Full text of The Woman Worker : May 1942, Vol. XXII, No. 3

View original document

The full text on this page is automatically extracted from the file linked above and may contain errors and inconsistencies.

Woman Worker
& Z JU

wjp,

MAY 1942

y,
r>f.3
C.3L>
United States,Department of Labor

Women's Bureau

’ 'S' -

/ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
Frances Perkins, Secretary

WOMEN’S BUREAU
Mary Anderson, Director

THE WOMAN WORKER
PUBLISHED EVERY 2 MONTHS

Vol. XXII

No. 3

May 1942

CONTENTS
Women on the Battle Line in War Factories__________________________________
Community Facilities for Women War Workers________________________________
Labor Standards for Women on War Work_____________________________________
Women at Work in Latin America______________________________________________
Women in Labor Unions_________________________________________________________

Page

3
4
5

7
8

Women’s Earnings Approach Men’s; Clothing Workers Get Paid Vacations; Can
nery Workers Gain; Unions Help Service Workers; Electrical Union Trains Its
Women.
Trends in Women’s Wages and Employment____________________________________
Toward Minimum Fair Wages___________________________________________________

9
11

Fair Labor Standards; Public Contracts; Minimum Wage in the States.
Women’s Wages Rise in Large Manufacturing States__________________ _______

Factory and Office Earnings in New York and in Illinois; Textile Earnings in
South Carolina.
Women’s Work in Manufacturing_______________________________________________
News Notes______________________________________________________________________

13
15

Oklahoma Women Aid Defense; How Women Injured in Pennsylvania; Women
on Police Forces; Women Serve in Baltimore Offices.
Recent Publications____________________________________________________________

Published under authority of Public Resolution No. 57, approved May
11, 1922 (42 Stat. 541), as amended by section 307, Public Act 212, 72d
Congress, approved June 30, 1932. This publication approved by the
Director, Bureau of the Budget

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents a copy
or 25 cents a year

RAt «

Women on the Battle Line in War Factories
of women in war plants is increasing rapidly.
However, many women are unemployed because industries are
being converted to war work. Large numbers of women are seek
ing employment, both at employment offices and at plant gates.
Hence a general registration of women is not necessary at this
time. In some areas with acute labor shortages, local registration
may be of advantage.
mployment

a million women were estimated office as a meteorologist. Both an eastern
early this year to be serving their and a southern airport have definite plans
to place women in their reservations de
country in war industries. The number
of these increases day by day. In some partments, and in flight watch or in the
30 plants making small-arms and artillery traffic operations departments, and the
ammunition, where 40,000 women were Civil Aeronautics Administration is con
employed in the last quarter of 1941, over sidering training women as radio operators.
Women telegraph messengers now num
70,000 are expected to be at work by late
summer. In some of these the woman ber 325 in New York City alone, and in
labor force will be doubled, in others trebled, the country as a whole 3,000 women are
and some will employ 10 times as many expected to do such work this year. In
women as before. These are chiefly new New York, they must be at least 21 years
jobs, not those vacated by men. Before of age. Girls also are performing other
messenger service, formerly done by boys,
1941 almost no women were in aircraft.
in many plants and offices. A major
Women in Jobs Vacated by Men
chemical company is now training a few
Many reports from all parts of the coun women as its chemists.
try show that men called to war service
actually have been replaced by women in Labor Shortages Open Jobs to Women
There are many types of work long done
types of work formerly not done, or done
only very rarely, by women, though of by women but in which women now are
course there is no way to discover the full being taken on in large numbers, because
number of these. They include clerks, of plant expansion as well as declining
cashiers, and pharmacists in drug stores, supply of male labor. For example, as
theater ushers, hotel elevator operators, armature winders, inspectors, power-press
taxi drivers, bank tellers, electricians, acety and drill-press operators, assemblers. Short
lene welders, milling-machine operators, ages of workers are reported in many places
riveters, tool-keepers, gage checkers, gear in fields usual for women; for example, in
cutters, turret and engine lathe operators. hotel and restaurant work, as retail clerks,
Women are operating service stations. stenographers, and as sewing-machine oper
They are replacing men as finger-print ators in certain great clothing centers.
classifiers. A southern city reports a woman Shortages of school teachers are growing,
because of better-paid jobs in industry as
manager of a parking lot.
One of the country’s major airfields has well as the drafting of men, and the National
women on maintenance work, engaging Education Association reports that the
them chiefly in cleaning spark plugs and enrollment in teachers’ colleges and normal
painting luminous dials. One woman hired schools has declined by 11 percent. Certain
as a secretary now directs landings and of the army camps already have employed
take-offs by radio. In another city a woman considerable numbers of women in their
has entered for the first time an airfield offices and laundries, jobs formerly done
alf

452664—42

THE WOMAN WORKER

by men but of a type frequently performed
by women. A woman’s job at present done
by men in camps is canteen work, but
serious consideration is being given to em
ploying women in this.

Unemployment of Women
Contrary to the movement of women into
the manufacture of war products, and into
jobs being vacated by men, runs that
opposite line of women losing jobs due to
curtailment of civilian goods and of critical
materials. Such “priorities unemployment”
became acute at certain points in the second
half of 1941. Plants making many of the
products curtailed employed large numbers
of women—as on aluminum kitchenware,
refrigerators, silk hosiery, washing machines,
radios, typewriters, photographic supplies,
metal toys, costume jewelry, slide and snap
fasteners, and so forth. Others depend on
equipment now curtailed, as for example
the apparel industry threatened with short
ages of steel needles and consequent danger
of unemployment. In many cases it takes
longer to place women than men in new
jobs, since their industrial experience is less
similar to the new types of work required.
Moreover, some of these products are made
in localities that offer women little chance of
other plant jobs.

Women’s Pay Rates in War Plants
In aircraft assembly plants, minimum
entrance rates were the same for women as
for men in 15 of 17 major plants visited by
Women’s Bureau agents in December 1941
or January 1942. Eleven of these, employ
ing 90 percent of the women in the 17 plants,
had entrance rates of 60 cents an hour, with
progression to 75 cents after 3 months’

experience. In two plants the entrance rate
for women was 65 cents, in one 55 cents, in
three 50 cents, and only in two of the last
named was the rate higher for men (55 and
60 cents). In seven plants where women
were at work on the second shift, they
received from 5 to 8 cents an hour more
than on the first shift.
Women’s Bureau visits have ascertained
the standards as to women’s wages in a
dozen plants making small-arms and artillery
ammunition. The operations involved are
chiefly such as long have employed women.
Nearly all these were new plants or they were
making new products and the labor force in
each included many women. In two-thirds
of these establishments the entrance rate for
women ranged from 40 to 48 cents an hour;
in the remainder it was above this, running as
high as 59 cents in one new plant with a rela
tively small number of women. In the two
old plants not making new products women
had entrance rates of respectively 45 and 46
cents. Unlike the situation in aircraft,
hourly entrance rates for men were the same
as for women in only one plant, at least 10
cents above in the others reported. In two
plants the men’s entrance rates were 75 and
80 cents, respectively 20 and 22 cents above
those for women.
Eleven plants reported employing women
on a second shift; eight of these also had a
third shift. Six of nine reporting on rate
paid extra, usually 5 percent an hour more
on the second shift, with an addition of up to
10 percent for the third shift. One plant
paid a 10-percent differential on both second
and third shifts. Three of these plants, and
two that had not yet added shifts, were fol
lowing the plan to alternate workers without
extra pay.

Community Facilities for Women War Workers
and girls in defense employ the Bureau in a number of communities.
ment, many of whom are away from Defense areas may be large or small cities,
sparsely settled areas converted within a few
home and family for the first time, the
Women’s Bureau urges special efforts to months to manufacturing centers, or consid
provide adequate living arrangements and erably developed environs of military camps
wholesome recreation, following surveys by and forts.
or women

May 1942

COMMUNITY FACILITIES

Thousands of women are in private fac
tories and Government arsenals, producing
war materials of various kinds, many on
monotonous, others on difficult, in some cases
dangerous, processes. (See below for applica
tion of State labor laws to such workers.)
Large numbers are employees of the United
States in the Navy and War Departments
and assigned to duty on military reservations,
posts, or bases, or are nurses with the armed
forces. Other women are employed in the
congested areas as white-collar workers and
in service trades, not all on so-called defense
jobs but affected nonetheless by the emer
gency impacts. Because many such workers
are in the low-income brackets, their need of
low-cost housing and recreation is acute.
With such a variety of communities and
of women workers calling for specific pro
grams to be planned and shaped, no single
pattern can be set for all localities. A
survey should be made of the individual
area, to determine what is necessary to fit
the community facilities for safeguarding
women’s welfare. The program planned
must be adapted in a practical way to
community conditions and available facili
ties, which vary considerably with type of
community. The Women’s Bureau, after
consulting other authorities, has formulated
certain general standards and policies, cer
tain desirable procedures, in regard to recre

ation, housing, transportation, information
on community facilities, health and medical
care, and other social problems.1 The fol
lowing are the general standards recom
mended as to housing and eating facilities:
All types of housing for women war workers should
conform to standards essential for safety, security,
health, decency, adequacy, privacy, cleanliness, and
comfort.
Living quarters should be conveniently located in
regard to workplaces and recreation facilities, and be
in pleasant surroundings.
The level of rent should be such as not to exceed 20
percent of the worker’s income.
Safeguards should be set up in every community to
control rents and to prevent other dangers from hit-ormiss room finding.
Single rooms are preferable, or double rooms with
not more than two women, each with her own bed.
Rooms (whether in private homes, boarding or lodg
ing houses, dormitories, etc.) should be adequately
furnished (including a closet with lock or a locker,
preferably for each occupant) and should be properly
heated, ventilated, and lighted.
Bathing facilities and toilets should be modern and
in good repair, arranged to give necessary privacy,
conveniently located and sufficient in number (in the
ratio of a modern bath, or shower, and toilet for every
five to seven persons; a washbasin to every four unless
there is running water in the bedroom, then one for
every seven).
A place on the premises for entertaining guests out
side the bedroom.
Eating facilities of proper kind, conveniently located
with satisfactory inexpensive meals.
1 Recreation and Housing for Women Workers. (Mimeog.)
Published bulletin to follow.

Labor Standards for Women on War Work
the attack on Pearl Harbor only a limited time and revocable at any
December 7, many States took action time; (2) only to particular plants with con
to maintain in general the labor standards
tracts for war materials; (3) in some cases
established for women’s work, with modifi only for employees or departments actually
cations for specific needs of plants while on at work on war materials. The summary
war work. Altogether, 24 States are meet following, made March 15, 1942, shows the
ing the need either by new or long-existing situation existing; since such events move
emergency provisions in basic laws or orders rapidly, and may occur in several States at
or by recent action of State labor authori or near the same time, there may be addi
ties. Where best practice is observed, State tional action not yet recorded here.
labor authorities investigate before issu
ing emergency permits, in order to be sure Recent Emergency Action (15 States).
that an actual war-production need exists.
California.—Certain plants on war work have been
Other important safeguards taken by some granted permission by Commission of Industrial Rela
States include issuance of permits (1) for tions to employ women at night.
ollowing

THE WOMAN WORKER

Connecticut.—A law to permit Labor Commis
sioner to extend hours from the limit of 9-48 to 10-55
for an 8-week period, amended to permit the Governor
to extend the period beyond 8 weeks. (June 24, 1941.
Power to expire in 1943.)
Illinois.—Director of Labor has issued permits for
hours over 48, and for 7-day week if necessary for war
work, with time-and-a-half pay. (January 1, 1942.
Permits granted 65 firms before March 1.)
Indiana.—Labor Commissioner relaxed enforce
ment of night-work prohibition, after investigating each
plant (December 11, 1941).
Kansas.—Labor Commissioner will grant permits
to defense plants, on showing need, to employ women
at night (December 9, 1941).
Maine.—War Emergency Act gives Governor
broad powers; he may “take, use, or utilize ... all
the man-power . . . for the assistance of the military
and naval forces . . .” (January 21, 1942).
Massachusetts.—Under authority of War Emer
gency Act (January 31,1942), Governor on February 18
authorized Labor Commissioner to suspend for war
plants the laws limiting hours and prohibiting night
work. Proof of need required and permits limited to
three months.
Minnesota.—Hour law provides for emergency
overtime, which Industrial Commission has granted in
rare cases to individual plants under specified condi
tions.
Nebraska.—Amendment to night-work law allows
Commissioner to grant permits to employ women at
night in defense plants, after investigation (May 22,
1941).
New Jersey.—Amendment to night-work law
allows Governor to suspend in time of war (December
12, 1941). Permit to apply to particular plant which
has shown need, and for limited time.
New York.—War Emergency Act allows Industrial
Commissioner to issue permits to individual employers
waiving hour, night-work, and l-day’s-rest-in-7 laws,
except for those under 18 years of age. Each case
must be investigated and need shown; permits are for
limited time and only for employees on war work (Jan
uary 28, 1942).
Ohio.—Labor Commissioner issues permits to indi
vidual plants for limited time for increased work hours
for war work. The employer must agree to pay time
and a half or double time for all hours beyond the
legal limit. (December 24, 1941. Permits granted 62
plants by January 29, 1942.)
Pennsylvania.—Under authority of 44-hour law,
Industrial Board ruled defense employers may obtain
permits to employ women over 21 on war work beyond
limits of 8—44 hours, but limited to 48 hours and with
time-and-a-half pay for hours over 44. Permits also
may be granted for night employment (December 18,
1941).
Virginia.—War Emergency Act authorizes Labor
Commissioner to grant individual plants temporary

permits to extend work hours for women 18 years of
age and over on war work from 9-48 to 10-56, subject
to conditions necessary to safeguard health (March 4,
1942).
Wisconsin.—Upon application Industrial Commis
sion permits individual plants to employ women at
night.
Basic Laws or Orders Allow for Emergency.

In the 17 States in the following lists, the
basic labor law or order indicated permits
relaxation for emergencies (of course States
that issue orders regulating labor conditions
may change these at any time):
In Law or Order Providing Weekly Maximum of 48
Hours or Less:
Connecticut, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Hamp
shire, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Utah,
Virginia, Wyoming.
In Law or Order Prohibiting Night Work:
California, Connecticut, Nebraska, New Jersey.
In Law or Order Requiring 1 Day of Rest in 7:
Arizona (if 6-hour day or less), California, Con
necticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North
Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina
(in textile mills), Wisconsin.

State Labor Laws and War Contracts.

In general, application of State hour laws
to war manufacturing differs according to
the status of the plant or the contract, and
may be summarized as follows:
Private firms producing Government supplies—
women workers are protected by the State hour
laws.
Private firms on Government construction—State
laws apply to women laborers or mechanics
only if so specified in the contracts; but the
office workers are protected by the State hour
laws.
Government-owned arsenals, munitions, or other
factories—State hour laws for women apply if
operated by private individuals, but do not
apply if operated by the Government.
Women employees in the executive branch of the
Federal Government—State hour laws do not
apply.
It is still uncertain whether or not State hour laws
apply to women workers for Government corpo
rations, such as the Federal Deposit Insurance
Corporation.
Need for Women’s Night Work Not Great.

New York experience indicates little need
for women’s work at night. In the fall of
1941, only 2 percent (930) of all factories in
the State had hour schedules posted allowing
employment of women on the second shift;

WAR LABOR STANDARDS FOR WOMEN

May 1942

about half of these had but one shift for
men. The law allows women 21 or older
to work at any time between 6 a. m. and
10 p. m., hence two 8-hour shifts are possible.
In general, few establishments in indus
tries directly related to defense used women
on more than one shift. About 15,000
women were employed in such plants, a
large proportion of them in the manufacture
of electrical apparatus, instrument and
watch making, and fine machine manufac

ture. The proportion of these women on
the later shift was not available, but in one
large electrical-apparatus factory only 6
percent were so employed. The number
and proportion of plants in major industries
that reported multiple shifts for women
were: Food, 213 (5 percent); textiles, 167
(8 percent); paper products, 109 (12 per
cent); clothing and allied products, 73 (0.6
percent); printing and allied trades, 61
(1.4 percent).

Women at Work in Latin America
the Women’s Bureau sent a staff member for six
months to Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile to get first-hand
information about economic and social conditions affecting
women, conditions of work for women wage earners, and to
establish contacts with public and private agencies interested
in problems of women workers for a continuous exchange of
publications and material on common problems. This article
is based on observations and documentary material secured while
in those countries.
ast year

“Rosa Gonzalez” (Rose Smith to us),
typical of industrial women of Argentina,
Uruguay, and Chile, has made progress in
her development in the last score or so of
years. Like such a large proportion of
industrial women in the United States,
Rosa is not yet 25 years of age. Her plant
manager says that though she has the same
economic background as the women em
ployed before her, she has more years of
school to her credit, more “personality”;
she is a more independent person, and a
better worker.
Thousands of girls and women in these
three South American countries are wage
earners in industry. Many young women,
even from small towns and the country, who
in earlier years would have sought work in
domestic service, now join the “Rosas” of
the factories.
The largest numbers of women in manu
facturing are in textiles, with meat packing,
food processing, and clothing following
closely. The list of industries employing
women is long. It includes glass and ceram
ics, metals, printing and engraving,
matches, soaps and perfumes, gloves, enam
eled ware, rubber sports shoes, cigarettes.

In the interior “Rosa Gonzalez’^besides
working in factories—many of them smaller,
and less likely than city plants to measure
up to sanitation and health standards—is a
wage earner in agricultural industries, in
the sugarcane fields, the orange, grape,
and other fruit and vegetable harvests,rand
in the preserving and drying of fruits.
Rosa and her sisters for the most part are
paid at piece rates. Wages are not high, and
in many plants work is not steady throughout
the year. The workweek is from 40 to 48
hours. Rosa probably works from 7 to 11
in the morning, and from 1 to 5:45 in the
afternoon, except Saturday. Laws require
closing all business and industry by 1 o’clock
Saturday. Sabado ingles (English Satur
day) it is called. The Uruguayan law does
not include industry, but it is the general
custom. Night work is prohibited foi
women. The 2-hour lunch period gives Rosa
time to go home and, if family duties are
not too heavy (as they may be, especially for
those who are married), to enjoy a noon-day
siesta; but many plants have cafeterias or
lunch rooms, where she may eat the lunch
she brought and make mate or coffee. Eve
ning meals are late, from 8 o’clock on, so

THE WOMAN WORKER

break in work is given at about 4, for a glass
of milk, sold in the workrooms, or in some
plants for tea.
The Rosas of industry work for the most
part in clean, well-lighted, well-ventilated
factories. Machinery is modern, there is not
much speeding, and rest periods are allowed
at certain times or may be taken as the work
permits. In general, sanitary facilities are
good; a few plants provide baths and show
ers. Many companies offer health facilities,
physicians for examinations and prescrip
tions, nurses for home visits, dental and
optical clinics.
An exception to this picture would be the
garment industry, which employs thousands
of women in small shops or homes, often a
family unit, and which is the main source of
industrial home work in South America.
Each large department store has its own
home-work employees and shops; there are
no large clothing manufacturers. There has
been practically no effort and very little
interest directed toward eliminating home
work, but there are laws to control it.
Argentina revised hers last year. Enforce
ment is difficult, of course, even with the
help of organized groups.

Rosa and her friends may belong to a labor
union, or clubs organized under the guidance
of the Catholic Church, or a woman’s club,
the Y. W. C. A., and so forth. Thousands
of industrial women workers are in classes of
some kind; one school visited had 650 en
rolled, another 800. The numbers, their
interest and enthusiasm, are thrilling to see.
Classes may be at noontime or after work,
giving regular school subjects, commercial
work, or special instruction as in dressmak
ing, cooking, art. There are evening schools
and vocational classes, and Saturday after
noon classes (by women’s organizations).
Rosa may live in a typical small home—a
one-story, fiat-roof house, flush with the
sidewalk but with a side or rear patio full of
flowers. Or she may live in a crowded,
unsanitary coventillo (slum dwelling), or
in an apartment or small house in a coopera
tive, low-cost housing unit. She is part of a
close family life. Economic problems are
serious, housework has not been simplified,
and Latin social conventions make the re
sponsibilities of the home fall on her shoul
ders. Yet she is happy, well-adjusted to life
as it comes to her, and may continue work
after marriage.

Women in Labor Unions
Women’s Earnings Approach Men’s
n agreement with a Michigan bomber
plant provides that women shall receive
the same rate as men on the same work.
Employment of 15,000 women is anticipated.
Hourly rates are from 95 cents to 51-60.
A contract covering several hundred aircraft
workers in an eastern State, and expected to
benefit many times that number by midsum
mer, sets minimum rates at 70 cents for
women and 75 for men. It also provides a
general 15-cents-an-hour increase, hours of
8-40 in a 5-day week, with time-and-a-half
pay for work on Saturday and before or after
the regular daily hours. A clause providing
for the same wages for men and women is
included in an agreement covering 86
employees of an Ohio dental-supply com

pany. Wage increases for women are from
1 to 3 cents less than men’s in recent con
tracts in the rubber tire, brass products, and
container industries.

Clothing Workers Get Paid Vacations
Vacations with pay are important features
of recent clothing contracts: Corsets, 700
workers, Indiana; children’s clothing, several
hundred, Texas; wash dresses, 2,200, New
Jersey; children’s dresses 300, uniforms 50,
Pennsylvania; sportswear, 2,000 to 2,500,
California. Some include vacation provi
sions for the first time. Wage raises are pro
vided more often than not, and in half a
minimum rate of 517 is established. Button
makers in Iowa under the auspices of the
men’s clothing union negotiated a 10-percent

May 1942

WOMEN IN UNIONS

increase. Average earnings of union mem
bers are from $16 to $32 for a 40-hour week,
compared with $12 to $18 a year ago.

Cannery Workers Gain
Some 800 workers in a California fish can
nery have secured a 10-cents-an-hour increase
with minimum rates of 75 cents for women,
80 cents for men. Wage increases are
reported for 15 other canneries on the Pacific
coast. In one employing 1,300, gains of 5 to
10 cents an hour are reported; in two others
employing 420, increases are 10 cents for
women, 12% cents for men. In a group of 10
California companies wage increases range
from 14 to 21 percent. In October 1939,
women were 60 percent of all wage earners
in fish canneries, 56 percent of those in fruit
and vegetable.

Unions Help Service Workers
Service workers have special need of a
union, since few benefit from the Fair Labor
Standards Act. This is illustrated by wage
rates recently set by arbitration for certain
California hotel workers. Daily rates in
women’s occupations are: Telephone opera
tors, chief $5, other $4.25; linen room, chief
$4.50, other $4.25; inspectors or working
housekeepers and seamstresses and menders,
$4.25; maids and bedmakers, $4. These
represent increases of from 21 to 23 percent
over an award in 1938. The basic closedshop contract was signed in June 1941, the

wage award in January 1942, with increases
retroactive to August 1941. Maintenance
workers in three social agencies also benefit
by recent contracts. One provides a $2
weekly increase; a week of 40 hours for
women, 48 for men; time and a half for over
time; sick leave; and grievance machinery.

Electrical Union Trains Its Women
A course for training women in union
leadership has been under way among the
United Electrical, Radio and Machine
Workers of America, since many leading
union men will leave for Army duty. This
followed the conference by the union in
Newark, N. J., called before American
entry into war, to consider defense effort
and problems arising from increased en
trance of women into the industry and the
union. (See Woman Worker, January
1942.) The conference, at which 27 locals
and 64 shops in New York and New Jersey
were represented, selected a continuing
committee of 22 women from as many locals.
This action is in line with a resolution adopted
at the regular convention in September,
calling for “extension of organizational work
among women,” necessary since “they are
subject to extreme speed-up and * * *
their wages are always below those paid
men.” The union in New York City ar
ranged with the Board of Education for
training in defense work of at least 1,000
of its women members.

Trends in Women’s Wages and Employment
employment increased by 14 almost all these industries, markedly so in
percent, men’s by 20, from March several of the groups formerly low-paying.
Week’s earnings in most cases advanced
1940 to April 1941 in a total of 24 industries.
These comprise large samples from the proportionately more than hourly earnings,
industries that employ the greatest numbers
1 Source: Pay-roll records mailed by employers to the Bureau
of women in manufacturing, and include of Labor Statistics for 1 week in the month. Reports for April
1941 included nearly 511,000 women in 22 industries representing
laundries and cleaning and dyeing. Much nearly two-thirds of all women in manufacturing, and almost 35,000
of this increase came after October 1940, women in laundries and cleaning and dyeing plants. Wage and
hour figures given cover all plants reported; percent changes are
as it was especially great in industries con computed from data for identical plants only. The 12 States
nected with defense and the defense program included employ about three-fourths of all women in manufacturing
—California, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, Michi
was expanding rapidly.
gan, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio,
Women’s average hourly earnings, as Pennsylvania. Earlier data appeared in the Woman Worker for
March and September 1938, May and September 1939, March
well as their employment, increased in and September 1940, September 1941.
omen’s

THE WOMAN WORKER

due to somewhat lengthened hours, though
this is not true of cigar and cotton-dress
plants as hours here were shortened.
Women’s workweek in April 1941 averaged
less than 40 hours in practically all the 22
manufacturing industries, electrical machin
ery and rubber boots and shoes being the
only exceptions. In 13 industries women’s
hours averaged less than 37.
Changes in Women’s Employment.

Dyeing and cleaning_________________ 6
Woolen and worsted_______________ __ 6
Electrical machinery and supplies______
5
Cigars_____________________________ 4
Boots and shoes (rubber)_____________ 4
Hardware________________________ , 2
Hosiery____________________________ 2
Silk and rayon__________ ,____________ 2
Laundries,________________________ 2

8
4
6
10
8
8
8
8
5

Percent decrease 1

The more notable changes from March
1940 to April 1941 in women’s employment
in identical plants, with those of men for
comparison, were as follows:
Employment
Percent increase 1

Women

Electrical machinery and supplies________51
Woolen and worsted_________________ 47
Hardware___________________________ 38
Radios and phonographs_______________ 31
Auto tives and tubes__________________ 31
Glass and pottery_____________________ 20
Cotton goods_______________________ 19
Boots and shoes (rubber)_____________ 18
Dyeing and cleaning,________ ._______ 16
Silk and rayon_______________________ 14
Paper boxes (set-up)___________________12
Laundries_____________
12
Book and job printing________________ 10
Women’s undergarments______________ 8
Hosiery____________________________ 8
Men’s suits, overcoats________________ 5
Confectionery_______________________ 3
Women’s cotton dresses______________
2

Men

48
33
18
31
13
14
13
10
16
7
10
6
2
12
10
5
8
5

Percent decrease 1

Women

Women’s coats and suits______________ 23
Women’s dresses (not cotton)_______ i._ 5
Knit underwear_____________________ 2 3

Men

20
2
5

1 Listed if change 5 percent or more for either sex.
8 Increase.

Changes in Women’s Hourly Earnings.

The chief changes in average hourly earn
ings were as follows:
Average hourly
earnings
Percent increase 1

Women

Women’s cotton dresses_______________ 12
Men’s cotton clothing_____________ ... 10
Cotton goods_______________________ 8
Knit underwear_____________________ 8
Boots and shoes (leather)_____________ 7
Glass and pottery___________________
7
Women’s undergarments______________ 6

Average hourly
earnings
Percent increase 1
Women
Men

Men

11
5
9
(2)
7
4
8

Men

Women

Women’s coats and suits__________ ___

* Listed if change 5 percent or more for either sex.
2 Decline, less than 0.5 percent.

Women’s Hourly and Week’s Earnings.

Women’s average hourly and week’s earnings in April 1941 were as follows:
Average
week’s
earnings

Over 320:
Tires and tubes
.. .____ 324.90
Electrical machinery and sup____ 22.65
plies
.
__
Boots and shoes (rubber) ____ 22.44
Women’s dresses (not cotton)__ 22.01
Hardware
_
____ ____ 20.96
Over 315, under 320:
Woolen and worsted
____ 19. 16
Dyeing and cleaning.
.____ 18.93
Women’s coats and suits ____ 18.69
Radios and phonographs ____ 18.44
Book and job printing____ ____ 18.15
Glass and pottery_____
____ 18.02
Men’s suits and overcoats ____ 17.96
Women’s undergarments. .____ 16.26
Boots and shoes (leather) ____ 16.06
____ 16.03
Hosiery .
Cotton goods..
____ 15.73
Women’s cotton dresses. ____ 15.71
____ 15.66
Laundries..
Paper boxes (set-up), ___ ____ 15.58
Knit underwear
_ . ____ 15.57
Men’s cotton clothing-. . .____ 15.56
Confectionery.
____ ____ 15.37
Under 315:
Silk and rayon
. __ ____ 14.39
Cigars___ ___ ..
____ 13.31

Average
hourly
earnings
[cents)

70.3
56.0
55.1
63.5
53.6

50.7
44.3
74.1
50.3
49.3
49.8
53.7
45.5
44.5
47.3
42.5
42.8
38.5
41.7
42.2
42.0
43.7
40.5
42.0

Situation of Men and Women Compared.

Women’s average hourly earnings were in
every case well below those of men. In fact,
in 12 of the 24 industries women’s pay aver
aged less than the lowest figure for men,
which was 47 cents in cotton mills. The

EMPLOYMENT AND WAGE TRENDS

May 1942

second lowest for men was 54 cents in silk
and rayon mills, and women’s averages were
lower than this in 19 industries. Percent
increases in hourly earnings from the spring
of 1940 to that of 1941 were greater for men
than for women in more than half the indus
tries reported.
For the most part employment took the
same direction for both sexes, usually advanc
ing. The percent increase ordinarily was
greater for women than for men, notable
exceptions being hosiery, confectionery, and

women’s undergarments and cotton dresses*
Men’s working hours as well as women’s
had lengthened. Though less than 43 hours
in all but 2 of the 22 manufacturing indus
tries reported, and less than 40 hours in half
of them, men’s workweek was longer than
women’s in every case, roughly 4 to 6 hours
longer in 11 industries—cigars, confectionery,
electrical machinery, cotton dresses, men’s
cotton clothing, knit underwear, radios,
hosiery, hardware, paper boxes, and silk and
rayon goods.

Toward Minimum Fair Wages
Fair Labor Standards Administration
Adoption of a 40-cent minimum rec-

y^ommended for several industries—
noted in previous issues—is awaited as the
Woman Worker goes to press. Removal
of the Wage and Hour Division from Wash
ington delays the receipt of its latest in
formation, and no doubt the removal ma
terially delayed action on these industries,
which are as follows:
Cigars—40 cents, except leaf handlers 35, first
minimum.
Cigarettes—40 cents, first minimum.
Gloves—40 cents, replacing 35 and 32%.
Luggage, leather goods, and women’s handbags—
40 cents, replacing 35.
Textiles—40 cents, replacing 37% (35 for nonwool
carpets). Now adopted, effective April 20.

An order for knitted outerwear, effective
April 20, fixes a 40-cent minimum, and
restricts home work after November 30.

Public Contracts Administration
Recent determinations by the Division
of Public Contracts bring two more in
dustries into agreement with the Fair Labor
Standards orders. The rate for seamless
hosiery was raised from 35 to 36 cents. The
coverage in the case of men’s underwear
(knit and woven) was extended to include
commercial knitting and the rate was raised
to 40 cents from 35 cents in the North and
32% cents in the South. Rates for these
industries were first set in August 1937.

Minimum Wage in the States
California—Hearings and Investigations.

Two public hearings were held recently by
the California Industrial Welfare Commis
sion—one in Los Angeles to consider the
recommendations of the Manufacturing
Wage Board, which include an $18 mini
mum, and one in San Francisco, where
evidence was taken on wages, hours, work
ing conditions, and living costs of women
in the canning industry, preparatory to a
wage board for this industry. The Division
of Industrial Welfare has opened an office in
San Diego. Pay rolls are being examined
looking toward appointment of a wage
board for personal-service industries, cover
ing beauty shops and certain other occupa
tions.
Connecticut—Women’s Earnings in Stores.

The average hourly wage of more than
8,000 women in Connecticut retail trade is
33 % cents, according to a study by the
State Labor Department the findings of
which have been presented to the wage
board for the industry. Women members
of the board are Stella Perka and Mae
Alpert representing labor, and Mrs. Joseph
Leopold representing the public.
Only one-fourth of the workers earned 40
cents or more; nearly one-third earned less
than 30 cents. Saleswomen, the chief occupa
tional group, averaged 31.9 cents. Average
earnings ranged from 43.1 cents in automo-

THE WOMAN WORKER

tive stores (a small group) to 27 cents in
limited-price and chain stores. Three in
five of the women averaged less than $16
a week in 1941, two in five even less than
$14, though a working woman living alone
needs at least $18 a week for healthful
living. Minimum rates already set in other
industries in the State for experienced
women working 48 hours are as follows:
Laundries 32% cents and cleaning and
dyeing 35 cents an hour; beauty parlors $18
a week.
Two-thirds of the women had worked 40
hours or longer, practically 30 percent
exactly 48 hours, the legal limit. More than
one-fifth had worked less than 28 hours and
were counted as part-time employees. Aver
age hours were 46.4 for full-time workers.
Wage Collections in Three States.

In 1941 the Ohio Division of Minimum
Wage collected over $80,000 for 1,657
women and minors paid less than the re
quired minimum. Of this, 85 percent was
for workers in establishments supplying the
public with food and lodging, where a
striking case was that of a waitress who was
awarded $441.80; she had worked 96 hours
a week for nearly a year and been paid only
$5 a week.
In the same year the Industrial Commis

sion of Minnesota collected $56,000 in back
wages for 1,500 women and minors, chiefly
in intrastate industries, including public
housekeeping, offices, mercantile establish
ments, and small telephone exchanges not
covered by the Federal Act.
Wage collections under the Industrial
Welfare Commission of California were 51
percent higher in 1941 than in 1940, the
total for the later year being $291,729 as
compared with $192,599 in 1940. These
figures show the necessity for minimumwage legislation even in a time of relatively
prosperous conditions. In this State, the
minimum applies to most woman-employing
industries.
Other States at Work.

A cost-of-living study is being made in
Kentucky and a wage board for hotels and
restaurants is to be selected soon. Louisi
ana has appointed a board for the laundry
industry. In Rhode Island a wage board
has been appointed for restaurants and
hotel restaurants; public representatives
include one woman (Mabie E. Dickson of
the State College) and employee represen
tatives one woman (Vera Timmerman of
Providence). In Massachusetts a wage
board is to consider revision of the wage
order for beauty-culture occupations.

Women’s Wages Rise in Large Manufacturing States
fixing, defense-indus
try expansion, new demands for
labor, all may have their influence in
rent wage rises. These have benefited both
men and women, both office and factory
workers, causing wages to rise much more
markedly in the past year than previously.
inimum-wage

New York—Factory and Office Earnings.

A special survey of men’s and women’s
earnings in New York covered 8 industries
for the 5 years 1937-41—machinery and
electrical apparatus, shoes, knit goods, four
clothing industries, and bakeries. For all
industries combined, women’s weekly earn
ings averaged $19.25 in 1941, an advance of
16 percent from the low point; men’s had

advanced by 20 percent. In 7 of the 8 indus
tries women’s gains exceeded men’s; women’s
cur
earnings
increased by about one-fourth in
knit goods, men’s clothing, and men’s fur
nishings. In machinery and electrical appa
ratus, most closely linked with defense,
wages were highest, increases greatest: 48
percent for men, nearly 46 for women.
The annual October survey of office
earnings in New York factories showed
women’s weekly average 10 percent above
the level of the year before, men’s 10% per
cent. At the same time earnings of shop
employees had risen by 14 percent for
women, 16 for men. (For further details
see Woman Worker, March 1942.)

WOMEN’S WAGES RISE

May 1942

Illinois—Factory and Office Earnings.

ered about 21,000 women and 25,000 men.

Much the same trend in earnings of
women in factories is shown by regular
monthly reports from Illinois. A com
parison of October earnings for the past
4 years shows women’s average in all
manufacturing as respectively $16.19,
$17.27, and $17.12 for the first 3 years, but
rising to $20.13 in 1941. (December figures
show a further rise.) Such important de
fense industries as electrical goods, shoes,
knit goods, men’s clothing, and meat pack
ing show much the same trend, with the
greatest relative gain in factories making
shoes and men’s clothing. The lowest
average (other than $14.11 in saw and
planing mills, where few women are em
ployed) was $15.31 in pottery and clay
products, the highest $24.37 in slaughtering
and meat packing.
Women in Illinois factory offices in Octo
ber 1941 averaged $24.31 a week, not quite
60 percent of men’s earnings. Technical
employees doing routine work were included,
but not salesmen, supervisory and mana
gerial personnel, nor responsible technical
and professional workers. The report cov-

South Carolina—Textile Mill Earnings.

In one of the major textile States, South
Carolina, the Fair Labor Standards mini
mum of 32% cents for this industry, the
rate in effect from October 1939 to June
1941, seems to have spelled prosperity for
both employers and workers. (See Woman
Worker, November 1941, for increases in
1940.) Though capital invested increased
but slightly over 1940, value of annual
production rose by 32 percent in 1941.
Employment of men and women wage
earners advanced by 9 and 12 percent, re
spectively, and total wages paid them by 17
and 22. Average per capita earnings were
$902 for men and $755 for women, while in
the year before the Fair Labor Standards
minimum of 32% cents became effective
they were $782 and $625. Much of the
workers’ prosperity in the State depends
on earnings in textile mills. Men’s employ
ment and wages were about two-thirds of
the figures for all factories, women’s more
than 80 percent. The value of annual
textile production was two-thirds that of all
manufacturing in the State.

Women’s Work in Manufacturing1
than 400 industries reported in
Between 20,000 and 50,000 women were
the latest Census of Manufactures, all in each of 4 textile, 3 apparel, and 2 food
but 9 employed women wage earners. Aver

industries,
and in the making of paper con
ages of 10,000 or more such women were re tainers, radios and parts, cigars, and motor
ported in 44 individual industries, which to vehicles and parts. From 10,000 to 20,000
gether accounted for nearly two-thirds of women were in each of 8 apparel, 4 paper
all women wage earners in manufacturing.
and printing, 3 textile, 2 food, 2 electrical
The production of cotton broad woven machinery, and 2 chemical industries, in
goods averaged more women in the year cigarettes, and in miscellaneous rubber
than any other single industry, over 114,000 products.
in all. The manufacture of footwear of all Industries Newly Reported in 1939.
kinds (except rubber) engaged nearly
In practically every census, industries
100,000 women. Other industries reporting
at least 50,000 were: Women’s and misses’ that have begun as a small part of some
dresses, 81,000; men’s and boys’ suits, coats, larger group rise to the importance of a
overcoats, 77,000, and shirts (except work), separate class. In the decade since 1929
62,000; woolen and worsted manufacture,
1 The 1939 Census of Manufactures reports number of women
60,000; full-fashioned hosiery, 55,000; canned wage earners for October. Averages for the year are not reported
by sex, but average number of women was computed by applying
and dried fruits and vegetables, 55,000.
the percent of women in October to the year’s average.
f more

THE WOMAN WORKER

three that have emerged as relatively new
and that were reported separately for the
first time in 1939 are quick-frozen foods,
plastic materials, and miscellaneous articles
made from plastics.
In 1929, fruits and vegetables were
canned, preserved, or dried. Quick freezing
was first reported in 1937, when it employed
nearly 2,000 workers. In 1939 over 2,600
were so engaged, two-thirds of them women.
At the peak of employment in June 1939,
nearly 5,000 wage earners were reported.
The making of plastic materials was re
ported with miscellaneous chemicals in 1929.
By 1939 it employed nearly 500 women, and
the amount of such materials produced had
increased by more than 500 percent in the
decade. The making of miscellaneous articles
from plastics employed 4,000 women, who
constituted a fourth of the wage earners in
the industry. With the substitution of
plastics for other materials, the industry
undoubtedly will continue to grow.
Women in Industries Converted for War.

In manufactures that were first to under
take defense production an average of about
275,000 women wage earners were employed
in 1939, distributed in the following broad
industrial groups:
Electrical machinery_____________
Iron and steel and their products___
Chemicals and allied products______
Nonferrous metals and their products.
Machinery (other than electrical)___
Automobiles and their equipment___
Other transportation equipment____

87, 000
60,000
42, 000
31, 000
27, 000
26, 000
1, 570

The total number of women in these
groups had declined by about 20,000 since
1929, the number of men by about 313,000.
Exact comparisons usually cannot be made
in specific groups because of many shifts
in classification. However, in one—auto
mobiles and their equipment—women had in
creased by about 4,000 while employment of
men declined by about 52,500.
Most of these industries had to be con
verted from production for consumers to
production for defense. A few already
were producing war materials, and in most
of these women’s employment had declined,

though in aircraft making it had increased
by 45 percent. Chief among those producing war materials were the following:
Industry

Ifomen
Average
number

______
535
Aircraft and parts.
Aluminum products (ingots, castings, plates, sheets, etc.) ______
862
Ammunition_______
______ 1,360
Explosives..
_ . .
______ 1,224
Firearms.. _____
240
______

Percent of
total

1. 1
5.0
31.9
16.9
4.8

The electrical-machinery group offers an
important field for women’s contribution
to the war effort. In many of its important
branches conversion may be relatively easy.
In any case, the skills women have ac
quired here should be of the greatest use.
From 1929 to 1939 the average number of
women in the various electrical industries
declined by about 6,700, but their propor
tion among all wage earners increased from
29 to 34 percent. In 1939 women averaged
87,000 in the total of thjs manufacturing
group, but at least 11,000 more were work
ing at peak of production. The largest
numbers were found in four industries, as
follows: Radios and parts, 23,500; communi
cation equipment, 13,000; generating, dis
tribution, and industrial apparatus, 13,000;
electric lamps, 7,400. All these include
products of strategic importance.
In machinery other than electrical and
metal manufacturing, a brief survey indi
cates considerable numbers of women work
ing on a great variety of products.' The
following important woman-employers may
be listed, with some of their chief products,
the average number of women employed,
and the change in woman employment
since 1929 so far as comparisons can be
made. A reading of the products listed
indicates that many are for the comfort, con
venience, or pleasure of the average citizen,
and production of many is being curtailed
by the shortage of metals.
Stamped and pressed metal products (including
vitreous enameled), 12,400, an increase of 2,500.
Stamped auto parts and accessories; bottle and jar
caps, galvanized iron pails, ash and garbage cans;
vitreous enameled kitchen, household, and hospital
utensils.

May 1942

WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING

Jewelry {including costume jewelry), 10,000, an
increase of 2,100. Jewelry; cigarette cases and lighters;
compacts, vanity cases, novelties; trophies, religious
articles; chains, dress and bag ornaments.
Tin cans and other tinware, 9,000, a decline of 350.
Packers’ cans; plain and decorated cans, pails, boxes,
and packages; milk and ice cream cans; household and
cooking tinware.
Office and store machinery, 8,700, an increase of 1,000.
Typewriters; mechanical devices for calculating,
change making, card sorting and tabulating, check
writing and canceling, addressing and mailing, dupli
cating and manifolding.
Clocks, watches, and parts, 8,500, a decline of 500.
Clocks and watches; time-recording instruments and
stamps; time switches and locks; clock and watch
parts (except watch cases and crystals).

Miscellaneous hardware, 8,200, a decline of 2,600.
Builders’ hardware; hardware for furniture, caskets,
harness, trunks and suitcases, locks and padlocks;
motor-vehicle hardware (not made in plants owned by
motor-vehicle makers).
Wire work, 6,700, an increase of 1,600. Manufac
ture, from purchased wire, of woven-wire fencing,
screening wire cloth and netting; wire rope and cable;
barbed wire, tire chains, bale wires, concrete-reinforcing
wire; wire springs, trays, baskets, and kitchen goods.
Lighting fixtures, 5,300, an increase of 700. All
types for residence and other buildings; motor-vehicle
and marine lamps; searchlights, flood lights, street and
highway fixtures, flashlight cases.
Needles, pins, etc., 5,100, an increase of 1,900. Sewing
and knitting needles, both machine and hand; pins,
including hairpins; slide and snap fasteners; hooks and
eyes.

News Notes
Oklahoma Women Aid Defense
than 600 women are doing clerical
work in war industries or air bases in
Oklahoma, according to a recent report from
the Commissioner of Labor. As yet only
about 100 are doing factory work, most on
food or army uniforms, though 12 women
operate punch presses in a bomber plant.
Few directors of vocational schools are
accepting women in defense courses, but a
junior college was asked in February to
recruit as many as possible for technical
courses hitherto open only to men. Women
students in two colleges are urged to take
at least one of the courses in first aid,
nursing, anaesthetics, dental hygiene, nurs
ing aid, nutrition and dietetics, with a view
to teaching these in their home counties.
In one college a special course is being
offered in institutional management—the
marketing and calculating needed to operate
hotels and summer camps. Four hospitals
are giving training as part of a Nation-wide
program to relieve a shortage of nurses and
other hospital workers.
ore

How Women Injured, Pennsylvania
Overloading, crowding, or poor arrange
ment resulted in permanent injury to 21
women in Pennsylvania in 1940. Nearly
1,800 other women lost an average of 7
weeks from work for the same reasons.

Using unsafe tools or equipment or using
them in an unsafe way caused an average
loss of more than 4 weeks for 739 women who
later recovered fully, and the death of 2 and
permanent injury of 63 others. Due to
gripping objects insecurely, taking wrong
hold of objects, or lifting with bent back,
242 women averaged nearly 7 weeks lost,
while 4 others were permanently disabled,
one totally so. Other unsafe acts that led
to the disability (in each case temporary)
of from about 20 to 60-some women were:
Operating or working at unsafe speed;
working on equipment in motion; failure
to wear protective clothing—gloves, goggles
and the like.
Altogether 83 percent of women’s injuries
and 81 percent of the time lost in temporary
disability cases were caused in the ways
mentioned in the foregoing. This analysis
points clearly to preventive measures: Care
ful training and supervision; better house
keeping and general management.
There were reported 3,621 injuries to
women in the year, including 5 fatal cases
and 6 permanent total and 107 permanent
partial disabilities. Of all injuries, 38 per
cent occurred in manufacturing, but this
was true of 61 percent of the permanent
injuries (including fatal cases). The prin
cipal industries in which workers were dis
abled or lost time were textile and clothing

THE WOMAN WORKER

factories, stores, restaurants, private insti
tutions, State and municipal institutions,
food products manufacturing, metal prod
ucts manufacturing, and hotels.

Women on Police Forces
Women h<~'ped to enforce the laws and
protect citizens in 126 of 362 cities, in all
parts of the United States, surveyed in 1938
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Cities
ranged from those of 25,000 population to
the largest. Including a few officers, 452
women, aside from matrons, clerical work
ers, and so on, were engaged in law enforce
ment. While in most cities only one police
woman was reported, in New York City
there were 127, in Chicago 61, in Detroit
55, in Los Angeles 36, in Washington 22.
In 61 cities the salary of at least one of
the women was the same as the first-grade
patrolmen’s; in 4 cities it was higher than
men’s rate. In 41 cities women were paid
less than any patrolman of any grade; in 11
cities as much as $500 to $900 below firstgrade patrolmen’s salaries.

Women Serve in Baltimore Offices
Women white-collar workers were replac
ing men selected for the Army in four of
eight large Baltimore offices reporting in a

Y. W. C. A. survey recently made available
for late 1940 and the first half of 1941.
Five of the firms paid women the same as
men for the same work.
There were indications that the better
prepared workers were likely to fare best.
Of the high-school graduates less than
three-tenths received as much as $26 a
week and 8 percent were paid $15 or less.
Of the college graduates half were paid $26
or more, and none received less than $15.
A fifth of the women had been at work 10
years or longer. Of the entire group of 215
women reported, about 8 percent were paid
well below the W. P. A. estimated require
ment for subsistence level. Over 60 percent
of the total lived at home.
Jobs that employers found most difficult
to fill were those requiring somewhat more
training or experience than others—operators
of calculating and bookkeeping machines,
experienced salespersons, secretaries, and
PBX operators. Overcrowded were the
jobs of typist, clerk, receptionist, salesclerk,
and store wrapper. Six firms gave regular
in-service training. All firms had some over
time, four worked overtime a great deal.
For such work, most firms gave extra pay
at the rate of time and one-half or time and
one-third; a few substituted time off.

Recent Publications
Women’s Bureau—Mimeographed Material
Report of the Conference of the Women’s Bureau
Advisory Committees, U. S. Department of Labor,

Washington, D. C., January 21-22, 1942. 25 pp.
The Employment of Women in Canadian Gun and
Rifle Factories, January 1942. 13 pp.
Supplement to Women in War Industries in Great
Britain. March 1942. 16 pp.
Typical Operations on Which Women Can Be
Employed More Extensively in War Production.

2 pp.

Other Department of Labor Publications
Changes in Cost of Living
United States, 1913-41.

Large Cities

Bul. 699.

in the

Bureau of

Labor Statistics.

Reports of Committees and Resolutions Adopted
by the Eighth National Conference on Labor
Legislation. Bul. 52-A. Division of Labor Stand

ards.
Handbook of Federal Labor Legislation: Labor
Laws of General Application. Bul. 39, Part II.

Division of Labor Standards.

Other Publications

Reprints of a series of articles
appearing in The Independent Woman. Price 15
cents, 10 for #1.25. Federation of Business and
Professional Women’s Clubs, Inc., New York City.
Among the 24 subjects so far covered are: War
work; personnel, social, statistical work; aviation,
nursing, office management, occupational therapy.

Vocations for Women.

Money Disbursements of Wage Earners and
Clerical Workers, 1934-36. Summary Volume.

Bul. 638.

Bureau of Labor Statistics.

U S.

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1942

Full text of The Woman Worker : May 1942, Vol. XXII, No. 3

FRASER