Full text of The Woman Worker : May 1942, Vol. XXII, No. 3
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Woman Worker & Z JU wjp, MAY 1942 y, r>f.3 C.3L> United States,Department of Labor Women's Bureau M 3 ’ 'S' - / UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR Frances Perkins, Secretary WOMEN’S BUREAU Mary Anderson, Director THE WOMAN WORKER PUBLISHED EVERY 2 MONTHS Vol. XXII No. 3 May 1942 CONTENTS Women on the Battle Line in War Factories__________________________________ Community Facilities for Women War Workers________________________________ Labor Standards for Women on War Work_____________________________________ Women at Work in Latin America______________________________________________ Women in Labor Unions_________________________________________________________ Page 3 4 5 7 8 Women’s Earnings Approach Men’s; Clothing Workers Get Paid Vacations; Can nery Workers Gain; Unions Help Service Workers; Electrical Union Trains Its Women. Trends in Women’s Wages and Employment____________________________________ Toward Minimum Fair Wages___________________________________________________ 9 11 Fair Labor Standards; Public Contracts; Minimum Wage in the States. Women’s Wages Rise in Large Manufacturing States__________________ _______ 12 Factory and Office Earnings in New York and in Illinois; Textile Earnings in South Carolina. Women’s Work in Manufacturing_______________________________________________ News Notes______________________________________________________________________ 13 15 Oklahoma Women Aid Defense; How Women Injured in Pennsylvania; Women on Police Forces; Women Serve in Baltimore Offices. Recent Publications____________________________________________________________ Published under authority of Public Resolution No. 57, approved May 11, 1922 (42 Stat. 541), as amended by section 307, Public Act 212, 72d Congress, approved June 30, 1932. This publication approved by the Director, Bureau of the Budget For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents a copy or 25 cents a year 16 RAt « Women on the Battle Line in War Factories of women in war plants is increasing rapidly. However, many women are unemployed because industries are being converted to war work. Large numbers of women are seek ing employment, both at employment offices and at plant gates. Hence a general registration of women is not necessary at this time. In some areas with acute labor shortages, local registration may be of advantage. mployment E a million women were estimated office as a meteorologist. Both an eastern early this year to be serving their and a southern airport have definite plans to place women in their reservations de country in war industries. The number of these increases day by day. In some partments, and in flight watch or in the 30 plants making small-arms and artillery traffic operations departments, and the ammunition, where 40,000 women were Civil Aeronautics Administration is con employed in the last quarter of 1941, over sidering training women as radio operators. Women telegraph messengers now num 70,000 are expected to be at work by late summer. In some of these the woman ber 325 in New York City alone, and in labor force will be doubled, in others trebled, the country as a whole 3,000 women are and some will employ 10 times as many expected to do such work this year. In women as before. These are chiefly new New York, they must be at least 21 years jobs, not those vacated by men. Before of age. Girls also are performing other messenger service, formerly done by boys, 1941 almost no women were in aircraft. in many plants and offices. A major Women in Jobs Vacated by Men chemical company is now training a few Many reports from all parts of the coun women as its chemists. try show that men called to war service actually have been replaced by women in Labor Shortages Open Jobs to Women There are many types of work long done types of work formerly not done, or done only very rarely, by women, though of by women but in which women now are course there is no way to discover the full being taken on in large numbers, because number of these. They include clerks, of plant expansion as well as declining cashiers, and pharmacists in drug stores, supply of male labor. For example, as theater ushers, hotel elevator operators, armature winders, inspectors, power-press taxi drivers, bank tellers, electricians, acety and drill-press operators, assemblers. Short lene welders, milling-machine operators, ages of workers are reported in many places riveters, tool-keepers, gage checkers, gear in fields usual for women; for example, in cutters, turret and engine lathe operators. hotel and restaurant work, as retail clerks, Women are operating service stations. stenographers, and as sewing-machine oper They are replacing men as finger-print ators in certain great clothing centers. classifiers. A southern city reports a woman Shortages of school teachers are growing, because of better-paid jobs in industry as manager of a parking lot. One of the country’s major airfields has well as the drafting of men, and the National women on maintenance work, engaging Education Association reports that the them chiefly in cleaning spark plugs and enrollment in teachers’ colleges and normal painting luminous dials. One woman hired schools has declined by 11 percent. Certain as a secretary now directs landings and of the army camps already have employed take-offs by radio. In another city a woman considerable numbers of women in their has entered for the first time an airfield offices and laundries, jobs formerly done alf H 452664—42 THE WOMAN WORKER 4 by men but of a type frequently performed by women. A woman’s job at present done by men in camps is canteen work, but serious consideration is being given to em ploying women in this. Unemployment of Women Contrary to the movement of women into the manufacture of war products, and into jobs being vacated by men, runs that opposite line of women losing jobs due to curtailment of civilian goods and of critical materials. Such “priorities unemployment” became acute at certain points in the second half of 1941. Plants making many of the products curtailed employed large numbers of women—as on aluminum kitchenware, refrigerators, silk hosiery, washing machines, radios, typewriters, photographic supplies, metal toys, costume jewelry, slide and snap fasteners, and so forth. Others depend on equipment now curtailed, as for example the apparel industry threatened with short ages of steel needles and consequent danger of unemployment. In many cases it takes longer to place women than men in new jobs, since their industrial experience is less similar to the new types of work required. Moreover, some of these products are made in localities that offer women little chance of other plant jobs. Women’s Pay Rates in War Plants In aircraft assembly plants, minimum entrance rates were the same for women as for men in 15 of 17 major plants visited by Women’s Bureau agents in December 1941 or January 1942. Eleven of these, employ ing 90 percent of the women in the 17 plants, had entrance rates of 60 cents an hour, with progression to 75 cents after 3 months’ experience. In two plants the entrance rate for women was 65 cents, in one 55 cents, in three 50 cents, and only in two of the last named was the rate higher for men (55 and 60 cents). In seven plants where women were at work on the second shift, they received from 5 to 8 cents an hour more than on the first shift. Women’s Bureau visits have ascertained the standards as to women’s wages in a dozen plants making small-arms and artillery ammunition. The operations involved are chiefly such as long have employed women. Nearly all these were new plants or they were making new products and the labor force in each included many women. In two-thirds of these establishments the entrance rate for women ranged from 40 to 48 cents an hour; in the remainder it was above this, running as high as 59 cents in one new plant with a rela tively small number of women. In the two old plants not making new products women had entrance rates of respectively 45 and 46 cents. Unlike the situation in aircraft, hourly entrance rates for men were the same as for women in only one plant, at least 10 cents above in the others reported. In two plants the men’s entrance rates were 75 and 80 cents, respectively 20 and 22 cents above those for women. Eleven plants reported employing women on a second shift; eight of these also had a third shift. Six of nine reporting on rate paid extra, usually 5 percent an hour more on the second shift, with an addition of up to 10 percent for the third shift. One plant paid a 10-percent differential on both second and third shifts. Three of these plants, and two that had not yet added shifts, were fol lowing the plan to alternate workers without extra pay. Community Facilities for Women War Workers and girls in defense employ the Bureau in a number of communities. ment, many of whom are away from Defense areas may be large or small cities, sparsely settled areas converted within a few home and family for the first time, the Women’s Bureau urges special efforts to months to manufacturing centers, or consid provide adequate living arrangements and erably developed environs of military camps wholesome recreation, following surveys by and forts. or women F May 1942 COMMUNITY FACILITIES Thousands of women are in private fac tories and Government arsenals, producing war materials of various kinds, many on monotonous, others on difficult, in some cases dangerous, processes. (See below for applica tion of State labor laws to such workers.) Large numbers are employees of the United States in the Navy and War Departments and assigned to duty on military reservations, posts, or bases, or are nurses with the armed forces. Other women are employed in the congested areas as white-collar workers and in service trades, not all on so-called defense jobs but affected nonetheless by the emer gency impacts. Because many such workers are in the low-income brackets, their need of low-cost housing and recreation is acute. With such a variety of communities and of women workers calling for specific pro grams to be planned and shaped, no single pattern can be set for all localities. A survey should be made of the individual area, to determine what is necessary to fit the community facilities for safeguarding women’s welfare. The program planned must be adapted in a practical way to community conditions and available facili ties, which vary considerably with type of community. The Women’s Bureau, after consulting other authorities, has formulated certain general standards and policies, cer tain desirable procedures, in regard to recre 5 ation, housing, transportation, information on community facilities, health and medical care, and other social problems.1 The fol lowing are the general standards recom mended as to housing and eating facilities: All types of housing for women war workers should conform to standards essential for safety, security, health, decency, adequacy, privacy, cleanliness, and comfort. Living quarters should be conveniently located in regard to workplaces and recreation facilities, and be in pleasant surroundings. The level of rent should be such as not to exceed 20 percent of the worker’s income. Safeguards should be set up in every community to control rents and to prevent other dangers from hit-ormiss room finding. Single rooms are preferable, or double rooms with not more than two women, each with her own bed. Rooms (whether in private homes, boarding or lodg ing houses, dormitories, etc.) should be adequately furnished (including a closet with lock or a locker, preferably for each occupant) and should be properly heated, ventilated, and lighted. Bathing facilities and toilets should be modern and in good repair, arranged to give necessary privacy, conveniently located and sufficient in number (in the ratio of a modern bath, or shower, and toilet for every five to seven persons; a washbasin to every four unless there is running water in the bedroom, then one for every seven). A place on the premises for entertaining guests out side the bedroom. Eating facilities of proper kind, conveniently located with satisfactory inexpensive meals. 1 Recreation and Housing for Women Workers. (Mimeog.) Published bulletin to follow. Labor Standards for Women on War Work the attack on Pearl Harbor only a limited time and revocable at any December 7, many States took action time; (2) only to particular plants with con to maintain in general the labor standards tracts for war materials; (3) in some cases established for women’s work, with modifi only for employees or departments actually cations for specific needs of plants while on at work on war materials. The summary war work. Altogether, 24 States are meet following, made March 15, 1942, shows the ing the need either by new or long-existing situation existing; since such events move emergency provisions in basic laws or orders rapidly, and may occur in several States at or by recent action of State labor authori or near the same time, there may be addi ties. Where best practice is observed, State tional action not yet recorded here. labor authorities investigate before issu ing emergency permits, in order to be sure Recent Emergency Action (15 States). that an actual war-production need exists. California.—Certain plants on war work have been Other important safeguards taken by some granted permission by Commission of Industrial Rela States include issuance of permits (1) for tions to employ women at night. ollowing F 6 THE WOMAN WORKER Connecticut.—A law to permit Labor Commis sioner to extend hours from the limit of 9-48 to 10-55 for an 8-week period, amended to permit the Governor to extend the period beyond 8 weeks. (June 24, 1941. Power to expire in 1943.) Illinois.—Director of Labor has issued permits for hours over 48, and for 7-day week if necessary for war work, with time-and-a-half pay. (January 1, 1942. Permits granted 65 firms before March 1.) Indiana.—Labor Commissioner relaxed enforce ment of night-work prohibition, after investigating each plant (December 11, 1941). Kansas.—Labor Commissioner will grant permits to defense plants, on showing need, to employ women at night (December 9, 1941). Maine.—War Emergency Act gives Governor broad powers; he may “take, use, or utilize ... all the man-power . . . for the assistance of the military and naval forces . . .” (January 21, 1942). Massachusetts.—Under authority of War Emer gency Act (January 31,1942), Governor on February 18 authorized Labor Commissioner to suspend for war plants the laws limiting hours and prohibiting night work. Proof of need required and permits limited to three months. Minnesota.—Hour law provides for emergency overtime, which Industrial Commission has granted in rare cases to individual plants under specified condi tions. Nebraska.—Amendment to night-work law allows Commissioner to grant permits to employ women at night in defense plants, after investigation (May 22, 1941). New Jersey.—Amendment to night-work law allows Governor to suspend in time of war (December 12, 1941). Permit to apply to particular plant which has shown need, and for limited time. New York.—War Emergency Act allows Industrial Commissioner to issue permits to individual employers waiving hour, night-work, and l-day’s-rest-in-7 laws, except for those under 18 years of age. Each case must be investigated and need shown; permits are for limited time and only for employees on war work (Jan uary 28, 1942). Ohio.—Labor Commissioner issues permits to indi vidual plants for limited time for increased work hours for war work. The employer must agree to pay time and a half or double time for all hours beyond the legal limit. (December 24, 1941. Permits granted 62 plants by January 29, 1942.) Pennsylvania.—Under authority of 44-hour law, Industrial Board ruled defense employers may obtain permits to employ women over 21 on war work beyond limits of 8—44 hours, but limited to 48 hours and with time-and-a-half pay for hours over 44. Permits also may be granted for night employment (December 18, 1941). Virginia.—War Emergency Act authorizes Labor Commissioner to grant individual plants temporary permits to extend work hours for women 18 years of age and over on war work from 9-48 to 10-56, subject to conditions necessary to safeguard health (March 4, 1942). Wisconsin.—Upon application Industrial Commis sion permits individual plants to employ women at night. Basic Laws or Orders Allow for Emergency. In the 17 States in the following lists, the basic labor law or order indicated permits relaxation for emergencies (of course States that issue orders regulating labor conditions may change these at any time): In Law or Order Providing Weekly Maximum of 48 Hours or Less: Connecticut, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Hamp shire, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Utah, Virginia, Wyoming. In Law or Order Prohibiting Night Work: California, Connecticut, Nebraska, New Jersey. In Law or Order Requiring 1 Day of Rest in 7: Arizona (if 6-hour day or less), California, Con necticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina (in textile mills), Wisconsin. State Labor Laws and War Contracts. In general, application of State hour laws to war manufacturing differs according to the status of the plant or the contract, and may be summarized as follows: Private firms producing Government supplies— women workers are protected by the State hour laws. Private firms on Government construction—State laws apply to women laborers or mechanics only if so specified in the contracts; but the office workers are protected by the State hour laws. Government-owned arsenals, munitions, or other factories—State hour laws for women apply if operated by private individuals, but do not apply if operated by the Government. Women employees in the executive branch of the Federal Government—State hour laws do not apply. It is still uncertain whether or not State hour laws apply to women workers for Government corpo rations, such as the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. Need for Women’s Night Work Not Great. New York experience indicates little need for women’s work at night. In the fall of 1941, only 2 percent (930) of all factories in the State had hour schedules posted allowing employment of women on the second shift; WAR LABOR STANDARDS FOR WOMEN May 1942 about half of these had but one shift for men. The law allows women 21 or older to work at any time between 6 a. m. and 10 p. m., hence two 8-hour shifts are possible. In general, few establishments in indus tries directly related to defense used women on more than one shift. About 15,000 women were employed in such plants, a large proportion of them in the manufacture of electrical apparatus, instrument and watch making, and fine machine manufac 7 ture. The proportion of these women on the later shift was not available, but in one large electrical-apparatus factory only 6 percent were so employed. The number and proportion of plants in major industries that reported multiple shifts for women were: Food, 213 (5 percent); textiles, 167 (8 percent); paper products, 109 (12 per cent); clothing and allied products, 73 (0.6 percent); printing and allied trades, 61 (1.4 percent). Women at Work in Latin America the Women’s Bureau sent a staff member for six months to Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile to get first-hand information about economic and social conditions affecting women, conditions of work for women wage earners, and to establish contacts with public and private agencies interested in problems of women workers for a continuous exchange of publications and material on common problems. This article is based on observations and documentary material secured while in those countries. ast year I “Rosa Gonzalez” (Rose Smith to us), typical of industrial women of Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile, has made progress in her development in the last score or so of years. Like such a large proportion of industrial women in the United States, Rosa is not yet 25 years of age. Her plant manager says that though she has the same economic background as the women em ployed before her, she has more years of school to her credit, more “personality”; she is a more independent person, and a better worker. Thousands of girls and women in these three South American countries are wage earners in industry. Many young women, even from small towns and the country, who in earlier years would have sought work in domestic service, now join the “Rosas” of the factories. The largest numbers of women in manu facturing are in textiles, with meat packing, food processing, and clothing following closely. The list of industries employing women is long. It includes glass and ceram ics, metals, printing and engraving, matches, soaps and perfumes, gloves, enam eled ware, rubber sports shoes, cigarettes. In the interior “Rosa Gonzalez’^besides working in factories—many of them smaller, and less likely than city plants to measure up to sanitation and health standards—is a wage earner in agricultural industries, in the sugarcane fields, the orange, grape, and other fruit and vegetable harvests,rand in the preserving and drying of fruits. Rosa and her sisters for the most part are paid at piece rates. Wages are not high, and in many plants work is not steady throughout the year. The workweek is from 40 to 48 hours. Rosa probably works from 7 to 11 in the morning, and from 1 to 5:45 in the afternoon, except Saturday. Laws require closing all business and industry by 1 o’clock Saturday. Sabado ingles (English Satur day) it is called. The Uruguayan law does not include industry, but it is the general custom. Night work is prohibited foi women. The 2-hour lunch period gives Rosa time to go home and, if family duties are not too heavy (as they may be, especially for those who are married), to enjoy a noon-day siesta; but many plants have cafeterias or lunch rooms, where she may eat the lunch she brought and make mate or coffee. Eve ning meals are late, from 8 o’clock on, so THE WOMAN WORKER 8 break in work is given at about 4, for a glass of milk, sold in the workrooms, or in some plants for tea. The Rosas of industry work for the most part in clean, well-lighted, well-ventilated factories. Machinery is modern, there is not much speeding, and rest periods are allowed at certain times or may be taken as the work permits. In general, sanitary facilities are good; a few plants provide baths and show ers. Many companies offer health facilities, physicians for examinations and prescrip tions, nurses for home visits, dental and optical clinics. An exception to this picture would be the garment industry, which employs thousands of women in small shops or homes, often a family unit, and which is the main source of industrial home work in South America. Each large department store has its own home-work employees and shops; there are no large clothing manufacturers. There has been practically no effort and very little interest directed toward eliminating home work, but there are laws to control it. Argentina revised hers last year. Enforce ment is difficult, of course, even with the help of organized groups. Rosa and her friends may belong to a labor union, or clubs organized under the guidance of the Catholic Church, or a woman’s club, the Y. W. C. A., and so forth. Thousands of industrial women workers are in classes of some kind; one school visited had 650 en rolled, another 800. The numbers, their interest and enthusiasm, are thrilling to see. Classes may be at noontime or after work, giving regular school subjects, commercial work, or special instruction as in dressmak ing, cooking, art. There are evening schools and vocational classes, and Saturday after noon classes (by women’s organizations). Rosa may live in a typical small home—a one-story, fiat-roof house, flush with the sidewalk but with a side or rear patio full of flowers. Or she may live in a crowded, unsanitary coventillo (slum dwelling), or in an apartment or small house in a coopera tive, low-cost housing unit. She is part of a close family life. Economic problems are serious, housework has not been simplified, and Latin social conventions make the re sponsibilities of the home fall on her shoul ders. Yet she is happy, well-adjusted to life as it comes to her, and may continue work after marriage. Women in Labor Unions Women’s Earnings Approach Men’s n agreement with a Michigan bomber plant provides that women shall receive the same rate as men on the same work. Employment of 15,000 women is anticipated. Hourly rates are from 95 cents to 51-60. A contract covering several hundred aircraft workers in an eastern State, and expected to benefit many times that number by midsum mer, sets minimum rates at 70 cents for women and 75 for men. It also provides a general 15-cents-an-hour increase, hours of 8-40 in a 5-day week, with time-and-a-half pay for work on Saturday and before or after the regular daily hours. A clause providing for the same wages for men and women is included in an agreement covering 86 employees of an Ohio dental-supply com pany. Wage increases for women are from 1 to 3 cents less than men’s in recent con tracts in the rubber tire, brass products, and container industries. Clothing Workers Get Paid Vacations Vacations with pay are important features of recent clothing contracts: Corsets, 700 workers, Indiana; children’s clothing, several hundred, Texas; wash dresses, 2,200, New Jersey; children’s dresses 300, uniforms 50, Pennsylvania; sportswear, 2,000 to 2,500, California. Some include vacation provi sions for the first time. Wage raises are pro vided more often than not, and in half a minimum rate of 517 is established. Button makers in Iowa under the auspices of the men’s clothing union negotiated a 10-percent May 1942 WOMEN IN UNIONS increase. Average earnings of union mem bers are from $16 to $32 for a 40-hour week, compared with $12 to $18 a year ago. Cannery Workers Gain Some 800 workers in a California fish can nery have secured a 10-cents-an-hour increase with minimum rates of 75 cents for women, 80 cents for men. Wage increases are reported for 15 other canneries on the Pacific coast. In one employing 1,300, gains of 5 to 10 cents an hour are reported; in two others employing 420, increases are 10 cents for women, 12% cents for men. In a group of 10 California companies wage increases range from 14 to 21 percent. In October 1939, women were 60 percent of all wage earners in fish canneries, 56 percent of those in fruit and vegetable. Unions Help Service Workers Service workers have special need of a union, since few benefit from the Fair Labor Standards Act. This is illustrated by wage rates recently set by arbitration for certain California hotel workers. Daily rates in women’s occupations are: Telephone opera tors, chief $5, other $4.25; linen room, chief $4.50, other $4.25; inspectors or working housekeepers and seamstresses and menders, $4.25; maids and bedmakers, $4. These represent increases of from 21 to 23 percent over an award in 1938. The basic closedshop contract was signed in June 1941, the 9 wage award in January 1942, with increases retroactive to August 1941. Maintenance workers in three social agencies also benefit by recent contracts. One provides a $2 weekly increase; a week of 40 hours for women, 48 for men; time and a half for over time; sick leave; and grievance machinery. Electrical Union Trains Its Women A course for training women in union leadership has been under way among the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America, since many leading union men will leave for Army duty. This followed the conference by the union in Newark, N. J., called before American entry into war, to consider defense effort and problems arising from increased en trance of women into the industry and the union. (See Woman Worker, January 1942.) The conference, at which 27 locals and 64 shops in New York and New Jersey were represented, selected a continuing committee of 22 women from as many locals. This action is in line with a resolution adopted at the regular convention in September, calling for “extension of organizational work among women,” necessary since “they are subject to extreme speed-up and * * * their wages are always below those paid men.” The union in New York City ar ranged with the Board of Education for training in defense work of at least 1,000 of its women members. Trends in Women’s Wages and Employment employment increased by 14 almost all these industries, markedly so in percent, men’s by 20, from March several of the groups formerly low-paying. Week’s earnings in most cases advanced 1940 to April 1941 in a total of 24 industries. These comprise large samples from the proportionately more than hourly earnings, industries that employ the greatest numbers 1 Source: Pay-roll records mailed by employers to the Bureau of women in manufacturing, and include of Labor Statistics for 1 week in the month. Reports for April 1941 included nearly 511,000 women in 22 industries representing laundries and cleaning and dyeing. Much nearly two-thirds of all women in manufacturing, and almost 35,000 of this increase came after October 1940, women in laundries and cleaning and dyeing plants. Wage and hour figures given cover all plants reported; percent changes are as it was especially great in industries con computed from data for identical plants only. The 12 States nected with defense and the defense program included employ about three-fourths of all women in manufacturing —California, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, Michi was expanding rapidly. gan, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Women’s average hourly earnings, as Pennsylvania. Earlier data appeared in the Woman Worker for March and September 1938, May and September 1939, March well as their employment, increased in and September 1940, September 1941. omen’s W 10 THE WOMAN WORKER due to somewhat lengthened hours, though this is not true of cigar and cotton-dress plants as hours here were shortened. Women’s workweek in April 1941 averaged less than 40 hours in practically all the 22 manufacturing industries, electrical machin ery and rubber boots and shoes being the only exceptions. In 13 industries women’s hours averaged less than 37. Changes in Women’s Employment. Dyeing and cleaning_________________ 6 Woolen and worsted_______________ __ 6 Electrical machinery and supplies______ 5 Cigars_____________________________ 4 Boots and shoes (rubber)_____________ 4 Hardware________________________ , 2 Hosiery____________________________ 2 Silk and rayon__________ ,____________ 2 Laundries,________________________ 2 8 4 6 10 8 8 8 8 5 Percent decrease 1 The more notable changes from March 1940 to April 1941 in women’s employment in identical plants, with those of men for comparison, were as follows: Employment Percent increase 1 Women Electrical machinery and supplies________51 Woolen and worsted_________________ 47 Hardware___________________________ 38 Radios and phonographs_______________ 31 Auto tives and tubes__________________ 31 Glass and pottery_____________________ 20 Cotton goods_______________________ 19 Boots and shoes (rubber)_____________ 18 Dyeing and cleaning,________ ._______ 16 Silk and rayon_______________________ 14 Paper boxes (set-up)___________________12 Laundries_____________ 12 Book and job printing________________ 10 Women’s undergarments______________ 8 Hosiery____________________________ 8 Men’s suits, overcoats________________ 5 Confectionery_______________________ 3 Women’s cotton dresses______________ 2 Men 48 33 18 31 13 14 13 10 16 7 10 6 2 12 10 5 8 5 Percent decrease 1 Women Women’s coats and suits______________ 23 Women’s dresses (not cotton)_______ i._ 5 Knit underwear_____________________ 2 3 Men 20 2 5 1 Listed if change 5 percent or more for either sex. 8 Increase. Changes in Women’s Hourly Earnings. The chief changes in average hourly earn ings were as follows: Average hourly earnings Percent increase 1 Women Women’s cotton dresses_______________ 12 Men’s cotton clothing_____________ ... 10 Cotton goods_______________________ 8 Knit underwear_____________________ 8 Boots and shoes (leather)_____________ 7 Glass and pottery___________________ 7 Women’s undergarments______________ 6 Average hourly earnings Percent increase 1 Women Men Men 11 5 9 (2) 7 4 8 Men Women Women’s coats and suits__________ ___ 8 11 * Listed if change 5 percent or more for either sex. 2 Decline, less than 0.5 percent. Women’s Hourly and Week’s Earnings. Women’s average hourly and week’s earnings in April 1941 were as follows: Average week’s earnings Over 320: Tires and tubes .. .____ 324.90 Electrical machinery and sup____ 22.65 plies . __ Boots and shoes (rubber) ____ 22.44 Women’s dresses (not cotton)__ 22.01 Hardware _ ____ ____ 20.96 Over 315, under 320: Woolen and worsted ____ 19. 16 Dyeing and cleaning. .____ 18.93 Women’s coats and suits ____ 18.69 Radios and phonographs ____ 18.44 Book and job printing____ ____ 18.15 Glass and pottery_____ ____ 18.02 Men’s suits and overcoats ____ 17.96 Women’s undergarments. .____ 16.26 Boots and shoes (leather) ____ 16.06 ____ 16.03 Hosiery . Cotton goods.. ____ 15.73 Women’s cotton dresses. ____ 15.71 ____ 15.66 Laundries.. Paper boxes (set-up), ___ ____ 15.58 Knit underwear _ . ____ 15.57 Men’s cotton clothing-. . .____ 15.56 Confectionery. ____ ____ 15.37 Under 315: Silk and rayon . __ ____ 14.39 Cigars___ ___ .. ____ 13.31 Average hourly earnings [cents) 70.3 56.0 55.1 63.5 53.6 50.7 44.3 74.1 50.3 49.3 49.8 53.7 45.5 44.5 47.3 42.5 42.8 38.5 41.7 42.2 42.0 43.7 40.5 42.0 Situation of Men and Women Compared. Women’s average hourly earnings were in every case well below those of men. In fact, in 12 of the 24 industries women’s pay aver aged less than the lowest figure for men, which was 47 cents in cotton mills. The EMPLOYMENT AND WAGE TRENDS May 1942 second lowest for men was 54 cents in silk and rayon mills, and women’s averages were lower than this in 19 industries. Percent increases in hourly earnings from the spring of 1940 to that of 1941 were greater for men than for women in more than half the indus tries reported. For the most part employment took the same direction for both sexes, usually advanc ing. The percent increase ordinarily was greater for women than for men, notable exceptions being hosiery, confectionery, and 11 women’s undergarments and cotton dresses* Men’s working hours as well as women’s had lengthened. Though less than 43 hours in all but 2 of the 22 manufacturing indus tries reported, and less than 40 hours in half of them, men’s workweek was longer than women’s in every case, roughly 4 to 6 hours longer in 11 industries—cigars, confectionery, electrical machinery, cotton dresses, men’s cotton clothing, knit underwear, radios, hosiery, hardware, paper boxes, and silk and rayon goods. Toward Minimum Fair Wages Fair Labor Standards Administration Adoption of a 40-cent minimum rec- y^ommended for several industries— noted in previous issues—is awaited as the Woman Worker goes to press. Removal of the Wage and Hour Division from Wash ington delays the receipt of its latest in formation, and no doubt the removal ma terially delayed action on these industries, which are as follows: Cigars—40 cents, except leaf handlers 35, first minimum. Cigarettes—40 cents, first minimum. Gloves—40 cents, replacing 35 and 32%. Luggage, leather goods, and women’s handbags— 40 cents, replacing 35. Textiles—40 cents, replacing 37% (35 for nonwool carpets). Now adopted, effective April 20. An order for knitted outerwear, effective April 20, fixes a 40-cent minimum, and restricts home work after November 30. Public Contracts Administration Recent determinations by the Division of Public Contracts bring two more in dustries into agreement with the Fair Labor Standards orders. The rate for seamless hosiery was raised from 35 to 36 cents. The coverage in the case of men’s underwear (knit and woven) was extended to include commercial knitting and the rate was raised to 40 cents from 35 cents in the North and 32% cents in the South. Rates for these industries were first set in August 1937. Minimum Wage in the States California—Hearings and Investigations. Two public hearings were held recently by the California Industrial Welfare Commis sion—one in Los Angeles to consider the recommendations of the Manufacturing Wage Board, which include an $18 mini mum, and one in San Francisco, where evidence was taken on wages, hours, work ing conditions, and living costs of women in the canning industry, preparatory to a wage board for this industry. The Division of Industrial Welfare has opened an office in San Diego. Pay rolls are being examined looking toward appointment of a wage board for personal-service industries, cover ing beauty shops and certain other occupa tions. Connecticut—Women’s Earnings in Stores. The average hourly wage of more than 8,000 women in Connecticut retail trade is 33 % cents, according to a study by the State Labor Department the findings of which have been presented to the wage board for the industry. Women members of the board are Stella Perka and Mae Alpert representing labor, and Mrs. Joseph Leopold representing the public. Only one-fourth of the workers earned 40 cents or more; nearly one-third earned less than 30 cents. Saleswomen, the chief occupa tional group, averaged 31.9 cents. Average earnings ranged from 43.1 cents in automo- THE WOMAN WORKER 12 tive stores (a small group) to 27 cents in limited-price and chain stores. Three in five of the women averaged less than $16 a week in 1941, two in five even less than $14, though a working woman living alone needs at least $18 a week for healthful living. Minimum rates already set in other industries in the State for experienced women working 48 hours are as follows: Laundries 32% cents and cleaning and dyeing 35 cents an hour; beauty parlors $18 a week. Two-thirds of the women had worked 40 hours or longer, practically 30 percent exactly 48 hours, the legal limit. More than one-fifth had worked less than 28 hours and were counted as part-time employees. Aver age hours were 46.4 for full-time workers. Wage Collections in Three States. In 1941 the Ohio Division of Minimum Wage collected over $80,000 for 1,657 women and minors paid less than the re quired minimum. Of this, 85 percent was for workers in establishments supplying the public with food and lodging, where a striking case was that of a waitress who was awarded $441.80; she had worked 96 hours a week for nearly a year and been paid only $5 a week. In the same year the Industrial Commis sion of Minnesota collected $56,000 in back wages for 1,500 women and minors, chiefly in intrastate industries, including public housekeeping, offices, mercantile establish ments, and small telephone exchanges not covered by the Federal Act. Wage collections under the Industrial Welfare Commission of California were 51 percent higher in 1941 than in 1940, the total for the later year being $291,729 as compared with $192,599 in 1940. These figures show the necessity for minimumwage legislation even in a time of relatively prosperous conditions. In this State, the minimum applies to most woman-employing industries. Other States at Work. A cost-of-living study is being made in Kentucky and a wage board for hotels and restaurants is to be selected soon. Louisi ana has appointed a board for the laundry industry. In Rhode Island a wage board has been appointed for restaurants and hotel restaurants; public representatives include one woman (Mabie E. Dickson of the State College) and employee represen tatives one woman (Vera Timmerman of Providence). In Massachusetts a wage board is to consider revision of the wage order for beauty-culture occupations. Women’s Wages Rise in Large Manufacturing States fixing, defense-indus try expansion, new demands for labor, all may have their influence in rent wage rises. These have benefited both men and women, both office and factory workers, causing wages to rise much more markedly in the past year than previously. inimum-wage M New York—Factory and Office Earnings. A special survey of men’s and women’s earnings in New York covered 8 industries for the 5 years 1937-41—machinery and electrical apparatus, shoes, knit goods, four clothing industries, and bakeries. For all industries combined, women’s weekly earn ings averaged $19.25 in 1941, an advance of 16 percent from the low point; men’s had advanced by 20 percent. In 7 of the 8 indus tries women’s gains exceeded men’s; women’s cur earnings increased by about one-fourth in knit goods, men’s clothing, and men’s fur nishings. In machinery and electrical appa ratus, most closely linked with defense, wages were highest, increases greatest: 48 percent for men, nearly 46 for women. The annual October survey of office earnings in New York factories showed women’s weekly average 10 percent above the level of the year before, men’s 10% per cent. At the same time earnings of shop employees had risen by 14 percent for women, 16 for men. (For further details see Woman Worker, March 1942.) 1 WOMEN’S WAGES RISE May 1942 13 Illinois—Factory and Office Earnings. ered about 21,000 women and 25,000 men. Much the same trend in earnings of women in factories is shown by regular monthly reports from Illinois. A com parison of October earnings for the past 4 years shows women’s average in all manufacturing as respectively $16.19, $17.27, and $17.12 for the first 3 years, but rising to $20.13 in 1941. (December figures show a further rise.) Such important de fense industries as electrical goods, shoes, knit goods, men’s clothing, and meat pack ing show much the same trend, with the greatest relative gain in factories making shoes and men’s clothing. The lowest average (other than $14.11 in saw and planing mills, where few women are em ployed) was $15.31 in pottery and clay products, the highest $24.37 in slaughtering and meat packing. Women in Illinois factory offices in Octo ber 1941 averaged $24.31 a week, not quite 60 percent of men’s earnings. Technical employees doing routine work were included, but not salesmen, supervisory and mana gerial personnel, nor responsible technical and professional workers. The report cov- South Carolina—Textile Mill Earnings. In one of the major textile States, South Carolina, the Fair Labor Standards mini mum of 32% cents for this industry, the rate in effect from October 1939 to June 1941, seems to have spelled prosperity for both employers and workers. (See Woman Worker, November 1941, for increases in 1940.) Though capital invested increased but slightly over 1940, value of annual production rose by 32 percent in 1941. Employment of men and women wage earners advanced by 9 and 12 percent, re spectively, and total wages paid them by 17 and 22. Average per capita earnings were $902 for men and $755 for women, while in the year before the Fair Labor Standards minimum of 32% cents became effective they were $782 and $625. Much of the workers’ prosperity in the State depends on earnings in textile mills. Men’s employ ment and wages were about two-thirds of the figures for all factories, women’s more than 80 percent. The value of annual textile production was two-thirds that of all manufacturing in the State. Women’s Work in Manufacturing1 than 400 industries reported in Between 20,000 and 50,000 women were the latest Census of Manufactures, all in each of 4 textile, 3 apparel, and 2 food but 9 employed women wage earners. Aver industries, and in the making of paper con ages of 10,000 or more such women were re tainers, radios and parts, cigars, and motor ported in 44 individual industries, which to vehicles and parts. From 10,000 to 20,000 gether accounted for nearly two-thirds of women were in each of 8 apparel, 4 paper all women wage earners in manufacturing. and printing, 3 textile, 2 food, 2 electrical The production of cotton broad woven machinery, and 2 chemical industries, in goods averaged more women in the year cigarettes, and in miscellaneous rubber than any other single industry, over 114,000 products. in all. The manufacture of footwear of all Industries Newly Reported in 1939. kinds (except rubber) engaged nearly In practically every census, industries 100,000 women. Other industries reporting at least 50,000 were: Women’s and misses’ that have begun as a small part of some dresses, 81,000; men’s and boys’ suits, coats, larger group rise to the importance of a overcoats, 77,000, and shirts (except work), separate class. In the decade since 1929 62,000; woolen and worsted manufacture, 1 The 1939 Census of Manufactures reports number of women 60,000; full-fashioned hosiery, 55,000; canned wage earners for October. Averages for the year are not reported by sex, but average number of women was computed by applying and dried fruits and vegetables, 55,000. the percent of women in October to the year’s average. f more O THE WOMAN WORKER 14 three that have emerged as relatively new and that were reported separately for the first time in 1939 are quick-frozen foods, plastic materials, and miscellaneous articles made from plastics. In 1929, fruits and vegetables were canned, preserved, or dried. Quick freezing was first reported in 1937, when it employed nearly 2,000 workers. In 1939 over 2,600 were so engaged, two-thirds of them women. At the peak of employment in June 1939, nearly 5,000 wage earners were reported. The making of plastic materials was re ported with miscellaneous chemicals in 1929. By 1939 it employed nearly 500 women, and the amount of such materials produced had increased by more than 500 percent in the decade. The making of miscellaneous articles from plastics employed 4,000 women, who constituted a fourth of the wage earners in the industry. With the substitution of plastics for other materials, the industry undoubtedly will continue to grow. Women in Industries Converted for War. In manufactures that were first to under take defense production an average of about 275,000 women wage earners were employed in 1939, distributed in the following broad industrial groups: Electrical machinery_____________ Iron and steel and their products___ Chemicals and allied products______ Nonferrous metals and their products. Machinery (other than electrical)___ Automobiles and their equipment___ Other transportation equipment____ 87, 000 60,000 42, 000 31, 000 27, 000 26, 000 1, 570 The total number of women in these groups had declined by about 20,000 since 1929, the number of men by about 313,000. Exact comparisons usually cannot be made in specific groups because of many shifts in classification. However, in one—auto mobiles and their equipment—women had in creased by about 4,000 while employment of men declined by about 52,500. Most of these industries had to be con verted from production for consumers to production for defense. A few already were producing war materials, and in most of these women’s employment had declined, though in aircraft making it had increased by 45 percent. Chief among those producing war materials were the following: Industry Ifomen Average number ______ 535 Aircraft and parts. Aluminum products (ingots, castings, plates, sheets, etc.) ______ 862 Ammunition_______ ______ 1,360 Explosives.. _ . . ______ 1,224 Firearms.. _____ 240 ______ Percent of total 1. 1 5.0 31.9 16.9 4.8 The electrical-machinery group offers an important field for women’s contribution to the war effort. In many of its important branches conversion may be relatively easy. In any case, the skills women have ac quired here should be of the greatest use. From 1929 to 1939 the average number of women in the various electrical industries declined by about 6,700, but their propor tion among all wage earners increased from 29 to 34 percent. In 1939 women averaged 87,000 in the total of thjs manufacturing group, but at least 11,000 more were work ing at peak of production. The largest numbers were found in four industries, as follows: Radios and parts, 23,500; communi cation equipment, 13,000; generating, dis tribution, and industrial apparatus, 13,000; electric lamps, 7,400. All these include products of strategic importance. In machinery other than electrical and metal manufacturing, a brief survey indi cates considerable numbers of women work ing on a great variety of products.' The following important woman-employers may be listed, with some of their chief products, the average number of women employed, and the change in woman employment since 1929 so far as comparisons can be made. A reading of the products listed indicates that many are for the comfort, con venience, or pleasure of the average citizen, and production of many is being curtailed by the shortage of metals. Stamped and pressed metal products (including vitreous enameled), 12,400, an increase of 2,500. Stamped auto parts and accessories; bottle and jar caps, galvanized iron pails, ash and garbage cans; vitreous enameled kitchen, household, and hospital utensils. May 1942 WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING Jewelry {including costume jewelry), 10,000, an increase of 2,100. Jewelry; cigarette cases and lighters; compacts, vanity cases, novelties; trophies, religious articles; chains, dress and bag ornaments. Tin cans and other tinware, 9,000, a decline of 350. Packers’ cans; plain and decorated cans, pails, boxes, and packages; milk and ice cream cans; household and cooking tinware. Office and store machinery, 8,700, an increase of 1,000. Typewriters; mechanical devices for calculating, change making, card sorting and tabulating, check writing and canceling, addressing and mailing, dupli cating and manifolding. Clocks, watches, and parts, 8,500, a decline of 500. Clocks and watches; time-recording instruments and stamps; time switches and locks; clock and watch parts (except watch cases and crystals). 15 Miscellaneous hardware, 8,200, a decline of 2,600. Builders’ hardware; hardware for furniture, caskets, harness, trunks and suitcases, locks and padlocks; motor-vehicle hardware (not made in plants owned by motor-vehicle makers). Wire work, 6,700, an increase of 1,600. Manufac ture, from purchased wire, of woven-wire fencing, screening wire cloth and netting; wire rope and cable; barbed wire, tire chains, bale wires, concrete-reinforcing wire; wire springs, trays, baskets, and kitchen goods. Lighting fixtures, 5,300, an increase of 700. All types for residence and other buildings; motor-vehicle and marine lamps; searchlights, flood lights, street and highway fixtures, flashlight cases. Needles, pins, etc., 5,100, an increase of 1,900. Sewing and knitting needles, both machine and hand; pins, including hairpins; slide and snap fasteners; hooks and eyes. News Notes Oklahoma Women Aid Defense than 600 women are doing clerical work in war industries or air bases in Oklahoma, according to a recent report from the Commissioner of Labor. As yet only about 100 are doing factory work, most on food or army uniforms, though 12 women operate punch presses in a bomber plant. Few directors of vocational schools are accepting women in defense courses, but a junior college was asked in February to recruit as many as possible for technical courses hitherto open only to men. Women students in two colleges are urged to take at least one of the courses in first aid, nursing, anaesthetics, dental hygiene, nurs ing aid, nutrition and dietetics, with a view to teaching these in their home counties. In one college a special course is being offered in institutional management—the marketing and calculating needed to operate hotels and summer camps. Four hospitals are giving training as part of a Nation-wide program to relieve a shortage of nurses and other hospital workers. ore How Women Injured, Pennsylvania Overloading, crowding, or poor arrange ment resulted in permanent injury to 21 women in Pennsylvania in 1940. Nearly 1,800 other women lost an average of 7 weeks from work for the same reasons. Using unsafe tools or equipment or using them in an unsafe way caused an average loss of more than 4 weeks for 739 women who later recovered fully, and the death of 2 and permanent injury of 63 others. Due to gripping objects insecurely, taking wrong hold of objects, or lifting with bent back, 242 women averaged nearly 7 weeks lost, while 4 others were permanently disabled, one totally so. Other unsafe acts that led to the disability (in each case temporary) of from about 20 to 60-some women were: Operating or working at unsafe speed; working on equipment in motion; failure to wear protective clothing—gloves, goggles and the like. Altogether 83 percent of women’s injuries and 81 percent of the time lost in temporary disability cases were caused in the ways mentioned in the foregoing. This analysis points clearly to preventive measures: Care ful training and supervision; better house keeping and general management. There were reported 3,621 injuries to women in the year, including 5 fatal cases and 6 permanent total and 107 permanent partial disabilities. Of all injuries, 38 per cent occurred in manufacturing, but this was true of 61 percent of the permanent injuries (including fatal cases). The prin cipal industries in which workers were dis abled or lost time were textile and clothing THE WOMAN WORKER 16 factories, stores, restaurants, private insti tutions, State and municipal institutions, food products manufacturing, metal prod ucts manufacturing, and hotels. Women on Police Forces Women h<~'ped to enforce the laws and protect citizens in 126 of 362 cities, in all parts of the United States, surveyed in 1938 by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Cities ranged from those of 25,000 population to the largest. Including a few officers, 452 women, aside from matrons, clerical work ers, and so on, were engaged in law enforce ment. While in most cities only one police woman was reported, in New York City there were 127, in Chicago 61, in Detroit 55, in Los Angeles 36, in Washington 22. In 61 cities the salary of at least one of the women was the same as the first-grade patrolmen’s; in 4 cities it was higher than men’s rate. In 41 cities women were paid less than any patrolman of any grade; in 11 cities as much as $500 to $900 below firstgrade patrolmen’s salaries. Women Serve in Baltimore Offices Women white-collar workers were replac ing men selected for the Army in four of eight large Baltimore offices reporting in a Y. W. C. A. survey recently made available for late 1940 and the first half of 1941. Five of the firms paid women the same as men for the same work. There were indications that the better prepared workers were likely to fare best. Of the high-school graduates less than three-tenths received as much as $26 a week and 8 percent were paid $15 or less. Of the college graduates half were paid $26 or more, and none received less than $15. A fifth of the women had been at work 10 years or longer. Of the entire group of 215 women reported, about 8 percent were paid well below the W. P. A. estimated require ment for subsistence level. Over 60 percent of the total lived at home. Jobs that employers found most difficult to fill were those requiring somewhat more training or experience than others—operators of calculating and bookkeeping machines, experienced salespersons, secretaries, and PBX operators. Overcrowded were the jobs of typist, clerk, receptionist, salesclerk, and store wrapper. Six firms gave regular in-service training. All firms had some over time, four worked overtime a great deal. For such work, most firms gave extra pay at the rate of time and one-half or time and one-third; a few substituted time off. Recent Publications Women’s Bureau—Mimeographed Material Report of the Conference of the Women’s Bureau Advisory Committees, U. S. Department of Labor, Washington, D. C., January 21-22, 1942. 25 pp. The Employment of Women in Canadian Gun and Rifle Factories, January 1942. 13 pp. Supplement to Women in War Industries in Great Britain. March 1942. 16 pp. Typical Operations on Which Women Can Be Employed More Extensively in War Production. 2 pp. Other Department of Labor Publications Changes in Cost of Living United States, 1913-41. in Large Cities Bul. 699. in the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Reports of Committees and Resolutions Adopted by the Eighth National Conference on Labor Legislation. Bul. 52-A. Division of Labor Stand ards. Handbook of Federal Labor Legislation: Labor Laws of General Application. Bul. 39, Part II. Division of Labor Standards. Other Publications Reprints of a series of articles appearing in The Independent Woman. Price 15 cents, 10 for #1.25. Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs, Inc., New York City. Among the 24 subjects so far covered are: War work; personnel, social, statistical work; aviation, nursing, office management, occupational therapy. Vocations for Women. Money Disbursements of Wage Earners and Clerical Workers, 1934-36. Summary Volume. Bul. 638. Bureau of Labor Statistics. U S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1942