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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
JAMES J. DAVIS, SECRETARY

WOMEN’S BUREAU
MARY ANDERSON, Director

BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU, NO. 21

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND
INDUSTRIES
A Study of Hours, Wages, and
Working Conditions

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1922

[Public—Xo. 259—66tii Congress.]
III. It. 13229.]
An Act To establish in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the
Women’s Bureau.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled, That there shall be
established in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the
Women’s Bureau.
Sec. 2. That the said bureau shall be in charge of a director, a
woman, to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice
and consent of the Senate, who shall receive an annual compensa
tion of $5,000. It shall be the duty of said bureau to formulate
standards and policies which shall promote the welfare of wage
earning women, improve their working conditions, increase their
efficiency, and advance their opportunities for profitable employ
ment. The said bureau shall have authority to investigate and
report to the said department upon all matters pertaining to the
welfare of women in industry. The director of said bureau may
from time to time publish the results of these investigations in such
a manner and to such extent as the Secretary of Labor may prescribe.
Sec. 3. That there shall be in said bureau an assistant director,
to be appointed by the Secretary of Labor, who shall receive an
annual compensation of $3,500 and shall perform such duties as
shall be prescribed by the director and approved by the Secretary
of Labor.
.
Sec. 4. That there is hereby authorized to be employed by said
bureau a chief clerk and such special agents, assistants, clerks, and
other employees at such rates of compensation and in such numbers
as Congress‘may from time to time provide by appropriations.
Sec. 5. That the Secretary of Labor is hereby directed to furnish
sufficient quarters, office furniture, and equipment, for the work of
this bureau.
Sec. 6. That this act shall take effect and be in force from and
after its passage.
Approved, June 5, 1920.

WEEKLY EARNINGS OF WOMEN - RHODE ISLAND
CENT

inn mimBi
mm
wm
m
^psii

.vt’
Urxta-2

20 21

22 23 24 25 26 27
DOLLARS

28 29 30 31

3£ 33 34 35 36 37

39 4 0 41

42 43 44

45 4 6 4 7 48

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
JAMES J. DAVIS, SECRETARY

WOMEN’S BUREAU
MARY ANDERSON, Director

BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU, NO. 21

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND
INDUSTRIES

A Study of Hours, Wages, and
Working Conditions

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1922

CONTENTS.
Letter of transmittal
v
’ Part I: Introduction:
Scope and methodof investigation
2
Facts about the industries,
Summary__ :
Conclusion______________________________________ ____________
Part II: Hours:
Weekly hours^_______________
Daily hours---------------------------------_--------------■_________________
Vacations
24
Part III: Wages:
Wages and cost ofliving
25
Weekly earnings
26
Yearly earnings;______________________________________________
Conclusion1■
Part IV: Working conditions:
General workroom conditions
41
Hazard and strain------------------------------------------------------------------Sanitation___________________________________________________
Service facilities
50
Employment management•______________________________________
Training__________________________________________
Part V: The workers;
Appendix A. General tallies
61
Appendix B. Schedule forms________________

Page.

4
10
12
15
20

35
39
44
47
52
52
53
71

TEXT TABLES.
Table 1. Number of establishments studied and number of persons of

each sex employed therein, by industry_________________
2. Number of establishments and number of women, with sched
uled weekly hours as specified, by industry------------------------3. Number of establishments and number of women, with sched
uled daily hours as specified, by industry__________________
4. Number of women and their median earnings on timework, on
piecework, and on both time and piece work, by industry----5. Year’s earnings of women for whom 52-weelt pay-roll records
were secured, by industry
36

4
16
21

GENERAL TABLES.
Table

I. Number of women working each specified number of hours,
one weekly pay-roll period, by industry---------------------------II. Per cent distribution, according to amount of time lost, of
women who worked less than the scheduled weekly hours,
by industry
62

CONTENTS.
Page.

Table III. Per cent distribution, according to amount of overtime, of

IV.
V.
VT.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.

women who worked beyond the scheduled weekly hours, by
industry---------------------------------------------------------------------Number of women receiving each classified amount during one
weekly pay-roll period, by industry
64
Number of women receiving each classified amount during one
weekly pay-roll period, by hoursworked__________________
Number of timeworkers receiving each classified weekly rate,
by industry-----------------------------------------------------------------Median weekly earnings of women,by age group and industry_
Median weekly earnings of women, by experience in the indiustry-----------------------------------------------------------------------Number of women working each specified number of weeks, of
those for whom 52-week pay-roll records were secured, by
industry
67
Nativity of the women employees who supplied personal infor
mation, by industry_____________________________.’______
Age of the women employees who supplied personal informa
tion, by industry---------------------------------------------------------Length of experience of the women employees who supplied
personal information, by industry
69
Conjugal condition of the women employees who supplied per
sonal information, by industry
70
Living condition of the women employees who supplied per
sonal information, by industry
70

65
66
66

68
6!)

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U.

S. Department

of Labor,
Women’s Bureau,

Washington, November 21,1921.
have the honor to submit the accompanying report of a sur
vey of hours, wages, and working conditions of women in selected
industries in the State of Rhode Island.
The investigation was made at the invitation of Gov. R. L.
Livingston, and the Women’s Bureau was in constant consultation
with the commissioner of labor statistics and the chief factory
inspector.
Mrs. Ethel L. Best was in charge of the survey and the report was
written by Miss Mary V. Robinson. A manuscript copy of the re
port has been submitted to the governor of the State.
Respectfully submitted.
Mary Anderson, Director.
Sir : I

Hon. James J. Davis,

Secretary of Labor.
W

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.
PART I. INTRODUCTION.
This study of hours, wages, and working conditions of women in
industrial and mercantile establishments in Rhode Island was made
by the Women’s Bureau of the United States Department of Labor
upon the invitation of the governor of the State. The Consumers’
League of Rhode Island was influential in instigating the survey.
The investigation was begun October 5 and continued until December
10. 1920. During the course of the survey the commissioner of labor
statistics and the chief factory inspector were consulted, as were
also the secretary of the Chamber of Commerce of Rhode Island,
the president and secretary of the Jewelers’ Protective Association,
the secretary of the Retail Merchants’ Association, the secretary of
the Metal Trades’ Association, the secretary of t'he Consumers’
League, and the industrial secretary of the Young Women’s Chris
tian Association. The courtesy and cooperation extended by these
officials were appreciated by the representatives of the Women’s
Bureau.
The significance of the investigation is evident in view of the indus
trial status of Rhode Island and the position of its women wage earn
ers. Despite its small area the State is an important industrial center.
The preliminary statement of the United States Bureau of the Census
concerning the manufactures in Rhode Island for 1919 showed a con
sistent increase in manufacturing in all respects as compared with
1914, and among other items was a 23.1 per cent increase in the num
ber of wage earners.1 The 1920 census figures for the number and
sex of the wage earners are not yet available, but the 1910 census
showed that the number of females over 10 years of age gainfully
employed was large in proportion to the total number living in the
State (32.1 per cent), a larger percentage, in fact, than in the neigh
boring States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York.12
The Rhode Island factory inspection department showed that for
1919 the number of women wage earners over 16 years of age in the
establishments inspected by the State was 64,031, and of those under
16 years, 3,948, making a total of 67,979.3 These figures show an
increase of 1,877 women during the year 1919 alone. Similar in
1 U. S. Bureau of the Census. Manufactures in Rhode Island. Summary concerning the
State for 1919. News release, June 8, 1921.
2 II. S. Bureau of the Census. Thirteenth Census 1910. V. 4, Population: Occupation
statistics, p. 37.
a Rhode Island. Factory Inspection Department. Twenty-sixth annual report, 1919,
pp. 5-7. Providence, 1920.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

creases could doubtless be shown in the years immediately preceding,
as it is probable Rhode Island shared in the marked increase of
women in industry which took place throughout the country as
a result of the war. Another significant feature in the problem of
women in industry in the State is the fact brought out by the 1910
census 4 that the number of girls from 16 to 20 years of age working
for wages was especially large, 66.9 per cent, or two-thirds, of the
whole number in this age group in the State.
SCOPE AND METHOD OF INVESTIGATION.

As it was impossible in the limited time of the survey to include
all establishments employing women, a representative number of
plants in the various industries employing women were chosen.
Seventy stores, laundries, and manufacturing establishments were
visited. These were distributed in the following centers: Providence,
East Providence, Pawtucket, Central Falls, Woonsocket, Bristol,
and Newport. The manufacturing group showed a variety of
products; electrical appliances, rubber manufactures, metal goods,
jewelry, paper boxes, candy, optical goods, chemicals, shoe laces, and
novelties. Textile mills, employing a much larger number of women
than any other industry in the State (37,104 according to the 1920
Factory Inspection Report), were not included in the present study
for two reasons. In the late summer of 1920 the Bureau of Labor
Statistics of the United States Department of Labor, had included
Rhode Island in an investigation of the hours and wages of em
ployees in representative establishments in the important cotton
manufacturing States, and it was unnecessary to duplicate this study
in Rhode Island. Also the period of investigation of the Women’s
Bureau was marked by a striking depression in the textile industry.
Many of the mills were entirely closed or running short time, and
any wage and hour data secured from them would not have been
representative of normal conditions.
In other industries the trade depression affecting both the numbers
of workers and the hours worked did not begin to be noticeable until
the last part of November. In stores and in such industries as
paper box, jewelry, and candy manufacturing the general slackness
was somewhat counterbalanced by the Christmas trade. On the
whole, however, the period was one of abnormal conditions. Al
though wages were still nominally at their highest peak a feeling of
apprehension was generally current among the workers. Wage cuts
seemed imminent. The amount of unemployment was increasing
4 U. S. Bureau of the Census.
statistics, p. 73.

Thirteenth Census 1910.

V. 4, Population : Occupation

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

steadily. There was scarcely a family that had not begun to feel the
pinch of “ hard times” through loss of a job or through part-time
work for some member. Always there was the disquieting fear that
each worker might, as one girl expressed it, “ get the sack with the
next pay envelope.” With one job lost there was slight prospect of
getting another, since a steady stream of applicants was besieging
almost every mercantile and industrial establishment. Managers
complained of the falling off in orders and the inevitable curtailment
of production. Plants that were still running full time and enjoying
continued prosperity expected a period of retrenchment after the
holidays. It is important that these facts should be borne in mind in
the consideration of the various sections of this report. It must be
emphasized, however, that the hour figures given in the report repre
sent the normal hourly schedules of the plants visited, and that the
wage data are an index of the wage crest and not of the downward
trend.
The inquiry was carried on along several main lines. Definite in
formation about numbers of employees, hours, wages, and working
conditions was scheduled by the investigators from interviews with
employers, managers, and foremen, from inspection of plants, and from
examination of pay rolls.5 In order to obtain accurate and reliable
information data were taken personally from pay rolls by the in
vestigators. A special form was used for recording the weekly earn
ings, rates, and hours of each woman in each occupational group for
a representative week. The week chosen was one in October or early
November in which no holiday occurred and which was regarded by
the management as fairly normal. With this information were com
bined the facts obtained from cards filled out by the employees as to
their age, nativity, experience in the trade, and conjugal and living
conditions. Individual yearly earnings for a representative number
of women, usually 10 per cent in each establishment, were recorded on
52-week schedules. Furthermore, the human side of the situation,
the necessary supplement to the foregoing data, was disclosed by
home visits to a number of the women in each industry. Information
was obtained about their educational and industrial history as well
as their home responsibilities.
The kinds of industries included in the investigation, the number
of establishments in each, and the distribution of employees by age
and sex are shown in the accompanying table. The group designated
“other manufacturing” in this table comprises several important in
dustries not usually placed in a miscellaneous group but treated so
here because of the small number of establishments visited and hence
the impossibility of separate tabulation.
6 Copies of the forms and schedules used for the survey may lie found in the appendix.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

Table 1.—Number of establishments studied and number »f persons of each sex

employed therein, by industry.

Industry.

Total em
Employees 16 years of age Employees under 16 years of
ployees.
and over.
age.
Num
ber of
estab
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
lish
ments. Num Per
ber. oent. Num Per Num Per Num Per
Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.

Rubber manufacturing
Metal shops..................
Klectricalinanufacturmg..............................
Jewelry manufacturing
Paper-box manufacturmg..............................
Other manufacturing..
General mercantile....
5-and-lO-cent stores__
Laundries.....................

6 8,604
8 10,778

All industries__

100.0
100.0

4,873
9,065

56.6
84. 1

3,549
1,696

41.2
15.7

68
12

0.8
.i

114
5

1.3
(i)

4
17

2,020
1,713

100.0
100.0

766
855

37.9
49.9

1,091
800

54.0
46.7

39
21

1.9
1.2

124
37

6. 1
2.2

6
13
6
6
4

689
1,956
2,008
244
257

100.0
100. 0
100. 0
100.0
100. 0

231
1,057
757
28
81

33.5
54.0
37.7
11.5
31.5

421
832
1,184
213
166

61.1
42. 5
59.0
87.3
64.6

9
21
31
1
2

1.3
1.1
1.5
.4
.8

28
46
36
2
. 8

4.1
2.4
1.8
.8
3.1

100. 0 17,713

62.7

9,952

35.2

204

400

1.4

70 28,269

1 Less than 0.05 per cent.

The foregoing table shows that the number of women and girls
included in the survey was 10,352, or more than one-third of the total
number of employees. The greatest number of women in any one
industry was in the rubber industry. In the manufacturing group
the largest proportion of women as compared with men was in the
paper-box factories (65.2 per cent) and the smallest proportion in
the metal shops (15.7 per cent). When all industries are considered,
the largest proportion of women was in the 5-and-10-cent stores,
where nearly nine-tenths (88.1 per cent) of the entire force were
women, and the next largest in laundries, where over two-thirds (67.7
per cent) were women.
In the establishments visited the girls under 16 constituted 3.9 per
cent of the total number of women. Electrical manufacturing
showed the highest proportion of young people, with 10.2 per cent
of the women employees under 16; paper-box manufacturing fol
lowed, with 6.2 per cent.
FACTS ABOUT THE INDUSTRIES.

A better appreciation of the opportunities and problems of the
women in regard to the various industries as well as of the position
of these industries in the State can be derived from a brief summary
of the striking characteristics of the most important manufactures.
Rubber manufacturing.
Rubber manufacturing, which operates in large plants and employs
a great number of women, is a leading industry in the State, and one
that has increased in size and importance since the last census. It

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

employed by far the largest number of women and girls of all the
industries included in the investigation—3,663, or over one-third of
the total number. The proportion of women in the 6 rubber estab
lishments visited was large, 42.5 per cent of the total working forces.
The industry is one of comparatively recent and rapid development,
appearing under a separate classification for the first time in the
United States in the census of 1880. It is not shadowed by reac
tionary traditions nor, on the whole, by efforts to operate under oldfashioned methods in inadequate buildings. With the increased de
mand for all kinds of rubber goods the expansion has been rapid.
Despite this sudden growth the plants in Ehode Island were found to
be well organized and the working conditions for the most part
exceptionally good.
There is a great variety in the products and processes of the indus
try. As a rule, however, women in Ehode Island were not found
engaged in the heavy, disagreeable operations. These were left to
the men. The work of the women had comparatively few objection
able features. It comprised the making of rubber footwear, bathing
caps, medical supplies, novelties, and thread. The majority of the
women were doing bench or hand work such as cutting, assembling
parts, cementing, binding, finishing, inspecting, and packing. Ex
cept for the braiding in one plant, the machine work for women was
not heavy, consisting of the operation of power sewing machines,
light machines for binding and spooling, and occasionally foot presses
for punching and clamping. The occupations varied considerably
in the amount of skill required. Certain processes in the manufac
ture of such articles as shoes and gloves necessitated experience and
skill, and the making of bright-colored fancy bathing caps even called
into play an artistic sense. The industry was not seasonal but seemed
normally quite steady.
Jewelry manufacturing.
The manufacture of jewelry is another leading industry in the
State, for Ehode Island is one of the four chief jewelry-making
centers in the country. Providence, the largest city, is almost exclu
sively the site of these factories. In 1905 this State led in both the
value of products and the number of employees in this trade. In
recent years, however, Ehode Island has been characterized by the
extensive production of a cheap grade of jewelry, the kind known
as rolled plate or gold filled. * The plants visited listed among their
products chiefly rings, chains and their findings, pins, buttons,
rosaries, "crucifixes, novelties, and enameled jewelry of various kinds.
Although only 7.7 per cent of the women included in the investi
gation were working in this industry, more jewelry establishments
were visited than any other one kind. Of the 70 plants, 17, or almost

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

one-fourth, were in this group. In the matter of distribution of
employees, the jewelry industry formed a striking contract to rub
ber manufacturing. Except for a few large plants, not all of which
were included in this study, jewelry making was carried on in many
small establishments with small forces. The 1910 census showed
that about four-fifths of the jewelry factories employed each not
more than 50 workers.6
The majority of the plants visited were operating on such a small
scale that they occupied only a floor or two in general factory build
ings. Since a considerable number of these firms had cramped
quarters in old structures, the conditions under which the women
worked were in many cases far from ideal.
The proportion of women in the plants visited was about one-half
of the total number of employees, showing the industry to be one
offering equal opportunities to men and to women. Although occa
sionally women competed with men in the more taxing occupations
of burnishing and washing the metals, of handling acids, or of oper
ating heavy presses, most of the women were engaged in bench work
varying greatly in kind and in the amount of skill called for. Some
of the processes, such as carding, packing, and wrapping, were so
simple as to require practically no experience; other jobs, involving
the handling of small parts, necessitated great delicacy and accuracy
of touch, and a few occupations entailed a high degree of skill. As
sembling and soldering pins and chains, stringing beads, enamel
ing, swedging, finishing, and inspecting were some of the most usual
kinds of work performed by the women. Other women were engaged
in the more artistic processes of stone setting, hand painting, and
decorating.
Almost all the work was of such a nature as to necessitate close
application of the eyes. The questions of light and posture had not
received sufficient attention from individual managers, and in many
establishments old-fashioned methods survived. In the opinion of
the president of the Jewelers’ Protective Association, considerable
education along these lines is necessary for the development of the
industry and the safeguarding of the workers.
The business was not definitely seasonal, though almost one-half
of the jewelry establishments visited showed a slack period during
the year, occurring with the different firms anywhere from the first
of the year to early summer. The fall months naturally were the
busiest. One plant stated that it had been able to avoid a dull season
by a careful adjustment of its production. The abnormal conditions
prevailing at the time of the investigation had begun to affect the
industry and to counteract somewhat the usual Christmas trade.
"U. S. bureau of the Census.

Thirteenth Census 1910.

Y. 9.

Manufactures, p. 1124.

WOMEN IN RHODE. ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

Electrical manufacturing.
A brief discussion of electrical manufacturing is of interest be
cause of the large percentage of women in the industry as compared
with men—women forming 60 per cent of the working forces—and
because of the high proportion of young workers. As already shown,
there was a larger percentage of girls under 16 years of age in this
industry than in any other.
The electrical establishments visited were engaged chiefly in the
production of electric lamps or bulbs. The processes of lamp making,
are mechanical in nature. The occupations of the women included
gauging, and cutting tubes and rods of glass, winding copper wire,,
etching trade-marks on bulbs, welding glass parts, inserting copper
filaments, sealing bulbs, tubulating tips, testing, cementing lamps
to brass bases, repairing, polishing, inspecting, labeling, and packing.
More than one-half of these processes involve the tending of auto
matic or semi-automatic machines. Hand tools are used in gauging,
inserting, winding, and repairing lamps. For accuracy in the
placing of parts, from one day to six weeks of practice is required;
for speed in the work more experience is necessary. Fingers must
be deft and nimble in handling the delicate and fragile parts of the
lamp, and every waste motion must be eliminated.
The four electrical establishments visited were large, and the
conditions in three of them were fairly good. As to the seasonal
nature of the industry, two plants reported that the work was steady,
one that it was slack in the summer, and the fourth that work had
been very steady for the last four years, with the busiest time in
August of each year.
Metal manufacturing.
Although women and girls constituted only 15.8 per cent of the
working forces in the eight metal shops visited, there were alto
gether 1,701 of them in these shops, or 16.4 per cent of the total
number of women included in the investigation. This fact is both
interesting and important, because it indicates that some women
probably have continued in occupations in which they proved their
ability during the war. It has been prophesied that this new field
opened up to women during the war would prove to be permanent,
and the situation in Rhode Island seemed to bear out this prophecy.
The products of the metal shops comprised tools, machinery, insu
lated wire, machine needles, brass rods, and tin cans. Some of the
operations performed by women were highly monotonous, repetitive
jobs, such as soldering, wrapping, packing, and tbe operating of
automatic power presses. These occupations, though confining, were
light but had some elements of danger in the case of unguarded presses
and the flames used in soldering. They required neither special

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

skill nor experience; they provided neither interest nor opportunities
for advancement. As a contrast to the women engaged in such
uninspiring operations, however, were those employed on drills and
lathes, at milling, grinding, and polishing machines; others were
filing, assembling parts, inspecting tools and machines with gauges,
and even in some instances manipulating lathes by means of hand
screws. The somewhat detailed analysis of all these jobs given in
the bulletin of the Women’s Bureau entitled “ The New Position
of Women in American Industry,”7 shows that they require much
skill and judgment, close application, a high degree of accuracy, and
sometimes the ability to read blue prints, to understand the char
acteristics of different metals and tools, and to set up the work in
machines.
The industry was not of a seasonal nature, for in this group only
one establishment, a tin can factory, reported any seasonal variation.
In plants differing as widely in size and organization as did the
metal shops visited the conditions under which the women worked
naturally showed great variety.
Paper-box manufacturing.
According to the figures obtained in this investigation the paperbox industry in Rhode Island was one employing comparatively few
women, as there were only 449 in the six plants visited. Even so, the
proportion of women in these factories was high—65.2 per cent—
showing that the industry was more largely the province of women
than of men. There were, however, more opportunities in this trade
than would appear from the foregoing figures. Since so many
other firms packed their products in paper boxes, a number of estab
lishments had their own box-making departments with women em
ployed in each case in the manufacture of these boxes. It was not
feasible, however, in tabulating the numbers employed in the various
industries, to separate the box making from other departments.
The women in box manufacturing were engaged in both hand
and machine work, most of it being rather light and monotonous in
character and requiring little skill. A few women operators of print
ing presses were found in connection with the industry.
Although the industry is usually regarded as somewhat seasonal
there is a growing tendency to regulate the business to prevent
definite slack periods and to keep it fairly steady throughout the
year. This was done in Rhode Island establishments by the manu
facture of a variety of boxes, the so-called standardized boxes. Of
the six paper-box factories investigated, four reported no difference
in seasonal production; the other two, one of which specialized in
' U. S. Department of Labor. Women’s Bureau.
ican Industry. Bulletin 12, 1920, pp. 94-113.

The New Position of Women in Amer

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

jewelry boxes and pads, claimed to be busy all year, but to be ex
ceptionally so while preparing for the Christmas trade.
Stores, laundries, miscellaneous.
As there were no distinctive features in the stores and laundries
in Rhode Island differentiating them from those in other places, no
preliminary discussion seems necessary. Also, there is such diver
sity in the miscellaneous group of industries, and there are so few
establishments in each, that individual treatment is not practicable.
82183°—22---- 2

SUMMARY.

The salient facts disclosed by this investigation, which are devel
oped at length in other sections of this report, are here summarized
briefly:
Extent of survey.
In the 70 establishments visited the total number of women, who
formed 36.6 per cent of the working forces, was 10,352, distributed
as follows: 8,743 (84.5 per cent) in manufacturing establishments,
1,435 (13.9 per cent) in stores, and 174 (1.7 per cent) in laundries.
Hours.
Hour data for 69 plants showed:
1. Weekly.— (a) A schedule of 48 hours a week or less in 32 plants
employing more than one-half (53.5 per cent) of the total number of
women in the survey.
(6) A schedule corresponding to the legal weekly limit of 54 hours
a week in 5 plants, employing 6.5 per cent of the total number of
women.
(c) Of the women whose hour record was obtained 43.7 per cent
worked less and 12.4 per cent more than the firm’s weekly schedule.
2. Daily.— (a) A schedule of 8 hours a day or less in 11 establish
ments, employing 4.9 per cent of the women.
(b) A schedule of 10 hours a day or more in 5 establishments, em
ploying 1.5 per cent of the women.
(c) A schedule of between 8 and 9 hours a day in 28 establish
ments, or 40.6 per cent of all, and for the largest group of women,
5,576, or 56.1 per cent of the total number.
3. Saturday.—Saturday entirely free from work in 4 establish
ments, with a half-holiday in 52, and with a full working day, or
one longer than usual, in 11.
4. Lunch period.—No establishment with a lunch period of less
than half an hour, 47 establishments with a one-hour period, and 11
establishments with more than one hour for lunch.
Wages.
Data on weekly and yearly earnings revealed the following:
1. The median weekly earnings for 7,780 women in all industries
included in the investigation were $16.85, in manufacturing estab
lishments $17.85, in stores $12.95, and in laundries $12.45.
10

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

2. The median weekly earnings for 3,714 time workers were $14.55
and for 3,417 pieceworkers $20.35.
3. The median yearly earnings of 617 women in all industries were
$829, in manufacturing establishments $857, in stores $699, and in
laundries $767.
4. Of all women in all industries nearly one-fourth (23.2 per cent)
earned less than $13 a week and 7.7 per cent less than $10. From
one-half to three-fourths of the women employed in laundries,
paper-box factories, and 5-and-10-cent stores earned less than $13 a
week, about one-quarter earning less than $10.
5. Women were at the height of their earning power between 25
and 40 years of age. Earnings after 40 years of age decreased less
in proportion for women in general mercantile establishments and
laundries than in other industries.
Working conditions.
In the tabulation of working conditions the term “ unsatisfactory ”
was applied only to those establishments falling conspicuously below
the standards set by the Women’s Bureau. In other places, although
the conditions more nearly approximated the standards, they could
be considered ideal only in rare cases.
1. The general workroom conditions were as follows:
(a) Space, cleaning, heating, and ventilation fairly satisfac
tory in the 70 stores, factories, and laundries.
(b) Natural lighting unsatisfactory in some respects in 16
plants; artificial lighting unsatisfactory in 20.
(<?) Seating, in general, fair, but in 12 plants no seats or not
enough and in 16 plants the wrong kind of seats.
2. The report on hazard and strain showed:
(«) An occupational hazard for women in 28 plants and a
strain from the job in 51 plants.
(b) Workroom hazards, such as unguarded machinery, in 28
plants.
(c) Fire hazards in 21 plants.
3. The need for improved sanitation is shown by the following:
(a) Drinking facilities unsatisfactory in 37 plants.
(b) Washing facilities inadequate in 65 plants.
(c) The toilets insufficient in number in 30 plants and unsatis
factory as to kind, ventilation, or location in 58 plants.
4. The record of service facilities disclosed:
(а) Facilities for wraps inadequate in 56 plants.
(б) No lunch room in 55 plants. Lunch sold to employees in
only 11 plants.
(c) No rest room in 49 plants.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

4. The record of service facilities disclosed—Continued.
('/) No first-aid equipment in 11 plants. A hospital room
provided in 29 jilants. Health records kept in 13. A
nurse in attendance reported in 11 and a doctor in 9.
(e) A professional employment manager in only 5 plants.
Workers.
1. Of the 2,674 women whose nativity was ascertained, 78.8 per
cent were American born and 21.1 per cent were foreign born.
2. Of the 2,587 women reporting their age, almost one-third were
between 16 and 20 years of age. The greatest proportions in this age
group were in the 5-and-10-cent stores, with 57.1 per cent, and the
electrical industry, with 45.9 per cent, of all their women employees
so reported. The general mercantile establishments showed the
highest proportion of women who were 40 years of age and over
(22.4 per cent).
3. Of the 2,576 women giving information about their conjugal
condition, 77.3 per cent were single, 14.8 per cent married, and 7.9
per cent widowed, separated, or divorced. The electrical establish
ments showed the highest proportion of single women (89 per cent),
the laundries the highest proportion of married (25 per cent), and
rubber factories, general mercantile establishments, and metal shops
the highest proportions of widowed, separated, or divorced (10.1,
10.4, and 11 per cent).
4. Of the 2,529 women reporting on their living conditions, 92.2
per cent were living at home and 7.8 per cent were living inde
pendently.
5. Of the 2,599 women whose trade records were secured, about
one-fifth had been in the industry under 6 months, more than onehalf under 3 years, and one-seventh for 5 and under 10 years.
CONCLUSION.

In general the findings of the survey show Rhode Island to occupy
a rather middle ground in the matter of the industrial status of
women. Although superior to the most backward States, it is so
inferior to the most progressive as to make very desirable some
amendments and additions to the labor legislation for women.
Despite the 54-hour week and 10-hour day for women permitted
by Rhode Island legislation, a number of establishments have adopted
the 48-hour week and some the 8-hour day. State laws should be
enacted, however, to make these standards universal. On the whole,
the wage data from Rhode Island compare favorably with the mini
mum wage rates adopted in various localities, but, as is pointed out
in detail in subsequent sections of this report, the average for the
State is brought up by the unusually high wages paid in a few manu

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

faeturing industries despite the fact that the wages recorded for
laundries, paper-box factories, and stores fell below the subsistence
level. A minimum wage law requiring all industries to pay a
living wage is needed. The report on working conditions reveals
not only the necessity for a sanitary code providing for adequate
drinking, washing, and toilet arrangements, but the need for im
proved service facilities, especially more satisfactory cloakrooms,
rest rooms, and lunch rooms. Finally, the information obtained from
the workers about their personal and industrial history proves the
value of such progressive legislation, to guarantee the welfare of
the women wage earners, to increase the efficiency of the industry,
and to insure the prosperity of the State.

PART II. HOURS.
In a study of the hours of labor in different establishments certain
facts are of special significance: The maximum hours of labor as
fixed by the laws of the State, the scheduled hours of the firms in
vestigated, and the hours actually worked by the employees in these
establishments during a definite pay-roll period.
The Rhode Island State law sets a maximum of 54 hours a week
and 10 hours a day for women in manufacturing and mercantile es
tablishments. Rhode Island, which has, industrially, so many points
in common with Massachusetts, presents in its hour legislation a
striking contrast to Massachusetts, in which State a 48-hour week
for women was legalized in 1919. An investigation made by the
Women’s Bureau of the effects of this law in Massachusetts revealed
that “ on the whole, opinions as well as definite facts given by the
managers of the various factories seemed to show that a reduction of
working hours was a good thing from their point of view.”8
This investigation also showed “that none of the many working
women interviewed in the course of this investigation reported any
discrimination against them since the 8-hour law went into effect,
and the great majority reported that the increased time for rest and
recreation had been of great benefit and that the decreased working
hours had resulted in only a few instances in reduced pay.”9
It would seem desirable, therefore, for Rhode Island to take legal
steps to adopt an hour standard for women as progressive as that of
Massachusetts.
WEEKLY HOURS.

Scheduled hours.
That many of the plants visited in Rhode Island tvere more ad
vanced than the State law, but that the majority of them still required
more than the 48-hour week is shown by the table following, which
gives the scheduled hours of the establishments and women in the
various industries.
8 U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau. Some effects of legislation limiting
hours of work for women. Bulletin 15, 1921, p. 23.
•Ibid., p. 24.

Table 2.—Number of establishments and number of women, with scheduled weekly hours as specified, by industry.

Number of establishments 1 and number of women 1G years of age or over whose weekly hours of work were—
Under 48 hours.

Total.

Industry.

Over 48 and un
der 52 hours.

48 hours.

Over 52 and un
der 54 hours.

52 hours.

54 hours.

Over 54 hours.

6
8
4
17
25
13
6
6
4

3,549
1,696
1,091
'800
403
832
1,184
213
166

8 69

9,934
100.0

3
3
2
2

126
160
45
50

396
4.0

550
260
107
53

2
5
4
6
3
7
2
4
1

1,227
1,091
235
143
424
541
168
67

4,920
49.5

3,952
39.8

3,493
'457

10
2
1
1

20
0.2

2
1

172
410

1
o

1 Establishments having women working under different hour schedules are tabulated under more than one classification.
* Excludes one place (18 women working 52 or 54 hours) not reporting number of women in each group.
3 Less than 0.05 per cent.

49
643
6.5

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES,

Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
lish Women. lish Women. lish Women. lish Women. lish Women. lish Women. lish Women. lish Women.
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

:r cent

4M H949H « /.+ 9 fcS 0 50/4

SCHEDULED WEEKLY HOURS FOR WOMEN—RHODE ISLAND.

2 «

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

Although only 5 of the 69 plants reporting had a 54-hour week, 41
plants showed a week of more than 48 hours for some or all of the
women employed therein. On the other hand, 82 plants, employing
slightly over one-half of the total number of women (53.5 per cent),
had a week of 48 hours or less. In this respect the rubber industry
was far ahead of all others, with 98.4 per cent of the women having
a weekly schedule of 48 hours. Jewelry manufacturing was next,
with 70.6 per cent not exceeding 48 hours. With the exception of
electrical manufacturing, in which industry none of the women had
so short a working week as 48 hours, the mercantile establishments
disclosed the poorest records. Only 18 per cent of the women in gen
eral mercantile and 21.1 per cent in 5 and 10 cent stores had a weekly
schedule of 48 hours or less, while in the first-named 34.6 per cent
had a 54-hour week, the highest proportion in any industry working
such hours. The other 5 and 10 cent stores reported had a week of
between 48 and 52 hours.
Actual hours worked.
The scheduled weekly hours and the actual hours worked by the
women in many cases did not coincide because of *the women who
worked less and those who worked more than the normal schedules.
There was not only a certain amount of time lost, caused either
by slack periods in the plants or by absence of the workers for
personal reasons, but there was some overtime. The hours actually
worked by the women covered a much wider range than the sched
uled hours, as appears from Table I, page 61, in the appendix.
Of the 6,679 women whose records were obtained10 there were
women in every hour group, from the 2 women who worked less
than 3 hours to the 32 who morked more than 54 hours in the given
week, whereas the scheduled hours were in no instance less than 42
nor more than 54 a week.
On the whole, at the time of the investigation undertime was
far more prevalent than overtime, since, as is shown in Tables II
and III, pages 62 and 63, in the appendix, 43.7 per cent of the women
whose weekly hours were secured worked less than the scheduled
hours as compared with 12.4 per cent who worked beyond them.
Time lost and overtime.
The amount of time lost by the women was considerable. Over
one-half (52.3 per cent) of those working undertime lost 5 hours or
more and one-quarter (25 per cent) lost 10 hours or more in the
week selected. The jewelry industry, with 63 per cent of the women
losing some time; paper-box manufacturing, with 52.9 per cent;
10 It was not possible to secure the hourly records for all women, since usually the
actual weekly hours of pieceworkers and sometimes those of time-workers were not kept
on pay rolls.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES,

miscellaneous manufacturing, with 52.5 per cent; and rubber fac
tories, with 49.8 per cent, showed the highest percentages of women
working less than the scheduled weekly hours. The 5 and 10 cent
stores and the general mercantile establishments reported a much
smaller amount of lost time. This is due partly to the fact that
stores do not reduce the hours of operation when trade is slack, as is
the custom in the manufacturing world. Also some stores make no
record of an hour or two lost by individual workers. Some of the
women who gave reasons for lost time had been compelled to stay
away from work on account of personal or family sickness and
various home responsibilities, others reported that the shutting down
of the factory or of cei'tain departments in the factory for several
hours a day or several days a week was the cause of their lost
time.
The amount of overtime during the week varied for individual
women from a fraction of an hour up to nine hours more than the
scheduled hours. The rubber and electrical industries showed the
greatest amount of overtime. In rubber establishments nearly onequarter of the women (24.4 per cent) worked longer than the regular
weekly schedule; of these practically one-half (49 per cent) worked
less than two hours extra, but 17.2 per cent worked from four to
nine hours overtime. In electrical establishments 15.4 per cent of the
women were found working longer than the regular hours, one-third
of whom showed four hours or more overtime. In the other indus
trial groups the amount of overtime was small, in no case affecting
as many as 8 per cent of the women, and in metal and jewelry manu
facturing affecting less than 1 per cent. No overtime was reported
for the workers in stores, though two establishments stated that it
was occasionally required.
The matter of overtime should be considered, however, in connec
tion with the length of the weekly schedules of the firms. A com
parison between stores showing no overtime and rubber establish
ments, with one woman in four working beyond hours, is of interest.
It has already been noted that 98.4 per cent of the women in rubber
plants had a scheduled week of 48 hours, whereas only 18 per cent
of the women in general mercantile establishments and 21.1 per cent
of those in the 5 and 10 cent stores had a week of 48 hours or less.
Furthermore, although 34.6 per cent of the women in general mer
cantile stores had a 54-hour week, none of the women in rubber
manufacturing had such a long weekly schedule.
Table I, page 61 in the appendix, makes a further comparison
possible by showing that of the women for whom hours worked were
recorded 25.7 per cent of those in general mercantile establishments
actually worked 54 hours, while less than 1 per cent of those in the
rubber establishments worked as long as that, even with overtime.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

DAILY HOURS.

Of equal importance with the problem of the weekly schedule was
that of the hours worked daily by the women in industry in Ehode
Island. It is as necessary to regulate the length of the working day
as the length of the working week. Investigation has proved that
long daily hours are a menace to the health and efficiency of the
worker, since continuous overexertion causes an excessive fatigue,
which acts like a poison to the system, predisposing to more serious
illness. Undue fatigue also lessens accuracy and speed, checks out
put, and increases accidents. The Ehode Island law, however, per
mits a 10-hour day. Only 10 States allow a longer daily schedule
than does Ehode Island. Table 3 shows that the majority of Ehode
Island firms pursued a middle course in this matter, since very few
had adopted the 8-liour standard and very few were as nonprogres
sive as the State law.

Table 3.—Number of establishments and number of women, with scheduled daily hours as specified, by industry.
Number of establishments1 and number of women 16 years of age or over whose daily hours of work were—

Industry.

Total.

Under 8 hours.

Over 8 and un
der 9 hours.

8 hours.

Over 9 and un
der 10 hours.

9 hours.

10 hours.

Rubber manufacturing..................................................
Metal shops.................................
Electrical manufacturing................................................
Jewelry manufacturing...................................................
Paper-box manufacturing..............................................
Other manufacturing.........................................
General mercantile..................................................
5-and-10-cent stores...................................................
Laundries.........................................................................
Total....................................................... .
Per cent distribution.......................................

4
17
*5
13
6
6
4
a 69

3,549
1,696
1,091
800
403
832
1,184
213
166
9,934
JOO.O

3,493
457

13
2

605
260

2
4
2

3
1

581
69

410

5,576
56.1

3,065
30.9

2
4

140
80

2
1
1
1

122
53
64
24

220
2.2

263
2.6

377
3

268

661
6.7

149
1.5

1 Establishments having women working under different hour schedules are tabulated under more than one classification.
*Excludes one place (18 women working 9$ or 10 hours) not reporting number of women in each group.

56
’714
195

WOMEN IN KHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
lish Women. lish Women. lish Women. lish Women. lish Women. lish Women. lish Women.
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

This table shows that 11 establishments (8 stores, 2 manufacturing
plants, and 1 laundry) in the total of 69 reporting had a day of 8
hours or less, affecting in all only 4.9 per cent of the 9,934 women
whose scheduled hours were obtained. At the other end of the scale
5 establishments (1 laundry and 4 manufacturing plants), employ
ing 1.5 per cent of the women, had a daily schedule of 10 hours or
more. The largest number of establishments (28) and the largest
number of women (5,576) had a working day of between 8 and 9
hours. About three-fifths of the women (61 per cent) had scheduled
hours of less than 9 a day; for 30.9 per cent the day was 9 hours
long and for 8.2 per cent it was more than that. A comparison of
the various industries shows that all women in stores had a schedule
of 9 hours a day or less, 90.9 per cent of the women in the manufac
turing group were in this class, and 70.5 per cent of the laundry
workers.
It should be emphasized that the foregoing figures are the sched
uled daily hours and not the hours actually worked by the women.
It was impossible to ascertain actual daily hours, since, in many
establishments, a record of such is not available. Accordingly, no
figures on daily overtime can be given.
Overtime policies.
The various establishments visited were questioned in regard to
overtime practices and policies. Almost all the stores reported no
overtime except for a few nights before Christmas, at which season
the employees were expected to remain until 9 or 9.30 in the evening.
Two stores stated that at other times girls occasionally stayed longer
than the regular hours, one store paying the girls extra for this, the
second permitting them to take some time off from their regular
hours to make up for the overtime.
Fifteen of the 53 manufacturing plants reported occasional over
time. Some of these plants stated that the women worked overtime
only an hour or two a day in a busy season or when a department
had fallen behind. One plant asserted that formerly women had
worked as much as four hours a day extra during the Christmas
rush; another that the women sometimes stayed until 8.30 or 9 at the
Christmas season. Of the eight manufacturing establishments report
ing on the rate paid for overtime, five paid time and a half, one time
and a quarter, and two straight time; one of the last-mentioned
allowed a bonus of 50 cents if an employee worked more than six
hours overtime in any one week.
The hours of laundries were more indefinite than those of the other
establishments. Since workers frequently were permitted to leave
before closing time if they finished their regular quota of work, and
since they occasionally remained after hours to makeup time lost by a

WOMEN IN BHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

holiday—a penalty which strips the holiday of much advantage—it
was difficult to ascertain whether there was any actual weekly over
time.
Need of an 8-hour day for women.
In any discussion of hours of labor, it is necessary to bear in mind
that women wage earners frequently are home workers and home
makers as well, that many of them look after families and perform
home duties before and after the hours spent in industrial
plants. Furthermore, the actual hours of the job often are prolonged
and the fatigue is increased by the trip to and from work, an illus
tration of which was the experience of one worker who left home at
6.30 a. m. and did not get back until 6.15 p. m. Although this woman
liked the work and the pay in the plant, she was compelled, because
she was a widow with a family and a home to take care of, to give
up the position and take one nearer home in order to devote less time
to her job and more time to her home. The experience of another
woman, forced to supplement her husband’s income, is typical. She
got up at 5 o’clock in order to get breakfast and to attend to other
household duties before going to work. After a 9-hour day in a
box factory she came home, prepared supper, put the baby to bed,
and finished her domestic tasks. She appeared nervously unstrung
by her steady grind. Dr. George W. Webster, in discussing the value
of an 8-hour day for women, says: “ We should see to it that while
engaged in the industries her hours of labor are short enough to enable
her to develop into a normal, healthy, valuable member of society.” 11
This standard was certainly not observed in Rhode Island, where
some women were obliged to work 10 hours a day in a factory and
many additional hours in their own homes.
Saturday half holidays and lunch periods.
Closely allied with the subject of over-fatigue in industry are the
questions of Saturday half holidays and the daily lunch period. That
the large majority of the establishments visited realized the value of a
Saturday half holiday is apparent from the fact that 52 had a short
Saturday, two others a half holiday on some other day, and four did
not operate at all on Saturday. Eleven plants, however, all of which
were stores, had a full day or one longer than usual on Saturday.
For a lunch period no plant had less than half an hour, 47 plants
had an interval of one hour, and 11 had more than one hour to per
mit women to go home for lunch. Only one plant was reported as
having an extra rest period, this consisting of 10 minutes in the
morning and 10 in the afternoon.
11 U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau.
working-day for women. Bulletin 14, 1921, p. 18.

A physiological basis for the shorter

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

VACATIONS.

A vacation with pay has long been customary for employees in
mercantile establishments, and in Rhode Island this practice was
followed in almost all the stores visited. The amount of vacation
usually varied from one to two weeks with the length of service, and
in one store even as much as three weeks was allowed. There is at
present a trend toward giving a vacation with pay to the factory
worker. A few of the manufacturing plants visited reported a paid
vacation of one week for the workers. Others stated that the establishmentwas closed for one week during the year for a so-called vaca
tion week, generally so timed as to occur during the slack season or
when the plant was in need of repairs. In these cases no pay was
given to the workers during such period; they were forced to take a
vacation whether they were financially able to do so or not. A week’s
rest with pay is desirable for manual as well as for mental workers,
and several women who were sick, when visited in their homes, stated
that they attributed their illness to the fact that they had had no
vacation during the previous summer. In industries where it would
not be feasible to close the plant for any one week, vacations could
be adjusted so that only a few workers would be out at one time.

PART III. WAGES.
WAGES AND COST OF LIVING.

T he soaring prices in the cost of living in war and postwar days
need no discussion, nor does the fact that these prices had abated but
little by the fall of 1920, when the Rhode Island wage study was
made. In general, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the
United States Department of Labor, the cost of living in December,
1920, showed an increase over 1914 of 100.4 per cent throughout the
United States.12 No specific figures for Rhode Island are available,
but the record for Boston (the nearest city scheduled) showed in
December, 1920, an.increase over 1914 of 97.4 per cent.
Satisfactory figures for a comparison of the increases in the cost
of living and in wages for women are not available, since the textile
industry is the only one for which the Bureau of Labor Statistics of
the United States Department of Labor has published figures on the
increase in women’s wages. It is interesting, however, to compare
fhe data recently published by the National Industrial Conference
Board13 on the rise in women’s weekly earnings for a definite period
and the costs of living reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics14
for about this same period. The National Industrial Conference
Board, which as a group of manufacturers is not likely to under
estimate wage figures, shows the increase in women’s earnings in 11
industries from September, 1918, to November, 1920, to be 20 per
cent, .with a 20 per cent higher peak in June and July of 1920;
whereas the Bureau of Labor Statistics shows an increase in the
cost of living of 26 per cent from December, 1918, to December, 1920,
with a 16.1 per cent higher peak in June, 1920. It would seem from
this that even though wages increase phenomenally they tend to lag
behind increases in the cost of living. Also, as it is generally con
ceded to be true that wage cuts precede a drop in the cost of living,
the wage earners may not get the benefit of falling prices.
Consequently, even though the wages in Rhode Island at the time
of this investigation were nominally at the highest peak ever reached
m the State, it will be clearly seen that they had only about onehalf the purchasing power of the wages received in 1914, so that the
12 U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Changes in cost of living.
News release, June 13, 1921.
10 National Industrial Conference Board. Wage changes in industry, September, 1914December, 1920. Research report 35. March, 1921, p. 3.
14 U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Changes in cost of living.
News release, June 30. 1921.

82183°—22---- 3

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

weekly median already quoted for Rhode Island, $16.85, was about
the equivalent of $8.43 a Week in 1914. Another striking factor in
the wage situation of November and December. 1920, was that
although wage rates were still high, already the shadows of a busi
ness and wage depression were drawing over the industries in
cluded in this study. Expectation of imminent wage cuts without a
corresponding reduction in the cost of living caused an anxiety
among the workers that tended to offset any satisfaction that might
have been derived from high wages. This expectation was justified,
for the textile mills already had been caught in the advancing
paralysis of production and were to a large extent closed down.
Such a condition naturally was upsetting to the industrial equi
librium of Rhode Island on account of the importance of the textile
industry, which normally employs one-half of the wage earners in
the State.
The textile industry has been a strongly influential factor in caus
ing recent variations in women’s wages in Rhode Island. During
the World War period textiles and other industries where women
had been employed for many years were forced to raise wages to
compete with the never and more highly paid jobs opened up to
women at that time. For some time after the close of the war the
textile mills were able to keep up high wage rates, as the mills con
tinued to operate at high speed not only with a full day force but
in many cases with a large night force also. Such was true in Rhode
Island as in other parts of the country and was of great significance
in a place so definitely a textile center as this State. Certain figures
compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics15 are of interest at this
point. These show that for women engaged in cotton manufactur
ing throughout the country there was an increase of 63.4 per cent
in wages from 1918 to 1920. Rhode Island, with its 34,278 women
engaged in the textile industry, naturally shared in this increase.
On the other hand the turning of the tide in textile production in
Rhode Island as elsewhere, which caused the closing of many mills
and the releasing of thousands of women as available labor, was
becoming a threatening factor for the precipitation of wTage cuts in
the closing months of 1920.
WEEKLY EARNINGS.

The effect of several high-paid industries in Rhode Island in the
raising of the median for all industries can be seen from a detailed
10 U. S. Department ot Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Wages and hours of labor
In cotton-goods manufacturing, 1007 to 1920. Monthly Labor Review, v. 12. No. 2, Feb
ruary, 1921, pp. 70-72.
Note.—In order to find from the figures available in the tables of this article the
per cent of increase for the women, the weekly earnings of women in all occupations far
1918 and 1920 were averaged and the average per cent of increase obtained.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

wage analysis of the industries investigated. The median earnings
for 7,780 women in the various industries for one week in October
or November of 1920 are shown in the following summary, taken
from Table IV, page 64 of the appendix.
Industry:

Median earnings.

Rubber manufacturing____________________________________ ___ $20. 70
Metal shops18. 65
Electrical manufacturing17. 25
Jewelry manufacturing14. 70
Other manufacturing________________________ 14. 55
General mercantile_____________________________________________ 13. 20
Laundries1_______________________________________ 12. 45
Paper-box manufacturing12. 30
5-and-10-cent stores____________________________ n. 90
All industries'_______________________________ 16. 85

The median earnings for the 7,780 women for whom records were
secured, both time and piece workers being included, were $16.85 a
week; that is, one-half received less than this amount in the week
taken and one-half received more. By far the highest earnings were
in the rubber industry, with a median of $20.70, and the next highest
were in the metal industry, with a median of $18.65. The fact that
such earnings as these were received by the large numbers of women
engaged in these two industries (49.9 per cent of the total number
in the survey) increases to a marked extent the median for all in
dustries. If rubber and metal manufacturing are omitted, the me
dian for the rest of the manufacturing establishments is $15.10, $3.55
less than the median for metal shops and $5.60 less than that for
rubber factories.
In the rubber industry over three-quarters of the women (76.6
per cent) were earning $16 and more a week; that is, their wage
approximated, and for much the greater number in this group ex
ceeded, the median wage for all women in all industries. Over onelialf (54.3 per cent) earned $20 or more, and only 3.3 per cent earned
less than $10 a week. Rubber manufacturing was decidedly the best
occupation from the point of view of wages for women in Rhode
Island.
The metal shops, however, offered nearly the same wage. Threequarters of the women workers (75.9 per cent) earned $16 or more
a week, more than one-third (37.9 per cent) earned $20 or more,
and only 3.5 per cent earned less than $10.
In electrical manufacturing, where a larger proportion of the
workers were women than in either rubber or metal manufacturing,
the earnings were slightly lower than in those two industries. Threefiflhs (60.4 per cent) earned $16 or over, and more than a quarter
(28.8 per cent) earned $20 or more, which lifts the industry into the

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

MEDIAN WEEKLY EARNINGS OF WOMEN

ft 20.70
*16.65
ft 16.65

ft 1725

ft 14.70

ft 14.55

B ft 13.00
|ft|250 ilii R9 .
*12.45
™ ■ S *11.90 m

All
Rubber Metal Electric Jem/ry Paper Other General 5&/0 laundries
[Industries manufac shops al manu- manufac box mart manu mercan cent
stores
facturm taring ufadunng facturing tile
turing

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

high earning class. The group earning less than $10 was 6.7 per cent
of the total number in the industry, twice that in rubber or metal
manufacturing.
Jewelry and paper-box making ranked low in the scale of earn
ings, dropping almost to the level of the mercantile group. The
percentage of women earning $20 or more was a trifle higher in
jewelry manufacturing (8.9 per cent), a trifle lower in paper-box
making (4.9 per cent) than in general mercantile establishments (6.2
per cent). Nearly one-tenth (9.2 per cent) of the women in jewelry
earned less than $10, and nearly one-fourth (24.2 per cent) of the
workers in paper-boxes earned less than that amount.
Women in the 5-and-10-cent stores were the lowest paid group. Of
the 157 women for whom pay-roll data were secured only 2 earned
as much as $20, while more than one-fourth earned less than $10
a week. Earnings in the general mercantile group were higher than
in the 5-and-10-cent stores, since 6.2 per cent of the women earned
$20 or more a week and but 10.6 per cent less than $10.
Laundry work was paid at a rate lower than general mercantile
but higher than 5-and-10-cent stores. Only 12 women, or 7.3 per
cent, earned $20 or more, and nearly one-quarter (23.2 per cent)
earned less than $10.
It should be remembered that these figures represent, the highest
wages ever paid to women in these industries in Rhode Island. Of
all women in all industries for whom wage data were obtained, nearly
one-fourth (23.3 per cent) had earnings of less than $13 a week,
and 7.7 per cent received less than $10. Almost two-thirds of the
women (62.8 per cent) employed in 5-and-10-cent stores, laundries,
and paper-box factories earned less than $13 a week. These were
underpaid according to minimum-wage rates effective in several
States, as proved by the following statement of the minimum wage
required in the places specified :
Manufac Mercantile
Laundries.
turing.

State.

$16.00
Massachusetts...............................

ol6. 50
16.50
13. 20

$16. 50
16. 50

$15. 00
15. 00

17. 50
13. 20

16. 50
13. 20

o Taper box.

Time, piece, and time and piece workers.
The wages in this survey were based on three different methods of
computing: On time worked, paid for according to an hourly, daily,
or weekly rate; on amount of work produced, paid for according to
a piece rate; and on a combination of these two, when the worker
performed in the same week some work paid for by the hour and

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

some paid for by the piece. The numbers and the median earnings
of women employed under each of these methods are shown in the
following table:
Table 4.—Humber of women and their median earnings on timework, on piece

work, and on both time and piece work, by industry.

Industry.

Women reported as doing—'
Num
ber of
empay
Timework.
Piecework.
Time and piece work.
ees re
port
ing
com Num Per Median Num Per Median Num Per Median
plete ber. cent. earnings. ber. cent. earnings. ber. cent. earnings.
data.

Rubber manufacturing......... 3,067
Metal shops.............................
794
Electrical manufacturing.......
896
Jewelry manufacturing..........
639
Paper-box manufacturing__
327
Other manufacturing.............
780
General mercantile.................
840
5-and-10-cent stores.................
157
Laundries................................
164

810 26.4
421 53.0
212 23.7
487 76.2
231 70.6
416 53.3
840 100.0
157 100.0
140 85.4

All industries................ 7,664 3,714

48.5

§17.30
18.65
14.10
14.55
11.90
14.00
13.20
11.90
11.80
14.55

1,963
335
600
129
81
285

64.0
42.2
67.0
20.2
24.8
36.5

14.6

3,417 | 44.6
1
'

§22.95
19.60
18. 25
15. 60
14. 10
14.65

294
38
84
23
15
79

9.6
4. 8
9.4
3.6
4.6
10.1

$21.00
20. 70
18.35
11. 65
15.50
16. 55

18.00
20.35 ! 533
1

7.0

19.25

The table shows that 3,714 (48.5 per cent) of the women were timeworkers, 3,417 (44.6 per cent) pieceworkers, and 533 (7 per cent)
time and piece workers. About two-thirds of the workers in the
rubber and electrical industries were pieceworkers, whereas in all the
other industries most of the women—in stores, all of the women—
were paid according to the time worked. The wage figures show that
the median earnings of timeworkers, $14.55 a week, were consider
ably lower than the median earnings for pieceworkers, $20.35 a week,
and also lower than those of the combination time and piece workers,
who showed a median of $19.25. It should lie noted, however, that
the median for timeworkers was reduced somewhat by the fact that
all beginners were in this class.
Wages and hours.
The earnings discussed in the foregoing paragraphs were tabu
lated without relation to the hours worked during the pay-roll
period. It might seem that wages would vary in direct proportion
to the number of hours worked. This is true for timeworkers in
any one establishment but not for pieceworkers. For the latter,
wide variations in earnings were found even among those in any
one plant who were working the same number of hours. Further
more, women working the same number of hours in the different es
tablishments on jobs requiring about the same degree of skill showed
a wide range in pay. Obviously it is of much importance to the
worker whether she receives $15 for 40 or for 50 hours of work.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

Accordingly, a study of wages in connection with hours worked is
important. The following summary from Table V, page 65, in the
appendix, shows the median earnings for timeworkers and such
pieceworkers as reported hours worked:
Honrs worked.

Number of Median
earnings.
women.
431
797
678
853
3,125
433
362

$7.65
15.00
16. 50
17.30
17.75
21. 25
15.90

6,679

By far the largest group—3,125 women, or 46.8 per cent of the total
number—is found in the 48 to 51 hour classification, with a median
of $17.75. This is next to the highest median of $21.25 earned by a
small group of women working from 51 to 54 hours a week. The
more detailed figures of the table show that in the group of 3,125
women who worked from 48 to 51 hours a week there was a wide
variation of earnings. At one extreme were 22 women earning from
$6 to $8 a week and at the other were 166 women who earned $30 or
more. This variation in earnings is equally true of each of the other
groups. The middle point or median, however, showed that earnings
increased with the number of hours worked until 54 hours was reached,
when the median dropped to an amount lower than that for women
working from 42 to 45 hours a week. The sudden drop in the median
of those who worked 54 hours was probably due to the fact that this
group included the smaller and less standardized establishments,
where lower wages were paid and long hours required.
Earnings and rates.
Earnings and rates do not necessarily coincide. That the earn
ings of pieceworkers fluctuate so that it is difficult for these workers
to know how much money they may expect for a week’s labor is a
well-recognized fact. Even with timeworkers who have an hourly,
daily, or weekly rate, there is some variation. In some establishments
an attendance bonus and in some stores a commission on sales may in
crease the earnings above the rates. On the other hand, time lost fre
quently decreases the actual amount received below the rate expected.
Nevertheless on this rate, as a rule, is based the worker’s budget. With
this rate as a measure, she estimates what expenditures she can make,
what standard of living she can set, sometimes overlooking the possi
bility of a wide discrepancy between rate and earnings. A compari
son of the actual earnings and the rates of the group of timeworkers

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

included in the investigation is given in the following summary of
Tables IV and VI, pages 64 and 66, in the appendix.
Median
earnings
(Table
IV).
All industries........................................
General mercantile...............................
5-and-lO-cent stores..............................
Laundries..............................................
All manufacturing................................

$16. 85
13. 20
11.90
12. 45
17.85

.
I
Median
rates
(Table
VI).
$15.00
13. 15
12. 30
12. 60
16-10

The median earnings for all industries were found to be $1.75
above the median rate—that is, the employees, by means of overtime
or a bonus, were able to raise their earnings above the schedule set
by the employers. In mercantile establishments the rate was $13.15;
the'earnings were $13.20. Since hours and pay are more fixed in this
employment and there is little overtime, the time lost (for, of course,
time is lost in every industry) was more than compensated for by
the bonus or commission. In 5 and 10 cent stores, on the contrary,
the rate, $12.30, showed an excess of 40 cents over the earnings, a
difference due both to lost time and to the fact that the business
was not on a commission basis. In laundries also the weekly earnings
were lower than the rates, with a difference of 15 cents.
Manufacturing establishments offered apparently the greatest op
portunities to earn more than the rates. The median rate for women
in manufacturing was $16.10, the median earnings were $17.85, the
difference between expectation and result being $1.75, to be accounted
for partly by bonuses and partly by overtime work.
Age and earnings.
There are many other factors entering into the earning power
of women besides the actual hours worked. It is interesting to note,
for instance, how important a part age plays in the earning capacity,
in which industries youth is the most valuable asset and in which
more mature years command the highest wages. Some idea of the
relationship between age and opportunities for women in the indus
tries investigated in Rhode Island can be obtained from the following
summary of Table VII, page 66 in the appendix:
Age:
16
18
20
25
30
40

Median earnings.

and under 18 years-------------------------$14. 40
and under 20 years______________________ 1------------------------ 16. 30
and under 25 years 16.
45
and under 30 years------------------------------------------------------------ 17.15
and under 40 years----------------------------------------------------------- 16. 30
years and over____________
14. 95

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

For all industries combined, women in Rhode Island were at the
height of their earning power between 25 and 30 years of age, in
which group were 13.4 per cent of all those for whom wages were
reported. The lowest earnings were received by women under 18
years and those of 40 years and over.
Even in the different age groups there was considerable variation
in earnings according to industry. The median weekly earnings, by
industry, for the older and younger women are shown in the follow
ing statement from the original figures of Table VII:
16 and un 40 years
der 20 years. and over.
Rubber manufacturing........................
Electricalmanufacturing...................
Jewelry manufacturing........................
Paper-box manufacturing...................
Other manufacturing..........................
General mercantile........................
5-and-10-cen t stores__ ....
.

$18.55
15.10
17.45
14. 00
13. 30
15. 70
12. 50
12. 00
10.90

$16. 40
16. 35
17. 00
14.90
(a)
14. 30
13. 85
<b)
13. 50

“Only 4 persons, receiving between $11 and $14.
b Only 2 persons, receiving $12 and $14.

Workers under 20 had their highest median in rubber manufactur
ing ($18.55) and their lowest in laundries ($10.90). Older workers,
40 years of age and over, had their highest median in electrical
manufacturing ($17) and their lowest in laundries ($13.50), with the
exception of the two industries having so few women in this age
group that medians have not been computed. It should be noted
that in one or two other industries the numbers of older women are
so small as to render figures about their earnings less convincing
than those about the younger age groups representative of more
women.
The detailed figures in Table VII show that the rise in earnings
was greatest in rubber manufacturing and metal shops. From 16 to
18 years the median earnings in rubber manufacturing were $16.70,
which increased to $22.85 for the age group of 25 to 30 years. The
median for the youngest group in the metal shops was $13.60, which
rose to $19.45 for women between 20 and 40. This increase was fol
lowed in the rubber industry, however, by a sharp decline for the
'women 40 years of age and over, the median earnings being about
the same as those of the girls of 16 to 18. Increase in earnings for
the general mercantile worker and the laundry worker was slow, but
the decrease after 40 years of age was not great.
Experience and earnings.
In practically every industry the employee’s experience in the
trade is of value to the employer, and consequently it should mean an

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

increase in pay as a reward for an increase in ability. Even in occu
pations requiring practically no skill, length of service should be one
determinant for increased wages, since the speed, steadiness, and
trustworthiness of employees is of great importance to employers.
The length of service which leads to the highest wage naturally
varies in different industries and in different occupations. High
wages for beginners do not always mean correspondingly high wages
for the well trained; low wages for beginners may lead to high wages
after years of service; in fact, the length of experience which yields
the greatest pay and the largest percentage of increase over the ini
tial rate follows no rule. Some idea of the significance of experience
in the various industries investigated in Rhode Island can be gained
from the following summary of Table VIII, page 67, in the appendix.
The median weekly wage for those employed less than six months is
compared with the highest median reached by experienced workers in
each industry, the length of service producing this median being
given in each case.
Industry.

Median for
less than 6
months.
$17.05
14.65
13.60
12.60
12. 35
11.35
10.50
«

Highest
median.
$23.50
20.90
25. 50
16.80
16.80
<*)
14.80

Years of ex
perience.

Per cent
increase.

10 to 15
5 to 10

37.8
42.7
87.5
33.3
36.0
0)
41.0

10 to 15
e>
5 to 10
0

1 For certain groups the median could not be computed, since the number of women in these groups
was too small.

Every industry reveals that increase in earnings came with ex
perience; that the steady worker who continued in one employment
had an advantage, shown by a rising wage. The value of experi
ence measured by earnings can be observed by the amount of the in
crease from the beginners’ median wage to the highest earned in the
industry, and also by the length of time it took the worker to secure
this maximum wage. The rubber industry showed the greatest in
crease (87.5 per cent) and the general mercantile showed the lowest
(33.3 per cent). Both required 20 years and over for employees to
reach the maximum. The earnings of new workers in the rubber*
industry show a median only $1 higher than that in the mercantile,
whereas in the rubber industry the median after 20 years’ service
surpasses that in the mercantile by $8.75. Thus the mercantile not
only showed the smallest percentage of increase in wages of all the
industries, but spread this increase out over the longest stretch of
years. The detailed figures of the table show that the rubber and
general mercantile industries were the only ones where the maxi

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

mum wage median fell in the maximum experience class. In the
others, after a certain point was reached, of from 5 to 15 years of
experience, the median decreased with greater length of service. The
lowest median for a beginning group, $10.50, was found in the
5-and-10-cent stores, as was also the lowest maximum median for an
experienced group, $14.80, reached after from 5 to 10 years of service.
YEARLY EARNINGS.

The foregoing wage figures are those for a given week, irrespec
tive of the other 51 weeks in the year. A week representative of nor
mal conditions in the plants, without a holiday or a slack period,
was chosen. It is, however, a well-known fact that there are many
vicissitudes in industrial jobs, so that workers frequently do not re
ceive a steady wage throughout the year, but may suffer many varia
tions below normal. Accordingly, it is important to know not only
what wages women in Rhode Island industries actually earned dur
ing one specific week, but how much they earned during the year.
The question of yearly income is the important one in judging
whether a worker is receiving a living wage, since it is the year’s and
not the week’s wage by which she maintains her standard of living.
The possibility of losing money through sickness, slackness in the
industry, unemployment, change of job, fines or cuts in wages, must
be considered. Furthermore, some pieceworkers complained of loss
of money due to the necessity of cleaning machines without extra
pay, or of waiting for work to arrive and for machines to be re
paired. In fact, many circumstances besides those for which the
worker is responsible are the causes of deductions in pay.
Stability of employment is a two-sided problem dependent upon
the employer and the employee and is a matter of utmost importance
to both. Industry has not yet been so organized that it can use all
of its workers steadily and all workers are not yet so contented with
jobs and the conditions of their work that they have abandoned the
habit of change. Nevertheless, in every industry were found women
workers who had been in their employment sufficiently long for their
wages to be considered representative of the wage opportunities for
steady women workers in that industry.
In the study of yearly earnings an effort was made to secure the
wage data of women who were steady workers, who had been with
the establishment for at least one year, and who had not been absent
from work for more than a few weeks during the year. Inexpe
rienced and new workers were not included. In most cases the women
for this study were selected by the managers in the various plants.
Altogether annual earnings were recorded for 617 women, 7.9 per
cent of the entire number for whom the weekly pay roll* was secured.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

These women worked in the various plants in a variety of occupa
tions and may be considered representative of what experienced
women who were employed in the industries investigated in Rhode
Island earned during the year from the fall of 1919 to the fall of
1920.
The following table shows the year’s earnings of these 617 women
according to industry.
Table

r>.—Year’s earnirws of women for •whom 52-week pay-roll records were
secured, by industry.

Number of women receiving each specified amount in

All indus
Elec Jew Papertries.
Rub
tri
Other All Gen
Actual year’s earnings.
ber Metal cal elry box man- man- eral 5-andman- ufac- ufacLaun
man- shops. man- manmer 10 cent
ufacufac- ufact tir ttir can stores. dries.
Num Per ufactur
tur
tur
t tir
ing. ing. tile.
ber. cent. ing.
ing. ing. ing.
Under $350.....................
$350 and under $400___
$400 and under $450___
$450 and under $500___
$500 and under $550___
$550 and under $600___
$600 and under $650___
$650 and under $700___
$700 and under $750___
$750 and under $800___
$800 and under $850___
$850 and under $000___
$000 and under $1,000...
$1,000 and under $1,100.
$1,100 and under $1,200.
$1,200 and under $1,400.
$1,400 and under $1,600.
$1,600 and under $1,800.
$1,800 and over..............
Total....................
Median earnings............

2
1
6
21
25
41
56
G1
59
64
59
90
49
39
27
13
4

0.3
.2
1.0
3.4
4.1
6.6
9.1
9.9
9.6
10.4
9.6
14.6
7.9
6.3
4.4
2.1
.6

3
2
3
8
11
12
10
16
27
20
23
22
13
2

2
3
8
9
7
19
8
7
5

617 100.0
$829

172
$978

71
$929

1
3
1
11
9
11
10
15
15
3

3
2
10
7
7
10
9
10
11
3
3

1
1
2
4
4
6
4
3
1

79
$868

75
$793

26
$758

2
7
11
7
15
10
5
8
4
6
1

2
76
$687

2
16
16
25
37
46
50
51
50
79
46
37
27
13
4
499
$857

1
1

10
16

6
1

10
6

3
1

80
$727

21
$601

17
*758

T-he table shows that the yearly median for all industries was
$829; that is, one-half of the women earned less than this amount and
one-half earned more. The yearly earnings received in different
industries show wide variations. The rubber industry had the highest yearly median, $978, and the 5-and-10-eent stores the lowest,
$604. The median for all stores, $699, is $158 less than the median
for all manufacturing establishments and $59 less than the median
ior laundries, placing the mercantile group last in the wage scale.
In a classification of women with incomes of less than $1,000 a
year, the manufacturing establishments show 74.5 per cent in this
class as compared with 94.1 per cent in laundries and 96 per cent in
stores. None of the women whose yearly earnings were recorded
received, as much as $1,800 a year. One-fourth of the women in the
manufacturing establishments received $1,000 and up to $1,800.
None of the .women in either stores or laundries earned as much as

*
j.

*
KEY
I

ANNUAL EARNINGS OF WOMEN

Percent

under&QOO

Percent
ind

90.5

$800ond over

75.0
692

64.7
55.9
44.1 ^

22.7

Rubber
All
Meta/
Industries manufacturing shops

Jewelry Paper boy
Electrical
General
Other
manufacturing manufacturing manufacturing manufacturing mercantile

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

60.3

5 &/0cent\ Laundries

stores

-a

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

$1,200 a year, and only 4 per cent in stores and 5.9 per cent in laun
dries received $1,000 and up to $1,200. The rubber industry, as
would be expected, took the lead in the proportion of women with
yearly earnings in the $1,000 to $1,800 group, showing 46.5 per cent
of the total number in this class.
It is apparent from the foregoing statements that certain indus
tries enabled a good proportion of the women employees to obtain
adequate yearly earnings. On the other hand, a further analysis
of the wage figures and a comparison of these figures with the mini
mum wage rates adopted in several localities reveal the fact that
a number of women in other industries failed to receive a living
wage.
Since no budget or minimum-wage figures for Rhode Island are
available, as a test of the adequacy of the earnings of the women,
certain figures adopted by the wage boards of an adjoining State—
Massachusetts, similar in so many respects industrially to Rhode
Island—may be used.
Some of the Massachusetts weekly-wage awards are:
$15.25 Women’s Clothing Board. (Adopted 1920, winter.)
$15.50 Paper-Box Wage Board. (Adopted 1920, spring.)
$15.40 Office and Other Building Cleaners’ Board. (Adopted 1921, spring.)

If earned for 52 weeks these wages amount in round numbers to
$800 for the year. Exclusive of the median for all industries, three
of the yearly medians in Table 5 are above and six are below
the subsistence level set by Massachusetts. Jewelry, paper-box,
and miscellaneous manufacturing, as well as stores and laundries,
fall below the $800 requirement, the median of 5-and-10-cent stores
being almost $200 below and the median of miscellaneous manufac
turing more than $100 below.
The detailed figures of Table 5 reveal that of the 617 women in all
industries, 44.1 per cent, or almost "one-half, received less than $800
for the year. Over one-third of the women in the manufacturing
establishments and about two-thirds in laundries and in stores re
ceived less than $800 a year. Furthermore, when we take $650
($12.50 a week) as a minimum we find that 11.8 per cent of the women
in manufacturing establishments earned less than this amount, while
33.7 per cent of those in stores and 17.6 per cent of those in laundries
dropped below this mark. Those women in the last two groups
who were steady and experienced workers in their industries were
paid at a rate comparing very unfavorably with the minimum wage
rates of women in the same industries in California, the District of
Columbia, and North Dakota, where experienced women employees
in mercantile establishments receive $16, $16.50, and $17.50 respec
tively, and experienced women employees in laundries receive $16,
$15, and $16.50 respectively.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

The degree of steadiness of the women workers whose annual
earnings were ascertained is shown in Table IX, page 67, in the
appendix. Of the total number of 617 women, nearly three-quarters
(72.1 per cent) worked 50 or more weeks during the year, nearly onequarter (23.3 per cent) working every week. Only 6 women of the
617 worked less than 43 weeks in the year. This is excellent testi
mony, not only to the stability of this picked group of workers but
also to their health stability as women.
The detailed figures show that the earnings of the workers who lost
not more than two weeks varied greatly from one girl with a yearly
wage of between $350 and $400 to four women in rubber factories and
metal shops who earned between $1,600 and $1,800. Over one-half
(55.1 per cent) of this same group of women losing not more than
two weeks earned between $700 and $1,000, about one-fourth (23.8
per cent) earned less than $700, and a smaller proportion (21.1 per
cent), $1,000 and over.
CONCLUSION.

In a discussion of wage figures the important fact must not be
lost sight of that women are compelled as a rule not only to sup
port themselves but to provide a large part—in many cases all—of
the support of other persons as well. An adequate minimum wage
rate should therefore cover the cost of living for dependents, and not
merely for the individual.
In Rhode Island, although about one-half of the women received
what might be deemed a fair amount of pay, many others fell far
enough below the line of a maintenance wage to make essential a
special consideration of the subject of a minimum wage by all those
interested in the industrial betterment of women in the State.

PART IV. WORKING CONDITIONS.
Realization that the conditions under which women work are of
vital importance is gradually growing in industrial circles. More
and more are employers coming to grasp the truth that good working
conditions for women mean increased efficiency; more and more are
women workers learning to expect comfortable conditions for their
hours of industrial labor. Finally, since women have become such
a definite and necessary factor in the industrial world the social
consciousness of the Nation is becoming aroused to the necessity for
establishing and enforcing good standards for women in industry
in order that the health of the individual women, and hence the
welfare of the Nation, may be preserved. Despite the general knowl
edge about these matters, some managers linger—either from indif
ference or from ignorance—in the rear guard of the movement for
maintaining health and efficiency.
GENERAL WORKROOM CONDITIONS.

The general working conditions, such as the location, structure,
and size of the plants, the space in the "workrooms, the general ar
rangement of machinery and work tables, were found satisfactory in
51 of the 70 plants visited in Rhode Island. In the other plants
unsatisfactory conditions of one sort or another were noted. The
machine rooms of one factory, for example, had aisles so narrow as
to make passing difficult. When a hand truck was pushed down the
aisle it was necessary for the workers to stand on and lean over the
frames of their machines to enable the truck to pass. In another
building, six stories high, the only stairway used by the women was
a small spiral one, difficult and dangerous for the general use to
which it was put. Stock w7as carried from floor to floor by this route,
and, as two persons could not pass on the stairs, congestion resulted.
In a third plant the workrooms were overcrowded, with a hap
hazard placement of machines and tables and with narrow and ob
structed aisles. Such objectionable arrangements should be avoided
in order to facilitate the work and to safeguard the workers.
Other general wrorkroom conditions, such as cleaning, heating, ven
tilation, and lighting, were, on the whole, fair.
Cleaning.
The cleaning of workrooms was reported unsatisfactory in some
respects in 20 plants. Either the floors were caked with accumu
lated dirt and littered with debris of some days’ standing or the win
dows and wralls were dingy. In some cases the systems of cleaning
were inadequate. A number of plants, however. wrere reported with
a good cleaning record. In several large establishments a corps of
41
82183°—22----4

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

cleaners occupied constantly with sweeping and scrubbing produced
excellent results. The reaction of employees to such conditions is
illustrated by a girl working in one of these plants. She expressed
her appreciation of the high standards maintained, referring by way
of contrast to another plant where she had formerly worked. “ That
whole place was so dirty,” she said, “ I just couldn’t stand it.”
Heating.
The heating seemed satisfactory as a rule; in only 5 plants was it
reported as insufficient or too great for the workers. Either ar
rangement may be detrimental to health. A great deal of discom
fort is likely to result if girls work constantly in close proximity to
the heating pipes, as was the case in one plant where the pipes were
placed along the wall under the worktables, close to the girls’ feet.
When such low-lying pipes are covered with asbestos they arc less
objectionable.
Ventilation.
Ventilation is a technical problem requiring more detailed study
than could be given in this general investigation. However, in 53
of the 70 plants the ventilation seemed to be adequate. In many
cases ventilation by windows was sufficient, but the following de
scription of conditions in one plant is illustrative of the failure to
solve the ventilation problem:
On the morning of the visit the air was hot and “ stuffy.” The inadequate
ventilation was due to the crowded workroom with the low ceiling, and to
the fact that most of the windows were kept closed to prevent the gas flames
used by the workers immediately facing the windows from being blown out.

In some plants artificial exhausts were needed to improve the at
mosphere of the workrooms; in a jewelry factory, for example,
where chains were dipped into a chemical solution, the air was
heavy because there were no exhausts to carry off the fumes. Very
effective mechanical means for improving the ventilation were found
in one plant, described by the investigator as follows:
The workrooms were ventilated by means of the windows; and, in addition,
in all the departments where flames from the blowers and heat from hot glass
increased the temperature the washed-air system of ventilating was used. In
these departments the hot air was blown away from the face of the worker by
small individual electric fans placed near each worker.

Lighting.
Such a technical subject as lighting also could be given only a
rather superficial treatment in the general survey. Of the 70 plants
visited, the natural lighting was reported as unsatisfactory in 16
and the artificial as inadequate in 20. The description given of one
plant, that “ apparently none of the workers were placed with any
reference to the daylight,” was applicable to other establishments
in which women were found facing a decided glare from windows

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

only a few feet away, sometimes with the sun shining directly on
their work, or to establishments where the supply of light was in
sufficient, either because of too few windows or of obstructions be
tween the workers and the windows. As these conditions occurred
sometimes where women were doing fine work in the jewelry and
metal establishments, they constituted a serious problem. If the na
ture of the work requires that the workers face the windows, as has
been claimed by the managers of some jewelry establishments, the
condition should be rendered less objectionable by the proper shading
of the eyes and the work. The president of the Jewelers’ Protec
tive Association voiced the opinion that more definite education along
the lines of improved lighting in the jewelry industry was neces
sary, since the fine work required such close application of the eyes.
In the various industries improvements were needed not only in natu
ral but in artificial lighting. Unshaded electric lights frequently
caused a glare; in other cases the wrong placement of lights cast
objectionable shadows on the work. Other defective lighting condi
tions were caused by irregularly placed lights or by the lack of bulbs
in the light sockets. In conclusion it may be said that some managers
believed that if enough light was supplied the problem was solved,
not knowing that too much illumination or glare is as detrimental to
eyesight as is insufficient light. Other managers, however, had given
careful study to the question, realizing that inadequate lighting of
any sort not only produces impaired vision, which in time causes
nervous fatigue of the whole body, but also limits production. The
lighting in such cases was excellent, as is illustrated by the following
description:
Large factory windows, wdth several sections each, on at least three sides of
workrooms. Windows of frosted or ground glass. In two workrooms the top
section of the window was frosted with a soft, restful shade of green. Ad
justable white sliades at windows. No glare. No girls faced windows.
Artificial lighting excellent. General lighting throughout, electric bulbs,
with shades, on cords about 6 feet above the heads of workers when standing;
these lights placed at regular intervals. For close work at machines, indi
vidual bulbs with cuplike shades, attached to machines by adjustable brackets.

Seating.
In general the seating throughout the plants was fair. There was
frequently an attempt made to furnish seats with backs, also occa
sionally with foot rests, and to adjust the seats to the work. In one
plant some of the machines were equipped with arm rests to facili
tate the comfort of the operators. Twelve of the 70 plants, how
ever, had no seats or had an insufficient number, and 16 were
definitely reported as having entirely wrong kinds of seats. Illus
trative of the failure to make suitable adjustment was the ar
rangement in a jewelry factory where the worktables with a pro
jecting ledge for materials between the girls and their work made

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

it necessary for them to lean forward in an uncomfortable posture.
Constant sitting, even under the most propitious circumstances, is
tiring, and ideal seating arrangements are rare. One girl who sat
all day at her job said, “It’s awfully hard sitting all day even when
you take along a couple of towels to sit on.” In some establishments,
and especially in stores and laundries where girls stood constantly
at work, there were in most cases neither adequate nor satisfactory
seats for an occasional rest. One girl in a 5-and-10-cent store com
plained that the first two weeks of standing all day made her feet
ache so badly that she could scarcely wait to reach home at night to
take off her shoes. In one small store the only seat provided was a
small bench on the second floor which the girls shared with cus
tomers. A girl who stood at her wrnrk in a factory complained that
although standing was tiring she had become accustomed to it, but
that she did not like standing on a concrete floor; it wore her shoes
out in a short time and was' so cold and damp in winter that she had
to put newspapers under her feet.
The importance of the posture and seating of women in industrial
work is strongly emphasized by health authorities. The realization
that a bad position at work means fatigue for the workers and hence
lowered vitality and limited production needs to become more wide
spread in industrial circles, and there is needed also a careful study
of the most satisfactory seats for particular jobs. A detailed and
scientific investigation of the whole matter has been made by the
Bureau of Women in Industry of the State of New York and the
findings are published in a report.10 One of the chief conclusions
reached is that posture should be varied, that continuous sitting and
continuous standing both are harmful, and that there are compara
tively few processes where either is really necessary. Arrangements
have been made whereby workers can sit or stand at occupations in
which formerly only one posture was considered possible. Even in
laundry work, for example, machines with seats have been found
feasible. An important conclusion reached in the report and in
dorsed by all who are interested in the elimination of the unnecessary
fatigue of the worker is not only that a seat is needed but that it
must have back, legs, and seat so devised that the worker can be
comfortably adjusted to her work.
HAZARD AND STRAIN.

From the point of view of safety for industrial workers, the mat
ter of hazard and strain was considered both in general and for in
dividual jobs.16
16 State of New York Department of Labor. Special bulletin prepared by the Bureau
of Women in Industry. Industrial posture and seating. No. 104. April, 1921.

WOMEN IN EHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

Fire hazards.
Definite fire hazards were noted in 16 of the 70 establishments, and
possible danger in case of fire in 5 others. These hazards were of
various kinds. In some plants the entrance doors or the doors of
workrooms opened inward instead of outward. Several buildings of
more than two stories, one with as many as five, were reported as hav
ing no fire escape. In a few instances unsatisfactory stairways con
stituted a danger, where they were narrow, dark, or difficult of access.
The narrow spiral stairway in one plant would have been a decided
hazard in case of fire, as would also the stairways described in the fol
lowing :
The plant was composed of a number Of old wooden buildings of one, two, and
three stories. The stock was highly inflammable. There were no fire escapes
on any of the buildings. The stairs were of wood, mostly without handrails,
very steep and dark. In the two-story building the main exit from the second
floor was a stairway composed of a slide for conveying boxes of work down to
first floor on one side of the stair well, and a flight of steps on the other side
with no rail between. There was another similar stairway in the three-story
building leading from the second to the first floor, only here the slide was in
the middle of the stair well, and a flight of steps about 18 or 20 inches wide on
each side, with no rail between.

A striking illustration of carelessness and indifference on the part
of the management is shown in another report:
One wooden stairway from the second floor. Exit through window. Access
to window was obstructed by piles of stock, an old barrel, and a discarded ma
chine. There was, in addition to the regular wooden stairway, an emergency fire
stairway. This was the one originally used in the factory, but discarded be
cause it was too narrow and steep, and the new one was built. The first six
steps from the bottom of the old stairway had been cut away, leaving a drop of
almost 5 feet. The opening was closed by a door. Below the door there were
several old boxes and barrels that would somewhat handicap an attempt to make
the drop from the stairway in case of emergency.

Fire regulations should prohibit such a condition. An effort has
been made in Rhode Island to pass a more adequate fire law, but de
spite the strong backing of the factory-inspection department this has
not yet been accomplished.
Workroom hazards.
I here were reported also other hazards of a rather general nature
in workrooms. In 28 of the 70 plants unguarded machinery and other
dangerous conditions were noted, with the possibility of injury to
women working near by. One girl was reported to have gashed her
arm badly on an unguarded saw. Another girl who worked in the
same plant near an unguarded belt described a startling experience.
“ Not long ago,” she said, “ I almost scalped myself when my hair got
caught on that belt.” A number of side belts without guards were seen
in dangerous locations, on narrow aisles and near enough to the floor

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

to catch workers’ skirts. There were also unguarded overhead belts.
In one plant a rapidly revolving wheel, uninclosed and located on an
aisle, and in another an unguarded saw projecting into the aisle, con
stituted serious hazards. Only one instance was reported where
molten metal was exposed so that it formed a menace to the women
workers. The excellent guards against general hazards seen in some
plants proved what could be done in the way of safety.
Occupational hazards.
•
Certain conditions which might prove detrimental to the health and
safety of women in particular occupations also were noted. In 51 of
the 70 plants a possible strain and in 28 a definite hazard in connection
with women’s jobs were recorded. In various operations the strain
on the eyes, nerves, or muscles of the workers frequently could have
been greatly reduced by more scientific arrangements. The introduc
tion into one jewelry plant of arm rests to minimize the arm strain for
women doing fine bench work is illustrative of the kind of adjustment
that is desirable and possible for the elimination of unnecessary
fatigue.
Presses and machines without guards were observed in various
establishments. In such cases the operators ran the risk of catching
and mashing their hands. For instance, a 17-year-old girl had
caught her hand in a cylinder press, apparently through no fault
of her own. As it was not automatically reversible, she was obliged
to stop the machine herself. As a result of the accident she lost four
fingers and afterward could work only as an errand girl in the plant.
In some places women were exposed to fumes and dust, which some
times were present in such large quantities as to be extremely dis
agreeable. In a few plants the dust was greatly reduced by the
use of special hoods and exhausts, devices essential in all establish
ments where dust and fumes constitute a menace.
Girls burned themselves frequently with gas flames in jewelry
making or on the machines in laundries with the possibility of in
fection unless the burns were carefully looked after. In one plant
the hazard of burns from soldering flames had been minimized by
the careful adjustment of the height and angle of the workbench.
In conclusion it should be said that although hazards and strains
are not always avoidable in industrial occupations, the risks and
dangers can be reduced by more careful management,, by the in
stallation of guarded machines and comfort facilities, and by the
adoption of an 8-hour day. The fatigue resulting from working
under a strain for an excessively long day may become so acute and so
poisonous to the system as to constitute a hazard, and may be re
sponsible also for industrial accidents, since workers when over
fatigued are apt to be less careful.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

SANITATION.

In the consideration of the health and efficiency of the workers
the question of sanitation is of paramount importance. Just as the
machines in industrial plants would not run smoothly if treated in
a haphazard fashion, so the human factor in production should not
be neglected if the best results are to be obtained. Although it is
extremely necessary for machines to be carefully inspected, cleaned,
oiled, and repaired, it is obviously much more essential that the
workers’ health and welfare should be safeguarded, since the workers
are not only cogs in the industrial wheels of a nation but threads in
the social fabric as well.
Drinking facilities.
The drinking facilities reported unsatisfactory in 37 plants were
either insanitary or not easily accessible. In many cases individual
drinking cups were not supplied; sometimes a tin cup was chained
to the faucet or a common glass provided. The practice reported
in a number of establishments of having the girls furnish their
own cups frequently resulted in the use of a common cup or of none
at all. The evils of the common drinking cup have been sufficiently
advertised to require no discussion here, but the need for the abo
lition of such a menace can not be emphasized too much. The use
of individual paper cups, customary in some establishments, is easily
possible for all.
The following reports show how little effort in this respect was
made by some firms to look after the health and comfort of the
girls:
Girls drink from barrels in workrooms and use the glass that happens to
be there or supply their own. In the warm weather the girls provide their
own ice for the barrel, but in the cold weather they use the faucet water. The
barrel is of wood and unlined.
Girls drink from faucet in basin in toilet room on first floor. They supply
their own glasses. This room is kept locked, with the stock helper, a woman,
in charge of the key.

Some plants had installed bubble fountains. It must be pointed
out, however, that such fountains frequently are of an insanitary
nature. The exposure of the danger lurking in what was believed to
be an ideal drinking arrangement was given in an article entitled
“Possible dangers of the bubble fountain,” in the Journal of the
American Medical Association17 several years ago. Here it was
shown that an epidemic of streptococcus tonsilitis in the University
of Wisconsin was traced directly to the bubble fountains in the
buildings. This circumstance led to an extensive bacteriological
v.

17 Possible dangers of the bubble fountain.
67, No. 20, Nov. 11. 1916, p. 1451.

Journal American Medical Association,

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

investigation of the hygiene of the bubble fountain in general, with
the discovery that it may be a powerful factor in transmitting dis
ease, since germs left in the jet of water may fall back on the foun
tain and remain a menace for several hours. This difficulty is ob
viated, however, if the tube is inclined at an angle of 15° or more
from the vertical and is equipped with an adequate collar to prevent
possible contact of the lips with the orifice. The need for education
on this subject is urgent, since, to quote from the article referred
to, “ Danger disguised in the cloak of safety is a menace of the most
potent sort, particularly when it receives the approbation of health
authorities in the way that the bubble fountain has shared it.”
Washing facilities.
Washing facilities varied widely in the different plants, being in
adequate in some respect in 65. The cleaning of washrooms was un
satisfactory or partially so in 12 of the (0 establishments. Occa
sionally the girls were expected to do the cleaning. In 25 plants
there was no hot water, and in 6 others there was hot water for only
some of the workers. In 38 plants no soap was supplied. In 51 there
were no towels, and in 7 others towels were provided for only part
of the force. That the washing arrangements varied from the crudest
to the most ideal is shown by the following contrasting reports from
three plants:
No washrooms. In one workroom the girls have an iron sink with two coldwater faucets. In the machine shops there is an iron sink, but the girls use
a galvanized iron pail which they or the men fill a couple of times a day.
They also use this water to mix with the oil for their machines. Several girls
use the same pail. In the inspecting room the girls have a longer trough than
in the other rooms, with three cold-water faucets. In the machine rooms there
is warm water from a faucet where the pails are filled. No soap or towels are
furnished.
Iron sink in corner of workroom. Hot and cold water. No individual soap
or towels. Manager said there was “ always plenty of laundry soap and some
thing around they could wipe their hands on.”
Washroom recently installed. Lockers and walls enameled white. White tile
floor. Outside light and ventilation. Very clean. Matron in charge. Twelve
porcelain basins with hand spray (hot and cold control) over each. Green
liquid soap. Paper towels provided. Mirror.

It may not he possible for all establishments to install such a com
plete equipment as the last, but it is reasonable to expect every plant
to provide hot water, soap, and individual towels for the health and
comfort of the workers. In practically all the operations in which
the women were engaged they handled materials or machines which
necessitated the use of hot water and soap to cleanse the hands
before eating lunch or leaving the plant. Too frequently the
policy was followed of expecting the women to supply their own

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES*

towels. With towels as with drinking cups, workers neglect to bring
their own and resort to the one used in common, another generally
acknowledged means of spreading disease.
Toilets.
On this subject the State law of Khode Island reads:3!>
The owner of any building, in which said building is located one or more
factory, manufacturing, or mercantile establishments employing more than
twenty-five persons, shall equip each of such establishments with one effectively
trapped and ventilated water-closet for every forty employees or fraction
thereof exceeding one-half: Provided, however, that if the employees are of
different sex then there shall be separate water-closets for the different sexes
with separate entrances properly designated and so built as to insure privacy.

Plants were reported, however, with one seat for Gl, GG, and eyen
as many as 75 women. The use of the standard of one seat for every
20. women as a test of the adequacy of toilet arrangements showed
30 of the 70 plants, or about 40 per cent, with an insufficient number
of toilet seats.
Toilets were reported unsatisfactory in other respects in 58 plants.
In 18 plants there was no designation on the toilet doors. In three
plants men and women used the same toilets. In 14 plants the venti
lation was inadequate, as there were no outside windows and the
toilets were ventilated from the workrooms. In 21 of the 70 plants
the cleaning was unsatisfactory; in 7 others it was partially so.
Sometimes the girls were required to clean the toilets; sometimes
the janitor cleaned them during working hours. Other unsatisfactory
arrangements were found, such as when they were inconveniently or
conspicuously located, and when they were separated from the work
room or the men’s toilet by an inadequate partition. In one plant
they were kept locked, with the bookkeeper in charge of the key,
ivhile in another plant the doors had no lock of any sort.
Uniforms.
Uniforms must be considered from two points of view—sanitation
and safety.
.
The advisability of the wearing of special working clothing de
pends largely upon the job. However, in all occupations where
workers handle food products, or where they operate machines with
the possibility of skirts and hair being caught, or where they are
exposed to oil, dust, or other substances detrimental to clothing, uni
forms are desirable. The type of garment should vary with the job.
In only 7 of the 70 plants was any sort of uniform or cap provided
for the workers. .In one plant where a food product was handled
the girls wore caps and enveloping aprons, which were furnished,
10 Acts of Rhode Island, January'session, 1020, cliap. 1907, sec. 8, pp. 144-145. 'Italics
not in original.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

laundered, and mended by the firm. In two plants some of tho
machine operators were provided with tan denim overalls and
blouses. The messengers in a department store, girls of 16 and
under, were supplied with dark-blue middy suits.
SERVICE FACILITIES.

Other facilities for the comfort of the women, such as lunch
rooms, cloakrooms, rest rooms, and first-aid equipment, were found
to vary greatly in the establishments inspected.
Lunchrooms.
Lunchrooms were found in only 15 of the 70 plants. In 11 of
these lunch of some sort was sold to the employees, as a rule, varied
and nourishing food sold practically at cost. In a few cases there
was a cafeteria, where girls were encouraged to eat even though
their lunch was brought from home. Some plants located in small
towns allowed sufficient time for the girls to go home if they so
desired. In the great majority of plants, however, the workers were
unable to go home; no provision whatsoever was made for a place in
which to eat lunch, and the girls ate in the workrooms at their ma
chines or tables. This is a system to be discountenanced, for too
frequently the materials and debris of the work make unappetizing
surroundings. In any case it is much better for the worker to eat
in a comfortable place with no reminder of her job, so that when
she resumes it after a satisfactory lunch she will feel fresher men
tally and physically.
Cloakrooms.
In general, facilities for wraps were inadequate in 56 establish
ments. No cloakrooms were provided in 25 of the 70 plants, and in
6 others the space was inadequate. In 5 of the plants lacking definite
cloakrooms, however, lockers were supplied in the workrooms. In
the other cases the workers hung their wraps on hooks or racks in
the workrooms, or occasionally, as was reported in one plant, “ they
put them anywhere.” In 20 plants where cloakrooms were found
they were unsatisfactory in some respect—untidy, poorly ventilated,
or overcrowded. A condition such as the following is highly in
sanitary but is typical of the “inadequate cloakrooms:”
On the second floor wraps were hung in two wooden cupboards at end of
workroom. These cupboards had no outside ventilation and were crowded with
coats and hats hung several deep on each hook.

In another plant having a similar situation, the statement of one
worker was not surprising. “ I like everything about the place but
the cloakroom, where we have to keep our wraps three or four on one
hook,” she said. “ The girls have had trouble with their heads. I did,
too, so I went to the forelady and told her I couldn’t put my wraps in
the cloakroom any more.”

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

The few establishments where each girl had a full-length steel
locker with perforated doors would serve as a model to those plants
permitting unhygienic crowding. Some authorities on the subject,
however, prefer other arrangements to lockers. A type of cloakroom
recommended is one equipped with iron racks, coat hangers, and
shelves or boxes above for hats and personal belongings. The system
of having a matron to supervise the service facilities and to look after
the cleaning of the rooms and the comfort of the girls is said to
produce excellent results.
.
Rest rooms.
A rest room of some sort is desirable in every plant for use in
case of sickness or emergency. In 49 of the 70 plants, however, there
was no such provision. Its absence frequently means the loss of an
entire day for a girl who is compelled to go home for a slight indis
position when a short rest is all that is necessary. In an emergency
the lack of a rest room may cause a distressing situation, such as
arose in one plant where a woman suffered a paralytic stroke while at
work. She lay on the floor for a time, until carried and put in a chair
in the superintendent’s office and later sent home in an automobile.
One of the other women said that the incident upset most of the other
girls so much that they were unable to work afterwards. At the time
of the visit to another plant in which there was no rest room a girl
who was ill was sitting on a chair in a toilet room, leaning back
against the wall, with another girl trying to help her. A properly
equipped and furnished rest room requires little space and outlay of
money, and should be provided without fail if such situations are to
be relieved.
First aid.
In some plants were found excellent measures for looking after
the health of the women; in others there were none at all. In 11
of the 70 plants there was no first-aid equipment of any sort. In 29
plants there was a dispensary, usually a room fitted up for emer
gency cases. In only 11 of these plants was a nurse in attendance,
and in only 9 was there any definite medical treatment given by a
doctor. Health records were kept in 13. The health service in one
large plant had been well organized. There were several hospital
rooms, including an examining room and others fitted up with com
plete hospital equipment—beds, toilets, and so forth. Two nurses
were in attendance, and an additional nurse made home visits. A
doctor and dentist had office hours for a certain time each day. A
physical examination of each new employee was required. Com
plete records were kept of the nature of illness or accident and of the
services rendered. In contrast to this was the haphazard arrange
ment in a small plant where a first-aid cabinet was kept in the office

WOMEN IN KHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

in the charge of “ just anybody.” Naturally it is not to be expected
that a small establishment employing only a few women can afford
extensive service facilities such as the hospital equipment described
above, but at least every plant, no matter how small, could have a
good first-aid equipment with one person definitely in charge.
employment management.

Employment management is an extensive subject about which
only a limited amount of information could be obtained in this in
vestigation. Questions were asked as to who was responsible for
employing, transferring, and discharging women workers. Several
methods were found in use. In 36 plants the employment manage
ment was centralized; that is, it was attended to by the superintend
ent, (lie manager, or the owner. In 12 other plants the foremen or
forewomen were in charge of such matters. In 7 establishments
some system of consultafion was used, either the manager or the
foreman having the authority to act, but only after consultation with
the other. In one of these plants the department superintendents
and the paymaster consulted with each other. Only 5 establish
ments had a professional employment manager. In small plants,
where it would not be feasible to have a separate employment man
ager. it would be possible and practical to have one person of intel
ligence and judgment definitely in charge of these matters. In 16
plants, however, a lack of such centralization was found. Misun
derstandings and injustices are likely to arise in cases of this sort,
reacting against employer and employees, preventing the right sort
of cooperation in the plant, and producing a high labor turnover.
In three of the five plants with an employment manager there was a
woman assistant to take up specifically all problems dealing with
women. Employment records of some sort were kept in 37 plants.
TRAINING.

Several stores and rubber establishments showed a more progres
sive attitude toward training their workers than any plants in the
other industries. In a large department store there was a woman in
charge of regular classes wherein new employees were instructed in
salesmanship and general efficiency. The girls in a 5-and-10-cent
store were required for the first three months to attend classes con
ducted in the store on the subject of efficiency. The new employees
in a large rubber establishment were given training for their jobs in
a vestibule school and were paid while learning. In another rubber
establishment, where there were many foreign-born workers, Ameri
canization classes were held and the employees were paid 25 cents an
hour while attending the classes. Such efforts on the part of employ
ers tend to promote satisfactory adjustments within establishments.

PART V. THE WORKERS.
The total number of women in the TO plants included in this survey
was 10,352, according to Table 1, page 4. Wage data were obtained
for approximately T,800 of these and personal records for something
over 2,700. This means that definite personal information, supplied
by the workers themselves on cards given out in the plants, was
secured for more than one-third of the women for whom wage data
vrere obtained and for more than one-fourth of all the women af
fected by the hours and the working conditions noted. Since sta
tistical data do not convey sufficiently the real human interest in the
problems of working women, supplementary information was ob
tained for 155 women by visits to their homes. Facts about the
industrial and educational history of the women and about their
home responsibilities are helpful in the consideration of the intricate
subject of women in industry.
Nativity.
Of the 2,674 women reporting on their country of birth, 78.8 per
cent were born in the United States, according to Table X, page 68
in the appendix. Other countries of birth for which 5 or more
women were reported include Austria, the Azores, Canada, England,
France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Scotland,
and Sweden. This shows a racial diversity in Rhode Island of inter
est when it is compared with other sections of the country. There is,
for instance, a striking difference between Rhode Island and Georgia.
In a similar survey made in the latter State, of 2,526 women only
four-tenths of 1 per cent were foreign born as compared with the
21.2 per cent foreign born in Rhode Island. In Georgia 16 per cent
were Negro women, but in Rhode Island the number of Negro work
ers was so small that no effort was made to tabulate them separately
from the white. The situation in the Middle West is shown by a
study in Kansas, where 96.3 per cent of the 5,627 women reporting
(including the 5 per cent Negro women), were American born and
only 3.7 per cent were foreign born. A diversity of nationality may
mean a more complicated labor situation unless an effort is made to
prevent misunderstandings.
The figures above cited on the proportion of native and foreign
born in Rhode Island can not, however, be taken as entirely repre
sentative of all women in industry in the State. The numbers of
American born supplying personal records naturally would be higher,

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

as the foreign born often had difficulty in answering the questions,
some of them being unable to read and write English. Occasionally
in a home visit it was necessary to carry on the interview by means
of an interpreter. Even among the American born many were of
foreign-born parents.
The English-speaking countries—Canada, England, Ireland, and
Scotland—together contributed 44 per cent of the foreign born;
Portugal and Italy each contributed 15 per cent, but no other country
is credited with more than about 5 per cent.
The laundries show the largest proportion of foreign-born workers,
practically one-half, followed by the rubber and metal establish
ments, with about 31 and 33 per cent, respectively.
Age.
According to Table XI, page 69 in the appendix, of the 2,587
women reporting their age, 6.6 per cent were under 16 years. The
highest proportion of these under 16 was in paper-box manufactur
ing (13 per cent of the women reporting in this industry), and the
next highest in electrical manufacturing and laundries (about 11 per
cent). The lowest proportion, one-half of 1 per cent, was in the
metal shops. Almost one-third of all the women in all industries
were between 16 and 20 years. The greatest proportions of young
people were in the 5 and 10 cent stores with almost two-thirds of the
workers (64.3 per cent), and in electrical manufacturing with well
over one-half (57.1 per cent) under 20 years of age. Over one-third
of all the women (36.4 per cent) were in the group 20 and less than
30 years of age, whereas there were only 13.7 per cent in the 30
and less than 40 years group and 11.5 per cent who were 40 years
of age and over. The general mercantile industry showed the largest
proportion in this oldest group, 22.4 per cent, and the rubber fac
tories and laundries followed with about 16 per cent. In other
words, the 5 and 10 cent stores and the electrical industry were more
generally the province of the young workers, the general mercantile
establishments the field for older women. Young, inexperienced
workers are likely to enter the mercantile world through the 5 and 10
cent stores, and to engage in an industry where a light, quick touch
is an asset, as in electrical manufacturing. Most of the industries
showed more than one-half of their workers to be between 20 and
40 years of age.
Years in the trade.
Of the 2,599 women giving information about their years of ex
perience in the trade in which they were employed, according to
Table XII, page 69 in the appendix, the largest proportion in any one
group, one-fifth of the total number of women, had been in the in-

WOMEN 1ST RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

dustry less than six months. The next highest proportion (14.4 per
cent) was in the 5 to 10 years group. On the whole, almost one-half
(45.8 per cent) of the women reporting had been in the industry
three years or more. Electrical manufacturing showed by far the
highest percentage of those with less than six months’ experience,
whereas rubber and general mercantile establishments had the largest
percentages in the 5 to 10 years group. The preponderance of young
workers in electrical manufacturing—a fact already set forth—indi
cates that there was a group of young girls who had been at work
only a short time or for one reason or another were shifting about.
On the other hand, the significant proportion of women with from 5
to 10 years’ experience in the trade shows that there was a large class
of steady, skilled workers.
Labor turnover.
The foregoing figures testify to certain facts about the effect of
trade training upon labor turnover. In the first place they are of
interest in an analysis of the so-called shiftlessness of young workers.
It is asserted by authorities acquainted with the habits and tenden
cies of young workers that many of them go into what are called
“blind-alley jobs;” that is, work giving no trade training and lead
ing to nothing better; that they shift from job to job, seeking to im
prove their condition and adjust themselves in the industrial world.
TV hat they lack is definite training. They are, accordingly, a handi
cap to industry as well as to themselves, since they help to increase
unduly the labor turnover. On the other hand, the fact that the
next to the highest percentage of women reporting on length of serv
ice had been in the industry between 5 and 10 years indicates that
many workers do acquire a trade and stick to it. As has been shown
in an earlier section of this report, the rubber and general mercantile
industries in Khode Island were doing more to train their workers
than any other, and these were the industries with the highest record
for steady workers.
In line with the foregoing discussion were the reasons given by
some women for leaving former jobs. It is difficult to ascertain the
real causes for such changes, and too much importance should not be
attached to reasons given by workers during brief interviews. It
seems significant, however, that 40, or about one-third of the girls
reporting, had been laid off because of the shutting down of the
plant or department or because of a reduction in force. Twentyfour had left because the pay was poor or because they could get more
money and would have better opportunities elsewhere. Quite a
number had left for such personal reasons as sickness, marriage,
or moving to another locality. Some complained of “ not liking the
work,” some of long hours, and some of strain connected with the

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

operation. The only apparent relations that could be traced between
the industry and the reasons for leaving were in munition plants and
textile mills. All of the workers in munition plants tvere laid off,
and 9 of the 28 who had left textile mills had been dropped because
of a depression in the business. No other of the 14 or 15 industries
where the girls had worked seemed to have had any unusual condi
tion.
Only very fragmentary information could be secured from the
plants about labor turnover. Although many firms complained that
labor had shifted about a great deal during and since the war, very
few could give any definite figures on the subject. In fact, only 12 of
the 70 establishments visited (4 electrical, 4 rubber, and 3 metal
plants, and 1 department store) had kept any record. Figuring the
turnover on a monthly average for from 6 to 10 months of 1920, we
find that establishments in the rubber industry had both the highest
monthly turnover, 25.3 per cent, and the lowest, 4.2 per cent. Elec
trical manufacturing varied from one factory showing a monthly
average turnover of 9.9 per cent to one averaging 21 per cent. In the
3 metal shops the range was less, from 6 to 10.5 per cent. The 1920
record for the one department store reporting was not obtainable, but
for 1919 the turnover averaged 1G per cent a month. It would seem
from these figures that high or low turnover was not attributable to
the industry but to special conditions within the plant. Furthermore,
the matter of the location of a plant—that is, whether there is com
petition from many neighboring plants or no opportunity to change—
has a bearing on this question.
Education.
In a consideration of the industrial position of women the matter
of general and technical education naturally is of interest. In home
visits to the women the agents ascertained, wherever it was possible
to secure the information, the reason for leaving school, the age on
leaving, and the grade completed. Of the 135 girls reporting, over
two-thirds (69.G per cent) gave economic necessity as the reason for
leaving. Other typical answers given to this question were: “ Through
school,” “Tired of it,” “ Wanted to get married,” “In poor health.”
The need to go to work supplied women to every industry, but
paper-box manufacturing showed the highest percentage (90 per
cent) of young girls who started work for economic reasons.
The record of 131 girls reporting their age at leaving school
showed that 91 of them were under 16 years of age, and of these 69.2
per cent left for economic reasons. It is impossible to say how nearly
true this is of the total group of young girls in Rhode Island who
leave school to go to work, but as these workers were chosen at random
they would seem to be fairly representative. The majority of these

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

girls leaving school under 16 were found working in jewelry, metal,
and various miscellaneous establishments, such as candy, chemical,
novelty, and optical goods.
One-third of the 120 women reporting on the grade completed at
school had not finished grammar school. Only 15.8 per cent had had
any high-school education, and most of these only one year. A few
of the girls stated that they had tried to supplement their education
by attending night school, several of them for a business course. Two
sisters who had been compelled to leave school to go to work had con
tinued at night school until they had completed the grammar grades.
“ Many a time we had to go without our supper,” one of them re
marked, “ as we didn’t have time to eat it before going to school.”
Usually girls are too tired to go to school after a day’s work in a
factory, or if they are ambitious enough to make the attempt they
are likely to be too lacking in energy to gain enough from the experi
ence to make it worth while.
If the conditions above cited may be taken as fairly representative,
then the general educational level in the State would seem in danger
of being held down by the economic needs which are forcing young
people into industry.
Another great drawback to the industrial advancement of women is
the lack of opportunities for trade training. Except in a few cases
women either have not been admitted to or have not been encouraged
to attend the public vocational schools. In a recent analysis of in
dustrial opportunities for women,20 it was shown that women in
Rhode Island needed especially courses in technical subjects such as
machine-shop practice, shop mathematics, machine drafting, blue
print reading, ship drafting, auto repair, and woodworking, but that
in only two schools were women enrolled in any trade courses, these bemg garment making, dressmaking, and textile design.
It would appear, therefore, that the majority of women in industry
in Rhode Island as elsewhere were engaged in work which they had
not chosen nor prepared for, but had been forced into because of eco
nomic necessity; that they had been deprived of opportunities for edu
cational and trade advancement; and that with their limited training,
efficient adjustment in the economic world would be difficult.
Conjugal condition.
The old theory that women do not need trade training because they
marry and abandon the industrial world is being discarded. That it is
frequently an economic necessity for married women to engage in
work outside the home is a well-established fact in Rhode Island as
elsewhere. According to Table XIII, page 70 of the appendix, of the
20 U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau. Industrial opportunities and training
for women and girls. Bulletin 13, 1920, pp. 37 and 40.

82183°—22----- 5

■WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

2,576 women reporting on their conjugal condition, 14.8 per cent were
married, 7.9 per cent were widowed, separated, or divorced, and 77.3
per cent were single. The laundries showed the highest percentage
(25 per cent) of married women, followed by metal shops, paper-box
factories, and general stores. It is interesting to note that the metal
shops, formerly considered “ men’s work,” take the lead in the per
centage of women who were or had been married. General mercantile
establishments and laundries follow, each of the three industries re
porting more than 30 per cent of their women in this classification.
The highest percentage of unmarried women (89 per cent) was found
in the electrical establishments, and the next highest (86.6 per cent)
in the 5-and-10-cent stores. This is to expected, since the greatest per
centages of young workers also were found in these industries.
Living condition.
In a study of women’s hours and wages, it is helpful to know
not only the conjugal state of the workers but their living condi
tion as well, to ascertain whether they board or live at home, and
what financial and domestic obligations they must meet.
Table XIV, page 70 in the appendix, shows that' of the 2,529
women reporting their living condition, 92.2 per cent were living at
home and 7.8 per cent were living independently. Many of those at
home said that they paid board varying from $5 to $10 a week.
Figures obtained from women who boarded away from home showed
practically the same range of rates. When visited in their homes
women living with their families were found in many cases to have
heavy responsibilities, demanding the expenditure of time, money,
and energy.
Home responsibilities.
The extensive subject of dependency could be treated only briefly
during this survey. Sufficient information was obtained in home
visits, however, to establish the fact that many women supported
or assisted in the support of others. Widows or deserted wives, or
even women with husbands, were found to be the entire or partial
mainstay of their familes. Some idea of the problems confronting
a widow left with the support of a family can be derived from the
following stories of women interviewed in their homes:
Mrs. S. was a capable, energetic widow, 44 years old, who had
been supporting her family since her husband’s death 9 years
before. She had five children. Two of these, girls of 17 and 15
years, were able to work, but the three boys were too young to
work, being only 13, 11, and 8 years old. The mother said that
hers were nice boys but “very hard on shoes,” and that this made
quite an item in the. family budget. She had a comfortable home,
for which she paid $23 a month. She did her housework be-

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

p
^

fore and after work hours, and her washing on Saturday after
noon. Just after her husband’s death, when the children were
- J'00 small to be left all day, she had done odd jobs in housework.
then for four years she had worked as an overseer in a factory at
$17.50 a week, but she had left this because the remoteness of the
plant from her home made it difficult for her to attend to her home
duties. At the time of the visit she was working in a paper-box
factory. She liked the job because the plant was near her home and
she had no responsibility, but she thought her wages, $13 a week,
were low. She. said that she feared the factory would soon be run
ning only part time as the work was slack. Her 15-year-old daugh
ter had been dropped from one factory, and although she had got
another job she expected to lose that soon. The older daughter’s
wages also had been cut, as the establishment where she worked
was operating only four days a week.
Another widow, with two little girls of 4 and 7 years, had lost
her husband during the influenza epidemic two years before. Left
penniless, she had gone to work four days after the funeral. Now
she was obliged to leave her children every morning at the day
nuiseiy and call for them again at night. She never went any
where, she said, because by the time she had put the children to bed
and washed the supper dishes she was too tired. She had tried piece
work in the factory, but it had made her exceedingly nervous_not
the actual work, but the worry of never knowing what amount she
could depend upon, with expenses continuing just the same.
It is not the actual work always that is the greatest burden for
women who are the family mainstay but the fear that they may not
be able to “ make ends meet.” As one worker said, “ Even though
your work don’t keep up all the time, your expenses do. You have to
eat just the same all the time and have coal and pav house rent.
Of course you can scrimp some, but you’ve got to eat in order to
work.”
.
Many cases could be cited where daughters were bearing heavy
financial and domestic burdens, because the mother was a widow or
the father’s wages were too low to maintain the family. Other
daughters interviewed were caring for and supporting old or sick
parents. A 17-year-old girl, whose father was a semi-invalid, unable
to work continuously, was helping to support the family of seven.
Her sister, the only other wage-earner among the five children, had
been laid off at the time of the visit. The mother was nervous and
unstrung from constant worry and fear that there would not be
enough money to keep the family together. Another girl, whose
mother had been a widow for five years, had, with the help of two
brothers, supported the family of seven, A third girl was taking

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

care of an old father and a younger sister. Her mother and three
brothers had died of heart trouble and tuberculosis after lingering
illnesses; “ and always,” the father said, everything came heaviest
on Sarah.”
The responsibility which women and girls were carrying was in
many cases made heavier by the growing unemployment, and by the
fact that men had lost their jobs or were working only part time.
Such a remark as, “ Mary is the only one who has a job now ” was
not uncommon.
Furthermore, the burden of women wage earners is likely to be
double. They perform not only their industrial job outside the
home, but household duties besides; frequently they do the cooking,
cleaning, washing, ironing, sewing, and caring for the family before
and after their regular working hours. In such a situation they are
unable to do justice to the job, to the home, or to themselves. Driven
by economic necessity they struggle along under their burdens.
It is desirable and possible to improve the situation by lightening
the load which many women are called upon to carry. Certain
remedial measures which have already been emphasized in the pre
ceding pages, such as the eight-hour day, the minimum wage, and
good working conditions—standards already adopted in a number of
States and attainable by all—would do much toward relieving the
strain on women in industry.
In Rhode Island, although wages were higher than in some other
localities, there were women whose earnings were below the sub
sistence level. A minimum wage for their protection, and the guar
anty of an eight-hour day and safe and healthful working conditions,
are not too much to ask for the women in industry in this important
industrial State.

APPENDIX A.
GENERAL TABLES.
Table

I.—Number of women working each specified number of hours, one weekly pay-roll period, by industry.
Number of women whose actual hours worked during the week were—

Industry.

ployees
Less 3 and 6 and 9 and 12 and 15 and 18 and 21 anc 24 and 27 and 30 and 33 and 36 and 39 and 42 and 45 and 48 and 51 and
report than
Over
under under under under under under under under under under under under under under under under under
54
ing
54
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
51
54 hours. hours.
com hours. hours. hours. hours. hours.
hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours.
plete
data.

Rubber manufaeturing-......................... 2,546
Metal shops.................
731
ElectricalmanufacturS06
Jewelry manufaeturing............................
492
Paper-box manufactaring.......................
273
Other manufacturing.
792
Genera]mercantile...
786
5-and-10-cent stores...
143
Laundries...................
110
All Industries.. 16,679
Per cent distribution.. 100.0

4
1

3
1
1

2
0.03

10
0.15

8
2

3
4

5
2

5
3
3
1

3
1
1

25
0.37

17
0.25

19
0. 28

1
5

16
1

4
2

1
5
6
1

3
10
1

4
9
1

33
0.49

26
0.39

19
5

3
5
3
2

43
14

64
12

1
47
0.70

56
0.84

94
1.41

]
i Of the 7,780 employees for whom data were secured, 1,101 did not report number of hours worked.

102
1.53

184
64

387
40

391
56

1,082
498

182

107
26

84
202

433

209

25
7
6

267

3
17

141
2.11

170
2.55

486
7.28

678
10.15

7
2
15
23

96
8

103
46
853
12.77

3,125
46.79

27
433
6.48

330
4.94

32
0.43

Table II.—Per cent distribution, according to amount of time lost, of women who worked less than the scheduled weekly hours, by industry.

Industry.

All industries...

2,546
731

Undertime workers who lost time to the extent of—

5 and 6 and 7 and 8 and 9 and 10 and 15 and 20 and 25 and 30 and 35 and 40
under under under under under under under under under under under hours
and
6
7
10
20
25
30
35
40
8
9
15
hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. hours. over.

Per
cent.

Ctnt.

Per
cent.

1,267
258

49.8
35.3

13.2
12.4

7.6
11.2

7.3
1.9

11.3
1.6

15.4
14.0

5.4
5.8

4.8
2.3

4.1
1.2

6.2
10.9

3.6
9.7

10.2
9.7

5.1
9.3

2.1
3.1

0.9
2.7

1.4
.8

0.9
1.2

Number.

6
7

Per

Per
cent.

0.7
2.3

806

296

36.7

8.8

5.7

1.7

2.0

19.6

10.8

4.4

1.0

2.7

15.2

7.8

5.7

4.1

4.7

1.7

2.0

492

310

63.0

12.3

5.2

3.9

11.3

12.6

5.2

2.6

3.9

10.6

9.4

4.5

2.9

1.9

1.0

4
13
5
4
3

1263
792
786
143
110

139
416
162
25
44

52.9
52.5
20.6
17. 5
40.0

18.7
20.0
.6

5.0
12.3
3.7

5.0
7.0
3.7

2.9
3.6
11.7

5.8
5.8
3.7

2.9
1.7
3.1

.7
1.0
17.3

10.1
3.8
4.3
8.0

1.4
2.4
4.3
4.0

4.5

3.6
5.5
8.0
24.0
2.3

4.3
2.6

4.5

14.4
6.3
5.6
4.0
9.1

4.3
2.9
14.2

25.0

3.6
5.5
1.2
32.0

2.2
12.0
12.3

31. 8

12.9
7.5
3.7
24.0
9.1

2.3

2.2
.2
2.5
4.0
4.5

03 16,669

2,917

43.7

13.3

8.7

5.6

7.0

13.3

6.6

3.8

3.4

5.7

7.6

9.1

5.8

3.4

2.6

1.6

1.4

1.1

2.3

1 This figure disagrees with that in Table I because for 10 women the scheduled hours were not reported and therefore the time lost is not obtainable.

4.5

2.0

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

Rubber manufactur
ing............................
Metal shops................
Electrical manufac
turing .......................
Jewelry manufactur
ing............................
Paper-box manufac
turing ......................
Other manufacturing.
General mercantile...
5-and-10-cent stores...
Laundries....... ...........

Num
ber of
esta
blish
ments.

Num
•
ber of
em Number and
ploy- per cent of
ees re women work
1 and 2 and 3 and 4 and
port ing less than Less under
under under under
scheduled
ing,
than
2
5
3
4
hours.
com
hours.
hours.
1
hour.
hours. hours.
plete
data.

A
j

Table III.—Per cent distribution, according to amount of overtime, of women who worked beyond the scheduled weekly hours, by industry.

Industry.

Number Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent

Jewelry manufacturing...............................................................
Paper box manufacturing..........................................................
Other manufacturing..................................................................
General mercantile..............................................
5-and-10-cent stores....................................
Laundries.....................................................

6
7
4
17
4
13
5
4
3

2,546
731
806
492
i 263
792
786
143
110

621
6
124
2
16
57
3

2.7

Total...................................................................................

16,669

829

12.4

24.4
.8
15.4
.4
6.1
7.2

23.7

25.3

18.8

43.5

43.8
33.3

14.5
50.0

19.3

12.3

6.3
15.8

17.2

14.4

15.1
100.0
7.3

7.4

6.8

2.6

0.2

20.2
50.0

4.0

5.6

3.2 .............

5.3

50.0
5.3

1.8

9.0

5.5

1.1

66.7
21.0

27.0

33.3
4.0

This figure disagrees with that in Table I because for 10 women the scheduled hours were not reported and therefore the time worked beyond scheduled hours is not obtainable.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

•
Rubber manufacturing........................................
Metal shops...........................

Overtime workers who worked beyond scheduled hours to the extent of—
Num
ber of Number and
Num employ
ber of
per cent of
ees re women working Less
estab porting
1 and 2 and
3 and 4 and 5 and 6 and 7 and 8 and 9 hours
lish
beyond sched than
under under under under
under under under
and
ments. com
uled hours.
one 2 hours 3 hours 4 hours 5 hours 6under
plete
hours 7 hours 8 hours. 9 hours. over.
hour.
data.

Table IV.—Number of women receiving each classified amount during one weekly pay-roll period, by industry.
All industries.

Rubber
manufac
Number. Per cent. turing.

. Actual weekly earnings.

34
30
29
46
66
110
123
149
309
290
609
537
574
568
481
454
481
379
410
295
266
233
1,045
7,780
$16.85

Total...............
Median earnings... v

.4
.4
.4
.6
.8
1.4
1.6
1.9
4.0
3.7
7.8
6.9
7.4
7.3
6.2
5.8
6.2
4.9
5.3
3.8
3.4
3.0
13.4
100.0

5
8
6
12
14
14
32
38
44
90
109
184
155
148
175
184
ISO
185
181
127
148
860
3,082
$20.70

PaperOther All man General 5-and-lG Electrical Jewelry
box
cent
manufac manufac manufac manufac ufac
mercan
turing.
tile..
turing.
stores.
turing.
turing.
turing.

2
4
3
5
7
12
8
18
38
52
57
69
66
84
58
52
32
20
16
11
9
7

3
7
1
4
5
11
12
19
17
38
29
55
32
19
16
17
12
6
8
5
3
3
3

3
7
7
7
8
14
12
22
22
52
58
87
85
58
102
44
47
54
29
34
18
35
11
4
9

797
$18.65

940
$17,25

644
$14.70

327
$12.30

829
$14.55

1
6
1
3
1
9
3
4
13
9
22
26
50
44
87
35
129
52
104
22
29
37

3
5
2
4
4
11
8
17
9
18
33
40
78
74
66
76
96
49
76
45
51
51
24

13
27
28
25
37
50
67
83
102
197
225
351
399
451
467
430
417
454
365
389
286
254
230
246 •
1,026
6,619
$17.85

4
4
7
12
25
16
21
66
35
208
110
96
82
39
31
20
12
18
6
10
1
2
15
840
$13.20

1
1
1
4
16
15
4
24
14
37
18
7
6
4
2
1

Laun
dries.

1
2
1
1

2
9
22
22
16
13
10
20
13
8
4
6
2
2
e
2
1

157
$11.90

164
$12.45

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES,

Less than $2..............
$2 and under S3.......
$3 and under $4.......
S4 and under $5.......
$5 and under $6.......
$6 and under $7.......
$7 and under $8........
$8 and under $9.......
$9 and under $10---810 and under $11...
$11 and under $12...
$12 and under 813....
$13 and under S14...
$14 and under $15...
$15 and under $16...
$16 and under $17...
$17 and under 818...
$18 and under $19...
$19 and under $20...
$20 and under $21...
$21 and under $22...
$22 and under $23...
$23 and under $24...
$24 and under $25...
$25 and over.............

Metal
shops.

Table V.—Number of women receiving each classified amount during one weekly pay-roll period, by hours worked.
ALL INDUSTRIES.

Number of women whose actual earnings were—

MeNum- dian
ber. earnings.

$3
$2
$4
$5
$6
$7
$s
$9
$10
511
$12
$13
$14
$16
$18
$20
$25
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
under under under under under under under under under under under under under under under under under
*3.
$4.
*5.
$6.
*7.
*8.
$9.
$10.
$11.
$20.
312.
$13.
$14.
$16.
$25.
$30.
$18.

2
10
25
17
19
33
26
47
56
94
102
141
170
486
678
853
3,125
'433
330
54.................................
32

0)
(1)
$2. 90
2.75
4.10
5. 45
5.00
7.15
7. 55
8.70
11.10
14. 65
15.20
15.05
16.50
17. 30
17. 75
21. 25
15. 50
22.95

2
7

Total................. *6,679

16. 80

1
1
1

2
14
10
2

1
8
3
7
2
4
1
1

...........

1
5
10
8
1
1

3
2
4
8
3
8
5
2
1
1

..........
...........
28

..........
27

1
3
3
12
17
10
5
1
1
2

4
1
9
9
21
9
5
2
3
4

.......... i...........

1
2
2
3
IS
12
12
6
7
5
2
10
2
2

...........

$30

4
3
8
13
12
7
24
13
4
13
3
4

1
2
3
3
•6
10
9
21
52
45
43
45
12
10

110

263

1
1
1
2
4
9
s
13
4L
46
53
50 *
10
4
1
244

1
3
5
4
10
8
8
41
50
90
255
22
55

2
1
1
9
7
14
33
48
59
259
15
25

552

473

3
7
8
23
22
79
103
116
525
45
75
1
1,007

69
91
90
438
29
27
1

1
2
6
4
9
18
38
52
68
453
53
37
3

3
3
22
29
61
115
168
625
104
59
17

4
14
27
61
95
263
66
21
2

42
65
166
72
3
7

793

744

1,207

553

367

2
3
9
19

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

Hours actually
worked.

Women re
porting com
plete data.

1 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
£ 01 the 7,780 employees for whom data were secured, 1,101 did not report number of hours worked.

05
Ol

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

Table

VI.—Number of Umetcorkers receiving each classified weekly rate, by

industry.

Weekly rate.

Other
manufactur
ing.

All
manufactur
ing.

Gen
eral 5-and- Laun
mer 10-cent dries.
can stores.
tile.

2
14
12
3
25
9
46
19
8
8
5
2
2

1
a
21
24
11
12
9
22
13
7
4
6

1
1

3
1

416 2,554
157
220
840
Total................... 3,691
810
421
212
475
Median rate.................. $15.00 $17. 65 $18. 40 $15.00 $15.45 $12.00 $14.80 $16.10 $13.15 $12.30

140
$12.60

Si2 and under $13.........
$13 and under Si4.........
$14 and under $15.........
$15 and under $16.........
$16 and under $17.........
$17 and under $18.........
$18 and under $19.........
$20 and under $22.........

Rub
Elec Jew PaperAll
ber
trical elry
box
Metal
in manumanu- manu- manufacfacdus
fac- shops. factries. tur
tur
tur
tur
ing.
ing.
ing.
ing.

Table

4
29
27
49
141
159
621
404
406
380
211
237
399
193
265
82
50
18
4
9

1
3
1
82
59
80
45
60
118
72
128
106
17
20
17
1
1

12
7
33
50
15
18
178
19
66
14
4

i
7
52
47
29
23
24
9
4
7
3
6

3
1

2
7
15
52
82
50
66
50
30
34
28
36
13
9
1

7
25
78
34 '
30
8
15
7
6
5
3
2

1
3
2
17
24
65
58
47
60
9
11
67
2
27
23

2
3
11
52
119
252
288
265
265
164
207
365
184
244
70
39
18
4
2

2
12
6
14
40
20
314
88
111
94
35
24
26
9
17
10
11
7

VII.—Median weekly earnings of women, by age group and industry.

Industry.

Women report
ing complete
16 and 18 and 20 and 25 and 30 and 40 and 50 and 60
data.
under under under under under under under years
and
20
25
30
40
50
60
18
Num Median years. years. years. years. years. years. years. over.
ber. earnings.

All industries............... 2,417
Rubber manufacturing.........
Metal shops............................
Electrical manufacturing—
Jewelry manufacturing.........
Paper-box manufacturing...
Other manufacturing............
General mercantile................
Laundries...............................

511
183
476
276
40
408
354
104
65

$15.80 $14.40 $16.30 $16.45 $17.15 $16.30 $14.90 $15.35
20.10
17.85
18.10
15.05
13. 50
15.65
13.25
12. 30
12. 05

16.70
13.60
16. 90
12. 70
(■)
14.90
12.15
11.40
10.50

1 Not computed, owing to small number Involved.

20.70
16. 30
18. 25
15.10
m
17.00
12. 70
12. 40
(>)

21.90
19. 45
18.90
15. 55
CD
15.10
12. 95
13.65
12.50

22.85
19. 30
19.70
16.65
CD
16.40
13.80
(!)
(>)

20.60
19.45
20. 40
15.25
C1)
17.75
14.55
(l)
12.50

17.00
16.50
(D
15.00
C1)
13. 90
14.00
(l)
(i)

17.00
17.00
c>)
:
(*)
15.00
13.65
(l)
(■)

*14.15
(')
(')
(l>
(D
(>)
<*)

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

I
Table

VIII.—Median weekly earnings of women, by experience in the industry.
Num
ber of
em
ploy- All in
ees re dus
port tries.
ing
com
plete
data.

Time in the trade.

Under 6 months.........
6 months and under
1 year........................
1 and under 2 years...
2 and under 3 years...
3 and under 4 years...
4 and under 5 years...
5 and under 10 years..
10 and under 15 years.
15 and under 20 years.
20 years and over.......

Rub
Elec Jew Paperber Metal trical elry
box
manu shops. manu manu manu
factur
factur factur factur
ing.
ing.
ing.
ing.

463 S13. 70 *13.60 $14.65 *17.05 *12.35
198
323
334
252
156
374
168
89
74

Total................ 2,431

14.35 15. 20
15.10 16. 00
16. 10 18.85
16. 45 21.45
17. 55 25. 00
17. 25 24.90
18. 90 22. 90
17. 80 24. 40
19.15 25. 50

13. 90
17. 40
16. 90
17.85
(>)
20. 90
19. 40
(>)
0)

17. 35
16.90
18.70
19. 80
20.50
20.90
23. 50
c>)
0)

(>)
14. 75
15.10
15.10
16. 00
15. 80
16. SO
I1)
C)

15.75

17.85

18.15

15.15 $13.65

20.15

id
h

o>
(i)
(*)
0)
«

Other
manu
factur
ing.

Gen
eral 5-and- Laun
mer 10-cent dries.
can stores.
tile.

*13.05 *12.60 $10. 50

$11.35

13.70
16.10
18. 05
16. 80
17. 35
16. 45
0)
t1)
(■)

12.70
12.50
12. 95
13. 35
12. 85
14.15
14.80
15. 65
16.80

(l)
12. 55
12.00
(l)
(l)
14.80
(!)
G>

(l)
(l)
(l)
(1)
(l)
(l)
(l)
(i)
(>)

15.55

13.40

12. 20

12.05

1 Not computed, owing to small number involved.
Table

IX.—Number of women working each specified number of weeks, of
those for whom 52-week pay-roll records n ere secured, by industry.

Weeks worked.

Elec
Paper- Other
All Rubber Metal trical Jewelry box
General 5-andmanu
manu manu manu
indus factur
10-cent Laun
manu factur
shops.
factur mercan
tries.
factur
factur
tile. stores. dries.
ing.
ing.
ing.
ing.
ing.

37 and under 38........
38 and under 39........
39 and under 40.......
40 and under 41.......
41 and under 42.......
42 and under 43.......
43 and under 41.......
44 and under 45........
45 and under 46........
46 and under 47........
47 and under 48........
48 and under 49.......
*49 and under 50.......
50 and under 51.......
51 and under 52........
52..............................
Total...............
Median earnings......
»

1
2
2
4
6
11
15
29
41
60
107
194
144

1
1
4
7
4
16
18
20
24
42
37

617
*829

172
$978

■*

1............
1

1
1
3
2
7
16
30
10

1
1
1
4
5
8
6
16
29
5

1
1
4
2
15
42
7

4
6
4
5
7

71
*929

79
*868

75
$793

26
$758

1
I

16
25

2
2
2
1
7
1L
17
37

2
8
9

1
4
5
7

76
*6.87

80
$727

21
*604

17
*758

3
2
3
11

Table X.—Nativity of the women employees who supplied personal information, by industry.

Industry.

181
538
308

121
433
268

66. 9
80.5
87. 0

464

388
344

83. 6
86. 2

50. 7

1 2,674
Per cent distribution...................... 100.0

2,108

Electricarmanufacturing................

78.8

2
1

3
1
1
1

8
0.3

6
0.2

15
9
24
7
2
9
16
2
2

15
7
23
3
4
8
10
1
2

86
3.2

73
2.7

1 Of the 2,720 workers who supplied personal record cards, 46 did not report country of birth.

1
1

3
1
6

1
2
1

6
0.2

13
0.5

35
12
6
3
1
6
7
1
3

18
20
18
3
1
19
3
4

74
2.8

86
3.2

29
1.1

9
1
1
1

Scot Sweden. Other
Russia. land.
coun
tries .
4

5
1
5
2

4
6

4
2

11
1

2
3
8
1

88
3.3

26
1.0

19
0.7

28
1-0

43
3
6
2
9

3
5
4

10
1
2
3
7
1
24
0.9

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

Num Women born
Women born in—
ber of in the United
States.
employ
ees re
porting
com
Per Austria. Azores. Canada. Eng France. Ger Ireland. Italy. Poland. Portplete
No.
ligal.
land.
cent.
many.
data.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.
Table

XI.

Age of the women employees who supplied personal information,
by industry.
Num
Number whose ago
ber of
em
ploy
ees
report 14 but 15 but 16 but 18 but 20 but 25 but
ing not 15 not 16 not 18 not 20 not 25 not 30
com years. years. years. years. years. years.
plete
data.

Industry.

Rubber manufacturing.
Metal shops...................
Electrical manufacturT mg,..............................
Jewelry manufacturing.
Paper-box manufaeturing.........................
Other manufacturing..
General mercantile...
5-and-10-cent -stores__
Laundries.....................

was—

60
30 but 40 but 50 but
not 40 not 50 not 60 years
and
years. years. years.
over.

540
184

7
1

67
10

63
28

128
37

79
35

89
. 38

50
14

536
303

26
13

34
14

128
36

118
46

133
73

55
37

28
53

46
432
361
112
73

1
6
.6
4

5
18
1
4
8

8
84
22
40
11

7
78
39
24
4

8
118
84
22
16

5
37
60
9
6

8
47
68
7
16

3
29
58

AH industries__ 12,587
Per cent distribution.. 100.0

64
2.5

106
4.1

415
16.0

407
15.7

619
23.9

323
12.5

354
13.7

194
7.6

3.3

0.7

30
10

1 Of the 2,720 workers who supplied personal record cards, 133 did not report their age.
Table

XII.

Length of experience of the women employees who supplied per
sonal information, by industry.

Industry.

Rubber manufaeturing.....................
Metal shops...............
Electrical manufaeturing.....................
Jewelry manufaeturing.....................
Paper box manufaeturing.....................
Other manufaeturing......................
General mercantile..
5-and-10-cent stores.
Laundries..................

Num
Number who have been in
ber of
em
ploy
ees
6
report Less months 1 but 2 but 3 but 4 but
ing than 6
but
not 2 not 3 not 4 not 5
com months. not 1 years. years. years. years.
plete
year.
data.

525
184

62
20

61
18

63
31

613

212

300

68
27

the trade—
•
20
5 but 10 but 15 but
not 10 not 15 not 20 years
and
years. years. years.
over.

41
25

26
8

97
28

50
17

453
380
123
73

96
46
35
20

40
26
14
3

78
38
20
8

77
47
18
7

57
38
10
6

34
24
7
3

53
69
16
12

43
6

All industries.. 12,599
Per cent distribution 100.0

532
20.5

260
10.0

359
13.8

334
12.9

252
9.7

156
6.0

375
14.4

168
6.5

89
3.4

74
2.8

1 Of the 2,720 workers who supplied personal record cards, 121 did not report years In the trade.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

Table

XIII.—Conjugal condition of the women employees who supplied per

sonal information, by industry.

Women who were—
Number
of em
ployees
reporting
complete
data.

Industry.

Single.

Widowed separated,
or divorced.

Married.

Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
Rubber manufacturing..............
Metal shops..................................
Paper-box manufacturing.........
Other manufacturing.................
General mercantile.....................
5-and-10-cent stores.....................
Laundries...................................

504
182
525
293
50
454
384
112
72

363
120
467
245
36
352
263
97
49

72.0
65.9
89. 0
83. 6
72.0
77. 5
68. 5
86. 6
68.1

90
42
42
28
11
58
81
10
18

17. 9
23. 1
8. 0
9. 6
22. 0
12. 8
21. 1
8.9
25. 0

51
20
16
20
3
44
40

10.1
11.0
3.0
6. 8
6.0
9.7
10.4
4.5
6.9

All industries.....................

i 2, 576

1,992

77.3

380

14. 8

204

7.9

5
5

> Of the 2,720 workers who supplied personal record cards 141 did not report conjugal condition.
Table XIV.—Living

condition of the women employees who supplied personal
information, by industry.
Women reported as1—

Industry.

Metal shops...................................................................... i
Jewelry manufacturing.................................................. !
Paper-box manufacturing..............................................
Other manufacturing.....................................................
General mercantile.......................................................... :
5-and-10-cent stores.........................................................
Laundries.........................................................................
All industries.........................................................

Number
of women
at home or
reporting Living
Boarding.
with relatives.
complete
data.
Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
513
170
520
286
45
449
372
121
53

459
161
487
255
42
419
339
119
51

89. 5
94. 7
93. 7
89. 2
93. 3
93. 3
91. 1
98.3
96.2

54
9
33
31
3
30
33
2
2

10.5
5.3
6.3
10.8
6.7
6.7
8.9
1.7
3.8

* 2,529

2,332

92.2

197

7.8

1 Women who reported that they both lived at home and boarded are tabulated as living at home.
>Of the 2,720 workers who supplied personal record cards 19i did not report living condition.

APPENDIX B.

SCHEDULE FORMS.
U. S.

Department of Babor
Women’s Bureau
Washington

FACTORY SCHEDUBE.

1. Name of factory

Address

2. Product

Person interviewed

3. Number employed:
^en-

Women.

Under 16______________

___

Over 16_______________

________

Total______________
4. Hours :
Daily

Total

________ _

Total-----------Begin------------End------ ^__ Bunch period

Shifts

____ ___

_______

Seasonal

_______

___

Pieceworkers___ _____

_______

Saturday

_______

_____

Weekly

______ _

_______

___

5. Overtime__________________

i
6. Seasonal_______________________________

---------------------

7. Wages :
Pay period---------------------------------

~
Initial rate.

Fines__________________

Bonus

WOMEN JN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

8. Labor turnover.

Date_______ —___________
(93)

Agent-------- —--------------S.

Department op Labor,
Women’s Bureau,
Washington.

HOME VISIT SCHEDULE (Georgia).
Name of the worker--------------------------------

Address----

Firm_________________________ _________

Occupation:

Hours: Regular________ —-----------------------

Irregular—

Overtime--------:--------——------------- ----------- ----Lost time___________________________________
Reasons__________ „---------------------- 1---------------Wages : Piecework Timework—
Increases in past year--------------------------------------------Decreases------------------------------------------------------- ------ ..
Variations in past year----- :------- -----------------------------Fines .___________________ _____________—-------------Bonuses________________________________-—,----------Former job : Industry-----------,------ ----------Hours

__________

How.long held

Occupation----------

Daily------------------

Weekly.

Earnings when leaving.

Reasons for leaving-----,------------------------------------

Personal facts : Age left school

Grade completed.

Reasons for leaving school-------------------------Living at home----------------------------------------Boarding______ ________
1 iate.

Amount paid-----

Agent.

WOMEN IN RHODE ISLAND INDUSTRIES.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OP LABOR, WOMEN’S BUREAU, WASHINGTON.
Firm..................
Name of worker
Pieceworker.

...................... Product....................................................
...................... Occupation..............................................
Timeworker.
Piece and time worker.
Earnings for 52-week period.

Week
ending.

Wages.

Week
ending.

Remarks.

1.............

27...........

2.............

28.......

3...........

29.......

4.............

30.........

5.............

31.........

6.............

32...........

7.............

33...........

8.............

34...........
k

9.............

• •

10.............

36....

11.............

37.......

12...........

38....
-

13.............

39....

14.............

40....

15.............

41___

16.............

42___

17.............

43..

18.............

44__ .

19.............

45.........

20.............

46.........

21.............

47...........

22.............

48.........

23.............

49.........

24.............

50.........

25.............
26.............

Wages.

51...........
'
1

82183°—22----- 6

ll 52___

i ;t

Remarks.

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT

10 CENTS PER COPY

PUBLICATIONS OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU.
BULLETINS.
No. 1. Proposed Employment of Women During the War in the Industries of
Niagara Falls, N. T. 10 pp. 1918.
No. 2. Labor Laws for Women in Industry in Indiana. 29 pp. 1918.
No. 3. Standards for the Employment of Women in Industry. 7 pp. 1919.
No. 4. Wages of Candy Makers in Philadelphia in 1919. 46 pp. 1919.
No. 5. The Eight Hour Day in Federal and State Legislation. 19 pp. 1910.
No. 6. The Employment of Women in Hazardous Industries in the United
States. 8 pp. 1919.
No. 7. Night-Work Laws in the United States. 4 pp. 1919.
No. 8. Women in the Government Service. 37 pp. 1920.
No. 9. Home Work in Bridgeport, Connecticut. 35 pp. 1920.
No. 10. Hours and Conditions of Work for Women in Industry in Virginia.
32 pp. 1920.
No. 11. Women Street Car Conductors and Ticket Agents. 90 pp. 1920.
No. 12. The New Position of Women in American Industry. 158 pp. 1920.
No. 13. Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls. 48 pp.
1920.
No. 14. A Physiological Basis for the Shorter Working Dav for Women. 20 pp.
1921.
No. 15. Some Effects of Legislation Limiting Hours of Work for Women. 20 pp.
1921.
No. 10. State Laws Affecting Working Women. 1920. 104 pp. 1921.
No. 17. Womens’ Wages in Kansas. 1920. 104 pp. 1921.
No. 18. Health Problems of Women in Industry. 11 pp. 1921.
No. 19. Iowa Women in Industry. 73 pp. 1921.
No. 20. Negro Women in Industry. 65 pp. 1021.
No. 21. Women in Rhode Islnnd Industries. A study of hours, wages, and work
ing conditions. 73 pp. 1922.
No. 22. Women in Georgia Industries. A study of hours, wages, and working
conditions. 1921. (In press.)
Second Annual Bei>ort of the Director.
Third Annual Report of the Director.
*
CHARTS.1
I.
II.
III.
IV.

Eight-honr and eight-and-a-half-hour laws for women workers.
Nine-hour law’s for women workers.
Ten-hour laws for women workers.
Ten-and-a quarter-hour, ten-and-a-half-hour, eleven-hour, and twelve-hour
laws for women workers.
V. Weekly hour law’s for women workers.
VI. Laws providing for a day of rest, one shorter w’ork day, time for meals,
and rest periods for women workers.
VII. Night-work laws for women workers.
VIII. Home-work laws for women.
IX. Minimum wage legislation in the United States. 3 sections.
X. Mothers’ pension laws in the United States. 4 sections.
1 Separate charts out of print.
No. 16.

Revised and published in pamphlet form In Bulletin

Full text of Women in Rhode Island Industries: A Study of Hours, Wages, and Working Conditions : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 21

FRASER