Full text of The Woman Worker : January 1940, Vol. XX, No. 1

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Woman Worker
A

JANUARY 1940

United States Department of Labor




Women’s Bureau
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
Frances Perkins, Secretary

WOMEN’S BUREAU
Mary Anderson, Director

THE WOMAN WORKER
PUBLISHED EVERY 2 MONTHS

No. 1

Vol. XX

January 1940

CONTENTS
Page

Maintaining Standards for Women Workers______________________________
Conference on Labor Legislation________________________________________
Toward Minimum Fair Wages_______________________________________ .____

Ninth Conference of Minimum-Wage Administrators—Minimum Wages in
the States, 1939—Service Industries Largely Covered by Orders—Living
Costs—Other State Minimum-Wage Progress—Progress Under the Federal
Fair Labor Standards Act—Wage Rates on Public Contracts.
Women in Unions________________________________________________________
Progress in Textile Unions; Clothing Industry; Electrical Industries; WhiteCollar Occupations; Service Industries.
Unemployed Women______________________________________________________
Incomes of City Families Headed by a Woman_____________________________
Women in the International Scene_______________________________________
I. L. O. Conference at Habana—Study of the Law and Women’s Work.
News Notes and Announcements_________________________________________
The White House Conference on Children in a Democracy—New York HomeWork Order—Puerto Rico Home Work—Over-All Hours in Massachusetts—
Michigan Equal-Pay Law—Women’s Bureau Exhibit.
Recent Women’s Bureau Publications____________________________________

Published under authority of Public Resolution No. 57, approved May
11, 1922 (42 Stat. 541), as amended by section 307, Public Act 212, 72d
Congress, approved June 30, 1932. This publication approved by the
Director, Bureau of the Budget
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents a copy
or 25 cents a year



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Maintaining Standards for Women’s Work
?A
HE UPTURN in industrial produc­
tion, evident from various sources,
means increases in jobs for women. For
ample, their employment has been advanc­
ing in most lines of clothing and the chief
textiles, and in some of the food industries.
The United States has an ample labor sup­
ply, the necessary raw materials, machinery,
and other industrial equipment to meet
almost any demand. Thus there seems no
excuse for abnormal price increases, nor for
efforts to break down labor standards.
Long years of experience have yielded
abundant evidence to show that the main­
tenance of healthful standards of work is
necessary to the well-being of the workers,
and that it is essential also in securing the
highest level of production. It is now ac­
cepted that such standards for women must
include reasonable restriction of working
time, wagtes adequate to meet the cost of
living, healthful places of work, safeguards
against industrial hazards, and certain other
conditions.

T

Experience in the Past
Concrete lessons can be learned from past
experience in speeding up production—not­
ably that of 1914-18 in this country and
still more intensively in Great Britain. In
the first year of that war England sacrificed
all standards in industry so as to secure an
adequate supply of munitions. Overtime
was excessive, 7-day work the rule. Night
work for women was revived after a prohi­
bition of nearly a century. Thousands of
emergency orders were issued, relaxing re­
strictions. Many employers disregarded all
labor laws without even securing permits.
Workers were exhausted by overwork, and
the supply of munitions lagged dangerously
behind the tremendous demand. After a
196544—39




year of war, it was realized that tfie Nation
could not risk the exhaustion of the labor
ex
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force.
The science and experience that in
time of peace had built up laws for the wel­
fare of workers were recalled, and a com­
mittee on the health of munition workers
was appointed. Probably nothing that
has ever been published has had a more
profound influence on labor standards than
the reports of this committee, which de­
clared that:
. . . the munition workers in general have been al­
lowed to reach a state of reduced efficiency and low­
ered health which might have been avoided without
reduction of output by attention to the details of daily
and weekly rests.
The importance to women of a wise limitation of
their hours of work and an appropriate distribution of
the pauses in those hours can hardly be overstated.
The weight of scientific evidence is behind such limita­
tion, and without it health and efficiency cannot be
maintained.
If the maximum output is to be secured and main­
tained for any length of time, a weekly period of rest
must be allowed. Except for quite short periods, con­
tinuous work ... is a profound mistake and does not
pay—output is not increased.

Increased Output With Shortened Hours.

Some of the more striking cases that show
definite increases in output with reasonably
short hours in British firms in the period
under discussion are as follows:
For 100 women turning aluminum fuse bodies, a
“moderately heavy” operation, a decrease of 12.5
percent (8}£ hours) in weekly hours of work resulted in
an increase of 23 percent in hourly output and of 8
percent in total weekly output.
For 21 women milling a screw thread on fuse bodies,
described as “light labor,” a decrease of 11.3 percent
(7.6 hours) in weekly hours resulted in an increase of
12 percent in hourly output.
Several employers who were forced to shorten the
day because of lighting regulations and for other reasons,
found the output undiminished.

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THE WOMAN WORKER

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Among the important American cases of
that period that illustrate the effectiveness
of shortened work hours are the following:
A tool manufacturer reduced labor turn-over,
eliminated lost time, and with a reduction of hours of
about 9 percent, with no reduction in pay, secured an
increase in weekly production in the entire plant of 10
percent and in one of the worst departments an increase
of 18.4 percent.
The Cleveland Hardware Co. had a similar ex­
perience, securing the greatest production in any year
in its history by keeping to regular hours at the time of
its midwinter peak instead of adding an hour’s over­
time as it formerly had done.
The Cloth Craft shops of the Joseph and Feiss Co.
in Cleveland instituted Saturday closing and before
long found production as great in the five 8-hour days
as it had been with the extra four hours on Saturday.
The Ford Motor Co. secured greatly increased pro­
duction with the day reduced from 9 to 8 hours.

Better Standards Now More
Widespread
The progress since 1918 in fixing standards
for women’s work indicates a recognition
that it pays to improve working conditions.
It indicates also the importance of extending
the more efficient standards. A comparison
of 1918 with the present shows:
Number of States
having such laws
1918
1939

8-hour day, 48-hour week or less (some
occupations)______________________ 3
8-hour day (some or all manufacturing).. 6
Minimum-wage laws_________________ 12
Regulation of industrial homework_____ 13

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War Labor Standards
Today
Events in certain belligerent countries
show how labor standards are likely to be
affected by pressure for rapid production.
The British Control of Employment Act of
September 21, 1939, conferred on the Minis­
ter of Labor extensive powers for employ­
ment control for the period of the war,
though the Minister must consult employers’
and workers’ organizations before issuing
orders. Exemptions from the hour pro­
visions for women were being considered in
connection with adjustments of work to day­
light on account of night black-outs, and
redistribution of hours was made in the
cotton textile and shoe industries. In
Japan, compulsory labor service was intro­
duced for the first time by an Imperial Order
on July 8. In Germany, young women due
to finish their labor service last fall were re­
tained in service by an order dated Septem­
ber 5. In France, the Hours of Work De­
cree of September 1 reduced overtime pay to
three-fourths of the regular rate, employers
to pay the remaining fourth to the Treasury
for allowances to soldiers’ needy families.
By an order of the Prefect of the Seine,
September 15, offices were to remain open
with half force on Saturday afternoons, with
no additional pay for this or other extra
service.

Conference on Labor Legislation
Sixth National Conference on Labor Urging that all possible efforts be undertaken to dispel
the erroneous prejudice against the older worker.
Legislation, called by the Secretary of
Calling
for regional conferences of administrators on
Labor, was held in Washington in Novem­
special labor problems.
ber. Outstanding among the resolutions Seeking for a united labor front.
passed were these:
Endorsing the National Health Program.
he

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Recommending that all phases of labor-law administra­
tion be in one department both in State and in
Federal governments.

Urging the adoption of sound wage payment and
collection laws.
Urging abolition of industrial home work.



Urging establishment of savings-bank life insurance
(similar to laws operating in Massachusetts and
New York).
Asking for a coordinating committee of Federal agencies
dealing with agricultural and migratory labor.
Advocating abolition of the poll tax as a voting pre­
requisite.

THE WOMAN WORKER

January 1940

5

Toward Minimum Fair Wages
workers, which did not result in any lowering
of wage for those above the minimum,
according to the sworn pay rolls received.
HE importance of extending orders
In Wisconsin the minimum wage applies
fixing minimum wages for workers not to domestic employees, and employment
yet covered was stressed in the Ninth Con
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agencies
both private and public will not
ference of Minimum Wage Administrators, place at a lower rate. Though enforcement
held in November in Washington. Those depends primarily on complaint, in periods
to receive special State attention include the of falling wages considerable amounts have
various service industries, clerical workers, been collected for the workers under this
employees of public institutions, home work­ law.
ers, and persons in local manufacturing
The conference opposed special rates for
industries, not under the Federal wage-hour learners in unskilled industries. Most States
provisions.
have some learner rates for more skilled
Administrators from 14 of the 26 mini­ processes. Strict limitation of these is
mum-wage States and from the District of desirable. Federal regulations place drastic
Columbia and Puerto Rico exchanged ex­ restrictions on number of learners and length
periences as to effective details of orders and of learning period. (See page 9.)
techniques of administration, and discussed
Coverage of workers in public hospitals
points of legal procedure.
(for example, in their laundries or restau­
With large numbers of workers now cov­ rants) was discussed; some States have
ered by orders, attention was directed to the taken steps to include these in orders.
importance of enforcement, necessary ap­
Orders apply to industrial home workers
propriations for securing new inspectors and where these exist to considerable extent—
essential training for them. Some States for instance, in Rhode Island and New
require sworn copies of pay rolls and assign Jersey. The Federal law has been a great
inspectors to particular districts. Where help in controlling home work—for example,
sufficient force can be established, systematic in Ohio, Illinois, and New York—due to the
efforts are made to inspect regularly once or meticulous reporting that is required by the
twice a year, rather than to depend on law. Control of this system at the start by
chance complaints.
its inclusion in wage orders was recom­
Coverage of industries or groups of indus­ mended; Wisconsin had success by this
tries by their own special orders was stressed. method.
Desirable legal procedures received con­
By this means w’age boards, usually of lim­
siderable
attention at the conference, espe­
ited size, can be more fully representative;
moreover, living costs differ for workers in cially in view of certain technical difficulties
various industries—laundry and retail work­ met in Utah, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma,
ers, for example. A higher minimum is Minnesota, and Kentucky. The importance
of strict adherence to requirements of the
fixed for the more skilled industries.
Rates for clerical workers have been specific State law was stressed. A memo­
fixed in some cases, and are to be set in randum entitled “Some Suggested Standards
other States. New York plans to apply of Procedure Pertaining to Wage Boards
future orders to all workers in the establish­ Under State Minimum-Wage Laws,” pre­
ment, including clerical. The District of pared upon the recommendation of a com­
Columbia issued a special order for clerical mittee of legal experts invited by the

Ninth Conference of Minimum Wage
Administrators

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THE WOMAN WORKER

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Women’s Bureau to consider this matter,
was presented to the conference for dis­
cussion. At their request, copies of this
memorandum will be sent to all admin­
istrators.

Minimum Wages in the States, 1939
To the 25 States, the District of Columbia,
and Puerto Rico, which already had mini­
mum-wage laws, there were added in 1939
Maine (applying only to fish packing) and
Alaska (weekly minimum $18 in the law).
Steady and marked progress was made by
State minimum-wage divisions during the
year. Twenty wage orders—3 of them
revisions of old orders—were issued by 10
States and the District of Columbia. The
new orders bring the number of women
covered by State minimum-wage orders
or State flat-rate laws to approximately
1,112,000. The minimum rates established
by orders issued during the year range from
20, 22%, and 25 cents an hour, according to
size of community, for all industries in
Kentucky to 39 cents an hour for beautyculture operators in Connecticut and 40
cents for office and building cleaners in
Massachusetts.
Women’s Back Wages Collected.
Back wages were collected for many
women under minimum-wage determina­
tions. For example, in the first 9 months of
the year, New York collected nearly $33,000

for women in candy factories and in service
industries, nearly 90 percent of it in beauty
parlors and laundries; over the same period
California collected nearly $43,000 for
women, employed chiefly in hotels, restau­
rants, and canneries. North Dakota col­
lected $525 in 5 recent cases for women in
cafes and stores. Up to November 1, the
District of Columbia collected $17,000 due
to workers. Ohio collected nearly $48,000
for women’s back wages in the first 10
months of the year.

Service Industries Largely Covered
by Orders
Complete coverage of the service indus­
tries is gradually being approached by the



minimum-wage States. This is of consid­
erable importance, since they do not come
under the Federal act.
Laundry and Cleaning Industries.

The laundry industry is covered in 23 of
the 25 States in which the law applies,
Alaska, the District of Columbia, and
Puerto Rico. In Connecticut statistics on
the laundry industry have been collected
and the wage board is to be recalled, since
earlier orders were invalidated by the new
minimum-wage act which repealed the
former act. In Illinois field work has been
completed on a study of dyeing and cleaning.
In Rhode Island laundries have been re­
surveyed for compliance. A wage board
for laundries is at work in Pennsylvania,
where an earlier order was thrown out on
the technicality that testimony for the
record had not been taken under oath.
New York reports striking success: Inspec­
tions after 14 months under the order
reported plants employing 98 percent of
the workers in the industry in full com­
pliance.
Retail Trade.

Seventeen States and the three territories
mentioned have covered retail trade. Illi­
nois has completed field work on a study of
this industry. Rhode Island plans an im­
mediate survey for compliance. In Utah
new hearings on wage-board recommenda­
tions have been held, since earlier hearings
were thrown out on the technicality that
they did not include a formal record of fac­
tual evidence for or against the need of a
minimum wage.
Beauty Culture.

Beauty-culture occupations are covered
in 13 States, Alaska, the District of Co­
lumbia, and Puerto Rico. In Colorado an
order for this industry went into effect
December 4. Beauty-parlor orders were
made mandatory in Connecticut August
30, 1939, and in New Hampshire November
20. Hearings on this industry were con­
ducted in Ohio by the Industrial Relations
Director, who was appalled to find wages as

MINIMUM WAGE

January 1940

low as $3 to #8 a week, while beauty schools
continue training.
Hotels and Restaurants.

Minimum-wage orders or flat-rate laws
cover women in hotels and restaurants in 11
States, Alaska, Puerto Rico, and the Dis­
trict of Columbia; in 2 other States, restau­
rants only. In New York, a wage board
was organized last autumn to fix minimum
rates for the restaurant industry. A survey
of the wages of over 12,000 women in the
industry showed that half of them earned
less than $9.31 a week; the average was $3.73
less than the Charity Organization Society’s
standard for persons on relief, and median
year’s earnings were just half the sum re­
quired for adequate maintenance as deter­
mined by the New York Department of
Labor cost-of-living study.
Deductions
from wages for uniforms, laundering, meals,
breakage, lateness, and payments to bus
boys caused wages to shrink considerably,
though many employers supplied meals in
addition to wages.
Wage boards for both hotel and restaurant
workers have met in Colorado. A wage
board for the restaurant industry is being
appointed in Arizona. The Illinois restau­
rant study is practically completed, prelim­
inary to the calling of a wage board, and
field work is finished on a study of hotels.
Complaints as to wages in such establish­
ments have led the Massachusetts Mini­
mum Wage Commission to anticipate estab­
lishment of a minimum-wage order to cover
hotels, restaurants, and other public house­
keeping. The Connecticut Minimum Wage
Division has begun a restaurant study, and a
study of hotels and restaurants is contem­
plated in Rhode Island in the near future.

Living Costs
Studies in nine minimum-wage States
have found the year’s cost for a woman’s
health-and-decency living in 1937, 1938, or
1939 to be as follows: Arizona, $1,032; Cali­
fornia (San Francisco), $1,105; Colorado,
$975; Connecticut, $935; District of Colum­
bia, $1,118; New Jersey, $1,148; New York,



7

$1,161; Pennsylvania, $1,095; Utah, $1,010.
Weekly costs range from $17.99 in Connec­
ticut to over $22 in New York and New
Jersey.
A Women’s Bureau survey of industries
in Utah showed that the women employees
averaged much less than the adequate bud­
get, the highest averages, those for drycleaning, office, and beauty-parlor workers,
being only $15.75, $15.50, and $15.45, re­
spectively. Year’s earnings in manufac­
turing and laundry plants averaged respec­
tively $605 and $565.

Other State Minimum-Wage Progress
Colorado—Wage Boards Active.

The Colorado Minimum Wage Division is
conducting a State-wide survey of wages paid
women and minors in office and unclassified
occupations. An order for beauty-service
occupations, effective December 4, fixed 35
cents an hour for senior operators and 25
cents for juniors and apprentices. These
apply for 44 hours or less; overtime rates,
one and one-half the regular rates, apply
after 44 hours.
District of Columbia—Administration.

In the District of Columbia wage orders
now are in effect for most occupations, and
the first notarized pay rolls requested from
employers have been received. It will be
remembered that the board also has the
enforcement of the 8-hour law, and several
fines for violation have been collected.
New Jersey—Apparel Order Violations.

Under the New Jersey Directory Order
No. 3, for apparel, the Minimum Wage
Bureau took the only course open to exert
influence for compliance. A number of
firms were summoned to show cause why
their names should not be made public as
failing to pay the 35-cent hourly minimum.
Evidence of noncompliance was presented by
counsel for the bureau.
Oklahoma—Reduced Funds a Handicap.

Labor inspection and investigation in
Oklahoma are seriously handicapped by a

8

THE WOMAN WORKER

legislative provision authorizing the Gover­
nor to reduce appropriations of any depart­
ment of the State government to balance the
budget.
Rhode Island—Progress in Compliance.

In the 5 months from May 1 to October 1,
work accomplished by the Rhode Island
Division of Women and Children included,
besides a 100-percent resurvey of laundries,
investigation of some 45 minimum-wage
complaints, about 32 percent of all types of
complaint investigated; issuance of learners’
certificates for 187 retail-trade workers and
354 wearing-apparel workers; and issuance
and review of home-work certificates. Im­
mediate surveys are planned for compli­
ance in the wearing-apparel industry. (See
also section on Service Industries, p. 6.)

Progress Under the Federal Fair Labor
Standards Act
Law Held Constitutional.

The Federal Fair Labor Standards Act
of 1938 was held constitutional in a decision
of the United States District Court in
Chicago, on November 22, handed down by
Judge William H. Holly in a case involving
a leading mail-order company. The act
was held to be a valid exercise of Federal
power to regulate interstate commerce.
Workers Affected by Increase.

When the 30-cent minimum wage for
industries under the wage-hour law went
into effect October 24, it was estimated
that wages would be raised for between
600,000 and 700,000 workers who received
less than this in April 1939.
Committees Have Considered 10 Industries.

The major textile and apparel industries,
employing some 2,000,000 workers, have
now been covered by industry committees
considering whether a minimum should be
fixed above that in the act.
Of the 10 committees first appointed, 9
cover several types of textiles, wearing
apparel, headwear, hosiery, and shoes



About half the women in manufacturing,
compared with one-eighth of the men, are
in these 9 industries. Minimum rates
range from 32K to 40 cents an hour, as
listed here. In no case do rates on the
mainland vary with geographic location.
These recommended rates have been ap­
proved for two industries, estimated to
raise wages for about 221,000 workers.
1. Cotton, silk, rayon, synthetic yarns or fabrics—
32}$ cents. (Approved Oct. 24, 1939.)
la. Woolen—36 cents.
2. Wearing apparel—32}$ to 40 cents, various
branches. (Includes men’s wear, branches of
women’s apparel, and accessories and special
products.)
3. Hosiery—Full fashioned, 40 cents; seamless,
32}$ cents. (Approved Sept. 18, 1939.)
4. Hats—35 to 40 cents, different branches. (30
cents, straw and harvest hat branch in Puerto
Rico.)
5. Millinery—40 cents.
6. Shoes and allied—35 cents.
7. Knitted outerwear—35 cents.
8. Knitted underwear and commercial knitting—
32}$ cents.
9. Railroad carrier. (Appointed Nov. 3, 1939.)

Among the general problems acted upon
through hearings and special rulings are
those of learners, home workers, and sea­
sonal industries, especially the processing of
agricultural products.
Rates recommended since the November
issue of the Woman Worker are estimated to
increase wages of 7,500 of the 23,000 factory
workers in knitted outerwear and 16,000 of
the 60,000 in knitted underwear. These are
chiefly in Middle Atlantic and New England
States, knitted underwear also including
large numbers in Tennessee, North Carolina,
and Virginia. Home work to an unknown
extent is a feature in knitted outerwear, but
minimum rates apply to it. Women on the
committees were Jane Matyas of San
Francisco, workers’ representative for outer­
wear, and Marion Dickerman and Mary B.
Gilson, public representatives on the under­
wear committee.
Regulations for Inspection by States.

Regulations of the Children’s Bureau and
the Wage and Hour Division for using State

January 1940

MINIMUM WAGE

agencies for investigations and inspections
under the wage-hour law were issued Sep­
tember 21, 1939. Seven States and Hawaii
have passed enabling legislation permitting
their labor departments to act. In 41
States, State certificates of age have been
accepted for Federal certificates.
To eliminate duplication of inspections,
an agreement has been concluded with one
State—North Carolina—adding members to
the State inspection and clerical staff. Allo­
cation of their time to Federal work, to be
paid for by Federal funds, is carefully de­
fined. To enter into such an agreement, a
State must submit a complete and satisfac­
tory operating plan, including the designa­
tion within the State agency of a separate
administrative division to make inspections
and investigations under the Federal Act,
and detailed budget estimates with books
subject to audit by the Federal officials.
High standards of personnel administration
with proper job classifications must be met
by the State agency.
Provisions for Learners in Certain Industries.

Employers may secure special permits for
learners on the more skilled operations in
several branches of apparel and textiles, but
these are available only if a shortage of
trained workers can be shown. The number
of learners and the learning periods are strict­
ly limited. Details covering stitching-machine operators on apparel, and applying to
hosiery mills, were given in the Woman
Worker for September and for November
1939. Since that time the following have
been issued, and hearings have been held as
to learners in the cigar and glove industries.
Knitted wear, except hosiery and gloves,
stitching and knitting operators: Minimum
rate, 22% cents; limit to number, not to ex­
ceed 5 percent of all workers in the opera­
tion; definition, person employed on opera­
tion not more than 8 weeks in preceding 3
years; effective, October 24, 1939.
Textiles operating under 32%-cent mini­
mum: Minimum rate, 25 cents; limit to
number, 3 percent of skilled and semi­
skilled; length of learning period, 6 weeks



9

(for normal replacements if experienced
workers not available); effective, November
7,1939.
Wages Raised for Home Workers.

The 30-cent minimum was ordered paid to
industrial home workers in a court decree is­
sued in New York in November. The case
applied to 11 of the country’s largest knittedgarment manufacturers and sellers in inter­
state commerce, perhaps the most important
of all the home-work industries. It was esti­
mated that restitution of more than
5250,000 of back wages will be made to
10,000 home workers from Maine to Ten­
nessee. A permanent injunction restrains
the companies from further violation of the
law, either directly or by subterfuge.
Prior to this order, two Brooklyn firms
making window-shade pulls, tassels, and
pot-holders, paid respectively 54,500 to
some 100 women at work in homes and about
54,000 to 200 home workers. These cases
were reported by a Chicago employer who
could not compete with home work done at
subminimum pay. In a third case a Chi­
cago punchboard manufacturer paid back
wages of 55,685 to 94 home workers.

Wage Rates on Public Contracts
To November 1, 1939, wage determina­
tions on Government contracts of 510,000 or
more have been made for 31 industries or
industrial groups. In at least 10 of these in­
dustries, women comprise half or more of all
employees; in at least 5 others, from onethird to one-half. Hourly rates set range
from 25 cents for the fertilizer industry in
the lower South, to 67% cents in the men’s
hat and cap industry. The most usual rates,
however, were from 35 to 45 cents, inclusive.
In 7 industries different rates were set ac­
cording to region; in 3, for different divisions
of the industry.
In 11 cases lower rates may be paid to
certain employees. These include learners,
handicapped, and apprentices employed in
conformity to the standards of the Federal
Committee on Apprenticeship. The lowest
rate fixed for any of these special classes of

THE WOMAN WORKER

10

workers is 20 cents an hour for learners dur­
ing their first 4 weeks of employment in the
cotton-garment industry.
Wage Rates Recently Fixed.

The Secretary of Labor fixed minimum
rates effective October 15 for certain paper
industries and October 19 for the manu­
facture of small-arms ammunition, explo­
sives, and related products. About 40 per­
cent of the workers making all types of
ammunition are women. In the other in­
dustries the proportions are smaller, though

in the paper industry probably more than
10,000 women are employed. In the making
of paper and pulp and certain converted
paper products the minimum rates are as
follows: On the Pacific coast, 50 cents an
hour or $20 for 40 hours; in 13 Southern
States, 35 cents an hour or $14 for 40 hours;
in the remainder of the country, 39 cents an
hour or $15.60 for 40 hours. On small-arms
ammunition a minimum of 42% cents an hour
or $17 for 40 hours was fixed; on blasting
caps, 47% cents, or $19 for 40 hours; on
explosives, 57% cents, or $23 for 40 hours.

Women in Unions
improvements secured by
women in 1939 through union member­
ship are reflected in advances made
means of union contracts in industries where
large numbers of women are employed.
New problems are being met in the union
contracts. Vacations and sick leave with
pay are being secured and problems of work
load and technological change attacked. In
the past year the Women’s Bureau attempted
to review contracts in important womanemploying industries as reported in union
and trade papers, but this information is
far from complete.
All the large trade-union conventions
approved policies looking toward more se­
curity for workers. Among those most
favored were: An immediate and compre­
hensive survey of technological unemploy­
ment and its consequences; a further
shortening of hours of work until the 6-hour
day and 30-hour week are attained; measures
that will assure to the workers full employ­
ment and a just distribution of the benefits
of technological improvements; and the
principle of a living annual wage.
onsiderable

C

Progress in Textile Industries.

The Textile Workers Union of America
reported at this year’s convention that
300,000 workers were covered by some



1,100 contracts. Of these, 161 contracts
covered hosiery workers. The paid-up
membership of the hosiery branch of the
by
textile workers was more than 52,000 as of
August 1.
Textile contracts reviewed by the Bureau
indicate that the 8-hour day and 40-hour
week with time and a half for overtime is
the usual standard. Several contracts guar­
antee pay for a minimum number of hours
for all workers required to report at the
plant on any one day. Others taking up
some of the newer problems are summarized
here.
An agreement signed with a southern cotton mill
employing about 600 reduces the work load of spinners
and doffers and provides for arbitration of all future
workload problems. Workers losing their jobs because
of technological changes in the first 3 months of the
contract are guaranteed preference in employment.
An agreement with a carpet manufacturer employing
some 6,000 in two northern cities provides that all time
studies are to be reviewed by the union. A joint plan
is to be developed for severance pay for employees
displaced by technological improvements. Savings
due to higher rates of output are to be shared with the
workers, and used in general to raise rates for the low­
est-paid.
In a contract with a plant making rayon and allied
products (in the jurisdiction of textile unions) provision
for severance pay was secured for workers forced out
by technological improvements, the amount to be
1 week’s pay for each year of employment. Wage
increases were secured. The union is recognized as

January 1940

MINIMUM WAGE

bargaining agency for all employees, numbering about
8,000. A week’s vacation was obtained, with full pay
for workers employed 40 weeks or longer and with
2% percent of the annual wage for others.

Progress in the Clothing Industry.

Contracts in clothing frequently specify a
week of 35 or 36 hours, with none longer than
40. Reduction of seasonal fluctuation and
greater efficiency in management are prob­
lems being attacked cooperatively. Ma­
chinery for protecting workers’ rights is
being developed.
A clothing union in St. Louis plans to pay for the
instruction of 100 of its members in methods of scientific
management, choosing instructors from among indus­
trial engineers in progressive plants. Workers success­
ful in the course will then be employed by the union to
assist the more inefficient plants. Earnings should
increase with greater plant efficiency.
A stabilization department was set up a few months
ago by the union in the men’s clothing industry as an
independent enforcement agency for the rates estab­
lished on a national scale last summer. Over 150
inspections have been made; with the price list signed
by employer and union, every worker is interviewed as
to rate received. Work is inspected to see that it
agrees with specifications. The department also started
a drive in the New York market for installation of
proper time records in all shops.

Progress in Electrical Industries.

The convention of the United Electrical,
Radio and Machine Workers of America, in
September 1939, analyzed the 202 regular
contracts signed during the year, covering
about 140,000 workers. Based on 1929
figures, about 39,000 were women.
Minimum rates for women workers were
set in 50 contracts, ranging from 35 cents to
60 cents an hour. For about three-fourths
they were 35 to 40 cents. Most of the con­
tracts were for 1 year and provided a 40-hour
week, with time and a half for overtime and
double time for Sundays and holidays.
Provisions for vacations were included in 121
contracts.
Recently contracts were signed in an electrical plant
in New Jersey by two unions working in close coopera­
tion, one covering 10 office workers, all women, the




11

other 270 factory workers, about three-fourths of them
women. Office workers secured an increase in their
minimum rate from $16 to #17.50 a week, and a reduc­
tion in weekly hours from 40 in slack and 44 in busy
seasons to 35 and 38, respectively. Shop workers
secured wage increases of about 10 percent. The
contracts also provided preferential hiring, a union
shop, and sick leave with pay.

Progress in White-Collar Occupations.

The organization of white-collar workers
increased greatly in 1939. Examples of
renewed contracts follow:
A union of salespersons in women’s apparel shops in
New York City has renewed its contract with an
association of employers. The agreement guarantees
10% months’ employment each year, provides a week’s
vacation with pay, and continues unemployment
insurance in all shops. It calls for a strictly closed
shop and covers 1,400 employees.
A New York publishing house has recently renewed
its agreement with the Union of Office and Professional
Workers of America. It provides a 37%-hour 5-day
week; time and a half for overtime; a basic weekly
minimum of #21 for clerical workers and stenographers,
and #30 for editorial workers; sick leave with pay for all
workers, including temporary employees; and liberal
graduated severance pay.
Office and shipping-department workers in a renewed
contract with a New Jersey manufacturer have se­
cured severance pay for workers dismissed without
cause. The contract establishes minimum weekly
rates of #21 for office and #20 for shipping-department
employees. Other important features are a wage
increase of about 10 percent, a basic 5-day 40-hour
week, and 2 weeks’ sick leave with pay. The manage­
ment and the union have set up a joint committee to
study overtime hours with a view to reducing them by
February to 8 a week from 12 as now allowed.

Progress in the Service Indstries.

Hotel and restaurant workers and laundry
workers have steadily increased their mem­
bership in recent years. That of the hotel
and restaurant workers more than doubled
between 1936 and 1939; that of the laundry
workers more than quadrupled.
An agreement between 25,000 laundry workers in the
New York area and members of seven trade associations
guarantees 40 hours’ pay in any one week to all regular
employees. The workweek was reduced from 6 to
5 days. A survey of current wages is to be made. A
joint committee of employers and the union is to de­
termine minimum rates.

12

THE WOMAN WORKER

Unemployed Women
EW evidence of the fact that women jobs, but in the late summer there was a
in the labor market suffer particularly spectacular rise in placements of women as
from the extremes of economic changeproduction
is
workers. In August, the peak
given in three recent reports:
month, there were over six times as many
An analysis by the United States Employ­ such placements as in January, compara­
ment Service of changes in applicants and tively few of these being temporary (for
persons placed in the 18 months from April less than 1 month); in September, nearly
1937 to October 1938;1 a study of long-term five times the January number.
unemployment in Philadelphia, giving a
The Philadelphia study deals with the
picture of chief wage earners on relief at “hard core” of unemployment—chief wage
least 2 years in August 1936;2 and an analy­ earners whose families had been on relief
sis of jobs in 1931 and 1936 in Minnesota, for 2 years prior to August 1936. It is not
which sheds light on the effect of changes surprising that this was an older group, con­
taining a smaller proportion of women (15
in machinery.3
Many women are affected by seasonal percent) than in the case of first applicants
movements, especially in manufacturing; at the State employment office (25 percent).
others, chiefly in certain service industries, There was a larger proportion of women
are continually on the rolls of unemployed. textile and clothing workers in the long-term
Changes in machine requirements, though than in the new-applicant group; it also con­
creating jobs for some women, cause others tained a larger proportion of Negroes.
to lose employment. Declines hit hardest,
Service Workers’ Problem Constant.
and upturns come most quickly, in con­
The problem of service workers tends to
sumers’ industries, often large womanemployers—for example, textiles and cloth­ be constant. Of those registered for work
ing. Special difficulties confront women as in April 1938, 40 percent had been on the
they grow older, and those entering or re­ rolls in July and November 1937. Prob­
ably at least half the service group were
entering the labor market.
household employees, ineligible for unem­
Rapid Employment Changes.
ployment compensation. In the recession
from
November 1937 to April 1938 the
Following the swift decline in business
numbers
of such workers increased less than
late in 1937 there was a great increase of
one-fifth,
compared to the trebling of pro­
craft and production workers among Em­
duction
workers.
ployment Service applicants, more extreme
Two-thirds of the Philadelphia chief wage
among women than among men, probably
because of widespread unemployment in earners who were women had been in domes­
textiles and clothing. In April 1938 about tic and personal service, compared with
three-fourths of the women craft and pro­ slightly over one-third of the new applicants
duction workers were newly applying for to the State employment office.

N

1 Survey of Employment Service Information. Kinds of Workers
Unemployed in the Recession of 1937 and 1938. May 1939.
3 The Long-Term Unemployed in Philadelphia in 1936. Work
Projects Administration, National Research Project, and Industrial
Research Department, University of Pennsylvania. August 1939.
3 Changes in Machinery and Job Requirements in Minnesota
Manufacturing, 1931-36. Work Projects Administration, National
Research Project, and Employment Stabilization Research Institute,
University of Minnesota. July 1939.




Older Workers.

Regardless of occupation, increasing age
complicates the problem of obtaining work.
Beginning with women of 25, the proportion
registered with the Employment Service in
April 1938 who had been on the rolls from

January 1940

UNEMPLOYED WOMEN

July and November 1937 rose steadily with
each age group: Of those 45 and older, at
least 40 percent were on the rolls at all three
dates, as was true of more than half of those
60 or older. Changes in process, such as are
discussed in the Minnesota study, are
especially hard on the older workers.
Workers Without Recent Experience.

Another group that remained in the files
of the Employment Service more continu­
ously than the average was composed of
women without recent experience. Some
sought to reenter the labor market, a smaller
number were recent students, presumably
young. Half the former and 46 percent of
the latter had been on the rolls in July and
November 1937 as well as in April 1938.
Unemployment insurance usually does not
help these. In the report from Philadelphia
the proportion of applicants who wanted
clerical work was about five times as great,
the proportion who wanted trade and trans­
portation jobs more than twice as great,
among the new applicants as among those

13

more continuously on the rolls as “chief wage
earners.”
Findings as to Changes in Machinery.

It may be encouraging to new workers
that in many cases less skill than formerly is
required after machine improvements in a
job. In Minnesota there was an increase
between 1931 and 1936 in the proportion of
machines designed or modified to produce
but one particular article or part. Accuracy
was built into the machine itself. In some
cases emphasis had shifted from hand to
finger manipulation, which makes for more
rapid performance though it may increase
fatigue.
Several industries had a number of opera­
tions in 1936 requiring no training. A shift
to female labor may be made easier by sub­
stituting machine for hand operation, mak­
ing machines automatic, revising the lay­
out, dividing labor, integrating machinery,
or combining several of these economies.
Cigar, candy, and bakery establishments
afford examples of a trend to woman em­
ployment.

Incomes of City Families Headed by a Woman
ORE than one-fourth (26 percent) of the Social Security Board of data for the
the urban families of two or more 703,000 urban households canvassed by the
persons in this country had an incomeNational
of
Health Survey. Practically half
less than #1,000 a year according to a study the families of two or more had incomes
made in 1935-36; if those on relief be added below #1,500 a year; and if those on relief
the total is above 40 percent of all such are added, two-thirds come in this group.
families. “On relief” in this connection
Women were at the head of a tenth of the
means that the family had such a status at urban families (of two or more persons) that
some time within the year. These two constituted a single household—48,000 of
classes undoubtedly are the families that them. Of these women’s families, 87 per­
should be aided the most by the Federal cent were made up of 2 to 4 persons. Where
wage-hour act.
the head was the wife, about three-fifths of
This testimony to the low income of many
the families either were on relief or had in­
families in this country,1 as well as infor­
comes of less than #1,000, and this was the
mation on families headed by women,
comes from a series of further analyses by case with nearly two-fifths of those headed
by a nonparent woman. The reports
1 See also the Woman Worker, November 1938, p. 16; July 1939,
include more than 33,000 women living
pp. 5-6; November 1939, p. 3.

M




14

THE WOMAN WORKER

alone. The median year’s income of wives
living alone was $734, of nonparent women
living alone $909.
The problems of older persons are empha­
sized by the fact that a sixth of those 65
years of age and older in the urban house­
holds reported were in families on relief,

half of them in families either on relief or
with incomes under $1,000. Of the single­
family households reporting age of head in
which the family head was 60 to 64 years
old, a larger proportion had incomes under
$1,000 than where the family head was in
the younger age group of 25 to 59 years.

Women in the International Scene
I. L. O. Conference at Habana
Second Conference of the American
States Members of the International
Labor Organization, held in Habana, Cuba,
November 21 to December 2, was of special
interest to women because of the second
item on the agenda: Examination of the
effect given to the Resolutions of the Con­
ference at Santiago, Chile [in 1936], par­
ticularly as regards the work of women and
children and social insurance.
The Conference adopted resolutions sim­
ilar to those of Santiago, embodying the
standards of the I. L. O. conventions de­
signed for the protection (1) of women
workers at childbirth and (2) of women’s
wages through minimum-wage-fixing ma­
chinery, but clarifying and amplifying these
principles in various ways.
Of special interest to women in the United
States were the practical methods outlined
in the resolutions to guarantee women “equal
pay for equal work.” These stress, among
other things, the need to evaluate women’s
skill on the same basis as men’s and to
develop means, such as vocational training,
to improve women’s output where it falls
below men’s in quantity or quality.
Recognizing the evils of industrial home
work, the Conference recommended its abo­
lition and outlined strict regulations to con­
trol it as long as it exists and requiring the
same minimum-wage rates as for similar
work in factories.
Even more noteworthy were other resolu­
tions for women that came out of the Habana
he




Conference. A progressive program, recom­
mended for domestic and agricultural work­
ers, called for application to them of social
legislation including legal standards for
hours, wages, and working conditions. One
resolution recommended legislation to pro­
hibit the dismissal of married women work­
ers because of their marital status. Another
specified that women should be granted all
the rights necessary to enable them to func­
tion fully as responsible citizens, including
the right to organize for collective bargain­
ing, to have full representation in all bodies
responsible for preparing and administering
social and labor legislation, as well as the
right to vote and hold office.
The Conference reaffirmed the resolution
adopted at Santiago stressing the right of
women to appointment as delegates and ad­
visers, and particularly the need of such
representation where questions affecting
women are involved. This step was taken
in view of the very few women representa­
tives at the Habana Conference. Only two
countries besides the United States had sent
women, Mexico having one and Cuba three,
as technical advisers. The United States
had sent six women, one of whom was a
Government delegate, Mary N. Winslow
(elected chairman of the Committee on
Work of Women and Juveniles at the Ha­
bana Conference). The other five were
advisers: Beatrice McConnell and Mary V.
Robinson for the Government; Dorothy
Bellanca, Kathryn Lewis, and Rose
Schneiderman for labor.

January 1940

WOMEN IN THE INTERNATIONALSCENE

15

protect women workers against conditions of
employment prejudicial to motherhood need
The International Labor Office publica­ not compromise the equality of the sexes in
tion “The Law and Women’s Work” has the matters of right to jobs and fair wages.
been received in its English edition. The (See resolution adopted on motion of United
French edition was issued in 1938. It gives States Government delegates, 1937, in
a cross-section view for the world as to Woman Worker, January 1938.)
women’s situation under each subject and
Other chapters deal with the legal posi­
also a list of laws and rules for each country. tion of women as professional workers, and
This study includes a chapter on the right to the handicaps that may be put on women
employment, important since the depres­ workers because of their unsatisfactory civil
sion, dealing with certain legal restrictions and political status, and with differential
on women’s employment; with the contrary treatment of women under social insurance
movement for protection of women’s right schemes.
to work or compensation for loss of employ­
This work results from a request of the
ment; and with the instances of certain League of Nations Assembly in 1935, on the
occupations reserved especially for women. question of equality under labor legislation.
Chapters on methods of regulating wom­ It represents “only the introduction to a
en’s employment and on administrative de­ series of studies” which include the prac­
partments for women’s work precede the tical situation as to women’s wages, the con­
obvious subjects of maternity protection; tributions of women workers to the support
employment on unhealthy, heavy, or dan­ of dependents, and other matters. (See
gerous work; night work; minimum wage; I. L. O. resolution, 1939, Woman Worker,
hours. The I. L. O. has always held that to September 1939.

Study of The Law and Women’s Work

News Notes and Announcements
The White House Conference on
Children in a Democracy

sideration of (1) aspirations for children in
America as determined by democratic
ideals; (2) opportunities and services avail­
HE 1940 session of the White House able to children in different parts of the
Conference on Children in a Democracy country and in the several economic strata
will convene in Washington, D. C., January
and population groups; (3) difficulties in the
18 to 20, at the request of President way of attaining desirable opportunities and
Roosevelt.
services; (4) specific recommendations for
These conferences developed as a result of action.
suggestions coming to the President and to
Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins,
the Department of Labor from many sources chairman of the conference, has stated that
in regard to a review of goals with reference “The conference is not going to attempt to
to children and the extent to which they were define or defend our American democracy
being attained. Such review, with increas­ though it may have to attempt to state some
ing breadth of approach and coverage, took of its underlying purposes.”
place in 1909, 1919, and 1930.
New York Home-Work Order
Existing knowledge and opinion rather
The New York order prohibiting industrial
than new research is being utilized in deter­
mining major goals for action. The con­ home work on artificial flowers and feathers
ference report is expected to include con­ was reissued October 30. Since first issu­

T




THE WOMAN WORKER

16

ance of such an order in 1938, the Com­
missioner of Labor testifies, “a thousand”
women have found regular employment in
artificial-flower factories in New York
City. (See Woman Worker, November
1939.) In artificial flowers special permits
may be granted to workers and employers
so engaged before March 10, 1938, when the
first such order was issued, if the worker is
unable to work in the factory due to age or
disability or has to care for an invalid at
home. The employer must conduct a
factory and pay the factory rate to home
workers, and must cover these workers by
compensation.

Puerto Rico Home Work
A home-work law for Puerto Rico was
approved May 15, 1939. Excepting section
11 on record keeping, which is to go into
effect July 1, 1940, the law became effective
August 13.

to Health and Efficiency,” is developed
through the use of three large illuminated
panels. Prepared in cooperation with the
Department of Labor Exhibits Division,
this will be available for educational pur­
poses, express charges to be paid by the
borrower. For details as to size, weight,
specific charges, etc., write the Women’s
Bureau.

Recent Women’s Bureau Publications 1
Printed Bulletins
The Legal Status of Women in the United States
of America, January 1, 1938. Reports for Cali­

fornia (Bui. 157-4), New Jersey (Bui. 157-29), and
North Carolina (Bui. 157-32). 1939. 5 cents each.
Women at Work: A Century of Industrial Change.
Bui. 161. 1939. 79 pp. 15 cents.
Hours and Earnings in Certain Men’s-Wear
Industries: Caps and Cloth Hats; Neckwear;
Work and Knit Gloves; Handkerchiefs. Bui.

163-6.

1939.

Bui. 172.

Over-all Hours in Massachusetts
A 1939 amendment to the Massachusetts
hour law fixed a maximum of 10 consecutive
hours. The Attorney General has decided
that both the wording of the law and the
clear intent of the legislature signify that
time off for meals or for any other purpose
must be included in the 10 hours.

Michigan Equal-Pay Law
The Michigan law requiring equal pay for
equal work, passed in 1931, has recently been
challenged both in State and Federal Court.
In the action brought in the State court by
an employer, the judge declined to pass on
the constitutionality of the statute on juris­
dictional grounds. The Federal court ac­
tion, which was brought by women workers
to obtain restitution of back pay, is still
pending.

Women’s Bureau Exhibit
The Women’s Bureau announces the com­
pletion of an attractive new exhibit for
table display. The general subject, “Good
Standards for Women Workers Are the Keys




22 pp. 5 cents.

The Woman Wage Earner: Her Situation Today.

56 pp.

10 cents.

Job Histories of Women Workers at the Summer
Schools, 1931-34 and 1938. Bui. 174. 25 pp.

10 cents.

Mimeographed Material
Analysis of 1939 State Minimum-Wage Orders.

Supplement to Women’s Bureau Bulletin 167—State
Minimum-Wage Laws and Orders. November 1939.
23 pp.
Experience as to Standards for Women’s Work in
Periods of Rapid Increase in Production.

October 1939.

16 pp.

Other Recent Publications
Cost-of-Living and Wage Studies, mimeographed.

Issued by the Minimum Wage Division of the Indus­
trial Commission of Utah, 1939. Contains findings
in Women’s Bureau survey of employed women in
Utah, and Utah cost-of-living study in which the
Women’s Bureau assisted. (See p. 7 of present
issue of Woman Worker.)

Life and Labor Bulletin. The Bureau
welcomes the resumption by the Women’s
Trade Union League of this bulletin, now
issued monthly in mimeographed form.
1 Bulletins may be ordered from the Superintendent of Docu­
ments, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at prices
listed. A discount of 25 percent on orders of 100 or more copies is
allowed. Mimeographed reports are obtainable only from the
Women’s Bureau.
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1939