELATED FIELDS
Theology, law, and medicine are the three professions against
which newer fields are customarily measured to determine whether
the newer fields can be considered of professional status. Beginning about 1850, the developing educational opportunities for
women were extended to the opening of training to women in
these venerable fields. Opposition to women in these occupations,
however, continued to be both determined and of considerable
extent. Despite this opposition women have made considerable inroads into these fields. Today, with women's ability to do professional work clearly demonstrated, and with miany new and
challenging outlets for activity in a professional capacity beckoning, there is relatively less concentrated interest on the part of
women in the learned professions as such.
Occupations in medicine and dentistry.•—When the first
woman received a medical diploma in America in 1849, it marked
the effort of women to regain a field of work in which they had
once been active, for in the Colonial period the care of the sick
and the practice of midwifery had been almost exclusively woman's province. The latter half of the nineteenth century saw growing endeavors on the part of women to obtain a medical education, to work in hospitals, and to enter medical associations.12 By
the time of the 1870 census there were 544 women physicians and
surgeons of various types.
The most rapid growth among women physicians, surgeons,
osteopaths, chiropractors, and healers and medical workers (not
elsewhere classified) took place from 1900 to 1910. A total of
6,300 women was added in these fields in the single decade from
1900 to 1910, nearly as many as the 6,843 added from 1870 to 1900
and the 6,984 from 1910 to 1940, periods of 30 years each. By
12
For a history of women in medicine in America before 1890, see Meyer, op. cit., pp. 139-205.
172:
W O M E N ' S OCCUPATIONS T H R O U G H SEVEN DECADES
1940 there were 20,671 women in these several fields, nearly 38
times the number in 1870. Up through 1910 the decennial rate of
growth was at least 3 or 4 times the increase in the female population, but after that it exceeded population growth only slightly,
and from 1930 to 1940 there was a decline. Nevertheless the
proportion of women advanced steadily up through 1930.
Women physicians, surgeons, osteopaths, chiropractors, and healers and medical
workers
(not elsewhere classified)
"
Percent change
from preceding
census
Number
1940
1930 ....... ...... .....
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880 ..
1870 _.
„
--_. _
20,671
20,875
16,784
13,687
7,387
4,557
2,432
544
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
10.2
11.0
10.2
8.7
5.6
4.3
2.8
0.8
1.0
+ 24.4
+ 22.6
+ 85.3
+ 62.1
+ 87.4
+347.1
—
Among women the general picture in the medical occupations
in the past 30 years is one of increasing domination of the field
by the semiprofessional medical occupations such as those of
masseur, therapist, chiropodist, and so forth, with a corresponding
relative decline in the professional physician group. Among the
former are certain occupations that supplement the physician's
work, which have developed increasingly high standards in recent
years, such as physical therapy. The tendency for advances in
auxiliary medical fields has appealed in other occupations also,
for example that of medical laboratory technician (included in the
census category "Technicians and assistants, laboratory," discussed on pages 176-177). These workers have similarly carried on a growing segment of specialized medical duties on a basis
of advancing qualifications.13
In 1940 women classified as semiprofessional workers in
various types of healing and medical work (including chiropractors) numbered 11,861, over two and a half times as many as in
1910, while women physicians, surgeons, and osteopaths totaled
8,810 in 1940, somewhat fewer in number than in 1910. Within
the professional physician group the number of women physicians and surgeons showed a slight increase from 1930 to 1940,
which was more than offset by the continued decrease among
13
For standards in these occupations see U. S. Department of Labor.
therapists.
By Marguerite Wykoff Zapoleon.
Printing Office, 1945.
Wykoff Zapoleon.
14 pp.;
and
Bulletin 203, No. 1.
Medical
Women's Bureau.
laboratory
technicians.
By Marguerite
Bulletin 203, No. 4. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1945.
Physical
Washington, U. S. Government
10 pp.
PROFESSIONAL WORK
J 73
osteopaths. Of the women in the whole group of medical service
occupations, doctors were almost two-thirds in 1910, but by 1940
the various other medical workers were in the majority.
Percent distribution
Total
1940
1930
1920
1910
of women in medical
Physicians,
surgeons, and
osteopaths
100.0
100.0
100.0
.... 100.0
_
occupations
Chiropractors,
and
healers and medical
workers (not
elsewhere
classified)
42.6
40.2
52.9
65.9
57.4
59.8
47.1
34.1
Relative to the population the total supply of doctors was less
adequate in 1940 than in 1910. While those available were undoubtedly better trained and their qualifications based on higher
standards, the total number of physicians, surgeons, or osteopaths
for each 10,000 of the population dropped from 16.4 in 1910 to
13.0 in 1940. Of the total number of doctors a relatively small
and decreasing proportion were women, even though there are
opportunities for women.14 Among the smaller group of chiropractors and healers and other medical workers (only one-fifth as
numerous as physicians, surgeons, and osteopaths) women shifted
from a predominant position in 1910 to a substantially less important place in 1940.
Women as percent of—
All physicians,
surgeons, and
osteopaths
AU chiropractors,
and healers and
medical workers
(not elsewhere
classified)
5.1
5.2
5.9
6.0
37.7
41.5
52.4
67.0
1940
1930
1920
1910
In the profession of dentistry the number of women rose
from 25 in 1870 to a peak of 1,902 in 1920, thereafter declining to
1,067 by 1940. Though this field presumably offers promising
opportunities for women,15 both the numbers of women and their
proportion of the total have declined in recent decades.
u
See U. S. Department of Labor.
Zapoleon.
15
Bulletin 203, No. 7.
See U. S. Department of Labor.
Zapoleon.
Bulletin 203, No. 9.
Women's Bureau.
Women
physicians.
By Marguerite Wykoff
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1945.
Women's Bureau.
Women
dentists.
28 pp.
By Marguerite Wykoff
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1945.
21 pp.
174:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
Women
Number
1,067
1,338
1,902
1,304
839
350
63
25
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
dentists
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
1.5
1.9
3.4
3.3
2.9
2.0
0.5
0.3
The occupation of clergyman.—^.Resistance by men ministers
and by congregations to the entrance of women into the ministry
has kept this field a small one for women.10 The first woman graduated from a theological school completed her course as long ago
as 1851,17 but numerical advance has been slow.
Separate data for clergymen are not available from the census
until 1910, Before that no distinction had been made between
clergymen and all other religious and social and welfare workers.18
In 1910 there were 685 women reported in the census as clergymen. Additions thereafter averaged about 85 a year, bringing the
1940 total to 3,308.
In general, few women students in divinity schools have prepared for active work as ministers. Rather they have entered related fields of work as teachers of religious education, or missionaries, or administrators19 and are not classified with clergymen. Growing opportunities in such related work have undoubtedly contributed to the declining rate of increase among women
clergymen since 1910. Nevertheless the proportion of women,
though small, has risen somewhat, indicating a slight tendency
to advance.
Women
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
——
3,308
3,276
1,787
685
clergymen
Percent increase
over preceding
census
1.0
83.3
160.9
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
2.4
2.2
114
0.6
16 This attitude, common in many religious denominations, was expressed in a recent article in
The Presbyterian by the Rev. Dr. Clarence E. McCartney, who says, " I am opposed to the ordination
of women as ministers and elders, not merely because there is no precedent for such action, but also
because it is inexpedient. . . . Of our 2,000,000 members only a handful are asking for women as
ministers. The \yomen themselves do not want it." Quoted in the New York Times, February 10,
1947.
17
Woody, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 368.
18
See section on social and welfare workers, and religious workers, for reference to trends in
the combined groups from 1870 to 1940, pp. 164-167,
19
Adams, op. cit, pp. 79-31.
PROFESSIONAL
175
WORK
The law,—It has been particularly difficult for women to
break down barriers to the active practice of law. Before 1870
legal training was generally obtained by studying or "reading
law" in a law office. The opening of law schools in the next 30
years made it possible for women to obtain a legal education.20 The
number of women lawyers and judges has remained small, though
in recent decades the proportional growth has been remarkable.
In 1910, 558 women were retuhifed by the Census in this occupation. By 1940 there were 4,447, so that the number of additional
entrants in each decade averaged about 1,300.
As in the field of the ministry, many women lawyers do not
practice. Rather, they may use their legal training in work as
editors of legal publications, in business, and in other professions.
Consequently the census figures cannot be expected to indicate
the number of women who have obtained law degrees or even
those who are members of the bar. The rate of growth, though
declining, has far exceeded the growth in the female population;
the proportion of women, though small, shows a steady rise since
1910.
Women lawyers and judges
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
4,447
3,385
1,738
558
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
31.4
94.8
211.5
2.5
2.1
1.4
0.5
—
SOME PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY
Industrial developments have brought special importance to
certain occupations that require scientific and technical knowledge in their performance. The development of new products
whose manufacture is based on principles of chemistry or physics
and the wide extension of mass production methods have made
the services of technicians and scientists increasingly essential to
industry. Chemical and physical tests are required at various
stages of the manufacturing process in a growing number of
industries. The complexities of large-scale production require
the technical services of engineers and the assistance of designers,
draftsmen, and technicians. Development of large-scale building
has made the services of trained architects essential for safe and
economic construction as much as for functional and artistic
design. The introduction of scientific methods into agriculture
has affected the veterinary's profession, first expanding it and
20
Woody, op. cit., Vol II, pp. 373-380,
176:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
then, as mechanical means supplanted animal power, superseding
it. In some of these fields women have made little contribution,
while in others their numbers and proportions have expanded
considerably.
Designers and draftsmen.—Women designers and draftsmen
numbered only 13 in 1870. They experienced a rapid rate of
growth up through 1910, though the total number added was not
large. In fact, nearly half of the numerical increase from 1870
to 1940 occurred from 1910 to 1920, a period which included the
war years when women replaced men in many industrial jobs
representing new fields for women. In 1920 the proportion of
women among the total was at a peak, and the trend since then
has been slightly downward.
Women
.
.. „
draftsmen
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
designers and
12.5
20.5
157.0
215.2
208.4
440.4
338.5
10,425
9,268
7,694
2,994
950
308
57
13
9.3
9.5
11.5
6.8
5.1
3.3
2.1
1.0
—
The 8,871 women designers in 1940 were nearly 6 times
as numerous as the 1,554 women draftsmen then reported. In
contrast there were nearly 6 times as many men returned as
draftsmen than as designers. Except immediately after World
War I women have been less than 2 percent of all draftsmen, but
for the last three decades they have been about 3 out of every 8
designers. The designing of clothing, accessories, and textiles has
offered particular opportunities to women.
Women
as percent
All designers
1940
1930
1920
1910
-
-
37.6
38.1
37.0
22.1
All
of—
draftsmen
1.8
1.9
3.9
1.2
Laboratory technicians and chemists, assayers, and metallurgists.—The lack of comparable census figures for laboratory
technicians before 1940 has great significance in indicating the
meteoric rise of a new semiprofessional field of work with its
own standards and characteristics. In 1910 and 1920 the work
was so undifferentiated that most technicians were distributed
177
PROFESSIONAL WORK
among three groups—"Semiskilled operatives" in "Other chemical factories," "Other occupations" under "Semiprofessional
pursuits," and "Other clerks" under "Clerical occupations." By
1930, 7,700 women were distinguished as technicians and laboratory assistants under the definition in use at that census. In 1940
others were brought together with the group—x-ray technicians;
laboratory assistants in electric and steel manufacturing; testers
in dairies, in radio, in rayon and silk mills, and in oil refineries;
chemists' assistants; and other such workers. Engaged, by 1940,
in a fairly well defined occupation field, the women laboratory
technicians and assistants numbered 22,651, and women technicians other than those in laboratory 821. Women constituted
33.7 percent of all laboratory technicians and assistants and 10.2
percent of nonlaboratory technicians.
In the more highly professionalized and responsible occupation of chemist, assayer, and metallurgist, women have been much
less important. In 1940 they numbered but 1,734. Nevertheless,
they have made some strides in the field, for in 1870, under the
contemporary limitations on the scientific training of women, not
a single woman chemist was reported to the Census. The numbers
of women showed a decline from 1930 to 1940, and the proportion
of women has been dropping since the all-time peak in 1920.
Women
chemists,
assayefs, and metallurgists
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
Number
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
1,734
_ 1,943
1,748
591
253
40
49
2.9
4.0
5.2
3.6
2.8
0.9
2.4
Technical engineers and architects.—The small field of technical engineers is of interest because of the fact that even a few
women have found a place in it. Women in these fields numbered
991 in 1940. Data for 1930 and preceding years have not been
adjusted for comparability with 1940, and the 1940 returns were
not examined so carefully as in 1930 and other years to detect
errors in the classifications of women reported in unusual occupations, such as that of mining engineer. However, since in 1940
persons under 35 years of age returned as technical engineers
were so eoded only if they had at least 4 years of college education,
the definition was stricter in this respect than in 1930. In 1940
178:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
nearly equal numbers of women were civil, electrical, and mechanical engineers (from 224 to 231). In none of the engineering
fields were women as much as 1 percent of all workers.
In architecture women have shown somewhat more progress,
probably in part because requirements call for artistic as well
as technical abilities, and in part because some of the field is
concerned with home building and landscape planning, appealing
particularly to women. The number of women in the field was
small in 1940, only 497, but the proportion of women, except in
1920, has been around 2 percent in recent decades.
Women architects
Percent of all
Number workers in this
occupation
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1
.
—-
-
-
——
—
-
497
455
164
- 362
120
26
20
1
2.3
2.0
0.9
2.1
1.1
0.3
0.6
C)
Less than 0.05 percent.
Veterinarians.—The total number of veterinarians reached
an all time high of 13,494 in 1920. In that year only 1 woman
was reported in the census. In 1940, 99 out of 10,957 veterinarians
were women, less than 1 percent of the total,
OTHER PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS
Photographers.—Women have entered many of the various
branches of photographic work, and in fact almost have a
monopoly of certain photographic processes, but in the professional occupation of photographer they are a minority. From 137
women in 1870 the number grew at a high rate up through 1900.
A lower rate of expansion from 1900 to 1910 was followed by a
spurt in the decade preceding 1920, probably the result of wartime
demand for workers. In the past two decades the number of
women photographers has grown at rates considerably below the
rate of growth among women workers generally. From 1930 to
1940 the number of women grew less rapidly than that of men,
so that women's proportion to the total declined.
PROFESSIONAL WORK
179
Women photographers
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
.
...
-
13.5
15.3
15.0
11.3
9.6
7.9
3.3
2.2
0.9
17.5
43.4
38.6
62.6
387.5
97.8
5,063
5,020
4,271
2,978
2,148
1,321
271
137
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
—
Funeral directors and embalmers.—Funeral directors and
embalmers were placed in the semiprofessional group for the
first time in 1940. Previously entitled "undertakers/' they were
included with other occupations in trade. Women in the field
numbered 2,174 in 1940 compared with 20 in 1870. Proportions
of women have, in general, increased.
Women funeral directors and
embalmers
Number
1940
1930 - 1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870 —
-
——
—
-
-
-
2,174
1,940
— 1,127
813
323
83
55
20
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
5.5
5.7
4.6
3.9
2.0
0.8
1.1
1.0
Aviators.—At the time of the 1910 census, significantly
enough, aviators were included with showmen. The tremendous
expansion of aviation over the succeeding decades has made it
recognized as a separate occupation, and the technical knowledge
required, such as navigation, meteorology, and physics, placed it
in 1940, as in 1910, in professional service. Few women have
been reported as aviators—only 8 in 1920, 66 in 1930, and 51
in 1940—-in each census year not over 1 percent of all aviators.
The figures do not of course represent numbers of women with
pilot's licenses. Rather, they reflect the small demand for women
to enter aviation as paid pilots.
BUSINESSWOMEN
The group of workers classified in the census as "Proprietors,
managers, and officials" includes the entrepreneur who owns a
business, often operating it also, the manager who conducts an
enterprise for others, and the official who determines policies or
who, with a large share of responsibility, carries out the policies.
Such persons range from the captain of industry to the milliner
operating her own establishment single-handed. Few women, however, have been captains of industry. Few, even, have held important positions in the managerial or official group. The term
"businesswomen," denoting as it does women who engage in mercantile or commercial affairs, more aptly describes the women
classed in this occupation group.
Such occupations had been undertaken by women well before
1870. Newspaper advertisements of the colonial period reveal
that in those days women engaged in a wide variety of business
enterprise. The wife of a shopkeeper or tradesman frequently
worked as her husband's partner and in the event of his death
continued as proprietor of such businesses as those of a tanner,
printer, tailor, painter, shipwright, silversmith, or gunsmith.
Other women undertook themselves the operation of a millinery
or dry goods store, a pastry shop, a tavern, or an inn. Women
are known to have conducted such industrial enterprises as a
fulling mill, a grain mill, and a distillery.1
From 1870 to 1940 the total number of businesswomen in
eight selected comparable occupations increased from 8,095 to
318,647, or nearly 40 times, whereas the number of all women
workers multiplied somewhat below 7 times. (See Table 10.) The
considerable concentration of businesswomen in "Other trade"
in 1870 is due largely to the fact that often the specific nature
of the business was not reported. Many women classified in this
group doubtless would have been included with other of the
specified trade groups if their type of business had been known.
Though the numbers of women in each comparable category
increased markedly from 1870 to 1940, some increased much more
than others, resulting in a new distribution within the whole
group. Women in all types of trade dropped from 71.7 percent
of all businesswomen in 1870 to 58.7 percent in 1940. Over the
same period the. proportions of women engaged in operating
1 See Spruill, Julia Cherry. Women's life and work in the southern colonies. Chapel Hill, N. C.,
University of North Carolina Press, 1938, pp. 276-305; also, Abbott, Edith. Women in industry. New
York, N. Y., Appleton & Co., 1924, pp. 13-17.
180
1 g3
BUSINESSWOMEN
Table 10.—Number and Percent Distribution of Women Proprietors,
Managers,. and Officials, Except Farm, in Selected Occupations,
1870 and 19401
Occupation
Percent distribution
Number of women
1940
1870
1870
1940
Total selected
proprietors,
managers, and officials, except farm.
318,647
8,095
100.0
100.0
Proprietors, managers, and officials,
trade
187,125
5,808
58.7
71.7
69,376
1,387
21.8
17.1
57,147
3,524
17.9
43.5
54,767
864
17.2
10.7
5,835
33
1.8
0.4
131,522
2,287
41.3
28.3
66,104
754
20.7
9.3
26.878
261
8.4
3.2
21.879
16,661
1,024
248
6.9
5.2
12.6
3.1
Food and dairy products stores, and milk
retailing: proprietors, managers, and officials; meat cutters, except slaughter and
packing house
Other retail trade and wholesale trade: proprietors, managers, and o f f i c i a l s . . . . . . . .
General merchandise, apparel and accessories, and shoe stores: proprietors, managers, and officials; milliners (not in
factory)....
Drug stores: proprietors, managers, and
officials; pharmacists
Other proprietors, managers, and
officials
Eating and drinking places: proprietors,
managers, and officials
Mining*
construction, manufacturing,
transportation, and communication:
proprietors, managers, and officials
Hotels and lodging places: proprietors,
managers, and officials
Postmasters
Source: Appendix Table II A.
i T h e women proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm, included in this distribution
numbered 301,668 and constituted 70.0 percent of the total 431,080 women classified as women proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm, in 1940. In addition, inspectors, mining; inspectors,
communication and utilities; meat cutters, except slaughter and packing house; milliners (not in
factory); and pharmacists, which were not classified with proprietors, managers, and officials in
1940, were included for comparability with 1870. These additional women numbered 16,979 and
were 3.9 percent as large as the group classified as proprietors, managers, and officials, except
farm, in 1940.
hotels and lodging places decreased by nearly one-half. An increasing proportion of the total were postmasters or were proprietors, managers, and officials of eating and drinking places,
and of establishments grouped under mining, construction, manufacturing, transportation, and communication. In addition there
were significant numbers of women in 1940 in several managerial occupations for which comparable census data were not
available prior to 1910. These include government inspectors and
officials; officials: lodge, society, union, and so forth; proprietors, managers, and officials: banking and other finance; and
proprietors, managers, and officials: insurance.
FOOD AND DAIRY PRODUCTS STORES
The number of women proprietors, managers, and officials
in food retailing multiplied over 50 times from 1870 to 1940, more
182:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
rapidly than the group of proprietors, managers, and officials
as a whole (on the basis of the comparable data available). The
decennial rate of increase has been considerable, though fluctuating. The lowest rate of increase occurred from 1910 to 1920
when unusual opportunities for employment in industry and other
fields may have diverted women from seeking their fortunes in
this retail sphere. The great development of the chain stores has
not apparently curtailed women's progress in food retailing, for
the proportion of women rose fairly consistently from but 1 percent of the total in 1870 to over 10 percent by 1940.
Women proprietors, managers, arid officials:
food stores1
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
„—„
______
69,376
44,037
35,123
30,285
10,287
6,217
4,464
1,387
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
57.5
25.4
16.0
194.4
65.5
39.3
221.8
—
10.5
6.8
7.1
7.1
3.5
2.9
2.0
1.0
1 Includes proprietors, managers, and officials: food and dairy products stores and milk retailing;
and meat cutters, except slaughter and packing house.
EATING AND DRINKING PLACES
It has been pointed out that the tendency for women to stiart
a boarding house when faced with the need to earn a living "has
spilled over into the restaurant business" and that the "unique
American institution, the tea room, is almost as uniquely feminine."2 This development was particularly marked after 1900,
when seven-eighths of all the women entering this field from 1870
to 1940 were added. As the practice of "eating out" became more
prevalent, women with a talent for organizing and managing
restaurants and making them pay found new opportunities. By
1940 women proprietors, managers, and officials of eating and
drinking places numbered over 66,000 arid were nearly one-fourth
of the total.
2 Irwin, Inez Haynes.
Angels and amazons. A hundred years of American women.
N. Y., Doubleday, Doran fc Co., Inc., 1933, p. 305.
New York,
BUSINESSWOMEN
1 g3
Women proprietors, managers, and officials:
eating and drinking places
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900 ...
1890
1880
1870
-
-
66,104
42,008
16,975
12,607
6,954
4,804
2,262
754
57.4
147.5
34.6
81.3
44.8
112.4
200.0
—
Percent of all
•workers in this
occupation
24.2
23.5
14.9
9.0
5.9
5.1
2.6
1.4
OTHER TRADE
111 1870 the classification "Other trade" included women
traders and dealers in a variety of specialties, as well as a considerable number whose chief business was not specified. Among
the more important given in detail were dealers in cigars and
tobacco; in liquors and wines; in sewing machines; in crockery,
china, and stoneware; in agricultural implements; in books and
stationery; in iron, tin, and copper wares; in newspapers and
periodicals; in gold and silverware and jewelry; and in musical
instruments. Some of these appeared in 1940 also, but in addition
there were women proprietors and managers of new types of
business, such as limited price variety stores, motor vehicles and
accessories retailing, and filling stations. Following a rapid expansion among women in these fields from 1870 to 1890 the data
show a leveling off, with another period of expansion after 1910.
Women proprietors, managers, and officials:
other trade1
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
.
57,147
33,288
21,123
17,342
17,216
16,624
5,626
3,524
Percent increase
over preceding
census
71.7
57.6
21.8
0.7
3.6
195.5
59.6
— •
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
5.8
4.2
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.3
2.3
1.9
Includes limited price, variety, furniture and house furnishings, hardware and farm implement, jewelry, household appliance and radio, liquor, and miscellaneous retail stores; motor vehicles
and accessories retailing; country buyers and shippers of livestock and other farm products; fuel
and ice retailing; filling stations; lumber and building material retailing; retail florists; not specified
retail trade; and wholesale trade.
1
184
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
GENERAL MERCHANDISE, APPAREL, AND SHOES
Trends among women in this census group are very much
affected by changes in the number of milliners as well as by the
tendency toward the separation of the producing from the selling
aspects of the millinery business. In 1940 milliners (not in factory) were classified with miscellaneous operatives, while millinery dealers were a part of the group designated as "Proprietors,
managers, and officials, apparel and accessories stores, except
shoes." Because milliners and millinery dealers were classified
together in 1930 and earlier, the occupations had to be grouped
together in 1940 to obtain a comparable series over a period of
years. Still a third group concerned with millinery are the
operatives in millinery factories; these were included in 1940
with operatives in apparel and accessories, the largest group of
operatives at the time of the 1940 census.
Until fairly recently, therefore, the milliner was a skilled
worker who was also a shopkeeper, a combination that was
general as early as colonial times.3 Changes in the census classifications thus reflect the impact of mass production and of the
use of ready-made apparel on the occupation of the milliner.
Undoubtedly also the decreasing demand for the products of
a skilled hand trade has caused the decline since the 1910 peak
in the numbers of women proprietors, managers, and officials in
general merchandise; apparel and accessories, and shoe stores,
together with milliners (not in factory). Census data to demonstrate this are not available, but evidence exists in the notable
declines in other hand trades of women (such as dressmakers
and seamstresses) and in the numerical rise of women proprietors
and managers in other types of trade. Trends in the combined
group since 18904 have been as follows:
^
Women proprietors, managers, and officials:
general merchandise, apparel and accessories,
and shoe stores; and milliners (not in factory)
Number
1940
1930
1920 ......
1910
1900
1890
,
.........
54,767
66,239
85,986
136,060
90,147
62,265
Percent change
from preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
-17.3
—23.0
-36.8
+50.9
+44.8
—
25.6
22.5
28.8
39.5
45.5
60.4
® Owners of millinery establishments in the colonial period frequently advertised for sale a wide
variety of other articles. See Spruill, op. cit., pp. 282-284.
4 Before that date, milliners were combined with dressmakers and seamstresses. See pp. 113-115
for estimates of numbers of milliners in 1870 and 1880.
1 g3
BUSINESSWOMEN
PROPRIETORS, MANAGERS, AND OFFICIALS, PRIMARILY IN INDUSTRY
In 1940, nearly 70 percent of the women in this group were
proprietors, managers, and officials in manufacturing. Since the
group as a whole may include anyone from the proprietor of a
small local bakery or the widow who continues as silent partner
in her deceased husband's machine shop to the president of a
thriving coal company or the active publisher of a large chain of
newspapers, the degree of responsibility exercised varies extremely. Nevertheless there is evidence in the daily press and
elsewhere that numbers of women have undertaken positions of
great responsibility, with correspondingly remunerative returns.5
As increasing numbers of women have entered paid work
and have taken up various occupations in the world of business
and industry, they have also had growing, though still limited,
opportunities to enter those positions that carry great prestige
in our business-dominated economy. Major increases seem to be
reported beginning about the turn of the century. Nearly 27,000
women were proprietors, managers, and officials in industry in
1940, over 100 times as many as were reported in the 1870 census.
They were 3.5 percent of the total in 1940, a proportion nearly
10 times as great as in 1870.
Women proprietors, managers, and officials
in industry1
1940
1930
1920 1910
1900
1890
1880 :
1870
Number
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
26,878
19,544
13,641
8,358
3,763
533
481
261
37.5
43.3
63.2
122.1
606.0
10.8
84.3
—
3.5
2.3
2.0
1.4
1.3
0.3
0.6
0.4
^Includes mining; construction; manufacturing; automobile storage, rental, and repair services;
railroads (includes railroad repair shops); miscellaneous transportation; street railways and bus
lines; taxicab service; trucking service; and communications.
HOTELS AND LODGING PLACES
The traditional occupation of women in housekeeping has led
numbers of them to turn to the keeping of a boarding house as a
means of livelihood,6 and it has doubtless encouraged others to
embark on the more pretentious venture of a hotel or tourist camp.
The rapid rate of increase for women, typical in the occupation
B For examples of women in such"positions, see Leuck, Miriam Simons.
Women in odd and
unusual fields of work. The annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 143:
173-174, May 1929.
e See pp. 151-152.
747639°—48 — 1 3
186:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
before 1910, no longer occurred after that date. This may have
been due to the growing dominance of the large hotel or lodging
place with less opportunity for the small-scale operator. However,
women have been a constantly greater proportion of the total,
rising to nearly one-third by 1940.
Women proprietors, managers, and officials:
hotels and lodging places
Percent change
from preceding
census
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
__„________
__,__.
21,879
20,080
16,395
16,513
9,898
6,120
2,478
1,024
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
+ 9.0
+ 22.5
— 0.7
+ 66.8
+ 61.7
+147.0
+142.0
—
32.7
30.7
25.6
22.3
15.7
12.1
6.6
3.3
GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS AND INSPECTORS
Data available beginning in 1910 show that nearly 15,000
women were added to officials and inspectors of the Federal,
State, and local governments from 1910 to 1940. This increase
is the result in part of the extension of government into fields
where women have had special interests and qualifications, such
as in factory inspection and health work, though this census
occupation does not include officials of charitable, welfare, and
educational institutions. It may also be due in part to the increasing tendency to consider women for appointment to the
general run of official posts, as a result of women's fuller participation in civic and political life following the granting of
suffrage. Furthermore, as women's employment has increased in
government work, more of them have had opportunities to obtain
the background and experience necessary for supervisory posts.7
The number of women government inspectors and officials
increased at a high and fairly constant rate from 1910 to 1940,
and the proportion of women among the total rose steadily.
Women government inspectors and officials1
1940
1930
1920
1910
1
Number
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
18,295
11,046
6,203
3,522
65.6
78.1
76.1
—
9.1
8.0
5.7
4.4
Includes inspectors and officials, United States, State, city, and county and local.
In the Federal service, for example, women showed definite advance into supervisory and
administrative grades from 1925 to 1941v See U. S. Department of Labor. Women's Bureau. Employment of women in the Federal Government, 1923 to 1939. By Rachel Fesler Nyswander and Janet
M. Hooks. Bulletin 182. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1941, pp. 53-56.
7
1 g3
BUSINESSWOMEN
POSTMASTERS
The postal system has been a function of Federal Government
from the time of the Articles of Confederation in 1777,8 and the
woman postmaster appeared on the scene simultaneously.9 By
1870 women gainfully occupied as postmasters and assistants were
a small but significant number that grew rapidly in the following
70 years. Census data for 1940 showed that women were 2 out
of every 5 postmasters, though it should be noted that many of
the women were fourth-class postmasters, in stations where fulltime activity is not required.10 Trends among women postmasters
have been as follows:
Women postmasters
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
16,661
13,603
11,208
8,722
4,871
2,925
1,303
248
Percent increase
over preceding
census
22.5
21.4
28.5
79.1
66.5
124.5
425,4
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
42.5
39.5
35.1
31.3
28.0
19.1
10.8
3.2
DRUGGISTS AND PHARMACISTS
The handbooks on domestic economy in vogue in the Colonies
frequently included numerous recipes for salves, ointments, and
potions, so that in addition to her other functions the housewife
might act as apothecary to her family.11 The National Pharmacopoeia, which sets standards for the drugs and medicines listed
therein, first appeared in the United States as late as 1820.12 By
1870 the compounding of medicines and other curative preparations was almost entirely in the hands of men, few women traders
and dealers in drugs and medicines having been reported in the
census. Undoubtedly, however, women continued to prepare and
administer home remedies.
The occupations of druggist and pharmacist, with their
mounting requirements as to standards, together have constituted throughout the period a small but growing field for women,
8 U. S. Government Information Service.
United States Government manual, 1947. Washington,
U. S. Government Printing Office, 1947, p. 211.
9 Mary Katharine Goddard was a postmistress at Annapolis during the Revolutionary War, as
well as a newspaper publisher, job printer, and bookstore proprietor. Spruill, op. cit, pp 266-267.
10 U. S. Women's Bureau.
cit., p. 33.
Employment of women in the Federal Government, 1923 to 1939. op.
11 See Spruill, op. cit, pp. 75, 210-212.
Encyclopaedia of the social sciences. Medical materials industry.
millan Co., 1930-1935.
New York, N, Y., Mac<«
188:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
though in more recent decades numbers have increased at a less
rapid rate than formerly. The Census places pharmacists with
professional workers, but in this analysis they have been combined
with proprietors, managers, and officials of drug stores to obtain
comparable data with earlier years. In 1940, 57 percent of the
women in this group were pharmacists. Relative to all druggists
and pharmacists, the proportion of women, though still small,
has risen steadily over the 70 years.
Women proprietors, managers, and officials:
drug stores ; and pharmacists
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
5,835
4,512
3,099
2,118
1,153
719
118
33
„
...
„ ,
.„.
Percent increase
over preceding
census
29.3
45.6
46.3
83.7
60.4
509.3
257.6
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
5.6
4.3
3.9
3.1
2.0
1.6.
0.4
0.2
BANKING AND OTHER FINANCE
During World War I women frequently replaced men in
banks in jobs other than routine clerical work, a fact undoubtedly
contributing to the exceptional rate of increase from 1910 to 1920
among women proprietors, managers, officials, and salesmen in
banking and other finance institutions. The further increase in
the decade after 1920 was followed in the succeeding decade by a
decline in numbers with the curtailment of financial services in
the depression period. By 1940 women continued to be less than
5 percent of the total, so that it remained true of the banking
field, as it had been in 1921, that for women "its opportunities
to advance beyond a limited point are still problematical."13 Their
small foothold, however, has been steadily enlarged.
Women proprietors, managers, and officials:
__________
banking and other finance1
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
-
-
-
6,782
8,728
5,008
2,269
Includes proprietors, managers, and officials:
finance, brokerage, and commission firms.
1
13 Adams, Elizabeth Kemper.
1921, p. 254.
Percent Change
from preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
- 22.3
+ 74.3
+120.7
—
4.7
4.5
3.8
2.8
banking and other finance;
and salesmen:
Women professional workers. New York, N. Y „ Macmillan Co.,
1 g3
BUSINESSWOMEN
OFFICIALS, LODGE, SOCIETY, UNION, ETC.
Dating from as early as the 1850's, the development of
women's clubs has been a significant movement in American
life. Membership of some clubs was drawn from among women
in the home who sought to enlarge the horizons of a life immersed
in a daily round of household activities. As more and more women
became gainful workers, the number of organizations catering
to women's occupational interests grew.14 These organizations
as well as the trade unions and the various associations formed
for social, civic, or philanthropic purposes have offered to women
small but growing opportunities for careers as officials, managers,
agents, and representatives, though the proportion of women
among all such officials was lower in 1940 than in 1910.
Women officials: lodge, society, union, etc.
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
4,405
........ .-.__-„_„_.__ 3,062
2,205
I
2,009
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
43.9
38.9
9.8
17.1
20.7
18.4
24.0
—
INSURANCE
The growth since 1910 among women proprietors, managers,
and officials in the insurance field, with its highest rate from
1920 to 1930 and its lowest rate from 1930 to 1940, follows a
pattern similar to that among women insurance agents and
workers.15 Undoubtedly as women have entered insurance selling
in increasing numbers, more of them have found opportunities
to undertake positions of responsibility in this branch of the work,
in addition to growing numbers in supervisory posts in clerical
and other departments where women's employment was no
novelty. In 1910 the proportion of women among all insurance
agents was slightly higher than among all insurance officials; in
1940, however, the proportion of women among insurance officials was 7.1 percent, compared to 5.3 percent among agents
and brokers.
Women proprietors, managers, and officials : insurance
1940 ....—
1930 ._
1920
1910
...
-.._'.
Number
Percent increase
over preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
2,832
1,962
343
140
44.3
472.0
145.0
_
7.1
5.8
2.0
1.3
14 For a history of women's organizations see Breckinridge, Sophonisba P.
twentieth century. New York, N. Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933, pp. 11-95.
» See pp. 88-89.
Women in the
AGRICULTURAL WORKERS
One of the most significant trends in American life has been
the shift to urban living and industrial employments and the
corresponding decline in the population living in rural areas and
engaged in agricultural pursuits. In 1870 there were somewhat
under 7 million persons in agriculture, including both farmers
and farm laborers, but they constituted over half of all occupied
workers of the country. Total numbers in agriculture continued
to rise until 1910, but the growth was not as rapid as the expansion in the entire labor force. After 1910 the numbers declined decade by decade. The 9 million persons in farm work in
1940 were only 17 percent of all persons in the labor force.
In recent years the number of very large farms has been
growing, but to a considerable extent farming has remained an
enterprise carried on chiefly by the farm operator and his family.
Of the 8,923,324 persons reported in farming activities in 1940,
5,328,049 were farmers or farm managers and foremen* and
another 1,273,240 were unpaid family workers. In all there were
only 2,322,035 farm wage workers in 1940, reflecting the fact that
a majority of farms are operated without hired farm labor.
In this picture the place of women, on the basis of official
census data, is small, for only slightly more than one-half million
were reported in all agricultural capacities in 1940. The bulk of
farm wives, whose contributions are vital to the success of the
farm enterprise, are generally omitted. Even so, the women included in agriculture under the census definition constitute a
significant group among all women in the labor force, and the
changes in their numbers and the character of their work are
important to a consideration of women's occupational patterns.
Among women in agriculture in 1940, 5 out of every 10 were
unpaid family workers, 3 were farmers, and 2 were wage laborers.
Available data show that the proportion of women farm workers
who were farmers grew from 1910 to 1940, whereas the proportion
working as farm laborers declined. Further details in 1930 and
1940 indicate that the drop has been entirely among the unpaid
family workers, and that the proportion of women doing farm
labor as wage workers grew.
190
191
AGRICULTURAL WORK
Percent distribution
1940
Total women in agriculture.Farmers (owners and tenants)-__
Farm managers and foremen
Farm laborers (wage workers)
_———
Farm laborers (unpaid family workers)
1930
1920
1910
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
29.4
0.2
22.3
48.1
28.9
0.1
18.7
52.3
22.7
1.3
23.2
0.7
, 76.0
76.1
}
In the pioneer type of farming, with its self-sufficient character, its hand-labor methods, and its all-inclusive activities,
women played an important part. From colonial days to the Civil
War the wife of the farmer cared, to a considerable extent, for
the dairy, the poultry yard, and the garden in addition to her
multitude of other tasks. Some women made an independent
living as planters or small farmers, while others were hired to
care for the dairy or poultry on the farm of another person.1
Though women of the farm family as well as those in the service
of others did rather rough work such as cutting wood, milking,
and so forth, it was only in the more exceptional instances that
they were "put into the ground/' or employed in field labor.2
Shortly after the Civil War the homestead movement gave
rise to greatly increased farming activities. By that time, the
hand labor formerly universal in agriculture in the United States
had given way to the widespread use of horse-drawn machinery,
thus changing the character of farm work.3 In the years following, the number of women farmers and agricultural laborers
grew fairly rapidly, a trend that continued almost until the beginning of World War I. Subsequently the numbers of women in
these activities began to shrink more and more.
Women farmers, farm managers
and foremen
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
__,__-.
.___-________„______._-____
.
154,374
263,695
__ 281,208
281,617
311,695
229,270
58,680
24,859
See Spruill, Julia Cherry. Women's life and work in the southern colonies.
University of North Carolina Press, 1938, pp. 80, 305-312.
1
2
Abbott, Edith.
Percent change
from preceding
census
— 41.5
~ 6.2
— 0.1
— 9.6
+ 36.0
+290.7
+136.1
—
Chapel Hill, N. C.,
Women in industry. New York, N. Y., D. Appleton & Co., 1924, pp. 12-13.
President's Conference on Unemployment. Recent economic changes in the United States. New
York, N. Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., 1929, Vol. II, p. 556.
3
192:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
Women classified as farm owners and tenants or as farm
managers and foremen rose in number from less than 25,000 in
1870 to over 300,000 in 1900, increasing in each decade at rates
considerably above the rate of population growth. After 1900
the numbers of women in the farm operator group dropped,
showing a particularly large decrease from 1930 to 1940.
Census data for women agricultural laborers provide only a
rough indication of the trends. Agriculture is a seasonal industry,
rising to a high level of activity at the time crops are planted and
to an even greater peak at harvest time, so that the figures are
affected by the particular time of the year at which the census
is taken.4 Moreover, even if a census is taken in the same month
as the census of the previous decade, weather conditions may vary
at the two periods, and the condition of the crops and consequent
needs for labor differ. The farm operator undoubtedly reports
himself as such, whatever the extent of his farm activities under
way at the census date. Women working as unpaid laborers on
the family farm, however, may do very little outside work in the
winter or at a time when the season is delayed, whereas at the
peak of farming operations they may spend all their time at this
occupation. In addition many women constantly perform a certain
amount of farm work, such as caring for poultry and dairy operations, and there is the question of whether a particular woman
will consider these activities as part of her housework or as a
contribution to the family farm enterprise.5
The number of women farm laborers, both wage workers
and unpaid family workers, more than doubled from 1870 to 1910,
despite a break in their growth from 1880 to 1890. After 1910
the advance of power farming, the cityward movement of the
rural population, and the gradual increase in large farming operations at the expense of the small family-operated farm affected
the numbers of farm workers, women as well as men.6 The
numerical decline among women agricultural laborers became so
great and so rapid that by 1940 there were fewer women farm
laborers than there had been in 1870.
4 Census dates were as follows: 1870 to 1900, June; 1910, April; 1920, January.; 1930, April; 1940,
March. Data from the U. S. Census Monthly report on the labor force showed that the number of women
in agricultural employment in June 1947 was almost IH million above that in the preceding January.
5 However, adjustment has been made for the overcount of farm laborers in 1910 due to differences in instructions to enumerators that resulted in the inclusion of an excessive number of such
women (compared with other censuses).
6 These trends are discussed in President's Conference on Unemployment.
changes in the United States, op. cit., Vol II, pp. 547-602.
Recent economic
AGRICULTURAL WORK
193
Women farm laborers ('wage and
unpaid family workers)
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
367,370
644,618
_ 890,230
894,722
696,670
566,709
567,169
430,085
Percent change
from preceding
census
—43.0
-27.6
- 0.5
+28.4
+22.9
- 0.1
+31.9
—
Changes relative to population and labor force growth.—The
dwindling farm population, already referred to, has continued to
provide the basic agricultural necessities for a total population
that continued to grow. Increasing productivity of farm labor,
changes in consumer habits, and lessened export demands have
been among the economic factors that made this possible.7 The
number of persons in the population for each person in farm work
was nearly three times as great in 1940 as in 1870, and a similar
change was true in relation to the number of women in farm
work. However, the number of persons for each woman in farm
work had at first declined slightly (from 1870 to 1900), whereas
relative to farm workers of both sexes the numbers in the population were without exception higher at each census after 1870
than at the preceding one.
Number of persons in population for—
Each person in Each woman in
agriculture1
agriculture1
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
14.8
11.8
9.3
8.0
7.0
6.4
5.9
__._„___. 5.9
252.4
135.2
90.2
78.2
75.4
78.7
80.1
87.5
1 Farmers (owners and tenants), farm managers and foremen, and farm laborers (wage and
unpaid family workers).
In 1870 work as unpaid or wage labor on farms was an
important occupation for the woman worker, over one-fifth of
all gainfully occupied women having been in this occupation. At
each subsequent census the proportion declined, indicating the
growing opportunities in other fields of work. Even those women
7 See Hopkins, John A.
Changing technology and employment in agriculture, National research project on reemployment opportunities and recent changes in industrial techniques. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1941. 189 pp.
194:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
who did not join the migration to the city with its variety of
employment opportunities became less concerned with farm work.
In 1910 it was stated that "Farmers' wives and daughters no
longer milk the cows and work in the field and care for the livestock as of yore; they do not work in the kitchen and garden as
before; nor assist in the fruit and berry harvest. They are making
less butter, and cheese making on the farm has become a lost art.
They may care for the poultry and the bees, do housework and
gather vegetables for the table, and cook and keep the dwelling
in order. This is substantially the limit. Of course Negro women
do much labor in the cotton field, but this diminishes year by
year."8
By 1940 the proportion of women workers who were farm
laborers was only about one-tenth as large as it had been in 1870.
Women farm operators, however, constituted approximately the
same proportion in 1870 and in 1940, slightly over 1 percent,
having risen to a maximum of about 6 percent in 1900.
Percent of all women in the labor force
or gainfully occupied who were—
Farmers (owners
and tenants),
farm managers
and foremen
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870 -
.
1.2
2.5
3.3
3.8
5.9
5.7
2.2
1.3
Farm laborers
(wage and
unpaid family
workers).
2.8
6.0
10.3
12.0
13.1
14.1
21.4
22.4
Changes relative to men.—The need for money income to
achieve a given level of living has affected the farm family less
than urban groups. To a considerable degree the well-being of
the farm family depends on the unpaid labor of the wife of the
farmer as well as on the cash which the joint family enterprise
brings in. Supplements to the family diet through the efforts of
the housewife in connection with the kitchen garden, the poultry
flock, and canning and preserving activities contribute considerably to the family health and well-being. In addition the
farm wife carries on numerous activities for which the urban
family may secure commercial substitutes. Where the cash returns do not cover the family needs, not only are the growing,
8 U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture, 1910. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1911, pp. 192-193. For a later discussion of Conditions
and outlook of farm women see Atkeson, Mary Meek. Women in farm life and rural economy.
The annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 143: 188-194, May 1929.
195
AGRICULTURAL WORK
canning, and storing of food done at home, but activities may
extend to the making and care of clothing, the production of soap,
furniture polish, and hand lotion, and the fabrication of bedding
and mattresses.9 Because of her duties, the farmer's wife generally has not worked on the cash crop of the farm. A study of
cotton farming in Texas, for example, reveals that by and large
it is the unmarried woman on the farm who does field work.10
The proportion of women in agricultural labor has thus been
understandably small. The largest proportion of women among
the total was reported in 1920, following a period when considerable effort had been made to encourage women to participate
in the greatly needed agricultural expansion accompanying World
War I.11 The proportion of women in 1940 declined to a point
below that of 1870. Among farmers and farm managers and
foremen the proportion of women in 1940 was likewise below the
peak, though somewhat higher than it had been in 1870 and 1880.
Women as percent of—
All farmers
(owners and tenants);
farm managers
and foremen
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
__ 2.9
4.3
4.3
4.6
_____________ 5.4
4.3
1.4
0.8
_
_-_
__„__
___._
„„____
___
9 U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Yearbook of Agriculture, 1933,
ment Printing Office, 1933, pp. 385-397.
All farm
laborers (wage
and unpaid
family workers)
10.2
15.0
18.3
16.9
13.8
12.7
13.5
11.8
Washington, U. S. Govern-
10 Allen, Ruth.
The labor of women in the production of cotton. The University of Texas
Bulletin, No. 3134. Texas, University Publications, September 8, 1931, p. 79.
11 See, for example, Women on the farm. An address before the Woman's Committee, Council
of National Defense. May 13. 1918, Washington, D. C., by Clarence Ousley, Assistant Secretary of
Agriculture. Washington, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1918. 12 pp.
WOMEN IN TRADES AND CRAFTS
For few of the 121,650 women classified as craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers in 1940 can comparable data be obtained for 1870. Consequently it is impossible to determine, on
the basis of census data, what shifts have occurred among women
in this group. One fact is fairly clear—throughout the 70-year
period, right up through 1940, the skilled work of the craftsman,
with its long apprenticeship, frequently with its requirements of
physical strength, and often with its restrictive union regulations,
was a field not open to women on a very wide scale. Even the
small numbers of women reported in specific trades and crafts
at various censuses are suspect. Census experts have stated that
while there undoubtedly have been women in certain of these
occupations investigation might have shown that the woman reported as a "blacksmith" was an owner of a blacksmith shop left
her by her husband rather than a worker actively on the job.
Also, it seemed probable that many of the women reported as
"machinists" were in fact machine operators. Furthermore, less
rechecking was done by the Census in 1940 on unusual occupations for women, so that any considerable increases from 1930
to 1940 may have been due to differences in methodology rather
than to real gains.
FOREMEN
Data for foremen are likely to be more authentic than for
some other craft occupations, but the over-all term includes many
types of work, some much less responsible than others. Since
1910 the number of women acting as foremen has increased. As
shown by census data, changes in numbers and in the proportion
women constituted of the total have not been consistent in direction. Throughout the three decades women have been a rather unvarying proportion of all foremen—somewhat below 10 percent.
Women foremen1
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
.
38,492
33,737
34,670
23,277
Percent change
from preceding
census
+14.1
- 2.7
+48.9
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
7.8
7.0
8.0
8.2
1 Excludes foremen in personal service, communication, mining, street railways and bus lines,
government, and "other industries and services." Includes floormen and floor managers, store.
For women, manufacturing provided all but a relatively few
of the jobs at the foreman level in 1940. A comparison of the
196
197
TRADES AND CRAFTS
distribution of women manufacturing foremen in 1930 with 1940
indicates a fairly similar pattern, with three exceptions. In 1940
about half the 31,606 women manufacturing foremen were in
textile, textile product, and apparel industries, a higher proportion
than formerly, while a lower proportion of them were in metal
industries and in manufacturing industries (not elsewhere classified). This shift is due to the fact that the 3,500 additional
women who were manufacturing foremen in 1940 represented
chiefly an increase of 5,000 women textile and apparel foremen,
and a decline of about 2,000 in metals together with manufacturing (not elsewhere classified).
Percent distribution
; Total women foremen in manufacturingTextile, textile products, and apparel
Food and kindred products
,
Metal industries —
Paper, paper products, and printingsLumber, furniture, and lumber productsManufacturing industries (not
elsewhere classified)
1940
1930
100.0
100.0
51.2
8.5
6.9
4.1
1.6
39.8
11.8
11.2
7.7
4.3
1.5
16.5
23.7
11.1
DECORATORS AND WINDOW DRESSERS
Data available since 1900 for decorators and window dressers
indicate that this has been a rapidly rising though small field for
women. Doubtless there has been an increasing concern on the
part of homemakers with the less tangible aspects of family welfare, at the same time that stores have been interested to encourage trade by furnishing advice on interior decorating. Furthermore this is a type of occupation which women well may
follow from the home into the commercial world.
Rates of increase among women decorators and window
dressers were high through 1930, and the proportion of women
among the total in 1930 was over 3 times that in 1910. From 1930
to 1940 the occupation apparently succumbed to the retrenchment
of the depression period. In that decade, though the number of
women in this field increased somewhat, their rate of increase
was nominal. The proportion of women among all decorators
and window dressers fell, indicating that in what might come close
to a luxury occupation women may have suffered from depression
conditions more than men.
198:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
Women decorators and window dressers
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
:
-
-
6,732
6,488
1,201
457
308
Percent increase
over preceding
census
3.8
440.2
162.8
48.4
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occu pation
22.6
26.4
11.1
7.0
8.3
PAINTERS
Because of the small numbers involved, rates of increase
among- women painters tend to give an exaggerated picture of
the growth of this field. New opportunities for women in this
occupation have appeared, however, particularly in spray painting
in factories and shops. Of the 10,000 women painters in 1940,
two-thirds were in work other than construction and maintenance.
In this branch of the field, which the 1940 census classifies with
operatives, women constituted nearly 7 percent of the total. In
order to obtain data over the entire period the two branches have
been recombined. In the occupation as a whole women have risen
steadily relative to the total workers, but in 1940 women were
still less than 2 percent of all painters.
Women painters
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
___„„_
10,189
5,196
3,635
... 2,770
1,904
1,380
355
96
Percent increase
over preceding
census
96.1
42.9
31.2
45.5
38.0
288.7
269.8
—
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
1.9
1.0
1.1
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.3
0.1
PAPERHANGERS
Paperhanging does not seem to be an occupation likely to
attract many women. Nevertheless almost 2,000 women were
reported in 1940, constituting nearly 6 percent of the total. Trends
in numbers of women and their proportions among all paperhangers showed a generally upward course from 1870 to 1940.
199
TRADES AND CRAFTS
Women upholsterers
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
-
-
_
_______
1,717
1,456
408
____
797
_________________ 236
54
_
154
19
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
5.7
5.1
2.1
3.1
1.1
0.4
3.1
0.8
UPHOLSTERERS
The number of women occupied as upholsterers was considerably higher in 1940 than in 1870. This is a type of occupation closely allied with women's work in the home and a venerable
one for them, since the upholstery business had been carried on
by women in pre-revolutionary days.1 It is an occupation in which
difficulties may arise in distinguishing between operatives in
upholstery departments of furniture and automobile plants and
those women carrying on the work of a skilled craftsman. Differences of this nature may be responsible for some of the variations in the figures. The last two censuses showed that women
were slightly less than 5 percent of all upholsterers, which may
have been due to the finer classification allocations just noted.
Women upholsterers
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
Number
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
2,014
1,860
1,791
1,021
1,705
1,381
428
141
4.7
4.4
7.4
6.2
6.7
6.6
5.0
3.0
1 Spruill, Julia Cherry.
Women's life and work in the southern colonies. Chapel Hill, N. C.,
University of North Carolina Press, 1938, p. 288.
PROTECTIVE SERVICE WORKERS
The historical role of the male as fighter and protector of
the community appears under modern occupational conditions in
the overwhelming preponderance of men in protective service
work. Up to 1940 no women had been firemen or in the military
services, though the latter field saw the innovation of women
soldiers and sailors in World War II. In other protective service
work women have had a growing part, as the value of preventive
work in problems of crime and social disorganization has been
realized. The growth of women's divisions in police departments1
and the use of women for such specialized jobs as store detectives
are reflected in generally increasing numbers of women in police,
detective, and guard work, though women never constituted more
than about 1 percent of the total.
Women protective service workers1
Number
1940
1930
1920
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
4,207
3,766
._-_„
___
1,512
413
-...___
.... 1,239
... 393
99
20
Includes guards, watchmen, and doorkeepers;
and marshals and constables.
Percent change
from preceding
census
Percent of all
workers in this
occupation
+111.7
+149.1
+266.1
— 66.7
+215.3
+297.0
+395.0
1.1
1.2
0.7
0.3
1.0
0.5
0.3
0.1
—
policemen and
1 See Pigeon, Helen D.
Woman's era in the police department.
Academy of Political and Social Science 143: 249-254, May 1929.
200
detectives,
government and
The annals of the American
SELECTED REFERENCES ON WOMEN'S
OCCUPATIONAL TRENDS
I. GENERAL TRENDS IN THE LABOR FORCE AND
OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN
Abbott, Edith and Breckinridge, Sophonisba P. Employment of women in
industries: twelfth census statistics.
Journal of political
economy
14: 14-40, January 1906.
Academy of Political Science. The economic position of women. Proceedings,
Vol. 1, No. 1. New York, N. Y., October 1910. 193 pp.
Anderson, H. Dewey and Davidson, Percy E. Occupational trends in the
United States. Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press,
1940. 618 pp.
__
Recent occupational trends in American labor. Stanford
—
University, Calif., Stanford University Press, 1945. 133 pp.
Breckinridge, Sophonisba P. Women in the twentieth century. New York,
N. Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1933. 364 pp.
The activities of women outside the home. In Recent social trends
in the United States.
Report of the President's research committee on
social trends. New York, N. Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1933. Vol. I,
Ch. XIV, pp. 709-750.
Encyclopaedia of the social sciences. New York, N. Y., Macmillan Co., 1930-35.
Occupation, Vol. 11, pp. 424-435; and Women in industry, Vol. 15, pp.
451-459.
Hurlin, Ralph G. and Givens, Meredith B. Shifting occupational patterns.
In Recent social trends in the United States.
Report of the President's
research committee on social trends. New York, N. Y., McGraw-Hill Book
Co., Inc., 1933. Vol. 1, Ch. VI, pp. 268-324.
Millis, Harry A. and Montgomery, Royal E. Labor's progress and some basic
labor problems. New York, N. Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1938.
Ch. VII, Women in industry, pp. 376-415.
Palmer, Gladys L. Occupational trends in women's employment.
Woman's
press 28:465, 480, October 1934.
Parrish, John Bishop. Women in the Nation's labor market.
Quarterly
journal of economics 54: 527-534, May 1940.
Pidgeon, Mary Elizabeth. Recent changes in occupations of women. Personnel journal 11: 289-294, February 1933.
Thibert, Marguerite. The economic depression and the employment of women.
International labour review 27: 443-470, 620-630, April and May 1933.
U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. Bureau of the Census. Statistics
of women at work. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1907.
399 pp.
,U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Women in gainful
occupations, 1870 to 1920. By Joseph A. Hill. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1929. 416 pp.
16th census of the United States: 1940. Population. Comparative occupation statistics for the United States, 1870 to 1940. By
Alba M. Edwards. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1943.
206 pp.
7 4 7 6 3 9 ° — 4 8 — 14
201
202:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. 16th census of the
United States: 1940. Population. Vol III, The labor force. Part I, United
States summary. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1943.
301 pp.
U. S. Department of Labor. Women's Bureau. The occupational progress of
women. By Mary V. Dempsey. Bulletin 27. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1922. 37 pp.
The occupational progress of women, 1910 to 1930. By Mary
V. Dempsey. Bulletin 104. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office,
1933. 90 pp.
Women in the modern world. The annals of the American Academy •of
Political and Social Science. Vol. 143, No. 232, May 1929. 396 pp.
II. SOCIAL CHANGES AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS RELATED
TO WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONAL TRENDS
Abbott, Grace. The changing position of women in industry. In A century
of progress. Beard, Charles A., editor. New York, N. Y., Harper & Bros.,
1933. Ch. 10, pp. 253-290.
Groves, Ernest Rutherford. The American woman, the feminine side of a
masculine civilization. New York, N. Y., Emerson Books, Inc., Second and
enlarged edition, 1944. 465 pp.
Irwin, Inez Haynes. Angels and amdzons. A hundred years of American
women. New York, N. Y., Doubleday Doran & Co., Inc., 1933. 531 pp.
Ogburn, W. F. The influences of invention and discovery. In Recent social
trends in the United States. Report of the President's research committee
on social trends. New York, N. Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1933.
Vol. I, Ch. Ill, pp. 122-166.
Reuter, Edward Byron and Runner, Jessie Ridgway. The family. Source
materials for the study of family and personality. New York, N. Y.,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1931. Ch. XIV, The Status of women, pp. 434477.
U. S. Department of Labor. Women's Bureau. Effects of applied research
upon the employment opportunities of American women. Bulletin 50.
Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1926. 54 pp.
Technological changes in relation to women's employment.
By Ethel L. Best. Bulletin 107. Washington, U. S. Government Printing
Office, 1985. 39 pp.
III. TRENDS IN SPECIFIC OCCUPATIONAL FIELDS
WHITE COLLAR OCCUPATIONS
Adams, Elizabeth Kemper. Women professional workers. New York, N. Y.,
Macmillan Co., 1921. Ch. XIII, Commercial services, office and mercantile.
What is a professional secretary? pp.223-253.
Anderson, Mary. The clerical worker and industrial change.
federationist 39: 1024-28, September 1932.
American
Coyle, Grace L. Women in the clerical occupations. The annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science 143: 180-197, May 1929.
203
SELECTED REFERENCES
Encyclopaedia of the social sciences. New York, N. Y., Macmillan Co., 1930-35.
Clerical occupations, Vol. 3, pp. 550-554; and Salesmanship, Vol. 13, pp.
519-521.
The mechanization of office work. International labour review 38: 411-415,
September 1938.
The use of office machinery and its influence on conditions of work for staff.
International labour review 36: 486-516, October 1937.
Women in business. Fortune.
Vol. 12, nos. 1-3. July, August, September 1935.
INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS
Abbott, Edith. Women in industry; a study in American economic
New York, N. Y., D. Appleton & Co., 1910. 409 pp.
history.
Alderfer, E. B. and Michl, H. E. Economics of American industry.
New
York, N. Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1942. 566 pp.
Clark, Victor S. History of manufactures in the United States. New York,
N. Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1929 edition. 3 Vols.
Glover, John George and Cornell, William Bouck. The development of American industries. New York, N. Y., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1941. 1005 pp.
Rhine, Alice Hyneman. Woman in industry. In Woman's work in America.
Meyer, Annie Nathan, editor. New York, N. Y., Henry Holt & Co., 1891.
Ch. XI, pp. 276-322.
[U. S.] Department of Commerce and Labor. Bureau of the Census. [12th
census of the United States: 1900.1 Vols. IX and X. Manufactures. Parts
III and IV. Washington, [U. S.] Government Printing Office, 1902.
—
Bureau of Labor. Report on condition of woman and child wageearners in the United States. 61st Congress, 2d session, S. Doc. No. 645.
Washington, [U. S.] Government Printing Office, 1910. 19 Vols.
U. S. Department of Labor. Women's Bureau. The new position of women
in American industry. Bulletin 12. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1920. 158 pp.
SERVICE WORKERS
Encyclopaedia of the social sciences. New York, N. Y., Macmillan Co., 1930-35.
Domestic service, Vol. 5. pp. 198-206.
Laughlin, Gail. Domestic service. In Report of the [United States] industrial
commission.
Washington, [U. S.] Government Printing Office, 1901.
Vol. XIV, pp. 743-767.
Needleman, Rae L. Domestic workers in private homes. Social
bulletin 2: 10-20, March 1939.
security
Journal of
political
Rubinow, I. M. The problem of domestic service.
economy 14: 502-519, May 1906.
Salmon, Lucy Maynard. Domestic service.
1897. 307 pp.
New York, N. Y., Macmillan Co.,
Stigler, George J. Domestic servants in the United States, 1900-19UO. New
York, N. Y., National Bureau of Economic Research, 1946. 44 pp.
204:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
PROFESSIONAL FIELDS
Adams, Elizabeth Kemper. Women professional workers. New York, N. Y.,
Macmillan Co., 1921. 467 pp.
Brown, Esther Lucile. Nursing as a profession. New York, N. Y., Russell
Sage Foundation, Second edition, 1940. 157 pp.
Social work as a profession. New York, N. Y., Russell Sage Foundation, 1942. 232 pp.
Elsbree, Willard S. The American teacher. Evolution of a profession in a
democracy. New York, N. Y., American Book Co., 1939. 566 pp.
Encyclopaedia of the social sciences. New York, N. Y., Macmillan Co., 193035. See Education, Vol. 5, pp. 403-432; Professions, Vol. 12, pp. 476-480;
Nursing, Vol. 11, pp. 405-412; Social work, Vol. 14, pp. 165-187 ; Teaching
profession, Vol. 14, pp. 543-553; and titles of other individual professional
fields.
Meyer, Annie Nathan, editor. Woman's work in America. New York, N. Y.,
Henry Holt & Co., 1891. 457 pp.
Woody, Thomas. A history of woman's education in the United States<
New York, N. Y., The Science Press, 1929. 2 Vols.
APPENDIX
Table I.
Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force (except new
workers) in 1940, and gainful workers 14 years old and over in
1930, in 1920, and in 1910, classified into social economic groups,
by sex, for the United States.
Table IIA.
Occupations of women workers, 1870 to 1940.
Table IIB.
Occupations of all workers, 1870 to 1940.
Table I.—Persons 14 Years Old and Over in the Labor Force (Except New Workers) in 1940, and Gainful Workers 14 Years Old
and Over in 1930, in 1920, and in 1910, Classified Into Social Economic Groups, by Sex, for the United States
[Reproduced from 16th Census of the United States: 1940. Population. Comparative occupation statistics for the United States, 1870 to 1940, table X X V I I , p. 187]
£1940 figures include a complete count of present occupations of employed workers and figures based on a 5-percent cross-section sample count of the usual
occupations of experienced workers seeking work and of persons on public emergency work]
Number
Sex and group
Labor force
(except new
workers),
19401
Total...
1930
1920
1940
1930
1910
1920
o§
w
</>
Percent distribution
Gainful workers
KD
O
C2
1910
52,020,023
48,594,592
41,236,185
37,271,360
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
O
n
o
cj
>
H<
1.
Professional persons
3,381,993
2,945,605
2,049,919
1,632,185
6.5
6.1
5.0
4.4
2.
Proprietors, managers, and officials
2-a. Farmers (owners and tenants)
2-b. Wholesale and retail dealers
2-c. Other proprietors, managers, and officials
9,233,643
5,274,706
2,037,900
1,921,037
9,665,489
6,012,012
1,786,996
1,866,481
9,180,483
6,387,358
1,401,751
1,391,374
8,579,458
6,132,368
1,245,801
1,201,289
17.8
10.1
3.9
3.7
19.9
12.4
3.7
3.8
22.3
15.5
3.4
3.4
23.0
16.5
3.3
3.2
3.
Clerks and kindred workers
8,923,939
7,936,285
5,682,150
3,804,474
17.2
16.3
13.8
10.2
4.
Skilled workers and foremen
6,104,985
6,282,665
5,570,533
4,363,984
11.7
12.9
13.5
11.7
5.
Semiskilled workers
5-a. Semiskilled workers in manufacturing
5-b. Other semiskilled workers
10,918,312
7,972,711
4,555,905
3,416,806
a
6,631,733
4,352,329
2,279,404
5,489,315
3,653,808
1,835,507
21.0
(2)
(2)
16.4
9.4
7.0
16.1
10.6
5.5
14.7
9.8
4.9
EG
6.
Unskilled workers
6-a. Farm laborers
6-b, c. Laborers, except farm
6-b. Factory and bldg. const, laborers
6-c. Other laborers
6-d. Servant classes
13,457,151
3,708,191
5,566,493
12,121,367
3,857,833
6,018,944
3,131,734
2,887,210
2,244,590
13,401,944
5,407,102
5,461,957
2,647,096
2,814,861
2,532,885
25.9
7.1
10.7
4,182,467
13,791,837
4,187,201
6,272,700
3,371,492
2,901,208
3,331,936
8.0
28.4
8.6
12.9
6.9
6.0
6.9
29.4
9.4
14.6
7.6
7.0
5.4
36.0
14.5
14.7
7.1
7.6
6.8
39,445,945
37,915,544
32,806,478
29,482,534
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
o
w
o
>
w
(22)
()
((2)2)
Male. .
1.
Professional persons
2.
Proprietors, managers, and officials
2-a. Farmers (owners and tenants)
2-b. Wholesale and retail dealers.
2-c. Other proprietors, managers, and officials.
...
(22)
()
1,846,541
1,497,830
1,061,664
913,637
4.7
4.0
3.2
3.1
8,701,805
5,120,943
1,858,017
1,722,845
9,159,849
5,749,367
1,675,146
1,735,336
8,757,526
6,121,781
1,321,989
1,313,756
8,183,312
5,859,228
1,177,808
1,146,276
22.1
13.0
4.7
4.4
24.2
15.2
4.4
4.6
26.7
18.7
4.0
4.0
27.8
19.9
4.0
3.9
O
on
H
X
F
O
o
GO
w
<J
M
z
3.
Clerks and kindred workers
5,268>665
4,864,778
3,490,728
2,723,293
13.4
12.8
10.6
9.2
4.
Skilled workers and foremen
6,001,173
6,201,520
5,468,979
4,267,251
15.2
16.4
16.7
14.5
5.
Semiskilled workers
5-a. Semiskilled workers in manufacturing
5-b. Other semiskilled workers
7,336,107
(22)
()
5,444,413
2,879,861
2,564,552
4,371,477
2,686,138
1,685,339
3,314,058
2,021,605
1,292,453
18.6
(2)
(2)
14.4
7.6
6.8
13.3
8.2
5.1
11.2
6.9
4.4
6.
Unskilled workers
6-a. Farm laborers
.
6-b, c. Laborers except farm
6-b. Factory and bldg. const, laborers
6-c. Other laborers
6-d. Servant classes
10,291,654
3,362,430
5,436,743
(2)
9,656,104
3,162,121
5,819,073
2,963,036
2,856,037
674,910
10,080,983
4,132,237
5,356,464
2,559,451
2,797,013
592,282
26.1
8.5
13.8
(2)
1,492,481
10,747,154
3,606,736
6,116,299
3,246,312
2,869,987
1,024,119
3.8
28.3
9.5
16.1
8.6
7.6
2.7
29.4
9.6
17.7
9.0
8.7
2.1
34.2
14.0
18.2
8.7
9.5
2.0
12,574,078
10,679,048
8,429,707
7,788,826
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
1,535,452
1,447,775
988,255
718,548
12.2
13.6
11.7
9.2
531,838
153,763
179,883
198,192
505,640
262,645
111,850
131,145
422,957
265,577
79,762
77,618
396,146
273,140
67,993
55,013
4.2
1.2
1.4
1.6
4.7
2.5
1.0
1.2
5.0
3.2
0.9
0.9
5.1
3.5
0.9
0.7
3,655,274
3,071,507
2,191,422
1,081,181
29.1
28.8
26.0
13.9
103,812
81,145
101,554
96,733
0.8
0.8
1.2
1.2
2,260,256
1,666,191
594,065
2,175,257
1,632,203
543,054
28.5
23.7
15.7
8.0
26.8
19.8
7.0
27.9
21.0
7.0
3,320,961
1,274,865
105,493
87,645
17,848
1,940,603
25.2
2.7
1.0
28.5
5.4
1.5
1.2
0.3
21.6
29.2
8.3
2.4
2.0
0.4
18.6
42.6
16.4
1.4
1.1
0.2
24.9
.
Female. .
1.
Professional persons
2.
Proprietors, managers, and" officials
2-a. Farmers (owners and tenants)
2-b. Wholesale and retail dealers
2-c. Other proprietors, managers, and officials
3.
Clerks and kindred workers. .
4.
Skilled workers and foremen...
5.
Semiskilled workers
5-a. Semiskilled workers in manufacturing
5-b. Other semiskilled workers
3,582,205
(22)
()
2,528,298
1,676,044
852,254
6.
Unskilled workers
6-a. Farm laborers
6-b, c. Laborers, except farm
6-b. Factory and bldg. const, laborers
6-c. Other laborers
6-d. Servant classes
3,165,497
345,761
129,750
3,044,683
580,465
156,401
125,180
31,221
2,307,817
„
.....
2,465,263
695,712
199,871
2
168,698
2
31,173
2,689,986
1,569,680
1 1940 figures include the distribution of 402,270 workers deducted from the semiskilled group.
8 Comparable figures for 1940 not available.
()
()
(2)
(»)
(22)
()
(22)
()
21.4
>
w
o
HH
X
H
>
w
to
o
Table IIA.—Occupations of Women Workers, 1870 to 19401
[Persons 14 years old and oyer in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 2 ]
1930 s
1940 <
Adjustment
factor 3
Occupations, 1940 classification
1920 «
1900 5
1910 s
1890 s
6
00
1880 s
o
1870 6
S
w
PROFESSIONAL A N D SEMIPROFESSIONAL WORKERS ^
Dancers, dancing teachers, and chorus girls. . .
0.99
O
O
O
7,621
292
10,833
1,040
4,382
256
26,825
18,204
14,120
s 7,093
Proprietors, managers, and officials, theaters
and motion pictures
Proprietors, managers, and officials, miscellaneous amusement and recreation
1.01
1,411
1,078
1,270
298
0.98
2,511
1,261
430
1,020
Architects
Artists and art teachers
1.20
1.01
497
21,147
455
21,860
164
14,763
362
15,583
Authors
Librarians
Attendants and assistants, library15
0.99
0.99
1.09
4,606
34,546
16,668
5,393
26,785
1,486
2,976
13,367
1,321
2,037
5,771
3,043
1.00
1.02
51
1,734
66
1,943
8
1,748
(16)
29
62
18
12
11
1
231 |
101
224
228
74
59
74 J
1.00
0.95 /\
3,308
26,054 |
48,369
3,276
43,793
1,787
26,322
685
8,623
2,928
}
476,864
Aviators
Chemists, assayers, and metallurgists
Civil engineers17
Surveyors
Electrical engineers17
Mechanical engineers17
Industrial engineers17
Chemical engineers17
Mining and metallurgical engineers17.
. 1}
1
J
1
\f
/
\
/
Clergymen
Religious workers
Social and welfare workers.
j
I
11
j
591
5
IB 6
2,588
3,184
1
1p
s 2,027
9 780
26
10,923
20
2,082
1
io 418
12
1
2,752
13 323
40
49
253
f
u s
43
1
30
j
J
19
0.99
1.00
20,124
802,264
19,930
853,967
9,974
635,207
Dentists
1.04
1,067
1,338
1,902
1,304
2°
23
3,204
oCA
H
B
P
O
a
1
21
3
[
C
0
sC/3
51
\
i
College presidents, professors, and instructors22
Teachers (n.e.c.26)
120
11,131
8 4,652
U
w
2°
1,086
325,485
« 244,467
839
350
2 °157
2»
65
P
o
w
GO
2*
153,372
« 84,548
63
25
27 308
Editors and reporters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . , . ,
funeral directors and embalmers. . . . . .
Lawyers and judges
Musicians and music teachers
1.24
1.00
1.00
1.00 i
15,890
2,174
4,447
66,256
14,786
1 940
3,385
79,611
7,105
1 127
1/738
72,678
5,184
813
558
84,478
2,719
323
(28)
52,359
Photographers
0.60
5,063
5,020
4,271
2,978
Chiropractors.
..
Healers and medical service workers (n.e.c.)...
1.00
1.00
1 911
9^950
2 713
9'774
7,902
4,672
Technicians and assistants, laboratory
Technicians, except laboratory
Trained nurses and student nurses
.
1.00
22,651
821
362,897
(28)
( 2S )
288,737
(28)
( 28 )
143,664
(28)
(28)
76,508
/ 2 s)
)2s)
11 046
26,670
10,327
( 2 »)
( 2 »)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
( 2 8)
(28)
Professional workers (n.e.c.)
Semiprofessional workers (n.e.c.)
1
/
27 5 7
2,148
1,101
83
; C28),
34,519
(28)
1,321
357
55
,(28),
13,182
(28)
271
7,387
4,557
2,432
( 28 )
( 28 )
si 4,206
2
( 2S )
C28)
(28)
si 1,464
13
43
20
(28)
29 5,806
(28)
13137
30
(28)
(28)
31
1,154
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
544
•d
m
a
d
PROPRIETORS, M A N A G E R S , A N D
OFFICIALS, E X C E P T F A R M 3 2
Inspectors, United States..
Inspectors, State.
Inspectors, city
Inspectors, county and local.
Officials, United States
Officials, State.
.•-...)
'
385
473
266
34 '
3 654
1*756
,„v
<33)
Officials, county and l o c a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advertising agents.
Officials, lodge, society, union, etc
I—I
33
11,046
33
6,203
(28)
333,522
28)
(28)
C28)
.
£
w.
t-*
w
c/a
8,069
1.02
>
(28).
3,062
3,742
4,405
(28)
2,205
'( 2 8)
2 009
'(28)
( 28 )
" 2,925
(28)
(28)
34
1,303
34
(28)
(28)
248
(28)
(28)
Proprietors, managers, and officials (n.e.c.),
by industry:
Inspectors, mining
Construction...
Manufacturing
...
......
Automobile storage, rental, and repair
services
Railroads (includes railroad repair shops)
Miscellaneous transportation...
0.93
0.94
0.91
1.17
See footnotes at end of T a b l e I I B , pp. 2 4 0 to 252.
19
1,258
18,282
910
281
512
•
550
13,634
490
27
130
1
j
3819 ^
i B Ls,546
35 «
.«6,636
86
3»763
36 533
36 481
36
261
to
o
CD
Table IIA.—-Occupations of Women Workers, 1870 to 1940
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor3
1940 4
1920 s
1930 5
1910 5
to
I—k
o
Continued
1900 s
1890 5 s
2]
1880 s
1870 b
§
w
a
ch
PROPRIETORS, MANAGERS, A N D OFFICIALS, E X C E P T F A R M 32 —Cont'd
Proprietors, managers, and officials (n.e.c.)»
by industry—Cont'd
Street railways and bus lines
Taxicab service
Trucking service
Communication
Inspectors, communication and utilities...
f
0.95 {
I
0.98
0.91
Utilities
Warehousing and storage
Eating and drinking places
1.32
1.05
Food stores, except dairy products
Dairy products stores and milk retailing. . |
Meat cutters, except slaughter and
packing house.
0.96
General merchandise stores
Apparel and accessories stores, except
shoes.
Shoe stores
Milliners (not in factory)
Drug stores
Pharmacists. .
Limited price variety stores.
Furniture and house furnishings stores. . .
Motor vehicles and accessories retailing. . .
Hardware and farm implement s t o r e s . . . .
Jewelry stores
Country buyers and shippers of livestock
and other farm products
Fuel and ice retailing
Filling stations
Household appliance and radio s t o r e s . . . .
Lumber and building material retailing...
Liquor stores
Retail florists
Miscellaneous retail stores
o
1
ik
597
185
66.104
[
[
66,400
1,872 |
1,104
f
13,635
552
262
219
2,992
1,031
533
300
1,381
122
(28)
(28)
(28)
82
42,008
57
16,975
33
12,607
37
44,037
35,123
37
30,285
0
n
n
d
(28)
(28)
37
6,954
10,287
(28)
37
<28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
4,804
( 28 )
38 2,262
6,217
4,464
40 1,387
39
754
66,239
85,986
136,060
90,147
62,265
" 4,532
42 8 64
2,499 }
3.336
4,512
3,099
2,118
1,153
719
118
33
0.98
1.05
1.19
0.97
1.00
2.905
2,503
1,244
1,582
1,300
1,400
1,958
614
894
888
1,048
727
169
698
781
1,016
584
62
767
559
2.71
1.00
0.76
549
1,300
4,838
920
1,504
1,225
4,112
16,639
285
727
1,592
43 220
536
<3 837
665
16,944
12,852
1.00
1
i
1
[
1
164 )
133 |
839
3,251
835
0.98
1.01
|
I[
Jf
1
f
28,526
921
11,685
24,930
I\
1
o
HH
a
C/3
H
£
O
d
O
S3
Cfl
W
e
w
17,216
16,624
5,626
44 3,524
o
>
a
M
CO
Not specified retail trade
Wholesale trade"
I
J
1
I
9,454 I
7,072 j
Banking and other
finance.
.... )
Salesmen, finance, brokerage, and comV
mission
firms
J
f
0.98 j
[
6,362 ]
f
420 J
8,728
5,008
2,269
(28)
(28)
(28)
(«)
Insurance
Business services
Miscellaneous repair services and hand
trades
Hotels and lodging places
Miscellaneous personal services
Other industries and services
Industry not reported..
1.12
2,832
3,196
1,962
(28)
343
(26)
140
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
257
21,879
1,2 76
12,831
2,823
(28)
20,080
(28)
(28)
( 28 )
(28)
16,395
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
9,898
(28)
(28)
6,120
2,478
8
487,538
1,106
9
362,715
1,294
5,101
179
8,125
434
1.16
I
J
j
(28)
16,513
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
46 1,024
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
3
189,027
991
74,895
259
28,050
48 111
3,798
1,658
228
so 104,450
50 45,553
50 2,315
61
7,627
s2 1,148
53 321
CLERICAL, SALES, A N D KINDRED
WORKERS
Express messengers and railway mail clerks
Bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers
Mail carriers....
1.01
0.98
137
475,685
1,544
Messengers, errand, and office girls
Telegraph messengers
...•'.
0.57
1.00
2,964
308
Stenographers, typists, and secretaries
Shipping and receiving clerks.
Clerical and kindred workers (n.e.c.)
Office machine operators
1
}•
J
f 1,096,421 1
1
1.00 •{
9,128 }• 1,450,883 1 i nqo oqa
[
702,531 j
f
0.98
55,074
32,064 J
Telegraph operators
Radio and wireless operators
Telephone operators.
0.70
1.00
1.00
8,448
117
197,062
11,285 1
46 /
235,259
Agents (n.e.c.)
Credit men.
Purchasing agents and buyers (n.e.c.)
County agents and farm demonstrators
Collectors, bill and account
0.89
1.0Q
1.00
1.21
1.02
8,881
3,723
2,733
4,596
3,496
5,877 )
1,894 1
2,039 [
1,327 j
2,995
Attendants, physicians' and dentists' offices...
Hucksters and peddlers.....
Newsboys
Insurance agents and brokers
0.94
1.00
1.00
0.98
29,702
2,498
^1,597
13,321
Real estate agents and brokers
57
]
Proprietors, managers, and officials, real
Managers and superintendents, building . . . . . j
f
See footnotes at end of Table I I B , pp. 240 to 252.
54 R
6,434 }
78
386,765
5,060 |
15,327
5,753
88,262
54 2,198
I
J
48
1,815
29,208 J
(28)
4« 838
2,785
1,935
24,720
1,790
417
12,694
10,669
1,909
326
4,981
4,658
3,785
273
2,486
2,915
69
2,259
72
(28)
(28)
33,058
9,576
3,044
(28)
(28)
(28)
10,674 |
^
[
n 802
'
178,379
(28)
(28)
(28)
48 4,29 5
48 24
48
75
(28)
(28)
4» 893
48 5
46
930
48
>
•tf
w
a
o
i—i
£
w
r
w
C/2
17
(28)
2,492
76
65 1,543
7
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
to
h-*
h-k
to
H—±
to
Table IIA.—Occupations of Women Workers, 1870 to 19401—Continued
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 2 ]
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor3
1940 4
1920
1930 5
1910 s
5
1890 5 6
1900 s
1880 5
1870 5
CLERICAL SALES A N D
K I N D R E D WORKERS ^-—Continued
o
£
w
CO
Demonstrators
1.04
"Clerks" in stores 58
Buyers and department heads, store. . . . . . . .
0.99
1.00
Attendants,fillingstation, parking lot, garage,
Saleswomen (n.e.c.)*58.
^
183
8,703
219,321
18,321
18,099
14,064
U
5,970
161,516
558,918
3
3,311
5
3,255
168,693
110,478
261,793
364,952
3
48 2,214
48
2
1,663
3
48 1,043
12
48 5 68
59 31,738
«o 9,027
>
59 216,810
59 98,820
H
o
4,026
580,039
•
O
o
o
a
I
H
CRAFTSMEN, FOREMEN, A N D
KINDRED WORKERS 6 1
EC
&
(28)
Blacksmiths, forgemen, and hammermen
Boilermakers
•
272
73
(28)
(28)
Brickmasons, stonemasons, and tile setters....
Cement and concrete finishers
506
148
7
7
481
2,335
6,732
7
50
6,488
8
171
1,201
8
38
457
38
19
« 86
Cabinetmakers 63
Carpenters
Decorators and window dressers 6 6 ..
1.04
816
|
620
Electricians.
Power station operators.
Foremen (n.e.c.), by industry:
Construction. . .
Manufacturing:
Food and kindred products
Textiles, textile products, and apparel... .... . . . . .
........
Lumber, furniture, and lumber products
Paper, paper products, and printing. .
389
}
(28)
8
(28)
6
155
ho
64
6 7
531
308
W9
n
65 189
(28)
48
(28)
(28)
62 5
S3
1*80
(28)
62 712
(28)
103
3,516
3,291
1.00
16,195
11,116
1.00
1.01
498
2,188
406
2,160
c«
W
£
O
w
n
>
5U
1.01
0
a
o
o
w
Crt
" 34,670
« 23,277
(28)
(28)
(28)
28)
Chemicals, and petroleum and coal
products....
Metal industries
_ Manufacturing industries (n.e.c.) . . . .
Railroads (includes railroad repair shops).
1.16
0.98
0.98
1.00
1,310
2,675
5,224
101
1,199
3,129
6,625
77
37
38
c m
0,111
374
6734^70
67 23,277
(28)
(28)
(28)
20
598
1,913
5
( 28 )
( 28 )
12
(28)
( 28 )
18
(28)
( 28 )
2
(28)
( 28 )
( 28 )
(28)
( 28 )
( 28 )
(28)
( 28 )
(28)
(28)
(28)
75
402
( 28 )
( 28)
( 28 )
( 28 )
(28)
( 28 )
(28)
(2»)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
114
81
1,918
1,76 7
( 28 )
95
( 28 )
( 28)
(28)
( 28)
( 28 )
( 28 )
(28)
( 28 )
(28)
(28)
(28)
( 28 )
(28)
(28)
(28)
( 28 )
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
Machinists 70
T oolmakers, and die makers and s e t t e r s . . . . . .
Mechanics and repairmen, airplane
Mechanics and repairmen, automobile
Mechanics and repairmen, railroad and car
5,084
414
117
1,529
77
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
28)
Mechanics and repairmen (n.e.c.)
3,059
Opticians and lens grinders and polishers
1,011
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
3,635
2,770
1,904
1,380
355
Business and repair services
Miscellaneous transportation.
Wholesale and retail trade
Floormen and floor managers, store
Industry not reported
.
\
J
Street Railways and bus lines
Government....
Other industries and services.
212
80
2,649
2 221
'943
1 no /
\
1.03
1.00
..
Heat treaters, annealers, and temperers
I nspectors, scalers, and graders, log and lumber
Inspectors (n.e.c.), by industry:
Construction..............
Transportation, except railroad.....
Wholesale and retail trade
Miscellaneous industries and services
1.00
69
Painters, construction and maintenance
Painters, except construction and mainte-
3,311
n g n n p 7l
1 HQ
fi
87Q
\
J
169 )
[
K A97
(28)
(28)
(28)
Plumbers and gas and steam
Roofers and slaters.
1.00
fitters.
See footnotes at end of Table I I B , pp. 240 to 252.
286
45
39
24
57
40
710
128
1
3
553
105
...
.
20U
44
1U1
(28)
123
2
44.
3
SI
G
i—i
X
w
t-1
w
19
(28)
(28)
. . . .
w
82 96
82
Pattern and model makers, except paper
Piano and organ tuners
>
.
to
h-i
CO
to
h-*
Table IIA.—Occupations of Women Workers, 1870 to 19401—Continued
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 2 ]
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor 3
CRAFTSMEN, FOREMEN, A N D
K I N D R E D WORKERS "—Continued
Stationary engineers
.
Granemen, hoistmen, and construction
machinery operators. .
Firemen, except locomotive and fire
636
397
Oilers, machinery
Structural and ornamental metal workers
1940 *
0.79*
)
|
1910 s
1920 5
1930 5
21
72 A3
1900 5
73
1890
6
6
1880
e
1870 5
c/5
g
74
177
7* U7
563
235
1
Ul
13
u
23
262
2,014
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
1,860
1,791
1,021
1,705
1,381
O
O
n
a
(28)
(28)
428
141
63
24
133
1.00
/
1.01 \
77
240
73
1,609
374 }
75
33
Asbestos and insulation workers
Blasters and powdermen.
Brakemen, railroad
Baggagemen, transportation
Conductors, railroad
Conductors, bus and street railway
Inspectors, railroads (includes railroad repair
shops)
Laborers, railroads (includes railroad repair
shops)
.
Laborers, street railways and bus lines
}
Laborers, trucking service
Teamsters81
H
O
OPERATIVES A N D K I N D R E D WORKERS; LABORERS, EXCEPT FARM ™
Apprentices:76
Carpenters' apprentices
Electricians' apprentices
Plumbers' apprentices
Building and hand trades apprentices
(n.e.c.)
Apprentices, printing trades
Machinists' apprentices 79
Apprentices, specified trades (n.e.c.)
|
Apprentices, trades not specified
o£
5
7
10
353
6
3,714
(28)
(28)
77 8
8
5
28
1,237
15 ]
I
8° 8,221
(28)
78 3
77 J
77 £
77
77
77
1 9
941
14,706
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
f
j
78
78 U2
87
78
63
6,667
(28)
(28)
H
ffi
9
(28)
2
13
152
12
7,892
3,896
(28)
(28)
f28)
(28)
62)
0.97
f
0.84 \
17
75
IS
1,717
171 1
216
160
3,219
1
285
82 U7 [
(28)
(28)
<
o
>
136
U6
82 1,059
a
o
O
w
253
6,685
V
O
B
3
174
i
u
w
3,337
82
CO
284
83 2,130
83 1,526
84 437
86 162
Motormen, street, subway, and elevated
J
Operatives, railroads (includes railroad repair
524
Operatives, street railways and bus lines
1
q^
/
Switchmen, railroad
Watchmen (crossing) and bridge tenders
Ticket, station, and express agents
\
J
a q7
"
1.05
J
\
9 7
131
2,214
Chainmen, rodmen, and axmen, surveying.. „.
Chauffeurs and drivers, bus, taxi, truck, and
Filers, metal. .
Fishermen and oystermen
Fruit and vegetable graders and packers, except in c a n n e r y 8 8 . . . . .
Gardeners, except farm, and groundskeepers. .
Linemen and servicemen, telegraph, telephone,
and p o w e r . . . .
Foremen, communication
Laborers, communication
Operatives, communication
Lumbermen, raftsmen, and woodchoppers
}
^ {
1.00
1.09
0.65
...
Motormen (vehicle), mine, factory, logging
camp, etc
Photographic process workers
Sailors and deck hands, except U . S. N a v y . .
Boatmen, canalmen, and lock keepers
Officers,pi lots, pursers, and engineers, ship
Welders and
flame-cutters
...
See footnotes at end of Table I I B , pp. 240 to 252
231
86 194
1
/
oRO
545
50
1,974
2,507
1,348
( 28 )
(28)
79
Mine operatives and laborers
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.), nonmanufacturing industries and services:
Agriculture, forestry, and
fishery
Automobile storage, rental, and repair
services
Business and miscellaneous repair services
Construction
Finance, insurance, and real estate
Government.
1
lil»
}
82821>248
86
82
53
(28)
(28)
(28)
199
« 482
48 124
(28)
<28)
(28)
48 105
465
438
(28)
209
(28)
379
476
(28)
462
(28)
263
( S8 )
65
(28)
14 3 6
14,972
1,852
6,695
(28)
3,364
(28)
2,221
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
1,015
221
70
204
52
60
27
493
351
25
77
274
179
279
567
93
2,547
199
39
5,831
217
91
117
2,233
(28)
(28)
8
(28)
4
(28)
(28)
32
(28)
93 3
(28)
3,604
(28)
C28)
195
2,476
342
306
2,800
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
m
61
144
1
j
303
W
669
O
1—4
X
225
89 fa
si 1,066
398
91 8^.
(28)
12
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
\28)
(28)
(28)
93 !
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)'
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
89
76
(90)
(28)
(28)
(28)
( 2S )
(28)
>
•d
6U
(28)
(28)
(2S)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
j
(28)
»2 56
(28)
s
E
C/>
to
HJL
CJl
Table IIA.—Occupations of Women Workers, 1870 to 19401—Continued
to
h-4
[Persons 14 years old and oyer in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 8 ]
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor 3
1940 4
1930 «
1920 s
1910 «'
1900 *
1890
5 6
1880
w
6
1870 5
5
w
OPERATIVES A N D K I N D R E D
WORKERS; LABORERS, E X C E P T
FARM 75—Continued
c/5
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.), nonmanufacturing industries and
services—Continued
Hotels and miscellaneous personal services.
Miscellaneous t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . .
Warehousing and storage.
Wholesale and retail trade
Industry not reported
1,726
256
5,367
441
1,158
49,490
6,102
1.17
1.04
Finance, insurance, and real estate.... . . .
Government
Hotels and miscellaneous personal services
Professional and related s e r v i c e s . . . . . . . . .
Utilities
Warehousing and storage. , . . . . . . . ; . . . . .
Wholesale and retail trade
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
1,797
C28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
2,402
(28)
28
( )
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
229
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
H
Q
®
6
O
a
o
1.57
Business and miscellaneous repair services
Construction15.
.
Industry not reported
Longshoremen and stevedores.. . < . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous transportation
(28)
167
O
n
o
a
H
Laborers (n.e.c.), nonmanufacturingindustries
and services:
Agriculture, forestry, and fishery .
Amusement, recreation, and related
services
Automobile storage, rental, and repair
services
Garage laborers and car washers and
greasers
...
o
1.01
1.02
0.95
0.79
303
"174
94 9
259
(28)
(28)
(28)
6,846
5,441
422
183
173
11,522
10
23
15,552
323
98 124
16,039
149
511
451
1,030
419
344
8,513
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
469
7,492
675
6,764
606
3,312
j
„
I
448
1
1,653
}
B
C/5
44
98 137
(28)
95 74,756
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
95 23,422
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
96 27,658
(28)
97 7,414
w
<
w
u
w
o
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
>
o
M
ca
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.) and
laborers (n.e.c.), manufacturing:
Bakers........
Bakery products, operatives
Bakery products, laborers
Canning and preserving fruits, vegetables
and sea food, operatives. . .
Canning and preserving fruits, vegetables
and sea food, laborers
'
Confectionery, operatives.
Confectionery, laborers
Dairy products, operatives"
Dairy products, laborers"
M e a t products, operatives
M e a t products, laborers
Grain-mill products, operatives
Miscellaneous food industries, operatives. .
Grain-mill products, laborers
Miscellaneous food industries, laborers
Millers, grain, flour, feed, etc.. .
Beverage industries, operatives..
Beverage industries, laborers
.
\
J
\
J
0 94
1 05
i 09
10,517
21,854
975
8,381
16,064
1,718
1.02
31,299
l 05
1 08
1 36
0*94
114
0 99
1 01
6,155
32,090
1,931
5,739
762
19,704
4,324
2,512
10,567 |
414
|
1,104
81
8
•
1.00
/
1
J
1
4,317
12,162
1,576
4,492
6,227
823
16,982
9,720
4,236
^
6,440
29,231
2,002
4,113
1,043
9,907
3,698
4,572
33,877
2,973
2,580
1,158
8,004
4,153
1,281
18 722
l)541
501
146
2,381
1,446
&
11,244
7,092
4,870
3,407
2,510
1,374
40
7
59
X , 563
}
1,077
613
135
19
l[Hl
}
43,497
27,991
10,868
4,290
^
0
co
19,713
10,169
4,503
6,625
962
751
222
674
235
Tobacco manufactures, operatives. . .
Tobacco manufactures, laborers. . . . .
0 99
1 13
57,218
4,027
67,269
7,330
83,120
15,664
Cotton manufactures, operatives.
Cotton manufactures, laborers
1 01
0 99
179,015
4,523
147,140
8,989
150,677
16,502
1 4 5)709
}
121,809
93,895
92,394
Silk and rayon manufactures, operatives103
Silk and rayon manufactures, laborers 103 . .
0.99
1.28
47,118
1,137
72,953
2,762
72,040
3,494
41;423
}
32,437
20,663
9,211
K n i t goods, operatives
Knit goods, laborers
0 99
1 05
123,026
1,670
88,905
3,704
79,875
5,607
1.29
1.00
0.97
764
5,965
213
379
5,666
305
169
5,582
698
1.08
12,380
13,093
11,215
1.37
21,267
1
727
811
788
455
J
0 97
59,818
47,588
59,864
50,494
j 04
1,204
1,870
4,149
2,127
.
Dyers
Dyeing and finishing textiles, operatives..
Dyeing and finishing textiles, laborers
Carpets, rugs, and other floor coverings,
operatives
..
Carpets, rugs, and other floor coverings,
laborers.
Woolen and worsted manufactures, operatives
Woolen and worsted manufactures,
laborers
.
See footnotes at end of Table IIB, pp. 240 to 252.
£
>
0 97
1 00
7
100 2,460
102
w
O
t—t
X
65,486
£
w.
2,302
w
t*
c/i
^3)717
}
34,145
20,602
7,781
101,971
844 |
5,203 )
578 J
2,964
3,343
1,803
"1,310
15,476
11,616
7,674
™ 5,948
to
<1
Table IIA.—-Occupations of Women Workers, 1870 to 19401—Continued
to
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and oyer in 1870 to 1930 s ]
00
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor3
1930
1940 *
5
1920
5
1910
1900 5
5
1890 5 6
1880 &
1870 8
§
M
OPERATIVES A N D KINDRED
WORKERS: LABORERS, EXCEPT
FARM75—Continued
OO
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.), and
laborers (n.e.c.), manufacturing—Continued
Miscellaneous textile goods, operatives. . .
Miscellaneous textile goods, laborers
Miscellaneous fabricated textile products,
|
Not specified textile mills, operatives
Miscellaneous fabricated textile products,
|
laborers
Not specified textile mills, laborers.......
Apparel and accessories, operatives110 . . . .
Apparel and accessories, laborers111.
Tailoresses114
Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in
factory)115...............
Hats, except cloth and millinery,
operatives111
Hats, except cloth and millinery,
laborers111
Sawyers
Furniture and storefixtures,operatives" . .
Furniture and store fixtures, laborers"....
Sawmills and planing mills, operatives". .
Miscellaneous wooden goods, operatives" 1
Sawmills and planing mills, laborers"....
Miscellaneous wooden goods, laborers"... \
Pulp, paper, and paperboard mills,
operatives . . .
Pulp, paper, and paperboard mills,
laborers
;
Paperboard containers and boxes,
operatives118.
Paperboard containers and boxes,
laborers118
o
21,081
1,104
19,463
1,515
18,316
»°7 16,440
1.02
1.14
10,273
597
12,268
584
0.49 |
1
30,277
18,286
21,657
0.92 {
I
674
401
1,633
108 1,820
1,213
0.92
1.04
0.98
545,414
4,174
15,717
305,001
6,505
21,371
230,731
6,000
31,191
202,362
4,561
39,997
1.23
162,247
194,251
289,688
550,745
106
0.98
4,684
9,513
12,557
14,002
0.68
51
128
155
212
1.00
0.97
1.07
/
1.30 \
/
0.85 I
311
11.011
958
1,467
14,076 1
1,610
2,469 1
80
8.831
1,585
12,805
9
6.607
2,859
»« 11,610
19
3.593
566
"6 11,306
5,006
6,241
2,658
0.99
17,243
13,781
13,215
10,474
0.97
1,730
2,290
2,403
1,386
1.03
20,625
8,773
13,776
13,447
1.07
1,715
643
1,052
655
73,369
42,420
71,592
»m 27,163
O
n
o
cj
•a
§
HH
o
|
Cfl
I
671,240
584,408
|
10,234
8,843
112
389,231
216,616
6,357
4,637
H
33
P
O
cj
O
X
c/>
W
£
7,898
6,918
1,138
534
z
o
w
o
>
G
w
Cfl
27,261
22,444
14,126
120 6,242
Miscellaneous paper and pulp products,
operatives
...
Miscellaneous paper and pulp products,
laborers......
Printing, publishing, and allied industries,
operatives..
Printing, publishing, and allied industries,
laborers.
Compositors and typesetters
Electrotypers and stereotypers
Engravers, except photoengravers
Photoengravers and lithographers
1.05
13,832
11,171
9,006
6,941
1.12
902
956
906
516
1.06
31,721
32,239
34,498
31,089
1,059
8,005
1,658
10,064
2,089
11,080
1,636
13,770
19
942
10
759
100
1,045
1.20
0.98
\
/
1 03 1
*
\
78
669 |
493
Paints, varnishes, and colors, operatives. .
Paints, varnishes, and colors, laborers. . . .
1.00
1.06
1,738
168
1,031
163
835
174
628
124
Rayon and allied products, operatives103..
Rayon and allied products, laborers103... .
0.95
1.05
10,407
427
10,310
537
(122)
(l22)
(122)
(122)
0.99
22,214
16,686
17,733
13,119
Miscellaneous chemical industries,
operatives. :
Miscellaneous chemical industries,
laborers.....
Petroleum refining, operatives
Petroleum refining, laborers
1.02
0.90
1.02
Miscellaneous petroleum and coal
products, operatives
Miscellaneous petroleum and coal
products, laborers . . .
3,194
597
234
}
(28)
(28)
(28)
1,951
2,140
862
403
2,602
445
174
116
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
55
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
23,691
2,500
20,437
3,772
18,081
4,742
10,006
1,586
7,300
6,391
2,037
1,832
39,486
33,677
21,007
9,645
1,765
295
202
6,119
3,527
2,935
123
u
t—I
X
123 6 3
65
646
258
257
774
]
1.00
97,891
81,551
73,412
59,266
|
1.05
3,089
4,979
5,267
2,441
J
(28)
2,457
486
159
0.99
|
1.03
4,036
3,706
3,737
1,963
1
0.92
412
472
715
282
J
1.00
23,729
13,356
14,140
11,328
1.12
781
725
1,241
590
1
J
See footnotes at end of Table I IB, pp. 2 4 0 to 252.
4,397
"3
M
Shoemakers and repairers (not in factory).
Footwear industries, except rubber,
operatives.
Footwear industries, except rubber,
laborers
...
9,322
3,427
0.96
1.20
Leather products, except footwear,
operatives....
Leather products, except footwear,
laborers.
24,640
>
Rubber products, operatives.
Rubber products, la borers
Leather: tanned, curried, and finished,
operatives......
Leather: tanned, curried, and finished,
laborers...
32,938
w
r1
w
on
744
to
CD
to
to
o
Table IIA.-—Occupations of Women Workers, 1870 to 19401—Continued
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 2 ]
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor3
1940 4
1930 s
1920 s
1910 s
1890 5 6
1900 6
1880 5
1870 s
Cement, and concrete, gypsum, and
plaster products, operatives
Cement, and concrete, gypsum, and
1.14
245
372
236
147
0.88
120
140
147
134
81
87
21
1
10
5
3
68
23
Cut-stone and stone products, operatives
Cut-stone and stone products, laborers. . .
(28)
|
5 \
150
68
US
(28)
(28)
28)
12,899
1,314
7,637
1,816
7,552
2,575
4,169
986
Pottery and related products, operatives. .
Pottery and related products, laborers
0.96
0.75
9,318
764
6,459
682
4,862
845
4,295
449 }
2,764
1,870
554
Structural clay products, operatives
Structural clay products, laborers
1.07
1.04
1,509
527
1,443
781
674
558
811 }
646
507
153
72
2,515
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
380
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
10,615
9,460
5,793
1,277
1,933
1,151
13,562
10,555
Miscellaneous nonmetallic minera l
products, operatives
Miscellaneous nonmetallic mineral
products, laborers
Nonferrous metal primary products,
operatives. .
|
Miscellaneous nonferrous metal products,
J
operatives
Clocks, watches, jewelry, and silverware,
Operatives127
Clocks, watches, jewelry, and silverware,
J
2,726
1,778
$
HH
1.04
1.04
}
O
O
n
a
•a
o
58
Glass and glass products, operatives". . . .
Glass and glass products, laborers"
Nonferrous metal primary products,
laborers.
Miscellaneous nonferrous metal products,
laborers
o
£
M
OPERATIVES A N D KINDRED
WORKERS; LABORERS, EXCEPT
FARM 75—Continued
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.), and
laborers (n.e.c.), manufacturing—Continued
587
180
C/3
105
H
ta
p
126 82
o
d
o
w
C/5
H
1.33 1
2,353 J
1
6,705
1.39 j
[
304
794
J
0.84
12,923
12,417
0.98
788
684
1,525 j
914
O
W
£
d
M
<Z>
jewelers, watchmakers, goldsmiths, and
silversmiths
Buffers and polishers, metal
Grinders, metal
1,577
2,027
328
2,385
2,305
325
»
133
1
2
9
23
6
11
24
49,266
94 50,843
1,495
2,126
686
1,179
1,581
452
Furnacemen, smeltermen, and pourers
Molders, metkl..
287
445
1
18
Heaters, metal
156
412
Tinsmiths, coppersmiths, and sheet metal
workers.
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling
mills, operatives..
Tin cans and other tinware, operatives. . .
Miscellaneous iron and steel industries,
operatives
Not specified metal industries, operatives..
Agricultural machinery and tractors,
operatives
, [
Office and store machines, equipment,
and supplies, operatives
Miscellaneous machinery, operatives. . . . .
Aircraft and parts, operatives. . . . . . . . . . .
Railroad and miscellaneous transportation
equipment operatives
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling
mills, laborers
Tin cans and other tinware, laborers
Miscellaneous iron and steel industries,
laborers
Not specified metal industries, laborers. . .
Agricultural machinery and tractors,
laborers
Office and store machines, equipment, and
supplies, laborers . . . . .
Miscellaneous machinery, laborers
Aircraft and parts, laborers
Railroad and miscellaneous transportation
equipment, laborers
Automobiles and automobile equipment,
operatives. .
...
Automobiles and automobile equipment,
laborers.........
Ship and boat building and repairing,
operatives
.
Ship and boat building and repairing,
laborers
0.94
1.00
0.87
...
5,285
6,472
100
'
1
31,934
1,936
801
94
26,238
128 21,335
^s 15,232
128 7,668
1235,217
>
w
6,801
14,116
1,152
d
HH
626
f
0 80 i
'
1,301
667
£
w
3,404
146
6,494
9,347
94 5,331
27,766
19,793
13,300
882
2,679
3,389
2,344
132
276
(28)
(28)
(28)
143
27
279
8
106
277
1,252
78
92
1.04
0.95
See footnotes at end of Table I I B , pp. 240 to 252.
}
to
to
h-*
Table IIA.—Occupations of Women Workers, 1870 to 19401—Continued
bO
bO
to
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 9 ]
Adjustment
factor 3
Occupations, 1940 classification
1940 *
1930 s
1920 e
1910 6
1890 s 6
1880 6
1870 «
w
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.) and
laborers (n.e.c.),manufacturing—Continued
Electrical machinery and equipment,
operatives"
Electrical machinery and equipment,
laborers"
0.97-
69,680
43,970
w 26,589
i29 10,740
0.98
4,505
3,469
3,162
1,353
equipment
11,112
equipment
568
industries
60,708
industries
2,966
industries,
industries,
(28)
<y>
| (28)
(28)
O
O
O
(28)
I2*)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(128)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
32,693
(28)
(28)
4,069
(28)
(28)
1 nn
}
Farm laborers (wage workers)130
Farm laborers (unpaid family workers)130
/
1.09 1
0.99
1.00
l3a
137
1
0A7
~~'832 ]
295
262,645
1,050
116,231
251,139
169,610
475,008
265,577
15,631
j
133
890,230
273 142
j
8,475
134
894,722
311,695
l3s
696,670
58,680
229,270
l3*
566,709
l3s
567,169
131
l3®
24,859
430,085
•a
>
H
i—i
O
c/3
z
H
S
P
O
d
o
z
d
w
o
>
G
w
PROTECTIVE SERVICE WORKERS 138
Firemen, fire department
Guards, watchmen, and doorkeepers
Policemen and detectives, government
}
Policemen and detectives, except government.
d
us
cn
W
<
FARMERS A N D FARM MANAGERS,
FARM LABORERS A N D FOREMEN
Farmers (owners and tenants)130
Farm managers130
Farm foremen130
o
§
OPERATIVES A N D K I N D R E D
WORKERS LABORERS, EXCEPT
FARM75—Continued
Scientific and photographic
and supplies, operatives
Scientific and photographic
and supplies, laborers
Miscellaneous manufacturing
(n.e.c.), operatives
Miscellaneous manufacturing
(n.e.c.), laborers
Not specified manufacturing
operatives .
.
Not specified manufacturing
laborers
1900 6
2.17
1.00 1
/
2,364
981 |
732
2,170
1,534
866
629
224 1
187 1
139
1,239
139 393
140 99
140 20
Marshals and constables141....
1.00
130
62
17
2
Sheriffs and bailiffs. .
1.00
383
274
56
3
...
44,702
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
J
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28>
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
SERVICE WORKERS, E X C E P T
PROTECTIVE 1 4 3
Attendants, hospital and other institution
Attendants, recreation and amusement
Ushers, amusement place or assembly
)
J
lated services
Barbers, beauticians, and manicurists
Bartenders
Boarding house and lodginghouse keepers148...
Bootblacks
Charwomen and cleaners.
Cooks, except private family
Housekeepers, private family150
\
Servants, private family150
j
Housekeepers, stewards, and hostesses, except
private family
Servants, except private family
Waitresses, except private family.
1 04
/
I
6,604
4,365 |
3,405
144
2,531
144
209
1.29
587
226
550
506
1.00
218,132
3,220
100,835
372
113,194
33,246
109
113,593
33
22,298
250
140,976
20
23,208
24,960
0.99
0.93
1.01
0 qs
40,153
132,630
/
393,031
\ 1,600,169
(28)
126,005
37
38,120
114,921
|
I
145
J
U6 7 f 2 8 4
w
58,860
85
14®
3,691
146
32,267
145
14®
3,463
(28)
12,190
(28)
(28)
1,584,589
• l51l,333,323
145 4 7
108
147 1,548
(28)
14»
7,052
(28)
>
W
Z
430,656
lSl l,568,626
68,451
191,344
406,096
44,481
127,675
236,574
Elevator operators
Janitors and sextons
1.00
0.98
13,986
39,041
12,359
35,104
Laundresses, private family.
Laundry operatives and laundresses, except
private family
Foremen, personal services
Laborers, laundering, cleaning, and dyeing
services
Operatives, laundering, cleaning, and dyeing
services
Proprietors, managers, and officials, laundering, cleaning, and dyeing services
0.97
194,783
342,938
1.11
1.02
179,667
2,806
169,095
3,165
1.00
4,957
8,931
1.13
25,862
20,703
0.95
9,140
4,139
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
Practical nurses and midwives166
0.99
104,338
141,711
136,057
115,946
96,669
220
u
I—I
1.05
1.17
1.07
See footnotes at end of Table I I B , pp. 240 to 252.
145
3 52
l52 l,302,704
l52 970,257
isa 901,954
X
j
7,337
28,457
25
21,023
463,134
597,524
14,944
8,885
30
7,872
154
338,635
154
(28)
(28)
(28)
2,752
699
1 4 151
109,280
i55 58,683
218,797
(28)
is? 36,818 1
154
(28)
is? 12,819
w
C/3
(28)
158 10,486
to
to
CO
bO
to
tf*
Table IIB.—Occupations of All Workers, 1870 to 1940 1
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930
1940
Adjustment
factor3
Occupations, 1940 classification
4
1930 e
1920 5
1900 s
1910 5
1890 s
6
s]
1870 s
1880 6
o
s
w
PROFESSIONAL A N D S E M I PROFESSIONAL W O R K E R S 7
Dancers, dancing teachers, and chorus girls. ...
1.01
Sports instructors and officials
Proprietors, managers, and officials, theaters
1.04
c/5
19,232
9,162
13,773
6,773
24,546
23,875
94,834
26,841
22,512
19,131
11,775
27,974
19,493
52,847
58,462
•
Proprietors, managers, and officials, miscellaneous amusement and recreation
0.99
44,003
39,449
Architects.
Artists and art teachers16
1.05
1.00
21,976
62,485
23,100
57,265
19,094
35,402
17,444
34,104
0.99
0.99
1.08
14,126
38,607
20,203
12,325
29,317
2,014
6,601
15,144
2,461
4,324
7,349
3,563
1.08
1.02
6,299
60,005
6,585
48,009
1,417
33,600
()6)
16,598
/
1.00 1
0.99
f
1.06 S
|
1.00
I
89,042 j
16,444
55,667
85,543 )
n ono
n,6oo j
9,773
102,086
57,259
64,660
26,806
57,617
39,950
11,970
6,695
6,930
140,077
35,172 j
75,197
145,871
64,797
124,725
42,444
115,658
16,503
62,524
1,044,01.6
33,741
752,055
15,825
595,306
Authors
.
Chemists, assayers, and metallurgists
Civil engineers182
Surveyors
Electrical engineers162
Mechanical engineers 162 .... *
Industrial engineers152
Chemical engineers162.
Mining and metallurgica l engineers162 .
1
• •
Clergymen
Religious workers.
Social and welfare workers.
College presidents, professors, and instructors22
Teachers (n.e.c.)26
t.
Designers
1
i
1
j
0.98
0.97
1.01
1.00
J
1
75,847
1,065,280
13
169
31,508
42,746
4,666
9,049
O
O
n
a
•a
i—
O
8,474
22,496
11,110
24,873
11
|
5,759
[
4,264 j
12
3,544
9,104
6,781
13
4,593
9,024
1,142
161
105
f
{
2,141
4,120
126
14
[
456
212
14,621
J
|
2°
109,405
33442,914
0.99
70,601
70,344
55,590
39,597
29,368
1.00
0.97
23,614
88,191
20,508
77,524
15,410
51,279
11,788
32,315
27 18,564
}
cj
O
EC
19
28,521
19
>«« 7,165
7,132
Crt
W
<
hh
§
2,888
1
}
H
B
P
O
*o 789
2,008
26,017
52,033
15,125 1
15,385 J-
zCD
20
23
86,439
344,813
17,323
27
9,203
o
20
24
63,404
226,032
164
165
44,035
128,265
12,191
166
7,908
2,764
167
1,265
27
W.
£
d
W
c/i
61,694
34,132
160,605
166,779
40,694
24,469
122,519
131,568
40,915
20,734
114,704
140,703
35,745
16,189
26,000
9,891
14,647
5,113
93,096
62,777
30,782
32,809
28,435
26,373
22,361
16,633
8,292
i6S> 16,332 ^
(28) |
170 6,351 %
1.00
1.00
1.00
165,629
6,067
10,869
20,575
153,803
6,117
11,916
18,169
151,132
6,971
132,002
104,805
85,671
i7i 64,414 ^>
(28)
(28)
1.00
1.00
67,158
8,088
371,066
10,957
90,492
80,131
1.19
Photographers..
0.83
1.00
1.00
1.01
Physicians and surgeons.
....
Chiropractors
Healers and medical service workers (n.e.c.)...
Trained nurses and student nurses
168 6,396
46 2,014
63,493
39,590
180,483
161,536
10,357
37,641
Editors and reporters
Funeral directors and embalmers
Lawyers and judges
Musicians and music teachers
1.03
(28)
(2S)
}
144,977 1
5,030
15,069
294,189
11,863
C28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
11,804
8,163
si 4,589
6,494
(28)
82,327
11,652
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
I
>
H*
a>
(28)
149,128
13,494
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
3i 1,537
2,130
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
31
172
1,204
1 171
(28)
(28)
PROPRIETORS, MANAGERS, AND
OFFICIALS, EXCEPT FARM 3 2
Inspectors, United States
Inspectors, State
Inspectors, city
Inspectors, county and local
Officials, United States.
Officials, State.
Officials, city . . .
Officials, county and local .
....
(S3)
.........
Postmasters.
Advertising agents
Officials, lodge, society, union, etc.
Proprietors, managers, and officials (n.e.c.),
by industry:
Inspectors, mining
Construction . . . . .
•;
Manufacturing.
.........
... .
Automobile storage, rental, and repair
services
Railroads (includes railroad repair shops).
Miscellaneous transportation.
Street railways and bus l i n e s . . . . . . . . . . . .
[
Taxicab service.....
Trucking service
Communication
"d
W
33
138,638
1.01
1.14
0.98
0.94
32,001
7,313
125,696
428,328
31,241
6,995
191,064
428,630
0.97
0.97
f
[
80,486
(28)
(28)
\ ;i
26)
u
b-i
X
w
1.02
61,712
32,242
13,303
5,827 1
2,892 \
27,163
23,361
33
>
34,421
0.94
0.97
0.98
53 108,074
H
39,160
35,692
25,764
1.00
See footnotes at end of Table I I B , pp. 240 to 252.
17,386
13,929
12,284
1,254
61,594
20,767
28,754
44,685
>
31,935
(28)
(28)
14,805
173
27,849
(28)
11,971
8,379
628,655
m 586,133
87,460
34,132
10,560
17,398
(28)
(28)
298,286
43,352
26,143
17,490
20,153
11,255
9,786
34 15,328
(
2 8
)
(28)
197,192
34
12,077
34 7,688
(
)
(28)
(28)
2 8
i™ 87,355
(28)
r
B
i76 67,567
10
to
Cn
to
Table IIB.—Occupations of All Workers, 1870 to 1940 ^Continued
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 2]
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor3
1940«
1930 6
1920 5
1910 6
1900 5
1890 6 6
o
1880 5
1870 6
o
§
w
z
PROPRIETORS, MANAGERS, A N D
OFFICIALS, EXCEPT FARM 32—Continued
Proprietors, managers, and officials (n.e.c.),
by industry—Continued
o
Inspectors, communication and utilities
8,249
Warehousing and storage..
Eating and drinking places
1.08
1.08
Food stores, except dairy products
|
(28)
7,599
273,163
7,980
37178,638
f
484,157 j
j
I
156,892 J
General merchandise stores
... ]
Apparel and accessories stores, except 1
shoes
...}
Shoe stores
Milliners (not in factory)
j
[
1.00 \
Pharmacists ' ' "
0-98
ing house
22,082
37
6,861
114,288
(28)
37
(28)
4,744
139,371
37
(»»)
118,829
(28)
37
(28)
94,235
(28)
38
(28)
88,058
427,416
297,770
216,044
218,012
178 141,114
17® 60,200
96,040
294,333
298,139
344,837
198,011
103,009
«70,706
1.00 {
l^g?
104,727
80,157
67,575
57,271
46,375
27,700
Limited price variety stores
Furniture and house furnishings stores...
Motor vehicles and accessories retailing. .
Hardware and farm implement stores
Jewelry stores.
Country buyers and shippers of livestock
and other farm products
Fuel and ice retailing
Filling stations....
Household appliance and radio stores. . . .
Lumber and building material retailing ..
0.98
0.96
1.06
0.94
0.SS
18,214
37,214
80,996
47,087
19,207
1.03
1.00
0.96
40,416
45,706
183,655
21,953
50,713
teflS:::::::::::::::::::::::::
Miscellaneous retail stores
Not specified retail trade.
Wholesale trade 45
1.05
'
''' / " '"'' }
,
177 53,787
494,562
84,730
20,824
12,375 .
I
(28)
(28)
(28)
}
¥du
106,712
61,473
240,686 ,
10,225
34,449
65,197
49,010
23,625
45,307
49,524 '
85,622
w,™
5,849
26,059
30,494
45,997
21,219,
^
4349/753
34,759
4,244
22,509
4,873
45,290
29,662
4352,442
31,827
17,654
is* 17,654
n
o
d
hs
>
H
I—<
o
z
H
ffi
P
O
d
oO
S
C/3
W
<
w
^
,
4077*0
497,763
c ft7
507,513
o
o^qoiq
243,213
w
n
>
181 190,442
o
w
CZi
Banking and other finance
Salesmen, finance, brokerage, and commission firms.
|
Insurance
Business services
Miscellaneous repair services and hand
trades.
.
Hotels and lodging p l a c e s . . . . .
Miscellaneous personal services.
Other industries and services
Industry not reported
f
0.98 <
I
1.16
1.15
125,109
)
}>
J
193,909
131,380
80,159
(28)
(28)
39,735
20,797
33,997
(28)
17,470
( 28 )
11,021
(28)
(28)
(28)
6,722
66,935
5,758
41,399
21,623
(28)
65,375
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
63,920
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
74,180
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
63,017
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
257,429
28,052
20,307
C L E R I C A L , SALES, A N D K I N D R E D
WORKERS47
Express messengers and railway mail clerks.. .
Bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers
Mail carriers
..
1.00
1.01
0.99
22,337
931,308
122,910
25,608
939,954
120,120
25,005
742,035
90,536
22,021
491,567
79,871
Messengers, errand, and office boys and girls..
Telegraph messengers
0.88
1.00
60,740
16,616
79,534
16,176
99,459
9,403
95,071
9,152
2,091,999
1,034,190
50357,080
Stenographers, typists, and secretaries
Shipping and receiving clerks
Clerical and kindred workers (n.e.c.)
Office machine operators
Telegraph operators
Telephone operators
|
.
0.99
f
1,174,886
)
|
1,973,'604
J
i8* 62,753
190,160
i8* 55,263
97,893
44,101
19,158
11,573
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
82,256 1
22,490
28,124 f
4,590 J
43,764
0.93
1.05
1.00
0.99
31,209
56,695
190 66,730
249,322
(
See footnotes at end of Table IIB, pp. 240 to 252.
}
53,579
248,884
Attendants, physicians' and dentists' offices...
Hucksters and peddlers
•••....'
Newsboys
Insurance agents and brokers
Auctioneers
Demonstrators
2,754,030
42,562
208,319
92,341
31,110
33,359
10,721
43,990
1.07
0.88
1.03
I
[
116,990
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
50,687
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
37,321
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
160,968
22,180
48
(28)
75,668
4 8 14,105
A*nc\R
'706
19 A ah
12'447
45
W
182
183
(28)
30,666
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
39,164
7,152
48
m 7 «20
50
219,173
50
64,151
54 1 1 / l f i Q 7
114»by<
}
54AAKQ1 I
44,591 |
\
/
185
29,655
* 5219 450
i» 7 061
*' UDA
(28)
(28)
(28)
4337,797
48 7 > 3 8 8
1884,503
43 860
>
M
36,193 J
G
i—t
X
w
r
w
cn
48
51>996
31,036
36,104
25,814
59,440
38,993
254,358
12,796
52,922
27,961
118,719
5,755
84,436
29,708
87,578
j
(28)
80,481
6,893
(28)
(28)
62,037
5,288
(28)
(28)
56,166
3,374
(28)
256»832
159,574
134,672
C28)
(28)
(28)
(«)
4,442
4,968
3,511
4,511
2,051
1,728
192 2,035
48 968
(28)
36,519
1 91 2,029
(28)
189
]
25,764 f
70^942 J
3,537
10,521
(28)
(28)
w
)
0.79
1.00
0.81
1.00
1.06
0.82
1.01
(28)
48
7AA
63,744
' 64*178
Agents (n.e.c.) . .
Credit men
Purchasing agents and buyers (n.e.c.)
County agents and farm demonstrators
Collectors, bill and account
|
fiq
0.95
Radio and wireless operators...
Real estate agents and brokers57
Proprietors, managers, and officials, real
estate57.
Managers and superintendents, building
I
/
m)
.
3,767
7,759
48
2,471
3,316
48
2,820
2,607
48
to
Table IIB—Occupations of All Workers 1870 to 1940 ^Continued
to
to
00
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 2 ]
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor 3
1940 *
1930
5
1920
5
1910 5
1900
5
1890
5
6
1880
5
1870 5
3
o
s:
w
CLERICAL, SALES, A N D K I N D R E D
WORKERS 47 —Continued
o5
"Clerks" in stores58
Buyers and department heads, store. . . . . . . . . |
Canvassers and solicitors
Traveling salesmen and sales agents
Attendants, filling station, parking lot, garage,
and airport
Salesmen and saleswomen (n e c ) 58
CRAFTSMEN, FOREMEN, A N D
K I N D R E D WORKERS 61
Blacksmiths, forgemen, and hammermen
Boilermakers.
0.98
525,591
72,436 |
96,394 |
632,667 1
I
234,095 |
1 420 100 J
10Q
393,951
2 ,280,921
405,640
379,439
1,361,648
1,094,975
(28)
42,435
Brickmasons, stonemasons, and tile setters
Cement and concrete
finishers
1.00
1.02
141,690
26,682
170,903
15,736
135,076 \
7,804 J
1 R Q ^no
Cabinetmakers63
Carpenters..:
Decorators and window dressers66
1.01
0.99
1.22
58,837
766,213
29,818
58,476
920,132
24,582
45,966
878,505
10,801
42,311
808,949
6,516
227,102 j
22,345 J
277,514
'
210,834
'
Foremen (n.e.c.), by industry:
Construction...
Manufacturing:
Food and kindred products
Textiles, textile products, and apparel
Lumber, furniture, and lumber
products.
Paper, paper products, and printing
Chemicals, and petroleum and coal
products
Metal industries
Manufacturing industries ( n . e . c . ) . . . .
Railroads (includes railroad repair shops).
Business and reoair services
1,052,642
59 666,707
5» 409,742
193 245,627
>
H
>—*
O
87,166
32,982
j
J
59
<z>
0.85
Electricians.......
Power station operators
O
n
o
c:
hj
0 99
f
\
1.03
74,663
45,326
1.02
0.97
30,355
49,073
23,119
43,570
1.00
1.19
23,473
19,469
25,521
19,027
1.12
1.00
0.96
0.99
0.98
22,485
112,939
44,663
49,573
6.164
19,867
109,868
54,403
80,394
8.925
( 28 )
62,975
(28)
26,478
(28)
18,138
(28)
10,855
(28)
194 5,970
149,103
158,918
102,473
i96 90,775
35,975
590,917
3,723
36,274
605,367
(28)
51,161
199 386,689
(28)
2<>° 362,143
1,188
( 28 )
38,047
48
119,039
'
64
50,210
48
14,850
48
H
B
193 43,740
W
O
Q
(28)
B
48 396
C/3
W
<
w
z;
d
w
n
>
l2°i
433,895
2°2
282,961
(28)
(28)
(28)
d
w
C/3
Miscellaneous transportation
Wholesale and retail t r a d e . . . . . . . . .
Floormen and floor managers, store
Industry not r e p o r t e d . . . . . ^
0.87
\
111
1.05
f
\
11,566
I/
4,203
21,931
10,829
11,493
1.06
Street railways and bus lines
11,498
31,951
7,173
7,324
Government .
Other industries and services.
17,155
7,648
10,877
16,558
Heat treaters, annealers, and temperers. . . . . .
Inspectors, scalers, and graders, log and lumber
Inspectors (n.e.c.), by industry:
Loom fixers
Machinists 70 . . .
Tool makers, and die makers and setters . . . . .
Mechanics and repairmen, airplane
Mechanics and repairmen, automobile
Mechanics and repairmen, railroad and car
shop.
Mechanics and repairmen (n.e.c.)...
4,130
6,623
6,177
(28)
(28)
(28).
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(JJ>
(•;> CO
g
1
?28) |1
W
( 5 8 ) 00
(»)
&
(28) J,
00
?28) s
m
m
(38)
m
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
28)
((28)
CO
1,084
(28)'
(28)
(28)
m
5,616
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
0.97
18,639
15,482
12,856
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
1.02
521,093
96,885
28,384
441,845
1,384,483
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
37,669
17,442
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
} 203 3 2 8 , 7 5 1
340,729
278,770
222,111
131,622
204 88,354
25,577
24,973
6,633
47,682
146,821
14,078
21,794
15,977
4,293
35,334
91,294
8,931
12,369
10,918
5,013
6,171
206 2,507
207 4,241
39,002
56,041
7,043
22,083
19,189
4,026
209 23,853
210 11,090
212 2,774
82,813
2l®
(28)
(28)
( )
42,012
Painters, construction and maintenance71. . . . .
Painters, except construction and
maintenance71
0.99
442,659
441,390
1.09
100,726
90,560
Paperhangers
Pattern and model makers, except paper
Piano and organ tuners
Plasterers .
:
Plumbers and gas and steam fitters. .
Roofers and slaters
1.00
1.06
1.00
1.00
0.99
1.00
29,994
33,033
5,219
52,878
210,815
32,720
28,328
31,535
6,823
70,053
235,436
23,636
205 19,390
29,383
7,047
208 38,406
204,651
2 " 11,648
200,095 1
f
120,190 I
302,469
266,028
127,455
39,498
133,659
34,643
151,069
27,319
}
J
1.03
f
[
1.05
1.11
See footnotes at end of T a b l e I I B , pp. 240 to 252.
•a
w
X
H
43,595
12.198
]
>
o
HH
43,998
435,431
1.00
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
Millwrights
Opticians and lens grinders and polishers
Stationary engineers
Cranemen, hoistmen, and construction
machinery operators
Firemen, except locomotive and fire department
Oilers, machinery
4,953
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
5,190
5,226
5,300
13,560
24,694
0.93
Transportation, except railroad
371 658
U
f\J%J%J
(28)
(28)
>
w
r
w
C/>
J
214
(28)
(28)
(28)
217,153
74
116,810
15,554
232,435
74
145,356
74
36,041
fcO
to
CD
to
CO
o
Table IIB.—Occupations of All Workers, 1870 to 1940 "—Continued
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 *]
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor3
1940 «
1930 s
1910 5
1920 s
1900 «
1890 6 «
1880 8
1870 6
o
w
CRAFTSMEN, F O R E M E N A N D
K I N D R E D WORKERS 61 —Continued
<y>
Structural and ornamental metal workers
Upholsterers .
. ..
0.82
(28)
42,191
38,631
42,585
(28)
25,273
(28)
16,581
(28)
24,276
( 28 )
21,046
(28)
8,563
(28)
4,707
O
O
n
c!
OPERATIVES A N D K I N D R E D W O R K ERS; LABORERS, E X C E P T FARM 7 5
Apprentices:76
Carpenters' apprentices
Electricians' apprentices..;
Plumbers' apprentices
Building and hand trades apprentices
(n.e.c.)
Apprentices, printing trades.
Machinists' apprentices.
Apprentices, specified trades (n.e.c.)
Apprentices, trades not specified
§
0.95
0.95
0.96
1.02
0.91
0.80
|
1.09 /
I
14,161
10,020
14,198
26,334 j
n,'478
6,399
6,938
Asbestos and insulation workers . .
Blasters and powdermen.. .
Brakemen, railroad
Baggagemen, transportation
Conductors, railroad
Conductors, bus and street railway . . .
Inspectors, railroads (includes railroad repair
shops)
Laiborers, railroads (includes railroad repair
shops)
Laborers, street railways and bus lines
Laborers, trucking service
Teamsters 81 ...
Locomotive engineers221
Locomotive firemen221
Motormen, street, subway, and elevated
railway.......;
Operatives, railroads (includes railroad repair
shops).
7,428
3,430
5,311
i.oi
1.01
1.00
1.00
1.01
1.00
|
/
1 12 \
0.91
1.10
1.00
68,392
6,099
47,465
17,785
29,496
255,537
10,505
40,204 |
31,643
72,396
48,851
8*
3,931
4,380
5,700
4,565
9,084
7,091
12,078
9,944
10,885
38,135
12,992
10,559
31,570
so 59,780
77
77
77
5,766
2,528
9,507
9,586
11,279
1
\
1
77
74,775
o
5,346
4,439
on
16,526
3,186
13,264
41,594
10,740
4,218
7,790
50,326
45,053
(28)
(23)
3,198
(28)
78
78
77
77
6,422
78
j
j
78
78
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
89,079
9,306
73,332
36,699
115,248
11,997
74,539
63,760
93,498
12,396
65,604
56,932
39,470
43,148
27,938
466,839
515,313
583*824'
79,427 1\
109,625
114,351
67,096
82
461,739
124,805
91,345
82
485,030
108,588
76,381
1.00
38,380
57,969
62,959
56,218
0.97
67,589
94,372
107,690
62,672
(28)
(28)
217)
H
a
o
d
(28)
(28)
(88)
o
SB
Crt
w
<
w
d
2l8 l,023,325
755,534
371,093
«o 248,032
w
o
>
o
w
Crt
Operatives, street railways and bus lines
V
Operatives, trucking service
f
Switchiften, railroad
.1
Watchmen (crossing) and bridge tenders
/
Ticket, station, and express agents
.....
0 80
"
1 01
*
1.07
v
/
\
<
1
Chainmen, rodmen, and axmen, surveying
Chauffeurs and drivers; bus, taxi, truck, and }
tractor87
}
Deliverymen87.
J
9,375
2,166 }
48,340 1
16,862
40,377
10,572
{
1.02 {
[
16,621
8® 12,659
8® 6,710
95,773
41,194
105,461
39,396
76,328
37,207
(28)
(28)
(28)
1,339,888 j 82 1,175,484
428,153
82
464,386
82
280,912
(28)
(28)
69,616
50,194
( 28 )
64,861
25,965
174,507
10,919
8,881
5,186
0.89
0.93
0.91
0.80
110,816
8,474
3,159
2,060
107,596
10,407
11,599
3,757
47,941
6,344
4,630
1,465
Lumbermen, raftsmen, and woodchoppers15...
1.03
164,264
151,303
185,168
Mine operatives and laborers.
Foremen, mining
0.97
1.08
824,093
28,244
887,566
30,073
983,090
226 29,912
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
52,090
44,184
Filers, metal
Fishermen and oystermen222 .
Fruit and vegetable graders and packers,
except in cannery88,
Gardeners, except farm, and groundskeepers
0.95
10*952
62,574
1.10
Linemen and servicemen, telegraph, teleph one,
and power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Foremen, communication
Laborers, communication
Operatives, communication
Motormen (vehicle), mine, factory, logging
(28)
(28)
(28)
48
33,135
3,574 j
4,834
970
(28)
(28)
170,011
18 114,864
48
(28)
m
55,323
48 37,486
(28)
(28)
(28)
65,493
57,154
39,284
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
18,613
9,909
223
(28)
26,477
(28)
(28)
>
112,976
224 52,014
420,418
228 285,778
229 178,786
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
( 28 )
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
130,905
224
884,865
227 23,675 j 228 654,965
228
143,502
224
225
29,966
Sailors and deck hands, except U. S. Navy
0.95
46,078
61,465
Officers, pilots, pursers, and engineers, ship.. .
0.98
35,155
46,834
(28)
(28)
19,405
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.), nonmanufacturing industries and services:
Agriculture, forestry, and fishery
Automobile storage, rental, and repair
services.
Business and miscellaneous repair services
Construction.
Finance, insurance, and real estate
Government
Hotels and miscellaneous personal services
Miscellaneous transportation
Professional and related services
Utilities
........
0.90
See footnotes at end of Table I I B , pp. 240 to 252.
19,099
19,079
54,994
4,866
13,065
7,643
8,348
12,317
23,437
(28)
6,844
(28)
( 28 )
230
(28)
(28)
47,064
23i
43,566
(28).
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
( 28 )
(28)
C28)
•d
"d
W
a
d
M
X'
w
t*
w
N3
CO
to
CO
Table IIB.—Occupations of All Workers, 1870 to 1940 ^Continued
to
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 19302]
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor 8
1940*
1930 5
1920 5
1910 5
1900 5
1890 5 c
1880 5
o
1870 5
S!
OPERATIVE A N D K I N D R E D
W O R K E R S ; LABORERS, E X C E P T
FARM 75 —Continued
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.), nonmanufacturing industries and services—
Continued
Warehousing and storage
Wholesale and retail trade
Industry not reported
and services:
Agriculture, forestry, and
Amusement, recreation, and related
services
w
o
1.06
fishery
Automobile storage, rental, and repair ]
services . . . . . . .
, ...
1
Garage laborers and car washers and [
greasers
j
Finance, insurance, and real estate.
Government.:
....... .
Hotels and miscellarieous personal services
Professional and related services
Utilities
Warehousing and storage
Wholesale and retail trade.
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.) and
laborers (n.e.c.), manufacturing:
Bakers
Bakery products, operatives
Bakery products, laborers.
Canning and preserving fruits, vegetables,
and sea food, operatives
5,563
(*»)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(2«)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
65,899
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
16,441
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
69,824
27,676
'
6,771
(2S)
(28)
1.03
1.00
1.00
0.77
1,243,534
367,551
75,103
26,432
731,461
695,865
73,954
38,637
1.03
1.22
0.94
7,046
52,695
9,799
19,082
93,004
25,656
242,049
(28)
(28)
(28)
26,144
(28)
22,813
273,664
(28)
(**)
(28)
(28)
(28)
27,897
192,570
10,636
152,616;
0,93
1.47
1.05
144,296
43,507
7,822
130,944
41,014
12,980
91,084
30,048
8,731
83,264
13,139
4,736
1.04
48,732
26,566
18,502
8,389
0 g8
2,862
1
59,444
Business and miscellaneous repair services
Construction 1 5 ...;...,.
Industry not reported
Longshoremen and stevedores
Miscellaneous t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . .
6,042
152,094
22,197
\
/
2S2 S o 7 aoa
8d/'4U4
85,928
2S6 53,606
94
o
o
d
>
H
HH
o
C/3
H
S3
*
3,932
(28)
(28)
1,138,574
62,857
2s7 69,318
r33l»429,120
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(23)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
23s
786,528
(28)
(28)
(28)
234 706,521
(28)
(28)
(28)
235 328,483
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
O
cj
G
ffi
c/5
W
<
w
o
w
n
>
o
w
c/a
;
Canning and preserving fruits, vegetables,
and sea food, laborers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Confectionery, operatives.......... . . . . . .
Confectionery, laborers.
Dairy products, operatives". ; . . . . .
Dairy products, laborers".
Meat products, operatives
Meat products, laborers .
Grain-mill products, operatives
Miscellaneous food industries, operatives.
Grain-mill products, laborers.
Miscellaneous food industries, laborers...
Millers, grain, flour, feed, etc
9,826
32,490
3*633
12,294
5,153
26,156
34,242
26,487
46,694
6,773
27,249
18,653
53,590
43,475
19,939
54,895
8,032
19,971
16,253
50,491
60,143
f
\
* 2o /
*
I
0.99
31,938
49,014
6,848
36,872
15,507
89,736
46,083
16,295 |
28,087
20,546 }
28,442
15,608
30,700
24,823
16,666
51,983
15,787
62,164
23,039
32,310
1.00
1.04
44,345
21,506
11,187
8,856
15,655
10,951
Tobacco manufactures, operatives
Tobacco manufactures, laborers.
1.00
1.04
82,563
15,322
103,715
21,404
Cotton manufactures, operatives
Cotton manufactures, laborers. .
1.00
0.96
383,250
39,727
Silk and rayon manufactures, operatives103
Silk and rayon manufactures, laborers103..
0.98
1.15
Knit goods, operatives
Knit goods, laborers . .
1.03
1.05
1.22
1.06
1.07
1.01
1.01
233
88,445
202,932
160,370
124,067
31,503
19,611 }
34,971
31,215
21,820
23914,843
145,222
36,563
151,801 |
17,048
131,452
111,625
77,045
240 41,387
302,501
53,298
302,454
73,262
280,149 j
36,292
246,391
173,142
169,771
241 112,381
88,463
7,376
123,255
12,740
113,407
11,592
77,791 j
4,368
53,915
34,506
17,890
3,223
w
Z
0.99
1.03
186,093
5,427
132,666
9,694
106,528
12,301
86,987
8,038
|
46,649
29,259
12,072
3,618
X
Dyers
Dyeing and finishing textiles, operatives . .
Dyeing andfinishingtextiles, laborers
1.10
0.98
1.06
24,898
26,111
5,884
19,491
19,221
8,025
16,620
17,381
11,241
15,455
16,044 j
10,555
29,467
21,747
14,187
242 8,999
Carpets, rugs, and other floor coverings,
operatives
Carpets, rugs, and other floor coverings,
laborers.
1.18
28,815
33,759
27,597
44,069
1
31,940
26,762
20,482
169 18,995
1.35
6,541
6,518
5,337
5,088
J
0.95
125,124
96,730
120,097
99,927
1.1'4
1.12
1.33
13,727
20,554
5,173
15,678
23,956
5,920
25,339
38,392
9,209
14,011
32,647
8,914
164,248
172,855
120,874
97,251
0.55
38,377 j
36,409
46,014
Beverage industries, operatives.
Beverage industries, laborers
\
f
\
/
;....
Woolen and worsted manufactures, operatives.
Woolen and worsted manufactures,
laborers.
Miscellaneous textile goods, operatives.. .
Miscellaneous textile goods, laborers
Miscellaneous fabricated textile products,
operatives
Not specified textile mills, operatives
Miscellaneous fabricated textile products,
laborers
Not specified textile mills, laborers
j
r
I
)
[
J
0 g4
0.79
See footnotes at end of Table I I B , pp. 240 to 252.
I
2,940
3631
}•
10,997
l0«s
35,639
»«8 8,898
22,920
107
10
>
aHH
H
>
w
e
CA
29,758
l0®
3,967
ts3
CO
05
Table IIB.—Occupations of All Workers, 1870 to 1940
Continued
to
CO.
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 *]
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor3
1940 4
1930
5
1920
5
1910
1900
5
5
1890
5
e
1880
5
1870
5
O
s
w
OPERATIVES A N D K I N D R E D
W O R K E R S ; LABORERS, E X C E P T
FARM 75 —Continued
oa
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.) and
laborers (n.e.c.), manufacturing—Continued
Apparel and accessories, operatives110. . ...
Apparel and accessories, laborers111:
Tailors and tailoresses 114 ...... . . . . . . . . . .
Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in
factory) 115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-.••........
Hats, except cloth and millinery, operatives111
Hats, except cloth and millinery,
Sawyers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .
Furniture and store fixtures, operatives".
Furniture and store fixtures, l a b o r e r s " . . . .
Sawmills and planing mills, operatives". . I
Miscellaneous wooden goods, operatives".
Sawmills and planing mills, laborers". . . . I
Miscellaneous wooden goods, laborers". . .
Pulp, paper, and paperboard mills, operatives. . . . .
... . . . . . .
Pulp, paper, and paperboard mills,
laborers
Paperboard containers and boxes, operatives1^8. .
Paperboard containers and boxes,
0.97
1.24
0.99
690,466
9,507
118,797
439,626
16,829
167,590
365,210
13,527
190,310
333,144
9,977
202,562
)
,1.23
165,031
194,807
290,102
552,691,
J
}
847,185
714,447
112
477,307
244 285,604
O
n
n
c!
•a
HH
o
0.97
16,650
27,424
34,222
37,767
0.91
681
1,174
1,425
1,977
37,507
69,969
40,200
109,871
35,161
51,817
35,625
245 114,625
274,549
263,219
271,817
53,576
35,655
W
<
W
1.04
0.93
1.01
1.09 /
\
o.94 f
\
46,915
78,062
31,041
62,429 1
55,487
224,293 \
36,625
i!
25,774
26,849
20,456
10
14,216
J
45,007
41,515
23,854
245 132 1 07 • 245 274,457
245 252,832
245 154,555
246 115,972
on
H
B
P
O
cj:-
O:
»
c/3
0,98
91,040
62,356;
0.96
43,893
49,956
50,172
30,132
1.04
40,160
14,855
21,270
18,634
1.08
9,658
2,794
3,655
1,515
Miscellaneous paper and pulp products,
operatives . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous paper and pulp products,
laborers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.06
24,655
18,155
14,516
10,634
0.97
4,167
3,808
3,351
1,510
Printing, publishing, and allied industries,
operatives .
1.08
75,383
76,541
72,046
63,459
S
56,852
45,118
36,820
2*7
18,412
d
w
o
>
d
w
CO
I
1
Printing, publishing, and allied industries,
laborers...
Compositors a n d typesetters . .
Pressmen and plate printers, printing
Electrotypers a n d stereotypers. . . . .
Engravers, except photoengravers.
Photoengravers and lithographers
1.16
0.98
\
... J
1.05
0.99
0.99
9,125
174,312
f
\
35,777
8,251
j ' fil
12,554
179,959
\
22,541 J
32,776
7,746
28,022
9,258
137,362
19,617
5,439
23,042
21,088
3,881
Paints, varnishes, and colors, operatives. .
Paints, varnishes, and colors, laborers . . . .
0.99
1.00
12,338
5,666
8,214
6,171
5,466
4,841
Rayon and allied products, operatives103. .
Rayon and allied products, laborers103....
0.95
1.01
30,663
5,369
19,893
5,012
(122)
(122)
1.00
82,322
51,597
50,292
Miscellaneous chemical industries,
operatives
Miscellaneous chemical industries,
laborers
..
Petroleum refining, operatives
Petroleum refining, laborers
Miscellaneous petroleum and coal
products, operatives
Miscellaneous petroleum and coal
products, laborers.
R u b b e r products, operatives
R u b b e r products, laborers.
S h o e m a k e r s a n d repairers (not in f a c t o r y ) .
.
75,280
73,581
77,087
29,237
27,562
21,962
41,224
" o 8,292
32,113
0.92
1.08
Footwear industries, except rubber,
operatives
1.11
0.81
1.01
...
.
Footwear industries, except rubber,
laborers
4,429
(28>
(28)
7,571
(28)
(28)
86,109
20,139
74,368
31,453
79,308
55,584
operatives
laborers.
:
operatives.
Leather products, except footwear,
laborers
. . . . . : . . . . ; 1 ..
Cement, and concrete, gypsum, and
plaster products, operatives
Cement, and concrete, gypsum, and
plaster products, laborers.
.
2,959
29,066
14,630
68,874
181,010
1.04
11,619
19,125
19,978
10,688
1.05
32,276
30,443
33,837
35,335
0.92
13,273
15,464
25,282
19,134
1.00
48,296
37,829
52,458
48,816
0.92
26,181
11,509
35,543
(28)
(28)
(28)
18,197
14,673
249 7 , 8 3 8
>
(M>
(28)
78,070
13,867
26,626
43,048
2,206
1.1,327
206,225
1.01
(28)
251
75,624
9,621
}
31,150
209,928
4,340
55,298
(122)
65,675
3,330
92,959
(122)
221,815
1.09
153,614
21,884
0.99
Leather products, except footwear,
196,936
4,324
1.00
Leather: tanned, curried, and finished,
Leather: tanned, curried, and finished,
6,361
125,037
}
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
21,210
15,677
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
W
d
)—i
3,769
6,160
X
,H
>
208,318
213,544
194,079
252
172,811
•w
r
w
in
I
J
30,918
42,608
39,332
29,842
253
53,820
53,497
47,091
254 3 6 , 9 1 7
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
5,042
7,709
8,695
27,647
33,196
J
to
CO
See footnotes at end of Table I I B , pp. 240 to 252.
Table IIB.—-Occupations of All Workers, 1870 to 1940 ^Continued
to
CO
C*
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 2 ]
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor 8
1940 <
1930 »
1920 «
1910 s
1900
5
1890 6.«
1880 6
1870 6
o
.g
OPERATIVES A N D K I N D R E D
WORKERS: LABORERS, EXCEPT
FARM76—Continued
M
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.) and
laborers (n.e.c.), manufacturing—Continued
O
Stonecutters and stone carvers
Cut-stone and stone products, operatives.
Cut-stone and stone products, laborers. . .
0.91
1.16
0.98
14,286
5,594
3,805
20,828
9,237
7,940
255
Glass and glass products, operatives"....
Glass and glass products, laborers"
1.03
1.02
57,133
18,965
45,178
28,670
2«
Pottery and related products, operatives..
Pottery and related products, laborers
0.98
0.81
25,417
7,207
22,782
9,135
Structural clay products, operatives
Structural clay products, laborers
0.95
1.03
12,629
41,278
Miscellaneous nonmetallic mineral
products, operatives
Miscellaneous nonmetallic mineral
products, laborers
Nonferrous metal primary products,
operatives
Miscellaneous nonferrous metal products,
operatives.
J
1.25
Nonferrous metal primary products,
laborers
Miscellaneous nonferrous metal products,
laborers
|
1.17 1
Clocks, watches, jewelry, and silverware,
operatives127.
Clocks, watches, jewelry, and silverware,
laborers127. .
Jewelers, watchmakers, goldsmiths, and
silversihiths
Buffers and polishers, metal
Grinders, metal
1
[
I
21,350
6,433
4,982
32,515
9,905
6,777
)
[
n
o
52,282
58,627
31,528
179
24,888
59,064
25,127 }
51,498
35,310
18,472
9,860
17,088
9,587
15,934 |
7,484
14,849
13,734
6,654
4,693
12,240
61,329
9,488
50,095
12,737 |
80,293
10,978
(28)
(28)
(28)
8,961
(28)
(28)
(28)
19,011 |
28,773
42,056
40,461
33,639
25,992 J
45,718
50,873
39,034
55,432
29,516
257
16,110
1.03
32,766
35,965
40,753
33,262
1.17
3,016
3,676
7,957
4,474
0.95
1.00
0.96
36,332
45,035
45,902
36,729
35,206
25,729
37,612
30,511
17,582
30,945
30,496
8,441
c
§
50,932
61,418
36,773
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
m
2«o
26,894
HH
o
C/5
H
a
^
c
d
offi
on
W
o
W
o
>
w
Furnacemen, smeltermen, and pourers
Molders, metal
1.02
0.90
33,932
87,624
20,855
94,442
Heaters, metal.
Rollers and roll hands, metal
Tinsmiths, coppersmiths, and sheet metal
workers
0.95
0.95
11,081
30,447
1.01
91,595
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling
mills, operatives
Tin cans and other tinware, operatives. . . .
Miscellaneous iron and steel industries,
operatives
Not specified metal industries, operatives.
Agricultural machinery and tractors,
operatives
Office and store machines, equipment, and
supplies, operatives
Miscellaneous machinery, operatives
Aircraft and parts, operatives.
Railroad and miscellaneous transportation equipment, operatives
1
j
iqfi 17«
•*•<«>, i / o
135'269
ioo,iSo»
14,195
29,227
15,646
23,808
9,614
17,487
84,261
75,718
60,431
397,526
297,637
117,959
13,593
q ««
197,738
11,454
20,311
420,040
94
261406,286
258,878
2" 167,976
>
11,259
hs
hs
W
188,280
5,217
o
i—(
124,589
5,897
£
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling
mills, laborers
Tin cans and other tinware, laborers. . . . .
Miscellaneous iron and steel industries,
laborers.........
Not specified metal industries, laborers. . .
Agricultural machinery and tractors,
laborers. . .
Office and store machines, equipment, and
supplies, laborers
Miscellaneous machinery, laborers
Aircraft and parts, laborers
Railroad and miscellaneous transportation equipment, laborers.
q qq
Automobiles and automobile equipment,
operatives
Automobiles and automobile equipment,
laborers
Ship and boat building and repairing,
operatives
Ship and boat building and repairing,
laborers
1.25
219,029
202,446
151,455
26,364
0.96
69,541
118,768
80,007
15,152
27,327
(28)
(28)
(28)
0.97
21,175
16,831
67,120
11,624
Electrical machinery and equipment,
operatives".
Electrical machinery and equipment,
laborers".
0.92
152,472
108,179
263 59,799
0.95
29,787
35,041
25,450
10,528
X
489,335
94
540,513
94
414,678
w
r
w
1,947
38,890
3,841
8,129
S e e f o o t n o t e s a t e n d of T a b l e I I B , pp. 2 4 0 to 2 5 2 .
261545,092
22,681
l i o f\nrr
112,977
26,390
264 22,792 j
10,862
(a8 )
( 28 )
(28)
(»8)
ro
CO
•<1
&
Table IIB.—Occupations of All Workers, 1870 to 1940 ^Continued
[Persons 14 years old and over in the labor force in 1940 and gainful workers 10 years old and over in 1870 to 1930 2 ]
Occupations, 1940 classification
Adjustment
factor3
1940
4
1930 6
1920 B
1910 5
1900 e
1890 5 6
00
1880 5
1870 5
3
W
OPERATIVES A N D K I N D R E D
W O R K E R S ; LABORERS, E X C E P T
FARM 7 5 —Continued
Operatives and kindred workers (n.e.c.) and
laborers (n.e.c.), manufacturing—Continued
Scientific and photographic equipment
and supplies, operatives
Scientific and .photographic equipment
and supplies* laborers
......
Miscellaneous manufacturing industries
(n.e.c.), operatives
Miscellaneous manufacturing industries
(n.e.c.), laborers..
. , . . . . .... . .
Not specified manufacturing industries,
operatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Not specified manufacturing industries,
laborers
28,587
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
3,092
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
( 28 )
(28)
(28)
126,221
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
16,270
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
70,643
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
41,563
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
5,265,271
37,503
}
25,275
Farmers (owners and t e n a n t s ) l 3 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Farm managers130. ,..•..}
Farm foremen 130 .
1.00
Farm laborers (wage workers)130.
Farm laborers (unpaid family workers)130
0.96
1.00
266 2,322,035
Firemen, fire department.
0.98
G u a r d s , watchmen, and doorkeepers
Policeinen and detectives, government. . . .
Policemen and detectives, except government.. }
Marshals and constables141.-
1.08
6,012,012
)
£
H
HH
Q
C/5
H
B
*
o
6,387,360
6,132,380
70,583
96,940
52,811
27l l,273,240
2,623,653
1,659,792
j 267 4,869,704
2685,300,909
269 5,036,600
78,822
71,548
49,756
34,894
14,243
159,964
124,797
144,552
94,075
9,350
6,897
9,073
15,338
( 28 )
10,683
7,134
/
1.05 \
|
5,772,610
K
5,382,037
4,301,412
265 3,127,715
269 4,465,209
269 4,197,730
270 3,647,616
138
Sheriffs and bailiffs
Soldiers, sailors, marines, and coast guards 142 ..
O
n
n
d
O
d
FARMERS A N D FARM MANAGERS,
F A R M LABORERS, A N D F O R E M E N
PROTECTIVE SERVICE WORKERS
o
/
i.oo 1
1.00
1.00
219,437
130,958
}
20,879
8,987
16,164
222,485
(28)
48
3,561
48
8 90
48 2 22
84,533
68,329 j
(28)
139
120,698
139
77,614
140
38,735
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
140
13,546
(28)
(28)
c/5
w
<
w
u
W
o
>
o
w
C/D
SERVICE WORKERS, EXCEPT
PROTECTIVE143
Attendants, hospital and other institution
Attendants, professional and personal service
...
Attendants, recreation and iamusement
\
Ushers, amusement place or assembly
/
Operatives, amusement, recreation, and related
.
102 189
nc
-1'06
/
{
57 096
2o'432
}
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)
30,347
|
374,290
( 28 )
142,927
18,784
216,211
26,085
132,058
15,175
195,275
101,234
163,797
14,020
63,790
288,880
37,907
35,055
1.03
0.99
n qq
1.02
1.22
1.09
88,375
353 213
604,908
62,157
236,259
415,461
Elevator operators.
Janitors and sextons. . .
1.00
0.99
85 266
377'684
67,614
306,529
Laundresses, private family.
Laundry operatives and laundresses, except
private family.
.
Foremen, personal services.
0.96
198 392
343,224
1.11
1.05
233,763
7 400
219,790
7,514
0.99
13,007
23,604
l fanui Ti il n
n og ry
u Ac ri im
Y^loo'niTiGr
Llualllllgy
anvtrl
llU
/^Troinrv
U
yclllt
services..........
Operatives, laundering, cleaning, and dyeing
services . . . . . . . . .
Proprietors^ managers, and officials laundering, cleaning, and dyeing services
Practical nurses and midwives 156 .
:
440 111
128 342
111!609
15,377
6,494
Charwomen and cleaners
Cooks, except private family
Housekeepers, private family 150
.1
Servants, private family 150 .
J
Housekeepers, stewards, and hostesses, except
private f a m i l y . . . . .
..
...
Servants, except private family.
Waiters and waitresses, except private family..
J j J i n O T PcTi Ro j
J
272
14®
9,305
132,826
88,817
70,568
8,230
272
14®
6,303
85,848
55,806
43,906
272
14®
3,73 5
45,412
272 2 , 1 4 9
273
24,660
274
12,76 5
(28)
(28)
18,867
(28)
(28)
(28)
1,704,403
0.91
74,847*
55,177
1.06
53,694
49,461
0.93
109 287
(28)
146,018
S e e footnotes at end of T a b l e I I B , pp. 2 4 0 to 252.
10,032
5,513
1.00
.,
0.99
1.00
74 670
335^806
396 160
1 754 842
16,960
144
4,060
Barbers, beauticians, and manicurists
Bartenders.
Boarding house and lodginghouse keepers 148 .1.
Bootblacks. . .
/
[
144
2751,981,457
•2761,745,305
276 1,574,506
40,713
176,842
25,035
111,950
12,690
56,011
(28)
(28)
26,273
9,120
505,761
640,445
51,035
43,865
(28)
145,795
(28)
(28)
(28)
123,730
101,511
39,987
•2751,744,979
276 1,176,286 1
277 1,053,309
>
H
U
HH
278
(28)
2,92 0
X
%
w
•
154
389,825
250,947
164
123,161
tr1
w
c/D
279
(28)
157
13,080
64,080
(28)
280
10,569
t o
CO
CD
1 Sources:
U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 16th Census
of the United States, 1940, Population. Comparative Occupation Statistics for the
United States, 1870 to 1940. By Alba M. Edwards. Washington, D. C., U. S.
Government Printing Office, 1943. Supplemented by occupation statistics in decennial census reports, and by U. S. Census, 1940, Population, Series P-14, No.
13, October 29, 1943.
2 For practically all occupations the figures in 1940 for total persons or for
women would not have been increased significantly had persons 10 to 13 years
been included. Estimates have been made for 1940 of the numbers that would have
been enumerated in three occupations substantially affected by the change in the
ages included.
3 Factor developed by the Bureau of the Census which was applied to published census figures for 1870 to 1930 inclusive to obtain figures comparable with
the corresponding 1940 occupational classification. See footnote 5.
4 Data in this column represent a combination of the figures for the occupations during the census week of employed persons and the usual occupations
of experienced workers seeking work and of public emergency workers.
Figures for 1870 to 1930 inclusive differ somewhat from those published in
Comparative Occupation Statistics for the United States, 1870 to 1940. For most
occupations an adjustment factor or comparability index was applied to the
published figure to obtain a figure adjusted for differences between the 1940 occupational classification and the occupational classification used in 1930 and earlier
years. The adjusted figures shown here are for persons 10 years old and over.
In cases where occupations are combined in an earlier census a combined index
was applied, obtained by dividing the sum of the adjusted figures by the Sum
of the published figures in the next later census for which separate occupations
are given. The adjustment factor was applied after all other changes to arrive
at comparable data from 1870 to 1930 were made, such as corrections for undercount or additions of estimated numbers from other occupations. Figures in
italics denote unadjusted numbers, shown as published in census reports. No
adjustment index was developed for these occupations because of the small numbers involved.
6 Figures for 1890 are exclusive of persons in Indian Territory and on Indian
reservations, areas specially enumerated at that census, but for which occupation
statistics are not available. Figures for the remaining areas are the corrected
figures; for explanation, see Occupation Report for 1900, pp. lxvi-lxxiii.
7 The following occupations which were classified in "Professional and semiprofessional workers" in 1940 have been included in other major occupation groups >
5
in this table, as shown below, in order to list them next to occupations with to
which they were combined in earlier censuses.
County agents and farm demonstrators... .Clerical, sales, and kindred workers
Pharmacists
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Radio and wireless operators
Clerical, sales, and kindred workers
The following occupations which were classified in other major occupation
groups in 1940, as shown below, were included in "Professional and semiprofessional workers" in this table for the same reason.
Attendants and assistants, library
Clerical, sales, and kindred workers
Motion picture projectionists
Operatives and kindred workers
Proprietors, managers, and officials, miscellaneous amusement and
recreation......
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Proprietors, managers, and officials, theaters and
motion pictures
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Teachers (athletics, dancing, etc.) were included in the group "Teachers" in
1880 to 1900. Estimated number of billiard room, dance hall, skating rink, etc.,
keepers included as follows: 1900, 308; 1890, 116; 1880, 44.
8
Figures include 8 "Teachers of dancing," 5 added because of undercount in
13 Southern States, and 3 estimated as the number of billiard room, dance hall,
skating rink, etc. keepers.
9
10
2 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
Figures include "Scientists,"
in 1940.
11
12 Includes "Literary
metallurgists."
classified in "Professional workers
and scientific persons,"
(n.e.c.)"
less "Chemists, assayers, and
13 Includes "Literary persons,"
less "Chemists, assayers, and metallurgists";
scientific persons were combined with teachers in 1880.
14
1 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
For some of the occupations in which large numbers of public emergency
workers were employed the increase from 1930 to 1940 resulted in considerable measure from workers who never had other regular employment having returned their
assigned emergency occupations as their usual occupations.
15
16
Aviators, designated "Aeronauts," were included with "Showmen" in 1910.
At the 1940 census, persons under 35 years Old returned as technical engineers were not coded as technical engineers unless they had had at least 4 years of
college education.
17
O
3
o
£
w
c/5
O
o
n
a
>
H
t—i
o
<J5
H
B
#
O
a
o
s
cn
M
£
u
n
>
a
w
CD
M
18
Estimated number of electrical engineers.
19
Enumerated figures, less estimated number of electricians.
20 "Probation and truant officers," classified in "Social and welfare workers"
in 1940, were included in the group "Watchmen, policemen, etc.," in 1880 to 1900.
2 1 1 added because Of undercount in 13 Southern States.
"Probation and truant
officers," classified in "Social and welfare workers" in 1940, were included in
"Watchmen, policemen, etc," in the group "Other domestic and personal service"
in 1870.
22
Probably includes some teachers in schools below collegiate rank.
23 Estimated number of demonstrators deducted from census figures. Includes
"Teachers (athletics, dancing, etc.)," classified in "Dancers, showmen, and athletes" in 1940.
Scientific persons combined in 1880 with teachers; estimated number of
demonstrators deducted from census figures. Includes "Teachers (athletic, dancing,
etc.)," classified, in "Dancers, showmen, and athletes" in 1940.
24
25 Estimated number of demonstrators deducted from census figures, and 1,047
added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
26
Wherever used in this,table, "n.e.c." means "not elsewhere classified."
27
Figures include "Inventors," classified in "Professional workers (n.e.c.)" in
1940.
28
Comparable data not available.
29
53 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
30
17 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
Estimated on the basis of the proportion trained nurses formed of "Nurses
and midwives" in 1900.
31
32 The following occupations which were classified in "Proprietors, managers,
and officials, except farm" in 1940 have been included in other major occupation
groups in this table, as shown below, in order to list them next to occupations
with which they were combined in earlier censuses.
Buyers and department heads, store
Clerical, sales,
Conductors, railroad
Operatives
Credit men
Clerical, sales,
Floormen and floor managers, store. .Craftsmen, foremen,
Managers and superintendents, building .. Clerical, sales,
Officers, pilots, pursers, and engineers, ship.Operatives
and
and
and
and
and
and
kindred
kindred
kindred
kindred
kindred
kindred
workers
workers
workers
workers
workers
workers
Proprietors, managers, and officials, laundering, cleaning and
dyeing services....
Service workers, except protective
Proprietors, managers, and officials, miscellaneous amusement
and recreation...
Professional and semiprofessional workers
Proprietors, managers, and officials,
real e s t a t e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.....Clerical, sales, and kindred workers
Proprietors, managers, and officials, theaters and
motion pictures.
Professional and semiprofessional workers
Purchasing agents and buyers (n.e.c.)
Clerical, sales, and kindred workers
The following occupations which were classified in other major occupation
groups in 1940, as shown below, were included in "Proprietors, managers, and
officials, except farm" in this table, for the same reason.
Inspectors, communication and
utilities
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Inspectors, m i n i n g . . . . . . . . . .
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Meat cutters, except slaughter and '
packing house
.....
Operatives and kindred workers
Milliners (not in factory).
..Operatives and kindred workers
Pharmacists
Professional and semiprofessional workers
Salesmen, finance, brokerage, and
commission f i r m s . . . . . .
Clerical, sales, and kindred workers
38 The adjustment factor for the combined group of postmasters and miscellaneous government officials was 1.03 for the total, and. 1.01 for women. Adjusted
figures for government officials and inspectors were obtained by subtracting the
figures for postmasters from the adjusted figures for the combined group of postmasters and government officials and inspectors. Figures in 1910 and 1920 do not
include "Managers and officials, postal service" and "Inspectors, postal service."
34 Estimated on the basis of the proportion "Postmasters" formed of "Officials
(government)" in 1910.
^'Figures include "Managers and officials, postal service," classified in "Officials, United States" in 1940 and "Inspectors, salt wells and works," classified in
"Operatives and kindred workers, miscellaneous chemical industries" in 1940. From
census figures for 1910 were deducted the number of "Owners, operators, and
proprietors" and "Managers and officials" returned in "Gas works" (7), "Electric
light and power plants" (13), "Turpentine farms" (3), and "Not specified industries and services" (269); from census figures for 1920 were deducted the number
of "Owners, operators and proprietors" and "Managers and officials," estimated
on the basis of 1910 and 1930 data, in "Gas works" (25) "Electric light and power
Nrj
O
D
q
^
W
^
^
^
H
^
f"1
jjj
^
^
^
^
^
plants" (47), and " N o t specified industries and services" (482). No "Proprietors,
managers, and officials, stockyards" were returned in 1910, and none were estimated for 1920.
30 Partly estimated.
Includes "Agents, express companies," classified in "Ticket,
station, and express agents" in 1940; "Express messengers," classified in "Express
messengers and railway mail clerks" in 1940; "Managers and officials, postal
service," classified in "Officials, United States" in 1940; "Inspectors, salt wells
and works," classified in "Operatives and kindred workers, miscellaneous chemical industries" in 1940; and "Owners, operators, and proprietors" and "Managers
and officials" in each of the following industries: "Gas works" and "Electric
light and power plants," classified in "Utilities" in 1940; and "Not specified industries and services," classified in "Industry not reported" in 1940.
Does not
include "Proprietors, managers and officials, stockyards," or "Owners and managers of log and timber camps." On the basis of 1930 data, correct classification
of these items would reduce the total by 5.5 percent.
3 7 In
1940 "Saloon keepers" were classified in "Proprietors, managers, and
officials, eating and drinking places"; consequently, in 1920 and in 1910 the
number of "Saloon keepers" and in 1900 and in 1890 the estimated number of
"Saloon keepers" were added to the number of "Restaurant, cafe, and lunchroom
keepers." In 1930 no figure for "Saloon keepers" was published.
38
Includes bartenders, not shown separately from saloon keepers.
Includes bartenders, not shown separately from saloon keepers, and 5 added
because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
39
40
38 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
41
"Milliners" were included with "Dressmakers and seamstresses."
4 2 5 added because of undercount
in 13 Southern States.
included with "Dressmakers and seamstresses."
48
"Milliners"
were
"Purchasing agents, grain elevators," classified in "Country buyers and
shippers of livestock and other farm produtts" in 1940, were classified in "Agents"
in 1910 and in 1920.
28 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
Considerable difficulty was experienced in classifying the occupations for
retail merchants arid wholesale merchants.
45
4 6 18
added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
47 The
following occupations which were classified in "Clerical, sales, and
kindred workers" in 1940 have been included in other major occupation groups in
Estimated.
Census figures estimated, and 2 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
49
43
44
this table, as shown below, in order to list them next to occupations with which
they were combined in earlier censuses.
Attendants and assistants, library.. .Professional and semiprofessional workers
Baggagemen, transportation
Operatives and kindred workers
Salesmen, finance, brokerage, and
commission firms
...Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Ticket, station, and express agents...
Operatives and kindred workers
The following occupations which were classified in other major occupation
groups in 1940, as shown below, were included in "Clerical, sales, and kindred
workers" in this table for the same reason.
Attendants, filling station, parking lot, garage,
and airport
Operatives and kindred workers
Buyers and department heads,
store
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
County agents and farm
demonstrators
.Professional and semiprofessional workers
Credit men.
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Managers and superintendents,
building
....Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Proprietors, managers, and officials, real
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
estate
Purchasing agents and
buyers (n.e.c)
.....Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Radio and wireless operators
Professional and semiprofessional workers
50 1890 and 1900 data partly estimated, and 1880 data entirely estimated.
Figures
do not include "Abstractors, notaries, and justices of peace," classified in 1940
in the group "Clerical workers ( n . e . c ) . "
e i Partly estimated, and 6 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
Figures do not include "Abstractors, notaries, and justices of peace," classified in
1940 in the group "Clerical workers (n.e.c)."
52
Partly estimated.
Census figures include telegraph operators only ; 2 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
54 "Advertising
agents," classified in "Proprietors, managers, and officials"
and "Purchasing agents, grain elevators*" classified in "Country buyers and ship63
pers of livestock" in 1940, were classified in the group "Agents" in 1910 and in
1920.
55
50 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
Includes approximately 500 girls estimated on the basis of past trends as
the number of newsboys 10 to 13 years of age who would have been enumerated
in 1940. The great increase in the number of newsboys may have come in part
from an undervaluation of classification changes.
m
67 The attempt of the occupation coders to distinguish between real estate
agents and proprietors of real estate firms probably was not very successful.
68 Many enumerators failed to distinguish between office clerks and salespersons employed in stores. The group " 'Clerks' in stores" was more strictly confined in 1940 and in 1930 than in 1920 or in 1910 to persons specifically returned
as "clerks" in stores. It is believed that a majority, if not most of those included
in the group " 'Clerks' in stores" were salespersons.
59 Figures do not include "Canvassers" and "Sales agents."
1900 partly estimated.
Data for 1890 and
60 Figures do not include "Canvassers" and "Sales agents"; 26 added because
of undercount in 13 Southern States.
61 The following occupations which were classified in- "Craftsmen, foremen, and
kindred workers" in 1940 have been included in other major occupation groups in
this table, as shown below, in order to list them next to occupations with which
they were combined in earlier censuses.
Bakers
Operatives and kindred workers
Compositors and typesetters
Operatives and kindred workers
Electrotypers and stereotypers
Operatives and kindred workers
Engravers, except photoengravers
Operatives and kindred workers
Foremen, communication. .
Operatives and kindred workers
Foremen, mining
Operatives and kindred workers
Foremen, personal services
Service workers, except protective
Inspectors, communication and
utilities.
........Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Inspectors, mining..
Proprietors, managers, and officials except farm
Inspectors, railroads (includes railroad
repair s h o p s ) . . . . . .
Operatives and kindred workers
Jewelers, watchmakers, goldsmiths, and
silversmiths
Operatives and kindred workers
Locomotive engineers
Operatives and -kindred workers
Locomotive firemen.
.Operatives and kindred workers
Millers, grain, flour, feed, etc
Operatives and kindred workers
Molders, metal
Operatives and kindred workers
Photoengravers and lithographers..............Operatives and kindred workers
Pressmen and plate printers, printing..........Operatives and kindred workers
Rollers and roll hands, metal.
Operatives and kindred workers
Sawyers
Operatives and kindred workers
Shoemakers and repairers (not in f actory).... Operatives and kindred workers
Stonecutters and stone carvers
Operatives and kindred workers
Tailors and tailoresses...
Operatives and kindred workers
Tinsmiths, coppersmiths, and sheet
metal workers
Operatives and kindred workers
The following occupations which were classified in other major occupation
groups in 1940, as shown below, were included in "Craftsmen, foreman, and kindred workers" in this table, for the same reason.
Firemen, except locomotive and
fire department.
Operatives and kindred workers
Floormen and floor managers,
store
...Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Oilers, machinery.
Operatives and kindred workers
Painters, except construction and
maintenance
Operatives and kindred workers
Power station operators.
Operatives and kindred workers
62 All
apprentices to manual trades whose trades were specified on the
schedules were included in 1870 with the journeymen of their respective crafts. In
addition there were 200 "Apprentices (not specified)."
63 The number of cabinetmakers returned in 1940 probably was excessive, because there was a tendency for the operatives in furniture factories to give the
old trade names as their occupations, rather than the names of the specific processes
they were performing.
84 Figures include cabinet shop employees.
65 Does not include ship carpenters, classified in 1890 with ship and boat
builders.
66 Frequently, it was difficult to determine definitely whether the return "decorator" should be allocated to "Decorators and window dressers" or to "Painters,
construction and maintenance."
67 In 1910 and in 1920 figures include "Foremen and overseers, postal service,"
classified in the group "Foremen, government" in 1940. To census figures were
added 9 women returned as "Foremen and overseers, salt wells and works" in
1910, and an estimated 6 women "Foremen and overseers, salt wells and works"
in 1920. In 1910, 1 woman returned in "Turpentine farm foremen" was deducted.
Figures do not include data, for water and sanitary services.
68 "Foremen and overseers, electric light and power plants" and "Foremen and
overseers, gas works" only. Data for water and sanitary services were not available, but it is believed the number of women foremen in these industries was
insignificant.
69
Most inspectors in manufacturing industries are classified as operatives.
70 It is quite probable that many who were returned and classified as machinists were, in fact, only machine tenders.
71 Frequently, it was difficult to determine definitely whether the return "decorator" should be allocated to "Decorators and window dressers" or to "Painters,
construction and maintenance"; and it was difficult to .determine definitely
whetlier the return "painter" should be allocated to "Painters, construction and
maintenance" or to "Painters, except construction and maintenance."
73 1 deducted as the estimated number of women "Stationary engineers, water
transportation," classified in the group "Officers, pilots, pursers, and engineers,
ship," in 1940.
73 In 1910 most of the "Crariemen, derrickmen, hoistmen, etc." were classified
with the semiskilled operatives of the respective industries. From census figures
Was deducted 1 woman returned in "Stationary engineers, water transportation,"
classified in the group "Officers, pilots, pursers and engineers, ship" in 1940.
74
Does not include "Cranemen, derrickmen, hoistmen, etc."
The following occupations which were classified in "Operatives and kindred
workers" or in "Laborers, except farm" in 1940 have been included in other major occupation groups in this table, as shown below, in order to list them next
to occupations with which they were combined in earlier censuses.
Attendants, filling station, parking lot, garage,
and airport .
Clerical, sales, and kindred workers
Firemen, except locomotive and fire
department
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Laborers, laundering, cleaning, and
dyeing services... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;
. . . .Service workers, except protective
Laundry operatives and laundresses, except
private family
Service workers, except protective
Meat cutters, except slaughter and
packing house...
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
75
Milliners (not in factory)
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Motion picture projectionists
Professional and semiprofessional workers
Oilers, machinery.
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Operatives, amusement, recreation, and
related services
Service workers, except protective
Operatives, laundering, cleaning, and
dyeing services
Service workers, except protective
Painters, except construction and
maintenance
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Power station operators
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
The following occupations which were classified in other major occupation
groups in 1940, as shown below, were included in "Operatives and kindred workers" or in "Laborers, except farm" in this table, for the same reason.
Baggagemen, transportation
.Clerical, sales, and kindred workers
Bakers ..
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Compositors and typesetters.
Craftsmen, foremen^ and kindred workers
Conductors, railroad
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Electrotypers and stereotypers
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Engravers, except photoengravers
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Foremen, communication
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Foremen, mining
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Inspectors, railroads (includes railroad
repair shops)
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Jewelers, watchmakers, goldsmiths,
and silversmiths
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Locomotive engineers
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Locomotive firemen
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Millers,, grain, flour, feed, etc........Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Molders, metal
.....
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Officers, pilots, pursers, and
engineers, ship
Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
Photoengravers and lithographers.... Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Pressmen and plate printers,
printing
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Rollers and roll hands, metal
Sawyers
Shoemakers and repairers (not
in factory).....
Stonecutters and stone carvers
....Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred worker?
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
^
Q
W
^
^
Q
O
Q
H
Q
^
^
h-j
&
O
^
hh
^
^
W
^
Q
W
^
U
^
Tailors and tailoresses..
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Ticket, station, and express a g e n t s . . . . . . . . . Clerical, sales, and kindred workers
Tinsmiths, coppersmiths, and sheet
metal workers
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Watchmen (crossing), and bridge tenders
......Protective service workers
The 1930 figures for apprentices are only approximately comparable with the
1940 figures because of differences in the methods of adjusting for children erroneously returned as pursuing skilled trades.
76
77
78
79
Figures approximate only.
Figures include helpers.
Many of the machinists' apprentices probably are machine tenders.
Includes "Apprentices to other professional persons," classified in "Semiprofessional workers (n.e.c.)" in 1940.
80
Teamsters in agriculture and the extraction of minerals are classified with
the other workers in those industries respectively; drivers for bakeries, laundries,
and stores are classified as "Deliverymen."
81
82 Neither in 1910, in 1920, nor in 1930 was the attempt to distinguish chauffeurs, motor truck drivers, and deliverymen from draymen, teamsters, and carriage
drivers very successful. Some deliverymen probably were returned and classified,
in 1930, 1920, and 1910, as teamsters.
Does not include "Agents, express companies," "Operatives, car and railroad
shops," or "Laborers, car and railroad shops." On the basis of 1930 data, correct
classification of these items would increase the total by 10.7 percent. Estimated
deliverymen for bakeries and stores were deducted from "Teamsters."
83
84 Partly estimated.
Does not include "Agents, express companies," "Operatives,
car and railroad shops," or "Laborers, car and railroad shops." On the basis of
1930 data, correct classification of these items would increase the total by 10.7
percent.
85
4 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
m
Does not include "Operatives, truck, transfer, and cab companies."
See, also, footnote 83.
®7 Drivers for bakeries, laundries, dry cleaners, stores, etc., are included in
"Deliverymen."
88 It is believed that the marked increase from 1930 to 1940 in the number of
fruit graders and packers may be accounted for in considerable measure by the
fact that the 1930 index used by the occupation coding clerks did not show clearly
that the 1930 group "Fruit graders and packers" included vegetable graders and
packers. At each census, proper classification of indefinite returns was difficult
where canneries were operated close to where there was fruit and vegetable grading
and packing in the fields and orchards.
89 Includes addition to account for workers classified as "Laborers (not specified)": 12 in 1900 and 1 in 1890. Figures include "Owners and managers of log
and timber camps."
90 In 1910 all women in "Foremen, mining" were returned as, and in 1920
were assumed to be, "Foremen and overseers, salt wells and works," classified in
"Foremen, manufacturing" in 1940.
91 Includes addition to account for operatives classified as "Laborers
(not
specified)": 67 in 1900; 12 in 1890; and 5 in 1880.
92 1 added to account for workers classified as "Laborers (not specified)," and
8 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
93 Includes 1 woman returned in "Stationary engineers, water transportation" in
1910 and 1 woman estimated as the number of "Stationary engineers, water transportation" in 1920.
94 In 1920 and in 1910 automobile repair shops were classified in the group
"Other iron and steel factories."
95 Largely estimated.
Figure consists of "Hostlers," "Well borers," "Whitewashers," and "Laborers (not specified)" allocated to manufacturing and to
transportation. Estimate includes "Foremen, road and street building," classified
in "Foremen, construction" in 1940, "Laborers, street cleaning," classified in "Laborers, utilities" in 1940, and probably "Laborers, postal service," classified in
"Laborers, government" in 1940, but does not include "Laborers, stockyards." On
the basis of 1930 data, correct classification of these items would reduce the
total by 0.1 percent.
^Largely estimated. Figure consists of "Whitewashers" and "Laborers (not
specified)" allocated to manufacturing and to transportation. Estimate includes
"Foremen, road and street building," classified in "Foremen, construction" in 1940,
"Laborers, street cleaning," classified in "Laborers, utilities" in 1940, and probably
"Laborers, postal service," classified in "Laborers, government" in 1940, but. does
not include. "Laborers, stockyards." On the basis of 1930 data, correct classification of these items would reduce the total by 0.1 percent.
97 Largely estimated,
and 99 added because of undercount in 13 Southern
States.
Figure consists of "Whitewashers," "Hostlers," and "Laborers (not
•specified)" allocated to manufacturing arid to transportation. Estimate includes
"Foremen, road and street building," classified in "Foremen, construction in 1940,
"Laborers, street cleaning," classified in "Laborers, utilities" in 1940, and probably
"Laborers, postal service," classified in "Laborers, government" in 1940, but does
not include "Laborers, stockyards." On the basis of 1930 data, correct classification of these items would reduce the total by 0.1 percent.
From census figures for 1910 were deducted 70 returned as "Laborers, postal
service," and from census figures for 1920 were deducted 34 "Laborers, postal
service," estimated on the basis of 1910 arid 1930 data.
98
99 The
figures for operatives and laborers combined may be more nearly
accurate than are the figures for either operatives or laborers.
100
13 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
101 156
added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
102 440 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
103 Frequently, it was, difficult to determine from the enumerators' returns
whether a person was working in the "Silk and rayon manufactures" industry or in
the "Rayon and allied products" industry.
104
130 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States,
105
39 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
Includes the few operatives reported in rayon factories in 1920.
footnote 107.
108
See, also,
107 Operatives in bedding and quilt factories, hat and cap materials factories,
and millinery factories, all included in the group "Other miscellaneous industries"
in 1920 and in 1910, and operatives in white goods factories, included in the group
"Other clothing factories" in 1920 and in 1910, were classified in the group "Other
and not specified textile mills" in 1930; in 1940, operatives in bedding and quilt
factories were classified in "Miscellaneous fabricated textile products," operatives in
hat a;nd cap materials factories and millinery factories were classified in "Apparel
and accessories" and operatives in white goods factories were classified in "Cotton
manufactures."
108 Includes the few laborers reported in rayon factories in 1920.
footnote 109.
See, also,
Laborers in bedding and quilt factories, hat and cap materials factories,
and millinery factories, all included in the group "Other miscellaneous industries" in 1920 and in 1910, and laborers in white goods factories, included in the
group "Other clothing factories" in 1920 and in 1910, were classified in the group
109
"Other arid not specified textile mills" in 1930; in 1940, laborers in bedding and
quilt factories were classified in "Miscellaneous fabricated textile products," laborers in hat and cap materials factories and millinery factories were classified
in "Apparel and accessories," and laborers in white goods factories were classified
in "Cotton manufactures."
110 The attempt of the occupation coders, in 1930, and again in 1940, to distinguish, from the enumerators' returns, the workers in hat factories (except
cloth and millinery) from the workers in apparel and accessories, factories was
not very successful. The increase from 1930 to 1940 may have resulted in considerable measure from public emergency workers who had never had other regular
work having returned their assigned emergency occupations as their usual occupations.
The attempt of the occupation coders, in 1930, and again in 19.40, to distinguish, from the enumerators' returns, the workers in hat factories (except cloth
and millinery) from the workers in apparel and accessories factories was not very
successful.
112
Includes milliners and millinery dealers.
2,299 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States. Includes milliners
and millinery dealers, milliners' apprentices, tailoresses' apprentices, and dressmakers' apprentices.
113
At each census, it frequently was difficult, from the enumerators' returns,
to distinguish tailors working at their trade from proprietors of clothing factories
on the one hand and from operatives in clothing factories on the other.
115 when the enumerators did not return the industry or place of work, it was
difficult to distinguish dressmakers and seamstresses in factories from those
working elsewhere.
114
116 To census figures were added all women returned as "Coopers,"
all of
whom were assumed (or known) to be in "Saw and planing mills" and in "Other
woodworking factories," as follows: 5 in 1920; 7 in 191Q.; 10 in 1900; and 40 in 1890.
To census figures were added 3 women returned as "Coopers," assumed to
be in "Saw and planing mills" and in "Other woodworking factories" ; 8 added
because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
117
118 Because of indefinite returns of occupations and industries, many of the
workers in paper box factories were classified elsewhere in 1930, in 1920, and in 1910.
119
Figures probably include boxmakers (wood).
120
To census figures, which probably include boxmakers (wood), were added
to
Ci
O
H
z
C/5
o
n
n
a
H
hH'
o
z
H
ffi
P
O
d
o
ffic/>
W
£
%
0
M
O
>
o
M
on
13 because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
121
7 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States. See, also, footnote 62.
122 The few operatives and laborers in rayon factories in 1920 were classified
with operatives and laborers in "Not specified textile mills." None were returned
in 1910.
To Census figures for 1920 was added 1 woman estimated in "Skilled occupations. (n.e.c.), petroleum refineries," i.e., "Distillers," "Refiners," or "Treaters." No
women were returned in these occupations in 1910.
123
124
3 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
See, also, footnote 62.
To census figures were added 59 returned as "Glass blowers," glass factories in 1910 and 67 estimated as "Glass blowers," glass factories in 1920.
125
126
3 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
Includes
polishing.
127
metal
engraving
(except
for
printing
purposes),
plating,
and
128 Figures include any piersons enumerated as filers, forgemen and hammermen, structural iron workers (building), toolmakers and die setters and sinkers,
operatives, and laborers in automobile repair shops, but do not include those in
car and railroad shops properly allocated to railroad and miscellaneous transportation equipment manufacture. On the basis of 1930 data, correct classification of
these items would reduce the total by 0.2 percent.
To census figures were added 31 returned as "Glass blowers," electrical
machinery and supply factories in 1910, and 22, estimated on the basis of 1910 and
1930 data, as "Glass blowers," electrical machinery and supply factories in 1920.
129
130 The 1940 figures for farmers and farm managers are probably fairly accurate; changes in numbers of hired farm laborers from 1930 to 1940 also may be
actual changes in large measure. Some persons who would have been returned as
"Farm laborers, unpaid family workers" under 1930 instructions, however, would
have been returned in 1940 as not having jobs because they usually worked regularly at outdoor farm work only during the season of the year when extra help is
needed in the fields. It is impossible to group the 1920 and 1910 agricultural pursuits exactly according to 1930 classification. It is believed, however, that differances in the grouping as here presented are negligible.
131
1,869 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
Includes approximately 3,000 girls estimated on the basis of past trends as
the number of farm laborers (wage workers) 10 to 13 years of age who would have
been enumerated in 1940.
132
133 87,001 added because of undercount of farm laborers.
those omitted were "Unpaid family workers."
Probably a' majority of
134 630,985 deducted because of overcount of farm laborers.
these were "Unpaid family workers."
Probably most of
135 Includes addition to account for farm laborers classified as "Laborers (not
specified)": 31,523 in 1900; 26,382 in 1890; and 31,464 in 1880.
136 12,947
added to account for farm laborers classified as "Laborers
specified)," and 43,344 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
(not
137 Includes approximately 25,000 girls estimated on the basis of past trends
as the number of farm laborers (unpaid family workers) 10 to 13 years of age
who would have been enumerated in 1940.
138 "Watchmen (crossing) and bridge tenders," classified in "Protective service
workers" in 1940, are included in this table in "Operatives and kindred workers"
O
O
0
in order to list them next to occupations with which they were combined in
earlier censuses.
£r1
^
139 "Probation and truant officers," classified in "Social and welfare workers"
in 1940, were classified in the group "Watchmen, policemen, etc." in 1900
and 1890.
q
140 Estimated.
"Probation and truant officers," classified in "Social and
welfare workers" in 1940, were classified in the group "Watchmen, policemen,
etc." in 1880 and 1870..
3
United States marshals, here included, were included in the group " O f ficials (government)" prior to 1910.
Cn
hh
142 Excludes
craftsmen.
and
>>
143 The following occupations which were classified in other major occupation
groups in 1940, as shown below, were included in "Service workers, except protective" in this table, in order to list them next to occupations with which they
were combined in earlier censuses.
Foremen, personal services
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers
Laborers, laundering, cleaning, and dyeing services
Laborers, except farm
Laundry operatives and laundresses,
except private family.
Operatives and kindred workers
Operatives, amusement, recreation,
and related s e r v i c e s . . . . . . . . .
.Operatives and kindred workers
Operatives, laundering, cleaning,
and dyeing services.......
.Operatives and kindred workers
Z
O
i-*
141
commissioned
officers,
professional
and
clerical
workers,
g
.^j
Proprietors, managers, and officials, laundering, cleaning
and dyeing services..........Proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm
1 4 4 Figures
include estimated number of "Attendants, pool rooms, bowling
alleys, golf clubs, etc.," estimated on the basis that they increased 50 percent
during each decade from 1870 to 1930.
Estimated on the basis that female stage hands and circus helpers and
theater ushers equaled 4 percent of the actresses at each census, and that the
"Attendants, pool rooms, bowling alleys, golf clubs, etc.," increased 50 percent
during each decade from 1870 to 1930.
145
146
Includes estimated number of manicurists.
Includes estimated number of manicurists, and 7 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
147
148 The
decrease from 1930 to 1940 in the number of boarding house and
lodginghouse keepers may have resulted in large measure from the use of more
specific instructions in 1940, when only persons keeping five or more boarders
or lodgers were returned.
140
63 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
At each census from 1910 to 1940 the enumerators returned as "Housekeepers" so many servants who were in no sense housekeepers that it is believed
the statistics for "Housekeepers, private family" are very inaccurate. In 1940
many of those returned as housekeepers were in fact only servants, and considerable numbers of them were housekeepers in their own homes.
151 Census figures less estimated number of "Attendants, pool rooms, bowling
alleys, golf clubs, etc.": 81 in 1920 and 54 in 1910.
162 Census figures less estimated number of "Attendants, pool rooms, bowling
alleys, golf clubs, etc.": 36 in 1900; 24 in 1890; and 16 in 1880. Figures include
"Porters, domestic and personal service," and "Porters, professional service,"
classified elsewhere in 1940.
153 Estimated number of "Attendants, pool rooms, bowling alleys, golf clubs,
etc.," deducted from census figures (11), and 28,227 added because of undercount
in 13 Southern States. Figures include "Porters, domestic and personal service,"
and "Porters, professional service," classified elsewhere in 1940.
154 Figures do not include workers in cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shops.
155 2,493 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States. Figures do not
include workers in cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shops.
The decrease from 1930 to 1940 may have resulted in part from an underestimate of the effect of the transfer of ward maids from this group, and in some
158
measure from the fact that, through recourse to the wage income and education
information, entered in the 1940 but not in the 1930 schedules, the return "nurse"
was coded "trained nurse" more frequently in 1940 than in 1930. Figures for
males in 1940 are not comparable with earlier years.
fcO
^
00
157 Estimated numbers of trained nurses deducted from decennial figures, on
the basis of the proportion trained nurses formed of "Nurses and midwives"
in 1900.
**
S
158 Estimated
numbers of trained nurses deductedt from decennial census
figures, on the basis of the proportion trained nurses formed of "Nurses and
midwives" in 1900, and 390 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
^
go
q
159 Teachers (athletics, dancing, etc.) were included in the group "Teachers"
in 1880 to 1900. Estimated number of billiard room, dance hall, skating rink,
etc., keepers included as follows: 1900, 7,563; 1890, 3,413; 1880, 1,543.
O
p
£
loo Figures include 149 "Teachers of dancing," 21 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States, and 1,220 estimated as the number of billiard room,
dance hall, skating rink, etc., keepers.
1 6 1 22 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
5?
i>
H
Q
^
162 The relatively small increase in the number of technical engineers during
the decade 1930-1940, shown by the census figures, doubtless resulted largely from
the fact that, as a result of the depression, an unusually large proportion of the
young men who graduated from engineering schools during the decade were
not working as engineers in 1940. In addition, at the 1940 census, persons under
35 years old returned as technical engineers were not coded as technical
engineers unless they had had at least- 4 years of college education.
Q
|I|
163 Estimated number of electricians deducted from enumerated figures, and
120 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
(/>
Q
164 1,060 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
"Probation and
truant officers," classified in "Social and welfare workers" in 1940, were
included in "Watchman, policemen, etc.," in the group "Other domestic and
personal service" in 1870.
W
^
y
frrj
165 Estimated
number of demonstrators deducted from
2,383 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
166
census figures,
149 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
167 Figures include "Inventors," classified in "Professional workers
in 1940. 5 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
168
and
89 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
(n.e.c.)"
H
s*
o
Jh
<
^
Q
109
160 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
170
94 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
171
1,966 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
172
5 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
8,354 added' because of undercount of male workers 16 years old and over
in 1920. Figures include "Managers and officials, postal service," classified in
"Officials, United States" in 1940 and "Inspectors, salt wells and works," classified in "Operatives and kindred workers, miscellaneous chemical industries" in
1940. From census figures were deducted 309 returned as "Turpentine farmers,"
and the number, estimated on the basis of 1910 and 1930 data, of "Owners,
operators, and proprietors" and "Managers and officials" in "Gas works"
(3,567), "Electric light and power plants" (6,005), and "Not specified industries
and services" (12,634). 364 "Proprietors, managers, and officials, stockyards,"
estimated on the basis of 1910 and 1930 data, were added.
173
Figures include "Managers and officials, postal service," classified in
"Officials, United States" in 1940 and "Inspectors, salt wells and works," classified in "Operatives and kindred workers, miscellaneous chemical industries" in
1940. From census figures were deducted the number returned as "Turpentine
farmers" (511), and as "Owners, operators, and proprietors" and "Managers and
officials" in " G a s works" (2,822), "Electric light and power plants" (3,351), and
" N o t specified industries and services" (17,800). 315 returned as "Proprietors,
managers, and officials, stockyards" were added.
174
Partly estimated, and estimated number of "Turpentine farmers" deducted
as follows: 468 in 1900; 429 in 1890; 393 in 1880; 361 in 1870. Includes "Agents,
express companies," classified in "Ticket, station, and express agents" in 1940;
"Express messengers," classified in 'Express messengers and railway mail clerks"
in 1940; "Inspectors, telegraph and telephone," classified in "Inspectors, communication and utilities," in 1940; "Managers and officials, postal service,"
classified in "Officials, United States," in 1940; "Inspectors, salt wells and
works," classified in "Operatives and kindred workers, miscellaneous chemical
industries" in 1940; and "Owners, operators, and proprietors" and "Managers
and officials" in each of the following industries: "Gas works" and "Electric
light and power companies," classified in "Utilities" in 1940; and "Not specified
industries and services," classified in "Industry not reported" in 1940. Does not
include "Proprietors, managers, and officials, stockyards," or "Owners and
managers of log and timber camps." On the basis of 1930 data, correct classification of these items would reduce the total by 4.0 percent.
175
176 632 addeid because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
note 175,
See, also foot-
177 Includes
bartenders, not shown separately from saloon keepers,
added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
178
2,165 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
1,258 added because of undercount in 13 Southern
were included with "Dressmakers arid seamstresses."
179
180
"Milliners"
o
added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
272 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
183 Census
figures estimated,
Southern States.
184
States.
285 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
181 3,612
182
and 256
and 374 added
because
of
undercount
in 13
Partly estimated, and 494 added because of undercount in 13 Southern
States. Figures do not include "Abstractors, notaries, and justices of peace,"
classified in 1940 in the group "Clerical workers (n.e.c.)."
185
186
Includes radio and wireless operators, classified separately in 1940.
Census figures include telegraph
undercount in 13 Southern States.
Census figures
Southern States.
188
189
estimated,
and
operators
only;
added
because
84
90 added
because
undercount
in
13
added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
46 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
193 Figures do not include "Canvassers" and
because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
"Sales
agents";
194 66 added
because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
note 217.
195 3,812 added
because
over in 1920.
of
undercount
<*>
W
O
V
w
of
190 Includes
approximately 10,000 persons estimated on the basis of past
trends as the number of newsboys 10 to 13 years of age who would , have been
enumerated in 1940. The great increase in the number of newsboys may have
come in part from an undervaluation of classification changes.
192
w
of
443 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
1 9 1 27
o
H
70 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
187
$o
of
male workers
4,139
r
w
C/3
H-1
H-t
>
$
o
HH
t—I
td
added
See, also, foot-
16 years old
and
fcO
CO
1,065 added because of undercount in. 13 Southern States.
197
30 added because of undercount of male workers 16 years old and over
472 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
See, also, foot-
note 217.
199
Includes ship caulkers, riggers, and smiths, combined in 1880 with ship
carpenters.
2 0 0 5,305 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
note 217.
From census figures were deducted 21,705 "Stationary engineers, water transportation," estimated on the basis of 1910 and 1930 data, classified in the group
"Officers, pilots, pursers, and engineers, ship," in 1940.
See, also, foot-
Figures include "Foremen and overseers, postal service," classified in the
group "Foremen, government" in 1940. From census figures were deducted the
number returned as "Foremen, turpentine farms"
(724), and the number
estimated on the basis of 1910 and 1930 data, of "Foremen and overseers" in
" G a s works" (3,452), and "Electric light and power plants" (3,225). 249 "Foremen and overseers, salt wells and works," estimated on the basis of 1910 and
1930 data, were added.
202 Figures include "Foremen and overseers, postal service," classified in the
group "Foremen, government" in 1940. From census figures were deducted the
number of "Foremen and overseers" returned in "Gas works" (2,277). "Electric
light and power plants" (1,166), and on "Turpentine farms" (899). 221 returned
as "Foremen and overseers, salt wells and works" were added.
214 In 1910, most of the "Cranemen, derrickmen, hoistmen, etc." were classified
with the semiskilled operatives of the respective industries. From census figures
were deducted 20,213 returned as "Stationary engineers, water transportation,"
classified in the group "Officers, pilots, pursers, arid engineers, ship," in 1940.
422 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
"Cranemen, derrickmen, hoistmen, etc."
215
216
201
2,464 added because of undercount of male workers 16 years old and over
in 1920.
203
2°4
822 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States. See, also, footnote 217.
205 644 added because of undercount of male workers 16 years old and over
in 1920.
206 17 added because of Undercount in 13 Southern States.
See, also, footnote 217.
207
31 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
208
151 added because of undercount of male workers 16 years old and over
in 1920.
276 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States. See, also, footnote 217.
210
59 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
See, also, footnote 217.
211 270 added because of undercount of male workers 16 years old and over
in 1920.
Does not include
218 Does not include "Agents, express companies,"
"Operatives, car and railroad shops," or "Laborers, car and railroad shops."
On the basis of 1930 data,
correct classification of, these items would increase the total by 7.6 percent. Includes
"Boiler washers and engine hostlers" and "Yardmen," occupations omitted from
the 1910, 1920, and 1930 data, Estimated deliverymen for bakeries, stores, and
laundries were deducted from "Teamsters."
219
Partly estimated.
220
4,897 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
IS3
O
o
•g
M
GO
o
4 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
217 All apprentices to manual trades whose trades were specified on the schedules were included in 1870 with the journeymen of their respective crafts. In addition there were 15,302 'Apprentices (not specified)."
n
n
a
•a
>
H.
o
a
C/3
M
W
#
o
See, also, footnote 218.
See, also, footnote
218.
cr
o
s
221 Because of indefinite returns by census enumerators, it is probable that at
each census some stationary engineers were included, with locomotive engineers,
and that some firemen of stationary boilers were included with locomotive firemen.
OQ
M
<
222 An examination made of selected 1940 census enumerators' schedules indicated that the decrease in the number of fishermen and oystermen from 1930 to
1940 may have resulted largely, or even entirely, from the fact that, since fishing
is seasonal, many fishermen were not actually fishing during the census week and
were not included in the labor force.
d
W
223
209
24 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States. See, also, footnote 217.
213
in 1920.
198
212
See, also, foot-
note 217.
765 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
224 Includes addition to a:ccouht for workers classified as "Laborers, (not specified)": 18,997 in 1900; 10,122 in 1890; and 7,117 in 1880; Figures include "Inspectors, scalers, and surveyors," "Foremen," and "Owners and managers of- log
and timber camps."
W
Z
£
d
W
C/3
225 2,416 added to account for workers classified as "Laborers (not specified)"
and 587 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States. Figures include "Inspectors, scalers, and surveyors," "Foremen," and "Owners and managers of log
and timber camps."
"Laborers, street cleaning," classified in "Laborers, utilities" in 1940, and probably "Laborers, postal service," classified in "Laborers, government" in 1940, but
does not include "Laborers, stockyards." On the basis of 1930 data, correct classification of these items would reduce the total by 2.2 percent.
228 249 "Foremen and overseers, salt wells and works," estimated on the basis of 1910 and 1930 data, were deducted.
236 816 added because of undercount of male workers 16 years old and over
in 1920, and 1,406 "Laborers, postal service," estimated on the basis of 1910 and
1930 data, deducted.
227 221 returned as "Foremen and overseers, salt wells and works" were deducted.
Includes addition to account for operatives classified as "Laborers
specified):" 93,805 in 1900; 37,026 in 1890; and 37,880 in 1880.
228
(not
229 14,136 added to account for workers classified as "Laborers (not specified)"
and 680 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
230 21,705 "Stationary engineers, water transportation"
estimated on the basis
of 1910 and 1930 data, were added.
23120,213
returned as "Stationary engineers, water transportation" were added.
18,426 added because of undercount of male workers 16 years old and over
in 1920.
232
Largely estimated. Figure consists of "Hostlers," "Well borers," "Whitewashers" and "Laborers (not specified)" allocated to manufacturing and to transportation. Estimate includes "Foremen, road and street building," classified in
"Foremen, construction" in 1940, "Laborers, street cleaning," classified in "Laborers, utilities" in 1940, and probably "Laborers, postal service," classified in "Laborers, government" in 1940, but does not include "Laborers, stockyards." On the
basis of 1930 data, correct classification of these items would reduce the total by
2.2 percent.
238
234 Largely estimated.
Figure consists of "Whitewashes" and "Laborers (not
specified)" allocated to manufacturing and to transportation. Estimate includes
"Foremen, road and street building" classified in "Foremen, construction" in
1940, "Laborers, street cleaning," classified in "Laborers, utilities" in 1940, and
probably "Laborers, postal service," classified in "Laborers, government" in 1940,
but does not include "Laborers, stockyards." On the basis of 1930 data, correct
classification of these items would reduce the total by 2.2 percent.
235 Largely estimated, and 4,697 added because of undercount in 13 Southern
States. Figure consists of "Whitewashes," "Hostlers," and "Laborers (not specified)" allocated to manufacturing and to transportation. Estimate includes "Forer
men. road and street building," classified in "Foremen, construction" in 1940,
237
606 returned as "Laborers, postal service" were deducted.
238
1,681 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.,
239
118 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
240
1,116 added because Of undercount in 13 Southern States.
241
775 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
242
14 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
243
191 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
O
o
H
O
H
w
</>
2,873 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States. Includes milliners
and millinery dealers, milliners' apprentices, tailors' and tailoresses' apprentices,
and dressmakers' apprentices.
244
To census figures' were added 16,521 returned as "Coopers" in "Saw and
planing mills" and in "Other woodworking factories" in 1910, and estimated numbers in other years as follows: 12,011 in 1920; 25,296 in 1900; 33,240 in 1890; and
38,835 in 1880.
245
246 To census figures were added 32,735, the estimated number of "Coopers"
in "Saw and planing mills" and in "Other woodworking factories"; 1,697 added
because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
247 To census figures, which probably include boxmakers (wood), were added 49
because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
248
460 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
249
92 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
See, also, footnote
217.
O
£
w
r
M
W
1—4
l-H
d
HH
t-H
W
To census figures were added 1,346 in "Skilled occupations (n.e.c.),
petroleum refineries," i.e., "Distillers," "Refiners," or "Treaters," estimated on
the basis of 1910 and 1930 data.
250
251 To census figures were added 984 returned in "Skilled occupations (n.e.c.),
petroleum refineries," i.e., "Distillers and refiners."
pi
252
1,684 added because of undercount in 13' Stottt-lienf States.
mote 217.
See, also, foot-
253
192 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.. See, also, footnote 217.
254
523 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States,
267 782,958 added because of undercount of farm laborers.
jority of those omitted were "Unpaid family workers."
Probably a ma-
268 796,542 deducted because of overcount of farm laborers. Probably most of
these were "Unpaid family workers."
1,362 added because of undercount of male workers 16 years old and over
in 1920.
269 Includes addition to account for farm laborers classified as "Laborers (not
specified)": 670,702 in 1900; 909,740 in 1890; and 925,421 in 1880.
To census figures were added 8,986 "Glass blowers,"
mated on the basis of 1910 and 1930 data.
270 616,527 added to account for farm laborers classified as
"Laborers (not
specified)," and 208,063 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
271 Includes approximately 80,000 persons estimated on the basis of past trends
as the number of farm laborers (unpaid family workers) 10 to 13 years of age
who would have been enumerated in 1940.
255
258
glass factories, esti-
-257 To census figures were added 15,467 returned as "Glass blowers," glass factories.
258
55 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
sm
41 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
260
297 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
261 Figures include any persons enumerated as filers, forgemen and hammermen, structural iron workers (building), tool makers and die setters and sinkers,
operatives and laborers in automobile repair shops, but do hot include those in
car and railroad shops properly allocated to railroad and miscellaneous transportation equipment.
On the basis of 1930 data, correct classification of these
items would reduce the total by approximately 8.7 percent.
bO
to
3
o
£
W
%
O
^
272 Estimated on the basis that male stage hands and circus helpers and theater
ushers equaled 50 percent of the actors at each census, that female stage hands and
circus helpers and theater ushers equaled 4 percent of the actresses at each census,
and that the "Attendants, pool rooms, bowling alleys, golf clubs, etc." Increased 50
percent during each decade from 1870 to 1930.
jj
2
O
273 Includes estimated number of manicurists, and 363 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
^
^
274
109 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
.jjj
Census figures less estimated number of "Attendants, pool, rooms, bowling
alleys, golf clubs, etc.": 10,779 in 1920 and 7,186 in 1910.
275
2 8 2 2,071 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
Figures include
any persons enumerated as filers, forgemen and hammermen, structural iron workers (building), tool makers and die setters and sinkers, operatives and laborers
in automobile repair shops, but do not include those in car and railroad shops
properly allocated to railroad and miscellaneous transportation equipment.
On
the basis of 1930 data, correct classification of these items would reduce the total by
approximately 8.7 percent. See, also, footnote 217.
To census figures were added 158 "Glass blowers," electrical machinery and
supply factories, estimated on the basis of 1910 and 1930 data.
263
264
To census figures were added 97 returned as "Glass blowers," electrical ma-
chinery and supply factories,
2568
106,770 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
266
Includes approximately 10,000 persons estimated on the basis of past trends
as the number of farm laborers (wage workers) 10 to 13 years of age who would
have been enumerated in 1940.
Census figures less estimated number of "Attendants, pool rooms, bowling
alleys, golf clubs, etc.": 4,791 in 1900; 3,194 in 1890; and 2,129 in 1880. Figures
include "Porters, domestic and personal service," and "Porters, professional service," classified elsewhere in 1940.
277 Estimated number of "Attendants, pool rooms, bowling alleys, golf clubs,
276
Q
Ch
q
^
^
etc." deducted from census figures (1,420) and 33,659 added because of undercount
>gj
in 13 Southern States.
^u
Figures include "Porters, domestic and personal service,"
and "Porters, professional service," classified elsewhere in 1940.
278
^
29 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
279 2,540 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
include workers in cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shops.
_
P
Figures do not
280 Estimated numbers of trained nurses deducted from decennial census figures, on the basis of the proportion trained nurses formed of "Nurses and midwives" in 1900, and 407 added because of undercount in 13 Southern States.
Q
W
INDEX
Page
Accountants. (See Bookkeepers,
accountants, and cashiers.)
Actresses and dancers, . 168
Adjustment factors,
occupational
.
— 13
Age—
Of gainful workers
. 13
Of labor f o r c e - 13
Age groups:
Clerical and kindred workers
77
Cotton workers
.
107
Nurses, trained
.
163
Practical nurses and midwives
149
Sales workers
86
Service workers in private
and public housekeeping.. 144
Teachers
160
Age trends—
Of population
3, 34
Of workers
_
—3, 34, 36-37
Agents, collectors, and credit
men __
82
Agricultural workers..57-58,. 190-195
Amusement and recreation, attendants, ushers, operatives.— 151
Apparel and accessories
115-116
Architects
177-178
Artists and art teachers
.166-168
Attendants and assistants,
library
____
____
-..169-170
Attendants, physicians' and
dentists' offices
81
Attendants, ushers, operatives,
amusement and recreation
151
Authors
169
Automobile manufactures
131-132
Aviators
179
Bakery products
99-100
Banking and finance, proprietors, managers, officials, and
salesmen
188
Barbers, beauticians, and
manicurists
.___
____147-148
Barriers, occupational, effect on
occupational trends.
9-10
Beauticians. (See Barbers,
beauticians, and manicurists.)
Beverage industries..
101
Boarding house and lodginghouse keepers
.151-152
Bookkeepers, accountants, and
cashiers
78-79
Business development.
(See
Concentration, industrial;
Corporations.)
Businesswomen
180-189
Page
.97-98
Canning and preserving... I l l
Carpets and rugs..
Census classification (see also
Occupational classification) —
Of boarding house and lodginghouse keepers..
—- 151
Of manufacturing operatives
94
Of nurses
— 148
Of social and welfare workers ,
_
164-165
Of technicians and laboratory assistants
176-177
Census dates
— — 14
53-55
Census, history
—
.122-123
Census of manufactures..
Chemical manufactures
91
Chemists, assayers, and
metallurgists
.
177
Child labor:
Cotton industry- —
— 107
Laws
158
Civil War:
And nursing.
161
And teaching
...
157
Gainful workers at close
33
Clay products, structural- 128-129
Clergymen
165,174
Clerical, sales, and kindred
workers (see also Clerks and
kindred workers; White-collar
workers)
.19-21,59
Clerks and kindred workers, a
social-economic group
48-49, 51
Clocks, watches, jewelry, and
silverware —
.
— 131
Clothing stores, proprietors.
(See General merchandise, apparel, and shoe stores.)
Clothing workers
58,112-117
College presidents, professors,
and instructors
—159-160
Comparability—
Of major occupation groups 45
Indexes for individual occupations.
(See A d j u s tment f a c t o r s , occupational.)
Compositors and typesetters__121-122
Concentration:
Industrial, effect on women's employment—
7
Occupational
18, 26-29
Men's and women's
compared
4/67-69
Trends i n . . . . — — 6 - 7 , 65-69
Confectionery workers..——— 98-99
Consumer habits. (See Standard of living.)
253
254:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
Page
Page
.57,140
Cooks
72
Corporations, rise of_.
...105-108
Cotton workers——
County agents and farm
82
demonstrators
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers. (See Trades
and crafts.)
Craftsmen, printing
121
Factory system, effect on
women's employment- — —
7
Farm laborers——
192-195
Farmers, farm managers, and
foremen
^192,194-195
Food and dairy products stores,
proprietors, managers, and
officials
—.181-182
Food industries, miscellaneous.- 100
Food manufacturing
94-101
Footwear manufacture
-124-125
Foremen
——-—196-197
Fruit and vegetable graders
and packers-——
133-134
Funeral directors and
embalmers
-—
179
Furniture manufactures——118-119
101
Dairy products..
Dealers, wholesale and retail— 50
Decorators and window
dressers
197-198
Decreases in occupations,
1910-1940 -_i-_L64-65
Demand for labor, effect on
occupational trends
———
7
Demonstrators
...
87
Dentists -—173-174
Depression employment:
Decorators and window
197
dressers
,
Doctors* and dentists'
81
attendants
.
84
Sales occupations..
Designers and draftsmen.
—- 176
Distribution
—84-86
Doctors
_-_.171-173
Domestic service workers (see
also Cooks; Household workers; Housekeepers; Laundresses; Waitresses) - 23,142-143
Dressmakers and seamstresses ... 116
Druggists and pharmacists—187-188
Durable goods manufactures— 94
Dyeing and finishing
textiles
111-112
Eating and drinking places,
proprietors, managers, and officials ,
—
—182-183
Economic activities, household.
(See Household industry.)
Economic and social factors,
effect on occupational
trends
3-4, 7-12,35
Editors and reporters
170-171
Education of women.—
—-156-157
Graduate
„
——— 160
Legal
175
Medical
_ — — — 171
Electrical machinery and
.132-133
equipment
..149-150
Elevator operatorsEmployed women, 194015-17
Employment status, 1940——.15-17
Engineers, technical—^—177-178
Factory operatives..
..21-23
Gainful workers:
Ages included13
12
Definition
General merchandise, apparel,
and shoe stores, proprietors,
managers, and officials
184
Glassworkers
126-127
r
Government officials and
inspectors
186
Grain-mill products and miscellaneous food industries
— 100
Hand trades
91
Clothing industry
— 115
Decline, 1910-1940-.
—
64
Milliners
. — 184
Hat workers.
— 117
Home housework, women
engaged in
-15-17
Hosiery. (See Knit goods.)
Hotels and lodging places, proprietors, managers, and officials
.—185-186
Household industry:
Chemical products122-123
Clothing
- 112
Dyeing t e x t i l e s —
111
Food preparation
94
Knit goods:
— 1 0 8
Nursing care.—
-149,162
Pharmacy
—
187
Silk
—
— 110
Household workers (see also
Cooks; Domestic service workers; Housekeepers; Laundresses ; Waitresses) —57,142-143
Housekeepers
57,140-141
Hucksters and peddlers
——87-88
Immigrant labor:
Clothing industryCotton industry—
114
106
INDEX
Page
Service workers in private
and public housekeeping. 141
Immigration, effect on occupational trends
— — - — - — 11
Increases in occupations,
-_62, 63
1910-1940
Industrial concentration.
(See
Concentration, industrial*)
Industry, proprietors, managers,
and officials in:
——
185
Insurance:
Agents and brokers
— 88-89
Proprietors, managers, and
officials
- 189
Inventions, e f f e c t on occupational trends (see also Machines;
Sewing m a c h i n e ;
Technology; Typewriter)
9
Janitors and sextons..
Knit goods-
150
.108-109
Labor force:
... 13
Ages included _
.12-13
Definition
•
Numbers in 1940-——
15
Reasons for growth—
3
World War I L .
1
Laboratory technicians—
176-177
Laborers. (See Operatives and
laborers.)
Laborers, nonfarm—
__
50, 51
Laundresses ____-__
57,146
Laundry workers
.144-146
Laws. (See Legislation.)
Lawyers and judges.—— ——_ 175
Leading occupations .—_ — - 26-27
Changes in
____—6-7, 56-60
Men's and women's
compared
.28-29
Leather products, except
footwear
_____—_.
___ 126
Leather tanning and
currying
—
—.125-126
Legislation:
Child labor
158
Effect on occupational
trends .
_______
9
Prohibition Act.
101
School —
158
Women messengers ..
83
Librarians
jl69-170
Library attendants and
169-170
assistants —
—
Machines (see also Sewing machine ; Technology):
Accounting
——
-78-79
Cotton
manufactures
-103,105-106
Knitting
- 108
Office
74, 76
255
Page
Printing occupations121-122
Shoe manufacture—
125
Silk industry —
— . — 110
Mail carriers..
——
83
Manual w o r k e r s —
47
Manufacturing:
Foremen
197
Operatives and laborers ._ 91, 94
Proprietors, managers, and
officials
——— 185
Marital status, trends in population and labor force (see also
: Married women workers ; Single women workers)
39-40
Married women workers :
Clerical and kindred
occupations
..—...77-78
tDotton manufactures
107-108
Nurses, trained
164
Occupations
1——___ 5, 41-43
Saleswomen, "clerks" in
stores, and demonstrators 86
Teachers
___—__
^ 160
Meat products.. —,__
99
Medical occupations (see also
Attendants, physicians' and
dentists' offices; N u r s e s ,
trained) —
—
-171-174
Messengers, errand and office
boys --____:__,—
82-83
Metal trades workers——
129-132
Milliners —
—
— 184
Estimated number,
1870, 1880113
Musicians and music
teachers
—r_
.-166-167
Negro workers (see also
Nonwhite workers) :
Tobacco manufacturmg-102-103
Trends - - _ _ - - - _ _ - , _ —
38
New workers, definition-—
12
Newsboys
—_ 89
Nondurable goods manufactures 94
Nonmanual workers— —_
47-48
Nonwhite workers (see also
Negro workers) :
Service workers in private
and p u b l i c housekeeping
______
143-144
Nurses I — . — .
59
Practical, and midwives :148-149
Trained
-161-164
Occupational classification (see
also Census, classification;
Comparability)
13-14, 54, 56-57,
60-62
Occupational concentration.
(See Concentration, occupational.)
Occupational distribution,
1940
4,17-18
256:
WOMEN'S OCCUPATIONS THROUGH SEVEN DECADES
Page
Page
Occupational groups, proportion
of women in 1940—18-19
Occupational shifts, 1910-1940.
(See Social-economic groups.)
Occupational trends, economic
and social factors in. (See
Economic and social factors.)
Public emergency workers :
Apparel industry——-——115-116
Library assistants and
attendants
. — - — — . 170
Public policy, effect on occupational trends (see also Legislation) —
——
9
from 1910 to
^ ^
Deciining;i9io-r94o:::::::::::64-65
Growing, 1910-1940-..
In early censuses
L
^
62-63
60-62
(See Leading
No women reported.
^ J ^ ^ r s T ^ ' '
g adi °
Ray°n
^
R
1940
women,
^ ^
World War II
— 1 2
Office machine operators
76-77
Office
workers
also workClerical, sales,
and(see
kindred
ers; Clerks and kindred work-
Retail
.
ig9
Operatrves and kindred
workers
21-23
:
Oneratives and l a b o r e r s (tee
° S t o r e r t
Man-
o^UTSizzf!
workers)kel*S'
lit
Painters
198
Paper and paper products ,119-120
Paperhangers — — — —
198-199
Pharmacists. (See Druggists
and pharmacists.)
_ _ _
Photographers
178-179
dentists
^
attendants
ol
Physicians, surgeons, and
osteopaths .. _
L_
.172-173
Population. (See Age trends;
Marital status; Residence.)
Increase
33
Postmasters —
—. 187
Pottery industry
127-128
Practical nurses and midwives
(see also Nurses,
trained)
—148-149
Printing and publishing
120-122
Professional and semiprofessional workers..—
25-26
Professional
workers
48-49, 51, 155-179
Proprietors, managers, and
officials — — —
50-51,180-189
Protective service workers
- 200
Public emergency work, women
employed on, in 1940
15-17
^
and
s
—
I
^
operators so-si
Products (see
r a y ° n ™anufac-
Residence, e f f e c t
'6"6°
Officials, rodge7 society, union,
al ? d a l l i e d
f s o «llk
^
30-31, 55
and.wi?;df
I
Z
^
^
%
on
occupational
i
r
Z
j
s
S
trade. (See Proprietors,
managers, and officials; Sales
_ occupations.)
1Q „ , 0 ,
R ^ b e r workers
...123-124
Rural areas' worker rates
38"39
SaIes occupations (see a h o Cier.
[c&}> sales >
ers; ——
and kindred work"
—-—-———
„ Rq
-oo-oy
I E ? 8
Schools. (See Education of
women; Legislation, school.)
Seas™! workers (see also
^
^
r
l
'
118
S
Fruit and vegetable
packing
— 133
Secretaries. (See Office workers.)
Semiskilled workers
..49-50, 51
Servant classes, a socialeconomic group
..50-51
"Servants." (See Service work,
j
v
f s > P r l v f t e a n d Publlc h o u s e keeping.)
„
As leading occupation—— 57
Service workers
137-152
Except domestic and
protective, 1940
— — 23-24
Private and public housekeeping (see also Domestic service workers) —137-144
Protective
—
200
Sewing machine
112,125
(See
S h o e stores, proprietors.
General merchandise, apparel,
d
h
storGg y
* n a s n o f s t o r e s ->
10/1
Shoe workers..—
,-..124-125
Sllk and ray°n
manufactures ———
109-111
Single women workers——
39
Occupations
——5,40-41
INDEX
257
Page
Page
Skilled workers and foremen
(see also Hand trades; Trades
and crafts)
-—-—
50-51
Social and welfare workers,
religious workers, and clergymen
--164-166
Social changes and occupational
trends — .
—
__.—-r
8
Social-economic groups..
5-6, 45-51
Specialization (see also Technology)
Clothing industry.——115
Medical occupations—1
81
Service workers in private
and public housekeeping- 141
Standard of living, effect on
occupational trends
_„_^_11-12
Status of women, effect on
occupational trends
— 7,8
Stenographers. (See Office
workers.)
Structural clay products—.128-129
Tobacco manufacturing
101-103
Trade, retail and wholesale.
(See Proprietors, managers,
and officials; Sales occupations.)
Trades and crafts (see also
Hand trades; Skilled workers
and foremen; Tailoresses) -196-199
Trends—
In numbers and characteristics of workers
—.33-43
In occupations. (See names
of specific occupations;
Occupations, changes
from 1910 to 1940; Socialeconomic groups.)
Typewriter —
—- 74
Typists. (See Office workers.)
Tailoresses
116-117
Tanning and currying
leather
125-126
Teachers (see also Artists and
art teachers; Musicians and
music teachers)
59,157-160
Technicians
176-177
Technology (see also Inventions ;
Machines; Specialization) :
Bakery products
99-100
Bookkeeping and accounting 78
Canning and preserving—97-98
Clothing industry
112-114
Cotton industry.105-106
Effect on occupational
trends
—
.132-133
Electrical industry. 94
Food industry..
Furniture industry...
118-119
Glass industry
127
Hat industry
117
Industrial, professions
affected by
...175-176
Laundries
_
146
Metal industries
— 129
Paper and paper products.— 119
Rubber industry.—
-123-124
Shoe manufacture
125
Telephone industry
...79-80
Tobacco manufacturing-101-102
Telegraph and telephone
operators
—.79-81
Telegraph messengers..
83
Telegraph operators..
.80-81
Telephone operators „
79-81
Textile dyeing and finishing„lll-112
Textile workers
58-59,103-112
Undertakers. (See Funeral
directors and embalmers.)
Unemployed women———
...15-17
Upholsterers
199
Urban areas :
Boarding houses.—
— 152
Social and welfare workers.. 166
Worker rates———
—38-39
Urban life and married women's
employment
40
Urban population, g r o w t h — 3 8
Veterinarians
178
Waitresses —
.57,140-141
Wars, e f f e c t on occupational
trends (see also Civil War;
World War I; World War
II)
^
... 10
White-collar workers (see also
Clerical, sales, and kindred
workers; Clerks and kindred
workers) —
——..1.71-89
Woodworking industries
-117-119
Wool and worsted
manufactures
109
Worker rates—
By age.
36-37
By marital status
39-40
By race
38
By residence
'.
38-39
Workers, trends in numbers
and characteristics—33-43
World War I—
And elevator operators-149-150
And glass industry.—-.—
127
And metal industries
129-131
And nursing...
, 161
And pottery industry.
128
World War II and women
workers
1-2
CURRENT PUBLICATIONS OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU
For complete list of publications, write the Women's Bureau.
Single copies of bulletins —- or a small supply for special educational purposes •— may be secured through the Women's Bureau without charge, as long
as the free supply lasts. Bulletins may be purchased direct from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. 0., at prices listed. A discount of
25 percent on orders of 100 or more copies is allowed. Other publications
listed may be secured from the Women's Bureau.
FACTS O N W O M E N WORKERS—issued monthly. 4 pages. Multilith. (Latest
statistics on employment of women; earnings; labor laws affecting women;
news items of interest to women workers; women in the international
scene.)
HANDBOOK OF FACTS O N W O M E N WORKERS.
Bull. 225,
(In press.)
EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK FOR W O M E N
The Outlook for Women in Occupations in the Medical and Other Health
Services, Bull. 203:
1.
Physical Therapists. 14 pp. 1945. 10c.
2.
Occupational Therapists. 15 pp. 1945. 10c.
3.
Professional Nurses. 66 pp. 1946. 15c.
4.
Medical Laboratory Technicians. 10 pp. 1945. 10c.
5.
Practical Nurses and Hospital Attendants. 20 pp. 1945. 10c.
6.
Medical Record Librarians. 9 pp. 1945. 10c.
7. Women Physicians. 28 pp. 1945. 10c.
8. X-Ray Technicians. 14 pp. 1945. 10c.
9.
Women Dentists. 21pp. 1945, 10c.
10.
Dental Hygienists. 17 pp. 1945. 10c,
11.
Physicians' and Dentists' Assistants. 15 pp. 1945. 10c.
12.
Trends and Their Effect Upon the Demand for Women Workers.
55 pp. 1946. 15c.
The Outlook for Women in Science. Bull. 233:
1.
Science. (In press.)
2.
Chemistry. 65 pp. 1948. 20c.
3.
Biological Sciences. 87 pp. 1948. 25c.
4.
Mathematics and Statistics. 21 pp. 1948. 10c.
5.
Architecture and Engineering. (In press.)
6.
Physics and Astronomy, 32 pp. 1948. 15c.
7.
Geology, Geography, and Meteorology. (In press.)
8.
Occupations Related to Science. 33 pp. 1948. 15c.
Your Job Future After College. Leaflet. 1947. (Rev. 1948).
LABOR LAWS
Summary of State Labor Laws for Women. 7 pp. Mimeo.
Minimum Wage
State Minimum-Wage Laws and Orders, 1942. An Analysis. Bull.
191. 52 pp. 1942. 20c. (Supplements through 1947. Mimeo.)
State Minimum-Wage Laws. Leaflet 1. 1948.
Model Bill for State minimum-wage law for women. Mimeo.
Map showing States having minimum-wage laws. Desk size; wall
size.)
Equal Pay
Equal Pay for Women. Leaflet 2. 1947. (Rev. 1948.)
Chart analyzing State equal-pay laws and Model Bill. Mimeo,
Texts of State laws (separates). Mimeo.
Model Bill for State equal-pay law. Mimeo.
Selected References on Equal Pay for Women. 9 pp. 1947. Mimeo.
Hours of Work and Other Labor Laws
State Labor Laws for Women, with Wartime Modifications, Dec.
15, 1944. Bull. 202 :
I. Analysis of Hour Laws. 110 pp. 1945. 15c.
I I . Analysis of Plant Facilities Laws. 43 pp. 1945. 10c.
WOMEN'S BUREAU PUBLICATIONS
259
IIL
Analysis of Regulatory Laws, Prohibitory Laws, Maternity Laws. 12 pp. 1945. 5c.
IV. Analysis of Industrial Home-Work Laws. 26 pp. 1945. 10c.
V. Explanation and Appraisal. 66 pp. 1946. 15c.
Supplements through 1947. Mimeo.
Unemployment Compensation—How it Works for Working Women.
Leaflet. 1945. (Rev. 1948, in preparation.)
Map of United States showing State hour laws. (Desk size; wall
size.)
LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN
International Documents on the Status of Women. Bull. 217. 116 pp. 1947.
25c.
Legal Status of Women in the United States of America:
United States Summary, January 1938. Bull. 157. 89 pp. 1941. 15c.
Cumulative Supplement 1938-45. Bull. 157-A. 31pp. 1946. 10c.
Reports for States and District of Columbia (separates). Bulls. 157-1
through 157-49. 5c ea.
Women's Eligibility for Jury Duty. Leaflet. 1947.
INDUSTRY
Women Workers in Power Laundries. Bull. 215. 71 pp. 1947. 20c.
The Woman Telephone Worker [1944]. Bull. 207. 28 pp. 1946. 10c.
Typical Women's Jobs in the Telephone Industry [1944]. Bull. 207-A.
pp. 1947. 15c.
Women in Radio. Bull. 222v 30 pp. 1948. 15c.
EARNINGS
Earnings of Women in Selected Manufacturing Industries, 1946.
14 pp. 1948. 10c.
52
Bull. 219.
COST-OF-LIVING BUDGETS
Working Women's Budgets in Twelve States.
Bull. 226.
(In press.)
EMPLOYMENT
Employment of Women in the Early Postwar Period, with Background of
Prewar and War Data. Bull. 211. 14 pp. 1946. 10c.
Women's Occupations Through Seven Decades. Bull. 218. (Instant publication.)
Women Workers After VJ-Day in One Community—Bridgeport, Conn. Bull.
216. 37 pp. 1947. 15c.
Baltimore Women War Workers in the Postwar Period. (In preparation.)
Charts—
Proportion of All Workers Who Are Women, 1870-1948.
Occupations of Women Workers, 1940.
A Social-Economic Grouping of Women Workers, 1910-1940.
The Leading 10 Occupations of Women Workers, 1870-1940.
Women in Selected Clerical Occupations, 1870-1940.
Women in Selected Operative and Laborer Occupations, 1870-1940.?
Women in Selected Service Occupations, 1870-1940.
Women in Selected Professional Occupations, 1870-1940.
Married Women in Population and in Labor Force, 1910-1947.
Marital Status of Women in the Labor Force, 1910-1947.
HOUSEHOLD EMPLOYMENT
Old-Age Insurance for Household Workers. Bull. 220. 20 pp. 1947. 10c.
Community Household Employment Programs. Bull. 221. 70 pp. 1948. 20c.
REPORTS ON WOMEN IN WARTIME:
Changes in Women's Employment During the War.
1944. 10c.
Sp. Bull. 20.
29 pp.
260
WOMEN'S BUREAU PUBLICATIONS
Women's Wartime Hours of Work—The Effect on Their Factory Performance
and Home Life. Bull. 208. 187 pp. 1947. 35c.
Women Workers in Ten War Production Areas and Their Postwar Employment Plans. Bull. 209. 56 pp. 1946. 15c.
Negro Women War Workers. Bull. 205. 23 pp. 1945. 10c.
Employment Opportunities in Characteristic Industrial Occupations of
Women, Bull. 201. 50 pp. 1944. 10c.
Employment and Housing Problems of Migratory Workers in New York and
New Jersey Canning Industries, 1943. Bull. 198. 35 pp. 1944. 10c.
Successful Practices in the Employment of Nonfarm Women on Farms in the
Northeastern States. Bull. 199. 44 pp. 1944. 10c.
Women's Emergency Farm Service on the Pacific Coast in 1943. Bull. 204.
36 pp. 1945. 10c.
Industrial Injuries to Women [1945]. Bull. 212. 20 pp. 1947. 10c.
16 other reports on women's employment in wartime industries ; part-time
employment; equal pay; community services, recreation, and housing for
women war workers.
Posters (7) showing women in wartime jobs.
RECOMMENDED STANDARDS for women's working conditions, safety, and
health.
Standards of Employment for Women. Leaflet 1. 1946. 5c ea. (Rev. 1948.)
When You Hire Women. Sp. Bull. 14. 16 pp. 1944. 10c.
The Industrial Nurse and the Woman Worker. Sp. Bull. 19. 47 pp. 1944. 10c.
Women's Effective War Work Requires Good Posture. Sp. Bull. 10. 6 pp.
1943. 5c.
Washing and Toilet Facilities for Women in Industry. Sp. Bull. 4. 11 pp.
1942. 5c.
Lifting and Carrying Weights by Women in Industry. Sp. Bull. 2. (Rev.
1946.) 12 pp. 5c.
Safety Clothing for Women in Industry. Sp. Bull. 3. 11 pp. 1941. 10c.
Supplements: Safety Caps; Safety Shoes. 4 pp. ea. 1944. 5c ea.
Night Work: Bibliography. 39 pp. 1946. Multilith.
WOMEN UNDER UNION CONTRACTS
Maternity-Benefits Under Union-Contract Health Insurance Plans. Bull. 214.
19 pp. 1947. 10c.
TRAINING
See "Outlook for Women in Occupations in the Medical and Other Health
Services," Bull. 203; and "Outlook for Women in Science," Bull. 223, for
training required in these professional fields.
See "Community Household Employment Programs," Bull. 221, for training
recommendations.
Training for Jobs—for Women and Girls. [Under public funds available for
vocational training purposes.] Leaflet 1. 1947.
WOMEN IN LATIN AMERICA
Women Workers in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay. Bull. 195. 15 pp. 1942.
5c.
Women Workers in Brazil. Bull. 206. 42 pp. 1946. 10c.
Women Workers in Paraguay. Bull. 210. 16 pp. 1946. 10c.
Women Workers in Peru. Bull. 213. 41 pp. 1947. 10c.
Social and Labor Problems of Peru and Uruguay. 1944. Mimeo.
Women in Latin America: Legal Rights and Restrictions. (In press.)
REPORTS ON WOMEN IN PREWAR YEARS: Women at work (a century of industrial change); women's economic status as compared to men's; women
workers in their family environment (Cleveland and Utah); women's employment in certain industries (clothing, canneries, laundries, offices, government service) ; State-wide survey of women's employment in various
States; economic status of university women.
THE WOMEN'S BUREAU—Its Purpose and Functions. Leaflet. 1946.
Women's Bureau Conference, 1948. Bull. 224. 210 pp. 1948.
ft
O. S* GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:
1948-747639
@FedFRASER