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/ /3. 3! J3t> /^SBTE COtLEGfi LIBRAE* in the FEDERAL SERVICE Part II: Occupational Information s U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR WOMEN’S BUREAU Bulletin No. 230-11 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OFiLABOR Maurice J. Tobin, Secretary WOMEN'S BUREAU Frieda S. Miller, Director Wo men in the Federal Service Part II. Occupational Information Bulletin of the Women’s Bureau No. 230—II U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1950 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D. C. Price 25 cents LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL United States Department of Labor, ' Women’s Bureau, Washington, December 88,191$. Sir : I have the honor to present Part II of a report on employment of women in the executive branch of the Federal Government. This section of the report shows the occupations of a selected group of women at the higher levels of salary and responsibility. It also gives some data formerly not available on the training of those doing such work and on their age and length of service at the time of reaching these upper levels. Such information has been in considerable public demand, and nothing on occupations of women in the Federal service has been available since the study made by this Bureau in 1938. Furthermore, the new grade classifications in the Federal service probably will make occupational data more difficult to obtain in the future. It is believed that the new data will prove useful both in planning for women’s education and placement and in selecting Government personnel. I wish to acknowledge with special appreciation the courtesy and cooperation of the Civil Service Commission in making records avail able, and the time and very valuable assistance given by a number of the Commission’s staff members in locating various materials and in going over parts of the manuscript. This report, Part II of Women in the Federal Service, 1923-47, was planned and written by Mary E. Pidgeon, chief, with the help of Elisabeth D. Benham and Grace E. Ostrander, assistant industrial economists, of this Bureau’s Economic Studies Branch. Respectfully submitted. Frieda S. Miller, Director. Hon. Maurice J. Tobin, Secretary of Labor. ii CONTENTS Page Letter of transmittal n I. Source and Summary of Occupational Information Presented. The group recorded*___________________________ Method of obtaining data A composite picture of women reported in upper-salaried occu pations II. All Women Reported in Upper-Salaried Occupations_________ Agency distribution___________________________ ___________ Grade classification Period of entry to last recorded job________________________ Length of service Age distribution n Older women at high salaries 14 Younger women at high salaries 14 Training -jg Women at highest salary levels—$8,000 or over_____________ III. Women Reported in Upper-Salaried CAPClassifications_____ Grade classification___________________________________ Length of service____________________________ ___________ Age distribution 24 Training _ _ IV. Women Reported in Upper-Salaried Professional Occupations. Grade classification Length of service___ ._____________ Age distribution 32 Training---------------------------------------------__________________ Women in particular occupations 34 Economists Attorneys and legal specialists 3g Social welfare workers________ ___ __________________ Scientists in physical and biological fields.................. Patent examiners, scientific and legal___________________ Cartographers:___________________________________ Research workers.___________________ _____________ _ Home economists Physicians, nurses, and other healthspecialists___________ Workers in education 54 Librarians .... Statisticians _ Editors and special writers 59 Information specialists_______________________________ V. Women Reported in Upper-Salaried Occupations—Admin istrative and Nonadministrative 64 Women in top grades 65 Length of service 66 Age distribution 67 Training _ _ v ni 1 2 3 4 7 7 g 9 jq 17 22 23 24 25 28 29 31 32 34 39 41 45 45 47 49 51 55 57 61 67 IV CONTENTS Page VI. Women Reported in Upper-Salaried Occupations in Four Federal Lists 69 Women reported in U. S. Government Manual (June 1947)----69 Women reported in Official Register of the United States (1925, 1941, 1947)___ 69 Comparisons for three periods-----------------------------------70 Agency distribution, 1941 and 1947----------------------------72 Occupations, 1941 and 1947---------------------72 Women reported in Federal Statistical Directory (April 1948)75 Women reported in Register of the Department of State (December 1946) 76 Women foreign service officers-------------------------------------77 Class and grade of women other than officers----------------78 Length of service of women other than officers--------------79 Age of women other than officers------------- .-----------------79 Training of women other than officers-------------------------80 Appendixes: A. Occupational groups of women in the Executive Branch of the Federal Government, 1938-----------------------------------------------B. Salary scales of professional-scientific and clerical-administrativefiscal employees in the Federal classified service, 1923, 1932, and 1946 C. Salary scales in State Department, 1946------------------------------D. New classification and salaries of Federal employees—in effect October 30, 1949_____________ __________________ 83 83 84 Tabular Summaries: High points as to grade, length of service, age, and training of women reported in upper-salaried occupations----------------------------------4 Distribution of women reported, by grade and major occupation group. 8 Distribution of women reported, by period of entry to last recorded job and major occupation group-----------------------------------------------9 Distribution of women reported, by years in Federal service at entry to last recorded job and major occupation group---------------------10 Distribution of women reported, by age at entry to last recorded job and major occupation group-----------------------------------------------12 Distribution of women reported, by age at entry to last recorded job, grade, and major occupation group--------------------------------------13 Distribution of women reported, by training and major occupation group----------------------16 Advance to upper salary, by training---------------------------------------16 Occupations of women CAF workers reported-------------------------------23 Women CAF workers reported, by occupation and grade-----------------24 Training of women CAF workers and advance to top grades----------26 Occupations of women professional-scientific workers reported-------29 Salary, age, and service of women reported in five professional occupa tions 61 Training of women professional-scientific workers and advance to top grades 33 Women reported in administrative and nonadministrative positions.. 65 Grade distribution of women reported in administrative and non administrative occupations---------------------------------------------------65 Women in top grades with long service and at age 45 or older--------66 84 CONTENTS V Page Tabulae Summaries—Continued Extent to which women with long service had reached top grades in administrative and nonadministrative work___________________ Employees (officials) reported in Government Manual, June 1947___ Employees reported in Official Register, May 1947_______________ Employees reported in Federal Statistical Directory, April 1948____ Grade or class distribution of women reported in State Department Register, 1946 Years of service of women reported in State Department Register, 1946____________________________ _____ _________________ 66 69 70 76 79 79 Tables: 1. Agency distribution of women reported in upper-salaried occupations, by occupation group 2. Women reported in top grades, by years in Federal service at entry to last recorded job and occupation group___________ _________ 3. Age of women reported at entry to last recorded job, by period of entry and occupation group:________________________________ 4. Women clerical-administrative-fiscal workers reported, by occupa tion and years in Federal service at entry to last recorded job_____ 5. Women clerical-administrativc-fiscal workers reported, by occupation and age at entry to last recorded job 25 6. Training of women clerical-administrative-fiscal workers reported__ 7. Women professional-scientific workers reported, by selected occupa tion and grade at entry to last recorded job___________________ 8. Women professional-scientific workers reported, by selected occupation and years in Federal service at entry to last recorded job_____ 9. Women professional-scientific workers reported, by selected occupation and age at entry to last recorded job(________________________ 10. Training of women professional-scientific workers reported_________ 11. Women reported in administrative and nonadministrative occupations, by years in Federal service at entry to last recorded job_________ 12. Women reported in administrative and nonadministrative occupations in Federal service, by age at entry to last recorded job__________ 13. Training of women administrative and nonadministrative workers reported 68 14. Women in administrative and supervisory positions in the Government reported in the Official Register of the United States, 1925, 1941, and 1947_______ ______ 15. Training and grade of women reported in State Department Register, December 1946 7 11 13 24 26 30 l<»j 31 32 33 67 67 71 81 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE—PART II I. SOURCE AND SUMMARY OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION PRESENTED There is continual demand and need for information on the profes sional and administrative status of women in Federal employment and on the kinds of work they are doing. However, the latest data of any kind on women’s occupations in the Federal service are now more than 10 years old.1 Furthermore, there is great general interest in knowing what has been the training and experience of women who are in the upper levels of responsible work and salary range, and what length of time they have served before attaining these levels. Little such informa tion exists, other than occasional individual stories, and its develop ment and interpretation is of importance in planning women’s educa tional programs and also could be an invaluable aid in the selection of Government personnel. The present publication gives occupational information for a selected group of 730 women at upper-salary levels ($3,000 and over) whose records were examined by the Women’s Bureau. It constitutes Part II of a study of women in the Federal service, Part I of which showed employment trends through about 25 years, the effects of war time and postwar readjustments, salary and age distributions, and other details. The data on occupations of the 730 women whose records were exam ined are correlated with their latest reported grade or salary classi fication; the agency in which they were at work at that time; their period of entrance to the upper-salaried occupations reported here—whether during the war, or before or after; their length of Federal service and age at the time of reaching their last reported salary grade (which with few exceptions was the highest salary grade) ; and something as to their training and experience. xThe most recent data on women's occupations in the Federal service are for December 1938, and are shown and interpreted in Women’s Bureau Bull. No. 182. The information was secured from a survey made jointly by the Civil Service Commission and the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and gives the most complete data ever compiled on this subject. (For coverage and method used in obtaining this occupational information, see Monthly Labor Review, January 1941, p. 66 ft.) See Appendix A, p. 83, for occupational distribution of women included in this 1938 survey. 1 2 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE Of the women included here, 401 are in the professional-scientific classification, 329 in the clerical-administrative-fiscal.2 Following discussion of the total group, these two classifications are considered separately, and in addition an analysis is made for all women having administrative functions, whether they are technically classified as CAF or as professional workers. The foregoing information is supplemented by data from the United States Government Manual, the Official Register of the United States, the Federal Statistical Directory, and the Register of the Department of State. There is considerable duplication in the lists of women these include; none reports over 350 of the nearly half million women in Federal employment. THE GROUP RECORDED The records presented in this study are of considerable significance since they afford recent information not otherwise available on the occupations of women Federal employees and, as well, information not heretofore presented on the training of women in particular occupa tions. However, the group of 730 women that could be included in this investigation is not a scientific statistical sampling of the employ ment of women in the Federal service as a whole, nor does it afford such a sample for any of the types of work included. To make such a sampling would require a knowledge of the occupational distribu tion of all women in the service, which is the very thing that is so conspicuously lacking. Jobs such as are being considered here often are highly individu alized in their requirements, even though the qualifications for the great mass of clerical and statistical work that is needed in the Fed eral service are quite standardized. Many of these individual jobs, though they come within a general civil service classification, have somewhat unique responsibilities. The need of any one agency for a specialized employee (such as would he paid at the higher levels) rarely would be duplicated exactly in other agencies. Some basis for placing this group of 730 women within the frame work of total Federal employment of women exists in a Civil Service Commission report of September 1947 covering 381,842 women then subject to the Federal Retirement Act.3 2 These major occupation classifications frequently are referred to as the P and CAF groups. These and other abbreviations such as “professional group” or “clerical workers” will be used for the sake of brevity at some points in the present report. The entire classi fication system was changed, effective October 30, 1949, so that no distinction now is made between professional-scientific and clerical-administrative-fiscal grades; e. g., former P-3 and CAF-9 are now in GS-9 (General Schedule 9). See Appendix D. 3 For further analysis of data on women from this Civil Service Commission report, see Bull. 230-1, Women in the Federal Service, 1923-1947, Pt. I, ch. IV. 3 SOURCE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION According to that report, women with salaries of $3,000 or more were not over 14 percent of all women reported by the Civil Service Com mission as subject to the Federal Civil Service Retirement Act in September 1947. Further, the women reported in the present study tend to be an older group and a group with longer service than all women subject to the Retirement Act, as the following comparison shows. Percent of the women included who— Study reported Women subject to Federal Retirement Act in Sep tember 1947 _ _ _ _ _ _ Women in upper-salaried occupations reported in present study1 ----_______ . ____ Had 20 years or more of Federal sendee w agea . ,, nere geaTS 01 over 7 31 25 57 1 Includes only women with salaries of $3,000 or over. METHOD OF OBTAINING DATA A list of upper-level woman personnel prepared in the Civil Service Commission near the height of war-period employment (1943) was the fullest basis existing for the development of the occupational information in the present report. This list had been compiled by taking the names in the Civil Service Commission’s Official Register of the United States (which includes only administrative and super visory personnel) and adding to them through a long process of tele phoning the many agencies to secure, from those willing and able to cooperate, the names of their women employees in professional grade 2 and above and in CAF grade 7 and above (roughly those with basic minimum salaries of about $2,600 or over at that period), whether or not they were performing administrative or supervisory work. The Women’s Bureau used this primary list. The Civil Service Commission cooperated further with Women’s Bureau agents to make available records showing the occupations of these women, the agencies in which they were employed, length of service and age at the time of. entrance to their latest reported jobs, and such material as had been retained on their training and experience. Only those whose latest reported salaries were $3,000 or over are included in the present study. A qualification of these data that must be taken into consideration is the fact that the reporting is not for a single date for every woman included. However, the data do show type of job, length of service, agency, and age at the salary level reported. For the most part, grades are discussed rather than amounts of salaries, since salary levels changed in the period covered. 868740—50-------2 4 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE On the basis of the 1943 list referred to, all the women included in the study were in the service at that time. Of course women who entered after 1943 are excluded, and some of those included left the service after 1943. However, the salary grade shown here does not stop at 1943, but for each woman included it is the latest reported to the Civil Service Commission up to time the record was examined.4 High [ >ints as to grade, length of service, age, and training of women reported in uppersalaried occupations 1 [730 women receiving $3,000 or over] Professional-scientific Number of women reported __ Percent in grade: P-5, CAF-12, or above___ _____ P-6, CAF-13, or above Percent with Federal service: Under 5 years_____ 20 years or over______ _ _. ____ Percent aged: Under 40 years_______ _ _ _ 45 years or older _ _ . _ _ _ _ 55 years or older__ Percent having: College degrees ________________ More than one college degree. _ Business training 3__ _ _ Legal training 3______ ________ CAF Administrative 401 329 2 323 73 36 58 33 70 45 24 23 24 29 20 29 22 60 20 30 54 17 23 62 20 87 54 9 18 36 14 35 4 51 26 26 6 1 For more complete distribution on the various subjects, see pp. 8, 10, 11, and 15. Base numbers on which computations were made for the various subjects differ slightly since some of the data were not reported for all women. 2 Of these, 200 were in the CAF, 123 in the professional classification. »Individual women in this group also were included in other’training categories. A COMPOSITE PICTURE OF WOMEN REPORTED IN UPPER-SALARIED OCCUPATIONS [730 women receiving $3,000 or over] AGENCY AND SERVICE All women reported: Almost 3 in 5 were in executive (cabinet) departments. Almost 1 in 8 was in an emergency war agency. In executive departments—Well over half were professional. In emergency war agencies—More than 3 in 5 were CAF. 4 Service records are considerably decentralized to the various Federal agencies. Record is consistently available at the Civil Service Commission only for the time when the employee enters a new job in a new agency (or retires), and usually does not include reclassifications to new salary scales within an agency. The data therefore do not neces sarily give the current salary status of the individual, but they do show her length of service, age, and type of job at a given salary level. SOURCE OF OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION SALARY CLASSIFICATION 5 5 Professional: More than 1 in 3 was in P-5 (wartime salary, $4,600-$5,400). More than 3 in 5 were in P-5 or P-6 (wartime maximum of P-6, $6,400). Almost 1 in 6 was below P-4 (below $3,800 in wartime). CAF: 1 in 4 was in CAF-12 (wartime salary, $4,600-$5,400). Nearly half were in CAF-12 or CAF-13 (wartime maximum of CAF-13, $6,400). Almost 1 in 4 was below CAF-10 (wartime minimum of CAF-10, $3,500). PERIOD WHEN REACHED HIGHEST REPORTED SALARY Professional: Almost half during the war; more than 4 in 5 either during or after the war. CAF: Almost 2 in 3 during the war; almost 9 in 10 either during or after the war. LENGTH OF SERVICE WHEN REACHED HIGHEST REPORTED SALARY Half the women reported had 5 but less than 20 years’ service at entry to top job; 1 in 4, 20 years’ service or longer; almost 1 in 4, less than 5 years’ service. Professional and CAF workers had similar distribution by length of service, though a larger proportion among CAF workers had served 20 years or longer. AGE WHEN REACHED HIGHEST REPORTED SALARY Professional: Nearly 4 in 5 were 40 years of age or older. 3 in 5 were 45 or older. Advance in salary normally occurred with age up to grade 6 (though not necessarily for every individual) ; smaller proportions were advanced to grade 6 after age 50 than among younger groups. CAF: Almost 7 in 10 were 40 years of age or older. More than half were 45 or older. Advance in salary normally occurred to age 50, after which smaller proportions were advanced to the higher grades. 5 The salary schedule referred to as “wartime” throughout the text is that established in 1932. (See Appendix B.) 6 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE TRAINING Professional: About 7 in 8 were college graduates. Almost 3 in 5 had additional advanced degrees. Training ordinarily was in the specific lines of professional performance. CAF: More than 1 in 3 was a college graduate. Almost 2 in 5 had an additional advanced degree. Of those not college graduates, over half had business training. ADMINISTRATIVE DUTIES Professional: Almost 3 in 10 had administrative duties added to profes sional responsibilities. Over half those classified P-6 or above had administrative duties. CAF: Almost 3 in 5 had administrative duties. Over 2 in 3 of those classified CAF-13 or above had admin istrative duties. Of all those with administrative duties (Professional and CAF combined) : Almost 3 in 10 had had Federal experience of 20 years or longer. More than 3 in 5 were 45 years of age or older. II. ALL WOMEN REPORTED IN UPPER-SALARIED OCCUPATIONS AGENCY DISTRIBUTION Of the 730 women reported here in upper-salaried occupations, not far from 60 percent worked in executive (cabinet) departments, 30 percent in independent agencies, and something over 10 percent in emergency war agencies. The last group naturally was large among the women in the present study since they were taken from a wartime listing, though it antedated the wartime peak reached by the entire civilian woman labor force in 1944.1 The regular Government agencies and the emergency war agencies differed markedly as to the type of service for which upper-salaried women were needed, as table 1 shows. In the executive departments and the independent agencies well over half these upper-salaried women were professional workers, but in the emergency war agencies almost two-thirds were in CAF classifications. Table 1.—Agency distribution of women reported in upper-salaried occupations, by occupation group [730 women receiving $3,000 or over] All women reported Type of agency All agencies ________ ______ _ _ Executive departments Independent establishments......... ............ Emergency war agencies.......... .............. . _ Clerical-adminis trative-fiscal Professionalscientific Percent Number distribu Number tion Percent of total Number Percent of total 730 100 401 55 329 45 i 431 210 89 59 29 12 i 241 128 32 56 61 36 i 190 82 57 44 39 64 1 Includes also a few women in the Executive Office of the President. A more detailed distribution (unpublished) shows that in this small group of women in upper jobs the largest number was in the Federal Security Agency; considerably smaller numbers, about equal to each other in size, were in the emergency war agencies (taken together) and the Commerce and Labor Departments. Groups progressively smaller in size were in the Agriculture, Treasury, War, State, and Interior Departments. The agency distribution of the professional and CAF workers differed rather widely. Of the professional employees, the largest 1 The general distribution as between executive departments and independent establish ments was quite similar to that shown for all women Federal workers (in and outside the Washington, D. C., area combined) in the Annual Report of the Civil Service Commission in 1947, when something over 60 percent were in the executive departments. 7 8 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE groups were in t'he Federal Security Agency and the Labor Depart ment, the next in size were in Commerce, the next in Agriculture, and numbers considerably below these in the emergency war agencies; these agencies combined employed almost three-fourths of the profes sional workers reported. Of the CAF workers, the largest group was in the emergency war agencies, the next largest in Treasury, War, Commerce, and Federal Security; these agencies employed about half the CAF workers reported. Among about 70 of these women who received as much as $7,000, more than 60 percent were in the professional classifications. Over a fourth of the professional workers at this high level were in the Federal Security Agency. GRADE CLASSIFICATION Grade classifications of the 730 women with salaries of $3,000 or more reported here fall roughly into thirds: About one-third were in grades below P-5 or CAF-12 (which had a wartime salary range of $4,600 to $5,400), over another third were in these grades, and the remainder were higher.2 However, the situation differed with type of service, the CAF work ers being in the lower grades to a considerably larger extent than the professional workers, or than all those having administrative duties (whether in CAF or professional classifications).3 The distribution of these 730 women according to their latest re ported grade classifications is as follows:4 Distribution of women reported, by grade and major occupation group All women reported P and S All grades_____ _____ ___ 730 401 Below P-5 or CAF-12___ _ ... P-5 or CAF-12..._________ ... P-6, CAF-13, or above__ _ ... 34 31 35 Grade CAF 329 Administra tive 1 323 Percent distribution 28 36 36 42 25 33 30 25 45 1 Of these, 200 were in the OAF, 123 in the P and S classification. 2 The group being discussed here is small and of a specialized character. (See p. 2.) In the Civil Service Commission tabulation of 1947 showing salaries of all women subject to the Retirement Act, only 14 percent had salaries as high as $3,000, and of these women only slightly over 6 percent were receiving as much as $5,000, and hence would be classified in P-5 or CAF-12 or above, at the wartime salary scale. 2 See ch. V for separate discussion of employees performing administrative duties. * The salaries reported here were not those received at a single given date; they apply to the time at which each woman entered a job at the latest salary reported for her. (See p. 4.) For this reason they are discussed according to grade classification, which enables reference of all to either a wartime or a postwar salary scale. See Appendix B, p. 83, for salary scales. 9 ALL IN UPPER-SALARIED OCCUPATIONS PERIOD OF ENTRY TO LAST RECORDED JOB The enormous wartime demands for personnel in almost all branches of the Federal service are well known. Besides new entrants to Gov ernment. work, many employees with long service shifted to new jobs in that period. After the war, the Federal workers’ salary scale was advanced. With these facts in mind, it is not surprising that the great majority of the women reported here in upper-salaried occu pations began receiving their last-recorded salaries either during or after the war. Of the 726 upper-salaried women whose period of entry into last recorded job was reported, well over half entered these job levels in wartime and more than four-fifths either during or after the war, as is shown in the summary following. The data indicate that in the war period women’s opportunity for advancement was greater among all CAF than among professional workers or than among those (whether CAF or professional) with administrative functions; the proportion whose latest reported job advance dated back to the prewar period was noticeably smaller among CAF workers than in the other groups. This apparently superior wartime opportunity for the CAF group tallies wTith the common knowledge that demand for clerical workers was especially great dur ing the war. After the war, on the other hand, opportunity appeared some what better for the professional than for the CAF worker (or than those from both groups with administrative functions); advance to highest reported grades after the war was in larger proportion among the professional than in the other two groups of workers.5 Distribution of women reported, by period of entry to last recorded job and major occupation group All women reported Period of entry to last recorded job All periods _______ _____ 726 P and S 399 CAF Administrativei 327 320 Percent distribution Before 1942. _ _ _ 1942 to July 31, 1945 Aug. 1, 1945, or later_____ All periods___ . _ .. . .. .. 15 56 29 18 50 32 11 64 25 In or Above Grades P-6 or CAF-13 251 144 107 18 61 21 145 Percent distribution Before 1942 ______________ .. 1942 to July 31, 1945 . Aug. 1, 1945, or later _ _ ______ . 13 55 32 17 48 35 8 64 28 18 54 28 i Included in the professional or in the CAF column. B With the decentralization of records (see footnote 4, p. 4) this may have meant chiefly that more professional women changed agencies, hut if so their new jobs were at advanced levels. 10 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE Of the 72 women with salaries of $7,000 or more, three-fourths had reached this level after the war. This was true of a larger proportion of the professional than of the CAF employees. LENGTH OF SERVICE Length of Federal service was reported for 723 of the 730 women in upper-salaried occupations included in this study. Of the 723, a fourth had served the Government for 20 years or longer before advancement to their latest grade level, another fourth had been in the service less than 5 years, the remainder for 5 but less than 20 years.6 The proportion of women who had short service records was the same among professional and CAF employees. That somewhat smaller proportions of those, from both groups, having adminis trative duties had short service periods is not hard to understand, since advancement to administrative functions tends to follow after experience. In this group of women, professional workers tended to take shorter periods to reach the upper-salaried levels than did CAF workers or those with administrative functions. The proportion having worked 20 years or longer in the Government (before advancement to their latest reported salary) was notably greater among CAF and among all administrative than among professional employees. The sum mary following shows further details. Distribution of women reported, by years in Federal service at entry to last recorded job and major occupation group All women reported Years of Federal service All service periods _ ... 723 P and S 397 CAF 326 Administrative1 320 Percent distribution Under 5___ _ 5 under 10__ 10 under 20 .. 20 or over.____ _ . _ __ ... _ _ ... . . ... 24 27 23 26 24 27 26 23 24 27 20 29 20 28 23 29 * Included in the professional or in the CAF column. Over 200 of the women reported here had entered their present salary levels after the war. Of these, more than a fifth had been in the service 20 years or longer; on the other hand, almost the same proportion had less than 5 years’ service before reaching their high est reported salary level. * The Civil Service Commission tabulation of all women subject to the Retirement Act (86 percent of whom had salaries under $3,000) shows over 40 percent of these women to have been in the service less than 5 years and only 7 percent to have had 20 years or more of experience in the Federal Government. 11 ALL IN UPPER-SALARIED OCCUPATIONS In the group of 723 women reported here, those who had advanced in largest proportions to the higher grades (P-5 or CAF-12 or above) had been in the Government 5 but less than 10 years. As their service advanced beyond 10 years, progressively smaller proportions were in the highest grades. This was true both of the professional and the CAF workers. (See table 2.) The superior opportunity that wartime conditions created for the CAF workers is indicated again in the fact that among those who had served less than 5 years, larger proportions of the CAF than of the professional workers were in the highest grades (41 percent of the CAF workers were in CAF-13 or above, while only 35 percent of the professional employees were in P-6 or above). However, data in this study seem to show that the professional bene fits more than does the CAF worker from long Federal service. Among the women reported here who had served 20 years or more, workers in the professional group had advanced to higher grades to a greater extent than had those in the CAF grades. (Of the 20-year workers, 24 percent of the professional were in grade 6 or above, while only 18 percent of the CAF employees were in grade 13 or above; 58 percent of the professional were in grade 5 or above, but only 37 percent of the CAF workers were in grade 12 or higher.) Of about 70 women with service reported who earned $7,000 or more, well over half had 10 years or more of Government experience, and only a little more than a tenth as much as 20 years. About a fifth had less than 5 years’ service. Larger proportions of professional than of CAF workers had 10 years’ service or more, but the larger proportions of CAF workers had less than,5 years’ service. Table 2.—Women reported in top grades, by years in Federal service at entry to last recorded job and occupation group [723 women receiving $3,000 or over, with years of service reported] Professional-scientific Years of Federal service All service periods _. Number of women reported Clerical-administrative-fiscal Percent who were in— Grade 5 or above Grade 6 or above _- 397 73 36 Under 5___ 5, under 10_____ _____ 10, under 20__________ _____ 20 or over _ 96 109 102 90 65 89 75 58 35 43 40 24 Number of women reported . Percent who were in— Grade 12 or above Grade 13 or above 326 58 33 80 87 66 93 69 72 56 37 41 41 30 18 AGE DISTRIBUTION The women in the Federal service who have advanced to the highersalaried occupations usually have not done so in earliest youth. Of 868740—50----- 3 12 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE 724 women in the present study for whom reports on age were avail able, about three-fourths were 40 years of age or older, over a third were 50 or older. As the following summary indicates, the clerical employees reported here tend to be somewhat younger than the pro fessional workers. Those who have administrative responsibilities (whether in CAF or professional occupations) are distributed in agegroupings similar to those of the professional workers.7 Distribution of women reported, by age at entry to last recorded job and major occupation group All women reported Years of age - ... 724 Under 40----------------------- ___ 40, under 50. .. . -------- ___ 50 or over_______________ ___ 26 39 35 All ages____ - - P and S 399 Administrativei CAF 325 319 Percent distribution 22 41 37 30 37 33 23 40 37 i Included in the professional or in the CAF column. The data here indicate an appropriate advance with increasing age (and consequently experience), though only up to a certain level. The proportion of the reported women wdio were classified in profes sional grade 5 or CAF grade 12 increased in each advancing age group. (See summary following.) A fourth of those under 40, but more than a third of those 50 or over, were at this level; the younger women were below these grades to a larger extent than the older. However, after the age of 50 smaller proportions than of those 40 but under 50 were above the P-5 or CAF-12 level. The older woman appears to have a better opportunity if she is in the professional rather than in the CAF classification. The pro portion of CAF workers who were in grade 12 had declined with the 50-or-over group, hut among professional workers the proportion in grade 5 had increased markedly at 50 or over. Furthermore, those 50 or older were below this level to a considerably larger extent among CAF than among professional women. Unpublished tabulations show that of all the women reported here wdio wTere as high as professional grade 5 or CAF-12, not far from two-tliirds wTere at least 45 years of age. Professional women appar ently had to wait to a later age than the women in the CAF services for advancement to this level; a larger proportion of the professional » The upper-salaried group discussed here includes a larger proportion of older women than are in the total Federal service, the latter including all women in lower as well as higher grades. A Civil Service tabulation of all women subject to the Retirement Act in September 1947 (of whom 86 percent had salaries under $3,000) shows 45 percent of the total to be under 35 years of age and 31 percent 45 or older; these proportions in the present study are respectively 12 and 57 percent. 13 ALL IN UPPER-SALARIED OCCUPATIONS than of the CAF workers reported in these grades were 45 years of age or-older. However, in the end professional workers had the advantage—considerably larger proportions of all the professional than of all the CAF workers reported finally had reached these high grades. Distribution of women reported, by age at entry to last recorded job, grade, and major occupation group Percent who were in specified grades Number of women reported Years of age and occupation group All occupation groups: Total________ Under 40__________ 40, under 50-----------50 or over__________ P and S: Total________ Under 40---------------40, under 50-----------50 or over__________ CAF: Total________ Under 40__________ 40, under 50-----------50 or over--------------- Below grade P-5 or CAF-1B P-5 or CAF-12 P-6, CAF-IS, or above 724 187 282 255 34 45 30 32 31 25 31 36 35 30 39 32 399 89 162 148 28 39 25 23 36 27 35 44 36 34 40 33 325 98 120 107 42 50 35 44 25 23 27 25 33 27 38 31 The wartime and postwar periods gave the younger women more chances of advancement than before. Table 3 shows that upper jobs were attained before age 45 by a larger proportion of women during and especially after the war than previously. This difference in age of advancement as between the prewar or wartime and the postwarperiods was less marked for CAF than for professional workers, be cause in the prewar period much larger proportions of the CAF than of the professional women had reached their highest classification before age 45. Table 3.__ Age of women reported at entry to last recorded job, by period of entry and occupation group [720 women receiving $3,000 or over, with age and period of entry reported] All women reported Period of entry to last recorded job Number All periods------------- ---------- 1942 to July 31, 1945.. _ --------------Aug. 1, 1945, or later------- ------------- 720 104 405 211 Percent under 45 years of age 43 35 42 48 Professionalscientific Number 397 73 196 128 Clerical-adminis trative-fiscal Percent under 45 years of age Number Percent under 45 years of age 40 323 46 29 40 47 31 209 83 48 44 49 14 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE OLDER WOMEN AT HIGH SALARIES Of some 130 women aged 55 years or older, about 75 were reported who received salaries as high as $5,000; the majority were professional women. Over a third of the total group had 20 years or more of Government experience before reaching these salaries; opportunity to reach these higher salaries had come to well over a third of them during the war (1942-45), and to over four-fifths either during or after the war. A small group (13) of these women of 55 or older had salaries as high as $7,000 or above; and their number was about equally divided between professional and CAF workers. Reports were incomplete as to the training and experience of these women but, so far as avail able, indicated a demonstrated capacity for administrative or profes sional work in their experience either in or outside the Government. A number had higher degrees, combined with experience in college teaching and research or with educational administration before enter ing the Federal Government. Five had over 30 years’ Federal service; of these, three had entered as low-paid clerks or laborers, the other two at modest salaries in expert fields of work; and all advanced through long service in usefulness, responsibility, and, consequently, pay. YOUNGER WOMEN AT HIGH SALARIES A small group of women, 30 in all, received $5,000 or more though they were under 35 years of age, most of them being 32-34. Their classifications were over half in the CAF grades, the remainder in the professional. The opportunity these younger women had for ad vancement to the higher salary levels apparently was afforded almost altogether by the needs incident to the war period. Over half of them were either in special wartime agencies (as for example the War Manpower Commission, Board of Economic Warfare, War Pro duction Board, Office for Emergency Management, Office of Price Administration, National Housing Agency, Foreign Economic Ad ministration), or in an older agency in some special type of work that definitely had to do with war needs, such as advertising specialist in the Treasury (probably engaged in bond-sale publicity), or person nel work in the Civil Service Commission (which had an increased load in supplying wartime personnel), or in the United States Em ployment Service. About half this small group of women under 35 who received salaries of $5,000 or more had initially entered the Federal Govern ment in the wartime period (either during the war or just before, in 1940 or 1941) ; but others had been working in the service for some years before 1940, and their experience enabled them to advance sub stantially at this time. All but one (a Doctor of Laws appointed by ALL IN UPPER-SALARIED OCCUPATIONS 15 the President to a high legal post) began receiving salaries of $5,000 or over during or after the war. Of this small group of younger women wartime workers with upper salaries ($5,000 or over), the majority had college degrees, often ad vanced degrees, and most were working in fields for which they had specific training, usually in economics or law, but also in library administration, business or financial management, or public relations. Over half were in administrative jobs; business training, with some successful experience, apparently had put a number of them in line for such work. Of these higher paid young women, half a dozen had salaries as high as $7,000. Five of these were in administrative posts in war agencies: one was an economist; one with a high law degree was per forming a judicial function; one was an information specialist in a war agency; two who were in CAF grades had entered the Federal service as girls in their early twenties and had more than 10 years of experience there before being placed in the expert high-salaried ad ministrative work they were doing in wartime agencies. TRAINING The reports discussed here give some information on the training of nearly 600 women in upper-salaried occupations—on whether they had attended college, had graduated, or had more than one college degree, and on whether they had business training. In general the data show that college training is much more usual than not, and that either college or other specialized training is almost an essential among a group of women such as this who have advanced to responsible and well-paying employment. Of the women reported here, the great majority had attended college, two-thirds had college degrees, and over a third had more than one degree. However, about a sixth of the total had never attended college. Of the women for whom reports on training could be obtained, about 60 percent were in the professional grades, the remainder in the CAF classifications. College degrees, much more usual with the profes sional than with the CAF group, were possessed by almost nine-tenths of the former and something over a third of the latter. On the other hand, the CAF workers were the more likely to have business training, which was reported for over a third of them but for less than a tenth of the professional women. About 40 percent of the total group re ported were doing responsible administrative work, some in CAF, others in professional classification. Among these administrators, three-fourths had been to college, half had degrees, a fourth had more than one degree; a fourth had some business training. The summary following indicates the extent of training of the women reported in 16 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE each chief occupation group. Further details on training will be shown in the discussions of the CAF and of the professional workers separately. Distribution of women reported, by training and major occupation group All women reported Training Total._ .... ____ .. P and S CAF 350 238 588 Administra tive 1 245 Percent distribution Never attended college . ___ __ Attended college, no degree One college degree only. . __ .. More than one degree. _ _ . .. Business training 2__________ .. Legal training 2___ _ . . __ 29 38 3 10 33 54 34 30 22 14 26 23 25 26 20 12 9 35 26 18 15 18 4 6 1 Included in the professional or in the CAF column. 2 Individual women in this group also were included in other training categories. Among these upper-salaried women with training reported, the pro portion who had salaries of $5,000 or over increased markedly with college attendance, with one degree, and again with more than one degree. Such salaries were received by only a fourth of those report ing no college training, and by about half of those with one degree. Of those with advanced degrees, a still larger proportion, over 60 percent, were receiving these high salaries. The highest-paid indi vidual whose training was reported had an advanced degree. The summary following indicates these greater advances with additional training. Advance to upper salary, by training Training Number of Percent receiving women reported $5,000 or over Total_________________________________ 588 49 Never attended college_________________________ Attended college, no degree_____________________ One college degree only________________________ More than one degree_________________________ 91 107 169 221 25 43 49 61 Business training 1____________________________ Legal training 1_______________________________ 116 71 26 61 1 Individual women in this group were also included in other training categories. It was the exceptional woman who received a salary of as much as $5,000 though she had never been to college. In the small group of such women whose training was reported, the great majority were performing some administrative function. A number of these non- ALL IN UPPER-SALARIED OCCUPATIONS 17 college women in this salary range had business training, and a few had other types of training apparently specially fitting them for their work. Over a third had 20 years’ experience or more in the Federal service, and most of these had entered during the World War I period as clerks, usually in the War Department or other war agencies, at salaries of $900 to $1,100. So far as their experience was reported, these women illustrate the possibilities for advancement, from clerical functions competently performed, through enlarged fields, to respon sible jobs. Having familiarized themselves with work along a spe cialized line, as for example in fiscal offices or in careful economic or legal analysis, or having demonstrated administrative ability, some of them regularly received substantial advances. With the coming of World War II, they found their lack of college training had been compensated for by long experience in work capably done, and their special abilities (obviously of an exceptional character since they con stituted so small a group) were recognized in the Federal service by continued advance to responsible and well-paid work. Records of training could be obtained for some 50 women who received $7,000 or more—three-fourths in the professional, the re mainder in the CAF classifications. Of those in the professional classes who had such high salaries, almost two-thirds had more than one college degree, and the great majority had either multiple degrees or specialized training, usually of a type of particular importance to the jobs they were doing. Of the few reported in the CAF group, only two had advanced degrees; and nearly half had no degree, though some of these had business training. WOMEN AT HIGHEST SALARY LEVELS-$8,000 OR OVER Only 10 of the 730 women reported received salaries at the highest Federal levels ($9,000 or over); 4 of these received as much as $10,000. An additional 22 had salaries of $8,000 to $9,000.® The wTork of each of these 32 women was of an extremely individualized character and involved complicated administrative responsibilities or very com petent knowledge and use of some specialty, such as law, economics, education, social work administration, and the like. Among all Federal employees, the workers at this salary level constitute an extremely small proportion. However, this proportion is somewhat larger for men than for women, according to a postwar8 8 Salaries of employees at the $10,000 level, grades P-9 and CAF-16, are determined indi vidually by Congress. The Official Register for the spring of 1947 reported only 12 women at this salary level, chiefly heads of bureaus or divisions or members of boards or commis sions, and a total of 63 at approximately a level of $8,000 or more. The Civil Service Commission report on women subject to the Retirement Act in September 1947 showed 17 women receiving $10,000 or more, 30 others receiving as much as $9,000, and 81 others receiving as much as $8,000. See Bull. 230-1, Women in the Federal Service, 1923-1947, Pt. I, ch. IV. 18 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE report by the Civil Service Commission (September 1947). Of all persons subject to the Civil Service Retirement Act at that time, almost 8 percent (8,881) of the men but less than 0.1 percent (128) of the women had salaries as high as $8,000. These women whose salaries were $8,000 or over were of outstanding prominence; a number of them were listed for their accomplishments in American Women (the special women’s Who’s Who). In most instances these women who received top salaries had had very con siderable training and usually had had rather long periods of ex perience before entering the Government, sometimes of a unique char acter and often along the special lines for which they were appointed to the Federal service. A few, however, had entered Government work as young women without advanced training and with little out side experience and, at first employed in the lower ranks, had become through long years of service increasingly effective and valuable for the particular job they were doing. One who entered very young had been advanced to a high position in a wartime agency. Half were in the CAF, half in professional classifications. It cannot be stressed too strongly that in the Government as else where it is a very small proportion of the women in the service who advance to the highest levels of salary and responsibility. Almost invariably those who do have had considerable experience that has demonstrated their capacity; and usually they have started up the lad der through training of a type contributory to their future field of work. It is believed that in at least these respects the very small group of women discussed here would prove fairly representative of the entire number receiving the highest salaries, were there a way to provide such data for all those at the top levels.9 APPOINTIVE AND EXCEPTED EMPLOYEES Several of the women receiving $8,000 or over were Presidential appointees to high official responsibilities; one wras an excepted em ployee in an expert consultant status; another had only temporary war service status in the job she was filling but had previously had over 10 years of Federal service. Despite their exceptional capacities, well over half this group had entered the Government through the regular channels of examination, and so had civil service status even though the particular occupation they were performing was an excepted one. AGENCY DISTRIBUTION The 32 women earning $8,000 or over were widely scattered among about a third of some 57 executive agencies. The largest number in 9 Even after the mid-1946 pay raises, fewer than 1 percent of all Federal workers (men and .women combined) were listed at salary levels as high as $8,000 (July 1947). See Monthly Labor Review, July 1948, table 3. ALL IN UPPER-SALARIED OCCUPATIONS 19 any one agency was in Federal Security, wliich, as is well known, includes a wide variety of functions such as unemployment and oldage insurance, public health, education, etc., and requires personnel with specialized training of a number of types. The State, Labor, and Treasury Departments, Civil Service Commission, Office for Emer gency Management, and Executive Office of the President each had more than one of these women. PERIOD OF ENTRY TO LAST RECORDED JOB Almost two-thirds of the women whose salaries were $8,000 or more had achieved this level either at the time of the mid-1946 Federal sal ary increases or later; but nearly all those having advanced in this postwar period were prewar Federal employees (one was brought in during the war as an expert economic consultant), and more than two-thirds had served 10 years or longer. Of the remainder, over half began receiving these upper salaries during the war; however, several had received $9,000 or more before the war, and these ordi narily were Presidential appointees with outstanding qualifications for the work and also with some previous Government service. A few of those entering their highest salary levels after the war also were designated for their jobs by the President but had served the Govern ment throughout most of the war period or for a much longer period prior to receiving their highest salaries. LENGTH OF SERVICE For 31 of the 32 women receiving $8,000 or more, length of service was reported. Over half had experience of 10 years or longer in the Government, and a number had more than 20 years’ service. Six had less than 5 years’ service at the time they entered this salary level. TRAINING The reports on training available for 27 of the 32 women receiving $8,000 or more show diversities as wide as those in the jobs they were doing in fact, they are almost unique for every individual. Nearly all reported were college women, over half had advanced degrees, almost a third had doctorates; a few were reported as having been elected to honor societies such as Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi. Two were educated in foreign schools, one of these in an outstanding European university. A number had attended college but did not report graduation; one of these had gone to several colleges, and anothei had business training in addition to some college attendance. Only two had no formal education beyond high school. The story of one of the latter illustrates rise to a post of superior responsibility through long experience in varied types of work. This woman ap parently had had some business training in high school and had entered 868740—50------ 4 20 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE the Federal Government as a very young girl at the low .salary then paid to women. After several years’ experience she had left the service for about 5 years. In the World War I period she reentered another department at a better salary. Remaining with this agency and developing proficiency in her particular work, she continued to advance until finally during World War II, with the increasing salary scales and with over 30 years of experience, she began receiving $8,000. Even though the reports were quite incomplete as to particular fields of study (in college or elsewhere), there is strong evidence that the advance to the highest salary levels was fully in line with a very definite specialty. Case examples in which a high-level job appeared closely allied to subject matter of earlier study were largely in the field of the social sciences and were as follows: Study of economics (com bined with research and college teaching) had led to an economic consultant status; economics and labor problems to administration in the labor field; home economics and nutrition study to administra tion in that field; biology and vital statistics to administration of health programs; social sudies and law to administration in the social work field; economics and political science to work as a research economist; educational and social studies to administration in the educational field; study of government, later supplemented by inter national law, to specialized State Department work. Almost all the foregoing were women beyond 45 years of age, who had had many years of valuable experience both outside and within the Government. In this small group of women with salaries of $8,000 or more, several had legal training. The use of this training was evident in the jobs they held: Some were attorneys, one was in a high position with judicial functions, one had work involving interpretation of legal provisions. Two who had business training were in high administra tive jobs. In only two cases did the college training appear to be along lines varying widely from the Government job. Both these were women over 40 who had attended several colleges for short periods but taken no degree and had entered the Government somewhat before the war period. One had taken widely varied subjects, had a number of years’ experience in educational work, and had remained in one Department through her Federal service. The other had specialized in an educa tional branch but had experience chiefly in secretarial work allied with research; her Government experience of over 10 years was with several different agencies. AGE AT ENTRY TO LAST RECORDED JOB The ages of 29 of these women were reported at the time they entered the salary level of $8,000 or over. Of these, 18 were 45 or older, 6 being 55 or over. Only one of those who received as much as $9,000 ALL IN UPPER-SALARIED OCCUPATIONS 21 was under 40 years of age, and she was an able lawyer with a doctor’s degree in jurisprudence. Only five others receiving $8,000 or more were under 40, and of these one had a Ph. D. and experience in college teaching, one was an attorney, and one was with a war agency and had had over 10 years’ experience in the Government. AGE AT ENTRY TO FEDERAL SERVICE It also is of interest to know how old these women in top salary brackets were when they entered the Federal service. Of the 27 women whose ages were reported, 9 had entered the service in their twenties or even younger, and of these all but one had over 10 years and several 20 years or more of Government experience before reach ing the high salary level reported here. Thirteen had entered the Government between the ages of 30 and 45 and one at 49—in each case (where evidence wras available) after considerable experience outside, often along specialized lines or in administrative capacities; and almost half had been more than 10 years in the Federal service before reaching the high salary level reported. Several of these women came into the Government after they were 50 years of age and had had long experience, one in various outstanding executive jobs, some in college teaching and research. All entering the service after 50 were appointed by the President (or excepted from the usual civil service examinations) because of the contribution they were equipped to make in their specialties, and their work was of an important administrative character, sometimes combined with consultant capac ity in the fields of their particular competence. III. WOMEN REPORTED IN UPPER-SALARIED CAF CLASSIFICATIONS It was for duties of clerical types that women first entered the Federal service in the early days of this Republic. Modern govern mental management inevitably requires an enormous amount of cleri cal work of various kinds, including fiscal processing. The Civil Service classifies together clerical, general administrative, and fiscal employees in a group usually known briefly as CAF. Before World War II women constituted well over half of all persons who performed Federal duties in these fields. Of all the women in the service at that time, almost two-thirds were in the CAF grades (even excluding the postal services which also involve largely clerical duties). Only a small proportion of these women CAF workers (less than 5 percent) had salaries as high as $2,000, and thus the very great majority of them were not in the upper grades considered in the present study.1 The total number of women who have remained in the CAF services since the war is not known, though it is known that there are more than 550,000 such workers (men and women combined), of whom less than 4 percent are in CAF grade 12 or above and not far from half are in CAF grade 3 or below. This number is almost three times as great as before the war.12 Of the total number of women reported in this study, 329 (not far from half) were in the CAF services. About 61 percent of these had administrative functions of one kind or another (which will be dis cussed more fully in ch. V). Almost 32 percent had clerical duties of various types. The remainder were fiscal or personnel employees not having administrative responsibilities. The group was distribu ted as follows: 1 See Women’s Bureau Bull. 182, table III, p. 51. 2 For the period in which CAF as compared to professional workers reported here had reached their highest reported salary levels, see ch, II, p. 10. 22 23 CAP CLASSIFICATIONS Occupations of women CAF workers reported Occupation Number of women reported. Percent distribution All CAF occupations reported____________ 329 100 Administrative, n. e. c________________________ Clerical employees___________________________ Analyst, specialist________________________ Secretary______________________________ Clerical, n. e. c______________ ________ ;___ Personnel employees__ i____ ________ Administrative________________________ Other__________________________________ Fiscal employees*____________________________ Administrative__________________________ Other------------------------------------------------ 142 110 ‘57 10 43 43 29 14 .34 24 10 43 34 __________ __________ Total CAF administrative_______________ 1 200 61 13 __________ _ 10 __________ 1 Includes 5 women in the specialist group who had administrative responsibilities. GRADE CLASSIFICATION Of the 329 CAF workers reported here in upper-level jobs, almost 60 percent were classified in the CAF grade 12 or above, for which the minimum wartime salary was $4,600; about a third were in CAF-13 or above (wartime minimum $5,600). The proportion at CAF-12 or above was similar in most of the CAF occupations. However, in the very small group of personnel workers reported, half were below grade 12. This is a relatively new area of Government work, though among its few employees reported here nearly a third had long Federal service in some capacity.3 A congres sional report in September 1947 showed nearly 6,700 personnel em ployees (men and women combined) in the grades corresponding to those under discussion here. Of these nearly nine-tenths were below grade 12.4 Clerical workers were in grade 12 or above to a larger extent than workers in other CAF occupations. Unpublished data indicate that the largest clerical group employed—specialists or analysts (many of whom had entered Government service quite recently)—were highly classified. Almost half of the specialists and analysts were in grade CAF-12; three-fourths were in this grade or above. Of the few sec retaries reported, on the other hand, the highest was in grade 12 and only one other was above grade 9. The following summary shows 3 Personnel work has grown since an Executive order of June 24, 1938, established per sonnel divisions in the various departments (Executive Order No. 7916). 4 House Preliminary Report No. 1593, 80tli Cong., 2d sess., March 22, 1948. See analysis of findings, by Ray F. Harvey, in Personnel Administration, November 1948, p. 11 ff. 24 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE- the grade distribution of the women reported in the various broad CAF occupation groups. Women CAF workers reported, by occupation and grade Occupation Percent who were in grades— Number of women reported Below CAF-12 nAT? u> 14 329 42 25 33 142 110 43 34 43 37 51 41 18 36 26 24 39 27 23 35 All CAF occupations.. Administrative, n. e. c____ . Clerical . ___ ______ Personnel._______ .... Fiscal . . CAF-18 or above LENGTH OF SERVICE Among about 325 women in upper CAF jobs whose length of Fed eral service was reported in this study, a fourth had less than 5 years’ experience in the Federal Government. At the other end of the scale, somewhat more than a fourth had service of 20 years or longer. In the very small .group of fiscal workers reported, a larger proportion than in other groups had long service. These employees often are charged with duties involving great responsibilities, and it is not surprising that those reaching higher levels are likely to have had considerable experience. Clerical workers tended to be the shortestservice group, owing no doubt to the large numbers of them that came in during the war, as well as to advancement of many from clerical to other occupations. However, a fourth of those reported had 20 years’ service or more. Table 4 shows length of service; more detailed data show that among those in the largest group of clerical workers, the analysts and specialists, almost half had less than 5 years’ service. Table 4.—Women clerical-administrative-fiscal workers reported, by occupation and years in Federal service at entry to last recorded job [326 women receiving $3,000 or over, with years of service reported] Number of women reported Occupation All CAF occupations reported___ Administrative, n. e. c Clerical.____ ___ Personnel_____ __________ ______ Fiscal_______________ _______________ Percent with Federal service of— Under 5 years 5, under 10 years 10, under 20 years 20 years or over 326 25 27 20 28 140 109 43 34 21 36 14 15 27 27 23 26 22 14 33 21 30 23 30 38 AGE DISTRIBUTION Among 325 women in these upper-level CAF jobs whose age was reported, more than a tenth were less than 35 years old and not far CAF CLASSIFICATIONS 25 from a third were under 40. On the other hand, over half were 45 or over, a third 50 or older. A much larger proportion of the clerical workers than of those in the other CAF ocupations were in the youngest group; on the other hand, over half the clerical employees were at least 45 years of age, about a third 50 or older. Among the administrative employees re ported here in the CAF classifications, much the same proportion as among clerical workers were in the older groups, but fewer were in the youngest group. Fiscal workers, exercising as they do a long-established type of responsibility, were rather likely to be older than the other women; in the very small group of them reported here, smaller proportions than in other occupations were in the younger age groups. Of the per sonnel workers, also reported in very small number, similar propor tions were in the younger group of under 40 and in the older group 45 or over; but the proportion of those as old as 50 was smaller than in any other occupation. This age distribution of personnel workers might be attributed to the relative newness of specialization in this function, which at the same time requires training and stable judgment in operation. Table 5.—Women clerical-administrative-fiscal workers reported, by occupation and age at entry to last recorded job [325 women receiving $3,000 or over, with age reported] Occupation Fiscal____ ___ _______ _____•__________ Percent whose age was— Number of women reported Under 35, un 40, un 45, un 50, un 35 der 40 der 45 der 50 der 55 55 or over 325 13 17 16 21 16 17 140 110 43 32 11 20 7 6 17 13 30 15 17 15 23 3 19 18 23 38 17 19 10 13 19 15 7 25 TRAINING Information was available on the training of over 230 of the CAF employees reported here. Of these almost twTo-thirds did not have college degrees, but nearly half those without degrees had business training. Larger proportions of those in administrative jobs (n. e. c.) than of the other CAF workers had no college degrees but had business training. A larger proportion of the CAF workers without adminis trative responsibilities than of these administrators had degrees be yond the bachelor’s. Non admin istrative workers with more than one degree included a few personnel workers and a few information spe cialists, as well as women in other highly specialized work, for ex 26 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE ample, analysts in various particular fields such as analyzing personnel classifications, products, conciliation reports—often in connection with war demands. For further details on training of CAF workers, see table 6. Table 6.—Training of women clerical-administrative-fiscal workers reported [238 women receiving $3,000 or over, with training reported] All CAF workers Training Total reported................................... Administrative Other CAF Number Percent distri bution Number Percent distri bution Number Percent distri bution 238 100 141 100 97 100 Never attended college_______ __ Attended college, no degree________ One college degree only_______ More than one college degree__ . 80 71 63 34 34 30 22 14 58 42 29 12 41 30 21 8 22 29 24 22 23 30 25 22 Business training A Total................ ........ 84 35 56 40 28 29 .............. Without college degree__________ ______ With college degree 70 14 24 4 46 10 1 Individual women in this group also were included in other training categories. Of the women whose training was reported, about 80 were in the highest CAF grades (CAF-13 or above, minimum wartime salary $5,600). Most of those in grade 14 or above and over half those in grade 13 were in responsible administrative jobs. Over half those in these top grades had college degrees, but this was true of only a little over a third of all the clerical workers reported in the study (which includes few below grade 7). Those with college degrees had advanced to the highest CAF grades to a considerably greater extent than those without degrees. However (except for the few with doctorates) additional degrees meant but little more chance of advancement in the CAF. classifications than did the first degree alone. The following summary shows further detail. Training of women CAF workers and advance to top grades Women with training reported Training Percent in grade 13 or above Total Number reported. Never attended college_______________________ Attended college, no degree___________________ One college degree only_______________________ More than one degree____________ Doctor’s degree______ 238 34 80 71 53 34 9 14 37 49 53 67 CAP CLASSIFICATIONS 27 Eight of the women reported here had the doctor’s degree, and a ninth woman had completed all the requirements for the doctorate. None of these nine women was classified below grade 12, and five of them were in grades 14 or 15. All were doing either administrative work of a highly responsible character or expert technical work. However, there were 26 other women in grades 14 or 15 (with training reported) and 3 in grade 16, none of whom had a doctor’s degree. 868740—51 5 IV. WOMEN REPORTED IN UPPER-SALARIED PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS There long lias been an appreciable number of women in the Federal professional services. Almost 25 years ago a Women’s Bureau report on over 7,000 women with salaries of $1,800 or above in selected Fed eral agencies showed more than a fifth of these women to be in the professional-scientific classification.1 In more recent years the number of professional women in the Federal service has increased, and there has been some expansion in the variety of jobs they have been called on to fill. The latest full occupational data for women employees, reported some 10 years ago, showed over 6,000 women in professional-scientific classifications, who constituted about 8 percent of such workers. However, of the 3,735 reporting salaries, almost 60 percent did not receive above the maxi mum junior-professional grade (P-1), and less than 4 percent received as much as the minimum for P-5.12 It is well known that many women entered the Federal professional services in the war period, that a goodly number of these did especially important work and had salaries in the upper brackets, and that many remained in the Federal service. However, there is no information on their number, though it is known that the professional classifica tions include more than 90,000 postwar employees under civil service (men and women combined), and that practically a tenth of these are in grade P-6,or above (with minimum salary of $7,102 in 1946). The extent or significance of any advance women may have made in the professional and scientific services cannot be measured, since there are no full data on women’s occupations in the Government during or after the war. Thus it is not possible to compare with earlier periods the proportions women constituted in the upper grades or salaries in various professions. After the war many examinations were given for professional as well as clerical work. Many of the persons who took these were employees who had entered in response to wartime needs and who, if kept on, had to qualify for permanent status. The present study gives information on some 400 women in specific professional-scientific fields, all at wartime salary classifications of 1 See Women's Bureau Bull. 53, table 4, p. 51 (data for 1925). For further historical data on earlier appointments of women, see Bull. 230-1, Women in the Federal Service, 1923—1947. 2 See Women’s Bureau Bull. 182, table III, p. 51, and table 9, p. 33. 28 29 PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS $3,000 or over. Half these women had reached their present salary levels in the war period, and over four-fifths either then or after the war. Of the upper-salaried professional women reported in this survey, over half were in the three largest occupation groups—economists, attorneys or legal specialists, and social welfare workers. Next came scientists (exclusive of physicians), and research workers; these added to the first three accounted for three-fourths of all the professional workers reported here. Separate discussions will be devoted to the women in each of the various occupation groups. The work of women in these uppersalaried jobs is so varied that such a discussion will resolve itself at times into individual stories.* The following list shows the numbers reported in the various professions. Some individuals are counted in more than one professional group, as for example, an educational worker who specializes in education in home economics or in the health field, an editor or writer who is an economist and does her work in the particular field of economic writing, a social welfare worker whose employment is in the analysis of social legislation and legal cases affecting social welfare, and so on. Almost a fifth of the women in the upper-salaried group reported here were serving in such dual roles. Occupations of women professional-scientific workers reported 1 Number of women Page on which reported discussed Economist__________________________________ Attorney; legal specialist______________________ Social welfare worker_________________________ Scientist (physical or biological, except physician)__ Patent examiner.2 Cartographer and allied.3 Research worker-------------------------------------------Home economist-------------------------------------------Physician; nurse; health specialist______________ Educational worker__________________________ Librarian___________________________________ Statistician4 _____------------- --------- —--------------Editor; special writer_________________________ Information specialist _________________ _____ 103 61 64 41 41 35 34 30 18 14 13 1 33 34 38 39 41 45 46 47 49 51 54 55 57 59 61 1 The 33 information specialists reported are discussed with the professional group, though 24 of these were in CAF classifications and are not included in the professional totals. 2 Of the 14 reported, some are scientific, some legal workers. * The 6 reported had varied specialties and not all were included in the total professional count. 4 Includes one mathematician. GRADE CLASSIFICATION Almost three-fourths of the upper-salaried professional women re ported here were in grade 5 or above, for which the wartime salary minimum was $4,600, and more than a third were in grade 6 or above 30 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE (wartime minimum, $5,600). The extent to which the women re ported had reached these higher levels varied with the occupation, as is indicated in table 7. Among those reported here as attorneys, social welfare workers, physicians and other health workers, and edu cational workers, few were below grade 5, and from more than a third to over half were in grade 6 or above. Among the economists re ported, nearly a third were below grade 5, a slightly larger proportion in grade 6 or above. On the other hand, among the scientists, and m the very small groups reported as statisticians, librarians, and editors and special writers, few were in grade 6, and about half or more were below grade 5. Table 7.—Women professional-scientific workers reported, by selected occupation and grade at entry to last recorded job _______ [401 women receiving $3,000 or over] Number with specified grade Occupation All professional-scientific reported i.......... . Economist__________ ______ ______ ____ Attorney; legal specialist_________ Social welfare worker___________________ Scientist (physical or biological, except physician) Research worker_____________________ ______ Home economist.___ _________ ______ Physician; nurse; health specialist"””””” Educational worker______________________ _ Librarian_______________________ Statistician________ ________ ”1 Editor; special writer___ ______________ All women reported Below Grade 5 Grade 5 Grade 6 or over 401 103 61 54 41 41 35 34 30 18 2 14 13 38 32 26 4 19 10 16 11 3 1 1 1 Totals do not correspond with vertical details; details not shown for some small groups- somo workers SrnSt^Ko&educl?fonallWori0err.eX3InPle’ 3 S°CiaI Welfare WOrker who “^s'laws, or home 2 Includes 1 mathematician. The median salaries of the women reported here in top jobs in the five largest professional groups are shown in the following summary. These are very interesting, though too much significance should not be attached to them, since it must be remembered that the women in cluded in this study are within a small upper-level proportion of all women in the service, and that their numbers are small and not a statistical sample. The median for those reported in each of these professional groups was above $5,000, except for the scientific workers, for whom it was less than $4,000. Highest medians were those of social welfare workers and attorneys, reaching $5,600. The median salaries of women in these groups had little relation to their age and bore no consistent relationship to their length of service in Govern ment. Among scientific workers and economists, who had the lowest medians, over half the women reported were at the upper ages. 31 PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS Solary, age, and service of women reported in 5 professional occupations Percent— Number of women reported Occupation Social welfare worker Attorney; legal specialist Research worker Economist Scientist (physical or biological, except physician) 54 61 41 103 41 Median salary 1 45 years old or over With service of 10 years or longer 600 600 400 180 65 44 41 56 22 61 37 2 45 3, 800 51 63 $5, 5, 5, 5, 1 The actual middle salary rate. 2 The base for this subject is 102, since service was not reported for 1 woman. LENGTH OF SERVICE Of nearly 400 professional women whose length of service was reported, not far from a fourth had less than 5 years of experience in the Federal Government. On the other hand, nearly half had been in the service for 10 years or longer, and almost a fourth for 20 years or more, at the time they began receiving the salaries reported. The proportions who had long service varied with the occupation, as table 8 indicates. Over a fourth of the scientists and attorneys reported had 20 years or more of experience. On the other hand, few of the educational workers reported, and smaller than average pro portions of the research, social welfare, and health workers had such long service. This may be due largely to the increases in recent years in demand for some of these services. Smaller than average propor tions of the attorneys or home economists reported had less than 5 years’ service, but larger than average proportions of the research and educational workers had served so short a period. Table 8.—Women professional-scientific workers reported, by selected occupation and years in Federal service at entry to last recorded job [397 women receiving $3,000 or over, with years of service reported] Occupation All women reported Number with Federal service of— Under 5 years 5, under 10, under 20 years 10 years 20 years or over All professional-scientific reported 1__ 397 96 109 102 90 Economist........ ................... . Attorney; legal specialist ............................ Social welfare worker, _ _................... Scientist (physical or biological, except physician) Research worker___________ Home economist_________ Physician; nurse; health specialist___ Educational worker________________ Librarian______ _______ Statistician___ ________________ _ _ Editor; special writer............................. .......... 102 61 54 41 41 34 33 29 18 2 14 13 27 9 11 11 19 6 12 10 1 4 3 29 15 31 4 7 13 10 8 2 4 3 27 20 8 13 11 9 8 9 3 4 4 19 17 13 3 3 1 Totals do not correspond with vertical details; details not shown for some small groups; some workers appear with more than 1 designation, as for example, a social welfare worker who analyzes laws, or home economist who also is an educational worker. 2 Includes 1 mathematician. 32 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE AGE DISTRIBUTION Over three-fourths of the professional women reported here were 40 years of age or over, and more than a third were 50 or older. Only about a tenth were under 35, and this is understandable when it is realized that they must have had training and developed some pro fessional efficiency before receiving salaries in these upper levels. It is not surprising that the older women also were long-service em ployees to a considerably larger extent than the younger women. Of those under 45 about a fourth had 10 years or more of service; few had as much as 20 years. On the other hand, among those who had reached or passed their 45th birthdays, over a third had served 20 years or longer, three-fifths 10 years or longer. The age distribution varied somewhat in the different occupations, as table 9 indicates. Somewhat larger proportions than average were found under 40 years of age among the attorneys, research workers, scientists, and economists reported. On the other hand, among the social welfare workers, educational workers, home economists, and health workers reported, the proportions of these younger women were smaller than average. The report included a few women of 60 or older among economists, educational employees, and librarians; in no other occupation had more than one or two of the women reported reached 60. Table 9.—Women professional-scientific workers reported, by selected occupation and age at entry to last recorded job [399 women receiving $3,000 or over, with age reported] Number whose age was— Occupation All professional-scientific reported l— Economist.. Attorney; legal specialist_____ ___ Social welfare worker. __ Scientist (physical or biological, except physician) _________ Research worker____ Home economist____ Physician; nurse; health specialistEducational worker.. Librarian_________ Statistician_______ Editor; special writer_____ All women reported Under 35 35, under 40 40, under 45 45, under 50 50, under 55 55 or over 399 43 46 70 92 73 75 103 61 54 16 6 1 10 14 7 19 14 11 21 13 15 23 7 11 14 7 9 41 41 35 34 30 18 2 14 13 8 8 1 1 1 1 5 1 4 4 1 5 2 1 2 2 8 12 7 2 3 3 2 4 6 8 10 14 8 1 2 1 8 5 11 7 8 5 2 2 7 4 5 5 8 7 1 3 1 Totals do not correspond with vertical details; details not shown for some small groups; some workers appear with more than 1 designation, as for example, a social welfare worker who analyzes laws, or home economist who also is an educational worker. 2 Includes 1 mathematician. TRAINING Some report on training could be secured for 350 of these profes sional women in upper-salaried Federal occupations. (See table 10.) 33 PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS Of these, practically all had some college training—almost nine-tenths were college graduates and over half had advanced degrees. In most occupations the great majority had training of a type directly fitting them for the professional work they were carrying on in the Federal service, which will be considered further in connection with each individual occupation. Table 10.—Training of women professional-scientific workers reported [350 women receiving $3,000 or over, with training reported] A11 professionalscientific workers Training Professional administrative Other professional Percent Percent Percent Number distribu Number disf ribu- Number distribu tion tion tion Total reported--------- ------ ----------- 350 100 104 100 246 100 Never attended college Attended college, no degree........................ Ore college degree only. . More than one college degree.................. 11 36 116 187 3 10 33 54 5 14 32 53 r, 13 31 51 6 22 84 134 2 0 34 55 Toial with doctor’s degree 1---------- ---With legal training 1 With business training 1---------------------- 76 62 32 22 18 9 21 10 8 20 10 8 55 52 24 22 21 10 1 Individual women in this group also were included in other training categories. Of the women with training reported, about 125 were in the highest professional grades, P-6 or above (minimum wartime salary $5,600). Two-thirds of these women in the highest grades had more than one degree, though this was true of only a little over half of all professional workers reported. Among the professional women reported here, roughly a fourth of those who had attended college (whether or not a degree was received) hut with no advanced degree had gone into the highest grades. With additional degrees, however, much larger proportions had advanced to top professional grades, as is shown in the summary given below. The few women who had reached the highest grades though they had not been to college were all in jobs of a high administrative type. Of about 75 women with the doctor’s degree, three-fifths were in grade 6 or above. Training of women professional-scientific workers and advance to top grades Women with training reported Training Total Percent in grade 6 or above Number reported___ 350 36 Never attended college____ Attended college, no degree _ One college degree only___ More than one degree_____ Doctor’s degree______ 11 36 116 187 76 45 28 23 45 61 34 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE WOMEN IN PARTICULAR OCCUPATIONS ECONOMISTS3 Among tlie professional women reported here the largest group was that of over 100 who were classified as economists. Workers highly specialized in various areas of economics have been much in demand by a number of Government agencies. Women have been doing responsible work in such capacities, for example, in the De partments of Commerce, Labor, Treasury, State, Agriculture, and War, in the Federal Security Agency, and formerly in some of the war agencies such as the Office for Emergency Management, National Housing Agency, and War Production Board. A wide range of specialists is included; some of the women reported worked as business specialists or analysts; as commodity specialists, for example, in rubber, knit goods, raw cotton, and so forth; in re porting on prices or living costsin analysis of wage data; in housing and land economics; in medical social economics; in con sumer income and food distribution, or other phases of agricultural economics; in international trade; in industrial research; in labor economics or industrial relations. Some of the women reported were economic editors or special writers of articles on economic subjects in the Departments of Labor, Commerce, or Agriculture, or the Federal Security Agency. Although such a great variety of eco nomic specialization is found, there is generally only a small number of women in any one of these fields. In the Women’s Bureau study of 1938, the occupational reporting for all women in Federal employment showed a total of 230 economists, 40 percent of whom were agricultural economists, the remainder in business and other fields. Of their total number, 200 had salaries of $2,000 or over; many of these would not be included in the present dis cussion of professional workers, which is limited to those receiving $3,000 or more.4 Others who are reported here have come into Federal service since 1938. The increased governmental demand for social scientists, especially economists and statisticians, and for social welfare and research work ers has been evident in many countries, applying in this country to State as well as the Federal service. This demand followed the grow3 Separate discussion is made of home economists (whose training usually includes physical science such as chemistry of foods or textiles) and of statisticians. Many of the latter are trained in economies (see p. 57, footnote 25), and economists in Federal employment usually must have basic statistical training. 4 Women's Bureau Bull. 182, p. 51. A Civil Service Commission press release of April 25, 1947, reported 2,192 economists and 445 in other economic and political science occupations in the Federal departmental service in the Washington area on July 1, 1946 (men and women combined). Together these constituted over a tenth of all those reported in the professional service, a larger proportion than any other occupation group except engineers and those in legal work. PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 35 ing attention by governments to many social and economic problems and became especially prominent in the United States during the 1930’s.5 . Continuing need for economists in various phases of Government work is indicated by the fact that in 1947 the Civil Service Commis sion held examinations for economists to be classified in professional grades 2 to 8, accepting those with special knowledge, for example, of transportation, public utilities, labor, banking, finance, inter national trade, prices, agriculture, and other fields. These examina tions were given primarily to enable those who had been employed on a temporary basis during the war to qualify for permanent status, which was necessary if they were to continue in the Government in this profession. However, the examinations also were open to new entrants. Almost 60 percent of the women economists reported here were in either professional grade 5 or 6, the largest group (about a third of the total) being in grade 5, for which the minimum salary during the war was $4,600. Nearly a third were in grade 3 or 4. None are reported in grade 2.6 Less than a tenth were in grade 7, with service in the Government dating for most of them to before the war period. The P-7 employees all had experience either in college teaching or research or both, and some had done executive or administrative work or work in State governments prior to entering Federal service. The only P-8 was a special economic consultant in the War Department who held a doctor’s degree and had experience in teaching and research. More than a third of these women economists were at least 50 years old at the time of entrance to their top reported salary, and about 60 percent were 45 or older. The oldest reported was 62, a business analyst at grade 4 in the Commerce Department who had served the Government over 24 years. Only three were under 30, and of these, two were wartime entrants to the Federal service. The youngest was under 25, an economist at grade 3 engaged in research in the Office of Alien Property Custodian in the Justice Department. Of all the women economists, about a fifth had served the Govern ment for at least 20 years before reaching their top reported salary level. On the other hand almost a third had not over 5y2 years’ service.1 1 See Lewis B. Sims, Social Scientists in the Federal service, in Public Policy, Yearbook of the Graduate School of Public Administration, Harvard University, 1940. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1940. 8 It will be remembered that the list discussed here excludes grade 1, the junior pro fessional, and many also in grade 2, since it has been selected in general to include only those receiving $3,000 or more at the wartime salary scale. Grade 2 then ranged from $2,600 to $3,200. 868740—50- ■6 36 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE Women economists with service of 20 years or longer.—The women economists with long service for the most part had entered the Gov ernment in the general period of World War I (1917-21), usually at salaries of from $900 to $1,440. Two who were paid more were college graduates with school administrative or college teaching ex perience. One of these was employed by a war agency (World War I) ; the other had specialized in writing and became an editor dealing with economic subjects. When the systematic Federal classifications of 1923 were made, these women had given anywhere from 2 to 6 years’ service. 1 hereafter they were placed in grade designations, usually in the CAF grades. Over half were in CAF grade 4 or below; CAF-4 at that time had a top salary of just over $2,000. A few were classified in professional grades, and the two formerly referred to wdio had entered at a higher rate were in P-3, reached at that time by few women. By the time of the present study, these women economists with long service all had professional ratings, none below grade 3, wdiich had a wartime salary range of $3,200 to $3,800. Practically all those with college degrees and a few who had none had gone beyond this. The largest group of these women economists with long service and in upper-salaried jobs was that of business specialist or economic analyst in the Commerce Department, “Economic analyst” was the specification under wdiich most Government economists, as well as many persons whose actual work was along lines of social welfare or even legal analysis, were classified until quite recent years. Their duties ordinarily involved much research, analysis of materials, and sometimes report writing. The field in which these employees worked often required knowledge of matters closely allied to general business or industrial subjects, and in the earlier period frequently could be en tered through business or expert secretarial training. As often in other occupations, the greater specialization of today makes it less possible to enter the various fields of economics with business or sec retarial training only. Over half these long-service economic analysts in the Commerce Department were in professional grade 3 as last reported; one with a master’s degree, specializing in mathematics and economics, had gone as high as P-5. Several other long-service employees were in the Labor Department as economic analysts at grade 4 and as price economists or economic editors in the P-5 grade. One was a labor and manpower specialist in the War Department at a P-5 grade. She had a master’s degree and foreign study, had specialized consistently in economics and em ployment problems, and had experience in the Federal and a State labor department. One had risen to the P-6 grade, of which the PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 37 minimum wartime salary was $5,600. She was a commodity special ist in the Tariff Commission, who had considerable college training though no degree, had specialized consistently in economics, and had experience in economic teaching and research. Women economists with service of SVi years or less.—The opening of opportunity for women economists in the war period is strongly indicated by reports of those having 5% years or less of experience in the Federal Government. Almost two-thirds of these women were in wartime agencies or in work obviously connected with the war; usually their first Federal service had been in these agencies or jobs, but in some instances they had been transferred to them from other agencies. . Almost two-thirds of these women economists with short service were in professional grade 5 or above, for which the minimum war time salary was $4,600, and over half were in grade 6 or 7, with minimums of $5,600 and $6,500, respectively. This contrasts with the 20-year employees, of whom almost two-thirds were in grade 4 or below and only one above grade 5. Of all the women economists re ported here in grade 6 or above, almost a third were appointed during wartime. If the wartime entrants to economist jobs tended to be classified higher than long-time employees, they also appear to have con siderably more training and a fuller experience outside the Govern ment than did the longer-service economists. Of the new employees, few of those reporting on training were without college degrees, the great majority had the master’s degree, and about half were Ph.D’s. Among those with 20 years’ service or longer, over half had no college degree and only two had the master’s degree, none a doctorate. Of the wartime employees reporting on training, two-thirds had done college teaching, research, or educational administration, or had com bined these experiences; the others had done social work or com munity work of an administrative type. Of the long-time workers reporting, some had no experience before coming to the Government, some had had jobs of a secretarial type, several had done public school teaching, and a few had experience in research or administra tion other than secretarial. Although about a third of the economists reported here had entered the Federal service in wartime, they were experienced and were not very young. Not far from half were 45 years of age or older, and only two were under 30. The latter were doing wartime work and were not in the highest professional grades; one of them with an A.B. was a, P-3, one with a master’s degree and considerable research experience was a P-4 in an emergency agency. 38 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE ATTORNEYS AND LEGAL SPECIALISTS Over 60 of the upper-salaried women reported here worked in the legal field. Most of these were classified specifically as attorneys. Some not so listed were legal consultants or advisers, some were legislation analysts or specialists or were engaged in legal research. The distribution of these women was more widespread among the agencies than was the distribution of women in almost any otjier professional specialization. Every cabinet department except the War Department had one or more among those reported, as did over a dozen of the independent agencies. This reflects the great variety of Government needs for some type of activity associated with legal practice, though few were in any one specialization. A number of these legal workers were examiners or reviewers of various types of claims or cases, as in the Patent Office (in Commerce), the Office of Alien Property (in Justice), the Veterans Administra tion, and the Interstate Commerce Commission. Several were with the Board of Tax Appeals, the Federal Security Agency, the Federal Communications Commission (one of these as a hearings examiner), the National Labor Relations Board (one of these as a litigation attorney), and the State Department (in the field of international law). Workers in upper Federal legal positions in the various agencies are not at present subject to the usual civil service entry examinations. More complete data on occupations reported in the Women’s Bureau study of women Federal employees in 1938 showed 275 women judges and attorneys,7 of whom more than 250 had salaries of $2,000 or more; many of these would not appear in the group of professional women in the present study since they received less than $3,000. In addition, 150 women were reported in semiprofessional occupations, as legal examiners, adjudicators, and investigators. Of the legal workers reported here, the largest group was in pro fessional grade 6, for which the wartime minimum salary was $5,600, and over half were in P—6 or above. Few were below grade 5 (war time minimum $4,600). The professional legal workers thus were better off in general than the total professional group reported here, of whom but little more than a third were in P—6 or above and over a fourth below grade 5. Of the women in legal work reported here, more than a fourth had served the Government for 20 years or longer, and about 16 percent had 514 years’ service or less. Distribution by grade and types of training gave little indication of clear-cut differences between those who had ’ Women’s Bureau Bull. 182, p. 51. The Civil Service Commission release referred to (p. 34, footnote 4) reported over 3,000 men and women as attorneys and in allied occupa tions in the Federal departmental service in the Washington area, July. 1, 1946. PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 39 long service and those whose service began in the general wartime period. Several of the attorneys with shorter periods of service had come in at grade 5. A great majority of these women in professional legal work were of mature age—not far from three-fourths, 40 years of age or older, and few under 35. The youngest was under 30 during the war—a special legal consultant in a war agency at a P-6 grade. The oldest was nearly 62 just after the war—a labor legislation specialist in grade 5. The combination of training received by the women reported here who were in legal work is so varied as to defy classification. Of course, the great majority had some legal training, though this ap parently was not always of a formal type. Most usual, as would be supposed, was the LL. B. degree, which was possessed by almost half those reporting. A few had J. D. or J. S. D. degrees, and none of these was classified below professional grade 6. Most of those who had both A. B. and LL. B. degrees were in grades 6 or 7, and none of them were below grade 5 (though of course this does not mean they initially entered the service at this level). A few had specialized in patent law added to other legal training. Accounting, business, or secretarial courses seemed to be a notable aid, even without formal legal study, in several instances leading eventually to grades 5 or 6 in legal capacities. Two women, for ex ample, had entered clerical grades during the period of World War I or earlier and had long experience in Government, including over 10 years in the same agency in which they were located at the time of this study. Undoubtedly they had developed a valuable knowledge of the technical details and legal applications in their own branch of the work, and had advanced, as persons without formal legal training frequently used to do in a law office, through practical experience. SOCIAL WELFARE WORKERS Something over 50 social welfare workers were included among the women in upper-salaried occupations reported here. Their fields of activity varied considerably. In some instances their work ap proached closely that of the economists, in others it was related to medical needs, or again it had to do primarily with research or with analysis of child welfare or other legislation. Most of the employees reported here were in the Children’s Bureau (at that time in the Labor Department), or in the Federal Security Agency, many of whose publie assistance and other functions require social work training. A few were in the Interior Department, where the Indian Bureau re quires social workers, or were scattered in other agencies. The more complete occupational data available for 1938 showed 470 women 40 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE social and welfare workers in the Federal service, of whom 320 had salaries of $2,000 or over.* 8 Many of these would not have appeared in the present study which is confined to those receiving $3,000 or more. The continuing need for social welfare workers in the Government is evidenced by postwar civil service examinations in this field. One of these in 1947 was for social workers in most professional grades 2 through 7 to give assistance to veterans in hospitals and out-patient clinics. Another was for social workers of grades 1 through 3 for medical, psychiatric, child welfare, public assistance, juvenile court, and parole work in the District of Columbia Government. These examinations did not represent corresponding expansions of personnel but were given to provide an opportunity to qualify for permanent civil service status for many persons who had entered Federal service in wartime when qualification by examination was suspended. Of the women social welfare workers reported here, about half were in professional grade 5, with a wartime minimum salary of $4,600, and more than four-fifths were in P-5 or P-6, maximums in wartime respectively $5,400 and $6,400. Few were in P-4 and none below that grade; two who were as high as P-8, wartime minimum $8,000, were bureau chiefs with long experience, one of them with a Doctor of Laws degree. About four-fifths of the women social welfare workers reported here had less than 10 years’ Federal service. This may reflect the growth in recent years in Government awareness of social welfare needs, in popular demands that these should be supplied, and in consequent legislation developing and expanding agencies having to do with the general welfare, as well as reflect the growth in professionali zation of social welfare work.9 Only four women reported here had service as long as 20 years; two of these were among the seven classified above P-6. The 13 workers who had 5y2 years’ service or less ap peared to differ little from the whole group in distribution by grade, for most of them were P-5 or P-6; or by age, for the great majority were 40 or older, and several were as old as 50 at the time they began work on their last reported j ob. Of the social welfare workers reported here, more than four-fifths were 40 years of age or older. The youngest woman was just under 35 at the time of her last reported job during the war; she was classi fied as a P-5, had a master’s degree in science, and had specialized in a particular field of social work. The oldest, a woman with wide 8 See Women’s Bureau Bull. 182, p. 51. The Civil Service Commission release referred to (p. 34, footnote 4) showed over 700 social economists and over 150 social workers (men and women) in the Federal departmental service in the Washington area, July 1, 1946. 8 For a further discussion of the growth in need for social welfare workers, and of Civil Service Commission procedures in recruiting them, see Elizabeth Cosgrove, Selecting Social Workers for the Federal Service, in Social Service Review, September 1938. (Edited and published by University of Chicago.) PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 41 experience and in a high administrative position though she had no degree, was over 66. Of the 51 social welfare workers reporting education, practically all had some college training. Of these, 24 had the bachelor’s degree only, and 18 had more than one degree. It may seem surprising that few more than a third of those reporting had special training in social case work, social work, social service, public welfare admin istration, and the like. This may be due to the fact that until recent years professionalization of social work developed rather slowly. Others had studied sociology or had studied other social sciences, in which some colleges have included work leading into the social work field. The group reported is too small, too concentrated in the uppersalaried occupations, and too varied in types of training in social work or allied lines and in length of experience to furnish data on whether those with specific professional training in this field actually were advanced further or more rapidly to top jobs than those with somewhat more generalized training. SCIENTISTS IN PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL FIELDS As in other professional fields, the number of women in Federal employment whose wTork is in science is not known. This is true even though the intensive survey by the President’s Scientific Research Board had made available more complete data on the personnel in the Government's scientific research programs than exists for Federal occupations of other types. This agency reported that in the spring of 1947 Government em ployment in scientific research programs numbered 2,600 persons as chemists (men and women combined), 1,800 as physicists, 1,500 as biologists, and 3,600 as other physical scientists (exclusive of en gineers), to mention the occupations most likely to employ some women.10 11These numbers, totaling 9,500, would include many who serve as assisting personnel in subprofessional classifications, and who therefore would not be included at this point in the present study. Latest complete occupation figures for women in Federal service, those of 1938, reported 335 women in professional classifications in physical and biological sciences (except medical) in that prewar period, about three-fourths of whom received as much as $2,000, then the minimum salary of the first professional grade.11 Intensive studies the Women’s Bureau made of women’s situation in scientific fields in 1946 found about 600 women in professional work 10 President’s Scientific Research Board. Science and Public Policy. Vol. IV. 1947. Table VII. p. 40. A total of about 30,000 were reported, including 11,500 engineers, 8,000 agricultural scientists, and 1,000 doctors and medical scientists (for the latter, see p. 51. post). 11 See Women's Bureau Bull. 182, p. 51. 42 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE in physical and biological sciences in 12 Federal agencies that are the chief employers of women in such capacities. Almost three-fourths of these women were chemists, physicists, or bacteriologists.12 It is not known exactly how many of them were in the upper grades (pro fessional 2 or above) as reported in the present study. Most agencies had more professional women in scientific work at than above the P-1 level. Subprofessional and subtechnical services, which employ many more women than the higher professional grades, are not in cluded in the total of 600, which is about 7 percent as great as the number of men and women combined who were reported by the President’s Scientific Research Board to be in physical and biological scientific research in the same Federal agencies.13 The materia] secured for the present study on the occupations, length of service, and training of women in upper-salaried Federal occupa tions includes information on over 40 women doing professional wTork in the physical or biological sciences. About two-thirds of these women were either chemists (14), biochemists (2), or physicists (11), who of course usually had mathematical training as well. Bacteri ologists constituted a smaller group, and one or two women were in each of other sciences such as zoology, meteorology, aeronautical engineering.14 The number of women scientists who have reached the uppersalaried levels in Government service has not been large, even in wartime, and the opportunities in the Federal service for many women in advanced positions in any one expert scientific field are quite limited. Most of the women reported here were working in the Government agencies that would be expected to be the chief employers of such scientists. For example, women reported in the Commerce Depart ment were employed in the Bureau of Standards as physicists and chemists, in the Weather Bureau as a meteorologist (only one), in the Patent Office as chemists and physicists among the examiners, and (two) in the Civil Aeronautics Administration as aeronautical engi neers. The Department of Agriculture employed women reported here as food and textile chemists, and one each as bacteriologist, bio chemist, and soil scientist. In the Federal Security Agency some of those reported were employed in the Public Health Service (formerly 12 See Women’s Bureau Bulls. 223-2, p. 33 ; 223-3, pp. 13, 42-3, 57, 61, 71 ; 223-6, pp. 15, 26. Other bulletins deal with mathematics and other scientific or semiscientific fields, and with medical sciences, fields discussed elsewhere in the present report. 13 That is, exclusive of engineers and agricultural scientists, most of whom are men ; and of medical scientists and statisticians, discussed separately elsewhere. 14 Considered in more detail elsewhere and not included in total at this point are home economists (see p. 49) and medical scientists (see p. 51). However, the women reported who were working in specific scientific fields, such as chemistry or bacteriology, are included here whether or not they also appear with the home economists or medical scientists. Similarly, the chemists and physicists included here who are patent examiners also are discussed separately with that group (p. 45). PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 43 in the Treasury Department) as bacteriologists, one as biochemist, and one as zoologist. A few of the women reported, who were highly trained in chemistry or physics and mathematics, were employed in one of the emergency war agencies. Examinations open since the war for scientific personnel for work of many and widely varied types indicate the continuing expansion of scientific research in the Government, much of it closely allied to the growing military programs. The extent to which the upper-level scientific jobs will be filled by women is problematical. Examinations tor both physicists and chemists have been given each year since the war. A recent one in physics, for professional grades 2 through 5, lists typical duties as follows: developing electronic devices, measuring sound and X-ray quantity and quality, developing standard instru ments in optics. The 1947 scientific examinations announced posi tions for astronomers, grades P-2 to P-6, for the Navy; for geo physicists, grades P-2 to P-6, for the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Geological Survey, and the Bureau of Mines; for radio engineers, grades P-3 to P-5, in the Federal Communications Commission; for aeronautical research scientists trained in engineering, physics, chem istry, and mathematics, grades P-2 to P-8, with the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics; for geologists, grades P-1 and P-2, and (another examination) grades P-3 to P-6; for mathematicians, grades P-2 to P—5, to plan investigations in pure and applied mathematics and in aerodynamics and hydrodynamics of missiles, and to make analyses of geodetic observations. Not all these examinations represented a corresponding expansion in personnel, but those who took them included persons who had entered jobs in temporary status during the war and needed to qualify for per manent status. However, more physicists, chemists, and engineers have been in demand than the examinations furnished. Government service is no exception to the situation likely to exist in most lines of professional work—the number of employees needed in the highest levels is far fewer than the number of assisting workers required in the lower grades. In the small group of some 40 women scientists reported in this study well over a third were classified not above P-3 (wartime maximum salary, $3,800). Only four women had been classified as high as P-6—one a physicist in a war agency; the others chemists in the Department of Agriculture, of whom one was an assistant bureau chief at P-7. Of t he four, three were over 50 years of age and had experience in college teaching, and of these three, one had a doctor’s degree, the other had been admitted to candidacy for such a degree; the fourth was a nutrition chemist, with a B. S. degree only, appointed just before the war. 44 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE Of course many women scientists, particularly chemists and phys icists, entered Government service during the war. Of the small group of upper-level scientists reported here, almost a third had come in during the war. On the other hand, nearly two-thirds had served the Government 10 years or longer, almost a third 20 years or over. Service of 20 years or longer was more usual among the chemists (7 of 14) than among the other scientists combined (6 of 27). Of the women with service of 20 years or longer, over half had reached professional grade 5 or above. On the other hand, of those with 5% years of service or less, only a third were in grade 5 or above. Not far from three-fourths of the women scientists were 40 years of age or older; over a third, 50 or over. The women of 40 and over were largely in the long-established scientific fields—physics, chem istry, bacteriology. (The oldest reported was over 65, an industrial hygienist in grade P-4, who was experienced in planning industrial safety programs.) A few younger women also were in these fields. The women reported in fields likely to be newer to them—meteorology and aeronautical engineering—were only about 30 years of age or less. The youngest reported was in the last named of these occupations and was a P-3 at 26 years of age. Of 17 women reported who had reached the classification level of P-5 or above, the majority were 50 years of age or over. Only 2 were as young as 39 when they entered their highest grade. One of these was a wartime appointee, a food chemist; the other had a doctor’s degree and at the beginning of the war had served the Government about 20 years. Among the wartime entrants to the service, a number were under 35 years of age, but others were more than 45 years old. Most of the younger women entered during the war, did not have higher degrees, and were only in professional grades 2 or 3. Wartime entrants who were older were likely to bring considerable experience to the Government work and were classified in grades 5 or 6; two of these, for whom reports could be obtained, had Ph. D. degrees and experience in college teaching. Persons engaged in such technical types of work obviously must have considerable specialized training. These upper-salaried women ordinarily had a broad background in their college training, and almost a fourth had Ph. D’s.15 The meager data seem to indicate that ad vanced study tends to bear fruit in advanced position, but long success ful experience had similar results. Of 10 scientists with the doctor’s degree, 8 were in grade 5 or above. Nine others who had not obtained a Ph. D. also were in grade 5 or above; five of these had advanced to these high levels after 20 years or longer in the Federal service. Only 18 Discussion of Ph. D.’s here includes one woman serving in a high professional administrative capacity who had been admitted to candidacy for the Ph. D. PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 45 three whose training was reported had no college degree. These had developed proficiency through long experience in their particular fields, and two had 20 years’ service or longer in the Federal Govern ment. PATENT EXAMINERS, SCIENTIFIC AND LEGAL The women in the upper-salaried occupations reported here in clude 14 examiners in professional classifications in the Patent Office.10 A number of these women had training in physics, chemistry, mathe matics, or other sciences. Trade-mark and design examiners are likely to have studied in the social rather than the physical science fields, and several of those re ported here had taken business courses. Other women examine con tracts, and for this some knowledge of law is essential; the Patent Office sometimes encourages promising examiners to supplement other qualifications with study of patent law. The Patent Office is one of the oldest Federal agencies, having been organized as a distinct bureau in 1802, in the State Department. It was in the Interior Department from 1849 until 1925, when it was transferred to the Commerce Department. Of its personnel of some 1,700, about half are professional workers. In 1947 there were 20 professional women in the examining division, almost all of them in the P-2 grade or above. Half these held degrees in chemistry; a few were trained in physics. Small numbers of qualified women undoubtedly will continue to be needed as patent examiners. Postwar examinations have been given for this work each year since the war, at the P-1 or P-2 grade level, though one in 1946 was for the P-3 level. Requirements have included knowledge of patent law, physics, chemistry, technology, or a pertinent field of engineering such as electrical, mechanical, or civil engineering. Of the upper-salaried professional women reported here as patent examiners, half were in the P-3 grade, and none were below that level; a number had reached the P-5 grade at the latest report, and none were above it. Four had received the classification reported here prior to the war. Only 2 of the 14 women patent examiners were under 40 years of age; these had 13 years of Government service, and had not yet gone above grade 3. Half the total were 50 or older. Three of the women reported here had Government service of less than 15 years, though the great majority had from about 20 to over* 1 16 Some of these are included in the discussion of the physical scientists, p. 41, some in that of attorneys and legal specialists, p. 38. The Civil Service Commission release 1 eferred to (p. 34, footnote 4) reports 678 men and women in patent and trade-mark occupations in the Federal departmental service in the Washington area on July 1, 1946. 46 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE 35 years’ service. Several came into the Patent Office in 1920-23 at $1,200 to $1,500, before the present grades were established, and had 20 or more years of Patent Office service, and some also previous ex perience elsewhere in the Government. They had advanced at least to professional grade 4; those with longest service in the agency, to P-5. A number entered the junior professional grade (P-1) in the Patent Office in 1924-26; after more than 15 years’ service, these had been advanced to at least grade P-3—one after more than 20 years’ service, to grade P—5. Of the patent examiners who reported on training, most had a bachelor’s degree; one had a master’s degree in patent law. The great majority of these women had some experience as teachers, and a number had done clerical or stenographic work before entering the Government. One trade-mark and design examiner, who had been a teacher, clerk, and saleslady, entered as a clerk, and after more than 22 years of experience reached the P-3 level. CARTOGRAPHERS Map making is an important function in several branches of the Government, such as the State, Commerce, and War Departments. Of a considerable number of women employed in this type of work, few are in professional grades, though there is some possibility of advance for a woman who shows herself particularly able in this field. The great majority are in subprofessional classifications, many of them in draftsmanship. Examinations continue to be announced for engi neering and cartographic draftsman and cartographic survey aide in subprofessional grades. These grades run as high as subprofessional grade 8, which is equivalent to professional grade 2. The group reported here includes six women wTho were geographic or cartographic workers, all but one in the professional grades 2 or 3. The exception was a State Department employee in P-5 who was a geographer as well as a cartographer and had administrative func tions.17 She had a master’s degree and had served the Government more than 15 years. The group included cartographer, cartographic engineers, chief engineering draftsman in the Commerce or Interior Departments; one professional map research technician in the War Department. Demand for map work grew markedly in the war period and several of the women reported were among the large numbers who entered the Government for such service at that time. Most of these war en 17 The Civil Service Commission release referred to (p. 34, footnote 4) reports 14S men and women geographers in the Federal departmental service in the Washington area, July 1, 1946. PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 47 trants were in the P-2 grade and ranged in age from 26 to 42; most were under 40. The three whose training was reported had the bachelor’s degree, and of these three, one was a bachelor of architecture, one reported taking a defense training course in drafting. On the other hand two of the professional cartographers who were not wartime entrants had served over 25 years and were classified as P-3. These women with the longer Government service were over 45 years of age. One who reported training had a master’s degree, had had some work in draft ing, and had continued study of graphic art. A skill of primary im portance for cartography is that of accurate drawing to scale, and some type of training or experience in draftsmanship is almost a necessity. RESEARCH WORKERS Some 40 women among the upper-salaried workers reported in this study were designated definitely as being engaged in research,18 chiefly in the fields of economics, business, and social sciences. The day-to-day activities of Government require an enormous amount of research on innumerable subjects, in the fields of economics, finance, and other social sciences, as well as in the physical and bio logical sciences. No program of administration can be carried on adequately without competent and often extended research. It there fore is not surprising that the workers noted here are found in many agencies, from the Executive Office of the President on down the line, including 6 of the 10 executive departments and a dozen of the in dependent agencies. If a more complete coverage could be obtained, it undoubtedly would show that most if not all other agencies also have such workers. Those workers classified as “analysts” or “specialists” usually are engaged to a major extent in research. Furthermore, many additional workers in grades below those discussed here are giving valuable assistance in research carried on by the Government. Research workers must have not only proficiency in the particular subject matter in which they are to engage and knowledge of source materials but training and ability in the methods of research neces sary in their specialty, frequently of complicated types. Conse quently, the examinations for them are given in widely varying fields of work. I or example, postwar examinations for research psycholo gists at professional grades 2 through 8 have called for skill in statis tics, tests and measurements, operation of intricate mechanical devices, 18 Many of those definitely reported here as research workers also are included in other professional groups, such as the economic, scientific, social welfare, legal, and so on. Un doubtedly many of the workers reported in other specialties were engaged in research of some type. 48 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE aviation psychology, or other lines. These workers were wanted by such diverse agencies as the Naval Research Laboratory, the Army Air Forces, and the State Technical Advisory Service of the Federal Security Agency. Research workers are needed in the fields of var ious social and physical sciences. An economist examination in 1947 called for workers in professional grades 6 to 8 to be in entire charge of economic research programs for the Department of Agriculture, Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations. Expanding programs were not as great as the examinations might imply, since workers employed during the war and retained thereafter had to take examinations to qualify for permanent civil service status. Among the varied research duties reported in this study, those along lines of economics predominate. Some of the women reported here are engaged in analysis of commercial policies or analysis of commodities in the United States Tariff Commission; in problems of public assistance or administrative surveys in the Federal Security Agency; in study of working conditions in the Labor Department; in research in economic history, and in analysis of results of policies in the Agriculture and Labor Departments. Some of the women reported here were engaged by wartime agencies such as the War Manpower Commission and the Office for Emergency Management, as well as by the War Department, for research in the field of avail ability of manpower and specifications for its use, or in the use of commodities and adjustments in their distribution. In scientific fields, some of the women reported here were doing research in textile chem istry in the Department of Agriculture or in antibiotics and other fields in the Public Health Service and Food and Drug Administra tion. One was a microanalyst studying fur fibers. Other lines of research are mentioned below in the paragraphs on training. A number of these upper-salaried women in research work were division heads responsible for initiating, planning, and conducting research in a required field, as for example, heading divisions of re search and statistics and of finance and economics in the Treasury; making investigations along various lines in the Federal Security Agency; or directing industrial research or analysis of labor law in the Labor Department. Of the upper-salaried research workers reported here, almost threefourths were in professional grade 5 or above, for which the minimum wartime salary was $4,600, and approximately half were in P-6 or over (wartime minimum, $5,600). More than half of the upper-salaried women research workers re ported here had not over 5years’ service in the Government, and few had been employed there as long as 20 years. Of those with the shorter service periods, a third were classified below grade 5, though PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 49 almost half were in grades 6 or 7. Of those with service of 20 years or longer, none were below grade 5, and only one was above this—a division chief in the Federal Security Agency. Of the upper-salaried women reported here as research workers, more than two-thirds were at least 40 years of age, and over a fifth were 50 or older. Only two of these women were under 30, both of them economists who had not yet reached grade 5. The oldest re ported was 60 years of age, an economist who was a division chief in grade 5 and had over 20 years of Federal experience, much of it in economic research. The youngest was a P-3, under 25 years of age, who was assisting in economic research and had less than 4 years of experience in the Federal service. The women research workers who had entered the service during the war were not extremely young for the most part, but were old enough to bring a considerable experience to Government employ ment. Over half were at least 40 years of age; a number were over 45. The only two reported under 30 were wartime employees. The importance of training for research workers is indicated in the fact that nearly all of the women in such employment whose training is reported had college degrees, almost two-thirds had degrees beyond the bachelor’s, and more than a third had the doctor’s degree. Though the numbers reported are small, there is some indication of better opportunity to advance with higher training. Of the women in this group who had a bachelor’s or a master’s degree, almost a third were classified below grade 5, and only a few, all of whom had a master’s degree, were as high as grade 6. Of those with a doctor’s degree, on the other hand, the majority were in grade 6 and few were below grade 5. Research is necessarily of a specialized character, and the great majority of the upper-salaried women who were engaged in it had had eailier training in the particular field in which they were em ployed. For example, a woman engaged in research in home eco nomics and education had had training in both those areas; and the woman who headed development of tests in the Civil Service Com mission had been trained in psychology. A few women had broad training in several fields: one was directing special projects in a war agency; others with various combinations of geography, economics, history, and languages, and some with foreign study or experience, were engaged by the State Department in research on some special region, such as the Far East. HOME ECONOMISTS This group of upper-salaried women Federal employees included 35 home economists or nutritionists. Two-thirds of these were in the 50 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE Department of Agriculture, in work such as that of nutrition or textile chemist, home economics extension agent,18 19 specialist in clothing or textiles, home management, investigating household equipment, or in other phases of family economics or food economy. Others were in the Federal Security Agency, largely in home economics education in the Office of Education, but one was a nutritionist in the Public Health Service. Another reported worked in the Labor Department as a nutrition analyst in connection with cost-of-living estimates. More complete occupational data reported in the Women’s Bureau study of women in Federal employment in 1938 included 250 home economists.20 Of these, only 150 had salaries of as much as $2,000, and the present study confines discussion of professional workers to those receiving $3,000 or more. Home economists and dietitians have been so greatly in demand since the war that examinations for them have been open almost continu ously. However, those who took them included workers who had entered with temporary wartime status and were required to qualify for permanent status after the war. The annual junior professional assistant examination (for professional grade 1, minimum postwar salary $2,645) in some years has included an option for home econo mist and textile technologist. In addition, examinations were given for students who were to receive a year’s training as dietitians, and quarters and subsistence, and who, on completion of the course, would be eligible for positions as staff dietitians at $2,645 a year in veterans’ hospitals or the United States Public Health Service. Over half the home economists reported were in professional grade 5, for which the minimum salary in wartime was $4,600, and the great majority were in either 5 or 6 (wartime maximums re spectively $5,400 and $6,400). The few who were above grade 6 had administrative functions, as the head of a division or chief or assistant chief of a bureau. A few were below grade 5. A period of at least 5 but less than 20 years was the length of serv ice of the great majority of the upper-salaried home economists reported here. Most of them had served over 5 years; somewhat less than half, as long as 10 years; and not many as long as 20. Almost all of the upper-salaried Federal employees reported here as home economists were 40 years old or older, and nearly half were 50 or older. The oldest reported was nearly 62, a P-3 in the Depart ment of Agriculture; with almost 10 years’ Federal service, she con ducted research in home canning equipment. The only two who were under 40 years of age were both in the Department of Agriculture; one was very nearly 40 and was a nutrition chemist at the P-6 grade; 18 Most extension agents in the field would not he included here, as their records ordi narily would not be in the Civil Service Commission offices. 20 Women’s Bureau Bull. 182, p. 51. PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 51 the other, considerably younger, was directing a study in lamily economics and was at P-5. Almost all the women home economists reporting training had college degrees, though a few had been to schools specializing in home economics training; considerably over half had a master’s or doctor’s degree. Of those whose particular fields of training were reported, the great majority had studied home economics in college, and about half also had done further work in chemistry, nutrition, textiles and clothing, or in more unusual specialties such as family economics or home management. A few for whom no home economics training was reported had specialized in subjects chiefly in the social science field (for example psychology, economics) ; and all but one of these had a doctor’s degree. Though the information here is very limited, it may give some indication of advancement after attaining the doctorate. Of those with the bachelor’s or master’s degree a few were below grade 5, most were in grade 5, a number were in grade 6, and only one was above this. Of those with the doctor’s degree, none were below grade 5, half were in grade 6 or above, one each in grades 1 and 8. PHYSICIANS, NURSES, AND OTHER HEALTH SPECIALISTS The women reported here at upper-salaried levels in the Federal service included more than 30 who were either physicians, nurses, specialists in health education or training, or in some other work in the field of public health, exclusive of laboratory or other scientific specialization not classified in the professional grades. The Women’s Bureau study in 1938 reported 160 women in the Government service as medical and dental scientists, only 40 of whom had salaries as high as $2,000.21 Most of the health workers reported in the present study were in various branches of the Federal Security Agency, such as St. Eliza beths Hospital (mental institution located in the District of Colum bia), the Children’s Bureau or the United States Public Health Service. A few were scattered in other agencies. Of the women physicians reported, several were medical officers at professional grade 5, half of these in St. Elizabeths Hospital and a few in other agencies. Seven were in grade 6, one of these in the Veterans Administration and one in St. Elizabeths as a clinical direc tor. Others were in the Children’s Bureau as regional workers (medical consultant or counselor at grade 5, and director at grade 6) ; 21 See Women’s Bureau Bull. 182, p. 51. The Civil Service Commission release referred to (p. 34, footnote 4) showed over 220 men and women medical and dental officers and 765 nurses in the Federal departmental service in the Washington area, July 1, 1946. For a more extended discussion of the requirements of the Federal Government in medical and health fields, see Women’s Bureau Bull. 203, Nos. 1-12, The Outlook for Women in Occupations in the Medical and Other Health Services, February 1944 to May 1946. 52 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE one was a consultant in infant care and a director of child welfare re search at grade 6; another was a medical social economist at grade 5; and one was associate bureau chief at grade 7. The United States Public Health Service had no women physicians but had several women public health nursing consultants at grades 5 or 6 and a director of nurses’ training program at grade 7. Also reported from the Children’s Bureau were a nursing adviser, a public health consultant, and a director of nurses’ education at grades 5 or 6. Several other health workers, scattered among various agencies, com bined other fields of competence with that of health, as did, for ex ample, a lawyer at grade 7 in charge of a public health division in the Federal Security Agency; a social welfare worker on medical needs (grade 6), also in the Federal Security Agency; a research chief in the Public Health Service at grade 7; and a dental instructor in the Navy at grade 2. There is every indication that the Government’s demand for in creasing numbers of employees as physicians, nurses, and health workers will continue to exceed the available supply. One major reason for this is the expansion of veterans’ hospital facilities; another is the growing public consciousness of health needs and the demand for a great variety of services along these lines. Examinations call ing for health employees in a number of capacities have been open continuously in the postwar period. In 1946, for example, one for medical officers in grades P-6 to P-8 was announced, requiring spe cialty in medical pharmacology for the Food and Drug Administra tion, in maternal and child welfare for the Children’s Bureau, and for other specialties unlikely to provide opportunity for women since they were in the War Department and Army Institute of Pathology. Other postwar examinations have called for physical therapist and occupational therapist, grades P-1 to P-5, for veterans’ hospitals. Agency needs for new appointees aside, many workers who had en tered in these capacities during the war had to qualify by examination if they were to attain permanent employee status. Another examination called for medical officers in grades P-3 to P-5 for the Veterans Administration and other agencies. A range of 26 specialties was listed, including among others general practice, maternal and child health, gynecology, internal medicine and diag nosis, anaesthesia, medical bacteriology, aviation medicine, and psychiatry. • The great majority of the upper-salaried women reported here in medical and health work were in professional grades 5 or 6, in which wartime salaries ranged from $4,600 to $6,400. A few were in grade 7 and had important administrative duties. Most of the physicians and nurses were in grades 5 or 6, a few were in 7, none was below PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 53 grade 5. Below grade 5 were a psychologist and an industrial hygienist in grade 4 and a dental instructor in the Navy in grade 2, who were recent appointees. More than a third of the upper-salaried women reported here in medical and health work had been in the Government less than 5 years, and two-thirds for less than 10 years. Few had served as long as 20 years. The relatively short Government service of many of the women doctors, nurses, and health workers may reflect several social tendencies—the recognition of women for this type of technical em ployment more recently than for some other work, the newer Govern ment developments in the public health field, and replacements for women who (as several of the reports show), had withdrawn from the Government and may have found elsewhere employment more satisfying and more in line with their professional training and capabilities. It is not surprising that upper-salaried women in the medical and allied professions were not extremely young, since it is well known that long training and experience is required to reach high standing in these fields. The great majority of the women reported in this work were 45 years of age or older, as were over half those with less than 5 years’ service; more than a third of all reported were 50 or older. The oldest reported was 70, a physician and a medical officer in the Veterans Administration at a P-5 grade, who had served the Government over 25 years, and, who, since this report was written, has retired. Only one reported was under 35, a regional medical consultant at a P-5 grade, who had previous experience in a State Public Health Department, as well as service as a staff physician in an institution. Of the few women who were under 40 years of age, half had had less than 6 months’ service at the time of entry to last recorded job. Little discussion of training need be made here so far as physicians and nurses are concerned, since the training pattern for each of these groups is well marked. It may be noted that a number of the phy sicians had specialized beyond their medical degrees, either through study or experience in such fields, for example, as psychiatry or mental health, pediatrics, X-ray technique, public health. Over half of the nurses had administrative experience in former positions, in some instances in State or city health departments, and one had specialized in public health nursing, and another had edited a health magazine. Those who were not physicians or nurses usually brought another specialty to the public health field: One had a law degree; one had specialized in public welfare; another had long administrative re search experience; two with Ph.D’s had specialized, the one in health education, the other in psychology. 54 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE WORKERS IN EDUCATION The group of upper-salaried women in Federal employment re ported here included 30 workers in the field of education. The majority of these were in the United States Office of Education (which included in its functions those of the Federal Board for Vocational Education).2- Others were scattered in a number of agencies, one or two in each. Women in the Office of Education included one division director; chiefs or assistant chiefs of sections in the divisions of school organi zation, of school and college education, and of elementary education; and a variety of specialists in work, for example, of upper grades, of extended school services, of evaluation of credentials, of nursery, kindergarten and primary schools, and of school libraries. Most of the women carrying out vocational educational functions in the Office of Education were engaged in home economics education. Among women in other agencies were a dental instructor in the Navy; directors of nurses’ training in the Public Health Service, and training special ists in other branches of the Federal Security Agency; a worker in educational psychology in the test section of the Civil Service Com mission; and specialists in parent education in the agricultural ex tension service, in health education in the Indian Service, and in labor education in the Labor Department. ^ Continuing need for educational work, particularly in specialized fields, is indicated in postwar examinations for training specialist, vocational adviser (for rehabilitation of disabled veterans), education specialist (for administration of various specialties in the Office of Education), and the like. Persons taking these examinations included those who had entered employment on a temporary basis (the only basis possible during the war, i. e., after March 16,1942) and were re quired to qualify further in order to be retained. Half the women reported here in upper-salaried occupations in the educational field were in professional grade 5, for which the wartime minimum salary was $4,600, and most of the remainder were above this. Of the few who were above grade 6, two were over 60 and all were over 45 years of age. So far as experience was reported for the grade 6 employees, only one had less than 15 years’ Federal service; this worker, appointed to a war agency, previously had taken a Ph. D. and had published books and reports in a specialized educational field. The few below grade 5 did not report as long service as did those in grade 6 or above, though one had served as long as 14 years; of the22 22 The functions of this agency, which formerly was separate, were assigned to the Office of Education in October 1933, and it was discontinued as a distinct agency by the Presi dent’s Reorganization Plan II of July 1946. The Civil Service Commission release referred to (p. 34, footnote 4), reported some 275 men and women employees in educational occu pations in the Federal departmental service in the Washington area, July 1, 1946. PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 55 four in lowest grades, two had no more than the bachelor’s degree, the other two had the master’s. Of the women in this group of upper-salaried educational workers who reported service, only two had service as long as 20 years, and these were in professional grades 6 and 7. Over a third had entered (he Government in the war period, and of these the great majority were m grade 5 or below, though a few were above this and one had gone as high as grade 7. The grade 7 employee had a doctor’s degree and long experience, the latest years of which seemed to fit her par ticularly for the specialty for which she was appointed. Of all the educational workers reported here in upper-salaried occupations, four-fifths were 45 years of age or older, over half were 50 or more, and several were more than 60. Of the latter, all but one were in,grades 6 or 7. The oldest was nearly 70, the chief of a section m the Office of Education at grade 7, who had served the Government over 30 years. The youngest was under 35, a labor education special ist at a P-5 grade, who did not enter the Federal service until after the war. Reports were available on the education level of 23 of these women educational workers with higher salaries. The great majority had either a master’s or doctor’s degree. The few with no more than a . A degree were classified below professional grade 5, except one new P-5 appointee, who had unusual experience fitting her for the specialized field of work for which she was appointed. Most of those with a master’s degree were in P-5 or above; three who had gone highest had served the Government for at least 15 years, one of them more than 30 years, and their records gave evidence of previous experi ence in educational administration or college teaching in the field of education Of four with the doctor’s degree, two were classified above 1 o ; of the two not above P-5, one had shifted from her original specialty to another educational field; the other appeared not to have had administrative experience of a nature likely to be of advantage in work m the upper professional grades. LIBRARIANS I he group of women in upper-salaried occupations reported here included 18 librarians, exclusive of library assistants.23 These were 56 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE located in the Departments of State, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Navy (and Naval Observatory), and Treasury, and in several of the independent executive agencies, as, for example, the Interstate Com merce Commission, the Civil Service Commission, the National Ad visory Committee on Aeronautics, the Federal Security Agency, and others. It is likely that most or all of the women reported here had responsible administrative duties; one was specifically reported as head of a library division, another as a specialist in library materials and libraries. The need for library work in the Government is certain to continue. In every year since the war civil service examinations have been given to obtain such employees, and library work has also been in cluded as one of the options in the junior professional examination. The librarian and junior professional examinations were given to pro vide opportunity for workers who came into government during the war to qualify for permanent status, though the examinations were also taken by those newly desiring employment after the war. The great majority of workers wanted are library assistants in the sub professional services. In 1946 several examinations were given call ing for librarians in professional grades 1 to 8. Examinations for the higher grades sought librarians for the Veterans Administration, the Army Medical Library, the Office of Technical Services in the Commerce Department, and specialists in the Office of Education. The highest library positions for which examinations have been issued since 1946 have been in the P-1 grade, work in which includes classify ing, acquiring, and cataloging library materials, reference work, and advising readers in use of materials. These employees are in line for advancement to higher grades. Still other examinations call for library assistants in the subprofessional grades. There also is a continuous need in libraries in the Government for women trained in specialties in addition to library science. In a post war survey of women in scientific libraries, the Women’s Bureau found more than 100 women in such occupations in 18 Federal agencies. A number of these would not come within the present upper-salaried group; others, who would, in grades 2 to 4, often had college degrees in a particular field which their library science had supplemented. A few of the 100 women were head librarians, for example, in the Na tional Bureau of Standards, the Smithsonian Institution, the Bureau of the Census, and several other bureaus in the Commerce and Navy Departments.24 Over half the librarians in the upper-salaried occupations reported here were in professional grade 4 (maximum wartime salary, $4,600) 24 See Women’s Bureau Bull. 223-8, pp. 9-10. PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 57 or below. Several were in grade 3 (top wartime salary, $3,800) or below. Only three were as high as grade 6, all of them women with over 20 years’ service in the Government who had reached a high stage of usefulness in their agencies. Two-thirds of the small group of upper-salaried women librarians had served the Federal Government for 20 years or longer, several for more than 30 years. None reported were wartime entrants. Most of the women librarians in upper-salaried Government posi tions were at least 40 years of age, and two-thirds were 50 or older. The oldest was nearly G9 years of age, a librarian in the Labor Depart ment at a P-4 grade who had served the Government over 25 years and was outstanding in her knowledge of library organization and sources for research. The only one in the group studied here who was under 35 was classified as professional grade 4 in a wartime agency; she had served the Government more than 10 years. The median age of the 365 women Government librarians as of December 31, 1938 (many of whom would be in classifications below those reported here) was 43.7 years. (See footnote 23, p. 55 of the present report.) Librarians in the Government ordinarily must have training in li brary science. Some took this in connection with other college work, others as supplementary, and a number of the women in this group did not report college degrees. Only three had a master’s degree. Two of these were in professional grade 4; the other was in grade 5 and was a specialist in library methods and techniques. None of the three who were in grade 6 had over 2 years of college attendance, though they had specialized in library training, but it will be remem bered that all had long Government service. STATISTICIANS This report on women in upper-salaried occupations in the Federal Government includes 14 professional statisticians.25 The largest group of these women was in the Commerce Department, which includes the Bureau of the Census, the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com merce, and other bureaus employing statistical workers. Though a wide range of statistical activities is carried on in th< Federal Government, the great majority of the workers in this field are not in the upper professional grades. Of the professional women reported here, for example, only one was in the Census Bureau, a major Federal statistical agency. The Women’s Bureau study reporting on all Federal workers in 1938 showed only 85 professional women mathematicians or statisticians, only 75 of whom received as much -*5 One of these is a professional mathematician. As in the other occupations discussed, the group discussed here consists of those classified as statistician. That most Federal statisticians are economists is pointed out by Lewis B. Sims in the article cited in footnote 5, p. 35. 58 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE as $2,000, the entrance rate for professional grade 1, which would be below the salary levels discussed in the present study.26 Statistical work is sure to continue and likely to expand, as even a slight knowledge of the information required by the widespread in terests of the public indicates. Statistical work is required in the preparation, for example, of data needed in the census reporting on the value of industrial products and employment in manufacturing estab lishments, on the population and its family organization, education, employment and on many other population characteristics; in the preparation of the commodity, business, export-import, and other con tinuing data in the Department of Commerce; in the agricultural statistics of many types; in the organization and development of plans for the operation of the old age security and unemployment compensa tion systems; in financial and economic processes of the Treasury De partment and Federal Reserve Banks; in the trends in employment, wages, living costs, strikes, and other labor factors studied by the Labor Department—to mention but a few of the myriad phases of Govern ment reporting that require collection and analysis of statistical data. Most of the lines of work just discussed are in the field of economics, and Government examinations for them are likely to be for economists with statistical training. A postwar examination for economists of professional grades 2 to 5 was given in 1947, largely to enable wartime appointees to qualify for permanent status. Employees in physics and other sciences also have basic mathematical training.27 They enter Government service classified as physicists, as other scientists, or as technical aides, and are discussed here under the scientists. Over half the upper-salaried women statisticians reported here were not above professional grade 4, for which the wartime salary maximum was $4,600. Only one was as high as grade 6 (wartime minimum, $5,600). She had been a student of economics (including taxation and statistics) ; had almost 15 years’ experience in the Government, a large part of it in the Treasury; and at the time represented in this study was doing important work in the Commerce Department. Of the small group of women reported here with upper salaries as statisticians, half were under 40 years of age, a few of these under 30; a few were as old as 50. The oldest reported, an actuarial statistician in the Commerce Department who had served the Government over 16 years, was nearly 65. The two youngest, both under 30, had entered the service during the war and were in professional grade 2. See Women's Bureau Bull. 182, p. 51. The Civil Service Commission release referred to (p. 34, footnote 4) shows almost 1.500 professional statisticians and mathematicians (men and women) in the Federal departmental service in the Washington area, July 1, 1946. 27 jror discussion 0f the Government agencies likely to continue employing women in the fields discussed here, see Women’s Bureau Bull. 223—4, The Outlook for Women in Mathematics and Statistics, pp. 10 and 11. PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 59 Of the 14 statisticians reported here among -women in upper-salaried Federal occupations, 4 were wartime entrants in professional grade 2. Only 2, a P-5 and a P-A, had been in the service as long as 20 years. All the statisticians reported in this group of women with higher salaries had college degrees. Almost half had more than a bache lor’s degree, but only one a doctorate. A smaller proportion of those with the bachelor’s than of those with a higher degree had reached professional grade 5 or above. EDITORS AND SPECIAL WRITERS The group of women in upper-salaried occupations reported here in cludes 13 who wrere designated as professional editors or writers, usually in specialized fields, such as economic, technical, or scientific editing. These were in the Commerce, Agriculture, Labor, or War Departments or in the Federal Security Agency. The business of writing and also of editing is an important one in the Federal Government. Many employees who do preliminary analyses of data and who prepare research materials in various fields also do writing, though not primarily assigned as editors or writers, and many of those discussed in other specialized fields write profes sional reports. Information and publicity specialists, a somewhat newer classification, are not included here but will be discussed sep arately, since few are in the professional classifications and a number of those at the upper salaries reported in this study are in CAF grades. (See p. 61.) Some of the upper-salaried professional writers in cluded here are designated under a classification formerly used— analyst, particularly economic analyst. In the Women’s Bureau study of Federal employees of 1938, all professional editorial and in formation workers combined numbered only 70, of whom only 55 re ceived as much as $2,000.28 This was the entrance salary to profes sional grade 1. The present study discusses chiefly women in grade 2 or above. Postwar information secured by the Women’s Bureau from five Fed eral agencies engaged in scientific work reported some 28 women as technical editors or writers in such jobs as physical science editor, sci ence report analyst, biological editor, technical writer, or technical editor.29 Editorial divisions in the Federal service also include many em ployees not in professional classifications who verify data and state ments in reports, mark for printing, make arrangements for the format and type to be used in reports, and perform many other duties subsid iary to the professional work of writers and editors. Some of these 28 See Women’s Bureau Bull. 182, p. 51. 29 See Women’s Bureau Bull. 223-8, pp, 8-17. 60 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE are reported at the higher-salaried grades included in the present study under the specialists and analysts in the CAF classifications. The CAF grades also include some employees designated as editors who perform a high type of editorial work but have not yet been placed in the professional editorial classification. Examinations for work that involves editing or writing are not al ways given under such a title; even when editing or writing is par ticularly called for, it usually applies to a specialized field, as “agricultural writer” for example, of course with more exact explana tion of duties in the announcement. More often an examination in a special field is given for various types of workers in that field, as, for example, editors; or the stated requirements of the job indicate writ ing as among its duties. For example, a 1947 examination for research psychologists gave as one needed specialty editing and writing in the field of psychology, at professional grades 4 through 6. An econo mist examination, also given in 1947, for employees grades 6 through 8, gave effectiveness in presenting reports and articles in clear concise language as a point to be considered in rating. The editors or writers reported here were all in grade 5 or below, with one exception—a chief economic writer in the Commerce Depart ment who had specialized in economics and related fields; she was the only person in this group with a master’s degree, and was classified in grade 6. About half the few reported here were not above grade 4, for which the wartime salary maximum was $4,600. Of the higher-salaried professional editors or writers reported here, 10 were 40 years of age or older, and 5 of these were 50 or more. The youngest reported, somewhat under 35, was an economic and historical research writer in a P-5 grade, who had entered the Department of Agriculture a few years before the war. The oldest, almost 62, was an economic editor with administrative duties in a P-5 grade in the Labor Department; she had had experience as a college instructor and writer before entering the Federal service and had been in Federal employment more than 25 years. Of the 13 upper-salaried professional editors or writers, 3 had en tered the Government in the war period, and 3 had over 25 years’ service. No others had served as long as 20 years. Of these upper-salaried editors or writers in professional grades, only one had a degree above A. B., and she was in the highest salary classification in the group. Over half the others with training re ported had the A. B. degree, and the remainder no degree. Most of those in grade 4 did not have a degree; most of those in grade 5 had an A. B. One who had no degree had studied journalism and had had special editorial and writing experience. PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 61 Editorial work and writing basically demand ability to write good English, and the Government requires technical competence in the particular field of writing, frequently in economics. Of the 13 pro fessional editors or writers in upper-salaried occupations reported here, 6 had specialized in English in college, sometimes with study in an additional field contributory to their present work, and 2 had training in journalism. Three others had studied particular special ties giving them competence for their present work. INFORMATION SPECIALISTS Anyone who has worked for even a short time in the Federal service, or has had close contact with the work in almost any pait of the Government, has some familiarity with the multitude of the requests that come to almost every agency from the public in all walks of life, as well as from members of Congress, and from many bureaus. To furnish adequate and authentic replies to such requests is an impor tant function of Government agencies. With the wide range of sub ject matter demanded from each individual agency and the compli cated character of some of the materials that must be handled and organized to provide useful replies, the field of information specialist has grown up. This worker also lias the function of contact with various organizations and with the press. In wartime, information specialists publicize many necessary policies, as in the promotion of bond sales. In the present study over 30 upper-level women were reported doing this type of work. Its relative newness, and the differences in character of the work in different agencies, have led to differences in classifica tion. Owing to the apparent trend toward professional status for their functions, these workers are discussed in the professional group, though most of those reported (and included at this point in the dis cussion) are in CAF grades.30 About two-thirds of those reported here were in professional grade 5 or the equivalent (CAF-12), or below; none were above professional grade 6, and few were above CAF-13, although one was classified in CAF-15—a high administrative officer in a wartime information service. A considerable group of these information employees entered the Government as editors or writers on particular subjects like economics, 80 However, in the basic tables in this report the information specialists classified in CAF are excluded from totals in professional and are shown in totals for CAF workers. The Civil Service Commission release referred to (p. 34, footnote 4) classifies in clerical, supervisory, and administrative occupations over 2,000 men and women engaged in public information and exhibit work in the Federal departmental service in the Washington area, July 1, 1946. 62 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE as research editors or research assistants, as expert consultants or advisers, as field representatives, or in other capacities. Later their work developed more definitely into that of carrying out information functions. Often they were in the executive departments such as Agriculture, Commerce, Treasury, War, or State. Nearly half the group were in CAF grade 12 or 13, with wartime salary minima of respectively $4,600 and $5,600; but a number had gone as far as CAF grade 14, with a wartime minimum of $6,500. (See salary table, Appendix 13, p. 83, for corresponding professional grades.) Another group of these women entered the Government service in one of the lower clerical grades. More than half these had served for long periods—15 or 20 years or longer—though some had only 7 to 9 years’ service before taking on the information functions they were now performing. Like the first group, these tended to be in the Cabinet Departments—primarily in Interior, War, Agriculture, Com merce, State; they also were found in the National Archives, United States Tariff Commission, and Federal Security Agency. One with earlier service in the War Department had transferred to the National Emergency Council. Over half this group were in grade CAF-12 (wartime maximum, $5,400) or below, but two had reached CAF-13. A third group were very recent entrants to Government and began their service as information specialists. These were largely in war agencies such as the Office for Emergency Management, the War Man power Commission, the Office of War Information, or in the War Department. Like those who entered long ago as clerks, the majority were in CAF-12 (or in P-5) or below. Reflecting the pressing wartime needs for this type of work, and the relative newness of its recognition as a specialized capacity in the Government, over a third of the upper-level women information specialists reported here were wartime entrants to the Federal Gov ernment and had been in the service less than 5 years at the time of their last reported position, and few had as long as 20 years’ service. However, not far from half had been in Federal employment at least 10 years, though not always in information capacities throughout their entire service.31 Despite the fact that many of the upper-salaried women informa tion specialists reported here had not had extremely long Government service, many were women of mature age. Over half were at least 50 years old, and the great majority were 40 or older. Only two were under 30, each in a war agency, one a CAF-12, the other a CAF-1!. 31 Reflecting the continuation of the wartime need for information specialists into the present post-World War II period, the Civil Service Commission in October 1949 announced the opening of an examination for information specialists. The qualifications require ments included education and/or experience in press, radio, journalism, publicity techniques, and publications. Eligibies registered for employment from successful candidates are classified in the professional grades ranging from P-2 to P-5. PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 63 Of the women in upper-salaried jobs in- the public information field whose formal education was reported, the great majority had either a bachelor’s or a master’s degree, and half either had majored in English or had done special work along lines leading directly to ward the information field, such as journalism, publicity methods, radio, advertising, and the like. Some among those who had come into information work after long clerical experience in the Govern ment originally had training in business schools. Previous experience also was a significant factor in this occupation. All those reporting on experience in the group of recently appointed employees entering as information specialists, and those of the group of longer-time employees who came in as special workers of some type, as well as some of those who entered clerical jobs, had had ex perience in lines connected with public information—as editors, re porters, feature writers, copywriters; in radio work or advertising; or in administration of a type likely to require dealing with the public. A number reported having materials of their own published, such as magazine articles, feature columns, and the like. V. WOMEN REPORTED IN UPPER-SALARIED OCCUPA TIONS—ADMINISTRATIVE AND NONADMINISTRATIVE [In both Professional and CAF classifications] In the CAF group not far from two-thirds of the women reported had administrative functions in the Government. Though a smaller group proportionately than among CAF workers, many women in professional classifications also had administrative responsibilities added to the professional work required of them. They constitute something less than a third of the professional women reported here. This chapter considers the administrative workers as distinguished from those not performing administrative duties, including in each of these groups of women both CAF and professional workers. Those discussed here as having administrative functions include directors or chiefs and assistant chiefs of bureaus, divisions, branches, and sections; regional directors and field supervisors; project supervisors; and the like. Such employees may be either in CAF or in professional classifications. Characteristic CAF administrative titles include: administrative assistant; director of personnel or head of personnel branch or of clerical placement service; personnel operations officer; budget and fiscal chief; executive secretary. Such titles as principal fiscal analyst and principal industrial specialist are also included, since women so placed almost surely have some administrative duties. Included also are the few women reported as members of commissions (as Civil Service Commissioner and Commissioner of Federal Mediation Service), and boards (as member of the Board of Tax Appeals). It is not surprising that among the women at the higher salary levels included in this study a considerable proportion were doing admin istrative work—nearly 45 percent of all those reported here. Of these administrators something under two-thirds were in the CAF, the remainder in the professional group. Further, it is not surprising that administrative work was even more prevalent in the highest grades. Of the women classified in CAF-13 or P-6 or above, nearly 60 percent performed administrative functions, about half under professional and half under CAF classi fications. Such responsibilities increased at the higher levels more markedly for professional than CAF workers; however, even in the higher grades larger proportions of the CAF than of the professional employees did administrative work. Two-thirds of those in CAF-13 or above and half those in P-6 or above had administrative duties. The summary following shows further detail on this subject. 64 65 ADMINISTRATIVE AND NONADMINISTRATIVE Women reported in administrative and nonadminislrative positions Occupation group Total Administrative Other 730 100 323 44 407 56 401 100 123 31 278 69 329 100 200 61 129 39 253 100 147 58 106 42 145 100 74 51 71 49 108 100 73 68 35 32 Re posted All Women Number, Percent __ _ _ ____ _ P and S: Number.. . ____ ___ _ Percent. _ . CAF: Number ____ Percent _______ __ . ___ Women in P-6, CAF-13, or Above Total reported: Number. _ Percent. . In P-6 or above: Number_____ Percent _. _ In CAF-13 or above: Number ... __ Percent.. __ _ _____ WOMEN IN TOP GRADES Nearly half of the administrative but only about a fourth of the nonadministrative employees reported were in P-6 or above or in the corresponding CAF-13 or above (with wartime minimum salary of $5,600). Professional administrative employees were in these higher grades to a markedly greater extent than CAF administrative em ployees, as is shown in the summary on this page. This is under standable when it is considered that the professional administrator ordinarily must have training and experience in a particular profession in addition to qualifications for administrative work. Grade distribution of women reported in administrative and nonadministrative occupations Number of " " grade women reported Below P-5 or CAF-12 Occupation group Percent who were— " ■ In grade In grade P-6, P-5 or CAF-13, or CAF-12 above Total reported _ _ Administrative _ . _ Other____ ____ _ _ .. .. 730 323 34 30 37 31 25 37 35 45 26 Professional-scientific . _ Administrative. Other_____ _ ______ __ .. .. 401 123 278 28 11 34 36 29 40 36! 60 26 Clerical-administrative-fiscal.. .. Administrative___ ___ _ .. Other___ ______ _____ _. 329 200 129 42 41 43 25 22 30 33 37 27 66 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE Of the women in these top grades, almost 60 percent were 45 years of age or older, and 15 percent had Government experience of 20 years or longer. As might be expected, considerably larger proportions of the administrative than of the nonadministrative employees in these top grades were of these older ages and had long Federal service, as the following summary shows. Women in top grades with long service and at age 45 or older Women in P-6, CAF-13, or above Number reported Percent with— ----- ------------- ------ —------Service of 20 Age 45 or years or more more Total------------ _-------------------------- 253 15 59 Administrative________________________ Other------------------------------------------------- 147 106 18 11 69 44 LENGTH OF SERVICE Nearly 30 percent of the administrators but little over 20 percent of the nonadministrative women workers reported here had at least 20 years of experience in the Federal Government when they entered their latest reported grade of work. A somewhat greater proportion of the CAF group than of the professional employees in the present study had such long service (whether administrative or nonadminis trative), as table 11 shows. Among the women who had had 20 years’ service or longer, much larger proportions of those who had than of those who did not have administrative responsibilities were classified in grade P-6 or CAF-13 or above (with wartime minimum salary of $5,600), as the summary following shows. Extent to which women with long service hod reached top grades in administrative and nonadministrative work Women with service of 20 years or more Total Administrative. Other_______ Number reported Percent in P-6, CAF-13, or above 183 21 93 90 29 13 67 ADMINISTRATIVE AND NONADMINISTRATIVE Table 11.—Women reported in administrative and nonadministrative occupations, by years in Federal service at entry to last recorded job [723 women receiving $3,000 or over, with years of service reported] Number ■ of women reported Occupation group Percent with Federal service of— Under 5 years 5, under 10 years 10, under 20 years 20 years or over Total reported Administrative..-....... ......................... Other------------------------------------------ 723 320 403 24 20 28 27 28 26 24 23 24 25 29 22 Professional-scientific___________ _____ Administrative----- - -------------------Other ____________ _____________ 397 122 275 24 22 25 27 31 26 26 21 28 23 26 21 Clerical-administrative-fiscal . ------------Administrative_______ _____ _____ Other--------------- ------ ----------- ------- - 326 198 128 25 19 34 27 26 27 20 24 14 28 31 25 AGE DISTRIBUTION Not far from two-thirds of the administrative women reported here, compared to but little over half those not doing administrative work, had reached or passed their forty-fifth birthday when they entered their latest recorded job classification. A fifth of these administrators but a smaller proportion of the nonadministrative workers were 55 or over. The professional workers were in the older group to a somewhat greater extent than were the CAF workers reported here (whether administrative or nonadministrative), as table 12 shows. Table 12.—Women reported in administrative and nonadministrative occupations in Federal service, by age at entry to last recorded job [724 women receiving $3,000 or over, with age reported] Occupation group Other Number of women reported Under 35 Percent whose age was— 35, under 40 40, under 45 45, under 50 50, under 55 55 or over 724 319 405 12 9 14 14 14 14 17 15 18 22 25 20 17 17 18 18 20 16 399 123 276 11 9 12 11 7 13 18 14 19 23 28 21 18 19 18 19 23 17 325 196 129 13 9 19 17 18 16 16 16 16 21 23 19 16 16 16 17 18 14 TRAINING Over three-fourths of the nonadministrative and but little over half the administrative workers whose training was reported had college degrees. This difference was influenced by the CAF workers, among 68 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE whom business training often constituted an effective preparation for administrative work (as table 13 indicates) ; while many nonadministrative employees were serving in highly specialized capacities for which degrees might be a necessity or at least an asset. Of the pro fessional workers, on the other hand (whether or not in administra tive work), over four-fifths had college degrees, and over half had more than one degree. Table 13.—Training of women administrative and nonadministrative workers reported [588 women receiving $3,000 or over, with training reported] Administrative Training Number of women reported Nonadministrative Percent distribution of— Total Profes sionalscientific CAF Number of women reported Percent distribution of— Total Profes sionalscientific CAF Total reported.............. 1245 100 100 100 2 343 100 100 100 Never attended college Attended college, no degree.. One college degree only____ More than one college degree. 63 56 61 65 26 23 25 26 5 13 31 51 41 30 21 8 28 51 108 156 8 15 32 45 2 9 34 55 23 30 25 22 With doctor’s degree 3___ . With business training 3_. . 24 64 10 26 21 8 2 40 61 52 17 15 22 10 6 29 1104 are in the professional-scientific group, 141 in the CAF group. 2 246 are in the professional-scientific group, 97 in the CAF group. 3 Individua l women in this group also were included in other training categories. VI. WOMEN REPORTED IN UPPER-SALARIED OCCUPA TIONS IN FOUR FEDERAL LISTS WOMEN REPORTED IN UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT MANUAL (JUNE 1947) Each year the Government Information Service in the Office of Government Reports publishes the Government Manual, which con tains “sections descriptive of every agency of the Federal Govern ment,” and lists for each of these only the highest officials. The Manual of June 1947 listed over 2,800 persons in top jobs, of whom only 82 (less than 3 percent) were women. Eight major ex ecutive departments had more than 1,000 top officials, of wThom only 25 were women. (This excludes the Army and Navy, which under standably have large numbers of men but almost no women at the upper levels.) This source gives nothing on salaries. Among all these top employees in 1947, the smaller number in the Federal Security Agency included a far larger proportion of women— 11 percent—than the employees of other agencies. In all other inde pendent agencies combined, as vTell as in the executive departments, women were less than 3 percent of the highest-ranking employees. Employees (officials) reported in Government Manual, June 1947 (second edition) Agency Total reported Women ______________ _________ _ Number Percent of total All agencies------------------------ 2, 853 82 8 cabinet departments 1____________ Independent agencies (except F. S. A.) Military and emergency agencies____ Federal Security Agency___________ 1, 071 1, 048 595 139 30 30 6 16 2. 9 2. 2. 1. 11. 8 9 0 5 1 Includes 35 in Executive Office of the President, 5 of whom were women; excludes military departments * WOMEN REPORTED IN OFFICIAL REGISTER OF THE UNITED STATES (1925, 1941, 1947) The United States Civil Service Commission is legally required to issue each year an Official Register of the United States to contain “a full and complete list of all persons occupying administrative and 69 70 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE supervisory positions in the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the Government, including the District of Columbia, in connection with which salaries are paid from the Treasury of the United States.” This register is not the result of a survey by the Civil Service Com mission but is compiled from information submitted by the various departments and agencies. Some departments provide a very detailed list of administrative employees regardless of salary, others submit only the names of those holding highly responsible positions in the upper salary brackets. Owing to these variations it is probable that the listings of some departments are less inclusive than those of others in reporting em ployees below the level of P-3 or CAF-9 (minimum salary $4,150 in 1947). This especially affects the accuracy of the number of women listed, since women are most likely to hold administrative positions concerned with the general routine of an office, for example, head of telephone and switchboard section, typing unit, or filing section, jobs which are usually in the lower-salaried group. There is, however, no reason to believe that this limitation seriously affects a comparison from one year to another, since in the period discussed here the laws consistently required “. . . a full and complete list of all persons occupying administrative and supervisory positions. . . .” The M ay 1947 issue of the Official Register listed more than 7,000 persons, of whom only about 250 (less than 4 percent) were women. Salaries of just over $5,900 a year were paid to more than four-fifths of the total, but to less than three-fifths of the women. The figures for all employees listed are as follows: Employees reported in Official Register, May 1947 All listed employees Total: Number_________ Percent distribution. Women: Number_________ Percent distribution Percent of total___ 7, 174 100 252 100 3. 5 Receiving over $5,900 1 6,021 84 143 57 2. > Entrance salary of grades P-5 or CAF-12 in 1947 was $5,905. COMPARISONS FOR THREE PERIODS The analysis that follows is based on data in the Official Register of the United States for 1925 (the year of an earlier Women’s Bureau study), 1941 (just before the war), and 1947 (after the war). The figures are shown in table 14. Because of variations in basic salaries WOMEN IN FOUR FEDERAL LISTS 71 in the three periods, the civil service grade classifications are used for the discussion where comparisons are made of the different years.1 A comparison of the numbers of women whose salaries were reported in the Official Register in 1947,1941, and 1925 indicates a small degree of progress over these 22 years in women’s proportion in these executive jobs, and somewhat more progress in their proportions in the upper grades in such work both over the long-time period and since just be fore the war. However, the greatest advances in the proportion that women constituted of all employees came in the grades below P-5 and CAF-12. Status of women, 1947 and 1925.—Comparisons for the long-time period show that women were 3.5 percent of all these administrative workers reported in 1947, but only 2.4 percent in 1925. In 1947, 57 percent of the women in these executive positions tvere in grades P-5 or CAF-12 or above, but in 1925 only 17 percent had reached this level. In 1947 but little more than a tenth of these women in administrative work were classified below P-3 or CAF-9, but in 1925 nearly a third of them were in these lower grades. (See table 14.) Table 14.—Women in administrative and supervisory positions in the Government reported in the Official Register of the United States, 1 925, 1941, and 1947 1 Women reported in— Civil Service classification grade 2 All grades 1947 1941 1925 Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Num Percent distri of all Num distri of all Num distri of all ber ber ber em em em bution ployees bution ployees bution ployees ................ 252 100 P-7 or C AF-14 or above.. _ P-5 or -fi or CAF-12 or -13. P-3 or -4 or CAF-9, -10, or -11 Below P-3 or CAF-9 63 80 25 32 82 27 32 11 3.5 264 100 1.9 | 2.9 112 42 83 69 32 26 10.2 7.8 3.5 88 100 2.4 4.4 8.0 45 28 51 32 2.3 3.9 1 Excluded are those serving without compensation; dollar-a-year employees; persons paid on a per diem or fee basis; those whose total compensation was not ascertainable because a portion of their salary consisted of commissions, fees, maintenance, or fuel, or because they received payment partly or wholly from an agency other than the one reporting them; cabinet officers; commissioned military officers; and the Federal Reserve Board, because salaries were not reported in all years. Included are executive departments and agencies: Government Printing Office; Library of Congress; General Accounting Office, which was in the executive branch in 1925 and 1941; and Office of the Architect of the Capitol. 2 Reported by salary in the Official Register, this classification by grade was made on the basis of the salary range of specified grade in the classified service. Salary scales applicable in 1923, 1932, and 1946 (see Appendix B, p. 83) also were applicable in the years reported here, 1925, 1941, and 1947, respectively. Status of women, immediate prewar and postwar periods.—A com parison of the immediate prewar with the postwar status of women reported in administrative and supervisory positions shows that, while women’s proportion was increasing in the lower grades of work, it 1 For salary ranges for the various grades at different periods, see Appendix B, p. 83 72 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE remained stationary at the executive and administrative levels. Though the proportion women constituted of all employees had in creased from about 20 percent in 1941 to about 24 percent in 1947, women were only 3.5 percent of the total administrators after the war as well as before. In the postwar declines in Federal employment, the number in ex ecutive jobs had declined in slightly greater proportion for women than for men—4.5 percent for women, 3.5 percent for men. How ever, among the women retained in administrative work, the advances in grade from 1941 to 1947 had been notable. Just before the war only 42 percent, but in 1947, 57 percent of these women were in grades P-5 or CAF-12 or above; before the war over a fourth, but after the war only about a tenth were below P-3 or CAF-9. It is likely that this represents more lay-offs among those in the lower grades, plus some advances in grade for the women remaining in the service. AGENCY DISTRIBUTION, 1941 AND 1947 At least one woman was reported as an administrative employee in each of the chief executive departments both in 1941 and in 1947, except that the Post Office had none in 1941. Of the other agencies, 23 of 39 in 1941 and 26 of 39 in 1947 reported one administrative woman or more. Over half the administrative women in 1947 were in the five following agencies: Labor (28), Agriculture (30), Federal Security Agency (41), State (24), Executive Office of the Presi dent (19). OCCUPATIONS, 1941 AND 1947 The following discussion is based on the 224 women in grades P-3 or CAF-9 or above, who constituted nearly nine-tenths of all the women reported in administrative or supervisory jobs in 1947. Of these women, about 4 in 10 were heads or assistant heads of bureaus, divisions, or other units of Government, or were members of boards or commissions; about 3 in 10 were engaged in such work as that of administrative or personnel assistant, chief clerk, secretary, regional representative, and the like. The remaining women were doing spe cialized work; included among them were technical experts, budget officers, librarians, public information specialists, and so on, who all, since they are listed in the Official Register, have administrative as well as specialized duties. This distribution did not differ greatly from that of 1941, though in the earlier year there were somewhat fewer unit heads, somewhat more field supervisors. Details follow on each type of work and on 1947 salaries. WOMEN IN FOUR FEDERAL LISTS 73 Board or commission member or bureau head.—There were five women board or commission members in 1947, one receiving a salary of $9,077 and one $8,180, the others $10,000 or more. Of the five, two were United States representatives with the United Nations. Five women were heads of bureaus or comparable units, and all received $10,000 a year. In 1941, there were five women bureau heads, as in 1947, but members of boards numbered three more than in 1947. Assistant head of bureaur—Eight women in 1947 and 7 in 1941 were reported as assistant or associate head of a bureau or similar unit. Their salaries in 1947 ranged from $8,180 to $9,975; four of them received more than $9,000. Head of division.2—In 1947 the largest single group of women, 35, was composed of those listed as head of a division, service, branch, or comparable unit. More than two-thirds of these women were in the top salary group—2 received $10,000; 3 were paid approximately $9,000 but less than $10,000; 7 had salaries ranging from $8,180 to $8,700; 12 received $5,905 but less than $8,180. The remaining 11 were paid $4,150 but less than $5,905. In 1941 the number of women division heads was 34, much the same as after the war. Assistant head of division.2—There were 16 women assistant heads of divisions or similar units in 1947, with salaries ranging from $5,152 to $9,376; of these, 7 received more than $8,180, and 3 more than $9,000. Only three received less than $5,905. In 1941, the number of women assistant heads of divisions was much smaller, only seven. Section head.2—There were 25 women heads of sections or other minor units in 1947. Of these, 2 earned $9,120 but less than $10,000; 16, between $5,905 and $8,180; and 5 ranged from $4,150 to $5,905. The number of women section heads in 1941 was less than half that after the war-—only 11. • Supervisor of field services.—Of the eight women who in 1947 held such positions as regional representative, Federal representative, liaison officer, and the like, one received $9,800; five had salaries of $8,180 but under $9,000; two received under $8,180, one of them less than $5,905. This group was almost three times as great in 1941, then numbering 23. Special assistant.—Eighteen women held the title of special assistant, “assistant to,” executive or confidential assistant, or executive secre tary in 1947. Of these, 2 received $9,000 but under $10,000; 3, $8,180 2 Excludes women officials in library, editorial, public Information, or fiscal work who are Included under their specialized occupations. Also excludes chiefs of personnel divisions included with other personnel officers. 74 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE but under $9,000; 7, $5,905 but under $8,180; and 6, $4,150 but under $5,905. In 1941,15 women were so classified. ■ Secretary.—Fifteen women held important positions as secretaries, clerks, or reporters in 1947. All were paid less than $8,180, 12 of them from $4,150 to $5,905. There were 13 women in the secretarial group in 1941. Personnel officer or administrative assistant.—Positions variously termed chief clerk, personnel or placement officer, or head of personnel unit, administrative assistant or officer, business manager, or service operations officer were held by 28 women in 1947, of whom 13 were engaged specifically in personnel or placement fields. One of the 28 women received $9,975, and 1, $8,180; 12 were paid from $5,905 to $8,180; 14 from $4,150 to $5,905. In 1941, 24 women were reported in this group of positions, at least 8 of them in personnel work. Budgets; accounts.—Five women earning from $4,150 to $5,905 were reported as employed on budgets or accounts in 1947. There were five also in 1941. Technical expert.—This group of 20 women reported in 1947 included 10 labor economists and 5 lawyers or legal specialists. One was a labor education analyst, 2 were transportation specialists, 1 was an industrial economist, and 1 a clinical director. One received just over $9,000 ; 3, $8,180 but less than $9,000. Of 16 paid less than $8,180, 10 received less than $5,905; 6 ranged from $5,905 to $7,580. Only half as many women experts (10) were reported in 1941, of whom half were legal specialists. Collector; warden.—Seven women collectors of customs and two wardens were reported in 1947. One woman received just over $9,000, 1 less than $5,905. The others were in the group paid $5,905 but less than $8,180. In 1941, there were 10, of whom 3 were appraisers or examiners, 4 customs collectors, and 3 wardens. ■ Librarian.—Fourteen women were listed as librarians or heads of library divisions in 1947. One received $8,180; 6, $5,905 but less than $8,180; and 7, between $4,150 and $5,905. They were employed in the Library of Congress, the Departments of State, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor, and in the Civil Service Commission, the Federal Trade' Commission, the Interstate Commerce Commission, and the United States Tariff Commission. In 1941 there were 17 women librarians. Editor.—Only one woman editor was reported in 1947 compared with six editors or directors of editorial divisions in 1941. This one woman’s salary was in the $4,150 to $5,905 range. 75 WOMEN IN FOUR FEDERAL LISTS Public information work.—Twelve women were listed in 1947 as working in the field of public information. Two received more than $8,180,3 received $5,905 and less than $8,180, and 7 between $4,150 and $5,905. The Office of Government Keports, the Department of Agri culture, and the Federal Security Agency employed these women. In 1941, 9 women were listed in this group. WOMEN REPORTED IN FEDERAL STATISTICAL DIRECTORY (APRIL 1948) At intervals the Division of Statistical Standards of the Bureau of the Budget revises its list of the “professional and technical personnel engaged in statistical reporting, research, and data-collecting activities in economics and other fields of social science.” The latest issue, that of April 1948, superseded that of August 1946. The groups of persons listed in the Federal Statistical Directory who can be classified roughly in the categories discussed here were as follows: Employees reported in Federal Statistical Directory, April 1948 Occupation Total__________________________________ Heads or chiefs at bureau, division or branch level__ Consultants and advisers______________________ Economists (specifically so listed)____________ _______ Statisticians (specifically so listed)___________________ Analysts (statistical, economic, other)________________ All other____________________________ Total Women < 1,961 1 244 484 50 38 2 15 31 30 159 167 172 i Details exceed total as heads or chiefs may appear also in one of the other categories. The 1948 report included nearly 2,000 of these professional and technical persons, of whom well over a tenth were women. This publication showed no data on salaries. It listed as consultants or advisers 50 persons, of whom 2 were women. It reported roughly 160 each of economists and statisticians. Women constituted a con siderably larger proportion of the statisticians than of the economists. In each of these groups many employees were listed as experts in a particular field of statistical or economic science, as for example medi cal economist, labor economist, industrial economist, economist-editor, and the like; or biostatistician, social statistician, agricultural eco nomic statistician, and the like. In addition to those specifically listed as “economist,” or “statis tician” or as consultant or adviser, a considerable number were defi nitely reported as operating in a particular field that would involve 937129i 76 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE competency in statistics, economics, or both, such as wages, popula tion, industrial prices, housing statistics, national income, statistical research, statistical techniques, consumer prices, trade statistics, con sumer income, labor force, employment statistics, and so on. A fur ther group of over 170 persons, 30 of whom were women, were listed as analysts (statistical, economic, or other). Some of the foregoing professional or technical persons, as well as others whose special field of statistical or economic work was not re ported, had administrative responsibilities. As well as could be as certained short of a complete review of particular administrative functions not possible in the present study, over 480 persons, of whom nearly 40 were women, could be listed as heads or chiefs at the bureau, division, or branch level.8 These upper-level administrators consti tuted about 25 percent of the total reported, but the women upper-level administrators constituted only about 16 percent of all women reported. WOMEN REPORTED IN REGISTER OF THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE (DECEMBER 1946)4 At intervals the State Department publishes a Register that includes biographies of ambassadors, ministers, foreign service officers, and foreign service reserve officers. These are the representatives abroad who in general are concerned with American diplomatic policies. They are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The reserve officers are appointed on a temporary basis, frequently for specialized jobs likely to have a limited duration. The Register also gives biographies of foreign service staff officers5 listing only* 6 8 This analysis is believed to approximate the situation as nearly as possible short of a full survey of particular job responsibilities, such as cannot be undertaken here. However, the results must be taken very generally, since full accuracy is not possible in allocating all persons from such a source as this, which shows no salaries and duties, and since terminology differs in different agencies. Standard categories used are chiefs of bureau, division, and branch. Below these wTould be chiefs of section and unit, listings of whom have not been attempted. The level of responsibility that appears from the list has been used rather than the particular terminology of every agency. (For example, some agencies used “branch” for what would be classified elsewhere at the division level, some used “section” for what in other agencies would be branch level, and so on.) * Appearing in December, the report is indicative of the 1947 situation. Women foreign service officers, it reports, correspond exactly witht those of the State Department Foreign Service List in 1947. This section “Women Reported in Register of the Department of State (December 1946)” refers only to employees of the State Department. Discussion of off-continent employees in Women in the Federal Service, 1923-1947, Pt. I, ch. Ill, shows that about a fourth of all women in United States employment who were located in foreign countries wrere under jurisdiction of the State Department, and that women constituted more than 40 percent of the State Department employees located in foreign countries. 6 These staff officers are in a position similar to that of other employees in the Federal classified service, for example, in respect to entry by examination, permanency of appoint ment, vacation and retirement provisions, and salary ranges (as indicated in Appendix C, p. 84, by grade or class). However, the classes run (as with foreign service officers) toward 1 as the highest, while in the professional and CAF grades, 1 is the lowest. For foreign service officers, the entire salary range and classification is quite different from that of the foreign service staff and the professional and CAF employees. WOMEN IN FOUR FEDERAL LISTS 77 those of class 12 and above ($2,880 minimum salary); included also are employees of the Department in professional grade 4 and above and in clerical-administrative-fiscal grade 11 and above ($4,902 minimum salary in each of these). The State Department Register for 1946 (December) included the biographies of about 3,700 persons, of whom about 350—almost a tenth—were women. This material provides perhaps the only com piled and published data showing the training, experience, and length of service, as well as salaries, of a group of women Federal employees largely in upper-level posts; in some instances their ages also are reported. However, the data relate to a small group in Government as a whole, since women in the State Department are less than 1 percent of all women Federal employees. WOMEN FOREIGN SERVICE OFFICERS The Register of the State Department included in its biographies 20 women serving as foreign service officers and reserve officers in 1946. Such officers understandably constitute a very specialized per sonnel. Even after satisfying high initial qualifications and being accepted, they undergo a rigid period of testing and study and then are started in minor assisting posts. A number of the women now foreign service officers had former experience abroad. Some had lesser positions in American embassies, later advancing to third sec retary of an embassy, or to vice consul; others had been clerks to trade commissioners in the Commerce Department, later rising to second secretary or becoming trade commissioner. Four of these 20 women foreign service officers had been in the service for periods ranging from 16 to 27 years and were of ages ranging from 42 to 52.6 These four had college degrees or foreign study in some outstanding institution, and all had varied experiences of responsible types abroad. One who had gone further than any other, was ranked in class 3 (with salary range $8,000-$9,900). She was a high administrative official, had a doctor’s degree with foreign study, and had experience in college teaching followed by service in responsible posts in European embassies. The other three were in class 4 (with salary range $6,000-$7,900), higher than most other women had gone. They were in European and South African posts, two as vice consuls, the third as second secretary of an embassy. Most of the other 16 women foreign service officers were very recent appointees, usually with only 1 or 2 years’ service, though 2 had been in for 6 years or longer. All were in classes 5 or 6, except four who ranked as high as class 4; three of these four were administra tive officers, and the other was a consul and second secretary with 6 Career entrants to the foreign service of either sex must be under 30. 78 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE nearly 15 years of foreign service, part of it in the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce (Commerce Department) as commercial attache, then as assistant trade commissioner. To the extent that the education of the 16 women was reported, all had gone as far as attaining a master’s degree or had studied rather extensively abroad, or both. Functions these women were performing included those of vice consul, cultural relations or information officer, librarian; one was a second secretary and consul. They were stationed in Australia, Canada, London, Mexico, China, India, New Zealand, Africa, or in one of several European countries. CLASS AND GRADEJDF WOMEN OTHERfTHAN OFFICERS7 Of the women in the State Department Register (exclusive of the foreign service officers just discussed), foreign service staff officers constituted the largest group, while professional workers were some what more than a third, and CAF employees a fifth of the total, as shown in the summary following. Of the foreign service staff officers, not far from half were in the lowest class included, class 12 (salaries $2,880 to $3,600), and nearly nine-tenths were in class 10 or below (maximum $4,500). Only three were class 7 or above (minimum $5,040). The highest was in FSS 3, a woman of wide experience in various types of work abroad requiring competence in economics, who had served as an expert at international conferences. The Register does not include biographies for those employed in the State Department as professional workers below grade 4 or as CAF workers below grade 11 (minimum in each case, $4,902). Of the women included who were in professional or CAF classifications, over 40 percent were classified above P-4 or CAF-11 (maximum for both grades, $5,905). Four of these women were in professional grades 7 or 8 and were serving as chiefs or assistant chiefs of divisions or branches, or as special assistants in an important field of work. Three of the four had entered the Department fairly recently, and two of the three had a doctor’s degree. The fourth had risen to her high post through long years of responsible experience in the Department. The high salaried CAF employees—11 in grades 13 or 14—were chiefly special assistants, or executive or liaison officers, or specialists; one was a branch chief. Two of the 11 had service of more than 25 years, two others more than 10 years, the remainder shorter periods. Of the shorter-service employees reporting formal education, the majority had a master’s degree; some of those with longer service reported business training. 7 For salary ranges in various grades in tile State Department, see Appendix C, p. 84. 79 WOMEN IN FOUR FEDERAL LISTS Grade or class distribution of women reported in State Department Register, 1946 [Except Foreign Service Officers] Grade or class FSS All grades and classes_________ 145 FSS classes 12-10___ ________ ___ FSS classes 9-7; P-4; CAF-11_______ FSS classes 6, 3; P-5, -6; CAF-12, -13 P-7, -8; CAF-14................ ......... ......... 129 14 2 P and S CAF 119 67 68 47 4 39 27 1 __ LENGTH OF SERVICE OF WOMEN OTHER THAN OFFICERS Of the women (exclusive of officers), reporting service, not far from half had been with the Government less than 5 years.8 The data were not sufficient to give conclusive evidence on the effect of length of service on advancement. Half those with 20 years’ service, as well as almost half of those with less than 5 years’ service, were below FSS-7; however, a much larger proportion of the short-service than of the long-service employees were above P-4, CAF-11, or FSS-7. The data on length of women’s service are as follows: Years of service of women reported in State Department Register, 1946 [Except Foreign Service Officers] . Number of women— Years of service With service reported All periods_ Under 5___ 5, under 10 10, under 20 _ 20 or over.. Below FSS-7 In P-L, FSS-7, or CAF-11 Above P-4, FSS-7, or CAF-11 __ _ ---- 317 139 102 76 ___ 50 ---- 48 66 12 37 24 47 19 21 15 28 19 20 9 _ AGE OF WOMEN OTHER THAN OFFICERS The ages were given for over 100 of the women (exclusive of offi cers) reported in the State Department Register. Of these, similar proportions were under 40 and between 40 and 50, and a fifth were 50 or older. Most of those who had gone above FSS-5, P-5, or CAF-12 (with salaries approaching or over $7,000) were at least 40 years of age. The only one in these higher grades who was under 40, a CAF8 This refers to Government service in any agency, before appointment to the partment as well as in this Department, though a few cases may be included Ere! l T''1™ had been omitted- Since the Period covered is one state Department Services in the foreign field inevitably were expanding, it standable that many employees were newly entering the service at that time. State De in which in which is under 80 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE 13, had had 8 years of Government experience in varied and respon sible types of administrative work. TRAINING OF WOMEN OTHER THAN OFFICERS The training experiences of 284 women (other than foreign service officers) were indicated in the biographies in the State Department Eegister. Almost two-thirds of these women had formal college degrees; more than a tenth of the 284 had a doctor’s degree. Nearly a fourth of the total had studied abroad, a number of them in out standing institutions such as Cambridge University, the Geneva School of International Studies, the London School of Economics, and so forth. A few had some legal training. Some had business training which, after considerable experience, led to responsible ad ministrative posts, either at headquarters in Washington or abroad. The report on training is given in some detail in table 15, since this is a matter of special importance to college advisers of women. The table indicates clearly some relation between college training and advance to upper grades. Of this group of 284 women, more than a third of those with only one degree, compared to less than a fifth of those with advanced degrees, were below FSS-7, with a maximum salary of $5,400. At the upper end of the scale, only a small pro portion of those with only one degree had gone above FSS-5, P-5, or CAF-12 (with salary approaching or over $7,000). Not far from half those with a doctor’s degree had reached such a level. Of those who had reached the professional grades of 6, 7, or 8, or CAF grades 13 or 14, or FSS-3 and whose training was reported, over half had more than one college degree. A few had not been to col lege but had business training and more than 10 years’ experience in Federal service, and their work was administrative in character. A few others who had attended college but had no degree had nearly or over 20 years of Federal service before reaching these top grades. Of those with no degree or with only one degree, most had widely varying types of experience in other countries or in international con ferences or organizations whose work was related to international affairs; types of experience represented among these women included press work in foreign countries, editorial experience with publications dealing with international matters, library experience with material relating to foreign countries, work as specialists at international con ferences, or research with agencies with an international outlook. Some of these women had special familiarity with particular geo graphic areas. Among the women who had studied in foreign universities, eight had reached the P-6 or P-7 grades or the FSS-3 class. All but one of these women had their doctorates, and all were specialists in a high degree. 81 WOMEN IN FOUR FEDERAL LISTS Table 15.—Training and grade of women reported in State Department Register, December 1946 1 [284 women with training reported] Number classifiedTraining Total with training reported Below FSS-7 In P-4, FSS-7, CAF-11 In P-5, FSS-6, CAF-12 Above P-5, FSS-5, CAF-12 Total reported..... ........... ....................... ........... 284 105 103 45 31 One college degree only________ Advanced degrees less than doctorate.. ___ ____ Doctorate 2 No college degree___________ ___________ Attended college___ ____ ___________ No college attendance_________ 105 54 25 100 39 61 37 13 1 54 19 35 44 25 4 30 13 17 18 9 9 9 3 6 6 7 11 7 4 3 Some study in foreign schools 3________ __________ Some business training3________________ Some legal training 3_____________ 65 43 17 26 22 7 22 14 3 9 3 5 8 4 2 1 Exclusive of 20 Foreign Service Officers discussed elsewhere. * Includes 1 woman with law degree plus equivalent of A. B. and M. A. * Individual women in this group also were included in other training categories. APPENDIX A Occupational groups of women in the Executive branch of the Federal Government, 1938 [Latest data on occupational distribution of women Federal employees] Percent dis tribution of women Occupational group Postmasters and assistants______ ______ ___ _ . __________ Semitechnical, semiscientific, semiprofessional______________________ • Percent women among all em ployees 100 18 56 11 8 7 6 4 4 4 55 33 22 6 16 3 8 15 i Source: Women's Bureau Bull. 182. Employment of Women in the Federal Government, 1923 to 1939, p. 30. (Data as of Dec. 31, 1938.) APPENDIX B Salary scales of professional-scientific and clerical-administrative-fiscal employees in the Federal classified service 1923, 1932, and 19461 Grade in— P CAF 5 6.................... . 7......... 8 3—-v........... 9 10 4 11 5____ ______ 12____ _____ 13 6 7 14___ 8 15._.............. . 9 16____ ____ 1 2 . 1923 1946 1932 Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum $1,860 2,100 2, 400 2,700 3.000 3, 300 3,800 5,200 6.000 (12) (3) (8) $2,400 2, 700 3.000 3, 300 3,600 3, 900 5.000 6.000 7,500 (2) (3) (3) $2,000 2,300 2,600 2,900 3,200 3.500 3,800 4,600 5, 600 6.500 8, 000 (4) $2,600 2,900 3,200 3, 500 3,800 4,100 4,600 5, 400 6,400 7, 500 9,000 (4) $2, 645 3,021 3, 397 3, 773 4,150 4, 526 4, 902 5, 905 7,102 8,180 9,975 10,000 $3,397 3,773 4,150 4, 526 4,902 5,278 5,905 6,863 8,060 9, 377 10, 000 10, 000 1 Data for 1923 and 1932 from Civil Service Preference, Retirement, and Salary Classification Laws, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1946; data for 1946 from General Accounting Office Salary Table No. 26. J $7,500, unless higher rate specifically authorized by law. * This grade not created until later. 4 Annual rates of compensation in excess of $9,000 may be authorized or appropriated for by Congress. 83 APPENDIX C Salary scales in State Department, 1946 1 [Exclusive of Foreign Service Officers and Reserve] Classified service grade in— P Minimum Maximum $2, 645 3,021 3, 397 3, 773 4,150 4, 526 4, 902 $3,397 3, 773 4.150 4, 526 4, 902 5, 278 5, 905 CAF 1...................... .. 2 3___ ______ 4 5___ 6________ 7............. 8 9 . 10........... 11___ 6 6......... ........... 12__ 13__................ 5, 905 7,102 6,863 8, 060 7 8 14__ 15___ 8,180 9,975 9,377 10, 000 Foreign Service staff officer or employee grade Minimum Maximum 12........... ....................... 11 $2,880 3,240 $3,600 3,960 10____ _____ _____ 9 8 7........................ ........... 6.............................. 5 4__________________ 3.................................... 2.____ ____________ 1.......................... ......... 3,600 3,960 4,500 5,040 5, 580 6,120 6,660 7, 380 8, 100 8, 820 4, 500 4,860 5, 400 5,940 6, 480 7,140 7, 620 8, 340 9,120 10, 000 1 Register of the Department of State, Dec. 1,1946, pp. 477-478. U. S. Government Printing Office, 1947. APPENDIX D New classification and salaries of Federal employees—In effect October 30r 1949 At about the time the present study was ready to go to the printer, Congress passed legislation providing a marked change in the classifi cation of Federal grades. Under this new classification system the former professional-scientific and clerical-administrative-fiscal services were re placed by a single grading into the “General Schedule.” The two systems are shown below for grades corresponding to those included in the present study. At the same time provision was made for some advances in salaries. Former classes and salaries CAF grades 4_________ 5 6__________ 7 8__________ 9 10_________ 11 12 13 14 15 84 Professional grades 1 2 3________ 4 5 6_____ ______ 7....... ........... 8 New classes and salaries Salary scale Salary scale G S grades Minimum Maximum $2, 724 2, 975 3, 351 3, 727 4, If3 4, 480 4, 856 5, 232 6, 235 7, 432 8, 510 10, 305 $3,175 3, 727 4,103 4, 480 4, 856 5,232 5,608 6, 235 7,193 8, 390 9, 707 10, 330 Minimum Maximum •1 5 6 7... 8 . 9 10 11 12... 13 14 15 16____________ ____ _ 17............ ................... 18_____________ ____ $2, 875 3,100 3, 450 3, 825 4,200 4,600 5, 000 5, 400 6, 400 7, 600 8, 800 10, 000 11,200 12, 200 14, OCO $3,355 3, 850 4, 200 4, 575 4,950 5,350 5,750 6,400 7, 400 8, 600 9, 800 11,000 12, 000 13, 000 14, 000 85 CURRENT PUBLICATIONS OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU FACTS ON WOMEN WORKERS—issued monthly. 4 pages. (Latest statistics on employment of women; earnings; labor laws affecting women; news items of interest to women workers; women in the international scene.) HANDBOOK OF FACTS ON WOMEN WORKERS. Bull 225. 79 pp. 1948. 25?. (1950 Ed. in process.) THE AMERICAN WOMAN—Her Changing Role as Worker, Homemaker, Citi zen. (Women’s Bureau Conference, 1948.) Bull. 224. 210 pp. 1948. EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK AND TRAINING FOR WOMEN The Outlook for Women in Occupations in the Medical and Other Health Services, Bull. 203: 1. Physical Therapists. 14 pp. 1945. 10?. 2. Occupational Therapists. 15 pp. 1945. 10$. 3. Professional Nurses. 66 pp. 1946. 15$. 4. Medical Laboratory Technicians. 10 pp. 1945. 10$. 5. Practical Nurses and Hospital Attendants. 20 pp. 1945. 10$. 6. Medical Record Librarians. 9 pp. 1945. 10$. 7. Women Physicians. 28 pp. 1945. 10$. 8. X-Ray Technicians. 14 pp. 1945. 10$. 9. Women Dentists. 21 pp. 1945. 10$. 10. Dental Hygienists. 17 pp. 1945. 10$. 11. Physicians’ and Dentists’ Assistants. 15 pp. 1945. 10$. 12. Trends and Their Effect Upon the Demand for Women Workers. 55 pp. 1946. 15$. The Outlook for Women in Science, Bull. 223 : 1. Science. [General introduction to the series.] 81 pp. 1949. 20$. 2. Chemistry. 65 pp. 1948. 20$. 3. Biological Sciences. 87 pp. 1948. 25$. 4. Mathematics and Statistics. 21 pp. 1948. 10$. 5. Architecture and Engineering. 88 pp. 1948. 25$. 6. Physics and Astronomy. 32 pp. 1948. 15$. 7. Geology, Geography, and Meteorology. 52 pp. 1948. 15$. 8. Occupations Related to Science. 33 pp. 1948. 15$. The Outlook for Women in Police Work. Bull. 231. 31 pp. 1949. 15$. Home Economics Occupations Series, Bull. 234. The Outlook for Women in: 1. Dietetics. (In press. Others in preparation.) Social Work Series, Bull. 235. The Outlook for Women in: 1. Social Case Work in a Medical Setting. (In press. Others in prepara tion.) Your Job Future After College. Leaflet. 1947. (Rev. 1948.) Your Job Future After High School. Leaflet. 1949. Occupations for Girls and Women—Selected References. Bull. 229. 105 pp. 1949. 30$. Training for Jobs—for Women and Girls. [Under public funds available for vocational training purposes.] Leaflet 1. 1947. EARNINGS. Earnings of Women in Selected Manufacturing Industries. 1946. Bull. 219. 14 pp. 1948. 10$. LABOR LAWS Summary of State Labor Laws for Women. 8 pp. 1950. Mimeo. State Legislation of Special Interest to Women. Mimeos. for 1948 and 1949. 86 WOMEN IN THE FEDERAL SERVICE Minimum Wage: State Minimum-Wage Laws and Orders, 1942: An Analysis. Bull. 191. 52 pp. 1942. 20$;. Supplement, July 1,1942—January 1, 1949. Bull. 227. 58 pp. 1949. 20$1 State Minimum-Wage Laws. Leaflet 1. 1948. Model Bill for State minimumrwage law for women. Mimeo. Map showing States having minimum-wage laws. (Desk size; wall size.) State Minimum-Wage Orders Becoming Effective Since End of World War . II. 1950, Multilith. Equal Pay: Equal Pay for Women. Leaflet 2. 1947. (Rev. 1949.) Chart analyzing State equal-pay laws and Model Bill. Mimeo. Texts of State laws (separates). Mimeo. Model Bill for State equal-pay law. Mimeo. Selected References on Equal Pay for Women. 10 pp. 1949. Mimeo. Movement for Equal-Pay. Legislation in the United States. 5 pp. 1949. Multilith. Hours of Work and Other Labor Laws: State Labor Laws for Women, with Wartime Modifications, Dec. 15, 1944. Bull. 202: I. Analysis of Hour Laws. 110 pp. 1945. 15$!. II. Analysis of Plant Facilities Laws. 43 pp. 1945. 10$(. III. Analysis of Regulatory Laws, Prohibitory Laws, Maternity Laws. 12 pp. 1945. IV. Analysis of Industrial Home-Work Laws. 26 pp. 1945. 10$;. V. Explanation and Appraisal. 66 pp. 1946. 15$!. Working Women and Unemployment Insurance. Leaflet. 1949. Maps of United States showing State hour laws, daily and weekly. (Desk size; wall size.) LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN International Documents on the Status of Women. Bull. 217. 116 pp. 1947. 25$!. Legal Status of Women in the United States of America, January 1,1948: United States Summary. Bull. 157. (In preparation.) Reports for States, Territories and possessions (separates). Bulls. 157-1 through 157-54. 5$! and 10$J each. The Political and Civil Status of Women in the United States of America. Sum mary, including Principal Sex Distinctions as of January 1, 1948. ■ Leaflet. 1948. Women’s Eligibility for Jury Duty. Leaflet. July 1, 1949. Reply of United States Government to Questionnaire of United Nations Eco nomic and Social Council on the Legal Status and Treatment of Women. Part I. Public Law. In 6 Sections: A and B, Franchise and Public Office; C, Public Services and Functions ; D, Educational and Professional Opportunities ; E, Fiscal Laws; F, Civil Liberties; and G, Nationality. Mimeo. HOUSEHOLD EMPLOYMENT Old-Age Insurance for Household Workers. Bull. 220. 20 pp. 1947. 10$!. Community Household Employment Programs. Bull. 221. 70 pp. 1948. 20$;. RECOMMENDED STANDARDS for women’s working conditions, safety, and health. Standards for Employment of Women. Leaflet 1. 1946. (Rev. 1948.) 5$! each. When You Hire Women. Sp. Bull. 14. 16 pp. 1944. 10$!. WOMEN IN THE FEWERAL SERVICE 87 The Industrial Nurse and the Woman Worker. Bull. 228. (Partial revision of Sp. Bull. 19. 1944.) 48 pp. 1949. 15$. Women’s Effective War Work Requires Good Posture. Sp. Bull. 10. 6 pp. 1943. 5$. Washing and Toilet Facilities for Women in Industry. Sp. Bull. 4. 11 pp. 1942. 5$. Lifting and Carrying Weights by Women in Industry. Sp. Bull. 2. (Rev. 1946.) 12 pp. 5$. Safety Clothing for Women in Industry. Sp. Bull. 3. 11 pp. 1941. 10(1. Supplements: Safety Caps; Safety Shoes. 4 pp. ea. 1944. 50 ea. Poster—Work Clothes for Safety and Efficiency. WOMEN UNDER UNION CONTRACTS Maternity-Benefits Under Union-Contract Health Insurance Plans. Bull. 214. 19 pp. 1947. 10(1. COST OF LIVING BUDGETS Working Women’s Budgets in Twelve States. Bull. 226. 36 pp. 1948. 15$. EMPLOYMENT Women’s Occupations Through Seven Decades. Bull. 218. 260 pp. 1947. 45$. Popular version, Women’s Jobs: Advance and Growth. Bull. 232. 88 pp. 1949. 30$. Employment of Women in the Early Postwar Period, with Background of Pre War and War Data. Bull. 211. 14 pp. 1946. 10$. Women Workers in Ten War Production Areas and Their Postwar Employment Plans. Bull. 209. 56 pp. 1946. 15$. Women in Higher-Level Positions. Bull. 236. (In press.) Baltimore Women War Workers in the Postwar Period. 61 pp. 1948. Mimeo. INDUSTRY Women Workers in Power Laundries. Bull. 215. 71 pp. 1947. 20$. The Woman Telephone Worker [1947], Bull. 207. 28 pp. 1946. 10$. Typical Women’s Jobs in the Telephone Industry [1944]. Bull. 207-A. 52 pp. 1947. 15$. Women in the Federal Service. Part I. Trends in Employment, 1923-1947. Bull. 230-1. 81 pp. 1949. 25$, Part II. Occupational Information. Bull. 230-11. (Instant publication.) Night Work for Women in Hotels and Restaurants. Bull. 233. 59 pp. 1949. 20$. WOMEN IN LATIN AMERICA Women Workers in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay. Bull. 195. 15 pp. 1942. 5$. Women Workers in Brazil. Bull. 206. 42 pp. 1946. 10$. Women Workers in Paraguay. Bull. 210. 16 pp. 1946. 10$. Women Workers in Peru. Bull. 213. 41 pp. 1947. 10$. Social and Labor Problems of Peru and Uruguay. 1944. Mimeo. Women in Latin America: Legal Rights and Restrictions. (Address before the National Association of Women Lawyers.) THE WOMEN’S BUREAU—Its Purpose and Functions. Leaflet. 1949. For complete list of publications available for distribution, write— The Women’s Bureau U. S. Department of Labob Washington 25, D. C. o ImZ? i3^" STATE COLLEGE LIBRARY
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