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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU, No. 85
WAGES OF WOMEN
IN 13 STATES
[Public—No.
259—66th Congress]
[H. R. 13229]
An Act To establish in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the
Women’s Bureau
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That there shall be estab
lished in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the
Women's Bureau.
Sec. 2. That the said bureau shall be in charge of a director, a
woman, to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice
and consent of the Senate, who shall receive an annual compensation
of $5,000. It shall be the duty of said bureau to formulate standards
and policies which shall promote the welfare of wage-earning women,
improve their working conditions, increase their efficiency, and
advance their opportunities for profitable employment. The said
bureau shall have authority to investigate and report to the said de
partment upon all matters pertaining to the welfare of women in
industry. The director of said bureau may from time to time publish
the results of these investigations in such a manner and to such extent
as the Secretary of Labor may prescribe.
_
_
Sec. 3. That there shall be in said bureau an assistant director,
to be appointed by the Secretary of Labor, who shall receive an
annual compensation of $3,500 and shall perform such duties as
shall be prescribed by the director and approved by the Secretary
of Labor.
,
Sec. 4. That there is hereby authorized to be employed by said
bureau a chief clerk and such special agents, assistants, clerks, and
other employees at such rates of compensation and in such numbers
as Congress may from time to time provide by appropriations.
Sec. 5. That the Secretary of Labor is hereby directed to furnish
sufficient quarters, office furniture, and equipment, for the work of
this bureau.
Sec. 6. That this act shall take effect and be in force from and
after its passage.
Approved, June 5, 1920.
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
W. N. DOAK, SECRETARY
WOMEN’S BUREAU
MARY ANDERSON, Director
BULLETIN
OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU,
No. 85
WAGES OF WOMEN
IN 13 STATES
By
MARY ELIZABETH PIDGEON
/ v\
SMJ
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON: 1931
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C,
Price 35 cents
CONTENTS
Letter of transmittal....................... .............. __.................................................
Ix
Part I.—Introduction"
_
j
Importance of women’s earnings"
Limitations upon wage material3III3
2
Scope of the study31.1
3
Method of presentationg
Part II.—Summary of findings____________________________________
g
Scope of the study~~~~~
g
Week’s earnings of white women in manufacturing industries_______
8
Week’s earnings of white women in general mercantile establish
ments, 5-and-10-cent stores, and laundries compared with those
in manufacturing
12
Earnings in week earlier than main period of study________________
14
Week’s earnings of negro women
14
Year’s earnings
15
Relation of findings to certain other data on wages________________
17
Part III.'—Industrial background
19
Relative industrial positions of the States studied_____________
19
Nonindustrial States•3.
19
Industrial changes affecting comparisons
20
Summary 331
23
Part IV.—Week’s earnings of white ■women in manufacturing industries..
25
Earnings in the various States surveyed
25
Earnings in late 1920 and early 1921
26
Earnings in the period of industrial depression____________
27
Earnings in the period of incipient and full recovery .....
28
Earnings in the time from April, 1924, to February, 1925_
30
Comparisons of earnings in various States and effect of period of
study; 1928 values
31
Earnings in the chief woman-employing industries reported____
32
Textiles
33
Cigars and tobacco
37
Metal, electrical appliances, and rubber
37
Shoes
3g
Clothing industries_____________________________
38
Summary
40
Earnings of full-time, undertime, and overtime workers________
40
Full-time workers in the various States
41
Undertime workers
44
Overtime workers31
45
Full-time workers in the chief woman-employing industries re
ported______________
40
Summary~ _ 11ZZZI
49
Earnings and hours worked
51
Earnings and hours in the various StatesI..33
51
Earnings and hours in the chief woman-employing industries
reported__________
52
Summary3
50
Earnings of timeworkers, pieceworkers, and workers on both time and
piece.-.---------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------50
Earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers in the various States __
57
Earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers in the chief womanemploying industries reported
58
Earnings of full-time workers on time and on piece in the various
States
61
Earnings of full-time workers on time and on piece in the chief
woman-employing industries reported
63
Earnings of full-time workers on both time and piece___
_
64
Summary
65
in
IV
CONTENTS
Part IV.—Week’s earnings of white women in manufacturing industries—
Continued.
Earnings and rates
Earnings and rates in the various States______________________
Earnings and rates in the chief woman-employing industries re
ported
68
Summary
73
Earnings and age
74
Earnings and age of women in the various States________________
Earnings and age in the chief woman-employing industries re
ported
77
Summary
79
Earnings and experience
80
Women who had been in the trade 10 years or longer__________
Experience group having maximum earnings__________________
Earnings of full-time workers during the first year_____________
Maximum earnings of full-time workers
83
Experience group having maximum earnings—full-time workers.
Earnings and experience in the chief woman-employing industries
reported
Summary
Earnings and nativity
Earnings of chief groups of foreign-born women in four States_
_
Earnings of foreign-born women in the chief woman-employing
industries in four States
88
Summary
89
Part V.—Week^s earnings of white women in general mercantile, 5-and10-cent stores, and laundries
Earnings of all women
Median earnings
Proportions of women w'ho earned various amounts___________
Summary
Earnings of full-time workers
Proportions of workers who were on full time____ ______
Median earnings of full-time workers
94
Full-time workers who earned less than $10___________________
Summary___________________________________________________
Earnings and hours
Hours prevailing___________________________________________
Earnings of full-time workers on different hour schedules______
Summary
Earnings and rates
Summary_________________________________ _________________
Earnings and age
103
Summary
104
Earnings and experience
105
Summary
107
Earnings and nativity
107
Part VI.—Week’s earnings at an earlier period
109
Median of the week’s earnings of all workers
109
Full-time workers
110
Full-time workers in the chief manufacturing industries in all
weeks reported
111
Earnings and hours worked
112
Earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers
113
Earnings and rates
114
Summary
115
Part VII.—Week’s earnings of negro women
117
Earnings of all women reported
117
Earnings of full-time, undertime, andovertime workers_____________
Earnings and hours worked
122
Earnings of timeworkers andpieceworkers
125
Earnings and rates of pay
130
Earnings and age________________ _______________________________
Earnings and experience
Summary of data on negro women
Page
66
67
74
80
81
81
84
84
85
.86
87
90
90
90
92
93
93
93
94
97
97
98
98
99
99
102
119
131
132
133
CONTENTS
Part VIII.—Year’s earnings
135
Year’s earnings of white women'
Year’s earnings in manufacturing in each State________________
Year’s earnings in chief manufacturing industries reported_____
Year’s earnings in stores and laundries
138
Year’s earnings of negro women
142
Summary of year’s earnings~ "
Part IX.—Relation of Women’s Bureau data on the earnings of wage
earning women to certain other data
145
Sources of data on women’s earnings
145
Bureau of Labor Statistics
140
Bureau of the Census
14g
State authorities
148
National Industrial Conference Board
149
Estimates of the cost of living of the wage-earning woman_________
Estimates for minimum-wage boards or commissions__________
National Industrial Conference Board
152
Other estimates
153
Relation of earnings of women to those of men
154
Responsibility of women for maintaining or sharing in the support of
their families
157
Growth of manufacturing and growth in wages
158
Growth in labor output compared to real wages______________
Waste in industry and an advance in wages
161
Conclusion_____________________________
Appendix—General tables
y
Page
135
135
137
143
150
150
158
163
166
TEXT TABLES
1. Period of main study and of earlier week for which earnings were
taken, and numbers of women included, by State and race_______
2. Number of women reported by the Census of 1920, number covered
by Women’s Bureau surveys, and ratio of the latter to the former,
by industry
3. Summary of data in regard to 12 woman-employing manufacturing
industries, from Women’s Bureau studies and other sources_
4. Number of women whose earnings were ascertained in nonindustrial
States, by race
20
5. Median earnings in the various industries in three States studied in
the period of industrial depression—white women_______________
6. Median earnings in the various industries in three States studied in
the period of industrial recovery—white women_________________
7. Fluctuations in the cotton industry, certain months in the period
1921 to 1925, and median earnings in States studied by the Women’s
Bureau
34
8. Earnings distribution of the women studied in cotton and in hosiery
and knit goods, by State—white women
36
9. Median of the week’s earnings in the chief woman-employing manu
facturing industries as reported in seven States—white women___
10. White women full-time workers in the chief woman-employing indus
tries who had worked the hours specified and who earned less than
$10, by industry and State
55
11. Relation of the earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers, in the
seven chief woman-employing manufacturing industries reported,
to each other and to all such workers in manufacturing, by industry—
white -women
60
12. Week’s earnings and weekly rates of white women in manufacturing
industries, by State
67
13. Week’s earnings and weekly rates of white women in five chief womanemploying manufacturing industries reported, by industry and
State__________________________________________
14. Variation of earnings with age in five chief woman-employing manu
facturing industries reported, by State—white women____________
15. Earnings of full-time workers with experience of less than a year and
experience group that had maximum earnings—white women______
4
g
18
28
29
39
'
69
77
83
CONTENTS
VI
16. Maximum earnings of full-time workers, by earnings during the first
year—white women
83
17. Years of experience of women with the highest earnings, by amount
of such earnings—white women
84
18. Increase in earnings with increased experience, full-time workers in
six chief woman-employing manufacturing industries, by State—
white women
85
19. Range in which was the median of earnings of all women reported in
the State, by type of industry—white women___________________
20. Comparison of rates and earnings, by four types of industry and by
State—white women
101
21. Variations between earnings and rates of full-time workers receiving
and not receiving a sales commission in general mercantile firms,
by State—white women
102
22. Increase in earnings with increased experience, white full-time workers
in three types of industry, by State
106
23. Earnings distribution of negro women in manufacturing and laundries,
by State
118
24. Earnings distribution of negro full-time workers in manufacturing
and laundries, by State
121
25. Earnings distribution of negro full-time workers in manufacturing,
by State and weekly hours
122
26. Earnings of negro timeworkers and pieceworkers in manufacturing
and laundries, by State
126
27. White women whose year’s earnings were under $500 and $500 or
more, by State and industry group
140
Page
91
APPENDIX TABLES
I. Number of establishments and number of white women studied,
by State and industry
166
II. Number of white women in manufacturing for whom various
types of information in addition to earnings are reported in the
present study, by State
168
III. Week’s earnings of white women in manufacturing, by State___
IV. Median of the week’s earnings of white women in manufacturing,
by State, industry, and date of survey
170
V. Week’s earnings of white women in the chief woman-employing
manufacturing industries reported, by State and industry_
_
VI. Median of the week’s earnings of white women in manufacturing,
according to whether working undertime, full time, or overtime,
by State
173
VII. Earnings distribution of white women full-time workers in the
chief woman-employing manufacturing industries reported,
and median earnings according to extent of time worked, by
industry and State
174
VIII. Earnings distribution of white women full-time workers who
worked the most common scheduled hours in manufacturing
in nine industrial States, by State
176
IX. Week’s earnings and prevailing hours of white women full-time
workers in the chief woman-employing manufacturing in
dustries reported, by State and industry
178
X. Median of the week’s earnings of white women in manufacturing,
according to whether timeworkers, pieceworkers, or on both
timework and piecework, by State
180
XI. Earnings distribution of white women full-time workers in the
chief woman-employing manufacturing industries reported in
11 States, according to whether timeworkers or pieceworkers,
by State and industry
182
XII. Median of the week’s earnings of white women full-time workers
in manufacturing in 11 States, according to whether timeworkers or pieceworkers, by State
186
XIII. Age distribution of white women in manufacturing in 11 States,
and increase in earnings with increased age, by State______
XIV. Nativity and earnings of white women in manufacturing in four
States, by State and industry
188
169
172
187
CONTENTS
%
.
XV. Week’s earnings of white women in general mercantile establish
ments, 5-and-10-cent stores, and laundries compared with
earnings in manufacturing, by State______________
__
XVI. Week’s earnings of white women in the four tvpes of"industry'
by State__________________________________ _________
_’
XVII. Week’s earnings of white women full-time workers" in the four
types of industry, by State_________ ____________________
XVIII. Week’s earnings of white women full-time workers compared to
those of all white women, by State and type of industry____
XIX. Per cent of white women full-time workers working the most
common scheduled hours who earned under $10 and $15 and
over, by State and type of industry
198
XX. Age distribution of white women in general mercantile estab
lishments, 5-and-10-cent stores, and laundries in 13 States, and
increase in earnings with increased age, by State___________
XXI. Comparison of earnings of white women on early and late pay
rolls, undertime and full-time workers, in the four types of
industry, by State_________________________________ ______
XXII. Comparison of earnings of white women on early and late pay
rolls, undertime and full-time workers in certain manufacturing
industries, by State and industry
203
XXIII, Earnings distribution of negro full-time workers in manufactur
ing and laundries, by State and weekly hours______________
XXIV. Median of the week’s earnings of negro women in manufacturing
and in laundries, by State and industry
206
XXV. Age and earnings of negro women in tobacco manufacturing and
in laundries, by State
207
XXVI. Year’s earnings of white women in chief woman-employing man
ufacturing industries reported, by State and industry. ............
XXVII. Year’s earnings of white women in the four types of industry, by
State_ ___________________________ ______ __________ _____
_
CHARTS
Median week’s earnings of women in manufacturing industries in 13
States—1928______________________________________________
Per cent of the women who worked undertime, full" time, and overtime—
manufacturing industries in 13 States
42
Relation of median earnings of women on full time to earnings of all
women—seven chief manufacturing industries______________________
Per cent of full-time workers with specified hour schedules who ear~ned~$15
or more—women in manufacturing industries—8 States______________
Earnings distribution of full-time workers on timework and on piecework—
women in manufacturing industries—11 States______________________
Earnings distribution of full-time workers on timework and on piecework
in two industries
54
Relation of median earnings to median rates—women in six manufacturing
industries
_
Per cent of the women of specified ages who earned $15 or more—manufac
turing industries in 11 States_______________________________________
Per cent of the women with years in industry specified who earned $15 or
more—manufacturing industries in 11 States
82
Relation of median earnings of women on full time to earnings of all
women-—four types of industry—13 States
95
Per cent of the women on full time who earned less than $10—four types of
industry—13 States
96
Relation of median earnings to median rates—women in four types of in
dustry—13 States
100
Average weekly earnings of women in manufacturing industries__ _____
VII
Page
190
'
192
194
196
200
202
204
208
210
x
47
53
62
71
76
148
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
United States Department op Labor,
Women’s Bttreatt,
Washington, December IS, 1980.
have the honor to submit herewith a report on the earnings
of women wage earners in 13 States surveyed by the Women’s
Bureau.
Because of the profound importance of the subject of women’s
wages and the increasing demand for comprehensive figures whose
genuineness is beyond question, these pay-roll figures—covering
about 101,000 white women and 6,100 negro women—have been
assembled, analyzed, and correlated with industry, hours, and other
industrial factors and with age, nativity, and experience of the em
ployees. The findings are shown pictorially in a series of charts.
As the surveys were made over a period of five years, in one section
of the report the earnings figures are converted to a 1928 basis, by
the use of the cost-of-living index of the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
for closer comparability. In the concluding pages of the report are
suggested sources of information on various social and economic
matters connected with the subject of women’s wages.
The analyses have been made and the report has been written by
Mary Elizabeth Pidgeon, in charge of the research division of the
bureau.
Respectfully submitted.
Mary Anderson, Director.
Hon. W. N. Doak,
Secretary of Labor.
Sir : I
IX
MEDIAN WEEK'S EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING
INDUSTRIES IN 13 STATES-19281
Rhode Island
New Jersey
Ohio
Delaware
Oklahoma
Missouri
Georgia2
Tennessee
Arkansas
Kentucky
S. Carolin/V
Alabama
Mississippi
Dollars
10
15
'The relationship of the States is shown as of Dec. 1528. Earnings taken were
corrected to 1928 by the use of the cost of-living indices of the U S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics.
2 excludes Atlanta
U.S Dept, ofBureau
Labor
womens
X
For figures see p. 32.
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
PART L—INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANCE OF WOMEN’S EARNINGS
The worker has always considered the subject of the wage received
for labor service to be one of primary importance. Its insufficiency
or sufficiency means the difference between bare subsistence and a
more adequate living, represented in a suitable kind and amount of
the chief human needs without which life is insupportable: Food,
clothing, shelter, and recreation. The antiquated idea that “The
only wTay to make the poor temperate and industrious is to lay them
under the necessity of laboring all the time” was questioned as early
as 1694, vigorously opposed by 1734, and certainly has no part in
the modern approach to economic problems.1
From the point of view of the general society, the amount and
value of the money wage is of vital importance. In the community,
it determines the weight of public support that must be borne, and
thus marks the condition of progress or decay in the life of the people.
If the wage is insufficient to maintain the personal efficiency of
workers, industry suffers loss in direct proportion. In the greater
social fabric the wage is of additional concern where it applies to
women, for it is obvious that the living standard it sets will largely
determine whether the next generation can have a wholesome de
velopment.
From the point of view of the family, the woman’s earnings bear
a large share in support. Studies in various industrial communities
have shown not only that the great majority of wage-earning women,
whether single or married, contribute to the support of others, but
that in an appreciable number of cases women’s earnings constitute
the entire family budget.2
From the point of view of the individual working woman, earnings
represent a purchasing power that, while dependent upon the fluctu
ating value of money, holds under the existing economic order what
ever possibility of satisfaction she may have in life, since in her case
income from other sources is likely to be nonexistent or at best neg
ligible. And this is quite as true of the unmarried girl who lives at
home as of the one who lives independently, for if she does not earn
enough for her own complete support she is subsidized by her fam
ily; and often this very fact may so reduce their standard that some
unforeseen or unpreventable circumstance may plunge the whole
family, the girl included, below the subsistence level. In the great
majority of cases, the amount the employed woman can earn by
working during reasonable hours and under suitable conditions ac
tually does form her only financial support—the sole economic basis
1 Groat, George Gorham.
* bee p. 158.
Organized Labor in America.
New York, 1916, p. 47.
l
2
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
of her health, the length of her life, her possibility of bearing and rear
ing healthy children, and her personal efficiency and happiness.
The early investigations of B. Seebohm Rowntree, the English
economist and manufacturer, made at a time of unusual prosperity
in the section of England studied, led to a picture of the average
worker as starting life as a child below the poverty line, rising above
it in early manhood, sinking below it again as his own children be
gin to arrive, emerging above it as the children cease to be dependent
upon him, and falling below it again as old age approaches.
For the woman in industry the condition is similar. If she be
married, her child-bearing years represent, besides the added ex
pense to the family, an actual decrease in its total income. If she
be unmarried, she is often called upon to contribute to the support
of younger brothers or sisters, and usually must assist with the sup
port of parents, who, unlike the children of her married sisters or
brothers, become, as the years advance, an increasing financial burden.
It is of the utmost importance to the individual, to the family,
to the community as a whole, to the progress of industry, and to
the virility of each succeeding generation that the working woman
receive from her labor service an income sufficient to enable her to
surround herself with such conditions as shall insure a high degree
of physical and mental efficiency and a large measure of happiness.
Strict social economy demands a wage sufficient to provide not
merely for the bare support of life but for savings against accident,
illness, and old age.
LIMITATIONS UPON WAGE MATERIAL
The extreme difficulty of securing comparable information is a
sufficient explanation of the fragmentary character and limited scope
of studies of earnings, which usually can not extend over long periods
nor over wide areas at a given moment.
It is a simple matter to indicate a few of the obstacles to the
securing of adequate data on this subject and to their valid interpre
tation. In the first place, current wage practice varies widely, as,
for example, with the section of the country, with the locality within
a State, with the demands of an industry, with the experience of the
workers, or with the policy of individual firms in any one industry.
Consistent wage customs usually have not existed even in the 15
States that at some time have had minimum-wage legislation.3
The chief source of material for the study of earnings is pay rolls,
and accuracy can be assured only by the most painstaking care, in
volving great time and expense—usually by having trained investi
gators make personal visits to the plants.4
When the data are obtained, their value for comparative purposes
frequently is impaired by variations in the methods of bookkeeping
used by different firms—even by the same firm at different times—
and by the fact that it is not always possible for managers, foremen,
and employers to give exact amounts. Differences in methods of
payment—according to time or output—result in the receipt of
various amounts for work during one period, so that the relation of* 1
3 Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nebraska, North Dakota,
Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin.—U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s
Bureau, Bulletin No. 61, The Development of Minimum-Wage Laws in the United States, 1912 to 1927,
p. 1.
1 For a statement of the official sources that publish data on women’s wages, see p. 145.
INTRODUCTION
3
earnings to method of payment must be shown. Usually a consider
able proportion of the employees studied have lost some time and so
have earned less than would have been the case if full time had been
worked. For this and other reasons actual earnings differ from the
rates of pay contracted for. Furthermore, as it is the actual earnings
that the worker must live on, and as these are likely to vary con
siderably from week to week, a knowledge of the wage of so short a
period must be supplemented by data in regard to earnings during
the whole of a year.
Despite these and other difficulties involved, the paramount im
portance of the subject demands that data that have been carefully
obtained should be made public even when they cover only a small
part of the immense field of the study of wages and earnings of
American women.
. The interpretation of wage figures must take into account changes
in the general industrial situation. The real value of a wage of any
given amount, as applied to the actual cost of living, can be measured
only in terms of the constantly changing purchasing power of money.
For every particular locality or industry under consideration, the
determination of the adequacy of a wage becomes almost an uncharted
sea, that can be compassed only by painstaking studies of living costs
in different periods, based upon comprehensive data in regard to most
or all of the factors indicated in the foregoing, and frequently upon
other factors in addition.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
During the time from early in 1920 to early in 1925 the Women’s
Bureau made studies of women’s earnings in 13 States, in each case
including a representative group in the industries employing the
greatest numbers of women. Material was secured in regard to the
earnings of 100,967 white and 6,120 negro women working in 1,472
plants. Of these, 79,162 white and 3,141 negro women were in
manufacturing industries, the remainder being in stores and laundries.
In each establishment covered, the actual receipts of all women em
ployed were taken for a week that fell within the same current month
or season for all the firms studied in any one State. Every effort
was made to insure that the week selected should be industrially
normal and representative, should contain no holidays, and should
present no unusual circumstances affecting earnings. Despite the
magnitude of the task, records were, in all but a few cases, copied
directly from pay rolls by agents of the Women’s Bureau, in order
that accurate and uniform material might be secured within each
State. Table I in the appendix shows the numbers of establishments
and the numbers of white women studied, by type of industry and
by State, and Table II shows for the manufacturing industries alone
the numbers of women for whom various types of information were
secured. In Table XXIV are shown the numbers of negro women
studied, by industry and State.
•
In seven States, similar data were taken in the same way for the
corresponding week a year before, designated hereinafter as the
“early week” for any State under discussion. In every State sur
veyed, and in at least one in five of the establishments included,
earnings received in the entire year preceding the study were taken
for those women who had worked as much as 44 weeks.
4
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Table 1 gives, for each State, the number of women included, the
time for which week’s earnings were taken for the greatest number
of the industries surveyed in the main period of study, and the earlier
date for which week’s earnings were taken.
Table 1.—Period
of main study and of earlier week for which earnings were taken,
and numbers of women included, by State and race
"Period of main study
State
in which pay
Year Period were taken 1
rolls
Earlier period
Number of
women
in which pay
Year Periodwere taken 1
rolls
White Negro
Total............
100,967
274
4,081
5,794
7,903
448
1,127
447
1922
3,984
Arkansas........ ... 1922 March.."____ _____ 1,153
1922
12,644
Ohio
1922
23, 469
New Jersey
1922 ____do .
18,133
548
249
597
585
237
Oklahoma
1924
Delaware..........
1924
Mississippi______ 1924
1,813
l' 390
1,529
418
12,234
White Negro
6,120
913
5,927
Number of
women
1,135
Georgia —Atlanta. 1920
Rhode Island__ _ 1920
April to June........ .
J1920 | August to February.
Georgia2.
\1921
Kentucky
1921
South Carolina_
_ 1921
Tennessee
1925
55
32,057
4,395
1920
1920
1920
February to May. 4,224
5,223
7, 477
470
1,676
719
1921
3, 530
660
1921
9,163
564
1923
1923
1,218
306
1 The period given is that during which week’s earnings were taken in most cases in the industries in
cluded. In some cases figures in a few establishments or in a particular industry may have been taken in
a week falling in a somewhat different period, but when this was the case the time was so chosen because it
represented more normal conditions than those existing in the plant or industry at the time for which data
were recorded for other industries.
2 Exclusive of Atlanta.
In the States studied there were seven manufacturing industries
from each of which more than 4,000 women were reported, and these
are discussed in the section on week’s earnings as the chief womanemploying manufacturing industries. These include 12,943 women in
cotton factories in six States, four of which had each from 1,000 to
more than 6,000 in this industry; 9,033 in hosiery and knit goods in
seven States, four of which had over 600 each, and one of these having
more than 5,000 and another more than 1,500; and more than 5,000
in each of the following industries: Cigar making in seven States,
two of which had over 2,000 each and two others over 500 each;
electrical appliances in four States, two of which had over 1,800 each,
another over 900; metal products in six States, two with over 2,500
each; rubber in three States, two with over 2,000 each; and nearly
4,500 in shoes in three States.
There were five additional industries from each of which 2,900 and
less than 4,000 women were reported—tobacco, paper and paper
products, men’s shirts, men's clothing,6 and candy.
The 12 industries mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs constitute
the chief manufacturing industries reported in the entire study, but
6 In all the clothing industries combined, 10,353 women were reported in nine States; in all textiles, 24,568
women in nine States.
INTRODUCTION
those discussed under one section may differ from those discussed
under another on account of differences in the numbers of women
reporting the particular type of information under consideration.
(See Appendix Table II.) However, in every case the largest numbers
of women reported for any single industry are in cotton, hosiery and
knit wear, and cigar making.
The general trend of industrial wages for a period is indicated quite
accurately by the sampling method if the picked group be sufficiently
large and representative. Table 2 shows for the chief industries the
relation between the numbers studied and the numbers reported in
those industries by the census of 1920. This shows that the white
women studied by the bureau were over three-fifths the numbers
reported in 1920 in hosiery and knit goods, electrical appliances, and
rubber; over one-half of those in candy and cigars and tobacco;
over two-fifths of those in laundries; over one-third,of those in cotton
and shoes; nearly one-fourth of those in the clothing industries; and
over one-fifth of the saleswomen in stores. The bureau studies
recorded over half the negro women in hosiery and knit goods and
over one-third of those in tobacco and laundries.
Table 2.—Number of women reported by the census of 1920, number covered by
Women’s Bureau surveys, and ratio of the latter to the former, by industry
WHITE
United States Census of 1920 i
Women’s Bureau, 1920-1925
Number of—
Women
Industry
Industry
States Women2
Bakeries
Candy factories
Clothing industries... _ ____
Electrical supply factories_
_
Glass factories______ _
Rubber factories
Shoe factories________________
Cotton mills_____ ______
Cigar and tobacco factories
Saleswomen (stores)_ ...
_
Laundry operatives
__
2
5
9
4
2
3
3
6
7
7
13
13
1,373
4,745
41,997
8,683
1,775
9,015
12,320
38,665
13, 727
18,864
81,429
10,885
Num
ber of
States
Ratio to
Num number
reported
ber
in 1920
census
7
13
13
804
2,553
10,353
5,683
850
5,482
4,440
12, 943
9,033
9, 534
17,393
4,412
58.6
53.8
24.7
65.4
47.9
60.8
36.0
33.5
65.8
50.5
21 4
40.5
4
66
5.7
Hosiery and knit goods__
NEGROs
Bakeries..................... ..................
Candy factories............................
Clothing industries
Electrical supply factories
Glass factories
Rubber factories
Shoe factories................... ..........
Cotton mills.____ ___________
Knitting mills.......... ......... __
Cigar and tobacco factories
Saleswomen (stores)___ ______
Laundry operatives....................
2
5
9
3
2
3
2
6
6
7
13
13
18
126
1,153
44
168
53
22
2,425
276
5,244
980
8,384
*3.8
1
Hosiery and knit goods—
5
6
5
11
147
2,024
21
2,958
53.3
35.3
.
' IT. S. Bureau of the Census. Fourteenth Census: 1920, vol. 4, Population, Occupations. Table 1,
pp. 876ff.
1 Females 10 years of age and over who were gainfully occupied.
3 No negroes were reported by either census or Women’s Bureau for electric products in Rhode Island,
hosiery and knit goods in Delaware, or shoes in Kentucky.
6
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
METHOD OF PRESENTATION
This bulletin presents in one study the earnings material that has
been collected in various States and over a period of years, with due
consideration of the relative industrial importance of the States
surveyed and of unusual factors that may have affected earnings,
and gives some interpretation to the significance of these data in
the lives of the workers.
In the case of each State the Women’s Bureau, as an agency for
the finding and the interpretation of facts, responded to the request
of the governor or the department of labor, or of some state-wide
body, official or unofficial, interested in the condition of women in
industry. Each study was made separately, and no particular group
of States was selected originally with the aim of eventual comparison.
When the data were accumulated, it was found that much impor
tant general information could be deduced from thorn, even though in
their original form they were not comparable for every industry in
every State. In each case the figures given are an accurate indication
of earnings in the industries and the States included at the time of the
survey. For most States they are substantially representative of
earnings at the present time, but in a few instances they are not so.6
Thus, the earnings figures presented are of value in themselves, but
the relationships that the study shows to be in operation among
various factors connected with women’s wages are of even greater
significance. Examples of this are the relation of earnings to the
rates of pay bargained for, the hours worked, or the age or experience
of the worker; the relation of earnings of full-time workers to those
of all women; or the comparative standards existing in different
States or in different industries.
The period over which these State studies extended was one marked
by somewhat extreme fluctuations in money values. A preliminary
examination of indications of the extent of these fluctuations has been
made from the data on total pay-roll amounts, employment, and cost
of living published by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics
and the production index published by the United States Department
of Commerce. The cost-of-living index prepared by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics reveals that a substantial decline from the postwar
high-cost peak had begun by May, 1921. The index numbers from
September, 1921, through June, 1925, differ by only 3.8 points.
During this period 11 of the State studies were made. The index
from December, 1921, through June, 1925, varies by only 0.8 point;
nine of the State studies fall within this period.7 Hence there is in
any case an appreciable number of States for which valid comparisons
may be made.
.
.
c
In the general discussion of week’s earnings, the influence _ of
financial fluctuations has been minimized in three ways: By grouping
together States studied in periods of similar business activity; by
comparing earnings in the early and the late pay-roll weeks for States
in which both were taken; and by reducing certain of the figures for
each State to the same basis—the year 1928—using for this purpose
the cost-of-living index cited.1
1
iLLBureau of Labor Statistics. Handbook of Labor Statistics, 1924-1926, June, 1927, p. 112.
INTRODUCTION
7
Business fluctuations are likely to have a considerable effect upon
the extent of undertime and of overtime worked and upon the varia
tion of earnings from the rates of pay bargained for, but the hours of
work and the extent of timework and piecework are likely to be more
greatly affected by the type of organization of the particular industry
than by business fluctuation. The relative payments to timeworkers
and pieceworkers and to workers differing in experience, age, or
nativity may be considered with little regard to differences in date
of the surveys, since these are matters not highly affected by such
fluctuations as occur over a 5-year period, even when this is a time
of especially great financial change.
The three types of industry not included under manufacturing—
the general mercantile store, the 5-and-10-cent store, and the laun
dry—are discussed in a separate section of this report, and the data
for each State are compared with those for all manufacturing in
dustries taken together, in the same State. Each of the three in
cludes a considerable number of women in every State studied at
any time, and in consequence data exist for more consecutive and
comprehensive comparisons than in any particular manufacturing
industry. Both year’s earnings and the earnings of negro women are
discussed in separate sections. The final part of the report indicates
other sources of some information on women’s earnings and gives
brief consideration to certain economic problems connected with
this subject.
31893°—31-----2
PART II.—SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The Women’s Bureau has secured material on the earnings of
100,967 white and 6,120 negro women working- in 1,472 plants in 13
States studied in the time from early in 1920 to early in 1925. Of
these, 79,162 white and 3,141 negro women were in manufacturing
industries, the remainder being in stores and laundries. The num
ber of white women studied by the bureau formed over three-fifths
of the number that the Federal census of 1920 reported in the same
States in hosiery and knit goods, electrical appliances, and rubber;
over one-half of the number in candy and cigars and tobacco; over
two-fifths of that in laundries; over one-third of that in cotton and
shoes; nearly one-fourth of that in the clothing industries; and over
one-fifth of the number of saleswomen in stores. The number of
negro women formed over one-half of the number reported in the
same States in 1920 in hosiery and knit goods and over one-third of
that in tobacco and in laundries.
In general, the findings in the study may be said to signify that
the earnings of women in manufacturing—and especially in certain
of the important industries that employ many women—are very
irregular; that women are subject to much undertime work and their
earnings often fall below their rates to a very considerable degree.
The manufacturing industries employing the largest numbers of
women use the piecework system to a great extent. It was found in
this study that earnings frequently were more regular and were at
higher levels in general mercantile establishments than in manufac
turing industries, but in laundries much irregularity appeared, and
in 5-and-10-cent stores the earnings levels generally were the lowest
of all. Up to a certain point the worker’s experience counted for an
increase in wages, varying somewhat as the industries differed. While
there were many instances in which women suffered a decline in
earnings beginning at a comparatively early age, this appeared less
likely to be the case with those employed in general mercantile estab
lishments than with those in the other types of industry.
WEEK’S EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING
INDUSTRIES
The median of the week’s earnings recorded for 79,162 women in
manufacturing industries in 13 States ranged from $19.13 in Rhode
Island in 1920 to $8.35 in Mississippi in 1924. The median means
that one-half the women earned more, one-half less, than the figure
given. It was highest in Rhode Island, New Jersey, and Ohio;
lowest in Mississippi, Alabama, and South Carolina; and this was
true of the figures both at the time of study and as corrected for 1928
by the use of the cost-of-living index of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
_ Indications were quite positive that the geographic location and
industrial development of a State and the standards in the industries
that prevailed there had effects upon the amounts women ordinarily
8
'
.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
9
could earn that in some instances were more marked than were the
effects produced by periodical fluctuations in business conditions.
Of the chief manufacturing industries, those in which women’s earn
ings had a relatively high median in every case were electrical appli
ances and rubber, and medians in metal, cigars, and shoes usually
were high in relation to those in other industries. Industries in which
the medians of the earnings were universally low were cotton and—
with one exception—hosiery and knit goods.
Earnings of full-time, undertime, and overtime workers.
The proportion of full-time workers ranged from 25.8 to 54.7 per
cent, naturally tending to be greater in States studied in normal
periods than in those studied in times of depression. In 10 of the
13 States less than one-half the women had worked full time in the
week covered. Median earnings of full-time workers were—with the
exception of one State—from 9.5 to 26.7 per cent above those of all
workers, and the order of the States from high to low medians is
much the same for full-time as for all workers. Median earnings of
full-time workers rose more than 10 per cent above those of all
women reported in cotton factories in five of six States, in knit-goods
mills in six of seven, in cigars in three of seven, in metal products in
two of five,. in electrical appliances in one of four, in shoes in two of
three, and in rubber in none of the three States surveyed.
_ Id each State from 43.8 to 62.8 per cent of the women worked under
time, and in 8 of the 13 States the proportion of undertime exceeded
that of full-time workers. Median earnings of undertime workers fell
below those of full-time workers by from 10.1 to 39.2 per cent. In
three States in each case, and these were the States industrially im
portant, over one-half the women reported in paper and paper prod
ucts, clothing, tobacco, rubber, and candy were undertime workers,
and in two States each the same was true of bakeries, electrical
appliances, and textiles.
The proportion of overtime workers ranged from 0.4 to 22.1 per
cent; it was above 10 per cent in two States. Considerable num
bers of overtime workers were found in two States each in textile,
metal, electrical appliance, men’s clothing, and rubber factories, and
in one State each in candy, shoe, and drug and chemical plants. In
these instances the overtime workers had medians considerably above
those of the full-time workers except in the metal industry, drugs and
chemicals, and cotton, in one State each. In cotton there were five
States in which medians could be computed for overtime workers, and
in three of these the median was lower than that for full-time workers.
Earnings and hours worked.
Earnings by hours worked were reported for 29,030 women in nine
industrially important States. Higher earnings were received more
frequently where reasonably short hours prevailed and excessively long
schedules usually were accompanied by low pay. Taking for com
parison the eight States in which considerable numbers of women in
two or more hour groups earned $15 or more, it is true of six of them
that these higher earnings were received by the women with the short
est hours. In six States, an amount less than $8 was received by
larger proportions of women with the longest hours than of women
with shorter hours.
10
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
In the chief manufacturing industries, women in metal, electrical
appliance, and rubber factories generally had shorter hours and better
pay than had the women in cigar plants, and cigar makers ordinarily
had shorter hours and better pay than had the workers in cotton mills
and in most cases better than those in hosiery and knit-goods factories.
Timework and piecework.
The proportion of the workers reported who were on the piece system
ran from 16.7 to 82.1 per cent, being over 50 per cent in 10 States and
over 75 per cent in 4 of these.
In 12 States the median for pieceworkers was above and that for
timeworkers was below the median for all women reported in the
State. While there was no consistent relation between the proportion
of pieceworkers and the degree in which their median rose above that
of timeworkers in any State or industry, there were very definite indi
cations of the great irregularity of the earnings of pieceworkers.
The data available show that the piecework system is markedly pre
dominant in the great woman-employing industries, and they tend to
indicate that this is one potent cause of the irregularity of women’s
earnings. About 90 per cent of the women reported in cigar making,
over 80 per cent of those in hosiery and knit-wear mills, about 70 per
cent in the cotton and rubber industries, and over 50 per cent of those
in shoe factories were on piecework. The large proportions of women
on piecework in these industries become especially significant when
considered in reference to the possible deleterious physical effects of
piecework and the weaknesses of the system from the viewpoint of
scientific management.
Among the full-time workers in 11 States, of every 10 timeworkers
about 3 earned $15 or more; about 3, $12 and under $15; nearly 2, $10
and under $12; about 1, $8 and under $10; and less than 1 earned under
$8. Of every 10 pieceworkers more than 5 earned $15 or over; nearly
2, $12 and under $15; and the other 3 were in the other 3 wage groups.
Earnings and rates.
Both week’s earnings and weekly rates of pay were reported for
13,240 women in 13 States. The frequency with which earnings fell
below rates and the degree to which this was the case give evidence
that there are large groups of the women engaged in manufacturing
who do not receive the best payment that normally is current, what
ever the period of study and however high or low the rate may be.
The proportion of the women who had suffered loss of earnings ranged
from 32.7 per cent in Georgia to 70.2 per cent in Mississippi. It was
Over 45 per cent in each of six States and in the city of Atlanta—in four
of these States it approached or exceeded 50 per cent.
Median earnings ranged from 1.2 per cent below rates in Georgia and
nearly 5 per cent below rates in Ohio and New Jersey, to 13.8 per cent
and 16.2 p<A cent below rates in Mississippi and South Carolina,
respectively. They showed a tendency to fall farther below rates in
States studied during industrial depression than in those studied in
normal times; farther below in States having comparatively few
women in manufacturing than in those that had more women so
employed.
In the six chief manufacturing industries in which the reports on rates
and earnings were sufficient for comparisons, the median rates were
low in cotton, candy, and paper, higher in men’s clothing, highest of
SUMMARY OP FINDINGS
11
all in metal, and irregular in shoes. The degree to which the median
of earnings differed from that of rates showed the widest range in shoe
manufacturing, the next in cotton factories, and a lesser range in each
of the other industries in the following order: Paper, men’s clothing,
metal products, candy. The proportions of the women reported in
cotton factories who earned less than their rates ranged from 16.5 per
cent to 74.5 per cent; in one State the proportion was greater than in
any of the other cases, and in another State greater than in any other
industry but paper. With the exception of the case noted in paper,
the proportions of the women in the industries other than cotton who
earned less than their rates ranged from 20.8 per cent to 60.9 percent.
Earnings and age.
Earnings and age were reported for 39,141 women in manufacturing
industries in 11 States. In every State, from one-half to almost
two-thirds of the women were less than 25 years of age; in every State
but one the largest single group, with from about 20 to about 30 per
cent of the total, was composed of women 20 and under 25 years of
age. In six States the highest median of earnings was for the group
of women who were 30 and under 40; in four States, for those 25 and
under 30. In each age group the proportions of women who earned
$15 or over showed a slight decline after the age of 30 and a marked
decline after 40. Considering the groups for which medians have
been computed, in 6 of the 11 States more than one-fifth of the women—
in 4 of these from 30 to 36 per cent—were above the age of highest
earnings.
Authoritative mortality figures indicate that of every six women
above the age of 40, three will live for 15 years or more (Metropolitan
Life Insurance Co.) and one will live for 35 years or more (United
States Census).
In most of the States the age of the women having the highest
median earnings in cotton factories was 30 and under 40; it was less
than this in knit goods; in metal products it was 25 and under 30 in
all States but one; in electrical appliances it was 30 and under 40 in
two out of three States; and in cigars it was irregular. Of the women
for whom median earnings were computed, those who were above the
age of the highest median formed over 30 per cent of all reported in
knit goods in three of five States, and over 20 per cent in metal prod
ucts in two out of four; in cotton manufacturing they formed about
20 per cent or more in three out of six States; and in cigars they formed
less than 10 per cent in two States and over 20 per cent in two. In
electrical appliances they formed only 5 per cent, or less, in two out
of three States.
Earnings and experience.
Earnings were reported in relation to experience for 35,670 women
in the manufacturing industries in 11 States. In each of four States
more than 20 per cent of the women had been in the trade 10 years or
longer, and in each of the other States from nearly 10 to nearly 20 per
cent had been in the trade this length of time. The proportions of
all the women reported who had the comparatively high earnings of
$15 or over showed an increase with added years of experience until
the period of 10 and under 15 years was reached, after which they
declined.
12
WAGES OP WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Of all the women for whom earnings and experience were reported,
14,219 were full-time workers. In industries in which full-time work
ers who were in their first year of service had relatively high earnings,
the maximum usually was received by those who had been in the trade
a comparatively long period, and this maximum showed a somewhat
greater tendency to be high than did the maximum in industries
where initial earnings were low. The receipt of high or low maximum
payments does not depend entirely on the length of service but de
pends also upon differences of standard or organization within the
industry.
In cotton mills in three out of five States and in shoe factories in
two out of three the highest median reported for full-time workers
was that of women who had worked 15 years or longer; in electrical
appliances in two out of three States the maximum was for women
who had worked 4 and under 5 years; in cigar, metal, and knitgoods plants it was for women with a different period of experience in
each State reported. Except in a few instances, comparatively small
proportions of the women in the chief industries had had experience
longer than that of the group with the highest median earnings.
Earnings and nativity.
Most of the 4,362 foreign-born women reported were in the four
States of Missouri, New Jersey, Ohio, and Rhode Island, and in each
case they had median earnings above those of the native women.
Where Austrians or Hungarians formed the chief group in an industry
or a State studied they almost always had a median above that of all
foreign-born and of native women. Where Italians formed a chief
group in an industry studied, their median usually was below that of
all foreign-born women in the industry aftd in more than one-half
the cases it was below that of native women.
Among the foreign-born women Austro-Hungarians prevailed in
textile industries in one State, in certain clothing industries in two
States, in cigars in two States, and in rubber and glass in one State
each. Italian women formed the chief foreign-born group in certain
textiles in two States, in clothing industries in two States, in metal
and paper in two States each, and in tobacco, electrical appliances,
and glass in one State each.
WEEK’S EARNINGS OP WHITE WOMEN IN GENERAL MERCANTILE
ESTABLISHMENTS, 5-AND-10-CENT STORES, AND LAUNDRIES COM
PARED WITH THOSE IN MANUFACTURING
Median earnings of women in general mercantile establishments
were higher than those in manufacturing in 10 of the 13 States, those
in manufacturing were above those in laundries in 9 States, and those
in laundries were above those in 5-and-10-cent stores in 11 States.
In 12 States, larger proportions of women in manufacturing than in
general mercantile establishments earned less than $8; in 8 States,
larger proportions in manufacturing than in laundries earned less
than $8. Amounts below $8 were received by larger proportions of
the women in 5-and-10-cent stores than of those in laundries in 8
States. The States with the highest and those with the lowest
medians in the four types of industry were as follows:
13
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Highest medians 1
Lowest medians
Kentucky.
Delaware.
Mississippi.
Alabama.
Tennessee.
Mississippi.
Alabama.
Mississippi.
5-and-10-cent stores____ _____ ____________
1 In general mercantile and in laundries the city of Atlanta also had high medians.
The smallest proportion of full-time workers ordinarily was in the
manufacturing industries, and the median for this group usually was
below that of women in general mercantile establishments but above
those in laundries and 5-and-10-cent stores. The range in the per
cent by which the median of the earnings of full-time workers rose
above that of all workers was as follows:
General mercantile establishments 0.6 to
Manufacturing9.5 to 26.7
Laundries„ 1.1 to 26.2
5-and-10-cent stores 2.3 to 9.1
8.6
Per cent
A study of earnings in relation to hour schedules gives some evi
dence of a tendency between types of industry, as well as within each
type of industry, toward higher pay where the more reasonable hour
schedules were the rule. In general mercantile establishments, for
example, in most States there was a larger proportion of women re
ceiving $15 or over than in the manufacturing industries, in which
the prevailing hours usually were longer than those in stores.
The variation of earnings from rates showed the most irregularity in
laundries, and the least in 5-and-10-cent stores. In manufacturing,
earnings in many cases were considerably below rates and in general
mercantile establishments the custom of paying a sales bonus fre
quently raised earnings above rates. The proportions of the women
reported who earned less than their rates were much the greatest in
manufacturing, were next high in laundries, and were lowest in stores,
general mercantile being considerably better than 5-and-10-cent stores
in this respect.
In 5-and-10-cent stores the age at which the median earnings were
highest was 20 and under 25 in all but three States, in laundries it
was 20 and under 25 in three States and 25 and under 30 in three,
and in general mercantile establishments it was 30 and under 40 in
five States and 40 and under 50 in six. The per cent of women who
were older than those with the highest median earnings reported was
10 or more in five States in general mercantile establishments but
was as much as 10 in only one State in 5-and-10-cent stores. In
laundries such per cent ranged from about 30 to more than 60 in seven
of the States.
The amount of experience required to reach the highest earnings
ordinarily was considerable in general mercantile establishments, was
less in laundries, and was still less in 5-and-10-cent stores. Both the
earnings of those with little experience and the maximum median were
comparatively high in general mercantile establishments and were low
in 5-and-10-cent stores.
14
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
In four States an appreciable number of foreign-born women were
reported in two or more of these industries; in three of these States the
largest proportions were in manufacturing, in one they were in laun
dries. In each case, median earnings were above those of native
women in manufacturing and in 5-and-10-cent stores, and below or
only slightly above those of native women in general mercantile
establishments and in laundries. Among the foreign-born women in
general mercantile establishments, Russians prevailed in three States
and Canadians in one, and in those cases the median was above the
figure for all foreign-born women in the same industry. In laundries,
the chief group of foreign-born women was German in one State,
Irish in one, Portuguese in one. The median for the Germans was
above, those for the Irish and Portuguese were below, that of all
foreign-born women reported in the State.
EARNINGS IN WEEK EARLIER THAN MAIN PERIOD OF STUDY
In seven States data were secured on week’s earnings about a year
earlier than the main period of study.1 The findings from these con
firmed the previous discussion as to, the effects of special periods of
depression or prosperity; indicated1 that these effects were more
extreme in some industries or localities than in others; and empha
sized the fact that the earnings of women are likely to be influenced
by particular situations in a given industry or locality as well as by
general business fluctuation, so that frequently it becomes impossible
to make a single complete and comprehensive statement in regard to
one industry or one period of time.
The inclusion of the early-week data tends to bear out the previous
findings that undertime work was more prevalent in manufacturing
than in laundries and existed to a less degreein 5-and-10-centstores
and least of all in general mercantile establishments. In 16 of 20
cases reported, less than one-half the women in manufacturing worked
full time. In the other types of industry more than one-half worked
full time in all cases but 3, the exceptions being in laundries.
In regard to specific manufacturing industries, the early-week data
confirmed the previous findings that median earnings ordinarily were
relatively high in cigar making, low in hosiery and knit wear; that the
tendency was toward a comparatively large proportion of full-time
work in cigar factories, a comparatively small proportion in those
making cotton goods and hosiery and knit wear; and that earnings
fell farthest below rates in cotton factories and considerably below in
several instances in knit goods and shoes, but differed little from rates
in cigars.
WEEK’S EARNINGS OF NEGRO WOMEN
Earnings were reported for 3,141 negro women in manufacturing
industries in 10 States and for 2,958 in laundries in 11 States. In
9 States the median earnings in manufacturing ranged from $4.89 to
$8.92, and in 8 of these States less than $8 represented the week’s
earnings of from 40 to more than 90 per cent of the women. Twothirds of the women reported in manufacturing were in cigar and
tobacco factories in 7 States, and in 6 of the 7 States from 37 to 81 per
cent of the women reported earned under $8.*
» In the case of Georgia the difference in date between early and late pay rolls was very much less than a
year—in some industries only a few months.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
15
In six States larger proportions of the women in laundries than of
those in manufacturing had earnings as low as $8.
In 9 States the proportions of negro women who had worked full
time in manufacturing ranged from 21 to 57 per cent, being practically
50 per cent or more in 4 of these. In every case but one a larger pro
portion of the women in laundries than in manufacturing had worked
full time. Median earnings of full-time workers in manufacturing in
9 States ranged from $6.23 to $10.90, and in laundries in 11 States
they ranged from $5.95 to $11.63; in 5 States the median for full-time
laundry workers was above that of full-time workers in manufacturing,
but in 5 States a larger proportion in laundries than in manufacturing
earned under $8. Median earnings of full-time workers in tobacco
factories in 4 States ranged from $8.37 to $12.35 and in cigar making
in 4 States ranged from $7 to $10.36.
In four out of six States the earnings of full-time workers in relation
to hours in manufacturing indicated that as the proportions of women
working less than 52 hours increased the proportions of women earning
under $8 decreased.
In 8 of 10 States there were more pieceworkers than timeworkers in
manufacturing, and in every State timeworkers predominated in
laundries. Median earnings of timeworkers in manufacturing ranged
from $4.95 to $12.38, those of pieceworkers from $3.93 to $10. In
7 of the 10 States the median for pieceworkers fell below that for timeworkers, the decline being from 4.8 to 56.6 per cent. In laundries the
median earnings of timeworkers ranged from $5.66 to $9.89, and in
three States in which there were enough pieceworkers for the compu
tation of a median, the median was above that of timeworkers by
from nearly 10 per cent to more than 60 per cent. In the tobacco and
cigar industries piecework prevailed, and median earnings of piece
workers fell below those of timeworkers in live out of six cases.
In manufacturing in 9 States the median of earnings fell below that
of rates by from 2.4 to 14.6 per cent; in laundries in 10 States, by from
3.9 to 17.5 per cent. However, in every State in which both industries
were reported, with two exceptions, earnings came nearer to rates in
laundries than in manufacturing.
Reports on earnings in relation to age showed that in tobacco fac
tories women of 25 and under 30 in 2 States and of 30 and under 40 in 1
had the highest median earnings. In laundries women of 20 and under
25 in 1 State, of 25 and under 30 in 2, of 30 and under 40 in 2, and of
40 and under 50 in 2 had the highest medians. Women who were
older than the age of highest earnings and for whom median earnings
had declined formed from about one-fifth to nearly three-fifths of the
women reported in tobacco and formed somewhat over one-tenth to
more than four-tenths of those in laundries.
Data on earnings in relation to experience show that in manufac
turing industries the amount earned bore little relation to length of
experience. In laundries, full-time workers who had been employed
5 and under 10 years earned from 8 to 12 per cent more than those
who had worked 1 and under 2 years.
YEAR’S EARNINGS
Almost every worker suffers considerable variation from week to
week in earnings, yet she must live for the whole of the year whether
she receives wages every week or not. Year’s earnings were taken for
16
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
a representative proportion of the steadier workers—those who had
been with the plant for at least a year preceding the time of study and
who had worked in at least 44 weeks. In every State but two the
highest median of year’s earnings for white women was in general mer
cantile establishments, and in every State but one the lowest was in
5-and-10-cent stores. The median in manufacturing was above that
in laundries in 7 of 11 States.
If a woman earned $500 in the year, she would have to liveon$9.62
a week. The summary following indicates for the four types of indus
try the number of white women whose year’s earnings were reported,
the range of the medians, and the proportions who had received less
than $500 in the year. Information was secured in 13 States in each
case.
Type of industry
Approximate
number of
white women
reported
Median of the
year’s earnings
Proportions of women receiving under $500
High
est
Low
est
$915
$400
1,085
667
689
431
758
Over 8,000
General mercantile___ Nearly 2,000_._
5-and-10-cent stores....... About 450___
463
Over 45 per cent in 3 States; over 20 per cent in
4 other States.
Less than 9 per cent in 8 States.
Over 80 per cent in 2 States; over 40 per cent in
6 other States; less than 30 per cent in only
4 States.
Over 55 per cent in 2 States; over 30 per cent in
4 other States; over 10 per cent in 4 other
States.
In the chief woman-employing industries the following proportions
of the white women reported had received under $500 for their year’s
work:
Cotton goods.—Over 20 per cent in five of seven States.
Hosiery and knit goods.—Over 20 per cent in four of seven States.
Cigars.—Over 10 per cent in four of six States.
Metal 'products.—Less than 10 per cent in all States reported.
Shoes.—Less than 7 per cent in all but one State.
Paper and paper products.—Less than 6 per cent in all States reported.
Electrical appliances.—Less than 5 per cent in all States reported.
The proportion of white women who earned $1,000 or over during
the year ran to more than 20 per cent in manufacturing in four States;
in general mercantile establishments it ran to over 40 per cent in three
States and to over 20 per cent in seven others. Only two women in
5-and-10-cent stores in the entire study and less than 6 per cent of
those in laundries in any State had earnings so high.
Year’s earnings were reported for 172 negro women in manufacturing
in 8 States and for 297 in laundries in 11 States. So far as medians
could be computed, their earnings in manufacturing ranged fron $263
to $563 and in laundries from $306 to $550. In manufacturing over
one-half of those reported in 4 States, and in laundries over one-half of
those reported in 3 States and about one-fifth or more in 5 other
States, had earned less than $300 in the year—that is, less than an
average of $5.77 for each of 52 weeks. Earnings of $500 or more were
received by the following proportions of the negro women reported:
In manufacturing, one-fourth or over in 5 States, in 4 of these nearly
or more than one-third—in one case nearly three-fifths; in laundries,
one-fifth or over in 7 States, in 3 of these one-half or more—in one case
three-fourths.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
17
RELATION OF FINDINGS TO CERTAIN OTHER DATA ON WAGES
The final section of the report indicates the relation of the Women’s
Bureau findings to certain other data concerning wages. It deals with
the sources of data on women’s earnings; the relation of the amounts
they receive to their estimated living costs, and to the amounts earned
by men; the responsibility of women for sharing family support; the
possibilities for an advance in women’s wages offered by the increase
in manufacturing productivity and by the elimination of industrial
waste. A summary of some of the data bearing on these subjects and
of some of the Women’s Bureau figures in regard to the chief industries
reported is given in Table 3 on the page following.
Table 3.—-Summary of data in regard to IS woman-employing manufacturing indxistries, from Women’s Bureau studies and other sources
CO
Data from other sources
Per cent of
increase from
1919 to 1925
Per cent in
1921 that was 'rH ^
assignable .2 §
to—
® Xl
a
03 C3
2a
sM
20.2
53.4
45.4
45.9
53.3
45.7
45.9
40
75
16
9
i« 211
36.0
13 2.3
24.8
6.1
21.8
21.9
32.9 33.0
40.5 44.5
47
17 57
73
10
79
49. 2
19
50.2
20 39
16 6
17 34
0.0 $11.75
1922
$8. 63
1922 $12.06
$8. 70
66.5
85.2
49.8
69.1
32.1
51.3
72.4
28.1
33.0
16.9
37.6
23.7
33.9
6.1
93.6
95.6
72.9
50.2
74.8
58.0
64.6
32.9
31.4
28.6
20.3
53.6
53.8
23.6
19. 57
15.20
17.39
18.63
20.94
15.53
14.38
1922
1922
1920
1920
1920
1922
1924
12.14 1922 20.16
7. 87 1924 15. 66
15. 77 1922 16.87
(1922
12.50 11925 }l5.43
14.80 1922 17.90
10. 72 1921 16.00
8. 79 1924 14.44
12. 06
7.90
14.87
12. 42
15. 25
10. 36
8. 74
69.0
57.7
34.4
23. 2
78.2
91.2
61.5
61.0
12.77
16.15
1920
1922
12,943
9,033
8.13
6. 98
1924
1922
12.81
16. 63
Lowest
41.4
5
3,703
6
3,135
4
5,683
5
6, 320
3
5, 482
4, 440
3
8 13 3, 785 13
CD
%
A
Highest
8.2
Lowest
Amount
3.4
9.6
Date
Lowest
72.9
Highest
<1
States
oOH
1 All industries for which the Women’s Bureau studies have reported 2,900 or more
women.
2 U. S. Bureau of the Census. Monograph X, 1929, pp. 398-399.
3 Ibid. Monograph VIII, pp. 200-204.
4 Ibid. Monograph X, pp. 377-382 (computed).
8 Ibid., p. 110 (computed).
6 American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Annual meeting, December, 1928,
Alford, L. P., and Hannum, J. E. A Basis for Evaluating Manufacturing Operation,
pp. 5, 7.
7 Federated American Engineering Societies. Waste in Industry. Washington,
1921, pp. 118, 148, 165, 211-213, and 240-241. Report on 9 plants in men’s clothing; 15
in metal products; 17 in boots and shoes; and 13 in textiles.
8 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, January, 1927, p. 37.
Highest
Range of
medians of
the week’s
earnings
converted
to 192S
6
7
.5h
P
28
21 31. 4
Range of medians of the
week’s earnings of all
women reported, by
date
8 12 2, 914
fl.2
13 15 1.3
16.9
17 14. 2
20 24. 6
Range of
per cents
of
full-time
workers
who were
on
piecework
Highest
c fe
11 19.1
13 4.7
23.3
ii 57. 7
Number
of 9—
Women re
ported
*23
■Ss
Range of
per cents
of women
who
worked
full time i°
Lowest
Candy____________
h 53
Clothing:
Men’s clothing.__
53
Men’s shirts-----81
Electrical appliances .
h 26
Metal products_____
Rubber products___ ____ 15 12
Shoes
16 37
Paper and paper products.. 179
Textiles________________
Cotton_____________
Hosiery and knit goods. 20 67
Tobacco products 21 58
Cigars______________
Tobacco____________
^ 2 SJ
sag
C3T3 o
Sd?*
'%Bo
m
Waste 7
8.07
7.16
7
6,612
79.5 56.8 98.0 79.1 16.45 1924
8. 69 1925 16.86
8.72
65. 6 38.8 90.8 47.2 13.23 1925 10. 58 1921 13.60 10.23
4
3,070
9 See Table IV in Appendix. Excludes States where too few women were reported
for the computation of a median.
10 From Table VII and unpublished material.
11 Census classification—confectionery and ice cream.
12 Includes Atlanta.
13 In this case the figure represents a decrease.
14 Census classification—electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies.
15 Census classification—rubber tires.
16 Census clasification—boots and shoes, not including rubber boots and shoes.
17 Census classification—paper and wood pulp. 18 Atlanta.
19 Census classification—textiles.
29 Census classification—knit goods.
21 Census classification—tobacco—cigars and cigarettes.
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Industry *
8M
KB >»
T3 g
Si ® 3
g.s Si
"I
2§
" <3 5 s
03
Per cent
that esti ci £ u
mated
Bat
annual per
.2
capita
earnings .20 5
of women
3.g were below
§a
03 C3
those of
o,
men 5
Data from Women’s Bureau studies of white women
Amount
Data based on figures from the
U. S. Bureau of the Census
PART III.—INDUSTRIAL BACKGROUND
RELATIVE INDUSTRIAL POSITIONS OF THE STATES STUDIED
It is obvious that the States studied vary widely both in the extent
of manufacturing and in the kinds of industries that are primary.
As has been stated, their selection was not made with a view to com
parison, but in every case the survey included a representative
proportion of workers in the chief woman-employing industries in
the State. Some idea of the relative extent of manufacturing may
be obtained from the following summary, which gives, from the
United States Census of Manufactures of 1919, the rank of the 13
States considered in the average number of wage earners and in the
value added to products by manufacture.
Rank of State as %
regards—
State
Ohio. ..........................
New Jersey___________
Missouri____ ________
Rhode Island_________
Georgia... .....................
Alabama _______
Tennessee_____ ____
Average
Value
number added by
of wage manufac
earners 1
ture 1
3
6
12
15
17
21
23
Rank of State as
regards—
State
Average
Value
number added by
of wage manufac
earners 1
ture i
3
7
16
20
26
23
39
38
1 U. S. Bureau of the Census. Abstract of the Census of Manufactures: 1919, p. 280, Table 187.
According _to this summary, 3 of the States—Ohio, New Jersey,
and Missouri—are of especial importance in manufacturing, falling
in the first 12 of the 48 States both in average number of wage earners
and in value added by manufacture. Three other States—Rhode
Island, Georgia, and Tennessee—fall in the first half in both cate
gories and Alabama falls there in average number of wage earners.
Nonindustrial States.
In regard to the States that fall toward the end of the list in average
number of wage earners, value added by manufacture, or both, it
may be considered that they are, on the whole, nonindustrial in
character. In Arkansas, Delaware, Mississippi, and Oklahoma the
surveys covered in each case fewer than 2,000 women. In manu
facturing industiies, fewer than 225 were included in Arkansas and
in Oklahoma. In Mississippi and Oklahoma over 70 per cent of the
white women and in Delaware nearly 60 per cent were in a single
industry in each case. Table 4 shows for these States the number of
women studied, the number of these who were in manufacturing,
the number in manufacturing industries that were relatively impor
tant in the State, and the State rank in number of wage earners and
number of women employed.
19
20
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Table 4.—Number of women whose earnings were ascertained in nonindustrial
States, by race
Rank of State
as regards—
Women studied in manufacturing
State
Number of
women
studied
Total
Principal industries
White Negro White Negro
1,153
1,390
249
209
761
48
1,529
1,813
418
55
894
224
168
White
Shirts, 138; hosiery and knit
goods, 124; cigars, 449.
Cotton, 650___
Aver
age Num
num ber of
ber of women
all
em
Negro wage ployed
earners
34
39
3
26
43
33
38
15
27
All four of these States rank in the lowest third in the United States
in average number of wage earners, and two—Delaware and Okla
homa—rank in the lowest fourth. Oklahoma, Delaware, and Arkansas
are in the lower half in total number of women employed, which
includes teachers and others not in industrial pursuits. This com
bination of factors bears out the conclusion that the four States pre
sented are distinctly nonindustrial. Owing to this characteristic, and
to the small numbers involved in each case, these States can not
always be included in the general considerations in regard to earnings
in manufacturing industries. They form a part in the more compre
hensive of the tables, in the studies of stores and laundries, and in any
consideration of particular manufacturing industries holding an
especially important place in the State in question. For example, in
Mississippi, which ranks highest of the four in number of women in
manufacturing industries, 650 of the 894 white women studied worked
in cotton mills, an industry so important in the employment of women
as to require some separate consideration at certain points in a study
of earnings. When cotton is discussed, therefore, Mississippi is
included, although otherwise a nonindustrial State. Likewise, in
Delaware 449 of the 761 white women reported were in cigar making,
another important woman-employing industry, while 138 made shirts
and 124 were in hosiery and knit-goods factories.
In addition to their place in the consideration of particular indus
tries, the States in question may afford some basis for a comparison
of earnings in communities chiefly nonindustrial with those where
industry is well established and organized.
INDUSTRIAL CHANGES AFFECTING COMPARISONS
Since the earnings data secured in the various States are not for
the same week, nor even for the same year, some account must be
taken of business fluctuations in order to form a basis for adequate
comparisons and to give coordinate consideration to States surveyed
in periods of similar industrial activity.
In the two years from the latter part of 1920 to late 1922, earnings
were taken in nine States. These months were marked by great
fluctuations, indicating at first serious depression and later general
recovery. While a study of the actual earnings of the woman worker
during a time of depression is of great importance, since it portrays
the crisis facing her, it is obvious that the amounts she then receives
may not be the same as those paid to her in a period of prosperity.
21
INDUSTRIAL BACKGROUND
The index of manufacturing production given in the Survey of Cur
rent Business, published monthly by the Department of Commerce,
may be taken as some indication of business movements. This index
is based upon the 1919 monthly average as 100 and represents a
weighted average prepared from reports of 62 commodities represent
ing about 36 per cent of the entire manufacturing industry.* For the
1
years of instability and incipient recovery in which the nine States
were surveyed, this index ran as follows:
1920-----------------------------------------------1921-----------------------------------------------------------------------------1922______________________________
80.9
The Women’s Bureau took pay rolls for periods in late 1920 or
early 1921 in Rhode Island and Georgia, and in these cases earnings
were higher than would be representative of a later period, since the
full force of the depression that was beginning throughout the country
was not yet felt here at the date of the pay rolls studied. In Rhode
Island—surveyed in October to December, 1920—textiles already had
become disorganized, and for this and other reasons earnings in this
industry were not taken; in other lines of business apprehension was
current among the workers and wage cuts were felt to be imminent.
The omission of textiles, the inclusion of industries highly paid at the
period, the influence of bonuses, and other factors noted later, caused
the Rhode Island figures to be raised to a point that may be considered
abnormally high in comparison with those in other States.2 In
Georgia, on account of economic conditions at the time of the survey,
the pay rolls taken were in most cases for an earlier week, in 1920.
The figures for cotton, the chief industry, were taken about one-half
in 1920 and one-half in the first two months of 1921.3 By February,
1921, the amount of money included in pay rolls in a representative
number of cotton factories in various parts of the country had declined
more than 16 per cent since the same month in the year preceding,
and employment showed a very slight decrease, according to the pay
roll figures of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.4 Naturally, this sig
nified that per capita earnings were lower in February, 1921, than in
February, 1920.
At the end of 1921 and in early 1922 earnings were ascertained in
lour States Kentucky, South Carolina, Alabama, and Arkansas.
In most cases pay-roll weeks taken in these States were within the
time from October to February, a few of those in Arkansas being as
late as March. The monthly index of production, based on 1919,
was better in October and November, 1921, than in the early months
of 1922, the figures being as follows: 5
1921:
October._.
November
December.
1922:
January...
February..
10*0?'
.
88. 8
.
88. 2
_ 83. 4
„ 85. 2
82. 3
s-DePartment of Commerce. Survey of Current Business, February, 1923, p. 63; and February, 5
Ju2o, p, Jo,
' Wien the figures are corrected to 1929, this statement is verified. See p. 32.
, ,LiBre-ire National Bureau of Economic Research, Business of 1920but improved in the second quarter
1921.
See indications that textiles declined in the last quarter Cycles and Unemployment, New York,
luid, p. 96, 1 able XXII—Total quarterly wages and salaries paid to all employees. (Estimated.)
I tt" o' 5ureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review, April, 1921, p. 83.
4 u. S. Department of Commerce, Survey of Current Business, February, 1923, p. 63.
22
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
In cotton manufacturing, the chief industry in South Carolina and
Alabama, Bureau of Labor Statistics reports show that pay rolls in
November, 1921, had decreased from the same month in 1920 nearly
9 per cent, and employment had increased more than 10 per cent;
after an increase in December, pay rolls again declined in January
and still further in February.6
In October, 1921, the data for the country as a whole showed for
three industries that were important in Kentucky—cigars, men’s
clothing, and shoes—a drop in one month in total amounts of pay
rolls of from 3.8 per cent to 16.1 per cent; and although clothing and
shoes had pay rolls considerably higher than those of October, 1920,
employment in men’s clothing had increased at a greater rate than
pay rolls, so that individual earnings were less, and employment in
shoes had increased at almost the same rate as pay rolls, so that
individual earnings were but little improved. 7
The foregoing indications, and others that might be taken from
almost any authoritative business record of the period, support the
statement that the months during which Kentucky, South Carolina,
Alabama, and Arkansas were studied were at a time of severe depres
sion. Nevertheless, women’s wages within the four States may be
considered fairly comparable, so far as the industrial period is con
cerned, although it may be noted that the industries employing women
were more diversified in Kentucky than in the two cotton States.
In 1922, earnings were studied in three important industrial States,
Missouri, New Jersey, and Ohio. The two latter were surveyed in
the same month, September, when the production index was 100.7—
somewhat above the 1919 level, an indication that industry had practi
cally resumed its normal status. The data for Missouri were taken,
for the most part, in April, when the indication was considerably
less satisfactory, the index being 88.6. For the year as a whole the
index was 101, higher than in either 1920 or 1921.
_
On the whole, the period may be considered one of industrial
recovery, incipient in April and practically complete in September,
and some comparison may be made of earnings in the States surveyed
during this time. While Missouri may be here included, since her
standing as a large industrial State brings her more nearly into the
category of Ohio and New Jersey, it must be remembered that in
April conditions were not nearly so good as in September, and a con
siderable amount of disorganization was evident. Earnings in Mis
souri scarcely could be expected to be as high in April as were those
of Ohio and New Jersey in September.
...
In 1924, earnings of women were studied in Oklahoma in April, in
Delaware in August and September, and in Mississippi in December.
They were studied in Tennessee chiefly in February, 1925. Tennes
see is a large industrial State, scarcely comparable with Oklahoma,
Delaware, or Mississippi because of their nonindustrial character, or
with Ohio, New Jersey, or Missouri—States somewhat more nearly
analogous in industrial diversification and importance—because of
the differences in the time at which earnings were taken. The period* i * * * *
» TJ. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review, January, 1922, p. 169; February, 1922, p.
102; March, 1922, p. 121; and April, 1922, p. 135.
i Ibid. December, 1921, p. 121, gives the Bureau of Labor Statistics figures for these industries. Figures
from the study by the National Bureau of Economic Research indicate that total quarterly wages and
salaries to all employees in textiles showed a second decline in the first quarter of 1922, but amounts were
above those of the same period in 1921; in food, drink, and tobacco taken together the decline began in the
first quarter of 1921 and was still in progress in early 1922.
State Teachers College Library
23
INDUSTRIAL BACKGROUND
from early 1924 to early 1925 was one showing considerable fluctua
tion but higher industrial activity than that in 1919, according to
the year’s index of manufacturing production published by the
Department of Commerce. This figure, which was 101 in 1922, when
Ohio and New Jersey were studied, was 113 in 1924 and 125 in 1925.8
In addition to the monthly production figures available from the
source cited, monthly indexes of employment and of total amounts
of pay rolls can be given for the period under discussion. These were
prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and are based not on 1919
but on the monthly average for 1923. The three indexes for the
months in question were as follows:
Index for—
Base
year
1924
1922
September
Production 1
Employment 3__
Pay-roll totals 3
1919
1923
1923
2 100.7
90.6
82.7
April
August
118.0
94.5
96.9
109.0
85.0
83.5
1925
September December February
114.0
86.7
86.0
112.0
89.4
91.7
124.0
91.6
95.1
1 U. S. Department of Commerce. Survey of Current Business, February, 1926, p. 26.
2 Ibid., February, 1923, p. 63.
3 The indexes of numbers of persons employed and of total amounts of pay rolls were prepared from
figures for over 50 important industries from over 8,500 plants throughout the country and are computed
with -the monthly average for 1923 as a base. As given by the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly
Labor Review, April, 1925, pp. 115 and 126, those for employment were calculated for the period from June,
1924, to February, 1925, inclusive; those for pay-roll totals from July, 1922, to February, 1925, inclusive.
The index of production was very high in February, 1925, and
much higher in the various months given in 1924 than in September,
1922, the highest month previously considered. Employment was
greatest in April, 1924, and in February, 1925, and pay-roll totals
were larger in each of the months given than in September, 1922.
The pay-roll index was above that for employment in April, 1924,
December, 1924, and February, 1925. On the basis of industrial
prosperity, these indications would seem to suggest the possibility
of paying larger amounts to the wage earners in Oklahoma, Mississippi,
and Tennessee than to the wage earners in the States studied in
September, 1922—New Jersey and Ohio—and of course larger than
to the wage earners in any State studied at the end of 1921 or in the
earliest months of 1922.
SUMMARY
In summary it may be said that, in consideration only of industrial
rank and of time of study, valid comparisons may be made of earn
ings in manufacturing industries in certain States, as indicated here:
First.—Of the States in which earnings were studied late in 1920
or very early in 1921—Rhode Island and Georgia.
Second.—Of States studied at the end of 1921 and very early in
1922, during the period of heavy industrial depression. This in
cludes Kentucky, South Carolina, and Alabama, and in some cases
the nonindustrial State of Arkansas.
8 U. S. Department of Commerce.
monthly average equals 100.
31893°—31------------ 3
Survey of Current Business, February, 1926, p. 26. Base, 1919
24
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Third.—Of the three States having the highest industrial rank
among those studied, Missouri, New Jersey, and Ohio, in which
earnings were taken in April and in September of 1922, during a time
of incipient and full recovery. It must be noted that industrial
conditions were not so good at the time of the Missouri study as in
September, and this State may be compared also with Alabama,
most of whose earnings figures were for a week in February, 1922.
Fourth.—Of the large industrial State of Tennessee, in which earn
ings wrere studied in February, 1925, with the nonindustrial States
of Oklahoma, Delaware, and Mississippi, surveyed during 1924 in a
period of similar business activity, and with Missouri, Ohio, and New
Jersey, more nearly analogous in industrial importance but surveyed
in a somewhat less prosperous time.
Fifth.—Data exist on earnings in an earlier week by which it is
possible to check such conclusions as may be made in regard to earn
ings in seven States: Alabama, Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky,
Mississippi, Missouri, and South Carolina.
PART IV.—WEEK’S EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
An analysis of the earnings of large groups of women is possible
by the use of a median figure, which may be taken as an indication of
the standards within a State or within an industry. The use of the
median minimizes the influence of extreme variations at the highest
and lowest earnings that may raise or lower to a considerable degree
the mean or arithmetic average.1 A more complete picture may be
assured by supplementing the discussion of the median with a con
sideration of the proportions of all the women included who earned
amounts within certain ranges.
The medians used in this section, on week’s earnings, are computed
from the amounts actually received during the week in question by
the women under consideration, irrespective of the hours worked, the
system of payment, or the rate for full-time work. Whatever the
hours worked, the money received represents the week’s income of
the women studied. Any attempt to secure a general index of the
earnings of large numbers of women must include those wTho have
lost time, since a week could never be found in which all women in
all establishments in all industries worked full time, and since loss
of time, whether due to plant or to personal reasons, is an inevitable
factor in the lowering of the earnings of a certain proportion of women
in any given week and of practically all workers in some weeks during
any given year. Earnings in relation to rates, to hours worked, and
to method of payment will be discussed in later sections of this report.
Table III in the appendix gives for each State the number of white
women studied in manufacturing industries and their distribution by
earnings groups, and Table IV shows in what lines of manufacture
they were employed and the median for each industry. Table V
gives for industries in which more than 4,000 women were reported the
earnings distribution like that given for the States in Table III.
The discussion that follows will consider first the situation in fiaeh
State—with arrangement according to period of study—and second
the general situation in each industry in which more than 4,000
women were reported.
EARNINGS IN THE VARIOUS STATES SURVEYED
Considering conditions at the time of survey and omitting for the
moment the four nonindustrial States, it would be expected that earn
ings would be low in Alabama, South Carolina, and Kentucky, studied
in a time of severe depression; somewhat higher in Missouri, studied
on the threshold of recovery; still higher in Ohio and New Jersey,
1 The median is the figure at which one-half of the women included earned less and one-half earned more.
The medians used in this report are computed by the usual formula. In this report, because of its minute
comparisons, conversion to a 1&28 basis, and other special treatment, the bureau has departed from its
usual practice of quoting medians in round numbers only, but the fact must not be lost sight of that the
median does not represent an actual wage figure but indicates only the point at which one-half the amounts
recorded were higher and one-half were lower.
25
26
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
studied when recovery was practically complete, and in Tennessee,
studied in a normal time; and highest of all in Rhode Island and
Georgia, where pay rolls were taken for a period before the postwar
business peak had entirely subsided. For the most part, the States
were found in the relative positions that the industrial period of study
would indicate. Alabama, South Carolina, and Kentucky had low
medians of earnings, Missouri higher, Ohio and New Jersey still
higher, and Rhode Island the highest of all. The medians for Georgia
and Tennessee did not take quite the relative positions that the times
of study in these States would indicate. That of Georgia was lower
than those of Ohio and New Jersey, but it was higher than that of any
other State studied in the same section of the country. The Ten
nessee median fell below those of Missouri, Ohio, and New Jersey,
which it might have been expected to equal if the influence of indus
trial period alone was considered, but it was higher than that of any
other State in the South, except Georgia. The nonindustrial State of
Mississippi, although studied in a favorable period, had the lowest
median of all—only $8.35 for 894 women. Of these women, 650 were
in cotton factories, with a median of only $8.13. The foregoing shows,
as would be expected, that other factors in addition to the industrial
fluctuations of various periods are important in determining the rela
tive differences among States in the wage paid to women. Such fac
tors may relate to geographic location, to industrial history, to diver
sification of industries, or to the standards within specific industries
that may prevail in a State.
Earnings in late 1920 and early 1921.
Pay rolls in Rhode Island, and Georgia were examined before the
decline in the postwar peak in earnings and prices had definitely set
in, and the resulting data scarcely can be considered entirely represen
tative of normal times.
At the time of the Rhode Island survey, the industries studied had
not yet passed the very high price peak of 1920, nor had they felt the
full effect of the growing industrial depression. The important tex
tile industry in the State formed an exception to this, and it was
omitted from the study largely because of the disorganized conditions
within, the industry. Further, the earnings figure for Rhode Island
was raised by the large number of women working in rubber factories,
at the time highly paid and with large numbers of its women working
overtime and many receiving a bonus. In this industry the median
of earnings for 2,895 women was $20.94. No median has been so high
in any other State studied, at any time.
Of the three other manufactures included in Rhode Island, two had
medians higher than in any other State in which they were found.
These were electrical appliances, with one-seventh of its women work
ing overtime and more highly paid than in Missouri, New Jersey, or
Ohio, and metal work, with a median above those for Kentucky, New
Jersey, Ohio, and Tennessee, and with a large proportion of women
receiving a bonus. The third industry in question, paper and paper
products, had only 321 employees, a smaller number than any other
shown separately for the State. Here also a bonus was common, but
the median was the lowest in Rhode Island and was below those in the
same industry in three States but above those in four other States and
in Atlanta. This was the only industry reported in both Rhode
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
27
Island and Atlanta, and no industry was reported in both Rhode
Island and the remainder of Georgia, so no basis exists for a compari
son of earnings in these two States studied at the close of a period of
high business activity.
In Georgia 2 the median for the industry having the largest number
of persons studied—2,548 women in cotton factories—though some
what under the median for the State was above the median for the
cotton industry in any other State where it was found, including New
Jersey., Mississippi, and Tennessee. The cotton factories in Georgia
in many cases paid a considerable bonus. The lowest median, that
for candy, was based on the earnings of only 59 women, the smallest
number in any industry; it was below the medians for workers in
candy in Missouri, Ohio, and New Jersey, but the median for candy
in Atlanta was exceeded only by the Missouri figure. The highest
median in Georgia was that of 148 cigar makers, and it was above
those in the same industry in four States, including Ohio and Ten
nessee. The figure was more than 15 per cent higher than the next
high median in Georgia and gave appreciable help in raising the
median for the whole, even though it applied to such a small group of
women.
For the State exclusive of Atlanta, the median of all women reported
fell within the range of $12 and under $15, in which earnings groups
were found 19.3 per cent of the women. More than 25 per cent
received $15 and under $20. In Atlanta, the largest proportion of
women in any range—23.2 per cent—earned $10 and under $12, con
siderably below the earnings of the largest group in the remainder of
the State.
Earnings in the period of industrial depression.
Surveys were made in Kentucky, South Carolina, and Alabama in
the time from October, 1921, to February, 1922, inclusive, during
severe industrial depression. The lowest median was that of Ala
bama, $8.39, for 2,982 women. Of all the States surveyed, the only
one in which the median fell below this was Mississippi, a nonindus
trial State studied in a normal period and in which the manufacture
of cotton cloth was the industry employing the largest number of
women. In South Carolina and Kentucky the medians rose 13.1 per
cent and 29.2 per cent, respectively, above that of Alabama. The
relation of these States, as shown by a comparison of their medians,
is borne out by a consideration of the proportions of their women who
were paid at low ranges, which were as follows:
Per cent of women having speci
fied earnings in—
Range of earnings
Kentucky
$8 and under $10............................................................ ............. .............
24.5
16.5
20. 5
South
Carolina
35. 4
20. i
16. 6
Alabama
45 5
22.2
14.0
2 Seven manufacturing firms in Atlanta, employing 448 women, were studied in the early summer of 1920,
the pay-roll week taken being in April for candy plants and in June for paper factories. Approximately
3,500 women in 38 firms outside Atlanta were studied considerably later, so when Georgia is discussed in
this report Atlanta usually is excluded. Pay-roll weeks taken in Georgia were quite irregular in time, but
the industrial conditions described obtained substantially for the whole period.
28
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
In each of these States the industry employing the largest number
of women had a median somewhat above that of all women in the
State. In the case of Alabama and of South Carolina this was cotton
goods; in Kentucky it was men’s clothing. In Alabama and South
Carolina, extremely low earnings in hosiery and knit goods, which
employed appreciable numbers of women, lowered the State medians,
and in Kentucky a large number of women were in tobacco, with a
median somewhat below that of the State. Low payments in the
making of yarns and thread in Alabama and of boxes and crates in
Kentucky operated in the same way, although fewer workers were
involved. Table 5 shows the relative standing, as regards median
earnings, of different industries in each of these States and of the same
industries in different States.
Table 5.—Median earnings in the various industries in three States studied in the
period oj industrial depression—white women
Industries in which the median of the earnings was as specified in—
Amount of median
Kentucky
South Carolina
Alabama
Hosiery and knit goods
($6.98), yarns and thread
($6.41).
$9 and under $10_
_
Candy, paper and paper
products.
State median ($9.49), ci
gars, cotton goods, yarns
and thread.
$10 and under $11.__ State median ($10.84),
cordage and twine, fur
niture, shoes, tobacco.
Cigars ($11.07), men’s Printing and publishing
($13.13).
clothing ($12.48), metal
products ($13.98), print
ing and publishing ($13).
State median ($8.39), bak
ery products, cotton
goods.
Cordage and twine.
Overalls.
Printing and publishing
($17.50).
The foregoing table shows printing and publishing and cigar making
to have relatively high medians wherever found. The medians for
women in cotton factories were somewhat above the State medians;
those for hosiery and knit goods were low in both States in which
found. There was evidence of recovery in knit goods by February,
1922,3 the month for which earnings were taken in Alabama, but recu
peration had not yet reached that State.
A study either of the medians or of the proportions of women earn
ing amounts within various ranges indicates that the order, from low
to high payments, of the States studied during the period just dis
cussed was as follows: Alabama, South Carolina, Kentucky. The
last two were studied at exactly the same period, Alabama early in the
year following.
Earnings in the period of incipient and full recovery.
In 1922 the improved industrial situation became marked, although
in April, when Missouri was surveyed, the effects of depression were
not yet fully overcome. Fairly normal conditions obtained by Sep3 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review, April, 1922, pp. 134, 135. Data from this
source show that in February, 1922, pay rolls in hosiery and underwear in more than 60 representative estab
lishments in the country as a whole were 5.8 per cent higher than in January, 1922, and 60.1 per cent higher
than in February, 1921, and employment in the industry had increased in a smaller proportion, so that p<v
capita receipts were increasing.
..
EARNINGS OP WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
29
tember, and therefore figures for Ohio and New Jersey, studied in that
month, may be considered more representative of such conditions than
figures for any State discussed up to this point. New Jersey had the
highest median, and those for Ohio and Missouri fell, respectively,
nearly 5 and nearly 20 per cent below New Jersey’s.
The highest median found in any industry in these three States was
for men’s clothing in Ohio. The medians in Ohio showed the greatest
range, the lowest—that of cordage and twine—falling 47 per cent
below the highest. In each of the States amounts of $15 and under
$20 were received by more women than were amounts at any other
range, although in Missouri nearly as many women earned $12 and
under $15. Of the three, New Jersey had the smallest proportion of
women earning under $12, Missouri the largest.
Table 6 gives a basis for the comparison of medians in different
industries in the same State and for the same industries in the three
States under consideration.
Table 6.—Median
earnings in the various industries in three Slates studied in the
period of industrial recovery—white women
Industries in which the median of the earnings was as specified in—
Amount of median
Missouri
$10 and under $I1_
$11 and under
New Jersey
Ohio
Bakery products, candy,
drugs and chemicals,
men's shirts.
State median ($12.27),
men’s clothing, paper
and paper products,
shoes.
Glass products, women’s
clothing.
Candy, cordage and twine.
Hosiery and knit goods,
tobacco.
$15 and under $16-$16 and under $17_ _
Metal products, paper
and paper products.
State median ($15.23), elec
trical appliances, men’s
clothing, men’s shirts.
Cigars, hosiery and knit
goods.
Drugs and chemicals
($18.04).
Bakery products, glass
products, metal prod
ucts, paper and paper
products.
State median ($14.52), ci
gars.
Men’s shirts, shoes, wom
en’s clothing.
Electrical appliances.
Rubber products.
Men’s clothing ($19.57).
The foregoing table shows that the lowest medians in the three
States fell at a similar point, while the highest median in Missouri
was in the same range as the State median in New Jersey and was
considerably below the highest found in New Jersey or in Ohio.
Five industries existed in each State included—candy, men’s
clothing, men’s shirts, electrical appliances, and paper and paper
products. Electrical appliances showed high medians—in every
State above the median for the State and in Missouri higher than
that of any other industry. Medians in men’s clothing and in men’s
shirts were somewhat below t-ho median for all women in the State
in Missouri and in New Jersey; they were high in Ohio, that for men’s
clothing being the highest for any industry. The medians for candy
makers and for workers in paper and paper products were low in all
States.
30
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Both in Ohio and in New Jersey, the greatest numbers of women
were in metal work, in each case over 2,500, and in each case the
median fell considerably below that for the State. This is in con
trast to the Kentucky figure in this industry, discussed earlier. In
Missouri the industry having the greatest numbers, shoes, had a
median that was somewhat higher than that for the State. Indus
tries that employed over 1,000 women and that tended by their
large numbers and high medians to raise the State medians were as
follows: In Missouri, tobacco and shoes; in New Jersey, drugs (hav
ing the highest median of all), electrical appliances and cigars (each
haying over 2,000 workers), yarns, and hosiery and knit goods; in
Ohio, cigars and rubber products (each employing over 2,000 women),
shoes, electrical appliances, and men’s wear.
If payments in Missouri in April fell below those made in New
Jersey and Ohio five months later, they rose above those made in
Alabama two months earlier. The median for 2,982 workers in
Alabama was only $8.39 and that for 9,160 Missouri workers rose
more than 40 per cent above this. Only two industries were studied
both in Alabama and in Missouri—bakery products and overalls—
and in these the Missouri medians rose about 40 and about 2 per
cent, respectively, above those for Alabama.
Earnings in the time from April, 1924, to February, 1925.
Tennessee, surveyed in the normal period of early 1925, can not
adequately be compared with the nonindustrial States of Oklahoma,
Delaware, and Mississippi, studied under similar conditions in 1924.
The median of earnings for Tennessee women was higher than that
for the smaller numbers in Mississippi, where most of the women were
in cotton manufacturing; it was lower than that for Oklahoma, where
glass was the chief industry and a few women made men’s shirts. In
each of the four industries that existed in common in Mississippi
and Tennessee, the Tennessee median was the higher. The Dela
ware median was $2.23 above that for Tennessee, and in three of the
four industries included the Delaware median was the higher.
In addition to this analysis of nonindustrial States, Tennessee may
be compared with certain large industrial States, such as Missouri.
In Missouri, although it was surveyed in a far less favorable period
than were Ohio and New Jersey and its earnings fell below theirs,
the median was above that of Tennessee. In five of the eight indus
tries that existed in both Missouri and Tennessee, the median was
higher in the first State than in the second. In the remaining three—
overalls, tobacco, and men’s clothing—the Tennessee median was
the higher, but only in overall making was the difference more than
a few cents. The median in the industry last named was the highest
in Tennessee; but it was the lowest in Missouri, where normal condi
tions had not been restored at the time of study and there was much
undertime work.
The largest numbers of workers studied in Tennessee were in cotton
and in hosiery and knit-goods factories. The median for 5,273
women in the latter industry was slightly above that for the State;
that for 1,099 in cotton manufacture was below that for the State,
although it was above the medians for cotton workers in Alabama,
South Carolina, and Mississippi. Two other Tennessee industries
had over 500 women: Cigars, which had a median much below those in
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
31
six other States having the same industry, and men’s shirts, with a
median lower than those in four of the five other States in which this
industry was studied. Other industries low paid in Tennessee and
with more than 300 workers included were bakery products, candy,
and drugs. In drugs the Tennessee median was very much lower
than those of the two other States for which medians were computed;
in bakeries it was much lower than in Ohio or Missouri, though higher
than in Alabama; and in candy, already described as low paid in other
States, the median in Tennessee was lower than those in four of the
seven other States for which medians could be computed.
The summary following shows the proportions of women whose
earnings fell within various ranges in the States under discussion,
including Missouri;
Per cent of women having earnings specified in—
Week’s earnings
Missouri
Under $8........ .............
$8 and under $10____
__________
$10 and under $12________
$12 and under $15............................
$15 and under $20______________ _______
Oklahoma
Delaware
18.2
12.8
16.7
21.5
21.9
11.6
10.3
17.0
34.4
22.8
15.6
14.3
12.5
17.7
22.7
Tennessee Mississippi
24.2
16.6
16. 8
19.8
17.3
45. 6
25. 2
15.8
9.4
3.5
On the basis of the proportion of women with earnings in the highest
group, the rank of the States just discussed was as follows: Oklahoma,
Delaware, Missouri, Tennessee, Mississippi; and with the exception
of Delaware, whose median was the highest, median earnings in these
States fell in the same order. While the factors involved are too
complex for a correlation between the standard of earnings and the
industrial development of a State, there are many indications that
geographic location and industrial development are large determinants
in the payment of a high or a low wage, even when differences due to
period of study are eliminated.
Comparisons of earnings in various States and effect of period of
study; 1928 values.
The foregoing discussion is based upon the medians of the actual
earnings taken from pay rolls in different States at different times. In
1920 the Industrial Welfare Commission of California fixed $16 as the
minimum wage payable to experienced workers in laundries and
mercantile establishments, and this decree is still in effect. By the
use of the cost-of-living index of the Bureau of Labor Statistics 4
the manufacturing median for each State in the present study may
be converted to the figure it would have represented in December,
1920, and it is found to be as high as the California minimum in only
three States—New Jersey, Ohio, and Rhode Island. If the figures
are converted to the date of December, 1928, only Rhode Island has
a median as high as $16,fi and the Rhode Island data are not wholly
representative, because of the omission of the textile industry, which
was disorganized at the time of study, and the inclusion of certain
abnormally highly paid groups as stated on page 26. It must be* 6
4 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review, February, 1929, p. 193.
6 Delaware, New Jersey, and Ohio are added if the median of full-time workers is used, a figure perhaps
more nearly comparable, since the California minimum is for experienced workers.
32
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
remembered that in the case of each State half the women had earnings
below the median figure.
If the medians for the States at the respective pay-roll dates are
placed in descending order, and the corresponding figures as of 1928
are ranged alongside, little variation in order will be found. Missouri
as of 1928 has a somewhat higher position than at the time of study,
Georgia a position not quite so high; this was to be expected, since
considerable numbers of the Georgia pay rolls were taken for a period
of fair business activity, while those of Missouri were in a time of
more unstable conditions.6
Median earnings—
State
At pay-roll Converted
to 1928
date
value
Rhode Island........... .......
New jersey___________
Ohio___________ ______
Delaware................... . .
Oklahoma
Georgia................................
Missouri............................ .
Median earnings—
State
$19.13
15. 23
14. 52
13. 26
13.14
12.90
12. 27
$16.36
15. 69
14.95
13.31
13 21
11.03
12. 59
At pay-roll Converted
to 1928
date
value
$11. 03
10. 84
10.24
9.49
8.39
8.35
$10.95
10.47
10. 52
9. 32
8.62
8.29
It is apparent that the relative positions of the States as regards
payment for women’s work are substantially as indicated by the me
dians in the Women’s Bureau studies, even though the surveys were
made at different periods. The chart that is the frontispiece of this
report, plotted as of 1928, indicates the relation of the different States
in respect to earnings of women.
EARNINGS IN THE CHIEF WOMAN-EMPLOYING INDUSTRIES
REPORTED
It is difficult to rank individual industries according to the earnings
of women workers. Initial payments are sometimes low, sometimes
high, and opportunity for advancement may or may not be great.
Factors connected with industrial history of the locality, with in
ternal condition and general standards of the industry, and with
seasonal or cyclical business fluctuations may affect the wages paid to
women. Each separate case presents characteristics peculiar to
itself, but there are general indications as to what sort of earnings
may be expected or how the conditions under which an industry is
carried on are likely to affect the payment of labor. For example, it
can be discovered whether the level of earnings in an important
manufacturing industry is in any marked degree above or below that
of all manufacturing_industries combined in the same State, and to
what extent certain industries appear to pay relatively high or low
amounts whatever the locality or the period in which they are studied.
Table V in the appendix gives the numbers of women, the medians
of their earnings, and the per cents of women whose earnings fell
within specified ranges in industries in which more than 4,000 were
studied.
0 If the earnings of full-time workers he taken, Rhode Island and Georgia show distinctly lower positions
for 1928 than for the period of high business activity in 1920. This is as would be expected.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
33
Textiles.
The textile industry, with its various branches, forms one of the
great groups whose fluctuations are taken as important indications of
business conditions. According to the census of 1920, there were in
the United States at that time 149,185 women employed as semi
skilled operatives in cotton mills, about 4,100 less than the number of
men so employed. In the second high woman-employing industry,
cigars and tobacco, 83,960 women were semiskilled operatives, and
in the third, knitting mills, there were 80,682.7
In South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia, the indus
tries included in the textile group employed the great majority of all
the_ women studied in manufacturing industries. In ttie first two
their payments were the lowest of all the industries reported; in
Georgia only candy, with very few women, had a lower median, and in
Alabama only bakery products, also with very few women.
In Tennessee, 6,372 of the 10,358 women studied were in textiles
of one type or another, and their earnings showed a somewhat more
favorable standing; the median of the earnings in 7 of the 16 manu
facturing industries included fell below cotton, which in turn was
below hosiery and knit goods; the remaining 7 industries had
medians higher than hosiery and knit goods.
In New Jersey, with 14 industries reported, nearly one-fourth of
the women included were in some form of textile work, and their
medians varied, that for cotton being the lowest in the State except
candy, women’s clothing, and glass, that for yarns being the highest,
except drugs, and that for hosiery and knit goods being surpassed
only by drugs, yarns, and cigars.
j
In Ohio, the median for cordage and twine was the lowest in the
State, and that for hosiery and knit goods exceeded only cordage and >
candy.
1
Manufacturing activity in the cotton industry during the years in
which Women’s Bureau studies took place may be learned from
three sources: (1) Studies of total numbers employed and of total
amounts paid to employees in representative cotton factories, made
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics; (2) the per cent of full capacity
that was operative, published by the Department of Commerce and
based upon the relation of active spindles to all spindles in place;
and (3) an index of cotton-manufacturing activity published in the
Textile World and based upon the average of active spindle hours per
active spindle, omitting all spindles in place that were inactive.8
Data on cotton from these three sources are shown in Table 7.
I
^ureau the Census. Fourteenth Census: 1920, vol. 4, Population, Occupations, pp. 38, 39.
The percentage of spindles in place that were inactive in shown to be very small in the cotton-growing
States—not over 5 per cent in any year in question. It is given as follows in the Textile World. Feb. 5,1927,
Year
1921-22____________
1922-23___________________
1923-24___________________
1924-25______________________
United
States
Cotton
growing
States
10.7
7.0
13.8
15.3
2.9
2.0
5.0
4.6
New
England
15.9
10.3
21.5
24.9
Table 7.—Fluctuations in the cotton industry, certain months in the period 1921 to 1925, and median earnings in States studied by the Women’s
Bureau
Women’s Bureau studies
Per cent increase or decrease 1 from the—
Year and month
Cents
-0.1
+10.5
-.3
1922
—16. 2
—8. 6
+5.3
+8.8
+1.8
-16.7
—.6
-18.5
+6.9
+14.7
—10.0
—14.9
+1.0
+.9
-4.0
-7.9
1924
1925
State
Median of
earnings of
women re
ported in
cotton
factories
99
115
84
98.2
11.0
17.0
93.5
94.2
106.5
15.7
20-6
23.1
93
110
77
111
131
93
99
121
75
87.8
90.7
22.5
22.2
104
124
84
100.5
23.0
Georgia.------- --------------------
New Jersey
$12. 77
9. 55
8.69
12. 44
8.13
Tennessee-------------------------
10.84
1 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review: December, 1920, pp. 104, 105; April, 1921, pp. 83, 84; January, 1922, p. 169; April, 1922, pp. 134, 135; November, 1922,
pp. 157, 158, 159; February, 1925, pp. 119, 120; April, 1925, pp. 117, 120.
2 Clark, Chas. H. A new yardstick for the cotton industry, Textile World, Feb. 5, 1927, p. 174. The index is based on the average of active spindle hours per active spindle for
the period September, 1921, to July, 1922, 226=100. This base time was one of depressed conditions in manufacturing.
...
3 U. S. Department of Commerce. Commerce Year Book, 1926, pp. 209, 478. Per cent of capacity represents ratio of (1) the actual number of spindle hours, including overtime,
double shifts, and part time, and (2) the total number of spindles in place multiplied by the number of hours per month in a single shift at normal full working time.
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Index of cotton-manufacturing Per cent
Farm
activity 1 in—
3 2
of full
Same month of the
Month before
capacity price per
year before
pound of
that was
raw
opera cotton 3
tive 3
Cotton
Total
Number
Number
Total
United growing
New
of em amount of of em amount of States
pay rolls
States England
ployees
ployees
pay rolls
1921
CO
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
35
, Similar movement is apparent in the per cent of capacity operative
m cotton mills and the index of manufacturing activity in the cotton
growing States—most of those in which cotton was studied by the
Women’s Bureau were in this group—although the variations in
the index of manufacturing activity are much more extreme than
those in capacity operative. The lowest point in manufacturing
activity was in February, 1922, and this month was low also in capac
ity operative; in each case the highest was toward the end of 1922
The figures for November, 1924, were below those for late 1922—con
siderably so in the manufacturing index—and there was some rise in
February, 1925, but not enough to bring it up to the level of the latter
part of 1922.
The pei capita earnings of the workers, however, show a somewhat
different situation.9 In February, 1921, there was a very heavy
decrease from the same month a year before, and an even heavier
decrease took place in November. Thereafter, instead of recupera
tion from depression, every month in question showed a decline from
the previous year in per capita payments.
Figures from the Bureau of Labor Statistics pay-roll studies give
the following indication of the movement of per capita payments in
the hosiery-and-knit-goods industry in the country as a whole in the
months specified:
Women’s Bureau studies
Month and year
State
October, 1920..............
Movement of per capita earnings as indicated by
Bureau of Labor Statistics pay-roll data 1
$10.91
November, 1921.......... South Carolina_
_
Februarv, 1922___
February, 1925........
Median
earnings
/New Jersey...........
(.Ohio. ..............
Considerable decrease from previous month and
considerable increase from previous year.
Considerable decrease from both previous month
and previous year.
Some increase from both previous month and pre
vious year.
16.15 1A slight decrease from previous month and con11.70 / siderable decrease from previous year.
11.08 Some increase from previous month and a some
what greater increase from previous year.
7.63
'lOT-ASlfei£S90fm?b|<SSraiSMCS' ^ont!!l?„Laboi
December, 1920, pp. 104, 105; January, 1922,
p. lbJ, April, 1922, pp. 134, 135, November, 1922, pp. 158, 159; April, 1925, pp. 117, 119, 121.
While the data available form no complete basis for determining
the relative standard of payment that might be expected in cotton
and in hosiery and knit wear in the States under discussion, they do
give a very definite indication of the fluctuations and the irregularities
that are likely to occur in these industries and that were especially
prevalent m the period under consideration. The pay-roll figures
showed a. decline from the corresponding month in the year before
m every mstance in cotton and in two out of five cases in hosierv
and knit goods.
Jilis obyioiis that where the increase in the amount of money paid out was less than the increase in the
haSbtm.°/T,?!S=r'S Wloyed>.there would be a decrease in the amount available for each person. On this
Women’s Bur”udfc?e, m£fe
Mlowf? “
C°Untry “ a WMc “ the lnontlls in wUch the
Nnv1iSmw1«lwi Ss?le incIoa*e from a month before, unusually heavy loss from a year before.
aSo 1 gal? fr017 a month before, unusually heavy loss from a year before.
February, 1922.—Some loss from both previous month and previous year.
tSJSSSST’ ^2-TSome ga!n ?om a month before, but slight loss from a year before.
Ttehfi1?i?,Wn92K4'Nl'ar8eual,Il ?om,a month before, but considerable loss from a year before.
Febiuary, 1925, Very slight loss from a month before, somewhat greater loss from a year before.
36
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
While the median of the earnings is the figure above which half
of the women and below which the other half of the women were
paid, a more exact indication of the amounts received by the largest
groups of women can be gained from a study of the proportions of
women having earnings within various ranges. Such data are shown
in Table 8 for the women studied in cotton and in hosiery and knit
goods.
Table 8.—Earnings
distribution of the women studied in cotton and in hosiery
and knit goods, by State—white women
Per cent of women with earnings as specified in—
Week’s earnings
Georgia
South
Carolina Alabama
New
Jersey
Cotton goods:
Under $8.....................
$8 and under $10____
$10 and under $12___
$12 and under $15___
$15 and under $20___
$20 and over............ .
16.7
13.7
14.6
18.8
24.9
11.3
34.4
20.5
16.9
16.4
10.3
1.5
41.3
24.9
16.1
11.6
5.0
1.2
28.1
12.9
13.4
23.2
15.6
6.7
53.2
19.3
11.5
7.2
7.8
1.1
59.6
20.4
10.3
7.0
2.8
6.5
7.0
9.5
19.0
32.1
25.9
Dela
ware
5.9
10.5
29.0
19.5
15.9
19.2
Hosiery and knit goods:
Under $8
$8 and under $10____
$10 and under $12___
$12 and under $15___
$15 and under $20___
$20 and over__....... .
Ohio
Missis Tennes
sippi
see
48.5
21.2
15.5
9.8
4.2
.8
12.2
11.0
19.1
27.8
21.1
8.8
14.5
19.4
25.0
25.0
16.1
16. 4
22.0
20.7
15. 6
3.0
25.8
15.2
36.5
20.1
18.4
3.9
Of the women in cotton mills in South Carolina, Alabama, Missis
sippi, and Tennessee, a larger proportion had earnings of less than $8
than in any other class specified. In Georgia, on the other hand, the
largest group received $15 and under $20, many pay rolls here having
been taken before the close of the peak-price period besides being
influenced in a number of cases by bonuses. Next to Georgia in the
earnings of the largest group is New Jersey, paying $10 and under $12
to 29 per cent of the women. This State, in a different section of the
country and studied at a time when high industrial activity was
indicated, nevertheless had a median in the cotton industry excelled
by 10 of the 14 industries studied in the State.
While hosiery and knit goods had not nearly so many workers as
had cotton goods, it had in most cases much larger proportions of
women at the lowest range of earnings. In Georgia, South Carolina,
Alabama, and Tennessee, from one-fourth to three-fifths of the women
received less than $8. In Ohio, the largest group earned $12 and
under $15, and in Delaware one-fourth of the women were in that
class and one-fourth earned $10 and under $12. New Jersey, with
much the highest median in this industry, paid almost three-fifths of
the women $15 or more.
From the data obtained in the State studies the conclusion can not
be escaped that, while wide variations may occur among the various
branches of the textile industry, this greatest of all the divisions of
manufacturing in extent of employment of women was one in which
earnings were relatively very low indeed, whatever the period of
study, and that they were lower in the southern than in the two
northern States studied, the latter not including, however, figures for
any New England State.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
37
Cotton mills, with more than one-half of all the women studied in
textiles, had higher medians than had hosiery and knit goods in three
of the five States in which both industries were found, and hosiery
and knit goods had a larger proportion of the women employed at the
lowest range of earnings in every State where the two industries
existed.
Cigars and tobacco.
According to the census of 1920, cigar and tobacco factories em
ployed 70,503 white women in semiskilled occupations, the largest
number of such workers found in any single industry except cotton.10
Of these, the Women’s Bureau surveys included nearly one-seventh,
6,612 in cigars in seven States and 3,070 in tobacco in four States.
In Delaware and Georgia the earnings median in cigars was higher
than that in any other industry; it was well above the median for all
women in manufacturing in New Jersey, and somewhat above it in
Kentucky, Ohio, and South Carolina. In Tennessee, where the
median for tobacco workers was high, that in cigars was almost tha
lowest in the State. Two other States—Kentucky and Ohio—had
both the tobacco and the cigar industry, and in these the medians for
cigar workers rose respectively 4.6 and 27.2 per cent above those for
women in tobacco factories.
_ Even the low medians in tobacco ran above those for textile workers
in the three States in which both appeared. Cigar medians were
above those in textiles in every case except New Jersey, where the
makers of yarns and thread were unusually well paid, and Tennessee,
where the cigar median was extraordinarily low. The median in
cigars in New Jersey was over 30 per cent above that in cotton,
although the New Jersey cotton median was the highest in that
industry. The median for cigar workers in South Carolina, where
cotton was comparatively low paid, was about 3 per cent above that
in cotton. In four States the largest group of cigar workers—27 to"
40 per cent—earned $15 and under $20; in three States from 28 to 40
per cent earned less than $8.
Metal, electrical appliances, and rubber.
Over 5,000 women were studied in each of the three industries of
metal products, electrical appliances, and rubber products. All these
were studied in New Jersey, Ohio, and Rhode Island, and in addition
pay rolls were taken in electrical appliances in Missouri and in metal
in Tennessee and Kentucky, with a group in metal in Arkansas too
small for the computation of a median. The highest median in each
of these industries, as might be expected from the period of study,
was in Rhode Island. In metal the lowest was in Ohio and Tennes
see—exactly the same figure; in the other two industries, in New
Jersey. Metal goods had a median above that for all industries in
Kentucky and Tennessee, and below such figure in New Jersey, Ohio,
and Rhode Island. Electrical appliances were above the State median
in Missouri, New Jersey, and Ohio, and below it in Rhode Island.
Rubber products were above it in Ohio and Rhode Island but below
it in New Jersey.
In each of the three industries under discussion, the median was
considerably higher than that in cotton goods wherever found in the
10 U. S. Bureau of the Census. Fourteenth Census: 1920, vol. 4, Population, Occupations, Table 5, p. 348.
38
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
same State, and higher than that in any branch of textiles in every
State but New Jersey; usually it was above the figure for tobacco.
The median in electrical appliances was always high in comparison
with most other industries in the State; in every State, $15 and under
$20 represented the earnings of the largest group of women.
Rubber had a high median in Rhode Island and in Ohio. More
than half the women in Rhode Island earned at least $20, and in New
Jersey and Ohio about one-third of the women earned $15 and un
der $20. In metal the largest group in four States—from 30.2 to
45.1 per cent—earned $15 and under $20.
Shoes.
More than 4,000 women surveyed were in the shoe industry in
Kentucky, Missouri, and Ohio—over one-third of the number reported
in these States by the 1920 census. In two States the median of
earnings of shoe workers was above that of the women in all manu
facturing industries; in Kentucky it fell a little below. Ordinarily
it was above medians in textiles, the tobacco industries, and metal
and below electrical appliances. In one State the largest group
earned under $8, in one $15 and under $20, and in one $20 and over—
in each case between 20 and 30 per cent of the women.
Clothing industries.
More than 10,000 of the women studied were in clothing industries,
but no single branch included as many as 4,000 women. The varia
tion of medians showed the great irregularities of earnings in these
industries. They were above the median for all manufacturing in 10
cases, below it in 8. Women’s clothing always had a lower median
than other clothing industries where found in the same State, and the
median for makers of men’s shirts in Delaware was below that of any
other women in any clothing industry in any State. With these cases
taken as exceptional, earnings in the clothing industries were always
above those in cotton and ordinarily were above those in other
branches of textiles; they were above those in cigars except in New
Jersey and Georgia, ordinarily were above metal, and were below
electrical appliances in every case but one—men’s clothing in Ohio.
Table 9 indicates, for each of the industries discussed in the fore
going, the relation of the median to those in the same industry in
other States and to those in other industries in the same State.
31893
Industries in which the median of the earnings was as specified in—
Amount of median
earnings
South Carolina
1921
Kentucky
1921
Missouri
1922
New Jersey
1922
Ohio
1922
Hosiery and knit
goods.
State median
($9.49), cigars,
cotton goods,
yarns
and
thread.
Cigars.
Women’s clothing.
State median ($10.84), Overalls.................—
cordage and twine,
shoes, tobacco.
Cordage and twine.. Cotton goods.
State median ($11.03),
hosiery and knit
goods, men’s shirts.
Metal products------ Men’s clothing, metal
products.
Women’s clothing... Hosiery and knit
goods, tobacco.
State median ($12.27), Cotton goods___ _
men’s clothing,
shoes.
State median ($19.13),
metal products
($18.63), rubber
products ($20.94).
Tennessee
1925
Tobacco.
Rubber products_ State median ($14.52),
_
cigars, shoes.
Electrical appliances.. State median ($15.23), Men’s shirts, wom
en’s clothing.
electrical
appli
ances, men’s cloth
ing, men’s shirts.
Cigars, hosiery and Electrical appliances Overalls.
knit goods.
Yarns and thread__ Rubber products—
Men’s clothing
($19.57).
39
Rhode Island
1920
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Table 9.—Median of the week’s earnings in the chief woman-employing manufacturing industries as reported in seven States—white women
40
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Summary.
To summarize the deductions just given in regard to white women
workers, States in which they had the highest medians of earnings
were Rhode Island, New Jersey, and Ohio. They had the lowest in
Mississippi, Alabama, and South Carolina. States having the largest
proportions of women at a comparatively high range of earnings—$15 and over—were Rhode Island, New Jersey, Ohio, Delaware, and
Georgia; haying the largest percentages at very low ranges of earn
ings were Mississippi, Alabama, and South Carolina.
The following list gives the States in the order from a high to a low
median for all white women reported in manufacturing industries
with brief explanation of period of study:
Rhode Island.—Abnormally high, studied while postwar price peak still had
effect, and figures were much influenced by considerable overtime in one industry.
Ntw Jersey, Ohio, Delaware, Oklahoma.—All studied in relatively normal times
. ^eorgia.—Above other southern States; postwar price peak still showed
influence.
Missouri.—Studied in a relatively unstable time, before complete restoration
from depression.
Tennessee: Studied in a normal period, but below New Jersey, Ohio, Delaware.
Oklahoma, and even Missouri.
Kentucky. Studied in a depressed period; above South Carolina studied at
about the same time.
Arkansas.—A nonindustrial State, studied tow-ard the end of the period of
depression.
South Carolina, Alabama. Studied in period of great industrial depression
One industry was markedly predominant in both these States.
. Mississippi.—Studied in a normal time; below all States, even those studied
m a period of severe depression. Largely a one-industry State.
Of the manufacturing industries from which the largest numbers of
women were reported, those having high medians wherever found
were electrical appliances and rubber. Also, it was usual for metal,
cigars, and shoes to have medians high in relation to other industries.
Those having^ universally low medians were cotton and hosiery and
knit goods, with one exception in the latter industry.
Industries other than those just mentioned that had a very high
median in at least one of the States studied were men’s clothing and
drugs and chemicals; those that usually had very low medians were
yarns and thread and boxes and crates. Other industries having the
lowest median in the State in at least one of the industrially important
States were candy, overalls, paper and paper products, and furniture.
Printing and publishing had the highest median in every State from
which it was reported, with but one exception.
The indications were quite positive that the geographic location
and industrial development of a State and the standards in the indus
tries that prevailed there had effects upon the amounts women ordi
narily could earn that were in some instances more marked than the
effects produced by the fluctuations in business conditions—even
though the data were secured during years when these fluctuations
were unusually sharp.
EARNINGS OF FULL-TIME, UNDERTIME, AND OVERTIME WORKERS
Up to this point the analysis has considered actual earnings during
the pay-roll week, regardless of the time worked. Obviously those
who work for only a part of the time are likely to be paid less than
those who work full time. Different establishments have their own
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
41
standards of scheduled weekly hours, that is, of what constitutes full
time work—the regular number of hours to be worked each week by
the employees. These may vary in different departments within the
same plant.
A wide variation between the medians for all and for full-time
workers in a State or in an industry may mean that a large proportion
of the women lost time; or, if the per cent of full-time workers is
large, it may mean either that a few lost much time or that those who
lost time were unskilled or were very poorly paid. The earnings of
full-time workers may be taken as representative of the best normal
payments that women are receiving in a State or in an industry at
a given time. A large proportion of full-time workers with a median
differing little from that for all workers would mean that a large
group were receiving the best available earnings and would indicate
a healthy condition of stability within an industry or a State. How
ever, usually there is a very considerable proportion of the women
who receive less than full-time earnings and the figures that have been
given for all women are more representative of the amounts women
usually have to live on than are those relating to full-time workers
only.11
Table VI in the appendix gives for the combined manufacturing
industries in each of the States studied the total number of women
for whom it could be ascertained whether or not they worked full
time, the per cents of the women included who worked undertime,
full time, and overtime, and their respective medians.
A combination of three groups made up the numbers included as
full-time workers: First, women whose hours worked were reported
and who had worked the firm’s week; second, women whose time
worked was not reported, but who had earned the amount fixed as
their rate and consequently must have worked the full schedule;
third, women whose time was reported in days and who had been at
work on the number of days in the week required by the firm. In
the case of the last group, although the pay rolls did not record
whether or not a woman so reported had worked for the whole of the
shift on each day she was present, the data may be taken as a fairly
accurate indication of the extent to which the workers were employed
full time.11
12
Full-time workers in the various States.
The proportions of full-time workers ranged from 25.8 per cent in
Oklahoma to 54.7 per cent in Delaware. The accompanying chart
shows the proportions of undertime, full-time, and overtime workers
in the various States.
Only in three States—Delaware, Georgia, and Tennessee—were
more than one-half the women found to be full-time workers. The
Georgia pay rolls studied were in many cases somewhat earlier than
11 For further confirmation of this statement see data discussed in section on year’s earnings, p. 135.
12 The women whose time was recorded in days formed over 50 per cent of all those reported in 3 of the 11
States more important industrially and nearly 20 per cent, if not more, in 5 others. However, in the great,
majority of cases the median earnings of those reported by days in the different industries rose above or fell
only slightly below those of workers reported by hours. In most of the few cases in which this situation did
not obtain, the workers reported in days formed so small a proportion of all recorded as full-time workers
in the State that any effect of error due to possibility of a few of these not remaining throughout a day
on which present was practically negligible. There were 2 States in which such error may have been cog
nizable—Mississippi and South Carolina. In these States women in cotton mills whose time was reported
in days formed, respectively, 35 per cent and 41 percent of all full-time workers in manufacturing, and
their medians fell respectively 20.1 per cent and 10.5 per cent below those of the workers in the same industry
whose time was reported in hours.
42
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
PER CENT OF WOMEN WHO WORKED UNDERTIME, FULLTIME,
AND OVERTIME
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN 13 STATES
YEAR
STATE
PER CENT
FULLTIME
UNDERTIME
OVERTIME
1920 - Rhode Island
Georgia!
9.1
43.5
47.3
192 I - Kentucky
A
36.9
62.8
S. Carolina
33.6
59.8
6.5
1922 - Alabama
5 0.0
45.1
4.9
Arkansas
43.0
53.5
3.5
1
Missouri
46.2
47.7
6.0
New Jersey
44.5
46.5
9.0
Ohio
43.8
1.5
54.7
1924- Delaware
52.1
25.8
22.1
Oklahoma
54.7
39.7
5.6
Mississippi
44.6
1925- Tennessee
'Excludes Atlanta.
U S Dept.of Labor
Women's Bureau
51.3
4.1
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
43
the depressed period; in the other two States the survey was in normal
times. Two other States studied in a normal period—New Jersey
and Ohio—had more full-time than undertime workers, the propor
tions being, respectively, 47.7 and 46.5 per cent. In Alabama, Rhode
Island, South Carolina, and Mississippi, 33 and under 40 per cent of
the women were full-time workers; in Missouri and Kentucky, 40
and under 45 per cent. Three of these States were studied during
depression, one before industrial recovery was complete. The fore
going tends to indicate—with but two exceptions, one of which can be
explained by a large proportion of overtime workers—what would be
expected: That there were larger proportions of full-time workers in
normal than in depressed times.
In every State with one exception the median for the full-time
workers was above that for all workers, a natural condition. How
ever, the differences between the medians of all workers and those of
full-time workers bore no consistent relation to the proportion of the
women who had worked full time. Medians of full-time workers in
12 States ranged from 26.7 and 25.4 per cent above those for all
workers in South Carolina and Delaware, respectively, to 9.5 per cent
above in Kentucky and New Jersey.13
In States having low medians for all workers, the medians for those
on full time tended to be farther above the general median than in
States having comparatively high medians for all. However, these
States still paid low amounts to full-time workers, and little difference
appears in the order of the States, whether arranged according to
medians for full-time workers or according to medians for all. In
Mississippi and Alabama the lowest payments and in Kentucky and
South Carolina comparatively low payments were made to full-time
workers as well as to all; in Rhode Island, New Jersey, Ohio, and
Delaware comparatively high payments were made both to full-time
and to all workers.
It will be remembered that in Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky,
Mississippi, South Carolina, and Tennessee, the largest groups of
women received under $8. When full-time workers alone are con
sidered, it is found that the largest groups had the following earnings:
and under $10:
Alabama 26. 8
Mississippi 39. 5
$10 and under $12, Kentucky
$12 and under $15:
Arkansas 26. 9
South Carolina 25. 9
Tennessee 24 3
$8
Percent
28. 5
In each of these six States and in Oklahoma, although pay rolls were
taken in different periods of industrial activity, from 94.2 to 70.4 per
cent of the full-time workers earned under $15. In each of six other
States the largest group of the women on full time received $15 and
under $20 and in Delaware the largest group received at least $20.
In Georgia, New Jersey, Missouri, and Ohio the largest groups,
whether of full-time workers or of all, received $15 and under $20,
but greater proportions of fidl-time than of all workers were thus
paid.
13 Rhode Island was the exception, the median for all women in the State being raised by a considerable
number of overtime workers in rubber and electrical apiiliances. In the former industry nearly one-fourth
of the women reported, in the latter nearly one-sixth, worked overtime, and their medians were respectively
38 and 22 per cent above those of full-time workers in the same industry in the State.
44
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Undertime workers.
The earnings of women whose names were on the pay rolls gave
no indication of the extent of unemployment at the time of study, but
they did show that a very large proportion of the women in every
State worked undertime, the tendency being toward a more marked
degree of undertime in periods of depression than in normal periods.
In a special study of the employment and earnings of women and
men in New York State factories, 1923-1925, the following statement
of the irregularity of the employment of women appears: 14
* * * women are more irregularly employed in industry than men. This
appears even in good times.
*******
This study shows that women are much more likely to feel the effects of seasonal
employment than men. In the type of seasonal industry where the whole force is
subject to irregular employment, as in the clothing trades, women tend to get more
of it than do the men. In the other type of seasonal work, like the candy fac
tories, where a steady force is maintained throughout the year and extra workers
hired for the peak of the busy season, these extra workers are almost entirely
women. * * *
Pay rolls show, even more than employment, the irregularity to which women
workers are subject. The difference in earnings from dull to busy season is
much greater for women than for men. Studies of overtime and part-time work
made by the State department of labor indicate that overtime work among
women is slight. The range of variation therefore must be due to lost time and
can not be accounted for as extra earnings for overtime work.
The largest proportions of undertime workers found in States
studied by the Women’s Bureau were 62.8 per cent in South Carolina
and 61.4 per cent in Atlanta; such workers formed 59.8 per cent in
Alabama, 50 and under 55 per cent in Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri,
and Mississippi, and 45 and under 50 per cent in Rhode Island, New
Jersey, Georgia, and Kentucky. The smallest proportions of under
time workers were 44 per cent in Ohio and Tennessee and 43 per cent
in Delaware.
The median of undertime workers fell below that of full-time work
ers by from 10 per cent in Rhode Island to 39 per cent in Delaware.
Most of the undertime workers in Georgia were in cotton mills,
and their median was one-third below that of full-time workers and
nearly one-fifth below that of all workers in the industry. In Dela
ware the largest numbers were in the men’s shirt and the cigar indus
tries. The summary following shows for each State the per cent dif
ference in the numbers of undertime and of full-time workers and the
proportional difference in the medians of the two groups.
State
Georgia:
Mississippi
Per cent
by which
number of
undertime
workers
was above
that of
full-time
workers
Per cent
by which
median of
undertime
workers
was below
that of
full-time
workers
77.9
10.8
° 20.0
31.2
32.5
39.2
59.8
oll.8
8.6
37.6
22.6
34. 5
25.0
29. 2
State
Per cent
Per cent
by which
by which
number of median of
undertime undertime
workers
workers
was above was below
that of
that of
full-time
full-time
workers
workers
Oklahoma........................ _
8 In this case the number of undertime workers was below that of full-time workers.
14 State of New York, Department of Labor, Special Bui. 143. June, 1926, p. 18.
24. 2
o 3.1
o 4. 3
101.8
25. 7
70. 3
13.0
22.6
19. 7
25. 5
25.0
10. 1
33. 4
28. 0
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
45
This summary shows that the degree to which the medians of
undertime workers fell below those of full-time workers bore no
consistent relation to the proportion of difference in the numbers of
undertime and of full-time workers. It ranged from 10.1 per cent
in Rhode Island to 39 per cent in Delaware.
In the nine large industrial States and in Mississippi, from one-half
to more than four-fifths of the women reported in each of the following
industries worked undertime:15
Alabama-------------------Georgia--------------------Kentucky-----------------_ _
Mississippi----------------Missouri--------------------
Four branches of the textile industry.
Cotton, hosiery and knit goods.
Paper and paper products, wooden boxes and crates,
shoes, tobacco, furniture.
Cotton, wooden boxes and crates.
Bakeries, candy, electrical appliances, tobacco, shoes,
three branches of the clothing industry.
New Jersey----------------Candy, electrical appliances, men’s and women’s elothing, hosiery and knit goods, rubber-, metal.
Ohio-------------------------- Glass, metal, rubber, tobacco.
Rhode Island------------- Rubber, paper and paper products.
South Carolina-----------Cotton, yarns and thread.
Tennessee------------------ Candy, bakeries, hosiery and knit goods, paper and paper
products, women’s clothing.
Overtime workers.
The proportion of women who worked overtime ranged from 0.4
and 1.2 per cent, respectively, in South Carolina and Georgia, to 17.7
and 22.1 per cent, respectively, in Rhode Island and Oklahoma. In
Rhode Island most of the overtime workers were in rubber, and in
Oklahoma all were in glass factories.
As was to be expected, overtime workers usually earned higher
amounts than did those on full time. The least differences in the
medians for the two groups were in New Jersey and Alabama, in which
overtime workers had a median 1.3 and 1.7 per cent, respectively,
above that of full-time workers. The greatest difference was that of
43.6 per cent in Kentucky; the next that of 33.4 per cent in Rhode
Island. As already stated, the industrial location of the large group
in Rhode Island was rubber; nearly two-thirds of those in Kentucky
were makers of men’s clothing, who had a median 42.3 per cent above
that of the full-time workers in the same industry.
In three other States, Tennessee, South Carolina, and Missouri,
the median for overtime workers rose more than 14 per cent above that
for women on full time. In South Carolina this was due to the earn
ings of overtime workers in cotton mills, in Tennessee to those in
printing and in hosiery and knit goods, overtime workers in the latter
having a median 28.1 per cent above that of full-time workers. In
Missouri the situation arose from workers in shoe and tobacco fac
tories, and especially from a few individual women with unusually
high earnings in candy, overall, and paper factories. The case of
Georgia was exceptional, the small group of overtime workers having
a median below that of the women on full time. Most of these were
in cotton mills and the women so employed had a median more than
ls The median of earnings fell 10 per cent or more below the median of rates in the following: Paper m
Kentucky and Tennessee; cotton in Mississippi, South Carolina, and Alabama; women’s clothing in New
Jersey and Tennessee; tobacco in Ohio; wooden boxes and crates in Kentucky; hosiery and knit goods in
Alabama; and bakeries, men’s clothing, men’s shirts, and shoes in Missouri.
46
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
8 per cent below that of full-time workers in the same industry but
nearly 9 per cent above that of all cotton workers.16
Full-time workers in the chief woman-employing industries reported.17
Variations between medians for all and for full-time workers some
times were very great in the cases of particular industries, and of
course this had a considerable influence upon the variation in pay
ments in the State as a whole. The widest difference found was in
tobacco in Ohio; 48.6 per cent of the women in the industry were
full-time workers and these had a median 48.3 per cent above that
of all workers. Cigars in South Carolina showed a difference nearly
as great, the median of full-time workers rising 43.2 per cent above
that of all women in the same industry.
In Missouri, surveyed at a time in 1922 before the entire recovery
of industrial stability, rather wide differences between the medians
of full-time and of all workers existed in six industries—shirt making,
bakery products, men’s clothing, tobacco, candy, and electrical
appliances. In overalls, the undertime workers had a median more
than 15 per cent above that of full-time workers, which may be
explained by the high earnings of some pieceworkers. Tennessee and
Kentucky were additional States in which rather wide variations
between the medians of full-time and of all workers existed in several
industries. In the former, the greatest difference came in bakery
products and metal, and there were considerable differences in cotton,
hosiery and knit goods, cigars, and tobacco. In Kentucky the
greatest difference was for workers on wooden boxes, and there were
appreciable differences in candy and furniture.
Considerable differences existed in Ohio in tobacco, cigars, metal,
cordage and twine, and bakery products. Medians for full-time and
for all workers in cotton mills differed widely in every State where
found, except New Jersey.
Data are given in Table VII in regard to undertime, full time, and
overtime in seven chief woman-employing industries, in each of which
this information was reported for over 4,000 women. In cigar making,
nearly two-thirds of all those studied were full-time workers; in
hosiery and knit goods, shoes, electrical appliances, cotton, and metal,
considerably less than one-half; and in rubber, where a fairly large
proportion of overtime workers were found, only a little over onefourth of all studied worked full time.
In cotton mills, cigar making, and rubber—except in Rhode Island,
where there was a good deal of overtime in rubber—the medians of
full-time workers differed least from those of all workers in the States
in which the largest proportions of the women in the industry were
on full time, most in the States having fewer on full time; but the
same statement could not be made of workers in electrical appliances,
shoes, metal, or hosiery and knit goods. The chart facing this page
shows the differences between the medians of all and of full-time
workers in the seven industries under consideration. A glance at this
chart shows that, with few exceptions, greater differences existed in
cotton and hosiery and knit wear than in the five other industries.18
16 Of the overtime workers in Georgia cotton mills, 26 per cent were pieceworkers.
17 See footnote on p. 41 for explanation of a possible error in tabulation of full-time workers in cotton
mills in two States due to incomplete character of data. In other chief industries any possible error is so
slight as to be negligible.
.
The exceptions are New Jersey, already mentioned as exceptional in textiles; Ohio, where the differ
ences were comparatively great in cigars and metal; and one industry in South Carolina—cigars—in which
there was an unusually great difference.
I
SEVEN CHIEF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Week’s earning of all women IOO
143.2
130
120
no
100
>
Ld
to
<
w<
o
cc
o
u
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id
<
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<
_J
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co
CO
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Ld
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1z
nj
OH
OJ
OJ
OH
Cotton
GOODS
in
cn
>LJ
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z
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o
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Hosiery
<\J
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and
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<
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Cigars
KNIT GOODS
co
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ui
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e\j
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rvj
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Metal
products
2Atlanta not included
O
f\J
e\J
<M
nj
<M
f\l
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Electrical
Q
z
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Rubber
—
<\J
cri
f\)
<\J
or,
<\J
<\J
at
Shoes
appliances
U. S.Dept. of Labor
Women’s Bureau
47
O About 9 per cent below median for all women, due largely to overtime
Ld
Q
Z
>(O
* Ct
u
2
H
LJ
LJ
Id
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
RELATION OF MEDIAN EARNINGS OF WOMEN ON FULLTIME TO EARNINGS OF ALL WOMEN
48
WAGES OP WOMEN IN 13 STATES
The summary following gives, for each of the six States in which
cotton mills were found, the proportions of all and of full-time workers
who received under $8 and under $10.
Per cent of woinen receiving—
Georgia. ___ .. .
---------- --- South Carolina
Alabama-------------------------------------- ---Mississippi______________________________
Tennessee------------------------------------------ --
Year
1921
1921
1922
1922
1924
1925
Under $8
Under $10
All workers Full-time
workers
Stato
All workers Full-time
workers
lf». 7
34.4
41.3
5.9
48.5
22.2
4.6
9.8
13.9
27.9
6. 3
30.4
54.9
66.2
16. 4
69.7
38.7
14.7
25.8
40.9
53.9
17. G
The chief earnings group for all workers in cotton mills—that
having a larger proportion of women than any other—was as much
as $8 in only two of the six States in which this industry was studied—
Georgia, in which pay rolls in about one-half of the plants were taken
in 1920, at the end of a peak period, and New Jersey surveyed in a
normal time. In Alabama and Mississippi—the former studied in a
time of depression—13.9 and 27.9 per cent, respectively, of the full
time workers earned less than $8, and in Mississippi more than
one-half received under $10. In no other State were earnings so low
received by as many as 10 per cent of the full-time workers in this
industry.
Women making hosiery and knit goods were studied in seven States,
and the summary following shows the proportions of all women and
of full-time workers w'ho received under $8 and under $10.
Per cent of women receiving—
State
Year
Under $10
Under $8
All women
Georgia............ .................... .............. -.................
South Carolina__________________________
Alabama ____________________ __________
Ohio.......................----------- ------------------------ Delaware_____
_____ - ---------- -- ---Tennessee..
1921
1921
1922
1922
1922
1924
1925
Full-time
workers
All women
28.1
53.2
59.6
6.5
12.2
14.5
25.8
14.8
38.9
29.7
41.1
72.5
79. 9
13. 5
23.2
33.9
41.0
.6
5.0
12.1
Full-time
workers
21.3
59.3
61.9
1.0
20.0
25.3
In four States—Alabama, South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee—
the largest groups of all workers in hosiery-and-knit-goods factories
received under $8; in two of these this included over one-half the
women. In South Carolina, studied during depression, the same
situation obtained even with full-time workers, although the propor
tion was reduced from 53.2 to 38.9 per cent. In three other States
12 per cent or more of the full-time workers received under $8. In
Ohio only 1 per cent and in New Jersey none of the full-time workers
had earnings under $10.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
49
In four of five States that had the two industries reported, larger
proportions of the full-time workers in hosiery and knit goods than
of those in cotton earned less than $8; in three of these States the
difference was more than 10 per cent.
The data on full-time earnings in the other five chief industries—■
those from which over 4,000 women were reported—may be sum
marized as follows:
Per cent
of women
who were
on full
time
Industry
Metal products _ _
Electrical appliances
Cigars___ ____ _
Kubber products^._
Shoes_______
Per cent
by which
median of
full-time
workers
was above
that of all
workers
37. G to 69.1
3.1 to 17.0
16.9 to 49.8
2. 4 to 12.0
66. 8 to 79. 5
7. 6 to 43.2
23. 7 to 32.1 1 8.9 to 8.6
33.9 to 51. 3
4.8 to 11.0
Per cent of women who earned—
Under $8
$20 and over
All
workers
Full-time
workers
All
workers
Full-time
workers
2. 7 to 11.9
3.7 to 5.3
6. 2 to 40. 8
1.9 to 10.0
8. 9 to 22. 8
O.Oto 1.1
None.
1.0 to 28. 5
None.
1.2 to 11.1
O.Oto 36.4
11.0 to 31.1
. 2 to 28.3
14. 21.0 55.4
7. 2 to 28. 1
O.Oto 48.6
7.8 to 37.3
. 3 to 43. 3
8.1 to 41.7
7.6 to 34.2
i In this case the median was 8.9 per cent below that of all workers.
Fewer than 4,000 women were reported in each branch of the
clothing industry, but unpublished data make the following showing
as to the proportion of women who worked full time and that of all
workers and of full-time workers who received under $10.
Industry
Men’s clothing_____ _ _
Overalls____ __________
Men’s shirts ___ ___
Women’s clothing________
Number
of States
reported
6
Per cent of Per cent of women who
earned under $10
all women
reported
who were
on full
All workers Full-time
time
workers
28.1 to 66.5
0.0 to 72.0
8.0 to 85.2
41. 4 to 49.3
aj. C
11. 3 to 55.5
IU 43.
.0to 27.3
5. 2 to 42. 3
Summary.
The percentage of full-time workers ranged from 25.8 in Oklahoma
to 51.3 in Tennessee, 52.5 in Georgia, and 54.7 in Delaware, tending
to be greater in States studied in normal periods than in those studied
in times of depression. Full-time workers, as would be expected,
usually had median earnings higher than those of all workers, the range
of difference being, with one exception, from 9.5 to 26.7 per cent; and
higher payments were received by larger proportions of full-time than
of all workers. However, the degree of difference between the medians
of full-time and of all workers in a State bore no consistent relation to
the proportion of workers who were on full time, and if the States be
arranged in the order from high to low medians, the State order is
much the same for full-time as for all workers, regardless of the pro
portion on full time. While the full-time figure may be considered the
most representative of the best payments usual in a State or in an
industry, in 10 of the 13 States less than one-half the women were
working full time and this included 5 of the 7 States that were studied
at times of comparatively normal business conditions.
50
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
If full-time workers in the chief industries be considered, it is found
that in the following cases less than 50 per cent of the women worked
fulltime: In electrical appliances and rubber in every State reported;
in hosiery and knit goods in six of the seven States; in cotton in four
of the six; in shoes in two of the three; and in metal in five of the six.
Well over one-half of the women in cigar factories in every State were
full-time workers.
The difference between medians for all and for full-time workers
was especially great in tobacco in Ohio, in cigar making in South
Carolina, and in several industries in Missouri, Tennessee, and Ken
tucky. The median earnings of full-time workers rose above those of
all workers by from 3 to 27 per cent in cotton, by from 8 to 24 per cent
in hosiery and knit goods, by from 7 to 43 per cent in cigars, by from
2 to 12 per cent in electrical appliances, by from 3 to 17 per cent in
metal products, by from 4 to 11 per cent in shoes, and by 1 and 8 per
cent (in two States) in rubber.
_ In cotton mills, over one-fourth of the full-time workers in Missis
sippi earned under $8; over one-fourth of those in South Carolina, over
two-fifths of those in Alabama, and about one-sixth of those in Georgia
and Tennessee earned under $10. In hosiery and knit goods, over
one-fourth of the full-time workers in Alabama and over one-third of
those in South Carolina earned under $8; over one-fourth of those in
Tennessee and about one-fifth of those in Delaware and Georgia
earned under $10. Full-time workers in the metal, the electricalappliance, and the rubber industries were very much better paid than
were those in cotton and in hosiery and knit goods, although the pro
portions of these women who worked full time often were not so large.
In the shoe industry, from 1.2 per cent of the full-time workers in
Missouri to 11.1 per cent of those in Kentucky earned under $8. In
cigar making, well over one-fourth of the full-time workers in Ken
tucky and almost one-fourth of those in Tennessee received less than
$8. Eight per cent of those in South Carolina hut less than 5 per cent
in each of the other four States reported earned under $8.
Avery large proportion of women in every State worked undertime—
from 43.8 per cent in Delaware to 62.8 per cent in South Carolina.
In 8 of the 13 States the proportion of undertime workers exceeded
that of full-time workers. The medians of undertime workers fell
below those of full-time workers by from 10 per cent in Rhode Island
to 39 per cent in Delaware. Most of those in Georgia were in cotton
manufacturing, in Delaware in men’s shirt and cigar making. In
the nine industrially important States, more than one-half the women
reported in certain industries were undertime workers, as follows:
In paper and paper products, clothing industries, tobacco, candy, and
rubber, in three States each;'in bakeries, electrical appliances, and
textiles in two States each; and in shoes, wooden boxes and crates,
furniture, glass, and metal products in one State each.
The proportion of overtime workers ranged from less than 1 per cent
in South Carolina to 22 per cent in Oklahoma, all in the latter being in
glass factories. In Rhode Island and Kentucky the medians for over
time workers rose 33 per cent and 43 per cent, respectively, above those
of full-time workers, the greatest differences in any State. In the
former most of the overtime was in rubber, in the latter it was in men’s
clothing. In South Carolina, Tennessee, and Missouri, medians for
overtime workers showed a considerable rise above those for all workers,
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
51
a situation due in South Carolina to women in cotton mills, in Tennes
see to those in printing and hosiery and knit goods, and in Missouri to
those in shoe, tobacco, and electrical-appliance factories, with a few
individual workers in other industries affecting the totals. Overtime
workers in Georgia, most of whom were in cotton mills, had a median
6.7 per cent below that of full-time workers in the State.
EARNINGS AND HOURS WORKED
To the woman who must live on her earnings, obviously the amount
received is of great importance. Furthermore, it is of the utmost
significance, both to the worker and to industry, whether the sum
earned is the result of 48 or of more than 60 hours of labor during the
week. It is of vital concern to society whether the amounts necessary
for the subsistence of women can be assured by hours of work that are
reasonable and consistent with health, or whether they can be secured
only by hours that sap or destroy the physical stamina. Earnings
do not necessarily vary in direct proportion to the number of hours
worked. In any one establishment they are likely to do so for timeworkers but not for pieceworkers. For the latter, wide variations
are usual even among those in any one firm who work for the same
length of time.
Usually it is difficult or impossible to get satisfactory data in regard
to pieceworkers, since such a record is of no importance to the firm
in making up the pay roll and therefore is not kept. For timeworkers,
whose pay is based directly upon the number of hours worked, exact
records ordinarily are obtainable, but such data are not available for
all timeworkers. While these facts cause the number included in a
study of hours to be less than the total number of employees, the valid
ity of the figures is in no way impaired and those taken may be con
sidered representative of the whole group of timeworkers.
Earnings and hours in the various States.
Table VIII in the appendix shows for the nine industrial States the
number of white women in all manufacturing industries combined who
had worked for the scheduled hours most common in the State, and
the per cent of these who had received payments within various
ranges. In the tabulation of earnings by hours worked, only full
time workers are included, since their hours and earnings are those
that show the normal relationship of these two factors. From this
table, and from unpublished data from which it is abstracted, analysis
may be. made of the earnings and hours of the largest numbers of
women in each State. For the largest group of women in each State
the hours scheduled were as follows:
State
Alabama.__...
Georgia. ................
Kentucky
Missouri..............
New Jersey......... .
Per cent
Hours scheduled for of women
largest group of having
hours
women
specified
55, under 60 L.........
55, under 60______
Over 48, under 52
Over 48, under 52__
Under 483____ _
77.7
55.4
38.3
46.9
34.9
State
Ohio_______ _
Rhode Island___
South Carolina...
Tennessee
Per cent
Hours scheduled for of women
largest group of having
hours
women
specified
Over 48, under 52...
48 i________
55, under 60.. _
55, under 604.......
* ah umers nau a longer scneauic.
? Nearly as many had a longer schedule.
^ About one-fourth of all the women had schedules in each of two longer periods
* About one-fourth of all the women had a schedule of 52 and under 55 hours.
69.6
61. 7
87.3
51.2
52
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
The earnings of the largest proportions of the women within these
hour groups—the most representative in each State—are shown in
the following summary;
Under 48 hours
Over 48 and under
52 hours
48 hours
55 and under
60 hours
Earnings
Stato
Per
cent of
women
State
Per
cent of
women
$10 and under $12 _
State
Kentucky.
Missouri-_
$15 and under $20. New Jersey _
45.4 Rhode Island.
41.4
Ohio
Per
cent of
women
State
Per
cent of
women
Alabama___
27.8
[Tennessee. __
128.9 ■{South Car
l olina
31.4 Georgia.. ..
20. 3
35.4
27.0
36. 8
1 Followed closely by 27.6 per cent earning $15 and under $20.
In every State but one 18the largest group of women without regard
19
to hours worked had the earnings opposite which the State appears
in the foregoing summary. Therefore, the interesting thing to note
is the variation in hour schedules in the different States in relation to
the different standards of earnings prevailing.
In five of the nine States included in Table VIII, a larger proportion
of the women earned $20 or over in the group having the shortest
hour schedule included than in any group having longer hours; in six
States a larger proportion of the women earned $15 and under $20 in
the group having the shortest schedule than in any other group.20
In six States less than $8 was received by larger proportions of the
women having the longest schedules reported than of those having
shorter hours.
Reports from eight States included a sufficient number of women
receiving $15 or over in each of two or more hour groups to make a
fairly typical picture of the progression of earnings that appears usual
with a shortening of hours.21 The accompanying chart shows the
proportions of the women working on each hour schedule in these
States who had these higher earnings.
The facts stated in the foregoing indicate a tendency that appears
to be quite usual—for the higher earnings to be received more fre
quently where reasonably short hours prevail, and for excessively long
schedules to be accompanied by low pay.
Earnings and hours in the chief woman-employing industries
reported.
Earnings in relation to hours in the chief woman-employing indus
tries reported in the manufacturing group may be considered from
Table IX in the appendix, which shows for each of these industries,
in every State in which it was found, the two hour-schedules most com
mon and the chief scales of earnings of the women within such hour
ranges. The data in Table IX are summarized on p. 54.
18 The exception is Missouri, where—if hours he left out of consideration—somewhat more women earned
$15 and under $20 than earned $12 and under $15.
20 The largest proportions of the women reported as receiving $15 or over had hour schedules as follows:
Under 48 hours in Kentucky, New Jersey, Ohio, and Missouri; 48 hours in Tennessee; over 48 and under
52 hours in Georgia and Rhode Island; and 52 and under 55 hours in South Carolina. In every case no group
of women having longer schedules contained so large a proportion earning $15 or more.
21 In each hour group included there were 100 or more women earning $15 or over.
WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES—8 STATES
Per cent
100
UNDER 48
48
90
□
ED
m
OVER 48, UNDER 52
80
52. UNDER 55
70
55, UNDER 60
I
60 AND OVER
60
m
50
I
40
p
30
20
1
10
0L
m
A
Georgia^;:;!;)
Kentucky
Missouri
New
Hour groups containing fewer than too women omitted
Jersey
Ohio
Rhode I. S.Carolina
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
PER CENT OF FULL-TIME WORKERS WITH SPECIFIED HOUR SCHEDULES WHO EARNED $15 OR MORE
Tennessee
CO
54
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Cotton.—In four out of six States the most common hours were 55 and under 60,
and in three of these the largest group of women with these hours earned at least
$8 but not so much as $15. In the State in which most of the women had longer
hours, earnings of the chief group were very low.
Hosiery and knit goods.—In three of four States the most common hours were
55 and under 60, and the largest groups of women working these hours earned
in two States at least $8 but not so much as $15, and in one State under $8—a
situation similar to that in cotton.
Cigars.—Hours worked by the largest group of women were 52 and under 55
in three of six States and were shorter than this in two others. In three of the
five States the largest group of women working these hours earned $15 and under
$20. In the State where longer hours prevailed, the chief group had lower earnings.
Metal.—The most common hours were 48 in two States and over 48 and under
52 in two. In three States the chief range of earnings for women working these
hours was $15 and under $20.
Electrical appliances.—The chief hour group was 48 in one State and over 48
and under 52 in the other two. The largest groups of women with these hours
earned $15 or more.
Rubber.—Hours of 48 or under prevailed in two States, and most of the women
working these hours earned $20 or more. The corresponding earnings were
much lower in a State in which longer hours prevailed.
Shoes.—The most common hours in the three States reported were over 48 and
under 52, and the largest groups of the women with these hours had earnings dif
fering with each State, ranging from $8 and under $10 to $15 and under $20.
Table 10 shows, for the chief industries and according to hours of
work, the numbers and the proportions who earned less than $10
among the full-time workers. In cotton mills in South Carolina and
Georgia, in hosiery and knitting mills in South Carolina and Ten
nessee, and in cigar and shoe factories in Kentucky and Ohio, earnings
of less than $10 went to larger proportions of the women who had
worked very long hours than of those having worked shorter hours.
In metal, electrical appliances, and rubber very small proportions of
women earned under $10, while in cotton, hosiery and knit goods, and
cigars, in all of which the tendency was for hours to be longer than
in the other three industries, considerably larger proportions of the
women reported had earnings so low. Unpublished data show that
in almost every instance reported in each of the clothing industries
except the making of women’s clothing, a larger proportion of the
women who worked for short hours than of those who had worked for
longer periods earned $15 or more.
31893°—31-
Women with hours as specified who earned less than $10
Number
whose
hours
Industry and State
Per cent
earning
under $10
reported1
Under 48 hours
Over 48 hours and
under 52 hours
48 hours
52 and under 55
hours
55 and under 60
hours
60 hours and over
2
Number Per cent1 Number Per cent2 Number Per cent 2 Number Per cent2 Number Per cent2 Number Per cent2
Cotton goods:
Ohio. .. _
_ _
Metal products:
Ohio
Electrical appliances:
Rubber products:
4.9
4.4
2.4
.5
25.8
17.6
&
36.8
14.7
7.2
w
171
23
1
1.0
18
2
8.8.
25.0
9.6
36.5
.7
24
5.6
2.1
6. 5
11.5
5
11
23
5.9
3. 7
4.0
4
6
9
5
23
21. 4
2
16
151
3
5
6.4
2.8
24.4
18.8
63.1
17
34.7
25.6
17 4
18
54.5
40
80.0
2
183
(3)
22.6
33
334
3
53
8
(3)
32.1
1.6
64
95.5
17
15.6
u
44.1
32
100.0
.5
176
1
1
8.6
51. 9
0
6.2
23
16. 1
.5
9
10
40
95
507
93
4
.5
42.0
13.4
18.6
16
2.7
144
923
774
Shoes:
148
537
571
4
4. O
* O
4.8
40.7
4.3
11.4
23.3
51.8
819
815
370
Cigars:
Georgia 4
61.9
1.0
59. 3
25.3
123
812
1,021
479
Ohio
40.9
14.7
53.9
105
302
736
1,363
172
340
Hosiery and knit goods:
452
875
219
407
2,034
621
118
308
113
2,112
Mississippi____ ______
New Jersey- ___ _ __ _
South Carolina_____ ___
to g-
Ql
40
104
51
32. 0
31. 0
7.8
13
72.2
1 Only those cases are included in which 100 or more women had hours reported. While the base sometimes is small for the computation of per cents, data on this subject arc
so important and so meager as to warrant the detail in this case.
2 Per cents are based on the total number of women within each hour group.
3 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
4 Exclusive of Atlanta.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Table 10.— White women full-time workers in the chief woman-employing industries who had worked the hours specified and who earned less
than $10, by industry and State
56
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Summary.
Earnings in Rhode Island were fairly uniform regardless of hours
worked. The largest proportions of the women receiving $15 or over
had the shorter schedules of under 48 hours in Missouri, Kentucky,
New Jersey, and Ohio and of 48 hours in Tennessee; the largest pro
portions of the women who were paid $15 or more worked for the
longer periods of over 48 and under 52 hours in Georgia and Rhode
Island, of 52 and under 55 hours in South Carolina, and of 60 hours
and over in Alabama. In several of the nine States, earnings in the
highest range were received by smaller proportions of the women
having the longest hour schedules than of those having any schedule
shorter.
As regards specific industries, the most common hours in cotton
and in knit goods were 55 and under 60, the next being 60 and over.
In Mississippi more women had the longer than had the shorter
hours, and in Ohio and New Jersey the most common hours were under
52. Of the women with hours of 55 and under 60 or 60 and over in
cotton mills in Georgia and South Carolina, it is apparent from
Appendix Table IX that the groups working the longer hours re
ceived the same amounts as those working the shorter hours. In
Tennessee and New Jersey they received lower amounts for longer
hours of work than for shorter. In the corresponding groups in
hosiery and knit goods, those working the shorter hours received the
higher amounts in South Carolina and in Tennessee. In Alabama,
the workers in both industries received higher pay for longer hours
of work.
Among the groups in cigar making, higher pay accompanied the
shorter hours in Georgia, Kentucky, and Ohio, but not in New Jersey
and South Carolina. On the whole, this industry had shorter hours
and better pay than had the textiles included.
Hours generally were shorter, though in some cases the same, in
the metal, the electrical-appliance, and the rubber industries than in
textiles or cigars. Pay usually was better in the former group.
Considering the more significant hour groups, as shown in Table
IX, it is apparent that the longer hours had somewhat higher earn
ings than had the shorter hours in metal products in Rhode Island
and electrical products in Ohio, but that the opposite is true of elec
trical products in New Jersey and the rubber industry in Rhode
Island, New Jersey, and Ohio. In the two States last named, earn
ings were the same in the two hour groups in the metal industry.
The most common hours in shoes in three States reported were
over 48 and under 52, and the largest group of women having these
hours had different earnings in each State, ranging from $8 and under
$10 to $15 and under $20.
EARNINGS OF TIMEWORKERS, PIECEWORKERS, AND WORKERS ON
BOTH TIME AND PIECE
There are two prevailing systems of payment for labor. Under
the first or timework basis, earnings depend entirely on time worked,
with a daily, hourly, or weekly rate. Under the second or piecework
basis, earnings are regulated by output, or the amount the worker
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
57
produces. If pieceworkers work full time they are likely to receive
somewhat larger payments than timeworkers, but they are more
subject to reductions on account of circumstances beyond their con
trol, such as delays in the arrival of work, retardation on account of
a poor run of material, or breakdowns of machinery; hence they need,
as a rule, to be quite experienced before they can earn more than do
timeworkers in the same occupation. The receipts of a relatively
small proportion of women are based on a combination of the two
systems, which occurs when women are shifted from one occupation
to another and receive part of their pay for timework, part for out
put. Workers representative of all these systems of payment were
found in the States studied. Table X in the appendix shows the
number, per cent, and median earnings of timeworkers, of piece
workers, and of the comparatively few workers on both time and
piece in manufacturing industries in the States studied.
In the consideration of the earnings of all women, without regard
to system of payment, careful account had to be taken of fluctuations
in industrial prosperity. This is somewhat less necessary in a com
parison of the relative proportions and the relative earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers than in some other parts of the study,
since these are more definitely affected by the organization and
types of occupation within the industries than by business fluctua
tions.22 For the most part, Arkansas and Oklahoma will be omitted
from the discussion of timeworkers and pieceworkers, since they hacl
so few' women reported in manufacturing. Mississippi and Delaware
will be included, as most of the women that reported were in cotton
mills and cigar making, two industries that are of importance in a
discussion of timework and piecework.
. Full data on earnings in relation to occupation are not available
in the material secured. Therefore the discussion can consider only
the relative earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers, and complete
explanations of the causes of these can not be given. However, as
the discussion proceeds it must always be remembered that differ
ences in the earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers frequently
are the result of very decided differences in the exact occupations
upon which workers under the two systems are engaged.
Earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers in the various States.
With but one exception in the 13 States, the median for timewrorkers always was below, that for pieceworkers always wras above,
the median for all women in the State W'ho reported as to timework
and piecework. The medians for timeworkers fell below those for
all women reported by from 1.3 per cent in Alabama to 22.2 per cent
in Delaware; and the medians of pieceworkers rose above those of all
women reported by from 0.6 per cent in Alabama to 16.3 per cent in
Atlanta. The following summary, which gives in ascending order the
proportions of pieceworkers in the various States and show's how much
their medians exceeded those of timeworkers, makes it clear that no
positive correlation was found between the proportion of piece
workers in a State and the degree to which the median of their earn
ings rose above that of timeworkers.
!! Tor further confirmation of this statement, see Part VI,
58
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
State
Rhode Island..... ........ ......
Per cent by
me
Per cent of whichwas
dian
piece
above that
workers
of timeworkers
16. 7
22.4
43.6
54.9
57.1
57.7
61. 5
State
i 7.6
6.3
7.0
5.7
29.1
23.4
33.2
Per cent by
me
Per cent of whichwas
dian
piece
workers above that
of timeworkers
62.0
64.4
75.6
76.2
80.3
82.1
11. 8
13. 7
8. 0
5. 2
1.9
37.8
1 In this case the pieceworkers’ median was below that of timeworkers.
While the medians of pieceworkers rose above those of timeworkers
large numbers of women on piecework in a State did not mean rela
tively high earnings. In the three States having the lowest medians,
from 64.4 to 80.3 per cent of the women were pieceworkers, while in
the States having the highest medians the per cents on piecework
were from 57.1 to 61.5.
In Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, and South Carolina the median
earnings of time-and-piece workers were below those of all women
whose system of payment was reported, and therefore they must either
have lost much time or have been in little-skilled or low-paid indus
tries or occupations. Most of these workers were employed in some
branch of the textile industry; in Kentucky over one-fifth were in
metal.
The textile industries in most of these cases had medians below
those of the State as a whole and ordinarily had considerably higher
medians for piecework than for timework. In most of them the
workers on both time and piece earned less than did the straight
pieceworkers. In six States and in Atlanta the medians for the
workers who were on both time and piece were above those for all
women reported. These workers were found in many types of manu
facturing, and in most of the industries in which they were engaged
the median for pieceworkers or that for workers on both time and
piece was above that for timeworkers; often that for time-and-piece
workers was above that for all in the industry, so that they must have
been the steadier and more highly skilled women.
Earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers in the chief womanemploying industries reported.
In seven chief woman-employing industries in each of which more
than 4,000 women were reported, the piecework system was markedly
predominant. In cotton, hosiery and knit goods, and cigars 60 per
cent or more of the women in every State were pieceworkers; in every
State in rubber and shoes, in two States in electrical appliances, and in
one State in metal, over one-half were pieceworkers. If the total
numbers reported in each industry be taken, regardless of State lines,
almost 90 per cent of the cigar makers, over 80 per cent of the women
in hosiery and knit-goods mills, and about 70 per cent of those in
cotton and rubber factories were pieceworkers, as were over 55 per
cent of the women in shoe factories and over 70 per cent of those in
all clothing industries taken together. The women in metal and elec
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
59
trical appliances were more nearly equally divided between the time
and the pfece system.
The great prevalence of piecework in the important womanemploying industries—and the proportions on piecework often appear
greatest in those industries that have longest employed many women—
is very significant when considered in connection with the frequent
low earnings of women, the physical strain likely to occur under
piecework, and the possibility that the system may entail considerable
loss of labor return both to the plant and to the individual.
From among much testimony to the danger of injury to health,
that of Dr. Louis I. Harris, formerly health commissioner of New York
City, may be cited:
With the monotonous occupations, or with the speeding-up process, piecework,
or any other industrial condition creating tenseness or anxiety, there are nervous
reactions which, long enough continued, impair or destroy mental health and
nervous stability.23
While this statement was made especially in reference to the work
of children, its dicta apply also to other laborers under the conditions
mentioned.
The weaknesses of the ordinary piecework system from the view
point of management were well summarized by H. K. Hathaway,
consulting engineer, New York, in an address before the Japanese
National Management Association in session at Tokyo in March, 1929.
Among these he included the inflexibility as to efficiency and experi
ence of the workers; the lack of full utilization of plant facilities, since
piecework lends itself to considerable absence and tardiness; and the
indirect additions to labor cost incident to a system under which the
production efficiency may vary from 100 to 35 or 40 per cent with the
average of efficiency only around 60 and 70 per cent of full capacity.24
While the existing data on its full effects are incomplete, it is safe
to say that even when piecework appears to put somewhat more
money into the pay envelope, this may tend to be an illusion created
by a system under which entirely too low a rate has been fixed for
timework, and the relatively higher piecework earnings may be very
inadequate when weighed in the balance with the added strain upon
the individuals who may the more quickly break down under the
system.
Table 11 shows the relation of the earnings of pieceworkers to those
of timeworkers in the seven chief woman-employing manufacturing
industries and the relation of the earnings of each to those of all
women in manufacturing in the same State.
23 National Child Labor Committee. The Doctor Looks at Child Labor. New York, 1929, p. 16.
24 Bulletin of the Taylor Society, October, 1929, p. 19S.
Table 11,—Relation of the earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers, in the seven chief woman-employing manufacturing industries reported,
to each other and to all such workers in manufacturing, by industry—white women
Pieceworkers in ndustry specified
Industry
Num
ber of
States
Women in industry specified—re
lation of median to that of all
women in manufacturing in the
same State
Timeworkers in industry speci
fied-relation of median to that
of all timeworkers in manufac
turing in the same State
Relation of median to that of all
pieceworkers in manufacturing
in the same State
Relation of median to that of timeworkers in the industry in the
same State
Cotton goods........... ......
6
4
0.9 to 18.5
6
0.3 to 13.3___
3
0.4 to 6.9___
12.5 to 19.5... Below...
4
3
3
3.9 to 18.4___ Below—.
5.7 to 19.3___
10.3 to 38.4.._
7
1.4 to 20.8___ Below...
17
5
2
1
Hosiery and knit goods..
Cigars....................... ......
Metal products................
5 \ Above. _
Electrical appliances.......
4 1 Above _
Rubber products.............
3 1 Above __
Shoes.................................
3 \Above_ _
3
2
3
1
2
1
2
21.1
13.3 and 29.0_. Above. _
8.7
3.3 to 29.2___ Above. _
3.0
9.2 and 18.1... Above. _
1.1..
3.9 and 6.9_ Above..
_
i In some States numbers in cigars were too small lor the computation o( medians.
2
3
1
3
1
2
2
1
3.5 to 32.8___
11.8...
4.4 to 28.4....
4.0
5.9 and 8.4__
6.8 and 12.6—
6.7
2
Above._
3
2
1
3
1
2
Above. _
7.3 to 14.8___
30.4 and 38.6- Above..
13.5________
4.8 to 28,8.... Above. _
2.1____ ____
8.8 and 12.1_ Above. _
Above. _
3
8.0 to 13.3___ Above..
Above..
Above. _
2
5
7 1 to 22 4
2.9 and 6.2.
0.4 to 26.5.
16.5 to 90.5.
5
5.8 to 32.5.
4
6.0 to 30.6.
3
25.9 to 36.9.
3
28.6 to 37.6.
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Number Range of per
Number Range of per
Number Range of per
Number Range of per
Relation of States cent difference Relation of States cent difference Relation of States cent difference Relation of States cent difference
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
61
. Except for two cases in hosiery and knit wear, medians for the
pieceworkers in the seven industries were above those for timeworkers—
very considerably above in one or more States in every industry
and in every State in cigars, rubber, and shoes. However, even the
somewhat better earnings for work on a piece basis did not bring
cotton or hosiery and knit wear into line with other industries
in. payments to workers. When median earnings of women in cotton
mills were compared with those of all women in manufacturing in
a State, ordinarily they were found to be lower, and the same was
true if the median earnings of timeworkers or of pieceworkers in
this industry were compared with those of all timeworkers or of all
pieceworkers in the State, despite the fact that pieceworkers earned
from 7.1 to 32.4 per cent more than timeworkers.
The same situation obtained for workers in hosiery and knit
goods, although the range of difference between the earnings of timeworkers and those of pieceworkers in this industry was somewhat
less than in cotton.
In cigar making the range of difference in the earnings of timework
ers and of pieceworkers was very wide, the latter receiving from 16.5
to 90.5 per cent more than the former. The median for pieceworkers in
cigars was above that for all pieceworkers in each of the four States in
which there were workers in numbers large enough to compute a
median, although in three of these the median for timeworkers in
the industry was from 10.3 to 38.4 per cent below that for all timeworkers in the State. Great irregularities of earnings appeared in
this industry, which employed such large proportions of pieceworkers.
While the data on timework and piecework showed no consistent
relation between the proportion of workers in an industry who were
on a piece basis and the degree to which their earnings rose above
those of women paid by time, they did give indication that the
comparatively high payments to the pieceworkers in an industry often
went to but a small proportion of the women. The two States that
had the smallest proportions of pieceworkers in knit goods and in
cigars were those that had the greatest difference between the medians
of timeworkers and those of pieceworkers in these industries, and the
two States having the smallest proportions of pieceworkers in cotton
were two of the three having the greatest differences between their
medians and those of timeworkers.
Earnings of full-time workers on time and on piece in the various
States.
Up to this point the discussion of timeworkers and pieceworkers
has included all the women for whom the basis of work was reported,
whether or not they were on full time. Table XII in the appendix
shows for manufacturing industries in 11 States, so far as could be
ascertained, the proportions of the women in each State who were
full-time workers and the proportions of these who were on timework
and on piecework, with the median earnings of each class. The same
situation found for all workers obtained for full-time workers—that
the median of earnings of timeworkers usually was below, that of piece
workers usually was above, the median for the total number of women.
62
WAGES OP WOMEN IN 13 STATES
In every State but Kentucky, pieceworkers were found to be well
in the majority among all the women reported, and the same was
true among full-time workers in all States but Georgia, Kentucky,
Missouri, and Rhode Island.25 However, the proportion of timeworkers was noticeably larger among full-time than among all
workers—by at least 1 per cent in every State and by from 14 to
nearly 20 per cent in three States. This gives indication that rela
tively fewer of the women on the piece system than of those on a time
basis worked full time.26
Despite the fact that the proportion of pieceworkers usually was
smaller among full-time than among all workers, the figures in
EARNINGS DISTRIBUTION OF FULL-TIME WORKERS ON
TIMEWORK AND ON PIECEWORK
WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES- 11 STATES
Per cent
WeeJ UN^
earnings ®
in dollars
UNDER
UNDER
10
12
12,
UNDER
15
AND
OVER
Table XII indicate that this smaller group was better rewarded for
full-time work than was the group of timeworkers. In eight States
the median of the earnings of pieceworkers rose above that of timeworkers to a greater degree among full-time than among all workers.
In the same eight States the median for full-time pieceworkers rose
above that for all pieceworkers to a greater degree than the median
for full-time timeworkers rose above that of all timeworkers.
ss In Rhode Island, timeworkers formed a considerably greater proportion of full-time than of all workers
in rubber and in paper and paper products.
.
28 The explanation may be partly in the difficulty of obtaining full information on time worked for piece
workers. The records usually show whether or not the worker was present on the required number of days
but not whether she was present for the whole of each day. However, the same system of reporting was
used for some of the timeworkers, and there are two indications that any error in computing median earn
ings that might have occurred because of the use of such partial reports for pieceworkers (all that were
available from the records kept by the plants) is negligible: (1) the reduced number of pieceworkers in the
data on full time and (2) the special increase their earnings showed over those of timeworkers.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
63
The earnings distribution of full-time timeworkers and piecework
ers in all manufacturing and in seven chief woman-employing in
dustries is shown in Table XI in the appendix. In seven States
more pieceworkers _ than timeworkers earned under $8, but the
greatest difference in the proportions was only about 5 per cent.
The greatest difference in the proportions of workers under the two
systems came in the higher earnings range of $15 and over, in which a
larger proportion of pieceworkers than of timeworkers was found in
every State, the difference being over 20 per cent in each of five
States.
The foregoing chart gives a graphic representation of the full-time
workers on time and on piece in all the manufacturing industries in
11 States taken together. A much larger proportion of pieceworkers
than of timeworkers earned $15 or over, a slightly larger proportion
of pieceworkers earned under $8, and from about 2 per cent to nearly
13 per cent more timeworkers had earnings in each of the three other
earnings groups. This distribution may be thus expressed: Of
every 10 timeworkers, more than 3 earned $15 or more; about 3, $12
and under $15; nearly 2, $10 and under $12; about 1, $8 and under
$10; and less than 1 earned under $8. Of every 10 pieceworkers,
more than 5 earned $15 or over; nearly 2, $12 and under $15; about l’
$10 and under $12; and less than 1 was in each of the other earnings
groups.
Earnings of full-time workers on time and on piece in the chief
woman-employing industries reported.
In the six industries from which the largest numbers of women were
reported, the relative proportions of timeworkers and pieceworkers
who worked full time and had earnings in the lowest range were as
follows: In cotton mills less than $8 was paid to about 13 per cent
more of the timeworkers than of the pieceworkers in Alabama and
Mississippi, but a larger proportion of the pieceworkers in Georgia,
South Carolina, and Tennessee earned this amount, and no New
Jersey cotton workers earned under $10. In hosiery mills a larger
proportion of the pieceworkers earned under $8 in Alabama, South
Carolina, and Tennessee, and in Ohio and Delaware no timeworkers
had. such low earnings, while a few pieceworkers had. In cigar
factories in New Jersey a somewhat larger proportion of the timeworkers, and in Kentucky a, very much larger proportion, received
under $8; in Delaware, Ohio, South Carolina, and Tennessee, no
timeworkers earned less than $8, while some pieceworkers did.
For the purpose of comparing the earnings of timeworkers with those
of pieceworkers, the women reported in cotton mills from the different
States have been combined, and the same has been done for those in
cigar making. The chart on page 64, illustrates the earnings distribu
tion of timeworkers and pieceworkers in these industries. In cotton, a
somewhat larger proportion of pieceworkers than timeworkers earned
under $8, but in cigar making a considerably larger proportion of
timeworkers had earnings so low. In each industry more piece
workers than timeworkers earned amounts in the higher range of
$15 or over. The difference in the proportions of timeworkers and
pieceworkers who had such earnings was about 12 per cent in cotton,
but in cigar making nearly 40 per cent more pieceworkers than timeworkers had earnings so high. In each industry about 2 timeworkers
64
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
in every 10 earned $15 or over; in cotton about 3 pieceworkers in 10
and in cigars about 6 in 10 had earnings in this group.
There was no positive correlation between the proportion of
timeworkers and of pieceworkers in a State and the difference between
the median earnings of their group and the median of all women
reported. Median earnings of full-time pieceworkers rose above those
of full-time timeworkers in each State, the difference ranging from 2.8
to 77.6 per cent, but women in States in which the largest numbers
were on piecework had not always the highest median earnings.
EARNINGS DISTRIBUTION OF FULL-TIME WORKERS ON
TIMEWORK AND ON PIECEWORK IN 2 INDUSTRIES
Cigars
Cotton goods
Time = 358 Women in 7states
Piece = 2,97 3 Women In 7 states
Time = 1,183 Women in 6 states
Piece = 3,122. Women in 6 states
Per cent
Under Under
10
12
Under
15
and
over
Under Under
10
12
Under
15
ahd
over
Earnings of full-time workers on both time and piece.
In Georgia, Missouri, and South Carolina, the median earnings of
full-time workers on both time and piece were below those of all
full-time workers. The industries in which most of these women
were employed were cordage and twine and cotton in Georgia, cotton
and yarns and thread in South Carolina, and in Missouri candy,
overalls, drugs, electrical appliances, paper and paper products,
and tobacco. In the case of most of these, the median of piece
workers was above that of timeworkers. In Alabama, Delaware,
and Mississippi there were no time-and-piece workers, or very few,
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
65
and too few of these were on full time to warrant computation of a
median.
In five States the medians of the full-time workers on time and
piece were above those of all full-time workers. Most of the women
who contributed to this situation were in the following industries:
In Kentucky, a few in candy making, metal, and cordage and twine;
in New Jersey, in drugs, metal, electrical appliances, and rubber, in
the last two of which the medians rose, respectively, nearly 10 and
over 10 per cent above that of all full-time workers in the industry;
in Ohio, in cordage, metal, and shoes, in each of which the median
rose from about 11 to more than 23 per cent above that of all; in
Rhode Island, in electrical appliances, metal, and rubber, in the last
mentioned the median rising over 10 per cent above that of all; in
Tennessee, in cotton goods, with a median over 13 per cent above that
of all full-time workers.
Summary.
With one exception, in each of the 11 States forming the basis of
this discussion there were many more pieceworkers than timeworkers.
To a degree varying among these different States the median of
timeworkers was below, that of pieceworkers above, that of the total
number of women reported from a State, but there was no positive
correlation between the relative proportion of timeworkers and of
pieceworkers in a State and the difference between their median
earnings and the median of all women reported.
Data on timework and piecework were reported for over 4,000
women in each of seven manufacturing industries: Cotton, hosiery
and knit goods, cigars, metal, electrical appliances, rubber, and shoes.
In each of these great woman-employing industries, the piecework
system of payment was very widely used. In every State 60 per cent
or more of the women in cotton, hosiery and knit goods, and cigars
and over one-half of those in rubber worked on this basis, as did over
one-half of those in electrical appliances and in shoes in two States
and in metal in one State. Taken together, almost 90 per cent of the
workers reported in cigar making, over 80 per cent of those in hosiery
ana knit wear, about 70 per cent of those in cotton and rubber, were
on piecework. The large proportions of women who were on piece
work in the greatest woman-employing industries reported become
especially significant when considered in connection with the possible
deleterious physical effects of piecework and the weaknesses of the
system from the viewpoint of scientific management.
Median earnings of pieceworkers were above those of timeworkers
to a considerable degree in some States in electrical appliances and
metal, and in every case in shoes, rubber, and cigars—in the last
mentioned by from 16.5 to 90.5 per cent. To a somewhat less degree,
median earnings of pieceworkers were above those of timeworkers in the
cotton industry in every State and in knit goods in most cases. In the
clothing industries pieceworkers had higher earnings than timeworkers
m 9 of the 13 cases reported. There was no consistent relation
between the proportion of the women who were on piecework and the
degree to which the median of pieceworkers rose above that of timeworkers, but there were very definite indications of great irregularity
of the earnings of pieceworkers, particularly in certain of the industries
in which they were found in especially large proportions.
66
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
A comparison of the data reported for all timeworkers and piece
workers with the figures reported for those who had worked for full
scheduled time, so far as this could be ascertained, indicates that
relatively fewer pieceworkers than timeworkers worked full time
but that the earnings of the pieceworkers who adhered to the full
schedule showed a tendency to increase to a greater degree than did
those of the corresponding timeworkers. In 8 of the 11 States the
median earnings of pieceworkers rose above those of timeworkers to a
greater degree among the women on full time than among all workers,
despite the fact that in nearly every case the per cent of pieceworkers
was smaller, that of timeworkers larger, among full-time workers than
among all women reported from the same State.
_
In every State but one, more of the pieceworkers than of the timeworkers on full time received payments in the highest ranges—in each
of five States the difference was more than 20 per cent. In seven
States more of the pieceworkers who were working on a full schedule
than of the comparable timeworkers—by from about 1 to about 5
per cent—were paid in the lowest ranges. In nearly every case,
considerably larger proportions of timeworkers than of pieceworkers
had earnings in the middle ranges.
If the distribution of the women working full time under each of the
two systems in the manufacturing industries in 11 States be taken, of
every 10 timeworkers about 3 earned $15 or over; about 3, $12 and
under $15; nearly 2, $10 and under $12; about 1, $8 and under $10;
and less than 1, under $8. Of every 10 pieceworkers more than 5
earned $15 or over; nearly 2, $12 and under $15; and about 1 was in
each of the other earnings groups. The proportion of pieceworkers
earning under $8 was somewhat greater than that of timeworkers in
cotton and was considerably less than that of timeworkers in cigars.
In every State a few women were reported working on a combination
of the two systems of payment. Full-time workers on such a basis
had median earnings below those of all full-time workers in Georgia,
Missouri, and South Carolina, a number of those in Georgia and South
Carolina being in textile mills, and above those of all women on full
time in Kentucky, New Jersey, Ohio, Rhode Island, and Tennessee,
industries that contributed to this situation in more than one State
being metal, electrical appliances, cordage, and rubber.
EARNINGS AND RATES
Up to this point the discussion has been based upon the actual
amounts that the women studied had received during the week. Such
amounts are by no means always the same as the weekly rates the
amounts that the employers contract in advance to pay and that the
women might expect to earn if they invariably worked the normal
scheduled week. Earnings may fall below rates as a result of time
lost, whether from plant or from personal reasons, and in some cases
they may rise above because of overtime worked or the payment of
a bonus.
_
.
It is not possible to compare earnings with rates for all workers
studied, since rates are not always available. No definite weekly
rate is obtainable for pieceworkers, as their payment depends upon
output, which obviously may vary for many different reasons. Usu
ally, although not always, rates can be secured for timeworkers.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
67
Earnings and rates in the various States.
The proportion of women whose earnings for the week recorded
were below their rates ranged from 32.7 per cent in Georgia to 70.2
per cent in Mississippi; it was over 45 per cent in each of six States
and in the city of Atlanta—in four of these States it approached or
exceeded 50 per cent. The difference in median between the rates
bargained for in the manufacturing industries, so far as these could
be secured for the women included, and the actual earnings of the
same women may be seen in Table 12.
Table
12.— Week’s earnings and weekly rales of white women in manufacturing
industries, by State
State
Alabama... ... ____
Arkansas. _ __________
Delaware_____ _________
Georgia:
Atlanta________ ...______
Other places. _.
Kentucky.. ___
Mississippi....... ........ __
Missouri... ... ...
New Jersey__________
Ohio__________
Oklahoma______ _
Rhode Island____________
South Carolina__________
Tennessee______
Per cent by
Number of Median of Median of which earn
the earn ings were
the rates
women
ings
below rates
514
168
117
300
893
2,407
242
1,259
973
1, 576
160
1,446
1,191
1, 994
$9.23
12.24
12. 65
13. 89
$8.31
10.0
in on
11. OO
12. 70
8.6
5.1
•--------------- -----------------------------------
In every State the median of the earnings in all manufacturing
industries taken together was less than that of the median of the
rates of the same women. The differences were greatest—16.2 per
cent and 13.8 percent, respectively;—in two States that had low median
rates, South Carolina and Mississippi.
The difference was least—only 1.2 per cent—in the State of Georgia
outside of Atlanta, though the city itself had a great discrepancy
between rates and earnings. Next to Georgia in this respect were two
States in which median rates were comparatively high, Ohio and New
Jersey, and in each of these median earnings were nearly 5 per cent
below the median rate. In the three States in which women had the
highest median rates they had also the highest median earnings, and
in the States having the lowest rates earnings were the lowest.
That earnings fell farther below rates in a period of industrial de
pression than in more normal business periods was indicated quite
definitely. Of the important industrial States, three were studied
during depression—Kentucky, Alabama, and South Carolina—and
m these earnings fell from 6.7 to 16.2 per cent below rates; three
were studied in normal times—Ohio, New Jersey, and Tennessee—
and m these earnings fell from 4.6 to 5.7 per cent below rates.
There was indication that in the States in which comparatively
small numbers of women were in manufacturing, earnings fell farther
below rates than in the large industrial States studied in similar
68
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
periods.27 Three States in which rates and earnings were reported
for fewer than 250 women were surveyed in normal business periods
and one was surveyed toward the end of the period of depression.
These were Oklahoma, Delaware, Mississippi, and Arkansas, and the
median of earnings fell below that of rates by from 8.6 to 13.8 per
cent. These proportions are noticeably greater than those in the
large industrial States surveyed in normal periods, Ohio, New Jersey,
and Tennessee. Furthermore, the industries having the largest
numbers of women in the nonindustrial States were glass in Okla
homa, cigars in Delaware, candy in Arkansas, and cotton in Mis
sissippi. The proportion by which the median of earnings fell below
that of rates in each of these industries in the large industrial and in
the nonindustrial States in which they were found—all but one studied
in normal times—was considerably greater in the nonindustrial State
in almost every case. The figures are as follows:
Large industrial States
Nonindustrial States
Industry
State
Per cent by
which the
Number median of
of women earnings
was below
that of rates
122
69
52
200
State
8.5 New Jersey........
/New
7.1 \Ohio Jersey____
(New Jersey. ___
16.5 -(Ohio
13.7
Per cent by
which the
Number median of
of women earnings
was below
that of rates
117
134
42
152
269
279
188
0.6
6.7
8.0
3.5
7. 1
6.0
.4
Earnings and rates in the chief woman-employing industries reported.
There were nine industries in which both rates and earnings were
reported for over 500 women. In six of these, appreciable numbers
of the women included were in two or more States; in three of them—
knit-goods, rubber, and tobacco—most of the women were in only
one State.
The States in which cotton was found were for the most part those
in which the other chief industries did not exist. In the remaining
five industries in which the data available are adequate for compari
son upon a fairly wide basis, the proportions of the women reported
who earned less than their rates were as follows:
Industry
Number
of States
5
5
4
6
3
Per cent of women reported who earned less than rates
29.7 to 60.9 (over 40 per cent in 4 States).
29.4 to 60.3 (about 30 per cent in 4 States).
20.8 to 59.4.
33.3 to 84.5 (between 50 and 60 per cent in 3 States).
33.7 to 48.6.
Table 13 gives the median rates and the differences between rates
and earnings in the five industries under discussion in the States
specified.
27 Although Rhode Island and Georgia are exceptional, they do not invalidate the general indication;
their period of study was distinctly abnormal and in Rhode Island one industry predominated in the
study.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
69
Table 13.— Week’s earnings and weekly rates of white women in five chief womanemploying manufacturing industries reported, by industry and State
RHODE ISLAND
—
Industry i
Number of
women
with rates
and earn
ings re
ported
Median
earnings
Median
rate
Per cent
Per cent
by which
of women median of
reported
earnings
who
earned loss was below
that of
than rates
rates
Candy, ................................. .
Metal products................ ................
Taper and paper products..............
Shoes......................................
418
215
$18. 40
11.98
$18„42
11.98
26.6
54.4
0.1
.0
$9.09
13.42
14.10
8.67
9.28
$9.75
14.14
14.76
9.95
8.08
41.3
31.2
32.4
84.5
37.6
12.9
*14.9
182
262
$11.91
12.80
$12. 56
14.80
82
251
12.41
9.68
13.91
10.79
269
550
$10.01
17.61
$10. 77
18.29
93
190
13.50
15.83
13.61
15.93
152
$9. 62
$9.97
50.0
3.5
120
159
14.00
11.27
13.82
12. 29
20.8
40.9
2 1.3
8.3
$9.35
$9.95
60.9
6.0
KENTUCKY
Candy______________
Men’s clothing......................
Metal products.......................
Paper and paper products__________
Shoes.........
184
657
213
97
226
6 1
MISSOURI
Candy..... .................... ..................
Men’s clothing...........................
Metal products_________
Paper and paper products.........................
Shoes_____ __________
5.2
56.1
OHIO
Candy.....................................
Men’s clothing.....................
Metal products................................
Paper and paper products_________
Shoes________________
7.1
33.3
.8
NEW JERSEY
Candy..............................
Men’s clothing.................. ...............
Metal products........... .........
Paper and paper products........... ..........
Shoes___ _____________
TENNESSEE
Candy...................................
Men’s clothing................ ............
Metal products_____
Paper and paper products________
Shoes............................
279
* Only groups with more than 50 women included.
2 In this case the median of the earnings was above that of the rates.
In every State in which three or more of these industries existed,
the median rate for candy makers was below that for women in paper
mills, that in paper below that in men’s clothing, and that in metal
higher than in any other of these chief industries. The lowest
median rate in men’s clothing and in metal was above the highest in
candy and in paper. The relative position of the median rate in
70
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
shoe factories fluctuated. In the three States in which shoes are
reported, the median is below that for any other of these industries
in two States and above those for paper and candy in one State.
The degree to which the median of earnings differed from that of
rates showed the widest range in shoe manufacturing, and a lesser
range in each of the other industries in this order: Paper, men’s
clothing, metal, and candy. The differences were as follows:
Per cent by which
median of earn
ings was below
(—) or above (-f)
that of rates
Industry
Men’s clothing--------------------
Per cent by which
median of earn
ings was below
(—) or above(+)
that of rates
Industry
+1. 3 to -4.5
-3.5 to -7.1
-f 14.9 to “10. 3
-.Oto -12. 9
—3. 7 to —13. 5
From the foregoing it appears that candy and metal showed a
considerable similarity among the States in the degree of variation
of earnings from rates, although the fall in earnings tended to be
greater in candy than in metal. In the three other industries the
differences were much greater, in shoe factories greatest of all. If
the per cent of the fall of earnings below rates be considered in con
junction with the proportions of women who earned less than their
rates, it will be found that even where earnings fell below rates to a
comparatively small degree, very considerable proportions of women
had suffered some loss of earnings.
<
The accompanying chart gives a graphic representation of the rela
tive extent to which median earnings deviated from rates in each of
the five industries discussed in the foregoing and in cotton.
_
While the candy industry had median rates lower than those in
any other of the five industries discussed, these ranged from $9.75
to $12.56, and the median rates in cotton manufacturing in five
States from which it was reported were still lower, ranging only
from $8.67 to $11.93. The proportion of the women in cotton mills
who earned less than their rates ranged from 16.5 to 74.5 per cent.
In one State it was the highest in any of the cases discussed, and. in
another State greater than in any industry but paper. The variation
in medians ranged from earnings 1.2 per cent above rates in Georgia
to earnings 17.4 per cent below rates in South Carolina, a greater
range of difference than in any of the other industries discussed
except shoes. The data for the cotton industry are as follows:
State
Number
of
women
Per cent
of the
women
reported
who earned
less than
their rates
340
677
200
1, 018
188
i In this case the median of the earnings was above that of the rates.
53.5
31.5
74. 5
65.0
16.5
Median
of the
rates
$8. 75
11.93
8.67
10.79
10.99
Per cent
by which
median of
the earnings
was below
that of
the rates
10.2
i 1.2
13.7
17.4
.4
7
WOMEN IN SIX MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES1
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71
'The industries included ore those in which both rate s and earnings were reported for over 6oo won
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EARNINGS OF W HITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
RELATION OF MEDIAN EARNINGS TO MEDIAN RATES
72
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
In three of the five,,States from which cotton was reported, the
median of earnings fell more than 10 per cent below that of rates.
In four out of five States the median rate for cotton workers was
below that of all women in manufacturing in the State, and in most
cases these medians for all manufacturing were lower than the medians
in other States. It was usual to find a few persons in this industry
receiving a bonus—more than one-fourth of those in cotton mills
in Georgia received a bonus and earned more than their rates, but
many of the pay rolls copied in Georgia were for a period that may
be considered to represent better industrial conditions than was the
case when some of the other cotton States were surveyed. Those
receiving a bonus usually were very few, and the amounts received
did not raise the general level of the earnings of the large groups in
the industry to a point where they could compare favorably with
payments to women in other industries.
In addition to those discussed in the foregoing, there were three
industries—hosiery and knit goods, rubber, and tobacco—in which
more than 500 women were reported, but in each of these over 70 per
cent of the women were in but one State, so that a comparison of rates
and earnings may be made in that State only. The relation of earn
ings to rates in these industries was as follows:
Women
Industry and State
_____________________ .
Hosiery and knit goods—Tennessee. _
Rubber—Rhode Island._____ _____ _____________
Per cent of
all for
whom earn
ings and
Number rates were
reported
in the
industry
628
631
490
72.4
99.8
79.9
Per cent by
which
median of
the earn
ings was
below that
of the rates
6.2
2.7
6.5
An analysis of the rates in these industries in comparison with those
discussed for six other chief industries reported, in States in which
cotton and one or more of the others existed, shows that the median
rate for knit-goods workers in Tennessee was above that for the women
in cotton and candy making, and earnings fell below- rates in about the
same degree as in candy, somewhat more than in cotton within this
State. Women in the rubber industry in Rhode Island had a median
rate considerably above that in paper, below that in metal, and the
earnings fell somewhat farther below rates than those in either of the
other industries. The median rate of women in the tobacco industry
in Kentucky was above those in candy, paper, and shoes, below- that
in men's clothing and in metal. Median earnings did not fall so far
below- the rate in tobacco as in candy or paper, but were farther below
than in metal, men’s clothing, or shoes.
In the industries with over 500 women reported, there were seven
cases in the States having more than 80 women in such industries in
which the median of earnings fell below that of rates by more than 10
per cent. Three of these were in cotton, two in paper, and one each in
men’s clothing and shoes. The greatest fall was that of 17.4 per cent
for women in South Carolina cotton mills. Three of these cases
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
73
occurred in States studied during depression, three in Missouri, studied
before full industrial recovery, and only one in a State surveyed in a
normal period.
In the entire range of those manufacturing industries in which more
than 80 women were reported from one of the 9 industrially important
States, the median of earnings rose above that of rates in only three
instances. It did so to a small degree among metal workers in New
Jersey and among women in cotton mills in Georgia. In only one case
was the difference as great as 2 per cent—that of shoes in Kentucky.
Although the study of this State was made in a period of depression,
the workers in shoe factories had a median of earnings 14.9 per cent
above that of their rates, due largely to a production bonus received
by nearly one-half of the women included. Even under these cir
cumstances, over 40 per cent of the women reported earned under $10.
In Missouri and in Ohio, median earnings in this industry fell below
median rates by 10.3 and 0.6 per cent, respectively. In Missouri
nearly one-half and in Ohio nearly one-third of the women receiving
a bonus in shoe factories earned more than their rates; less than 30 per
cent and less than 20 per cent, respectively, of the women so employed
earned under $10.
From the data available in regard to the payment of a bonus in the
manufacturing industries it appears that in Kentucky, Missouri, New
Jersey, and Ohio more than one-half of the women receiving a bonus
earned less than their rates, and a majority of those reported as not
receiving a bonus earned the same as their rates. In Alabama, Rhode
Island, South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee over one-half of those
receiving a bonus earned more than the rate, and in the first three of
these over one-half reported as not receiving a bonus earned less than
the rate. The payment of a bonus ordinarily raised earnings for only
a small proportion of the women in an industry or a State, and there
fore it can not be considered a means of raising the general level of the
earnings of the women in an industry, aside from any effects upon their
physical powers that the system might or might not have if it induced
greatly increased speed.
Summary.
In every State median earnings fell below median rates, the extent
of such decline ranging from 16.2 and 13.8 per cent in South Carolina
and Mississippi—two States with low median rates—to 1.2, 4.6, and
4.9 per cent in Georgia, Ohio, and New Jersey, States having compara
tively high rates. From 32.7 to 70.2 per cent of the women reported
earned less than their rates.
Earnings showed a tendency to fall farther below rates in States
studied during industrial depression than in those studied in normal
times; they showed a tendency to fall farther below rates in States
having comparatively few women in manufacturing than in those that
were surveyed in similar periods of normal business activity and that
had many women so employed. 28 ,
In six chief industries for which the rates and earnings of women
were reported from different States in numbers adequate for com
parison, the median rates were low in cotton, candy, and paper, higher
in men’s clothing, highest of all in metal, and irregular in shoes. The
extent to which the median of earnings differed from that of rates was
28 See footnote, p. 45.
74
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
greatest in shoes, cotton, and paper, less in men’s clothing, and least
in metal and candy. Even in most of the cases in which earnings fell
comparatively little below rates, very considerable proportions of
women had suffered some loss of earnings.
Earnings fell more than 10 per cent below rates in cotton in three
States, in paper in two States, and in one case each in men’s clothing
and shoes. Most of these instances were in States studied during
depression or before industrial x-ecovery. In only three cases did
earnings exceed rates, in only one of these by as much as 2 per cent,
and in that case the reason was that a production bonus was paid to
nearly one-half of the women in the industry, and despite this fact a
large proportion earned less than $10.
The frequency with which earnings fell below rates and the degree
to which this was the case give evidence that there are large propor
tions of the women engaged in manufacturing who do not receive the
best payments that are normally current, whatever the period of study
and however high or low the rate may be. The payment of a bonus
provides no general remedy for this, since it affects only small groups
of women and does not raise the level of the earnings of large numbers.
Further, it is in precisely those industries in which a very low rate of
pay is fixed that earnings appear most likely to fall far below this rate.
EARNINGS AND AGE 29
In a study of the earnings of women it is of considerable interest to
know something in regard to the variation of payments with age.
How old are the women in the largest groups in manufacturing?
How many of them are, for example, under 25? At what ages do
the highest earnings usually come, and what proportions of the women
are of these ages? At what ages are women most likely to be faced
with a decline in earning power, and what proportions of the women
at work are beyond the age at which highest earnings ordinarily are
received?
Earnings in relation to age have been assembled for 39,141 women
in manufacturing industries in 11 States. Table XIII in the appendix
gives the age distribution of the women reported in each State and
the per cent by which the median earnings of the various age groups
differed from the median of the youngest group of women reported in
the State.
Earnings and age of women in the various States.
In every State but one the largest group of women—from 20.5 to
29.7 per cent—were 20 and under 25 years of age. In every State but
two more than one-half the women, and in the two exceptions prac
tically one-half, were under 25; in three States more than 60 per cent
were so reported. The age group second in size was 30 and under 40
in five States, 18 and under 20 in four, and 16 and under 18 in two.
In six States the highest median of earnings was that of women of
30 and under 40 years, but in four States women of 25 and under 30
and in one State of 20 and under 25 had the highest median. The
29 It must be borne in mind that the wage figures quoted are the medians of groups. To say, for example,
that the maximum was $19.71, received by women of 30 and under 40 years, does not mean that no younger
woman earned that much, nor does it mean that $19.71 was the highest amount paid to any woman, nor
that all women 30 and under 40 years of age were paid $19.71. It means only that the process followed—
the classifying by age of the women reporting this information, and the computing of the median of the
earnings for each age group—showed the highest median for any group to be $19.71 for that of women 30
and under 40 years of age.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
75
groups of women having the highest medians formed from 13 to 19
per cent of all reported.
In every State but one, each age period showed an increase in earn
ings over the period preceding until that having the highest earnings
was reached. In the one exceptional State, women of 20 and under
25 had a median below that of girls of 18 and under 20. For women
beyond the age of highest earnings there was, almost without excep
tion, a decline with each age group in the median amount.
In each of five States—Kentucky, Missouri, New Jersey, Ohio, and
Tennessee—women in 10 or more industries were reported in the
various age groups in considerable numbers, and in these five States
taken together 58 such industrial cases were reported. The women
having the highest median were 20 and under 25 in 12 cases, 25 and
under 30 in 16 cases, and 30 and under 40 in 24 cases—together com
prising nine-tenths of the 58 cases as having the peak of their earnings
before 40 years of age.
That the age of 40 should be that at which earnings begin to decline
in so many cases, and even the youthful age of 30 or of 25 in a number
of others, suggests a situation calculated to bring serious social conse
quences in its train. If the individual’s earnings—often scarcely ade
quate at their highest to support her at a decent American standard—are to present so early a decline, how is it possible for her to provide
for her future, for an “old age” that certainly is likely to be a long one
if it must be measured by a decline in earnings beginning at the age of
30 or 40? An investigation covering 102,467 wage-earning women in
the years 1911 to 1913 showed that the average span of their lives was
51.1 years, and that about 49 per cent lived to 55 or over, 28.4 per
cent to 65 or more.30 On this basis a woman in industry whose earn
ings begin to decline when she is 40 has nearly 5 chances in 10 of
having to live on a decreased budget for 15 years or more and nearly
3 chances in 10 of living so for 25 years or longer. Figures from the
United States census would accord her almost 1 chance in 6 of such
subsistence for 35 years or more.31 Under these conditions it would
seem all the more important that an adequate wage be accorded dur
ing the years of best industrial productivity.
And there is an additional question involved. Have the necessities
of industrial speed or the hardships of inadequate subsistence really
played upon her physique to so disastrous a degree that she is unable
to retain efficiency while she is yet a young woman, or is the decrease
in payment based largely upon an unsupported idea that her ability
may be likely to decline after this period of her life? Effective answers
to questions such as these are exceedingly important to the develop
ment of industry, since its growth can scarcely be continuous unless
based upon a soundly constituted society. Thus far, precise data as
to the effect of age upon susceptibility to fatigue, motor coordination,
and other points that go to make up the efficiency of the woman
worker are not available.
The chart on page 76 shows for all manufacturing the proportion of
the women in each age gioup who received $15 or over. The largest
proportion who had earnings in these higher ranges were at the age
30 Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. Occupational Mortality, 1911-1913. Louis I. Dublin. Tab. 45,
p. 09.
31 U. S. Bureau of the Census. Mortality Statistics, 1919. Table 4, p. 156. Of 515,617 females whose
age at death was reported, 79,783 (15.5 per cent) died at the age of .75 or thereafter.
76
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
of 25 and under 30, and nearly as many at 30 and under 40 had such
earnings—nearly half the women in each of these groups. Women
of 20 and under 25 came next in large proportion having higher
earnings, then those 40 and under 50. More of those 18 and under
PER CENT OF THE WOMEN OF SPECIFIED AGES WHO
EARNED $15 OR MORE
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN II STATES
Number
of women
All
Per cent earning
15 dollars or ovef
ages
16, UNDER 18
3,7 52
18, UNDER 20
6,877
2.0, UNDER 25
10,190
25, UNDER 30
5,636
30, UNDER 40
7,169
40, UNDER 50
3,700
50, UNDER 60
1,479
60 ANDOVER
454
U S. Dept of Labor
Women’s Bureau
20 than of those 50 and under 60 earned $15 or over. The smallest
group having such earnings was 16 and under 18, the next 60 years
old or more. The data shown in the chart reinforce those shown by
the median earnings to the effect that declines came after the 40-year
period and in some States there was a slight decline after 30 years.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
77
Earnings and age in the chief woman-employing industries reported.
In Table 14 the advances or declines in earnings in the different age
groups in five manufacturing industries having each more than 3,000
women reported are shown for the States in which this information
was available for more than 100 women.
Table
14.—Variation of earnings with age in five chief woman-employing manu
facturing industries reported, by Stale.—white women
Median
of earn
ings of
women
at earliest
age re
ported 1
Industry and State
Cotton goods:
Alabama...........................
Georgia_________________ __
Mississippi_________________
New Jersey
South Carolina___ ___ ______
Tennessee_____ ________
Hosiery and knit goods:
Alabama
New Jersey________________
Ohio i
South Carolina
Tennessee....................................
Metal products:
Kentucky___ ____ ___ ____
New Jersey _______________
Ohio i
Rhode Island_____ _________
Electrical appliances:
New Jersey_____________ ...
Ohio 1 ... _
Cigars:
Delaware...
______
Kentucky ______________
Ohio A. . _ ___
South Carolina
__
._
Per cent by which median earnings of women at specified
ages rose above median of women at earliest age reported
18 and 20 and 25 and 30 and 40 and 50 and 60 years
under under under under under under
and
20 years 25 years 30 years 40 years 50 years 60 years over
$7. 03
9. 50
7.10
12.67
8. 58
7. 70
17.5
18.2
14.6
6.6
11.8
21.6
25.5
27.9
14.6
42.9
19.9
50.8
32.6
57.9
23.8
53.0
33.6
57.1
49.4
56.3
34.9
51.3
39.2
78.1
33.6
41.2
12.7
22.3
19.3
57.5
5.50
13. 27
12. 21
6. 92
8.13
23.1
23.0
33.8
38.6
14.3
37.3
48.6
61.8
33.9
16.7
30.1
57.7
42.4
33.2
14.7
18.5
58.4
15.1
9.3
3.0
1.2
45.6
21.2
3 9.9
9. 67
11.44
13. 38
13. 60
33.6
14.0
59.8
27.4
11.9
39.7
70.6
31.9
21.5
43.4
51.3
33.7
11.8
38.8
26.7
7.0
0
0
32.8
15.5
38. 6
26.3
15.8
13.3
39.6
30. 1
19.9
16. 2
39. 6
31.3
19.4
19. 2
0
(2)
(2)
12. 00
13. 38
14. 77
17.05
12. 57
9. 50
14. 00
14.12
10.20
6. 70
44.2
25.9
20.0
48.8
33.5
26.0
10.8
30. 7
37.3
63.1
46. 1
33. 2
20.0
60.6
63.1
55.3
36 5
16.4
52.0
w
8.4
25.8
(o
20.4
0
6.1
(0
7.8
30.6
«
«
29.3
9.8
o
w
26.3
16 4
10.1
0
«
0
29.9
28.1
35.3
21.2
60.8
7.8
(2)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(2)
0
32.6
19.9
5.4
(2)
0
0
0
0
0
(2)
3 11.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
(2)
(a)
0
0
0
0
(2)
0
1 The earliest age reported was 16 and under 18 in all States but Ohio, where it was 18 and under 20.
2 Median not computed, owing to the small number involved.
2 In this case the figure shows a decline from that received at 16 and under 18 years.
In cotton factories women of 20 and under 25 formed the largest
group in every State but Georgia, where more of those reported were
30 and under 40 years old. In every State from about 45 to over 60
per cent were under 25. In Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina,
and Tennessee the highest earnings went to women of 30 and under
40 years of age; in Georgia and New Jersey, to those of 25 and under
30. The median of earnings of each group showed some advance
over that of the preceding group until the highest earnings were
reached, except in Mississippi, where the median was the same for
women of 18 and under 20 and those of 20 and under 25. In Georgia
women of 60 and over earned less than girls of 16 and under 18. In
one State nearly 40 per cent of the women for whom median earnings
were computed were older than the group having the highest median.
In knit goods the largest group of women were 20 and under 25 in
every State but South Carolina, where they were 30 and under 40.
In two of the five States in which over ICO women were reported, over
78
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
60 per cent of the women were under 25, and more women so young
were found in knit goods than in cotton mills in two of the four States
in which both industries were reported. Earnings were highest for
women of 20 and under 25 in two States, of 25 and under 30 in two,
and of 30 and under 40 in one. The highest earnings went to younger
women in knit goods than in cotton mills in every State but Tennessee,
in which they went to women in the same age group in the two
industries. In every case increase in earnings in the increasing age
groups was steady until the highest amount was reached. In every
State the number who were 60 or over was too small for the computa
tion of a median. In Ohio the group of women of 50 and under 60
had median earnings below those of 18 and under 20. In every State
but one, from about one-fifth to one-half of the women with median
earnings reported were older than the group that had the highest
median.
In the metal-products and the electrical-appliance industries women
of 20 and under 25 formed the largest groups except in metal in Rhode
Island, where those of 25 and under 30 prevailed. The electricalappliance industry had the largest proportion of women under 25—
over 60 per cent in each State. The highest earnings in metal went
to women of 25 and under 30 in every State but New Jersey, where
they were received by women of 30 and under 40. In electrical
appliances the highest median was that for women of 30 and under
40 in two States, for those of 25 and under 30 in one, and in Missouri
the median was the same for these two age groups. In metal prod
ucts, women for whom median earnings were reported and who were
older than the group having the highest median formed over 20 per
cent in two of four States—in electrical-appliance factories in one of
these they were over 30 per cent; they formed over 20 per cent in
one of two States and only about 4 per cent in the other.
In cigar factories over half the women reported in each State were
under 25—in two States the proportion was over three-fourths.
Women of 30 and under 40 had the highest median in two States,
those of 25 and under 30 in two States, and in Delaware the median
was the same for these two age groups. In Tennessee younger
women—those of 20 and under 25 years—had the highest median.
In two States about 5 per cent of the women were beyond the age of
the highest median; in two others the proportion rose above 20 per
cent—in one of these above 30 per cent.
The data in regard to earnings and age in the industries discussed
in the foregoing may be summarized as follows:
Industry
Cotton goods
Number
of States
reported
6
Hosiery and knit goods_
_
5
Cigars
4
4
6
Per cent of
Per cent of
women
women in
Age group having highest median earn group hav older than
the group
ings reported in the most States
having
ing highest
median
highest
median
30 and under 40 in 4 States; 25 and under 14.8 to 20.2
30 in 2 States.
25 and under 30 in 2 States; 20 and under 13.3 to 28.1
25 in 2 States.
15. 3 to 23. 7
7. 4 to 14.8
30 and under 40 in 3 States; 1 25 and 8. 2 to 26.4
under 30 in 3 States. 1
1 In one of these, women of 25 and under 30 had the same median as those of 30 and under 40.
9.5 to 39.1
10.8 to 50.3
10. 5 to 37.1
0.0 to 21.0
0.0 to 32. 4
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
79
In industries other than those discussed up to this point, women of
20 and under 25 most often formed the chief group in a State, those of
30 and under 40 often formed the group second in size. In all but
a few States there was marked tendency to uniformity in this respect
and the ages of 20 and under 25 prevailed in more than half of the
industries. The ages of 20 and under 25 prevailed in the following
industries in every State in which they were found: Boxes, furniture,
drugs and chemicals, and rubber; and in most States in glass, paper
and paper products, and shoes. Older women—those of 30 and under
40—formed the largest group in tobacco in every State.
There were some irregularities, but in most cases there was a pro
gression in payments from the earlier years to the age of highest earn
ings, although the increase was not in proportion to the advance in age.
The women who had the highest earnings usually were older than
those forming the largest group in an industry, but in no State was
the age of highest receipts uniform in every industry, and only in one
industry was it uniform in every State—that of shoe manufacture,
where it was 30 and under 40 in every case. The women whose group
most frequently had the highest median were 30 and under 40 or 25
and under 30. Women 40 and under 50 had the highest earnings in
a very few cases, as follows: In women’s clothing in Ohio, in paper and
paper products in New Jersey, and in drugs and chemicals and tobacco
in Tennessee.
Summary.
Earnings in relation to age were ascertained for 39,141 women in
manufacturing industries in 11 States. In every State but one the
largest group of women—from 20.5 to 29.7 per cent—were 20 and
under 25 years old. In every State but two more than half the women,
and in the two exceptions practically half, were under 25. The group
of women with the highest median usually was an older group than
that containing the largest number of women—it was 30 and under
40 or 25 and under 30 in every State but one. In practically every
case this group contained from 12 to 19 per cent of the women
reported.
In each of five States considerable numbers of women were reported
in various age groups in 10 or more industries. In these industries
the highest median of earnings was that of women 20 and under 25
in 12 cases, of those 25 and under 30 in 16 cases, and of those of 30
and under 40 in 24 cases.
This appears very young when it is considered that for women be
yond these ages earnings declined. In five States women of 60 and
over had a median below that of girls of 16 and under 18. In every
State but one, each group up to and including that of highest earnings
showed an increase over the preceding period, but this was not in
proportion to the increase in age. Groups of women beyond the age
having the highest median contained over 30 per cent of the women
reported in four States, between 20 and 30 per cent in two, between
10 and 20 per cent in four, and less than 10 per cent in the remaining
State.
Data in regard to the proportions of the women reported who earned
$15 or more reinforced the fact brought out from a consideration of
the medians—a decline in the proportions having these earnings began
in some cases after the age of 30 and was general and very marked
beyond 40.
80
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
A woman in industry whose earnings began to decline at 40 years
of age would stand almost 5 chances in 10 of having to live for 15
years or more, and nearly 3 chances in 10 of having to live for 25
years or more, on such a decreased budget, according to mortality
studies of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. Census figures would
give her about 1 chance in 6 of living for 35 years or longer.
The age of the women having the highest median in cotton textiles
was 30 and under 40 in most States; it was less in knit goods. In
metal it was 25 and under 30 in all but one State, in electrical appli
ances 30 and under 40 in two out of three States, and in cigars it was
irregular. Women with median earnings reported who were older
than the group having the highest median formed over 30 per cent of
those in hosiery and knit goods in three out of five States, over 20
per cent in metal in two out of four; they formed nearly 20 per cent—
in some cases more than that—in cotton in three out of six States;
they formed over 20 per cent in cigars in two States, but less than 10
per cent in two others; and they formed only 5 per cent or less in
electrical appliances in two out of three States.
EARNINGS AND EXPERIENCE
™
As the worker’s experience in an industry increases, the value of
her added skill ordinarily should be reflected in advancing earnings,
and this usually was found to be the case in the present study.* The
33
terms of advance necessarily depend in a large measure upon the type
or the succession of occupations. Since the data used were obtained
in respect to the industries as a whole, the factor of occupation must
be disregarded or treated as a constant in considering the general
effect of experience upon earnings.
Women who had been in the trade 10 years or longer.
Earnings in relation to experience were reported for 35,670 women
in manufacturing in 11 States. These data give considerable evidence
of the stability of the woman worker. In each of 4 States more than
20 per cent of all the women reported had been in the trade 10 years
or longer, and in each of the other 7 States from 9.8 to 19.8 per cent
had worked for so long. In every State but 1 more than 30 per cent,
and in 2 States over 50 per cent, had worked 5 years or longer.
In cotton mills over 20 per cent of all the women in 5 of the 6
States reported had been in the trade for 10 years or longer; in 4
States, over 30 per cent. In another group of industries known to
have been employers of women for a long period-—the clothing
trades—over 20 per cent had been in the trade 10 years or more in
4 of the 6 States reporting. In South Carolina and New Jersey a
larger proportion of women in knit goods than in cotton had been
employed for 10 years or longer, but in Alabama and Tennessee
cotton had the larger proportion of long-time workers. In New
Jersey the cigar industry had a larger proportion of women who had
worked 10 years or over than had cotton mills, but in South Carolina
and Tennessee cotton had a larger per cent than cigars. In 2 of the 3
82 Certain qualifications must be borne in mind in reading this section. See footnote 29, p. 74.
33 The rubber industry in New Jersey was a striking exception. The highest median, nearly one-third
above the median at less than a year's experience, was earned by the group of women who had had between
one and two years’ experience, while those women who had continued the work for three or more years
received considerably less.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
81
States reporting shoe factories, over 17 per cent of the workers had
been so employed for 10 years or more.
Experience group having maximum earnings.
The longest period of experience required to reach the maximum
earnings in any one manufacturing industry, as far as such maximum
may be expressed by the median for a group, was 10 and under 15
years in Delaware and Rhode Island; in every other State it was 15
years and over. _ The industries in which the group of women with
the highest median had had the most experience were cotton in 5
States, tobacco or cigars in 4 States, men’s clothing in 2, shoes in 2,
paper in 2, and candy, overalls, metal, shirts, printing, and knit goods
in 1 State each.
The shortest period of experience at which the maximum median
was received in any manufacturing industry was 1 and under 2 years
in Georgia,_ Kentucky, New Jersey, and Tennessee; 2 and under 3
years in Ohio; 3 and under 4 years'in Delaware; 5 and under 10 years
m Alabama, Missouri, and Rhode Island; and 10 and under 15 years
in South Carolina. The only Mississippi group large enough for the
computation of a median was that of 15 years and over. Industries
in which the groups of workers with the highest median had been
employed less than 5 years were candy in two States and the following
in one State each: Bakery products, shirts, overalls, drugs, glass,
printing, cordage, boxes and crates, paper, rubber, cigars, and tobacco.
The chart on page 82 correlates with experience the proportions of
the women in manufacturing who earned $15 or more. It is an en
couraging situation that with added years of experience there was a
continuous progression in earnings in these higher ranges until the
period of 10 and under 15 years was reached. However, such ad
vance appears to have no consistent relation to the length of experi
ence. The greatest advance came in the earlier years. For those
who had 1 and under 2 years of experience the proportion earning
$15 or over was more than half as high again as for those with less
than a year of experience, which is to be expected, since beginners
would be the least capable. For the next group the proportion rose
by 28 per cent over that preceding, but the proportion of those in
the trade 5 and under 10 years who earned $15 or more was only 2.5
per cent higher than the corresponding group with experience of 4
and under 5 years. More than half those with 10 and under 15 years’
experience earned $15 or over, but for those in the trade 15 years or
longer the proportion having such earnings showed a decline.
Earnings of full-time workers during the first year.
To the girl entering industry the unaccustomed wage is likely to
appear attractive. Usually she does not stop to ask, and would have
little opportunity to discover, the prospects of an early or a delayed
advance, a high or a low proportional increase, a large or a small
maximum. The answers to such questions would vary with the
industry and would be found to differ with the particular occupation
or the available succession of occupations, if these factors could be
determined.
In the present study, figures showing the earnings and experience
of 14,219 full-time workers have been assembled. The range of
medians during the first year and the experience group in which the
highest earnings were reached are shown in Table 15 for those indus-
82
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
PER CENT OF THE WOMEN WITH YEARS IN INDUSTRY
SPECIFIED WHO EARNED $15 OR MORE
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN II STATES
Number
Years
All
of women
15,783
years
UNDER 1,
I,
UNDER
2
2,
UNDER
3
3, UNDER
4
4, UNDER
5
5,
UNDER
10
10, UNDER
4,33 6
15
15 AND OVER
U. S. Dept, of Labor
Women’i Bureau
Per cent earnir^
15 dollars or over
83
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
tries in which the number of women reported in a State was sufficient
to warrant inclusion of the case.
Table 15.—Earnings of full-time workers with experience of less than a year and
experience group that had maximum earnings—white women
Experience group that had
maximum earnings
All cases
Under 1 year___ ______ ...
4 and under 4 years. _ _ _ _
5 and under 5 years_____ _ _
1 and under 10 years_________
10 and under 15 years________
15 years and over.. _____
Number
of cases
reported
Cases of industries in which the median for women who had
worked less than a year was—
$8 and
$9 and
Under $8 under $9 under $10 $10 and $12 and $14 and
under $12 under $14
over
43
2
i1
6
5
15
6
10
3
7
1
5
13
12
6
1
2
1
1
1
1
1 Median earnings for under 1 year were 12 cents higher than median earnings for 15 years and over.
In one-half of the cases in which the median for women who had
worked less than a year indicated a high entrance rate, those who had
the maximum median had worked 10 years or more. While there
seemed to be some general tendency for the maximum to be gained
more quickly where initial amounts were smaller, the maximum pay
ments in these cases were likely to be lower than in other industries.
Maximum earnings of full-time workers.
The character of early receipts appeared to have little bearing on the
amount of the highest figures that could be reached. Table 16 shows
the relation of maximum earnings to the first-year median in the same
industries. This table indicates that the low or high entrance rate
did not necessarily determine whether the maximum earnings would
be high or low, since this depended rather upon such factors as length
of service, the type of organization and standards of payment within
the industry, or the particular occupation. In general, however,
where the entrance was very low the maximum tended to be low; and
in the two cases included in which the early median was under $8 the
maximum was less than $13. In those in which the entrance was at
the highest the maximum also was in the higher ranges.
Table 16.—Maximum earnings of full-time workers, by earnings during the first
year—white women
Maximum earnings
All cases.._____ ______
Under $13______
$13 and under $15___
$15 and under $17___
$17 and under $20. _ _
$20 and over___
Number
of cases
reported
Cases of industries in which the median for women who had
worked less than a year was—
Under
$8
$8 and
$9 and
$10 and $12 and $14 and
under $9 under $10 under $12 under $14
over
43
2
3
6
10
11
6
10
2
1
1
7
3
1
13
12
6
3
---- 1
4
4
84
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Experience group having maximum earnings—full-time workers.
As measured by medians, the workers in nearly two-fifths of the 43
industrial cases just referred to had worked 10 years or more before
the maximum earnings had been reached; in about one-fourth of
these cases the maximum was reached in less than 5 years and in over
one-third of the cases in 5 and under 10 years.
Table 17 shows the years of experience of the groups of full-time
workers who had the highest earnings. Where the maximum tended
to be in the higher ranges it was the more often received by women
who had had long experience. In cases in which the maximum was
$17 or over it was received after 10 years or more of experience in just
half the cases. Where the maximum was under $15, as much as
10 years’ experience was reported in only one-fourth of the industries.
Table
17.— Years of experience of women with the highest earnings, by amount of
such earnings
Experience
Number
of cases
reported
Cases of incfcustries in which the maximum earnings
were—
Under
$13
$13 and $15 and $17 and $20 and
under $15 under $17 under $20 over
All cases......................... .....................
43
6
10
11
6
10
Under 5 years.......... ........ ...................... ......
5 and under 10 years.............
......... ......
11
15
6
11
2
2
1
1
4
4
2
4
1
4
1
2
1
2
2
3
3
2
15 years and over...................... ...................
2
Earnings and experience in the chief woman-employing industries
reported.
Table 18 shows the per cent increase of the maximum earnings over
those at less than one year and the amount of experience of the groups
that had reached the maximum, in the six chief woman-employing
manufacturing industries reported. The maximum was that for
women who had worked 15 years or more in three of the five cases in
cotton and in two of the three in shoes. It was for those having 4
and under 5 years’ experience in two of the three cases in electrical
appliances and for a different period in each State reported in cigars,
metal products, and knit goods. As in the other cases, only full-time
workers are included.
In cotton and shoe factories women who had worked for less than a
year ordinarily had low medians; the group having maximum earnings
in these industries had worked for a considerable period, but the pro
portion of increase also was considerable. Except for one State the
maximum medians in cotton were below those in other industries, and
the maximum in shoes was comparatively high in two of the three
States reported. The early median in electrical appliances usually was
fairly high, that in metal less so. The proportion of increase was
small in electrical appliances, but the maximum was high and was
that for women who had worked a comparatively short time; in metal
products the maximum was fairly high but took much longer to reach.
Conditions in knit goods and cigars were irregular; there were such
variations among the different States—in first earnings, in maximum
earnings, in proportion of increase, and in experience required to reach
EARNINGS OP WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
85
the maximum—that no general statement can be made in respect to
these industries.
Table 18.—Increase in earnings with increased experience, full-time workers in six
chief woman-employing manufacturing industries, by State—white women
Median of the earnings
of women having—
Industry and State
Cotton goods:
Alabama_______
_________ _______
Georgia L.............. ........ ...................
New Jersev...............................................
South Carolina..... ........................
Tennessee,. _______________ _______
Hosiery and knit goods:
Ohio_________________________
Tennessee............................ ......................
Cigars:
Delaware___________________
Kentucky............ ...............................
Ohio__________________ ____
Metal products:
Kew Jersey.................. ...................... ........
Ohio. . _____________
Electrical appliances:
New Jersey........ ..................................
Ohio__
..
Rhode Island__________ _______
Shoes:
Kentucky______ _______________
Missouri........................................
Ohio............................... .........
Per cent
increase of Years of experience
maximum
of women ha ving
over earli
Less than
maximum
1 year’s ex Maximum est median
reported
perience
$7.80
9.00
12. 50
9.00
9.63
$12. 63
15.32
20.70
14.07
15.83
61.9
70.2
65.6
56.3
64.4
15 and over.
Do.
12. 50
9.22
16.00
14. 67
28.0
59.1
5 and under 10.
15 and over.
9. 71
11.00
13. 40
21.00
13.88
21.09
116.3
26.2
57.4
5 and under 10.
12. 68
15.48
15. 42
19.25
21.6
24.4
13.92
16.95
17.95
18.00
20. 50
23. 00
29.3
20.9
28.1
8. 66
11.18
12. 50
14. 25
19.00
21.20
64.5
69.9
69.6
10 and under 15.
Do.
5 and under 10.
Do.
•---------------------------------------- __________
1 Exclusive of Atlanta.
In no case in knit-goods or metal plants in the States under con
sideration had as many as 5 per cent of the full-time workers had
experience longer than that of the group with the maximum median.
Fewer than 10 per cent in cigars in any State exceeded the experience
of the group with the highest earnings. In electrical appliances,
cotton, and shoes there were a few cases in which considerable propor
tions of the women had worked longer than such group. These were
as follows:
Electrical appliances (3 States reported):
Per cent
New Jersey 20. 7
Ohio__________________________________
9. 6
Cotton (6 States reported):
Alabama 24. 3
Shoes (3 States reported):
Kentucky 19. 1
Summary.
Testimony to the stability of the woman worker is given in the fact
that more than 20 per cent of the women reported in each of four
States had been in the trade 10 years or longer, and that from almost
10 to almost 20 percent of those in each of seven other States had been
in the trade that length of time.
The proportions of all women reported who had received $15 or
over increased with experience until the period of 10 and under 15
years was reached, after which they showed a decline.
. As measured by medians in the various industries and States, the
highest earnings of full-time workers were reached after 10 years or
86
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
more of experience in nearly two-fifths of the cases, and in 5 and under
10 years in over one-third of the cases.
In general, the data here available may be taken to indicate that
the young woman who enters industry spends considerable time at
work before her maximum earnings are reached. This conforms to
the findings on age and earnings. If the maximum is a high one, she
is reasonably sure not to reach it in a short period. If she receives a
high initial payment, the maximum probably will not be reached
early, the proportion of increase in her earnings may or may not be so
great as it would if she entered at a lower rate, and she will be some
what more likely, although by no means certain, to reach a high
eventual figure. Her advance and her highest receipts will not be
determined entirely by the length of her service nor by the degree of
skill that she develops, but will depend in large measure upon the
standards within the particular industry she is entering and to some
extent upon the locality in which she is employed.
Of the chief woman-employing industries, in three out of five States
the highest median found in cotton mills was that of workers who had
been employed 15 years or longer. In shoe factories, in two States
out of three the period was 15 years or more. Women working 4 and
under 5 years earned the most in the making of electrical appliances
in two out of three States; and in cigars, metal, and knit goods the
highest median came at a different period in each State. Except in
a few instances, comparatively small proportions of the women in the
chief industries had had experience longer than that of the group
with the highest earnings.
EARNINGS AND NATIVITY
The women in the manufacturing industries whose nativity was
reported included 4,362 who were foreign bom. Most of these were
employed in the States of Missouri, New Jersey, Ohio, and Rhode
Island. The median of the week’s earnings in relation to the nativity
of the women in these four States is shown by industry in Table XIV
in the appendix.34 Though little weight can be attached to the
factor of nativity in such connection, the figures are discussed briefly
here.
_
In each State, the median of earnings of the foreign-bom is above
that of the native women. The differences are not great. The
figures may be summarized as follows:
Foreign-born
women
State
Median earnings
of—
cent
Number Pertotal
of
Native
white
women
7.7
23.5
17.1
27.0
$12.54
15.09
15. 51
18. 40
451
1, 542
1,931
317
Foreignborn
women
$13.50
16.12
15.66
18.65
34 Although not specified in each case in the text, the figures for native women used in this discussion
exclude negro women.
EARNINGS OP WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
87
Earnings of chief groups of foreign-born women in four States.
In Missouri, which had the smallest proportion of foreign-born
women (7.7 per cent), over one-fourth of those reported were from
Italy, and their median was below that of all foreign-bom women in
the State but above that of the native women. The largest group of
Italian women were in tobacco factories, where they formed about
40 per cent of the foreign bom reported in that industry. A few were
in paper and paper products and some were in men’s clothing. Both
in tobacco and clothing the median of their earnings was below that
of all foreign-born women in the industry, and in tobacco it was below
that of the native women.
Almost one-fourth (23.5 per cent) of the New Jersey women reported
were foreign bom. Of these, 19 per cent were from Italy and about
6 per cent were from Hungary. The latter were in cigar factories,
and their median was above that of all foreign-bom women in cigars,
nearly 20 per cent above that of native women in the same industry,
and still farther above that of the native women in all manufacturing
in the State. The Italians in manufacturing had a median below
that of native women and still farther below that of all foreign-born
women. They were found scattered among a number of industries,
more than 100 being in two branches of the textile industry, with
medians about the same as those of native women but, in cotton
goods, much below that of all foreign-born women.
In Ohio, the chief groups of foreign born W'ere from Hungary,
Austria, Poland, and Germany. Except for the women from Poland
the median for each group was above that of all foreign women and
above that of the native women—in the case of the women from
Austria nearly one-third above that of the native group, in the case of
the Germans nearly one-fourth above. The women from Poland
were in metal plants and had a median above that of all foreign bom
in the same industry, below that of the native bom. The largest
group of foreign bom in any one industry was that of the women from
Austria employed in rubber. They formed about one-fourth of the
foreign-bom women reported in this industry and had a median some
what above those of both foreign and native bom.
Rhode Island had the largest proportion of foreign-bom women—27
per cent. The chief groups in manufacturing were Portuguese in
rubber, Canadians in electrical appliances, and Italians in metal—
in each case only a small number of women. In electrical appliances
and in metal the foreign-bom women had a median above that of the
native bom. The Italians in metal and the Portuguese in rubber had
in each case a median below that of all foreign born in the industry.
31893°—31----- 1
"
88
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Earnings of foreign-born women in the chief woman-employing
industries in four States.
No foreign-bom women were reported in printing and publishing,
cordage, or yams and thread. In the four States under discussion,
industries or groups of industries employing considerable numbers
showed the following proportions of foreign-born women:
Industry or group
Textiles____________________
Rubber . ___________________
Metal products __________
Per cent
of women
who were
foreign born
26.6
24. 1
22.7
Industry or group
Per cent
of women
who were
foreign born
20.2
16.6
15.8
Among the foreign-born women in metal products, Italians pre
dominated in New Jersey and they had a median below that of all
foreign-born women but above that of all native-born women in the
industry. In Rhode Island, also, Italians predominated in this in
dustry, but the group was very small. In Ohio, women from Poland
formed the chief group in the metal trades, with a median above
that of all foreign-born women in the same industry but below that
of the native bom.
In textiles Italians predominated among the foreign-born women in
New Jersey, and they had medians below those of all foreign-born
women in these industries—in cotton considerably below. In Ohio,
women from Hungary formed the chief group in knit goods, and
the median of their earnings was above that of all foreign-born and
29 per cent above that of native workers.
In rubber the chief group of foreign-born women in Ohio was
formed by women of Austrian birth, that in Rhode Island by those
born in Portugal. In comparison with other groups in the industry
the former had high median earnings, the latter a low median.
In cigar making, women from. Hungary prevailed among the for
eign-born in New Jersey and Ohio, and the median of their earnings
was high in comparison with those in other groups. In tobacco,
Italians formed the chief group in Missouri and they had low earn
ings; women from Austria the chief group in Ohio, with high earnings.
In electrical appliances the chief groups of foreign-born women
were Italian in New Jersey, Canadian in Rhode Island, and German
and English in Ohio. In the two first cases these women had high
earnings in comparison with all foreign born in the industry and with
the native born.
In the clothing industries, women of German birth had the largest
numbers of the foreign bom in men’s clothing in Ohio, and they had
a lower median than that of all the foreign born or the native born in
that industry group. Women from Austria-Hungary prevailed in
men’s shirt making in Missouri, and they were comparatively well
paid. Italians formed the chief group in men’s clothing in Missouri,
and in women’s clothing in New Jersey, and the median of their earn
ings was in some cases low, in some cases high, in comparison with
other groups. Women from Austria-Hungary formed the chief group
of foreign-born in women’s clothing in Ohio, with a comparatively
high median of earnings.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
89
Summary.
Of the 4,362 foreign-born women reported, 4,241 were employed in
Missouri, New Jersey, Ohio, and Rhode Island. In each of these
States, the foreign-born women as a whole had median earnings
above those of native women. In New Jersey the chief groups of
foreign born were from Italy or Hungary; in "Ohio from Hungary,
Austria, Poland, or Germany; in Rhode Island from Portugal, Can
ada, or Italy; in Missouri from Italy. In New Jersey women from
Italy, in Ohio women from Poland, and in Rhode Island women from
Portugal and Italy had median earnings below those of the native
women; for all other groups the medians were above those of the
native born.
_ Women from Austria or Hungary formed a chief group of the for
eign bom in certain clothing industries in two States, in cigars in
two, and in rubber, glass, and textiles in one State each. Italians
formed a chief group in certain clothing industries in each of two
States, in paper in two States, in metal in two States, in several
textile industries in one State, and in one State each in electrical
appliances, glass, and tobacco. The countries of origin of chief
groups of foreign-born women in other industries were scattered, and
included Great Britain, Germany, Poland, and Portugal.
On the whole it may be said that where women from Austria or
Hungary formed the chief group in an industry or State they almost
always had a median above those both of all foreign-born and of
native women in the industry. Where Italians formed a chief group
in industries in the States studied, they usually had a median below
that of all foreign-born women in the industry and in more than onehalf the cases below that of the native women.
PART V.—WEEK’S EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN
GENERAL MERCANTILE, 5-AND-10-CENT STORES, AND
LAUNDRIES
EARNINGS OF ALL WOMEN
Considerable numbers of women were reported in the general mer
cantile, 5-and-10-cent, and laundry industries in every State. The
information in regard to 5-and-10-cent stores is given separately from
that concerning general mercantile establishments, since the former
vary materially from other stores in organization, character of service
rendered, type of worker, and amounts paid.
Stores and laundries are subject to business fluctuations to a some
what less degree than is manufacturing. They differ also in the fact
that their workers are nearly always employed on a time basis,1 and
usually it is possible to obtain fuller information in regard to timeworkers than to pieceworkers. The more widespread distribution, the
greater stability, the homogeneity of character in comparison with
the variety in mamifacturing industries, and the predominance of
one method of payment make it possible to give a somewhat more
complete picture of earnings in stores and laundries than can be
given of earnings in the manufacturing industries in the 13 States
studied.
Median earnings.
Table XV in the appendix shows for each State the numbers of
women studied who were in general mercantile establishments,
5-and-10-cent stores, and laundries, and compares the median
earnings of each of these groups with that of the women in manufactur
ing. As would be expected, the actual number of women studied in
stores and laundries usually was greater in the larger industrial
States than in the others, and the nonindustrial States (Arkansas and
Oklahoma) had more women in stores than in manufacturing. Mis
souri and Ohio show more women in general mercantile establish
ments than does any other State, while in laundries Ohio is first,
Oklahoma second, and Missouri third in this respect. Arkansas had
more women in general mercantile than in manufacturing establish
ments. Delaware had nearly one-half as many. Oklahoma had
more in each kind of store and in laundries than in manufacturing—
in general mercantile and in laundries, nearly three times as many.
As measured in every case by the median, the best earnings re
ceived in a State usually were in general mercantile establishments,
the median being above that for the combined manufacturing, in
dustries in every State but Delaware, Ohio, and Rhode Island.
The difference in the two medians was only a slight one in Ohio, and
the causes of the very high median in manufacturing in Rhode
Island have been discussed in earlier pages of this report.1 The
2
1A few pieceworkers were found in laundries in each of seven States. In only four of these was there a
number sufficiently large to warrant, the computation of a median of earnings. In the three cases where
the median for pieceworkers was higher than for timeworkers the median for pieceworkers ran more than
35 per cent above that for timeworkers.
2 See p. 26.
90
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN STORES AND LAUNDRIES
91
greatest differences in medians of women employed in general mer
cantile establishments and those in manufacturing were in two of the
three States in which manufacturing was lowest paid—South Car
olina and Mississippi. In these two States women in stores had
medians more than 60 per cent and almost 80 per cent, respectively,
above those of the women in manufactruing. New Jersey and
Oklahoma were the only States in which women in stores received
more than they did in South Carolina. In addition, payments were
high in the city of Atlanta, surveyed separately from the rest of the
State.
As might be expected, manufacturing, which includes such a
variety of establishments and of types of work, presented the greatest
range of differences in medians as among the different States, the
highest median in all manufacturing in any State being about 129
per cent above the lowest. Laundries came next in wide variation, the
difference being nearly 64 per cent, and general mercantile and
5-and-10-cent stores had differences of about 51 per cent and nearly 48
per cent, respectively, between the lowest and the highest median
found in any State.
Table
19.—Range in which was the median of earnings of all women reported in
the State, by type of industry—white women
States in which the median of earnings of all women reported was in range
specified in —
Range
Manufacturing
$8 and under $9
Alabama, Missis
sippi.
Arkansas,
tucky.
$14 and under $15..........
Delaware,
homa.
$16 and under $16........
$16 and under $17........ .
$17 and under $18_____
Okla
5-and-10-cent
stores
Alabama,
Ken
tucky, Missis
sippi, South
Carolina.
Arkansas, Dela
ware, Georgia,
Missouri, Okla
homa, Tennes
see.
Ken
$12 and under $13.......... Georgia, Missouri.
$13 and under $14____
General mercan
tile
Delaware,
tucky.
Ken
Georgia, Rhode
Island.
Mississippi, Mis
souri, Ohio,
Tennessee.
Arkansas, South
Carolina.
New Jersey,
Rhode Island.
Laundries
Tennessee.
Delaware, Georgia,
Mississippi.
Arkansas,
Ken
tucky,
South
Carolina.
Alabama, Mis
souri, Oklahoma.
New Jersey, Ohio,
Rhode Island.
Table 19 shows for each type of industry and for each State the
range within which the median fell. The median earnings of factory
workers in 7 States and those of women in general mercantile estab
lishments in 11 States were in a range above that of the highest
median in 5-and-10-cent stores. Similarly, manufacturing in 5
States and general mercantile in 10 States paid in a range above the
highest for laundry workers. The lowest median for women in
general mercantile establishments was in a range—$11 and under
92
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
$12—above the median for manufacturing in 5 cases, in laundries in
7 cases, and in 5-and-10-cent stores in 11 cases.
The States varied considerably iti the payments made to workers
in different _ types of industry. While Alabama, Mississippi, and
South Carolina gave very low wages in manufacturing and 5-and-10cent stores, Alabama and South Carolina were considerably better in
payments to laundry workers, Mississippi in payments in stores, and
South Carolina was excelled by only two States in its high figure for
women in general mercantile establishments.
Proportions of women who earned various amounts.
The extent to which women working in the various types of industry
received amounts that fell within the ranges shown in Table 19 may
be seen in Table XVI in the appendix.
The smallest proportions in any payment group earned $20 and
over in manufacturing in all but four States; in 5-and-10-c,ent stores,
in every State in which any group received so much, with the excep
tion of one; and in laundries in every State but three. In general
mercantile establishments a different situation obtained—the smallest
proportion received under $8 in seven States. Of those receiving $20
and over in manufacturing, the largest proportions were 44.6 per cent
in Rhode Island, 20 per cent in Ohio, 17.5 per cent in New Jersey, and
17.1 per cent in Delaware. The smallest were 0.6 per cent in Missis
sippi, 1 per cent in Arkansas, 1.2 per cent in Alabama, and 1.7 per
cent in South Carolina.
The largest actual numbers receiving under $8 in manufacturing
were in South Carolina, Tennessee, and Ohio, in each of which over
2,000 women were paid such an amount; and the largest proportions
at this range, without regard to numbers, were 45.6 per cent in
Mississippi, 45.5 per cent in Alabama, and 35.4 per cent in South
Carolina. The smallest were 3.2 per cent in Rhode Island and
7.2 per cent in New Jersey. In the general mercantile business very
small groups were paid so little, the largest proportions being 17.7 per
cent in Kentucky, 11.5 per cent in Alabama, and 11.4 per cent in
Mississippi. In 5-and-10-cent stores, these low amounts went to
almost one-half of the Alabama women, to over 30 per cent of those
in Kentucky and Mississippi, and to more than 20 per cent of those
in six other States. In laundries, less than $8 was received by
43.6 per cent of the women in Georgia, 36.5 per cent of those in Mis
sissippi and in Tennessee, 29.2 per cent of those in Alabama, and more
than 10 per cent of those in six other States.
The largest proportions in general mercantile in the highest pay
ment group were 26.1 per cent in New Jersey, 31.3 per cent in Okla
homa, and 33.2 per cent in the city of Atlanta. In 5-and-10-cent
stores, not more than two women in any State received as much as
$20, and none received that much in Delaware, Georgia, Mississippi,
or Oklahoma. In laundries, $20 or over was paid to about 35 women
each in New Jersey, Ohio, and Missouri. The largest proportion
having payments as large as this was 10.3 per cent in Georgia. Only
from one to three women in each of the States of Delaware, South
Carolina, Alabama, and Mississippi received as much as this.
The prevailing range of earnings—that representing the amount
received by the largest number of women in any one group—was
highest in general mercantile establishments in six States, in manu-
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN STORES AND LTJANDRIES
93
factaring in two. It was the same in manufacturing and general
mercantile establishments in four States, in manufacturing and
laundries in one. The earnings that prevailed in the largest number
of States in each type of industry were as follows:
Manufacturing.—Under $8 in six States, for 24.2 to 45.6 per cent of the women:
$15 and under $20 in five States, for 21.9 to 34.2 pei cent of the women.
General mercantile.—$15 and under $20 in nine States,3 for 21.4 to 40.9 per cent
of the women.
5-and-10-cent stores.—$8 and under $10 in nine States, for 34.0 to 55.2 per cent
of the women.
Laundries.—$12 and under $15 in seven States,4 for 24.2 to 37.7 per cent of the
women.
Summary.
Median earnings of women in general mercantile establishments
were above, those in manufacturing in every State but 3; those in
manufacturing were above those in laundries in 9 States; and those
in laundries were above those in 5-and-10-cent stores in 11 States.
The lowest median found in any State for general mercantile estab
lishments was above those in manufacturing in 6 States, above those
in laundries in 9 States, and above those in 5-and-10-eent stores in
12 States. The highest median in 5-and-10-cent stores was below
those in manufacturing in 7 States, and the highest in laundries was
below those in manufacturing in 5 States.
The proportion of women in a State who earned under $8 ranged
from 1.0 to 17.7 per cent in general mercantile establishments, from
3.2 to 45.6 per cent in manufacturing, from 3.3 to 43.6 per cent in
laundries, and from 7.3 to 48.4 per cent in 5-and-10-cent stores.
In general mercantile establishments, the prevailing range of earn
ings—that containing the largest group of women found within
any range—was $15 and under $20 in nine States. In manufacturing
the prevailing range was under $8 in 6 States and $15 and under $20
in 5; in laundries it was $12 and under $15 in 7 States; in 5-and-10cent stores it was $8 and under $10 in 9 States.
EARNINGS OF FULL-TIME WORKERS
Naturally, earnings of full-time workers usually were better than
those of all women taken together. Table XVIII shows by State
the number of full-time workers in each of the four types of indus
try under consideration, the proportion they formed of the total
number reported, and their median earnings.
Proportions of workers who were on full time.
In every State but one, the proportion of full-time workers was
smallest in the manufacturing industries. Laundries were next to
manufacturing in every State, but two. The proportion was greatest
in general mercantile establishments in all but two States. The
range in proportions of full-time workers found in these industries
was as follows:
Manufacturing.—54.7 per cent (Delaware) to 25.8 per cent (Oklahoma).
Laundries.—77.0 per cent (Mississippi) to 42.9 per cent (Ohio).
5-and-10-cent stores.—84.4 per cent (Rhode Island) to 69.5 per cent (Georgia).
General mercantile establishments.—92 per cent (South Carolina) to 78.4 per
cent (Rhode Island).8
8 Tho same number of women received $12 and under $15 in one State.
! The same number of women received under $8 in one State.
94
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Median earnings of full-time workers.
The highest median for full-time workers—one of over $15—was
that in general mercantile establishments in nine States and in man
ufacturing in four States. The lowest was that in 5-and-10-cent
stores in every State but one, in which case it was in laundries. The
highest and lowest medians in each type of industry were as follows:
Lowest median
Highest median
Type of industry
State
Median
$18.88
18.15
12.26
1 13.50
Median
State
Mississippi
Delaware _____
Delaware. _
-
$9. 45
12. 03
8. 58
9.96
> The median for 50 laundry workers in the city of Atlanta was $15.08. In none of the other eases cited
was the median based on fewer than 130 women.
If the range within which falls the median of full-time workers be
set up in the form of Table 19 in the text, it will be found that in
seven States the median of the full-time workers in manufacturing
was in a higher range than that of the best median in 5-and-10-cent
stores or in laundries. The median in general mercantile establish
ments was in a higher range than that of the best in laundries in
9 States and the best in 5-and-10-cent stores in 10 States. The
median for full-time workers was in the same range as that for all
workers in four States in general mercantile, in seven States in 5-and10-cent stores, and in two in laundries. In every other case the
median for full-time workers was in a range above that for all
women reported, the greatest differences being in manufacturing in
South Carolina and Delaware and in laundries in Georgia.
The chart on page 95 gives a graphic representation of the propor
tion by which the median earnings of full-time workers rose above
those of all workers in the four types of industry in each State. The
proportion ordinarily was greatest in manufacturing, although in
Tennessee it was slightly greater in laundries.* The degree of difference
6
between the median of all and that of full-time workers showed the
following ranges in the four types of industry:
Manufacturing.6—9.5 per cent (Kentucky and New
(South Carolina).
General mercantile.—0.6 per cent (South Carolina) to
5-and-10-cent stores.—2.3 per cent (Mississippi) to 9.1
Laundries.—1.1 per cent (Arkansas) to 26.2 per cent
Jersey) to 26.7 per cent
_
8.6 per cent (Georgia).
per cent (New Jersey).
(Georgia).
Full-time workers who earned less than $10.
Table XVII in the appendix shows the proportions of full-time
workers who earned amounts within various ranges. In 11 States the
greatest proportions earning under $10 were in 5-and-10-cent stores,
in 2 States in laundries. The smallest proportions of women hav
ing such low earnings were in general mercantile, establishments in. 9
States, in laundries in 2, and in manufacturing in 2. The range in
6 This was the case in Georgia also, but the number of women reported in laundries was too small to
warrant including the industry in the chart. In addition, the situation in manufacturing in this State
at the time of study was not wholly representative of a normal period, as may be seen from the discussion
of Georgia on pp. 26-27.
6 In Rhode Island the median for full-time workers in manufacturing was 1.6 per cent belov7 that for all
workers
95
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN STORES AND LAUNDRIES
the per cent of women earning under $10 in each of the four types of
industry was as follows:
Manufacturing.—0.2 per cent (Rhode Island) to 61.1 per cent (Mississippi).
General mercantile.—0.5 per cent (New Jersey) to 29.2 per cent (Kentucky).
5-and-10-cent stores.—12.5 per cent (New Jersey) to 88.3 per cent (Mississippi).
Laundries.—2.4 per cent7 (New Jersey) to 50.7 per cent (Delaware).
RELATION OF MEDIAN EARNINGS OF WOMEN ON FULL
TIME TO EARNINGS OF ALL WOMEN
FOUR TYPES OF INDUSTRY-13 STATES
Median earnings of all women =100
Manufacture
130
g
130
12 0
120
110
110
100
100
9 0L
90
General Mercantile
ioo
■ I
n 110
8 i
100
5-and-IO-cent stores
11 o
no
ioo
ioo
Laundries
120
no
z
<
_l
-
92
<s
LU
a
£
o
x
cr
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LJ
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or
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if)
I 920
1921
<
ce
D
if)
Z
O
<
if)
if)
cr
<
1922
CD Fewer than ioo women reported
U S- Dept of Labor
Women’s Bureau.
71n tlie city of Atlanta the figure was 2.
no
..H m H SL H
Ml____SL
Ml
ioo
120
if)
a:
LJ
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1925
w
CO
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PER CENT OF THE WOMEN ON FULL TIME WHO EARNED LESS THAN $10
FOUR TYPES OF INDUSTRY—13 STATES
Percent
4 00r—.
Manufacturing
90 •
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 ST A T E S
80 -
General mercantile 0
5-and-IO-cent stores £3
Laundries
0
70 60 •
50 •
,40 30 -
20 10 -
§
0-
ALA1
ALA
excluded)
1920
1920
1921
1921
1922
Y,
mow mJA-1
MO
N. J
1922
1922
/y
fern
OHIO
OH IO
ARK.
ARK.
DEL1
OKLA.1 .1
OKLA
1922
1922
19 24
1924
Earnings were reported for too few full -time workers in one type of Industry to justify their inclusion
MISS.
MISS.
1924
TENN
1925
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN STORES ANI) LAUNDRIES
97
The proportions of full-time workers who earned less than $10
are shown for the four types of industry in the chart.8
Summary.
Of the four types of industry under discussion, the general mer
cantile had the largest proportions of full-time workers, with median
earnings showing a difference from that for all workers small in com
parison with other industries. Ordinarily the median was higher
than in other industries and only a relatively small proportion of
women earned less than $10.
In 5-and-10-cent stores a fairly large proportion of the women
worked full time, and their median was above that of all women to a
relatively small degree. However, their median usually was the
lowest in the State, and the proportion of their full-time workers
earning under $10 ordinarily was the highest.
Laundries had a rather small proportion of full-time workers, and
these ordinarily had a median considerably above that for all women
reported in laundries. In 12 States the median of full-time laundry
workers was below that of the women in general mercantile estab
lishments and in 10 States it was below that in manufacturing. The
proportion of women earning less than $10 was less than in manu
facturing in five States—in two of these considerably less. It was
greater than in manufacturing in eight States—in four considerably
greater.
The smallest proportion of full-time workers ordinarily was in
manufacturing, and full-time earnings usually were considerably
above those of all women reported. The median ordinarily was below
that of women in general mercantile establishments but above that
of women in 5-and-10-eent. stores and in laundries. The proportion
of women earning under $10 was greater than in general mercantile
establishments, smaller than in 5-and-10-cent stores, in nearly every
case.
EARNINGS AND HOURS 9
In the discussion of the earnings of women and their various hour
schedules only full-time workers are included. In general mercantile
establishments the total range of hours worked by the women in a
State usually was not so great as in the manufacturing industries.
Exceptions to this were Missouri, Ohio, and Rhode Island, in which
none of the women in manufacturing had hours so long as those
scheduled in some other States. The total range of hours scheduled
for women in 5-and-10-cent stores usually was less than for those in
general mercantile establishments. It was as long as in general
mercantile in two States and longer in one. Rhode Island was
exceptional, in that no women in 5-and-10-cent stores had a week as
long as 50 hours but a number in general mercantile establishments
had one of 52 and under 55 hours. In laundries, in five States, the
total range of hours scheduled was shorter than in manufacturing.
In each State longer hours prevailed in laundries than in 5-and-10cent stores. In five States laundry hours were longer than those in
general mercantile establishments.
8 Cases where very few women were reported aro omitted.
9 In this section are considered only the nine States having sufficient numbers of women reported in
manufacturing to justify a comparison.
98
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Some women had a schedule of less than 48 hours in laundries in
every State but one, in manufacturing in eight States, in general
mercantile in six States, and in 5-and-10-cent stores in one State.
In five States some women in manufacturing had a week of 60 hours
or more, and in two States a few in laundries had a week of such
length. The longest schedule for women in general mercantile
establishments or in 5-and-10-cent stores was 55 and under 60 hours,
and this applied to some women in three States in the former industry
and to some in five States in the latter.
Hours prevailing.
The prevailing or most common hours—those reported for the
largest group of full-time workers but not necessarily for a majority
of all women reported in the State—were as follows:
Number of States in which the prevailing hours were—
Industry
Under 48
1
1
2
Over 48 and
under 52
48
1
52 and
under 55
55 and
under 60
3
6
5
3
Earnings of full-time workers on different hour schedules.
Table XIX in the appendix shows for nine States the full-time work
ers in each type of industry who worked for the hour schedules fixed
for the largest groups of women—100 or more—and the proportions
of these in each hour group who earned under $10 and $15 or more.
In general mercantile establishments in five States the largest
proportions of the women earning $15 or over were in the under-48hour group or the 48-hour group, and in still another State they were
in the group having the shortest schedule. This is practically the
same situation that obtained in most States in the manufacturing
industries.10 In general mercantile establishments in Missouri and
New Jersey earnings of as much as $15 were received by a much larger
proportion of the women with a schedule of less than 48 hours than of
those with the longest hours reported.
For women in 5-and-10-cent stores the prevailing schedule was
over 48 and under 52 hours in every State but Tennessee, in which it
was 52 and under 55. In Tennessee, under this longer schedule, the
proportion of women earning $15 or more was smaller than in the
States where the shorter hours were the rule.
In laundries, considerable groups of women had a schedule of over
48 and under 52 hours in three States, of 52 and under 55 in two, and
of 55 and under 60 in one. In the case in which the hours were longest
a smaller proportion earned $15 or over than in any other case with
one exception. New Jersey was the only State in which considerable
proportions of women were found at two different schedules, and $15
or over was earned by a larger proportion of those having the shorter
than of those having the longer schedule.
On the whole, the. data here discussed give unmistakable evidence
of the tendency within each type of industry toward higher pay where
the more reasonable hour schedules were the rule.
10 See p. 52.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN STORES AND LAUNDRIES
99
In general mercantile establishments in most States there was a
larger proportion of women receiving $15 or over than in the manu
facturing industries, in which longer hours usually prevailed.
Summary.
In both classes of stores the largest groups of women generally
worked over 48 and under 52 hours. In manufacturing and in
laundries there was great variety and no one hour group predominated.
In manufacturing and general mercantile establishments the women
in the most common hour groups generally earned $15 or more, but in
the other two industries they generally earned $10 and under $15.
In two States close to three-fifths of the 5-and-10-cent-store employees
with the most customary hours received less than $10.
There was a tendency in each type of industry for earnings to be
higher where hours were more reasonable.
EARNINGS AND RATES
The proportion of the women reported who earned less than their
rates was greatest in manufacturing in every State but 1, next high in
laundries in all but 3 of the States, and lowest in general mercantile
establishments in 10 States. These proportions in the four different
types of industry ranged as follows:
Industry
Per cent of the women reported who earned less than their rates
Manufacturing . _____ 32. 7 (Georgia) to 70.2 (Mississippi). Over 45 per cent in 6 States and Atlanta.
General mercantile___
6. 9 (South Carolina) (Alabama). Above 30 perUnderor15close to it in 67 States.
per cent in States.
9. 7 (Georgia) to 48.2 to 20.2 (Rhode Island). cent
5-and-10-cent stores._
13.0 (Mississippi) to 29.4 (Georgia). Over 20 per cent in 9 States.
The chart on page 100 shows for each State the extent to which
the median of earnings varied from that of rates in the four types of
industry. It makes clear the comparatively slight variation in
5-and-10-cent stores, the great irregularity in laundries, the con
siderable depression of earnings in manufacturing, and their rise
above rates in general mercantile establishments in most States.
Table. 20 gives the relation of the median of actual earnings to that
of rates in the four types of industry in each State.
. In the manufacturing industries the median of earnings almost
invariably fell below that of rates, nearly 10 per cent below in Arkan
sas and 10 per cent or more below in Alabama, Mississippi, the city
of Atlanta, and South Carolina.
In laundries, the median of earnings fell below that of rates in
every State but Arkansas, where earnings were 1.4 per cent above
rates. Earnings fell 9 per cent or more below rates in three States,
Alabama, Ohio, and South Carolina. In 5-and-10-cent stores earn
ings fell below rates in every State but Mississippi—'the State having
the lowest median rate—but in no case by as much as 7 per cent.
100
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
RELATION OF MEDIAN EARNINGS TO MEDIAN RATES
WOMEN IN FOUR TYPES OF INDUSTRY — 11 STATES
Median rate = i oo
Manufacture g
General
Mercantile
5-and-IO-cent
stores
Laundries
©
m
©
■*■■i
©
Q
Z
<
to
<|
u
O
O
X
cx
tx2
Ulo
o*
>u
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H
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1920
>-
u
<
z
_J
o
a:
<
u
(O
<
<
Q0
to
<
to
z
<
<
_J
<
:
q
<
l 92.1
©Fewer than 100 women reported
cx
3
o
to
£X
<
LJ
o
to
to
LJ
2
z
1922
0
1
o
X
<
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o
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UJ
(X
<
£
<
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i
0.
0l
(O
to
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22
LJ
Q
1924
2
tO
toI
Ll
z
u
H
1925
U. S. Dept, of Labor-Women’s 0u»eau
f
Table 20.
Comparison of. rates and earnings, by four types of industry and by State—white women
State
Alabama.. ...___
Arkansas.............
Delaware_____ .
Georgia:
Atlanta_______
Other places_____
Kentucky_______ ____
Mississippi_
_
Missouri. _
New Jersey
Ohio_________
Oklahoma_______
Rhode Island___
South Carolina_____
Tennessee_
_
General mercantile, establishments
5-and-10-cent stores
Laundries
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
by which
by which
by which
by which
the me
the me
the me
the me
dian of
dian of
dian of
dian of
Num Median Median the earn Num Median Median the earn Num Median Median the earn Num Median Median the earn
ber of
of the
of the ings was ber of
of the
of the ings was ber of
of the
of the ings was ber of
of the
of the ings was
rates earnings above(+) women
women
rates earnings above (+) women
rates earnings above (+) women
rates earnings above (+)
or below
or below
or below
or below
(—) that
(—) that
(—) that
(—) that
of the
of the
of the
of the
rates
rates
rates
rates
514
168
117
$9.23
11.62
10. 84
$8.31
10. 50
9. 86
-10.0
-9.6
-9.0
742
624
339
$12.43
15.45
11.44
$12.44
15.11
11.68
+0.1
-2.2
+2.1
179
130
94
$8.44
9.71
9.94
$8.08
9.41
9.64
-4.3
-3.1
-3.0
56
183
185
$12.09
10.30
9.71
$11.00
10.44
9.17
-9.0
+1.4
-5.6
300
893
2, 407
242
1, 259
973
1, 576
160
1,446
1,191
1,994
12. 21
12. 24
11. 36
8. 71
12. 77
12. 65
15.08
13. 89
16. 94
10.67
11. 36
10. 61
12.09
10.60
7.51
11.85
12.03
14. 38
12.70
16. 07
8.94
10.71
-13.1
-1.2
-6.7
-13.8
-7.2
-4.9
-4.6
-8.6
-5.1
-16.2
-5.7
354
383
753
369
1, 850
1, 844
3,198
609
723
288
1,159
15. 34
13.91
10.97
13.48
12.89
15. 37
14. 07
17. 90
13.16
15. 42
13. 55
16.17
14.18
11.54
14.68
14.42
16.92
14.62
17.42
13. 27
15.56
14. 42
+5.4
+ 1.9
+5.2
+8.9
+11.9
+10.1
+3.9
-2.7
+.8
+.9
+6.4
187
197
193
394
274
342
313
154
143
310
9.82
8.88
8.22
10.10
12. 24
10.80
9.76
12.29
8.95
9.52
9.22
8. 68
8. 39
9. 90
11.56
10. 51
9.33
11.92
8. 86
9.17
-6.1
-2.3
+2.1
-2.0
-5.6
-2.7
-4.4
-3.0
-1.0
-3.7
61
31
344
57
416
3.54
262
608
139
27
327
15. 03
12.42
10.89
10.04
12. 53
11.80
13. 30
12.09
12. 54
12. 25
9.41
14. 61
12.25
10. 71
9.88
11.89
11. 56
12. 07
11. 69
11.78
10.75
8. 95
-2.8
-1.4
-1.7
-1.6
-5.1
-2.0
-9.2
-3.3
-6.1
-12.2
-4.9
EARNINGS OP WHITE WOMEN IN STORES AND LAUNDRIES
Manufacturing
O
102
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
In general mercantile establishments a different situation obtained.
The median of earnings rose above that of rates in all but two States—■
in three cases by 8 per cent or more. This may be attributed chiefly
to the payment of sales commissions, a practice the extent of which
may be seen from Table 21.
21.—Variations between earnings and rates of full-time workers receiving
and not receiving a sales commission in general mercantile firms, by State—white
women
Table
State
Other places___
Tennessee
Women who received no com
mission
______
Women who received a commis
sion
Number who earned—
Number who earned—
Num
ber re
ported
Less
than
rate
Same as More
than
rate
rate
742
624
339
Georgia:
Ohio.
Num Per cent
ber of by which
women median of
whose the earn
earn ings was
above
ings
and (+) or be
rates low (—)
were re that of
ported the rates
+0.1
—2.2
+2.1
674
603
287
102
105
20
571
497
267
354
383
753
369
1,850
l' 844
3,198
609
723
288
1,159
+5.4
+1.9
+5.2
+8.9
+11.9
+10.1
+3.9
—2. 7
+.8
+.9
+6.4
235
312
595
273
738
657
2,146
578
366
231
832
20
50
116
53
147
69
468
93
65
19
103
215
261
476
220
591
577
1,675
483
301
212
715
1
1
1
3
11
3
2
14
Num
ber re
ported
Less
than
rate
68
21
52
2
3
4
119
71
158
96
1,112
1,187
1, 052
31
357
57
327
5
6
8
3
91
72
74
Same as More
than
rate
rate
81
1
20
66
18
48
1
5
7
1
114
64
150
93
1, 016
1,115
971
31
276
56
306
In eight States, from about 20 per cent to over 64 per cent of the
women for whom rates and earnings were reported in general mer
cantile establishments received commissions. Although the number
of women receiving commissions does not bear a consistent relation
to the proportional rise of earnings above rates, commissions were
received by considerably more than one-half of the women in general
mercantile establishments in the States in which earnings rose highest
above rates, Missouri and New Jersey. Of the women who received
no commissions, few earned more than their rates and a very large
proportion in every State earned the same as the rate.
Unpublished data show that in six States some of the women in
laundries were given a bonus or commission. In four of these the
women receiving such payment formed from 20 to 24 per cent of those
reported. Nearly all the women in laundries who received a bonus
or commission earned more than their rates. In 5-and-10-cent stores
only 100 women received commissions and 93 of these were in one
State.
Summary.
The median of the earnings was below that of the rates in all States
in manufacturing and in all States but one in laundries and in 5-and10-cent stores. In the 13 States, median earnings were 5 per cent or
more below rates in 10 States in manufacturing, in 6 States in laun
dries, and in only 2 States in 5-and-10-cent stores.
In general mercantile establishments, on account of sales commis
sions, earnings exceeded rates in all but two States. Only 100 women
in 5-and-10-cent stores received commissions and 93 of these were
in one State.
EARNINGS OP WHITE WOMEN IN
STORES AND LAUNDRIES
103
EARNINGS AND AGE
Table XX in the appendix shows the age distribution and the
progression in earnings of women in stores and laundries.
In general mercantile establishments women 20 and under 25 formed
the largest group in 10 States, those of 30 and under 40 in the other
three States. In every State but Kentucky there were smaller pro
portions of women under 20 in general mercantile establishments than
in the other industries. In Kentucky the smallest proportion under
21 were in laundries.
With few exceptions, and these all in laundries, earnings progressed
at least as far as, and usually beyond, the age group having the most
women, but the advance was not in proportion to the increase in age.
In general mercantile the highest median was that of women of 30
and under 40 in live States, of 40 and under 50 in six, and of 50 and
under 60 in two. Missouri was the only State in this industry in
which the women with the highest median formed also, the largest age
group, but in nine of the other States the group with the highest
median contained from approximately 15 per cent to much more than
15 per cent of the women reported.
The age of highest median earnings in general mercantile establish
ments was above that in manufacturing in eight States reported, the
same as in manufacturing in three States. In only five States were
more than 10 per cent of the women above the age of highest median
earnings even though in five States the decline came as early as 40
and under 50 years. This indicates that women are able to maintain
their earning power to a later age in general mercantile establishments
than is possible in manufacturing, and that advancing age presents
less serious problems in the former than in the latter type of industry.
In 5-and-10-cent stores the chief group usually was of very young
women. In six States 16 and under 18 was the prevailing age, in two
States 18 and under 20, and in one State—Alabama—the same pro
portion was found at 16 and under 18 and at 18 and under 20. Women
of 20 and under 25 formed the chief group in three States—Arkansas, Mississippi, and Tennessee. In every case more than 40
per cent of the women were under 20.
The age group with the highest median earnings in 5-and-10-cent
stores was 20 and under 25 in all States but three—Tennessee, where
it was 25 and under 30, and Ohio and Kentucky, where it was 30
and under 40. In two States women wTho had the highest median
formed also the largest group, and in seven States the group with the
highest median had more than onc-fifth of the women reported. In
only one State were more than 10 per cent of the women reported
above the age at which the highest median had been reached. Very
few women in any State were as old as 40, and only in six States were
as many as 10 per cent 30 or more.
Data sufficient to form some basis of analysis of the laundry situa
tion existed in eight States. In six of these the prevailing age was
30 and under 40, m one 40 and under 50—older than the chief group
in general mercantile establishments in five States. In Delaware the
chief group was composed of the youngest women—those 16 and
under 18 years of age. In every State reported there was a smaller
proportion of women under 20 than in 5-and-10-cent stores. In seven
States a larger proportion were under 20 than was the case in general
31893°—31—8
104
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
mercantile establishments. In Missouri and Oklahoma the group
having the highest median contained the largest proportion of women,
arid in five other States more than 10 per cent of those reported were
in the group with the best earnings.
In laundries the highest median ordinarily was for women younger
than the group with the highest median in general mercantile estab
lishments. In four States the women in laundries with the highest
median were younger than the corresponding group in manufacturing;
in two they were of the same ages. Those of 20 and under 25 had
the highest median in three States, of 25 and under 30 in three, of
30 and under 40 in two.
Laundries differed from the other types of industry in that in five
States the women who had the highest medians were below the chief
group in age. It follows that ordinarily very large proportions—from
about 30 to over 60 per cent—were above the age of the group having
the best earnings. In several States earnings for these women showed
an almost continuous decline with every group large enough for the
computation of a median. So far as the movement of her earnings
is concerned, the condition of the laundry worker appeared less favor
able with advancing age than that of the women in manufacturing.
Summary.
The women forming the largest group were 16 and under 18 years of
age in 5-and-10-cent stores in 6 States, 20 and under 25 in general
mercantile establishments in 10 States, 30 and under 40 in laundries
in 6 States. In 5-and-10-cent stores more than 40 per cent of the
women in each State were under 20. In laundries 20 to 24 per cent
in three of the eight States and 51 per cent in another, were under 20.
In general mercantile establishments usually smaller proportions of
women were under 20 than was the case in 5-and-10-cent stores or
laundries.
The group of women having the highest median earnings in 5-and10-cent stores wore 20 and under 25 in all but three States, in laundries
were 20 and under 25 in three States and 25 and under 30 in three, and
in general mercantile establishments were 30 and under 40 in five
States and 40 and under 50 in six. In 5-and-10-cent stores the age
group with the highest median contained from 20 to 42 per cent of
the women reporting in 10 States, in laundries from 15 to about 29
per cent in 5 States, and in general mercantile establishments from
15 to 25 per cent in 9 States.
In general mercantile establishments more than 10 per cent of the
women in five States were above the age at which the median earnings
reported were the highest. In only one State in 5-and-10-cent stores
were more than 10 per cent of the women above the age group having
the highest median, but very few women in any State were as old as
40 and in only six States were as many as 10 per cent as old as 30.
In laundries the situation appeared to be a serious one: In six States
the highest median was for women less than 30, and from about 30
to over 60 per cent of the women reported were in older groups whose
earnings were declining in nearly every case.
The general situation in regard to earnings and age in the four types
of industry is shown in the summary following.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN STORES AND LAUNDRIES
Industry
Group for which highest median Per cent of women
Num Age of chief group earnings were reported in most States
with median
ber of
earnings reported
States
who were above
States
of highest
re
Age group
Per cent of women ageearnings
ported
General mercantile.
13
20 and under 25
in 10 States.
Manufacturing........
11
20 and under 25
in 10 States.
5-and-10-cent stores.
12 #16 and under 18
in 7 States,i 18
and under 20
in 3 States,1 20
and under 25 in
3 States.
8 30 and under 40
in 6 States.
Laundries
105
30 and under 40
in 5 States, 40
and under 50 in
6 States.
25 and under 30
in 4 States, 30
and under 40 in
6 States.
20 and under 25
in 9 States.
Over 10 per cent,
or practically
that, in 11
States.
Over 15 per cent,
or practically
that, in 10
States.
Over 20 per cent
in 9 States.
Over 10 per cent
in 5 States.
20 and under 25
in 3 States, 25
and under 30 in
3 States.
Over 10 per cent
in 5 States.
From about 30 to
over 60 per cent
in 7 States.
Over 10 per cent
in every State
but 1.
Less than 10 per
cent in 11 States.
1 In 1 State there were the same number of women in the 16-and-under-18 as in the lS-and-under-20 group.
EARNINGS AND EXPERIENCE
The proportions of the women who had been in the trade 10 years
or longer differed considerably in the three types of industry under
discussion. In general mercantile establishments from about 20 to
29 per cent of the women in 11 States had been in the trade for at
least 10 years. In eight States more women in this industry than
in manufacturing had worked as long as this. In 5-and-10-cent
stores, none of the women reported in four States and fewer than
5 per cent in each of the other nine States had been in the trade as
long as 10 years. In seven of the eight States from which data on laun
dries were sufficient to be included, from 14 to 25 per cent of the
women had at least 10 years of experience. In six of these, a smaller
proportion in laundries than in general mercantile establishments had
worked for as long as 10 years. In four of the six States reporting
on both types of industry, a larger proportion of women in laundries
than in manufacturing industries had been at work so long.
Table 22 shows the increase of the maximum earnings of full-time
workers over earnings at less than one year’s experience in the in
dustries under consideration, and the length of time required to
reach the maximum.
In general mercantile establishments in 9 of the 13 States the
maximum median reported was that of women with the most exper
ience—15 years or more. In the four States in which some women
had been in the trade longer than those with the highest median
reported, these ordinarily formed larger proportions than did the
women in the corresponding situation in the chief manufacturing
industries.11
11 Comparisons made in this section with the chief manufacturing industries refer to those reported in
Table Id, p. 85.
106
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Table 22.—Increase in earnings with increased experience, white full-time workers
in three types of industry, by State1
Median of the earnings
of women having—
Industry and State
General mercantile:
6-and-10-cent stores:
Laundries:
Per cent
increase of Y ears of experience
of women having
maximum
maximum
Less than Maximum over earli
1 year’s
est median
experience reported
15 and over.
Do.
Do.
5 and under 10.
10 and under 15.
15 and over.
Do.
10 and under 15.
$8. 71
i 1. 50
9. 70
12. 20
9. 05
12.64
14. 00
12.64
10. 94
12. 95
11.50
9.83
$20. 20
20.11
15. 50
18.90
16. 17
19.19
26. 07
18. 30
22.08
15.92
17.58
18. 40
100.9
74.9
59.8
54.9
78.7
51.8
86.2
44.8
101.8
22.9
52.9
87.2
8.04
8.80
9. 43
9.50
8.61
8. 35
9.69
10. 97
10.27
9.07
10.81
8. 42
9. 35
8.93
10. 00
10. 06
10. 39
9. 00
8.67
12. 50
12. 60
12. 29
10. 08
12.60
9.63
9. 81
11.1
13.6
6.7
9.4
4.5
3.8
29.0
14.9
19.7
11.1
10.6
14.4
4.9
2 and under
1 and under
Do.
2 and under
1 and under
Do.
3.
2.
2 and under
5 and under
1 and under
Do.
2 and under
Do.
3.
10.
2.
10. 43
9.00
9. 46
10. 50
12.31
12. 25
11. 08
8.58
10. 77
10.00
12.25
16.50
16.50
15. 05
16.17
13. 50
3.3
11.1
29.5
57.1
34.0
22.9
45.9
57.3
5 and under 10.
1 and under 2.
Do.
5 and under 10.
3.
2.
3.
15 and over.
5 and under 10.
1 Exclusive of Atlanta.
In every State the maximum earnings in 5-and-10-cent stores were
received by women having had much less experience than had those
who earned the largest amounts in general mercantile establishments—
1 and under 2 years in six States, 2 and under 3 in five, and 5 and
under 10 in two. This usually was shorter than the time worked
by those earning the maximum in laundries and manufacturing,
but the resulting earnings were correspondingly smaller. In two of
the four States in which the maximum median was highest—be
tween $12 and $13—the period at which it was reached was a longer
one than in the other States, being 5 and under 10 years.
While in every State but one some of the women reported had
worked longer than had the group with the highest median, there
was in no case a sufficient number of these in any single experience
group for the computation of a median.
The experience required to reach the group having the highest
median12 in laundries was 5 and under 10 years in four States, 15
years and over in two. It was longer in laundries than in 5-and-10cent stores in every case but two, in which it was the same; with but
two exceptions it was shorter than in general mercantile establish
ments. In the cases in which comparisons could be made, the periodI
I2 Certain qualifications must be borne in mind in reading this. See footnote 29 on p. 74.
EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN IN STORES AND LAUNDRIES
107
of experience in which the highest median was reached in laundries
usually was the same or was shorter than that of the corresponding
group in the chief manufacturing industries.
In three States some of the women reported in laundries had worked
longer than had the group with the highest median reported.
Summary.
The data in regard to earnings and experience may be summarized as
follows:
Median of the earnings of
women having—
Industry
Less than 1
year’s experi
ence
Maximum
reported
General mercantile............ $8. 71 to $14.00 $15. 50 to $26.07
8.04 to 10.97
8.67 to 12.60
8.58 to 12.31
10.00 to 16.50
Per cent
increase of
maximum
over
earliest
median
22. 9 to 101.8
3.8 to 29.0
3.3 to 57.3
Years of experience of women
having maximum
15 and over in 8 of 12 States, j
1 and under 2 in 6 of 13 States,
2 and under 3 in 5.
5 and under 10 in 4 of 8 States.
On the whole, and judging by group medians, the experience
required to reach the highest earnings was long in general mercantile
establishments, short in 5-and-10-cent stores. In laundries it ordi
narily was shorter than in the former, longer than in the latter.
The longest experience did not always mean the highest earnings.
Women with more experience than that of the group with the highest
median earnings reported formed considerable proportions in general
mercantile establishments in four States. There were some such
women in 5-and-10-cent stores in every State but one, and some in
laundries in three States.
EARNINGS AND NATIVITY
Foreign-born women were reported in numbers sufficiently large to
compute a median in general mercantile establishments in four States,
in 5-and-10-cent stores in two, and in laundries in three. The sum
mary following shows the numbers and the median earnings of foreignborn women in these types of industry and in manufacturing.
Foreign-born
women
Median earnings
of—
State and industry
Number Per cent
Missouri:
Manufacturing.......
General mercantile.
New Jersey:
Manufacturing.......
General mercantile.
5-and-10-cent stores.
Laundries...............
Ohio:
Manufacturing.......
General mercantile.
Laundries________
Rhode Island:
Manufacturing.......
General mercantile.
5-and-10-cent-stores.
Laundries________
Native
white
women
Foreignborn
women
451
55
7.7
3.8
$12.54
14.82
$13.50
14.83
1,542
58
18
68
23.5
13.6
12.2
16.2
15.09
17. 53
11.78
13.77
16.12
17.29
12.17
11.40
1,931
104
64
17.1
5.9
9.7
15.51
14.60
12.62
15.66
14.40
12. 71
317
47
19
35
27.0
13.8
17.0
54.7
18.40
13.52
12.17
12.50
18.65
13.08
12.83
12.07
108
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
In manufacturing and 5-and-10-cent stores the median for foreignborn women was above that for native women in every case,. In
general mercantile establishments and laundries it usually was below.
Very few women in the 5-and-10-cent stores were foreign born.
In Rhode Island 19 of the 112 women reporting their nativity, and
in New Jersey 18 of the 148, had been born abroad. No other State
had as many as 5 per cent so reported.
In general mercantile establishments from 22 to 38 per cent of the
foreign-born women in three States were Russians, and their medians
were considerably above those of all foreign-born women in this
industry. In the other State—Rhode Island—34 per cent were
Canadians, and these also had a median above that of all foreign-born
women in the State.
In laundries the nativity of the prevailing group was different in
each State. In Ohio, Germans formed one-fourth of the group, and
their median was above that of all foreign-bom women. In New
Jersey, women of Irish nativity prevailed; and in Rhode Island,
Portuguese. They formed, respectively, over one-third and nearly
three-fourths of all foreign-born women in the industry, and in each
case had a median below that of all who were foreign born.
PART VI.—WEEK’S EARNINGS AT AN EARLIER PERIOD
In seven States earnings were secured for a week that was in most
cases approximately a year earlier than the main period of study, and
the results have been tabulated for the chief industries in the States
in question. Consideration of these figures gives some check upon
whether the discussion in earlier pages of this report has taken accurate
account of the business fluctuations of the times, and makes it possible
to indicate with greater certainty to what extent the level of earnings
that has been presented may be considered fairly typical of the
amounts women are likely to receive in a given State or industry.
MEDIAN OF THE WEEK’S EARNINGS OF ALL WORKERS
When the medians of the earnings reported for the various
studies—at whatever date and including both the early and the late
week in the States for which both were taken—are arranged in chron
ological order, there is discernible in the figures no consistent movement
that can be attributed entirely to the period of study, whatever the
type of industry considered. The dates of the highest and the lowest
medians found for the white women reported were as follows:
Highest median earnings
Lowest median earnings
Type of industry
Date
5-and-10-cent stores_______
Laundries _
State
Date
October, 1920 __ _ Rhode Island___
November, 1920-__ South Carolina_
_
State
December, 1923__ Mississippi.
May, 1921
Kentucky.
December, 1923__ Mississippi.
December, 1923__
Do.
Very decided differences appeared in the figures for the early
and late weeks in some of the States, and these testified to the special
periods of depression or prosperity noted earlier in the study. The
following summary shows for the four types of industry the per cent
by which the median for the Iate-pay-roll week was above or below
that for the early week in each of the seven States.
Year of pay rolls
Per cent by which median of the earnings for
all women on the late pay rolls was above (+)
or below (—) that for all women on the early pay
rolls
Early
Manufac
turing
State
Georgia__________ ____________
1920
Kentucky_____ ___ ____ ______
1920-21
South Carolina________
____ 1920
Alabama___________ __________
1921
Missouri___________________
1920-21
Delaware
1923
Mississippi.............. .......................
1923
Late
1920-21
1921
1921
1922
1922
1924
1924
-7.3
-7.9
-34.7
+1.0
-4.6
-17.6
+1.8
General
5-and-10-cent
mercantile Laundries
stores
+11.7
+.6
+. 1
-1.3
+2.9
-5.2
-.1
+7.3
-8.1
-6. 1
-6.7
-12.6
+4.7
+6.7
-9.7
+.9
-25.3
-14.6
-5.8
-3.4
+9.6
109
110
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
A total of over 1,000 women was reported in each of the following
manufacturing industries: Cotton, knit goods, cigars, tobacco, shoes,
and overalls. The per cent by which the late-week median had risen
or declined from that of the early week, in any of these industries in
which the difference was more than 5 per cent, was as follows:
Month of late pay roll1
State
Year
Industry
Per cent
change in
median
+10.3
+50. 7
— 12.2
-16.3
-33.2
-5.4
-35.6
-16.8
-8.4
-15.5
+9.8
-16.1
-6.2
1920
1921
1922 1924
i In most cases the change noted was from the same or a similar month in the year preceding; in Missouri
the intervening period was 15 or 16 months and for Georgia industries it was in some cases considerably
less than a year.
This summary shows again the periods of depression and indicates
that the effects tended to be more extreme in some industries and in
some localities than in others.
FULL-TIME WORKERS
Considering the proportion of full-time workers in every week
reported, the range within each of the four types of industry was as
follows:
Least per cent on full time
Greatest per cent on full time
Type of industry
Manufacturing_
_
Per
cent
66.3
General mercan- 92.0
tile.
5 - and - 10 - cent 84.4
stores.
Laundries... . ... 77.0
Date
State
Per
cent
22.1
July to Septem Delaware
ber, 1923.
November, 1921. South Carolina.. 78.2
October, 1920_
_
Rhode Island.
61.9
December, 1924. Mississippi......... 42.9
Date
State
February, 1921.. Alabama.
January, 1921— Missouri.
November, 1920. South Carolina.
September, 1922. Ohio.
According to the figures in Table XXI in the appendix and addi
tional unpublished data, in every instance but one the smallest pro
portion of full-time workers was in manufacturing, and in every case
but two the largest was in general mercantile establishments. Usually
there were larger proportions in 5-and-10-cent stores than in laundries.
In all but 4 of the 20 cases reported in manufacturing, fewer than half
of the women were full-time workers. In the other types of industry
more than half worked full time, except in three cases in laundries.
With few exceptions, more than 60 per cent of the women in laundries
were full-time workers, more than 70 per cent of those in 5-and-10cent stores, and more then 80 per cent of those in general mercantile
establishments.
WEEK’S EARNINGS AT AN EARLIER PERIOD
111
The inclusion of the early-week data tends to bear out the findings
that have been discussed in this study as to the relative position of the
four types of industry in proportion of full-time workers, and as to the
effect that differences in period of study or of locality may have upon
the extent of full-time work. If each year be considered separately,
the data on full time in all the weeks given bear further testimony to
the depressed condition in 1921 and the recovery that took place
within 1922.
In all manufacturing the data for three States show, by a drop of
more than 10 points either in earnings or in proportion of workers on
full time, the marked effect of the depression in 1921, not yet over
come by early 1922, and indicate also a condition of instability in
the two States studied in the second half of 1924.
Full-time workers in the chief manufacturing industries in all weeks
reported.
If the proportions of full-time workers in six chief industries are
shown for all weeks reported, the range is found to be as follows:
Greatest per cent on full time
Least per cent on full time
Industry
Per cent
Overalls... __ _________
Shoes___________
Cotton____
__ _____ _
Knit goods___ ___________
Cigars___ ____________ .
Tobacco___ ___ __________
Year
78.6
58.8
69.0
57.7
79.5
65.6
1921
1920
1922
1921
1920
1925
State
South Carolina
Georgia__
Per cent
____
Year
0.0
33.9
18.3
5.2
52.4
38.8
1922
1921
1921
1921
1920
1921
State
Alabama.
Kentucky.
Alabama.
Do.
Kentucky.
Do.
However, no generalization can be made as to the year in which
the greatest or the least degree of full time was worked in the six
chief manufacturing industries reported.
Table XXII in the appendix shows the variations from early to
late week in the proportions and the earnings of full-time workers in
these six manufacturing industries. The changes in median earnings
from early to late week in cases in which the difference was greater
than 5 per cent were as follows:
Year
State
1920_____________
Georgia........... . ......
___.do..... __
------do___ ___ ____
1921...........................
Kentucky____
..
----- do____ _________
--- -do...........................
South Carolina... _ _
------do____ _______
----- do_____ ________
1922.......................... Alabama.. ________
Missouri.............. ........
1924....... .......... ........ Delaware......................
Mississippi...
Month of late pay roll1
Industry
Per cent
change in
median
+9.0
+8.9
+30.2
-9.6
-6.4
-30.4
-6.4
-15.8
-35.8
-32.9
-13.6
-6.9
-12.8
-9.6
-10.6
1 In most cases the change noted was from the same or a similar month in the year preceding; in Missouri
the intervening period was 15 or 1C months and for Georgia industries it was in some cases considerably
less than a year.
112
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
For general mercantile establishments the proportions of women
who had worked full time in the early and in the late week differed
but slightly in most States, the greatest difference being about six
points in one State between weeks in an early month of 1921 and of
1922. Median earnings of full-time workers in the late week differed
from those in the early week by less than 5 per cent, except in one
case in 1920 in which the median for October rose 17.3 per cent above
that for April of the same year.
In 5-and-10-cent stores, likewise, the differences between early and
late weeks in proportions of full-time workers usually were not great,
but in one State the per cent was about 21 points higher in 1921 than
in 1920. In this industry and in laundries the differences in median
earnings in the early and late week were irregular. The cases in
which the late-week median showed the greatest decline from that
of the early week in these two industries were all in the depressed
period of late 1921 and early 1922.
EARNINGS AND HOURS WORKED
The data on the proportions of full-time workers who had worked
for the longer hour periods reported in the early and late weeks may
be summarized as follows:
Change from early to late week in proportion of women
working hours specified
Early week
Late week
State
Hours
Change in per cent
of women
February to May, August, 1920, to Georgia------ Over 48 and under 52. _ Increase of about 2 points.
Increase of about 3 points.
52 and under 55
February, 1921.
1920.
55 and over............. ..... Decrease of about 5 points.
No
September to No October,
vember, 1921.
vember, 1920.
Kentucky.— Over 48 and under 52__ Increase of about 13 points.
Decrease of nearly 5 points.
52 and under 55
55 and over------------- Increase of about 1 point.
October, Novem _____ do..... ........
ber, 1920.
South Caro 52 and under 55........... Decrease of less than 1 point.
Decrease of about 1 point.
55 and over
lina.
February, 1921__ February, 1922__ Alabama___ Over 48 and under 52. . Decrease of nearly 17 points.
52 and under 55......... Increase of nearly 6 points.
Increase of nearly 20 points.
55 and over........... .
November, 1920,
January, 1921.
April, May, 1922 Missouri___ Over 48 and under 52. _ Decrease of over 4 points.
Increase of about 6 points.
52 and under 55
July to Septem
ber, 1923.
August, Septem Delaware.
ber, 1924.
Over 48 and under 52. _ Increase of nearly 3 points.
52 and under 55........... Decrease of about 1 point.
55 and over................ Decrease of about 2 points.
December, 1923___ December, 1924— Mississippi.. 52 and under 55-------55 and over ..............
Increase of over 20 points.
Decrease of about 24 points.
The hour changes noted in the foregoing were comparatively slight
in five States but were very considerable in the other two. In Ala
bama there had been a heavy increase from February, 1921, to Feb
ruary, 1922, in the group working 55 hours and over, and in Missis
sippi all the full-time workers reported in December, 1923, had worked
55 hours or longer, but in December, 1924, about one-fourth of those
reported had worked less than 55 hours. In these respective States
median earnings had risen 1.0 and 1.8 per cent from the early to the
late week, but their late-week medians were lower than those of any
other State reported.
WEEK’S EARNINGS AT AN EARLIER PERIOD
113
EARNINGS OF TIMEWORKERS AND PIECEWORKERS
The proportions of pieceworkers in manufacturing in the early and
the late weeks differed by less than eight points in each State, by less
than five points in every State but Kentucky and Delaware. In
both early and late week, the largest proportions of pieceworkers were
in Delaware, Alabama, and South Carolina.
The greatest variations from early to late week in the median earn
ings of timeworkers and pieceworkers were in South Carolina, where
for each class of workers the 1921 median was more than 30 per cent
below that for 1920. In Kentucky in the same years there was a
drop of almost 15 per cent in pieceworkers’ and of 9 per cent in timeworkers’ median. In the proportion of rise or decline of median earn
ings from early to late week, pieceworkers differed little from timeworkers except in Delaware, in which such a large proportion of the
women were on the piece system. In that State pieceworkers’ earnings
had fallen 19 per cent from 1923 to 1924, while those of timeworkers
had risen 1.2 per cent. In manufacturing, the proportions of the
early-week and the late-week workers under each of the two systems
who had earnings at the lowest and at the highest ranges may be
considered from the following summary for five States in which both
early and late weeks were taken in 1920, 1921, or 1922:
Per cent of timeworkers earning—
Under $8
State
Early
week
Georgia______
Kentucky.______
South Carolina
Alabama.............. _
Missouri. _
_ .
___
_
__
20.2
18.0
20.3
49.5
16.1
$15 and over
Late
week
6.3
11.4
6.5
16.0
2.0
Early
week
32.6
19.8
34.0
11.0
30.4
Late
week
45.8
19.2
10.7
10.1
31.0
Per cent of pieceworkers earning—
Under $8
Early
week
17.6
18.1
18.6
46.6
16.4
$15 and over
Late
week
4.1
14.4
12.0
IS. 9
4.0
Early
Week
45.2
38.9
49.3
8.2
43.1
Late
week
62. 3
23.0
28.7
15 2
54.5
In each of the five States reported in this summary, smaller pro
portions of timeworkers in the late than in the early week earned
under $8; in one there was a difference of over 30 points, in three
others differences of more than 10 points. For pieceworkers also,
smaller proportions in the late than in the early week earned under
$8, but the differences between early and late week were not so great
as in the case of timeworkers.
The difference between the early and the late week in the per cent
of timeworkers earning $15 and over was less than 1 point in three of
the five States. The others were Georgia, in which the per cent at
$15 and over was 1.3 points higher in the late week than in the early
week, and South Carolina, in which it was 23 points higher in the early
week than in the late week. In every case but one the earnings of
pieceworkers in this higher-earnings group varied more from the
early to the late week than did those of timeworkers.
In laundries there were a few pieceworkers in three States, and the
proportions in the early and the late week differed by less than 4
points in each case. For timeworkers the percentage rise or decline
in the median earnings in laundries from the early to the late week
114
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
differed from the corresponding change in manufacturing by less
than 9 points except in Alabama, in which the median for laundry
workers had declined 15 per cent from February, 1921, to February,
1922, while that in manufacturing had risen 3.6 per cent.
EARNINGS AND RATES
The median of earnings fell below that of rates in both early and
late weeks in every case but one, as appears in the following:
Early week
State
Year
1920
1920
1920
1920-21
1921
1923
1923
Late week
Per cent by
which median
of earnings
differed from
that of rates
+0.2
-3.8
-19.3
-13.6
-18.6
-3.2
-21.2
Year
Per cent by
which median
of earnings
differed from
that of rates
1920-21
1921
1921
1922
1922
1924
1924
-1.2
-6.7
-16.2
-7.2
-10.0
-9.0
-13.8
As to the degree of variation, little distinction can be made between
the years. In two cases in which the late week was in 19211 and in
one in which it was in 1924, the median of earnings at that time fell
farther below that of rates than in the early week in the same State.
In 1921 and 1924 in one case each and in 1922 in two cases earnings
did not fall so far below rates in late weeks as in the corresponding
early weeks.
Medians of rates and of earnings showed the following changes from
the early to the late week:
State
Date of
late week
Per cent by which me
dian for late week dif
fered from that of
early week
Rates
1920-21
1921
1921
1922
1922
1924
1924
-6.4
-5.7
-33.8
-14.8
-6.3
-5.7
-6.5
Earnings
-7.7
-8.5
-31.2
-8.4
+3.6
-11.4
+2.3
It will be seen that the fall in earnings from early to late week was
greater than that in rates in three cases and less in two cases, and that
in Alabama in 1922 and Mississippi in 1924 earnings had risen some
what from the early to the late week, though rates had fallen.
If the chief industries be considered in all weeks reported, it is found
that earnings fell more than 10 per cent below rates in six out of eight
cases in cotton, in five out of eight in knit goods, in two out of four in1
1 One of these two cases is Georgia, for which some information was taken in 1920. However, most of the
women were in cotton, taken about equally in 1920 and 1921,
WEEK’S EARNINGS AT AN EARLIER PERIOD
115
shoes, in one out of six in overalls; but in cigars the greatest difference
was only 7.1 per cent. In every year earnings were farther below
rates in cotton than in any other industry, and in four of the six years
the least variation was in cigars or tobacco. The differences between
earnings and rates in the chief industries were considerable in three
cases in 1921 and were very small in two cases.
Changes from early to late weeks in the median of earnings in these
industries as compared with changes in the corresponding rates give
little consistent indication as to the period of study, but rather em
phasize the fact that such conditions are very likely to be brought
about by particular situations that may have obtained in a given
industry or locality at the time taken.
SUMMARY
In seven States data were secured on earnings in a week earlier than
the main period of study. If the medians of earnings for every week
taken be arranged in chronological order, there appears no consistent
movement in all weeks that may be referred entirely to the period of
study. However, considerable differences from early to late week
existed within certain States, showing the effects of the special periods
of depression or prosperity noted earlier in the study, and indicating
that these effects were more extreme in some industries and localities
than in others.
In 16 of the 20 cases for which data are available in manufacturing,
less than half the workers were on full time; in the other three types of
industry more than half were on full time except in three cases in
laundries. In laundries over 60 per cent of the women were full-time
workers in all but 4 cases, in 5-and-10-cent stores over 70 per cent in
all but 3 cases, and in general mercantile establishments over 80 per
cent in all but 3 cases. Thus the inclusion of the early week figures
shows the standing of the three types of industry in proportion of
full-time workers to be much the same as that shown earlier in the
report. The largest proportion of full-time workers was in cigar
factories in four of the six years reported, the smallest was in cotton
in three years, in knit goods in two. At least half the workers in
cigars in every instance reported, in knit goods in 5 of 11 cases, and
in overalls in 4 of 7, were full-time workers. A comparison of earnings
of full-time workers in the early with those in the late week gives
further testimony to the industrial conditions already discussed, and
shows their bearing upon particular States or industries somewhat
more clearly than does that section of the report confining itself to
data for the main period of study.
In only two of the seven States—Alabama and Mississippi—did the
hours vary appreciably from the early to the late week. In Alabama
there was a heavy increase from early 1921 to early 1922 in the group
working 55 and under 60 hours, in Mississippi a decrease in hours
from 1923 to 1924. The changes in median earnings had been slight
in each case, but these States had lower medians both in the late and
in the early week than had any other State reported.
The proportions of pieceworkers in manufacturing in the early and
the late weeks taken differed by less than 8 points in each State, by
less than 5 points in every State but two. In per cent rise or decline in
median earnings from early to late week, pieceworkers differed little
from timeworkers, except in the State having the largest proportion of
116
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
pieceworkers. In this State earnings of pieceworkers declined 19
per cent from 1923 to 1924, while earnings of timeworlcers rose 1.2 per
cent.
.
.
The extent of variation of earnings from rates gives little showing
as to differences in period of study, but rather brings out contrasts
between certain industries and emphasizes the fact that. differing
conditions are likely to be brought about by particular situations. In
every year median earnings in cotton mills were farther below rates
than was the case with any other industry in the same year, and the
least variation of earnings from rates was in cigars in four out of six
years. Earnings fell more than 10 per cent below rates in cotton in
six out of eight cases, in knit goods in five out of eight, in shoes in two
out of four, and in one out of four cases in overalls; but in cigars
the greatest difference was only about 7 per cent.
PART VII.—WEEK’S EARNINGS OF NEGRO WOMEN
EARNINGS OF ALL WOMEN REPORTED
The negro women studied by the Women's Bureau represented about
one-twelfth of all those in manufacturing and over one-third of those in
laundries as reported in the same States by the 1920 census, so far
as the classification enabled comparison of figures.1 The medians of
the earnings reported for 3,141 negro women in manufacturing and
2,958 in laundries are shown by State and industry in Table XXIV
in the appendix. In each of eight States over 100 negro women were
reported in manufacturing and the discussion of manufacturing, in
general, will be limited to these eight States.2 Median earnings in
manufacturing were nearly S9 in Ohio and were above $8 in Kentucky;
the lowest median was that in South Carolina, under $5. In laundries,
medians were over $9 in New Jersey, Missouri, Ohio, and Arkansas;
the lowest was that of $5.66 in South Carolina. Median earnings of
negro women in manufacturing in eight States were as follows:
Number
of women
reported
Year and State
1920, Georgia_____________
1921:
Kentucky_ ___________
_
South Carolina____ ________
1922:
Alabama ................................ .......
Missouri,
___________
Ohio _________
1924, Mississippi_________
1925, Tennessee.
________
Median of
earnings
.............
1,052
233
8.34
d. Oil
244
514
168
484
Table 23 shows the number and proportions of negro women who
received amounts within various ranges in manufacturing and in
laundries. In manufacturing the largest proportion in every State
earned under $8. In the eight States with the most women these
proportions ran from 93.2 per cent in Alabama to 41.4 per cent in.
Ohio. In three States the highest earnings were less than $15, and
as much as $12 wras received by only very small proportions. In
only four States did any negro women in manufacturing receive as
much as $20, and in each case the proportion was very small, the
highest being 3.4 per cent.
In six States larger proportions of the women in laundries than of
those in manufacturing earned under $8. In five States and Atlanta
no woman in laundries earned as much as $15, and in only one State
did any earn as much as $20.
I
S. Bureau <?f the Census. Fourteenth Census: 1920, vol. 4, Population, Occupations, pp. 876-1022.
’In the discussion of negro women, the numbers frequently are small, and for this reason medians some
times are computed and proportions given for numbers smaller than those that ordinarily would be con
sidered adequate for such purposes.
117
118
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Table 23.—Earnings distribution of negro women in manufacturing and laun
dries, by State
Women whose earnings were—
State
Manufacturing:
Num
ber of
wom
en re
ported
Under $8
Tennessee
Laundries:
Georgia—
Other places----
57.8
24.7
41.4
7
3
34
233
20
28
17
89
6. 3
19.3
22.1
11. 9
11.5
19.1
17.3
52.5
99
20.5
133
124
93. 2
116
483
65.9
45 9
244
89
514
141
22
213
484
254
$12 and
under $15
1
0.8
1
0. 8
18
187
9
19
21
114
7
56
10.2
17.8
5.4
7.8
23.6
22.2
3.0
11.6
6
119
1
25
20
66
3
57
3.4
11.3
.6
10.2
22.5
12.8
1.3
11.8
201
383
44
93.4
21.9
16
107
3.9
53.2
6
47
1.5
23.4
4
1
1.0
.5
$15 and
under $20
$20 and
over
227
233
82. 8
85.7
35
29
26
18.4
21.6
16 9
50. 0
95.1
78.5
127
35
29
15
7
86
9
8
12
2
107
42
10
9
1
39
3.3
2.9
16.0
.8
30.3
28.4
14. 1
16.7
.5
6.0
3
2
65
32
12
27
195
507
12.8
10.7
34. 7
7 6
36.0
23.6
40.8
27.8
3.4
13.3
1
2
30
2.1
30
6
24
12.3
6.7
4.7
1
3
8
0.4
3.4
1.6
17
3.5
1
.2
1
2
.2
1.0
11
19
2
3.1
12.8
2.8
4
2.7
4
.6
1.1
2.9
1.1
272
353
148
South Carolina.._
Tennessee.............
$10 and
under $12
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
176
Missouri-----------New Jersey -----Ohio___
$8 and
under $10
54
205
646
1
1
43
16
18
3
2
10
.7
1.3
.4
12.2
10.8
25.4
5.6
1.0
1.5
1 Exclusive of Atlanta.
About two-thirds of all the women reported in manufacturing
were in cigar and tobacco factories. The women studied in these
industries formed nearly 40 per cent of the number of negro women
reported by the census in the same States in 1920, so far as ascertain
able.3 Practically all the women studied in manufacturing in Ken
tucky and Missouri, over 80 per cent in South Carolina, over 55 per
cent in Ohio, over 50 per cent in New Jersey, and over 40 per cent
in Tennessee were in tobacco products. In Georgia over one-third
were in cigar making, but more were in hosiery and knit-goods mills.
The chief group in Alabama was in cotton mills, in Mississippi in
box and crate making.
.
The earnings distribution of the negro women reported in cigars
and tobacco was as follows:
Negro women whose earnings were—
Num
State and industry ber reported
Under $8
$8 and
under $10
$10 and
under $12
$12 and
under $15
$15 and
under $20
$20 and
over
Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
ber
Cigars:
Georgia.................
66
New Jersey-------47
Ohio
154
South Carolina...
190
7
Tennessee
Tobacco:
Kentucky---------- 1,051
' 242
Missouri
Ohio
144
189
Tennessee----------
cent
46
8
75
154
4
69.7
17.0
48.7
81.1
(“>
14
14
24
27
1
21.2
29.8
15.6
14.2
o
5
14
20
6
2
7.6
29.8
13.0
3.2
(<*
*)
1
10
23
3
1.5
21.3
14.9
1.6
1
9
2.1
5.8
3
1.9
482
139
54
112
45.9
57.4
37.5
59.3
233
28
30
24
22.2
11.6
20.8
12.7
187
19
24
17
17.8
7.9
16.7
9.0
119
25
23
26
11.3
10.3
16.0
13.8
30
30
8
9
2.9
12.4
5.6
4.8
1
5
1
.4
3. 5
.5
° Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
• XT. S. Bureau of the Census. Fourteenth Census: 1020, vol. 4, Population, Occupations, pp. 876-1022.
119
WEEK’S EARNINGS OF NEGRO WOMEN
From this summary it is apparent that in every case but one the
largest groups in these industries received under $8. On the whole,
these data indicate better payments in the tobacco than in the cigar
industry; and in one State having both, median earnings of the tobacco
workers were the higher.
In each of seven industries, the number of women reported was
practically 100 or very much more. In these cases the range of the
medians was as follows:
Number of Number of
States i
women 1
Industry
11
4
4
2
3
1
1
2,958
1,626
457
184
145
139
98
Range of me
dian earnings
$5.66 to $10.20
6.95 to 8.90
4.80 to 310.19
5.23 to 5.53
4.94 to 9.00
7.84
5.33
1 This summary includes only the numbers reported in States in which medians could be computed.
2 This figure is for New Jersey and it is especially high because a large proportion of the women worked
overtime. The next high median was $8.15.
In general mercantile establishments 21 negro women were reported
in five States. In Alabama, 5 earned $2 and under $8; in South
Carolina 9 and in Tennessee 4 earned $8 and under 113; in Tennessee
1 earned as much as $18; 1 reported in Mississippi earned $10 and
under $11, and 1 in Oklahoma $15 and under $16.
From the data available, the general conclusion is obvious that
earnings, often pitifully low for white women, fall considerably lower
for negro women in corresponding industries. A comparative study
of Table IV and Table XXIV shows that earnings tend to be at the
lowest points for both negroes and whites in the same States and in
the same industries; and likewise at the highest points for both in the
same industries and in the same States when these have both negro
and white workers.
EARNINGS OF FULL-TIME, UNDERTIME, AND OVERTIME WORKERS
Data on time worked were obtained for over 50 women in manu
facturing in each of 9 States, in laundries in each of 11 States. The
following summary shows the proportions of these that had worked
full time and undertime.
Manufacturing
State
Number
Laundries
Per cent who
worked—
reported Full time
Under
time
Alabama_____________________ _______
Arkansas.................................................
Georgia:
79
Other places............................................
Kentucky______ ____ _________
Mississippi_____ _____________ ___
Missouri__________ _______
New Jersey.________ ______ ________
Ohio_______________________
Oklahoma_____________ _________
South Carolina... ________
Tennessee
______________
110
566
149
234
58
448
57.3
48.8
40.3
21.8
41.4
32.6
41.8
50.2
41.6
65.4
36.2
61.4
266
457
50.0
53.6
50.0
43.8
1 Fewer than 50 women reported in manufacturing.
31893°—31----- 9
36.7
55.7
Number
Per cent who
worked—
reported Full time
382
200
Under
time
53.4
44.0
36.5
269
75
219
352
148
71
61.0
49.3
21.1
38.3
50.7
37.9
60.8
37.2
28.2
205
619
62.0
58.3
41.7
63.5
59.4
37.5
58.8
34.1
120
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
The proportions of the negro women in manufacturing who had
worked full time ranged from 21.8 to 57.3 per cent, being practically
50 per cent or more in four States. With one exception, a larger
proportion of women in laundries than in manufacturing were full
time workers. In 7 of 11 States practically 60 per cent or more of
the laundry workers were on full time. If these data be compared
with those for white women given in Table VI in the appendix, it is
found that more whites than negroes worked undertime in manufac
turing in 6 of the 9 States reported. In laundries a somewhat different
situation obtained. Although in nearly every case a smaller pro
portion of negroes in laundries than in manufacturing worked under
time, a still smaller proportion of the white women in laundries than
of the negroes were undertime workers in 9 of the 11 States reported.
The median earnings of negro full-time workers were as follows:
Median earnings of
full-time workers
in—
Median earnings of
full-time workers
in—
State
State
Manu
facturing
Georgia:
Other places.............. ..........
Mississippi.............................. .
Laun
dries
$6.23
C1)
$6.43
9.45
<*)
8.28
8.77
6.27
7.13
6.54
9.46
6.44
Manu
facturing
Ohio_ _
_
South Carolina.......... .
_ ...
$8.44
10.80
10.90
(2)
6.68
8.44
Laun
dries
$10.35
10.73
11.63
9.25
5.95
6. 85
1 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
2 No women reported in manufacturing.
Median earnings of full-time workers ranged in manufacturing from
$6.23 in Alabama to $10.90 in Ohio, in laundries from $5.95 in South
Carolina to $11.63 in Ohio. In five of nine States the median for
laundry workers was higher than that for factory workers. However,
this did not mean necessarily that the women in laundries were well
paid.
Table 24 shows the proportions of the women in manufacturing and
in laundries who earned amounts in various ranges. In five States a
larger proportion of those in laundries than in manufacturing earned
less than $8.
No full-time worker in manufacturing in Alabama earned as much
as $10, none in South Carolina and Mississippi as much as $15. In
the other six States, from 3.2 to 15.8 per cent, in Georgia and Ohio,
respectively, earned $15 or more. In Ohio 5.5 per cent earned as
much as $20. In laundries, none in Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi,
Oklahoma, or South Carolina earned as much as $15. In six of the
remaining States, from 0.5 to 21.8 per cent, in Alabama and New
Jersey, respectively, earned as much as $15. In New Jersey 4.6 per
cent earned as much as $20. In five of seven States greater propor
tions of the women in manufacturing than in laundries earned as
much as $15.
121
WEEK’S EARNINGS OF NEGRO WOMEN
Table 24.—Earnings distribution of negro full-time workers in manufacturing and
laundries, by State
MANUFACTURING
Full-time workers whose earnings wereNum
ber of
full
time
work
ers
State
Alabama........ ..........
Georgia 1
Kentucky.................
Mississippi......... .
Missouri
New Jersey.............
Ohio_______
South Carolina____
Tennessee _
Under $8
$8 and
under $10
$10 and
under $12
$12 and
under $15
$15 and
under $20
$20 and
over
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
29
63
276
60
51
24
146
113
245
25
29
104
43
22
1
28
80
104
86.2
46.0
37.7
71.7
4.2
19.2
70.8
42.4
4
17
761
9
19
7
27
27
64
13.8
27.0
27.5
15. 0
37.3
29.2
18.5
23.9
26.1
10
56
7
4
7
31
4
31
15.9
20.3
11.7
7.8
29. 2
21.2
3.5
12.7
5
28
1
2
7
37
2
33
7.9
10.1
1. 7
3.9
29. 2
25.3
1.8
13.5
2
12
4.3
4
2
15
8. 3
10.3
8
5. 5
12
4.9
1
.4
2
1.6
1
6.7
4
1.1
LAUNDRIES
Alabama..................
Arkansas.
___
Georgia:
Atlanta
Other places___
Kentucky
Mississippi. _
Missouri
Ohio _
Oklahoma
South Carolina____
Tennessee
204
127
190
31
93.1
24.4
10
68
4.9
45.7
2
35
1.0
27.6
1
1
.8
181
164
37
130
132
87
15
20
127
361
145
134
4
112
80.1
81.7
10.8
86.2
3.9
3.7
29.7
1.5
44 7
3
2
1
1
1.7
1.2
2.7
.8
25.0
93. 7
77.0
14.4
13.4
56.8
11.5
37.9
23 0
33.3
40.0
3.9
12.7
7
6
11
2
59
5
119
278
26
22
21
15
50
20
5
8
5
46
4
5
1
25
26. 7
25.0
.8
6.9
5
2
2
8
33.3
10.0
1. 6
2.2
4.6
1 Exclusive of Atlanta.
In four manufacturing industries more than 100 women were
reported. The extent of full-time work in these industries and the
range of the median earnings of full-time workers are shown in the
summary following:
Number of
women for
whom time Number
worked was of States
reported
Industry
1,127
429
165
Furniture
_
_ __
2
139
1
Per cent of women on
full time
Median earnings of full
time workers
From 22 (Mo.) to 72.6
(Tenn.).
From 45.9 (S. C.) to
64.9 (Ohio).
From 17.4 (Ark.) to
49.6 (Miss.).
19.4 (Tenn.)
From $8.37 (Tenn.) to
$12.35 (Ohio).
From $7 (S. C.) to $10.36
(Ohio).
$6.32 (Miss.).1
$6.81 (Tenn.).
1 Only State in which there were enough full-time workers for the computation of a median.
In the cigar industry one-half or more of the women in three out of
four States were full-time workers. In tobacco, although medians
tended to be higher than in cigars, the proportions of full-time workers
usually were not so great. In two out of four States fewer than 30
per cent of those reported were full-time workers, but in one of these—•
Ohio—the median of their earnings rose nearly 40 per cent above
that of all tobacco workers reported in the State.
122
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
A few overtime workers were reported in manufacturing in eight
States, and in three of these the number was sufficient for the com
putation of median earnings. In two cases overtime workers earned
more than full-time, and in one of these—Missouri—in which all
were in tobacco, the difference was more than 85 per cent. In Mis
sissippi most of the overtime workers were in candy and in Ohio
most of them were in metal. In laundries there were some overtime
workers in eight States, and in one of these—Ohio—medians could
be computed, the figure for the overtime workers being nearly 15 per
cent below that of the women who had worked full time.
EARNINGS AND HOURS WORKED
Table 25 shows the earnings of negro full-time workers in the pre
vailing hour ranges in manufacturing in six States, omitting the
States with small numbers of women.
Table 25.—Earnings distribution of negro full-time workers in manufacturing, by
State and weekly hours
Women who worked over 48 and under 52
hours
Women who worked
under 48 hours
Num
ber of
women
re
ported Num
ber
State1
Per cent who
earned—
Per cent who earned—
$8 $10
Un and and
der $8 under under
$10
276
51
3146
33.3
65. 4
3
78
245
66.7
3.8
100.0
2
Women who worked 52 and under
65 hours
$8 $10 $12 $15 $20
Un and and and and and
der $8 under under under under
over
$15
$10 $12
$12
30.8
Num
ber
$20
194
51
142
37.6
43.1
19.0
26.3
37.3
19.0
18.0
7.8
20.4
11.9
3.9
25.4
38
23.7
60.5
13.2
2.6
6.2
7.8
10.6
Women who worked 55 and
under 60 hours
worked 60 hours
and over
Per cent who earned—
Per cent
who
earned—
Per cent who earned—
State >
Num
ber
$15
and $20
Un
der un un un un and
$8 der der der der over
$15 $20
$8 $10 $12
and and and
$10 $12
41 53.7 31.7
44 40.9 47.7
South Caro-
6
33.3
12.2
Num
ber
$8 $10 $12 $15
Un and and and and
der un un un un
$8 der der der der
$15 $20
$10 $12
16.7
18 38.9
10.5
10.5
38 34.2 22.2 44.7 11.1
2.4
2.3
33.3
8.8 1.0
11.1
29 93.1 3.4 3.4
103 43.7 23.3 19.4 10.7
2.9
> States in which hours were reported for fewer than 50 women are omitted.
2 Exclusive of Atlanta.
3 One woman worked 48 hours and received $12 and under $15.
5.6
Num
ber
$10 $12
and and
un un
der der
$15
$12
4 50.0
50.0
123
WEEK’S EARNINGS OF NEGRO WOMEN
From about 70 to 100 per cent of the women included in manu
facturing in South Carolina, Kentucky, Ohio, and Missouri had
worked under 52 hours, and over 80 per cent of those in Tennessee
and Georgia (exclusive of Atlanta) had worked 52 hours or longer.
In laundries, over 50 per cent of those in Alabama and New Jersey
had worked less than 52 hours, and from about 68 to about 100 per
cent of those in Atlanta, in other places in Georgia, and in South
Carolina, Missouri, and Tennessee, had worked 52 hours or more. A
general comparison of hour standards in the various States with the
relative standards of earnings prevailing may be made from the fol
lowing summary, which shows for full-time workers in manufacturing
and in laundries the proportion who had worked less than 52 hours
and the proportions who had earned under $8 and $15 and over.
Manufacturing
Laundries
Per cent of all full-time workers
who had—
State
Worked Earned
under 52 under $8
hours
Georgia1..................
Kentucky........... .
Missouri_________
Ohio
South Carolina.......
Tennessee................
70.3
100.0
97.3
69.0
15.5
46.0
37.7
43.1
19.2
70.8
42.4
State
Earned
$15 and
over
3.2
4.3
7.8
15.8
5.3
Per cent of all full-time workers
who had—
Worked Earned
under 52 under $8
hours
South Carolina___
Tennessee.._____
52.7
93.1
25. 4
32.3
15.9
Georgia:
80.1
81.7
16.5
Earned
$15 and
over
93. 7
77.0
0.5
21.8
1.1
1 Exclusive of Atlanta.
The earnings of women in relation to their hours worked were
reported for both manufacturing and laundries in four States. In
these States the following comparisons may be made of hours and
earnings in manufacturing with those in laundries:
State
The larger per cent of
women working un
der 52 hours was in—
The larger per cent of
women earning un
der $8 was in—
The larger per cent of
women earning $15
and over was in—
Georgia_ _______ __________
_
South Carolina______________
Tennessee........... ..........................
Do.
0).
Manufacturing.
1 No women had earnings so high in either industry.
In tobacco and cigars hours were reported for respectively 503 and
239 full-time workers. The distribution of these within various hour
ranges was as follows:
Tobacco:
Women
Kentucky
276
Over 48 and under 52 hours
194
52 and under 55 hours
44
55 and under 60 hours__________________________
38
Missouri
51
Over 48 and under 52 hours_____________________
51
124
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Tobacco—Continued.
Women
Ohio...____ _______________________________________
41
Over 48 and under 52 hours____________________
41
Tennessee______________________
Over 48 and under 52 hours____________________
52 and under 55 hours
55 and under 60 hours
Cigars:
Georgia
52 and under 55 hours
New Jersey
13
Under 48 hours____________ ____________________
52 and under 55 hours___________
135
1
82
52
40
40
8
5
Ohio_____________________________________
Over 48 and under 52 hours
100
100
South Carolina
84
Under 48 hours
78
52 and under 55 hours__________________________
6
Tennessee_______________________________________
Under 48 hours
2
2
This summary indicates shorter hours in cigar than in tobacco
factories. While none of the full-time workers in tobacco factories
were reported as having worked less than 48 hours, over one-third of
those in cigar making were so reported; and while none in cigars had
worked as long as 55 hours, over one-fourth of those in tobacco had
done so. Of the women in tobacco and cigars whose hours were
reported, the proportions with the lowest and the highest earnings are
shown by hour groups in the summary following:
Cigars
Tobacco
Women who earned—
Women who earned—
Hours worked
Number
of women
reported
U nder $8
Number
$15 and over of women
reported
Number
Number
190
37.8
37
7.4
287
126
90
97
58
35
33.8
46.0
38.9
27
9.4
6.3
Number
Per
cent
239
100
41.8
88
100
51
51
25
24
58.0
25.0
47.1
Per
cent
503
Over 48 and under 52___
Per
cent
8
2
2.2
Under $8
$15 and over
Num- Per
ber
cent
12
11
1
i
5.0
11.0
2.0
In tobacco, the women who worked 52 and under 55 hours had the
largest proportion earning under $8, those who worked over 48 and
under 52 hours the largest earning $15 and over. However, the num
ber earning as much as $15 is too small to be taken into account. In
cigars the group working under 48 hours had the largest per cent
earning under $8. If the total number of women are considered,
earnings in tobacco factories made a somewhat better showing than
those in cigars. In the former 37.8 per cent of the women had
received less than $8 and 7.4 per cent $15 or over, while in cigar making
WEEK’S EARNINGS OF NEGRO WOMEN
125
the per cent earning under $8 was greater by 4 points; the per cent
earning $15 or more was less by 2 points. If only the two hour groups
common to both industries are considered, an appreciably larger
proportion of the women in tobacco factories than of those in cigar
factories had earned less that $8.4
In each of four other manufacturing industries hours and earnings
were reported for over 25 negro women. The proportions of these
who earned under $8 were larger in the longer than in the shorter hour
groups in nearly every case. The data in regard to the chief hour
groups reported in these four industries are as follows:
Chief hour group
Number
of women
reported
Industry and State <
Knit goods:
Georgia. _ ..................
South Carolina.................
Tennessee_ __________
_
Drugs and chemicals, Tennessee___
Cotton, Alabama..........................
Furniture, Tennessee_____
.
17
24
13
30
Hours
f55 and under 60________
27
Number
Number of women
of women earning
under $8
17
24
13
27
13
14
27
6
22
12
13
17
1 Several States in which only a few women were reported have been omitted.
In general it may be said that while there is some indication that
better amounts were paid for the more reasonable hours than for
those that were excessive, the data are not sufficiently comprehensive
to warrant the drawing of conclusions.
EARNINGS OF TIMEWORKERS AND PIECEWORKERS
Table 26 shows median earnings in 10 States for 877 timeworkers
and 2,168 pieceworkers in manufacturing, and in 11 States for 2,722
timeworkers and 177 pieceworkers in laundries. In every State
but Alabama and Mississippi there were more pieceworkers than
timeworkers in manufacturing,_ and in all States there were more
timeworkers than pieceworkers in laundries.
Median earnings of timeworkers in manufacturing ranged from
$4.95 in Mississippi, where most of those reported were making
wooden boxes, to $12.38 in Missouri, where nearly all were in tobacco
factories. Earnings of pieceworkers ranged from $3.93 in Arkansas,
where all were in box making, to $10 in New Jersey, where more than
one-half were cigar makers.
T„ c°mParls?.ns of these 2 industries based on total numbers are not greatly affected by the period c
In tobacco, Missouri, Ohio, and Tennessee, studied in fairly normal periods, had 45.1 per cent of theof study.
1 women
Jerse1y’ 0hl9i and Tennessee bad 48.1 per cent of the total; Georgia, studied at the
® p,fak per!od> ?lay,])?c<l?si<leled to balance South Carolina, studied in depression. If Kentucky
ft V
’is= °tv,d be.4houSht to lower the tobacco figures because of its large numbers of women,
n,
40 per c.ent °- th,ese e,arned under $8 and over 4 per cent $15 or over, while
m cigar factories in Georgia 55 per cent received under $8 and only one woman earned as much as $12.
126
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Table 26.—Earnings of negro timeworkers and pieceworkers in manufacturing
and laundries, by State
MANUFACTURING
All women re
ported
Pieceworkers
Timeworkers
State
Median
Median
Median
Number1 earnings Number Per cent earnings Number Per cent earnings
Tennessee____________
$5.81
5.15
6. 74
8. 34
6.92
5.54
10. 55
8 88
4.. 89
7. 85
132
48
176
1,052
244
141
89
506
233
479
42.4
47.9
52.3
$6.07
3.93
5. 79
88.8
58. 2
8.11
5.37
57.6
43.8
45.5
10.7
36.9
55.3
34.8
20.4
30.9
44.5
$5. 70
5. 79
7.60
11.08
12. 38
4.95
10. 50
10. 39
5. 33
7.62
56
23
92
934
142
63
52
402
158
246
405
98.8
100.0
$6.10
9. 37
5
201
1.2
8
2.9
15
38
6.6
25.7
16.9
76
21
80
113
90
78
31
103
72
213
44.7
58.4
79.4
67.8
51. 4
7. 25
10.00
8. 25
4.53
8.15
LAUNDRIES
$6. 11
9. 37
410
Georgia:
1
201
274
272
75
320
227
148
71
53
205
645
6.94
6.11
8.11
9. 63
266
272
75
319
10.20
9. 79
212
110
59
5.94
'
7.96
5. 66
6. 54
42
205
556
97.1
6.90
100. 0
100.0
99.7
6.11
8.11
9.64
93.4
74.3
83.1
79.2
100.0
86.2
5.92
9.89
9. 56
7.58
5. 66
6. 44
12
11
88
20.8
13.6
$6.50
16.00
(>)
(j)
9.08
Totals exceed details, because a few women worked on a combination of time and piece.
2 Exclusive of Atlanta.
_
3 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
In every State but Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee the median
for pieceworkers in manufacturing fell below that for timeworkers,
the differences ranging from 4.8 per cent in New Jersey to 56.6 per
cent in Missouri. This is a situation quite different from that found
for white women, among whom pieceworkers had earnings above
timeworkers in 9 of the 10 States in which negroes were reported,
although in 4 of the 9 States the proportion of pieceworkers was
smaller among white than among negro women.
The statement has been made that pieceworkers are likely to suffer
more than timeworkers from causes beyond their control. Ordinarily
the timeworker loses money only if she loses time. The pieceworker
loses money not only when she loses time, but when for any reason
her speed or skill is reduced and when the work provided is irregular.
The fact that in so many cases earnings of negro pieceworkers are
lower than those of timeworkers reinforces the statement that a
woman ordinarily must be both skilled and steady in order to earn
more at piecework than does her sister at timework. It goes without
saying that the exact occupations of pieceworkers frequently differ
from those of timeworkers. If the piecework system of payment is
employed for the less skilled occupations, the rate will be lower and
the earnings lower.
.
In laundries, five States had no pieceworkers. In the other six
the proportions of pieceworkers ranged from 1.2 to 25.7 per cent, in
all cases smaller proportions than were found in manufacturing. In
127
WEEK’S EARNINGS OF NEGRO WOMEN
each of taese six States a larger proportion of negro than of white
women were pieceworkers. Median earnings of timeworkers ranged
from $5.66 in South Carolina to $9.89 in New Jersey—a range con
siderably shorter than that for timeworkers in manufacturing. In
three States—Mississippi, New Jersey, and Tennessee—sufficient
numbers of pieceworkers were reported for the computation of a
median, and in each case pieceworkers had considerably higher
earnings than had timeworkers—from nearly 10 per cent to over 60
per cent higher. Mississippi and Tennessee were two of the three
States in which pieceworkers in manufacturing had earned more than
timeworkers. In New Jersey, in which the greatest difference
existed in laundries—over 60 per cent—pieceworkers in manufactur
ing, most of whom were in cigar making, earned less than timeworkers.
Earnings of white women pieceworkers in laundries in this State
were 40 per cent above those of timeworkers.
The summary following shows by State the medians of the earnings
of timeworkers and of pieceworkers in tobacco and cigars.
TOBACCO
All women
reported
Pieceworkers
Timeworkers
State
Median
Median
Median
Number earnings Number Per cent earnings Number Per cent earnings
Kentucky______________
Missouri _ __ _ _
Ohio. - ____ _
Tennessee_______ ______
1,051
242
143
189
$8. 35
6. 95
8. 93
7. 54
10.7
36.4
4.2
38.1
$11.11
12. 46
o)
7. 72
934
142
137
59.1
42.6
$7.06
30.5
112
88
6
72
5. 38
88.9
58.7
95.8
58.7
$8.11
5.37
8. 82
7.05
26
27
39.4
57.4
$5.75
io.50
129
67.9
3.88
111
CIGARS
Georgia...... .................... .
New Jersey_____ _____
South Carolina
66
47
149
190
$6.56
10. 19
7. 93
4. 80
39
20
58
10.00
1 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
This summary shows that while piecework was very prevalent in the
tobacco and cigar industries, the median earnings of pieceworkers
were below those of timeworkers in five of the six cases in which com
parisons could be made. Only in one case were the earnings of piece
workers above those of timeworkers—in New Jersey in cigars.
The extent to which the earnings of pieceworkers varied from those
of timeworkers in the States in which comparisons can be made is
shown in the summary following.
Industry and State
Per rant by
which median
Per cent of
earnings of
women who pieceworkers
were piece were below(—)
or above (+)
workers
those of
timeworkers
Tobacco:
Tennessee
88. 9
58. 7
58.7
-27. 0
-56.9
-8.7
Industry and State
Cigars:
South Carolina.-.
Per rant by
which median
Per rant of earnings of
women who pieceworkers
were piece were below (—)
workers
or above (+) J
those of
timeworkers
39.4
57.4
67.9
-18.6
+5. 0
-27. 9
128
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
The few scattering figures that are available for making a compari
son of the earnings of timeworkers with those of pieceworkers in
manufacturing industries other than cigars and tobacco indicate the
irregularities of pieceworkers’ earnings and show that the women on
timework received more than did the women on piecework in the larger
number of cases for which comparable data exist. The following list
gives the manufacturing industries other than cigars and tobacco in
which data on timework and piecework were reported for more than 25
women. Details are given for the States in which these data were
reported for five or more women.
Wood products.—Three hundred and twenty-three women in three States.
In these States 50, 52.5, and 45.7 per cent, respectively, were pieceworkers, and
in two cases these women had a much higher median than that of timeworkers.
Hosiery and knit goods.—Two hundred and seventy-two women in four States.
In two States all the women reported and in one State 68.8 per cent were piece
workers. In the case where some were timeworkers, these had a median above
that of the pieceworkers.
Cotton goods.—One hundred and thirty women in five States. All were timeworkers in three States in which very few were reported; in the fourth State 72.2
per cent were on timework. In the one case the median of timeworkers was
higher than that of pieceworkers.
Paper and paper products.—Ninety-six women in two States. In the one case
in which medians could be computed, 73.9 per cent were pieceworkers, but timeworkers had higher median earnings.
Glass.—Seventy-three women in one State. Timeworkers formed 98.6 per
cent of all reported and their median was above that of all women in glass factories
and above the State median.
Metal products.—Seventy-three women in two States. Pieceworkers formed
70 and 96.2 per cent, respectively, of all women reported. In the one case in
which a median could be computed it fell below that of all women in metal in
the same State and below that for all pieceworkers in the State.
Drugs and chemicals.—Fifty women in one State. Timeworkers formed 84
per cent of all reported and their median was above that of all in the industry
and of all timeworkers in the State.
Clothing.—Fifty-five women in two States. In one case all women and in
one 47.1 per cent were pieceworkers. Where earnings could be given, piece
workers had a median higher than all in the industry and higher than for all
pieceworkers in the State.
Candy.—Twenty-six women in one State. All women were pieceworkers and
their median was above that of all women and of all pieceworkers in the same
State.
Data on timework and piecework among full-time workers in nine
States from which sufficient numbers were reported, and a comparison
of these with data for all workers, are next presented.
129
WEEK’S EARNINGS OF NEGRO WOMEN
All workers
State
Alabama....... ................ ..................
Georgia.............................................
Kentucky .........................................
Mississippi _________________
Missouri. _____
________
New Jersey............ .................. ...
Ohio. ______ _______
South Carolina____
Tennessee___ _______ _________
Full-time workers
Per cent by
which median
Per cent earnings of
Per cent
Number on piece pieceworkers Number on piece
were above
work
work
(+) or below
(—) those of
timeworkers
132
176
1,052
141
244
89
506
233
479
42.4
62.3
88.8
44.7
58.2
58.4
79.4
67.8
51.4
+6. 5
-23.8
-26.8
+46.5
-56.6
-4.8
-20.6
-15.0
+7.0
29
63
276
59
51
24
142
113
243
0.0
22.2
76.1
55.9
96.1
41.7
97.2
61.9
47.3
Per cent by
which median
earnings of
pieceworkers
were above
(+) or below
(—) those of
timeworkers
C)
O)
0)
-31.2
+43.0
+5.2
-.5
1 Medians not computed, owing to the small numbers involved.
From this summary it is apparent that in six States smaller pro
portions of pieceworkers were reported among the full-time workers
than among all women. In Kentucky and Tennessee full-time
pieceworkers earned less than timeworkers—in Kentucky much less;
in Mississippi and South Carolina the median for full-time piece
workers rose respectively 43 and 5.2 per cent above that of timeworkers.
The summary following gives for the tobacco and cigar industries
a basis for a comparison of timework and piecework.
All women
Industry and State
Tobacco:
Kentucky.................................
Missouri
Tennessee................................
Cigars:
Georgia....................... ...............
New Jersey.................... ...
Ohio..._____ _____________
South Carolina
Full-time workers
Per cent by
which median
Per cent earnings of
Per cent
Number on piece pieceworkers Number on piece
were above
work
work
(+) or below
(—) those of
timeworkers
1,051
242
143
189
88.9
58.7
95.8
58.7
-27.0
-56.9
0
-8.7
276
61
41
135
76.1
96.1
100.0
61.5
66
47
149
190
39.4
57.4
100.0
67.9
-18.6
+5.0
40
13
96
84
35.0
23.1
100.0
64.8
-27.9
Per cent by
which median
earnings of
pieceworkers
were above
(+) or below
(—) those of
timeworkers
0
-31.2
-9.0
8
+41.4
1 One or both numbers too small for the computation of a median.
In tobacco in 3 of the 4 States there were larger proportions of
pieceworkers among the full-time workers than among all women;
in cigar making in 3 of 4 States there were smaller proportions of
pieceworkers among the full-time workers than among all. Of
the full-time workers in these two industries, pieceworkers constituted
over 50 per cent in six of the eight cases; in three of these they com
prised over 95 per cent.
In laundries, a different situation obtained; among full-time as
among all workers, very large proportions were timeworkers. Among
full-time workers this meant all those reported in four of nine States
130
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
and over 95 per cent of those in three others. The summary following
shows for full-time workers the proportions in manufacturing who
were pieceworkers and the proportions in laundries who were timeworkers, in seven States in which sufficient numbers were reported
for comparisons to be made between these two types of industry. It
shows further the relation of the median earnings of full-time workers
in laundries to those in manufacturing in these States.
Laundries
Manufacturing
Number
of full Per cent Number of Per cent
time
on piece full-time on time
workers
work
workers
work
reported
reported
State
Alabama.............................. ..................................
Georgia------------------ --------------------------- -Kentucky------------------------ ----------------------Mississippi________________________ Missouri------ ----------- ------------------- ------ -South Carolina_____ _____________________
Tennessee--------------------------------------
29
63
276
59
51
113
243
0.0
22.2
76.1
55.9
96. 1
61.9
47.3
204
164
37
115
116
127
361
Per cent by
which median
earnings were
above (+) or
below (—)
those in man
ufacturing
98.5
100.0
100.0
95.7
100.0
100.0
96.4
+3.2
-21.0
+7.9
+1.4
+21.7
-10.9
-18.6
In South Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia, earnings of negro
full-time workers in laundries fell from 10.9 to 21 per cent below those
of the corresponding group in manufacturing; and in Mississippi,
Alabama, Kentucky, and Missouri, earnings in laundries rose from
1.4 to 21.7 per cent above those in manufacturing.
EARNINGS AND RATES OF PAY
The rates of pay fixed by the firm and the amounts actually earned
in the pay-roll week taken were ascertained for 674 negro women in
manufacturing in 9 States and for 2,406 women in laundries in 11
States. The extent by which the median oi the earnings of these
women fell below the median of their rates is shown in the following
summary:
Laundries
Manufacturing
State
Per cent by
Per cent by
Number of which median Number of which median
women re of earnings women re of earnings
ported
was below
was below
ported
that of rates
that of rates
73
21
14.6
13.1
78
113
78
10.4
4.9
8.8
20
22
2.4
10.3
72
197
13.5
4.9
Georgia:
1 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
312
193
4.2
5.2
266
257
75
181
216
110
1
42
199
554
3.9
4.8
7.3
4.9
4.8
6.2
(0
17.5
5.5
4.6
131
WEEK’S EARNINGS OF NEGRO WOMEN
The median of earnings in the manufacturing industries fell below
that of rates by from 2.4 per cent in New Jersey to 14.6 per cent in
Alabama. In each of live States the difference was more than 10
per cent, but in two of these comparatively few women were reported.
Earnings in laundries came nearer to rates than did earnings in
manufacturing in all but two of the States in which both were reported.
The greatest difference between rates and earnings in laundries was
in Oklahoma, where the median of earnings fell 17.5 per cent below
that of rates. In the nine other States the differences were compara
tively small, ranging from 3.9 to 7.3 per cent.
The differences between rates and earnings in the manufacturing
industries for which medians could be computed were as follows:
Industry and State
Per cent by
which me
Number of dian of earn
women re ings was
ported
below that
of rates
22
Wood products:
14.6
16.8
11.1
4.8
2.4
11.4
.6
19
75
59
42
16
Georgia (hosiery and knit goods) _______________________________
Tobacco products:
10.3
70
25
39
112
20
58
56
Textiles:
11.2
8.9
7.2
3.1
3.2
This summary shows that earnings fell the farthest below rates in
textiles, followed by cigars in two of three States and by boxes and
crates in one of two States. Little difference was found between rates
and earnings in the medians of tobacco in two States and of cigars
in one.
In manufacturing, the median of earnings was below that of rates
to a greater degree for negro than for white women in Alabama,
Arkansas, Georgia, and Ohio; in laundries, the median of earnings was
below that of rates to a greater degree for negroes than for whites in
Arkansas (where earnings for white women were above rates), Georgia,
Kentucky, Mississippi, New Jersey, and Oklahoma.
EARNINGS AND AGE
Table XXV in the appendix shows earnings according to age for
838 negro women reported in tobacco in 4 States and for 1,434
reported in laundries in 11 States. In tobacco in each of the 4 States
over one-half the women were under 40, though few or none were
under 18; fewer than 10 per cent in the 4 States combined were as
much as 50 years of age. In laundries, in 10 of the 11 States more
than one-half of the women were under 30; in 4 States one-half or
more were under 25; in all the States combined, fewer than 5 per cent
of the women were as much as 50 years of age.
132
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
The age grouping was similar to that for white women in tobacco,
except that in Missouri over one-half the white women were under 30
while over one-half the negroes were 30 or more. In laundries the
negroes were under 30 more generally than were the whites.
The age group with the highest median earnings reported for tobacco
was 25 and under 30 in two States and 30 and under 40 in one. In
laundries it was 25 and under 30 in two States, 30 and under 40 in
two, and 40 and under 50 in two. In South Carolina, women of 20
and under 25 had the highest median. In tobacco, white and negro
women of the same age groups had the highest medians in Kentucky
and Missouri, but the whites were at a more advanced age than the
negroes in Tennessee. In laundries, an older group of white women
than of negro women had the highest median in Missouri; a younger
group in Arkansas and Tennessee.
In Kentucky and in Missouri nearly three-fifths of the negro
women in tobacco were in groups older than those for whom the best
median earnings were reported. For this large group earnings had
declined. In Tennessee the proportion above the group with highest
earnings was about one-fifth. In South Carolina, Alabama, and
Missouri from 26 to 43 per cent of those reported in laundries were
in groups older than the group having the highest median, and for
these women earnings had declined. In Tennessee the proportion
was smaller
EARNINGS AND EXPERIENCE
Reports on negro women’s experience in the trade were very
iragmentary. On the whole they tended to show that the amount
earned bore little relation to length of experience. The data on the
few cases from which reports were obtainable are given here.
Industry and State
Tobacco:
Kentucky______________
Missouri......... .....................
Furniture: Tennessee. ______
Laundries:
Alabama_________________
Arkansas...............................
Georgia. _ ______________ __
Mississippi_______ ________
Tennessee_________________
Per cent by
which the
highest medi
Years of experience of women having the an reported
was above
highest median earnings
that of women
who had
worked less
than a year
38? 1
191. 6
36.3
8.9
33.4
33.4
Data in regard to full-time workers show what advance the woman
who _was regular and steady might expect to obtain after working for a
considerable period of years. In tobacco in one State and in laun
dries in three, experience was reported for a sufficient number of
full-time workers to form some basis for a comparison of their earnings
at different periods of experience. In tobacco in Kentucky the varia
tion in the earnings of full-time workers as their experience increased
was as follows:
133
WEEK’S EARNINGS OF NEGRO WOMEN
Per cent by
which median
Number of of earnings
was above
women
that at 1 and
under 2
years
Years in the trade
All women reported____ ____ _______ ___________
1 144
1 and under 2 years. __________ ... _
3 and under 4 years............................. ..........
5 and under 10 years________
10 and under 15 years....................... . .
15 years and over____________________ ___
17
34
30
45! 1
1 Details aggregate less than total, as some women were in experience groups too small tor the computation
of medians.
In this summary of earnings and experience in tobacco in Kentucky
the advance beyond the earnings of those who had worked 1 and
under 2 years is shown to have been progressive for women who had
worked 5 and under 10 years, 10 and under 15 years, and 15 years
and over.
In laundries, in the three States from which sufficient numbers
were reported, the earnings of full-time workers varied with their
experience as follows:
Alabama
All women reported.......
_______
3 and under 4 years _____
Tennessee
Per cent by
Per cent by
Per cent by
which median
which median
which median
of earnings Number of earnings
Number was above
Number of earnings
was above of women was above
of women
that at 1 of women
that at 1
that at 1
and under 2
and under 2
and under 2
years
years
years
Years in the trade
1 and under 2 years
Arkansas
_
1
143
23
24
20
24
1
........... .
1.0
2.1
8.0
113
17
15
29
1
138
3.7
15
18
1.2
12.3
30
9.3
2
1 Details aggregate less than total, as some women were in experience groups too small for the computation
of medians.
2 In this case the change was a decrease.
This summary shows that the gain in the earnings of full-time
laundry workers was slight in the earlier years, but that for those
who had worked 5 and under 10 years earnings had increased from
8 to 12 per cent above the median at 1 and under 2 years.
SUMMARY OF DATA ON NEGRO WOMEN
>. Earnings were reported for 3,141 negro women in manufacturing
in 10 States and 2,958 in laundries in 11 States. Medians for workers
in manufacturing ranged from $4.89 in South Carolina to $8.92 in
Ohio. In every State the largest proportion in any earnings group
received under $8, the range being from 93.2 to 41.4 per cent in the
States having the most women reported. In 6 States larger propor
tions of the women in laundries than of those in manufacturing earned
under ,$8.
134
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
In nine States from about one-fifth to nearly three-fifths of the
women in manufacturing were full-time workers, and in every State
but one a larger proportion of those in laundries than of those in
manufacturing had worked full time. Median earnings of full-time
workers in manufacturing ranged from $6.23 in Alabama to $10.90
in Ohio. In five States medians for laundry workers were somewhat
higher than for those in manufacturing; in four States the opposite
was true.
For full-time workers in manufacturing it appears that as the
proportion of women working less than 52 hours increased there was
a tendency for the proportion of women earning under $8 to decrease.
In 8 of 10 States there were more pieceworkers than timeworkers in
manufacturing, but in every State timeworkers predominated in
laundries. In 7 out of 10 States, timeworkers in manufacturing had
higher median earnings than had pieceworkers. The same is true of
full-time workers in two of the four States in which such comparison
could be made.
The median of earnings in manufacturing fell below that of the rates
by from 2.4 per cent in New Jersey to 14.6 per cent in Alabama; the
difference was more than 10 per cent in each of five of the States
reported. Earnings generally were nearer to rates in laundries than
in manufacturing.
Considerable numbers of the women in laundries and in the chief
manufacturing industry reported—tobacco—were beyond the age of
highest earnings.
Reports on earnings and time in the trade, while fragmentary in
character, tended to show that the amount earned bore little relation
to the length of experience.
PART VIII.—YEAR’S EARNINGS
YEAR’S EARNINGS OF WHITE WOMEN
Up to this point in the report the wage figures given have been from
a week’s pay roll. The periods for which records were taken were
representative weeks in which there had been no excessive overtime,
excessive undertime, general shutdowns, nor holidays. While such
data are most significant in showing the wage conditions of large
groups of women employed in many industries, no year is made up of
52 normal weeks. Owing to slack work, partial shutdowns, holidays,
illness, interfering home duties, or other causes, industrial or personal,
practically every worker suffers a considerable variation in earnings
from week to week. Yet she must live for 52 weeks, whether or not
she receives wages for the whole of the time. Therefore effort was
made to secure from each employer, in addition to the figures for the
sample week, data on the year's earnings of a representative number
of women on the pay roll.
It would hardly be possible to ascertain for all the women on any one
pay roll the entire year’s earnings, since separations are frequent
and tracing women who change places of employment is a difficult
task. The women whose records were obtained in the present study
were selected to represent the steady workers of the plants visited,
those who had been with the firm for at least a year and who had
worked in at least 44 weeks during that period.
Year’s earnings in manufacturing in each State.
The summary following shows the median of the year’s earnings of
the women in manufacturing for whom such figure was reported and
the proportions of these women who had earnings of $300 and under
$500 and of $500 and under $900.
State
Number of Median of
the year’s
reported
earnings
Per cent of women who
earned—
$300 and
$500 and
under $500 under $900
539
26
138
31893°—31——10
47.1
42.3
9.4
42.1
53.8
54.3
65
340
341
120
1,184
1,363
2,510
22
342
658
784
Georgia:
$481
525
817
655
817
626
400
747
838
734
663
915
619
621
16.4
5.6
22.9
50.8
9.5
3.2
7.8
22.7
72.7
57.9
67.2
31.7
64.5
59.0
68.9
68.2
47.4
68. 1
66.5
22.9
22.4
135
136
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
This summary shows that the median of the year’s earnings ranged
from $400 in Mississippi to $915 in Rhode Island. In every State but
three more than half the women earned $500 and under $900, the
proportions in the 10 States ranging from 53.8 per cent to 68.9 per
cent, in Arkansas and Ohio, respectively. In Alabama almost half
and in Mississippi more than half received less than $500. In Rhode
Island—and it must be remembered that the earnings figures taken
there appear somewhat inflated—more than half earned $900 or more.
Since the year’s earnings must provide subsistence for 52 weeks, a
summary has been prepared to show the amount per week repre
sented by the year’s earnings in contrast to the median for the week
taken in the current pay roll:
Median of a week’s earnings as—
State
Secured in week’s
pay roll
Computed
from year's
earnings
All women
Alabama. ...........
Arkansas......... .
Delaware........ .
Georgia:
Atlanta____
Other places.
Kentucky........ .
Mississippi____
Missouri.............
New Jersey____
Ohio_____ ____Oklahoma_____
.Rhode Island__
South Carolina..
Tennessee_____
Full-time
workers
$8.39
10.24
13.26
$10.38
12.08
16.48
$9. 25
10.10
15.71
11.06
12.90
10.84
8.35
12.27
15. 23
14.52
13.14
19.13
9. 49
11.03
12.86
15.27
11.62
9.45
14.01
16.63
16.04
14.54
18.88
12.05
12.39
12.60
15.71
12.04
7.69
14.36
16.12
14.12
12. 74
17.60
11.90
11.95
This summary shows that in 10 of the 13 States the distribution
of the year’s earnings over 52 weeks gives a wage smaller than the
median of full-time workers on the current pay roll, and that in 5
States such figure is smaller than the median of all women, whether
working full time or not. In general, this indicates some loss of earn
ings during the year and not an accretion in the current week. Where
the differences are considerable there must have been in most cases
an even more considerable loss of time.1 This analysis indicates
quite definitely that the earnings of all workers taken together give
a more accurate showing as to what the wage-earning woman has to
live on than do the figures confining themselves to full-time workers
alone.1 * * * 5
1 Even in the picked group of workers now under consideration, called steady because they worked in at
least 44 of the 52 weeks, undoubtedly there was much loss of time. The number of full weeks lost by these
women was available for three States. In two of these more than one-half, in one of them, studied during
depression, over four-fifths, had lost some full weeks. In the third State over one-third of the women had
lost at least two full weeks. Losses often were due to plant causes beyond the worker’s control. In one
State over dne-fifth of those who had worked as much as 44 weeks lost some time due to shutdow-ns, over
5 per cent losing three weeks or longer from this cause. In another State over one-half had lost a week or
more due to shutdowns.
YEAR’S EARNINGS
137
Year’s earnings in chief manufacturing industries reported.2
Table XXVI in the appendix shows the year’s earnings of women in
the seven industries in which more than 500 women were reported.
The women in cotton goods in Mississippi had median earnings below
$400, those in cotton goods and in knit wear in Alabama and in cigars
in Tennessee had medians of $400 and under $500, and those in shoes
in Kentucky a median between $500 and $600. In paper and in
metal products the lowest median was above $600, in electrical prod
ucts above $700. The highest medians in knit goods, cigars, and
metal products were above $900; in cotton goods, shoes, and electrical
products, between $800 and $900; in paper, below $800. The follow
ing summary of data from Table XXVI gives some idea of the rela
tive year’s earnings in the different industries.
Number of States in which median was as specified in—
Range of median of year's
earnings
$300 and under $400
$400 and under $.500 .. _____
$500 and. under $600_________
$600 and under $700 .
*700 and under $800______
$800 and under $900________
$900 and over. __ _________ .
Hosiery
and knit
goods
Cigars
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
Paper
and
Metal Electrical
products appliances
paper
products
1
2
1
1
2
Cotton
goods
Shoes
l
1
1
If a woman received $500 within the year it would mean that she
earned on the average $10 a week for 50 weeks, and that for each of
the 52 weeks she had to live on about $9.62. In every State, earn
ings under $500 were received by less than 5 per cent of the women in
electrical appliances, by less than 6 per cent of those in paper and
paper products, and by less than 10 per cent of those in metal prod
ucts. In shoes in two of three States, in hosiery and knit goods in
three of seven, and in cotton goods in two of six, less than 10 per cent
of the women had earnings under $500. On the other hand, less
than $500 was earned by more than 10 per cent of the women in
cigar making in 3 States, by more than 20 per cent of the women in
hosiery and knit goods in 3 States, in cotton in 4 States, and in cigars
in 2; and by nearly 30 per cent of the women in shoes in 1 State. ° In
cotton, knit goods, and cigars in one State each, more than 60 per
cent of the women had earned less than $500 in the year.
. The summary following gives the range in medians of year’s earn
ings in 19 manufacturing industries. States are excluded if the in
dustry in question had too few women for the computation of a
median. Furthermore, there are excluded two industries for which
medians could be computed in only one State.*
* Excludes States with too few women in an industry for the computation of a median.
138
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Number of—
Lowest
Highest
Industry
Women States Median
Knit goods __
Paper and paper products..
Rubber products.. ___ _
1,408
854
749
617
556
547
515
435
431
342
304
249
244
209
202
153
150
120
43
6
7
4
4
3
5
6
3
5
6
4
3
2
4
3
2
2
3
2
$392
450
6G9
750
581
471
625
780
938
490
703
517
628
520
525
609
804
346
513
State
South Carolina
Kentucky___
New Jersey. - -
Median
$862
995
925
882
877
905
789
978
965
719
860
875
693
919
689
725
933
1,047
' 788
State
New Jersey__
New Jersey.-Rhode Island
Per cent
of women
receiving
under
$500
30.2
21.1
6.0
1.9
6. 7
15. 5
3.9
.5
5.6
23.1
10.5
8.4
23. 8
18.2
14.4
13.1
30.8
20.9
Of the industries shown, yarns and thread, cotton, knit goods,
cigars, and candy, in the order stated, had the lowest medians, all less
than $500. The highest medians were in yarns and thread, knit
goods, rubber, and men’s clothing, all above $950. The fact that
yarns and thread and knit goods appear in both these lists illustrates
the great discrepancies as between States or as due to differences in
product. In all but two industries, the difference from lowest to
highest year’s median was over $100, the greatest being $701 in yams
and thread. Men’s clothing, reported in five States and yet having a
difference between lowest and highest medians of only $27, is a striking
example of an approach to standardization.
The lowest median in men’s clothing was above the highest figure in
each of 15 industries, and the lowest in women’s clothing was above
the highest in each of 6.
Over 30 per cent of all women reported in cotton goods and in yarns
and thread had earned less than $500 in the year. Similar low earn
ings went to between 20 and 30 per cent of those in overalls, candy,
knit goods, and cordage and twine, and to between 10 and 20 per cent
of those in tobacco, cigars, bakery products, glass, and men’s shirts.
Less than 10 per cent of the women in each industry remaining had
received under $500. In women’s clothing no woman had earned so
little.
Year’s earnings in stores and laundries.
The following summary makes possible a comparison of the median
year’s earnings of the women reported in each of the four types of
industry.
139
YEAR’S EARNINGS
Manufacturing
State
Alabama
Arkansas__________ __.
Delaware___ ______
Georgia:
Atlanta-.-____ ______
Other places
Kentucky___
Mississippi _ _
Missouri______
________
New Jersey_______________
Ohio________________ .
Oklahoma_________
Rhode Island_____________
South Carolina........ .......
Tennessee............ ............... .
General mercan
tile
5-and-10-eent
stores
Laundries
Number Median Number Median Number Median Number Median
of the
of the
of the
of the
of
of
of
of
year’s
year’s
year’s
year’s
women earnings women earnings women earnings women earnings
539
26
138
$481
525
817
163
73
49
$729
784
753
36
19
19
$431
489
525
19
24
36
$623
650
572
55
340
341
120
1,184
1,363
2,510
22
342
658
784
655
817
626
400
747
838
735
663
915
619
621
46
47
62
69
238
124
646
125
77
37
147
900
942
689
853
819
1,085
805
920
733
21
22
34
66
34
78
57
19
481
567
431
613
667
612
510
613
35
19
160
57
180
118
17
671
463
674
681
654
647
758
788
38
510
42
542
In every Statebut two the highest median was in general mercantile
establishments; in Delaware and Rhode Island it was in manufac
turing, and in Rhode Island the median in laundries also was above
that in general mercantile. The median in 5-and-10-cent stores was
always the lowest in the State, except in Mississippi, where the figure
in manufacturing was lower still. The median in manufacturing
was above that in laundries in seven States, below it in the four States
of Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, and Mississippi. In four States
the median in laundries was above the highest found in any State in
5-and-10-cent stores.
In only live cases were there no women who had received less than
$500 for their work during the year. These were in manufacturing
in Rhode Island, general mercantile in Georgia, New Jersey, and South
Carolina; and laundries in South Carolina, where only two women in
this industry had year’s earnings reported. Some of the women had
earned less than $300—about $5.77 a week—in manufacturing in
Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, and
Tennessee; in Alabama and Mississippi some had earned less than
$200. In laundries the medians were very low for Alabama, Georgia,
Mississippi, Missouri, and Tennessee.
Table 27 gives the per cents of the women in each of the four types
of industry who had earned less than $500 and $500 and over dining
the year. In general mercantile establishments none of the women
in Georgia, New Jersey, or South Carolina had earned less than $500,
and in seven of the other States the proportions were comparatively
small; in the remaining three States over 10 per cent—in Kentucky
nearly one-fourth of those reported—had earnings so low. Except in
Delaware and Kentucky, there were in all cases larger proportions in
manufacturing than in general mercantile establishments who earned
less than $500. Earnings so low went to over half the women reported
in Alabama and Mississippi, to at least one-fourth, or close upon it,
in Kentucky, Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Tennessee. The
proportion of women earning under $500 was larger in laundries than
in manufacturing except in Arkansas, Alabama, Oklahoma, and
Mississippi. It was over 50 per cent in two States and over 30 per
cent in four others. In 5-and-10-cent stores the proportion having
140
Table 27.—White women whose year’s earnings were under $500 and $500 or more, by State and industry group1
Women who received under $500 in—
State
Manufacturing
establishments
General mercantile
establishments
5-and-10-cent
stores
Women who received $500 or more in—
Laundries
Manufacturing
establishments
General mercantile
establishments
5-and-10-cent
stores
Laundries
Alabama___ _____
Arkansas.................
Delaware
Georgia:
Atlanta
295
12
13
54.7
46.2
9.4
19
4
6
16.4
5.6
23.2
67.5
10.2
3. 2
8.2
2z. 7
4
8.7
15
4
15
24.2
5.8
6.3
Ohio
Oklahoma...............
9
19
79
81
121
43
207
5
South Carolina___
Tennessee___ . _ _
159
179
24.2
22.8
18
5
4
2.8
4.0
5.2
10
6.8
Kentucky....... ........
Mississippi______
Missouri
11.7
5.5
12.2
30
11
9
83.3
57.9
47.4
7
11
11
36.8
45.8
30.6
12
7
29
7
1
11
26
2
10
17
57.1
31.8
85.3
10.6
29
14.1
45.6
10.5
55.6
44.7
8
9
11
28
11
16
13
]
61 5
25.7
57.9
17.5
19 3
8.9
11.0
5.9
16
38.1
244
14
125
45.3
53.8
90.6
144
69
43
88.3
94.5
87.8
6
8
10
16.7
42.1
52.6
63.2
54.2
69.4
7
100 0
46
83.6
42
91 3
262
39
1,063
76.8
32.5
89.8
47
65
223
75.8
94.2
93.7
15
5
59
68.2
14.7
89.4
26
8
132
74.3
42.1
82.5
2, 303
17
91.8
77.3
100 0
75. 8
77.2
628
120
97.2
96.0
67
31
85.9
54.4
164
105
91.1
89.0
37
137
93.2
21
55.3
26
fill 9
499
605
1 While the base sometimes is small for the computation of per cents, data on this subject are so important and so meager as to warrant the detail in this case.
12
13
25
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Pqt cent
141
YEAR’S EARNINGS
earnings so low was above that in laundries in every State but Georgia,
Missouri, and New Jersey; it was above 80 per cent in Alabama and
Mississippi, over 45 per cent in five other States.
At the other end of the scale of earnings, there were some women
who received SI,000 or more for their year’s work. In 5-and-10cent stores there were only two such women in any State. In no
State did as many as 6 per cent of the women in laundries receive
$1,000 or more; in three States there were no such women. In
manufacturing, fewer than 6 per cent in each of five States, and no
women in two States, earned $1,000 or over, but in four States—
Delaware, Georgia, New Jersey, and Rhode Island—over 20 per cent
received amounts so high; in two other States-—Missouri and Ohioover 10 per cent. In general mercantile establishments more than
10 per cent of the women in every State but Kentucky and Rhode
Island earned at least $1,000. In these two States the respective
proportions were only 8.1 and 5.2 per cent. In two States about 40
per cent, in one 67 per cent, had such earnings. In seven others,
from 21 to 32 per cent of the women in this industry received $1,000
or more. The summary following shows the number and per cent of
women in the four types of industry whose earnings during the year
were as much as $1,000.
Women who earned $1,000 or more in—
State
Manufacturing
General
mercantile
5-and-10-cent
stores
Laundries
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
Arkansas___ ___________
Delaware ________________
Georgia:
Atlanta
Other places
________
Mississippi____________
Missouri_____ _
New Jersey _
Ohio........... . .. __ ...
Oklahoma______
____
Rhode Island_____________
South Carolina..._________
Tennessee___ _ ________
5
0.9
39
28.3
1
73
19
1.8
21.5
5.0
183
294
320
1
120
19
37
15.5
21.6
12.7
4.5
35.1
2.9
4.7
25
18
7
15.3
24.7
14.3
18
20
5
17
57
84
138
40
4
11
37
39.1
42.6
8.1
24.6
23.9
67.7
21.4
32.0
5. 2
29. 7
25.2
1
2
3.0
4.2
1
9
3
7
3
1
5.6
5.3
3 9
2
4.8
5.9
In manufacturing, the women earning $1,000 or over included
two—one in hosiery and one in printing and publishing—who earned
as much as $2,000, and another, in the men’s clothing industry, who
earned as much as $1,800. About 20 women in five States earned
$1,600 and under $1,800, and these were scattered in cotton, cigars,
knit goods, shoes, clothing, metal, and rubber; over 50 in eight States
earned $1,400 and under $1,600, and these were in cigars, clothing,
rubber, shoes, and knit goods, and one each was in printing and
publishing, drugs and chemicals, cotton, yams, metal, paper products,
and electrical appliances. In Delaware and Rhode Island over 11
per cent earned $1,200 or more, most of these, in the respective States,
being in cigars and rubber.
142
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
YEAR’S EARNINGS OF NEGRO WOMEN
Year’s earnings were reported for 172 negro women in manufactur
ing industries in 8 States and for 297 in laundries in 11 States. The
medians and the chief ranges of earnings in these industries were as
follows:
Manufacturing
Laundries
Number of women
Number of women
who earned— Number Median
who earned—
Number Median
of the
of
of the
of
women year’s
women year’s
reported earnings Under $500 and reported earnings Under $500 and
$300
$300
over
over
State
14
0
10
19
19
8
(i)
$5(13
263
w
14
4
49
454
1
18
Tennessee—_______________
11
42
(i)
400
6
2
15
$322
2
6
7
1
3
6
3
2
0
26
16
9
27
42
1
16
10
22
47
3
11
23
382
342
0)
306
525
67
14
8
Georgia:
12
550
(0
340
368
3
4
27
1
12
2
1
10
i Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
In four States in which a median of the earnings in manufacturing
could be computed, the highest was $563, or $10.83 a week. In four
of the eight States from which some negroes in manufacturing had
year’s earnings reported, one-half or more earned less than $300—
the equivalent of $5.77 a week for 52 weeks. In two States no woman
had earnings so low, and in one of these more than one-half the women
earned $500 or more.
In laundries, median earnings were $300 but under $400 in five of
the States for which they could be ascertained, over $500 in two.
In six States no women earned less than $300; in four States one-half
or more, and in three about one-fifth, earned $500 or more.
The year’s earnings of the 90 negro women reported in the cigar and
tobacco industries were as follows:
Industry and State
Cigars:
Tobacco:
Missouri__________________ ______________________
Tennessee__________ ___________ —------ ------------------1 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
Number Median of
of women the year’s
reported earnings
5
25
8
0)
Under
$300
0)
$438
19
7
11
15
Number of women
who earned—
0
0
3
563
361
4
1
2
$500 and
over
1
6
11
1
5
143
YEAR’S EARNINGS
The earnings prevailing were 1300 and under $500 in cigars in every
State and in tobacco in Ohio and Tennessee; they were under $300
in tobacco in Missouri and over $500 in the same industry in Kentucky.
In cigars in Georgia and Ohio and in tobacco in Kentucky, no women
earned less than $300; none received as much as $500 in cigars in
South Carolina nor in tobacco in Ohio.
In eight other industries a total of 82 negro women were reported,
and the range of the earnings of individuals appears in the summary
following:
Industry
Number of Number of
women
States
reported
12
9
11
14
7
13
11
5
1
3
3
4
1
1
1
2
Year’s earnings
$200 and under $500.
$250 and under $500.
Under $550.
Under $000.
$350 and under $600.
$300 and under $700.
$450 and under $700.
$350 and under $850.
All women reported in boxes and crates and in hosiery and knit
goods earned under $500, in candy under $550, in cotton and in drugs
and chemicals under $600, in glass and in furniture under $700. In
paper products one woman earned as much as $800 and under $850.
SUMMARY OF YEAR’S EARNINGS
A year’s earnings must provide subsistence for 52 weeks, however
short of 52 weeks’ wages the sum total may be. The amount earned
during the year was ascertained for more than 8,000 of the steadier
white workers in the manufacturing industries—the women who had
been with the firm during the whole of the year preceding the survey
and had worked in at least 44 weeks. In the 13 States the medians
of the year’s earnings ranged from $400 to $915; in two of these—
Alabama and Mississippi—less than 50 per cent of the women earned
as much as $500.
A woman who receives only $500 during the year must live on a
little less than $9.62 a week. Sixty per cent or more of the white
women reported in one State each in the manufacture of cotton goods,
hosiery and knit wear, and cigars had earnings below $500. Such
inadequate amounts were received by 20 and under 60 per cent of
those making cotton goods in three States, hosiery and knit wear in
two, shoes in one, and cigars in one; and by 10 and under 20 per cent
of those in cigar factories in one State. Earnings under $500 were
received by Jess than 10 per cent of the white women with year’s
earnings reported in electrical and paper products in all States, in
metal products in all, in knit goods in three States, shoes in two, and
in cotton goods in two. In the first two—electrical and paper prod
ucts—less than 6 per cent of the women in each State reported re
ceived so small an amount.
Year’s earnings in general mercantile establishments, reported for
nearly 2,000 women in 13 States, ranged from $729 to $1,085, which
would mean from $14.02 to $20.87 a week. Similarly, year’s earnings
were the equivalent of from $8.29 to $12.83 a week for about 450
144
WAGES OP WOMEN IN 13 STATES
women reported in 5-and-10-cent stores in 13 States and from $8.90 to
$14.58 a week for about 700 white women reported in laundries in
11 States.
In every State but two the highest median was in general mercantile
establishments, and in every State but one the lowest was in 5-and-10cent stores. The median in manufacturing was above that in laun
dries in 7 of the 11 States reported.
At the higher end of the scale, there were four States in which over
20 per cent of the women whose year’s earnings were reported in
manufacturing had earned $1,000 or more in the year, and in general
mercantile establishments such amounts had been received by more
than 40 per cent of the women reporting year’s earnings in two' States
and by between 20 and 40 per cent in eight other States. Only two
women in 5-and-10-cent stores in any State had earned as much as
$1,000, and in no State had as many as 6 per cent of those in laundries
received such an amount for their year’s work.
_ Year’s earnings were reported for 172 negro women in manufactur
ing in 8 States and for 297 in laundries in 11 States. The earnings for
the year, as far as medians could be computed, were the equivalent of
from $5.06 to $10.83 a week in manufacturing and from $5.88 to $10.58
a week in laundries. In four of the six States from which this informa
tion is available, one-half or more of the negro women in manufactur
ing—in one State nearly three-fourths—received less than $300 in the
year, though $300 is the equivalent of only $5.77 a week. In laun
dries, over one-third in two out of six States and over one-tenth in two
others had year’s earnings below $300.
PART IX.—RELATION OF WOMEN’S BUREAU DATA ON THE
EARNINGS OF WAGE-EARNING WOMEN TO CERTAIN
OTHER DATA
The earlier sections of this report have been based entirely upon the
data on earnings gathered by the Women’s Bureau by the method
explained in Part I. The study would be incomplete without some
indication of the data available from other sources and a consideration
of certain other matters inseparably connected with the subject of
women’s earnings, such as the expenses women must meet with the
amounts they receive, budget estimates and official investigations of
adequate earnings for women incident to minimum-wage decrees, a
comparison of the wages of women with those of men, and the extent
to which women’s earnings must cover the support of dependents. In
addition, it may be inquired whether the charge for women’s wages is
as heavy as the great woman-employing industries can afford.
SOURCES OF DATA ON WOMEN’S EARNINGS
The Women’s Bureau is the only agency of the United States Gov
ernment that publishes material on earnings applying solely to women.
Where the wages of men are discussed by this bureau, it is in connec
tion with their bearing on the employment and the economic responsi
bilities of women. Two other governmental agencies include in their
comprehensive wage data some material on women’s wages—the
Bureau of Labor Statistics and the Bureau of the Census.
Certain State departments of labor form another source of informa
tion on women’s earnings. The National Industrial Conference
Board, the research organization of the large manufacturing interests,
has published some information on this subject in connection with
other wage data. In addition to the foregoing sources, scattered
references on women’s wages may be found in various publications—
books and articles—by leading economists and other writers.
While the studies of the Women’s Bureau yield wage data for a
large territory and for a number of the most representative womanemploying industries, the subject is so broad and the general informa
tion so meager that it is important to make use of all that is available.
In any case the industrial area covered is small in relation to the whole,
but various indications appear that are of importance as showing the
amounts of money that wage-earning women have to meet their
expenses.
Earnings quite commonly are reported in averages arrived at by
dividing the total amount of wages paid by the total number of
workers. Such a figure is likely to be unduly influenced by a few
persons with abnormally low or abnormally high earnings, far from
typical of the main group of employees. The Women’s Bureau reports
earnings in medians, a measure less likely to misrepresent conditions
and consisting of the middle point of all the earnings reported—onehalf the women receiving less and one-half receiving more than the
median figure.
145
146
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Another important difference in method of presenting wage figures
also affects the amounts arrived at. A number of studies give" full
time earnings only, these being the amounts that the employer con
tracts to pay for a full week’s work. But lost time, whether' for per
sonal or for industrial reasons, reduces such amounts in a large pro
portion of cases. Personal reasons, especially illness, cause a great
deal of lost time, and the amount of idle time for industrial reasons—
shortage of materials, breakdown of machinery, inefficient routing of
work—is astonishing to the uninformed. The Women’s Bureau
usually reports pay-roll earnings—the amounts actually received for
the hours or days of work done and therefore the sums actually avail
able for meeting living costs.
Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics secures, from repre
sentative employers in the chief industries in all parts of the country,
data on wages and hours. Some of these are published periodically
in the Monthly Labor Review, and from time to time special bulletins
are issued that give information in regard to particular industries.
These data usually comprise some or all of the following: Average
hourly wage rates, average scheduled hours per week (or other pay
roll period), average hours actually worked, average full-time earnings,
and average actual earnings. The chief industries included that also
are reported in large numbers in the Women’s Bureau State studies
are boots and shoes, hosiery and underwear, cigars, men’s clothing,
and cotton goods.
Adequate comparison of the data of the two bureaus can not be
made in all cases. For a general view of a particular industry as
represented by the larger concerns in the country as a whole, the
studies made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics may be considered the
most valuable existing source of wage data. The important contri
butions made by the special studies of the Women’s Bureau lie in the
particular attention given to the wage of women, presentation of ac
tual earnings in every case, the use of the median instead of the arith
metic average, the inclusion of material from smaller as well as larger
plants, and especially in consideration of allied factors that, taken
together with her wage, form an extremely important part of the
whole living problem of the woman in industry.
Bureau of the Census.
A comprehensive statement and a technical analysis of the wage
material made available by the Bureau of the Census from the reports
it receives from manufacturers was published in 1929 as Monograph
X of that bureau.1 In certain census years the figures published have
comprised the average numbers of men, women, and children on the
pay rolls as of a certain date and the average amount paid in wages,
separated according to men, women, and children. Although quoted
sometimes as a measure of per capita earnings these figures form no
such actual measure, and the publications of the Bureau of the Census
have warned against their use for that purpose.
In Monograph X the figures for actual earnings of women have been
corrected to give a more accurate representation of year’s earnings.
1 U. S. Bureau of the Census. Monograph X. Earnings of Factory Workers, 1899 to 1927, by Paul F.
Brissenden. See especially Ch. XII, Wage Statistics in the United States.
RELATION OP WOMEN’S BUREAU DATA TO OTHER DATA
147
The figures are for eight different years, as follows: Five quinquennial
manufacturing censuses—1899, 1904, 1909, 1914, and 1919—and
three biennial—1921, 1923, and 1925.
Estimates of actual per capita year’s earnings are made for 18
woman-employing industries for the country as a whole; and for each
of 14 of these industries estimates are made for the two States in
which the industry in question was most strongly developed.2
The Women’s Bureau wage medians are above the per capita esti
mates of the census in electrical appliances, and in most cases they are
considerably above those estimated for tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes.
The Women’s Bureau figures for year’s earnings in shoe factories in
two out of three States are below the lowest census figure (that for
1919); in cotton manufacturing in four out of six States they are below
the lowest census estimate (that for 1921); for hosiery and knit goods
in three of the seven States studied the Women’s Bureau figures are
above the lowest census estimate (that for 1919).
In addition to its estimates of actual and of full-time year’s earn
ings, census Monograph X shows for various industries the purchasing
power at 1914 prices of such estimates. Although the Women’s Bu
reau figures for year’s earnings have not been stated in terms of real
wages, the census estimates are of such interest in connection with the
whole subject of women’s earnings that it is worth while to reproduce
here those figures that relate to the eight industries in which the
Women’s Bureau had reports for large numbers of women. The cen
sus estimates of the purchasing power of actual and of full-time earn
ings in these eight industries in four years, in terms of the 1914 dollar,
are as follows:3
Industry
Boots and shoes:
Full-time _______ ______ ____________
Actual_____ _____ _________ _
___
Confectionery:
Full-time___ __________________
Actual_________ ____ ..
. _ _ .
Clothing, men’s:
Full-time ___________
Actual.____ ___________________ _
Cotton manufactures:
Full-time__________ _________________
Actual_____________________________
Electrical appliances:
Full-time............... ...............................
Actual ________ _______
____
Knit goods:
Full-time_______________________ _____
Actual...______ ______ ________ __
Shirts:
Full-time _______________ _______
Actual_____ ___ __________________________ _
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes:
Full-time__________________ ________
Actual_____ __________________
1914
1919
1921
1923
$530
444
$538
480
$613
492
$637
367
297
365
304
428
325
463
364
416
346
525
423
577
445
595
512
449
388
533
456
526
438
584
505
420
276
423
304
463
281
519
399
429
357
439
353
502
388
555
478
387
322
384
309
438
338
459
395
360
294
1 U. S. Bureau of the Census. Monograph X. Table 44, p. 110, and Table 46, p. 114
s Ibid. Table 76: Purchasing power (at 1914 prices) of estimated amounts of actual and full-time per
capita earnings, by industry for female wage earners, census years 1899-1923, p, 160.
148
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
State authorities.
Three States have published regularly for several years figures on
the average week’s earnings of women. New York and Illinois be
gan to make such reports in 1923, Massachusetts early in 1924.4 In
almost every case, the average earnings in all manufacturing in these
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three States were above those in States studied at corresponding dates
by the Women’s Bureau. The chart on this page shows the relation of
the average earnings in States surveyed by the Women’s Bureau to
i New York Industrial Commission. Bureau of Statistics and Information. Monthly Labor Bulletin
Illinois Industrial Commission. Bureau of Statistics and Research. Monthly Labor Bulletin (after
June, 1923; prior to that tune, Employment Bulletin).
Massachusetts Department of Labor and Industries. Division of Statistics. Industrial Review.
RELATION OP WOMEN’S BUREAU DATA TO OTHER DATA
149
average earnings at the same time in the three States publishing con
tinuous reports of women’s earnings.
Other States have furnished some type of material on women’s
wages, in most cases fragmentary, in a few cases regular but for some
reason or other not in form for complete comparison of the sort made
for New York, Illinois, and Massachusetts. Headers interested in
particular States would do well to consult publications of their own
State authorities.
National Industrial Conference Board.
A study published in 1926 by the National Industrial Conference
Board is entitled “Wages in the United States, 1914-1926.” This gives,
for 3-month periods, an average of weekly earnings based on re
ports from 25 manufacturing industries and additional figures for cer
tain industries. These data are given separately for five classes—all
workers, total male, unskilled male, and skilled male labor, and fe
male labor.
The average earnings of women in all these manufacturing indus
tries were below those of male unskilled laborers in every case
reported.5 Except those for Rhode Island, the medians of the earn
6
ings actually secured from pay rolls by the Women’s Bureau in 13
States all were lower than the National Industrial Conference Board
reports of average earnings of women for the period that most nearly
corresponds in time. In most cases even the medians of full-time
earnings—and since these disregard lost time they are not representa
tive of what the woman in industry actually has to live on—were
below the average earnings reported by the National Industrial
Conference Board for the nearest available period. In New Jersey
and Rhode Island the Women’s Bureau figures for full time were
somewhat higher than the National Industrial Conference Board
figures, as were also those of Delaware and Ohio but to a less extent.
While it is not unlikely that an arithmetic average, such as that used
by the National Industrial Conference Board, would be somewhat
high, owing to the fact that it may be influenced by a small number
of quite highly paid women, such averages of earnings in the States
studied by the Women’s Bureau differed very little from the medians
based on the same data.
Comparison may be made of the Women’s Bureau figures and those
of the National Industrial Conference Board for the same year and
period of the year in the case of 7 of the 11 industries for which the
Women’s Bureau has secured reports for more than 3,000 women:
Cotton goods, hosiery and knit goods, metal products, electrical
appliances, rubber products, shoes, and paper and paper products.6
In this connection the fact must not be lost sight of that the Women’s
Bureau figures are medians, while the National Industrial Conference
Board figures are arithmetic averages, of pay-roll earnings. In each
of the industries the average weekly earnings of women as reported
by the National Industrial Conference Board were below those of
5 National Industrial Conference Board. Wages in the United States, 1914-1926. New York, 1927,
Table 4, p. 30. Later reports have been made by the same organization, but the volume cited covers the
years of Women’s Bureau studies.
6 Ibid. Tables for these industries appear as follows: Cotton manufacturing, North, p. 104; South,
p. 106; hosiery and knit goods, p. 108; hardware and small parts (compared with Women’s Bureau classifica
tion, metal), p. 102; electrical apparatus, p. 92; rubber manufacturing, p. 138; boot and shoe manufacturing,
p. 116; and paper products, p, 136.
150
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
unskilled male labor, except for a few cases in shoe manufacturing
and for most cases in the cotton industry in the South, figures for which
were separated from those for cotton manufacturing in the North. In
cotton, paper, and shoes in even^ case, and in knit goods in every case
but one, the National Industrial Conference Board averages of women’s
earnings were above the medians found by the Women’s Bureau. In
rubber in two out of three cases, in electrical appliances in three out
of four, and in metal in every case but one the Women’s Bureau median
was the higher figure.
The highest median of a week’s earnings of full-time workers found
by the Women’s Bureau for any State and at any time of study was
$18.88, that for Rhode Island at the end of 1920; the next was $16.63,
for New Jersey in September, 1922. The highest median of earnings
of full-time workers for any industry was $19.90, for drugs and chem
icals in New Jersey. In only 11 of all the cases was the median in an
industry above $18.
In a recent analysis of earnings in 1928, made by Dr. Paul H. Doug
las, of the University of Chicago, by the use of Bureau of Labor Statis
tics and National Industrial Conference Board figures, the lowest
average of the earnings of unskilled male labor was $24.34 (November,
1928).7 This is 22.3 per cent above the highest median of the earn
ings of women on full time found by the Women’s Bureau, $19.90, a
figure representative of the postwar peak in earnings.
ESTIMATES OF THE COST OF LIVING OF THE WAGE-EARNING WOMAN
Some indication of the amount the woman wage earner needs to
meet her expenses may be found in certain official and other sources.
Estimates for minimum-wage boards or commissions.
The budgets adopted by minimum-wage boards or prepared by
commissions in 1920, 1921, and 1922 may be compared with the me
dian earnings of the employees studied by the Women’s Bureau in
the same years. It is believed that for this purpose the medians for
full-time workers may be somewhat more comparable, since these
are more likely to be representative of the steadier and more expe
rienced women. The rates fixed by wage boards and commissions
ordinarily represent the minimum that may be paid to experienced
workers. The budget studies preparatory to the fixing of these
rates give a fairly accurate gage of what it was costing women to live
at that time. A comparison of such budgets with earnings found in
Women’s Bureau surveys is as follows.
7 Douglas, P. H. Wages and Earnings in 1928. American Journal of Sociology. Vol. XXXIV. No. 6.
May, 1929, p. 1026. Douglas’s more comprehensive work, Real Wages in the United States, 1890 to 1926,
was not published until after the present study by the Women’s Bureau was practically completed.
RELATION OF WOMEN’S BUREAU BATA TO OTHER DATA
Budgets adopted by minimum-wage boards or pre
pared by commissions.1 (Figures underscored are
below the Women’s Bureau lowest figures for
same year)
State and year
Budget
MANUFACTURING
151
Median earnings of full-time workers studied by
Women’s Bureau. (Figures underscored are
above the highest minimum-wage figures for same
year)
State and year
Median
MANUFACTURING
1920
1920
$16.11
2 11.00
16.25
iroi
$15. 27
18.88
1921
2 13. 20
1922
South Carolina..... ....................................
11.62
12.05
1922
16.93
18. 26
SPECIAL INDUSTRIES
Missouri. ... _ ... ................ ........
New Jersey.................................................
Ohio___________________ ___________
10.38
12.08
14.01
16.63
16.04
SPECIAL INDUSTRIES
1920
1920
15.30
1921
13.13
1921
13.50
1922
11.13
1922
Massachusetts (women’s clothing)...........
13.97
15. 69
LAUNDRIES
Missouri (men’s clothing)........................
New Jersey (men’s clothing)_______ __
Ohio (women’s clothing)................... ......
Ohio (men’s clothing) _
15.19
14.00
17.83
15. 43
19. 46
LAUNDRIES
1920
1920
16.11
16. 25
1921
12. 30
12. 29
1921
Washington..................................................
2 15.00
2 13.20
1922
12.50
1922
Massachusetts. ______ _______ ________
North Dakota...............................................
16. 93
13. 50
18.26
MERCANTILE
New Jersey.................. ...............................
Ohio. . ............. ....................................
10.56
12.78
13.35
13.50
MERCANTILE
1920
Arkansas.......................................................
13. 25
North Dakota___ ________ ___________
16. 25
1921
Washington............................ .....................
2 13. 20
1922
Arkansas.......................................... ............
District of Columbia.................................
Kansas... .. .............................. .................
North Dakota..............................................
2 11.00
2 16. 50
16. 93
18. 26
1920
15.16
13.90
1921
12. 21
15.65
1922
Ohio........... ...............................................
12.80
15. 58
15.09
17 28
15.18
1 U. S. Department of Labor. Women’s Bureau. The Development of Minimum-Wage Laws in the
United States, 1912 to 1927, pp. 134ff.
2 Rate set. No budget available.
31893°—31-
-11
152
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
After a comprehensive study of budget estimates made by mini
mum-wage boards in various States, at various times, and for various
industries, the Women’s Bureau has stated that a reasonable estimate
based on an average of the decisions in the minimum-wage States
would be that about $9 ($9.17) was the minimum cost for a single
woman living independently in 1913.® As the cost of living changed,
this would amount to $16 in 1918, and in the years in which States
reported in the present bulletin were studied the figures would be as
follows:
1920
1921
1922
_
$18. 38
15. 98
15.54
1923
$15. 88
1924________ _____ ____ 15.82
1925
16. 31
According to these, it will be seen by reference to the table just pre
sented that in six of the nine States studied by the Women’s Bureau
more than half the women in manufacturing earned amounts too low
for adequate subsistence. Reduction to 1928 dollar values gives a
similar result. The figure for 1928 would be $15.71, and reference to
the Women’s Bureau full-time figures adjusted to 1928 (unpublished)
shows that this is above the median for full-time workers in manu
facturing, as converted to 1928, in all but four of the States surveyed.
National Industrial Conference Board.
In 1926 the National Industrial Conference Board made a study of
the cost of living in New York City. The estimated minimum for a
single man living independently was $18.74 a week (an average for
the whole city). The average budget for the single woman was given
at about one-third less than that for the single man (in the city as a
whole), but the comparison with the budget given for the man is a
more adequate one, since that given for the woman was based on the
supposition that she was living at home and had to spend an average
of $3.50 a week less for board and lodging, nothing at all for laundry,
and less than the man for clothing and some other items—altogether
a lower standard of living.8
9
The cost calculated for a single working woman was $12.89. This
amount appears entirely inadequate when compared with figures
compiled by the Bureau of Women in Industry of the New York State
Department of Labor—even though the latter were for a different
year, 1929. These indicate that the least possible cost to a girl living
in New York was $14.69/or room and meals only.10 * But even the low
estimate of the National Industrial Conference Board for a working
woman—$12.89—is higher than the median earnings for full-time
workers in manufacturing in six of the States studied by the Women’s
Bureau, both as the figures stand 11 and when converted to 1928.
That minimum costs for a girl living at home form an entirely
unsuitable gage of proper subsistence for the working woman be
comes even more certain when it is considered that in 8 of the 13 States
studied by the bureau more than one-tenth of the women reported
were living independently of family or relatives. In all but one State
more than one-tenth of the women reported and in seven of them at
8 U. S. Departmont of Labor, Women’s Bureau. The Development of Minimum-W'age Laws in the
United States, 1912 to 1927, p. 146. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics figures, based on 1913 as
100.0, the cost-of-living index in 1928 was 171.3.
9 National Industrial Conference Board. Cost of Living in New York City. New York, 1926, pp. 92,97.
10 Association to Promote Proper Housing for Girls (New York). Address by Commissioner Frances
E. Perkins, of New York Department of Labor, reported in Housing News, December, 1929.
if This includes Georgia, for which the figure outside Atlanta was $15.27 but for Atlanta only $12.86.
153
RELATION OF WOMEN’S BUREAU BATA TO OTHER DATA
least one-fifth—or practically one-fifth—were widowed, separated, or
divorced, and various studies have shown that it is the rule for women
in these groups to be supporting dependents. Such studies show
further that large numbers of single women contribute to the support
of others. The fallacy of the theory that a woman should be paid a
low wage because she lives at home is well summarized in an article
by Dorothy W. Douglas, published in 1920.12 This quotes Mary van
Kleeck as follows:
Women are working to earn a living, and the facts show that many are also
supporting dependents. Low wages for women mean an inadequate standard of
living in the families in which they are the chief support.
******
*
It is impossible, in short, for a working woman to maintain any such standard
as our American minimum-wage laws contemplate so long as she is the joint-cost
member of an already submerged family. Her only chance (economically speak
ing) is either to break away and thus have to meet the expenses of independent
living, or to raise the family welfare to the required level.
Other estimates.
It is pertinent to list here a few other estimates of living costs or
expenditures, some of which are from sources less official than the
figures prepared for wage boards in the States.13 In each case the
purpose was to measure the cost for a single woman living inde
pendently, or her expenditures, and the figure arrived at was consid
ered the minimum that could be allowed. The studies following were
made in the years in which the Women’s Bureau surveyed the States
forming the basis of this report.
1920
Estimate of budget for laundry workers in the District of Columbia made
by the Women’s Bureau:
If lodging in a double room$19. 49
If lodging in a single room 20. 49
Estimate for laundry workers made by employees’ representatives to the
Minimum Wage Board of the District of Columbia 19. 88
Study of 43 wage-earning women made for Consumers’ League of Rhode
Island, average expenditures 16. 83
1921
Study recommending minimum-wage budget from questionnaires to
single women workers in various parts of Ohio, made by Ohio Com
mission on Women and Children in Industry, Toledo, expenditures
(134 women)$19. 16
Study of one working girl’s average expenditures, based on actual ex
penses, by industrial committee of the Young Women’s Christian Asso
ciation in Indianapolis 15. 96
Survey of cost of living of women, based on actual expenses, by minimum
wage department of the Workmen’s Compensation Commission of
North Dakota:
Factory workers (47 women) 17. 41
Laundry workers (97 women) 16. 88
12 Douglas, Dorothy W. The Cost of Living for Working Women. Quarterly Journal of Economics,
February, 1920, pp. 233-234, 250.
13 Additional studies, by the Young Women’s Christian Association and other agencies in various1
localities, appear from time to time. While outstanding estimates are referred to here, no attempt has been
made to prepare a complete list nor to make such an examination of all available estimates as was done
with the minimum-wage estimates before publication of Women’s Bureau Bui. 61, referred to in footnote 8,
p. 152.
154
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
1922
Study made in Missouri by the Committee on Living Costs of the League
of Women Voters:
If lodging in a double room $15. 26
If lodging in a single room________________________ _________ ____
16.26
The median of full-time earnings of the Rhode Island women in
manufacturing in the Women’s Bureau survey was above the lowest
of the foregoing estimates for 1920, but the median of even the full
time workers in laundries was considerably below the estimates for
laundry workers in that year. The medians of the earnings of full
time workers, whether in total manufacturing, laundries, or general
mercantile establishments, in the two States studied in 1921, were
below each of the four estimates shown here for that year. In 1922
the medians for women in manufacturing and in general mercantile in
two of the five States studied were above the estimate for Missouri,
based on lodging in a double room; but when the estimate based on
lodging in a single room is taken, only the New Jersey women in
manufacturing and general mercantile had a higher median. Further,
it must always be remembered that one-half the women studied
earned less than the median figure. In more recent years, estimates
of the cost of a “minimum decency standard” of living for a single
woman living independently have been made by the Young Women’s
Christian Association in two cities, as follows:
1926, Cincinnati$17. 25
1927, Duluth_______________________
17.76
In Cincinnati the Consumers’ League proposed a somewhat higher
minimum in 1930—$17.50. Medians of full-time earnings reported
by the Women’s Bureau are below these figures in every case except
manufacturing in Rhode Island, surveyed in 1920.
The Texas Bureau of Labor Statistics, after a careful study made
in the State in May and June of 1928, reported the bare essentials
upon which the life of a young working woman could be supported—
excluding even such important items as cost of illness and dental care,
insurance, savings, amusement, church or charity contributions, and
self-improvement of any kind—as costing $15. Median earnings of
women in manufacturing fell below this figure in 8 of the 13 States
studied by the Women’s Bureau, as did those of women in laundries
in all the States and in general mercantile in 3 States.
RELATION OF EARNINGS OF WOMEN TO THOSE OF MEN
There is abundant testimony to the fact that the wages of women
usually are considerably below those of men. Estimates made by the
Bureau of the Census of actual annual earnings per capita of women
and men in manufacturing show that the earnings of women fell below
those of men in various years by proportions that were strikingly
similar; the percentages were as follows.14
14 U. S. Bureau of the Census. Monograph X, 1929, p. 110, Per cent of difference computed in Women’s
Bureau.
155
RELATION OF WOMEN’S BUREAU DATA TO OTHER DATA
Industry
1919
1921
1923
46.4
118 manufacturing industries.
46.4
46.4
53. 7
40. 5
45. 4
53.4
21.8
32.9
36.0
45.9
53. 7
44.4
45. 6
53.4
21.7
32.9
36. 0
45.9
1925
64. 2
44. 6
45.6
63.4
21.7
32. 8
36.1
46.1
(!)
53.6
44. 5
45.7
53.3
21.9
33.0
36. 0
45.9
2 No figures for 1925.
The fact that the average earnings of women are below those of
unskilled male labor as shown by National Industrial Conference
Board data has been discussed. The extent to which the conference
board’s figures show such condition in the 3-month periods that most
nearly correspond to the time of the Women’s Bureau State studies
is as follows:16
Average weekly earnings of—
Unskilled males
Year and quarter
All
males
1920, fourth quarter..................................................
1921, fourth quarter.......................... ...................
1922:
Third quarter..................... ..............................
Fourth quarter________ ______________ _
1924, fourth quarter . _
1925, first quarter ............................................... .
Females
Per cent
by which
amount
Amount is below Amount
that for all
males 1
Per cent
by which
amount
is below
that for
unskilled
males 1
$31. 04
24.08
$26. 56
19.37
14.4
19.6
$17. 65
15.95
33.5
17.7
25.05
26.35
28. 65
29.55
19. 99
21.07
23.13
24. 56
20. 2
20.0
19.3
16.9
15.51
16.48
16. 75
17. 70
22.4
21.8
27.6
27.9
i Per cents computed in Women’s Bureau.
While it frequently is true that women perform operations different
from those performed by men even in the same occupation, it is by no
means the case that those of women require less skill than do those of
men. The question here is largely one of the custom of paying less
where women are concerned. Without considering the question of
different degrees of skill, there is evidence that within the same occupa
tion the payments made to women are below those paid to men.
For example, figures published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for
two of the years in which Women’s Bureau studies were made, in
regard to earnings in certain occupations in the men’s clothing in
dustry in which many women were employed or in which similar
lfi National Industrial Conference Board. Wages in the United States, 1914-1926, p. 30.
156
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
numbers of men and women were engaged, show the average weekly
earnings of machine operators to have been as follows:16
Men
Occupation and year
Average
full-time
weekly
earnings
Number
reported
3,219
3,611
$41.63
44. 54
3,538
4,467
$25. 71
26.00
1,785
1, 911
42.46
45. 56
1,603
2,126
25. 98
26. 77
1,084
1,262
39. 63
42.65
1,341
1,603
25. 14
24. 85
3.50
438
43.60
45. 60
594
738
26. 27
26.28
Number
reported
Total operators:
1922.............................................................................. .
1924________________________________ ________
Coat:
1922................................................. ................................
1924
Pants:
1922___________________ ____________ _
1924_________________________ _______________
Vest:
1922________________________________ ________
1924
Women
Average
full-time
weekly
earnings
The foregoing shows earnings of women very much below those of
the men in the same occupation, and the same was true in hand sewing
on coats, in which 191 men had average full-time earnings of $39.57
in 1922 while 3,063 women had $23.35. A similar situation was shown
in 1924. Men were not found in hand sewing on vests or pants, and
with one exception earnings of women in these occupations were
below those of women hand sewing on coats in both 1922 and 1924.
One additional instance may be taken, that of six occupations in
cotton-goods manufacturing in which large numbers of women, or
similar numbers of men and women, were reported in 1922 and 1924.
Average full-time earnings in these were listed as follows:17
Men
Occupation and year
Number
reported
Drawing-frame tenders:
1922......................... .......................................................
1924.................. .............................................................
Frame spinners:
1922.....................................................
1924_______________________________ ________
Speeder tenders:
1922....................... .........................................................
1924................................ ...................................
Spooler tenders:
1922_...............................................................................
1924-....... ................. ................................................
Trimmers or inspectors:
1922—.............................................................................
1924-...........................................................................
Weavers:
1922_____________ ______
1924........................................................................
Women
Average
full-time
weekly
earnings
Number
reported
Average
full-time
weekly
earnings
522
762
$14.53
16.20
623
653
$14. 21
15.95
547
900
13.59
19. 63
6, 634
8,314
15. 83
16.94
1,745
2,177
19. 37
21. 39
2,372
2,703
37
10. 56
3,091
3,646
13. 91
15. 19
78
158
13. 63
16.81
12. 92
14. 12
7,410
9,024
20. 44
23.71
1,056
1, 602
7,644
8,493
18.82
21.01
19. 59
22.22
16 U, S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Wages and Hours of Labor in the Men’s Clothing Industry, 1911 to
1928. Table 1, p. 3.
17 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Wages and Hours of Labor in Cotton Goods Manufacturing, 1924.
Table 2, pp. 2-5,
RELATION OP WOMEN’S BUREAU DATA TO OTHER DATA
157
This tabulation shows women’s earnings below those of men in all
but 2 of the 11 cases in which earnings are reported for both. In
several instances they are considerably below.
A striking example of the lowering of rates in an occupation after
women were employed, despite the fact that their performance proved
more skilled than that of men, was reported in a recent study made
by the Women’s Bureau. In the plant in question the report states—
A new screw machine was installed * * * and men were assigned to the
job on a piecework basis at a certain rate per thousand. After working on the
machine a short time the men complained that they were not able to make a
decent wage at the rate paid, and the employment manager and works manager
decided to try women on it, transferring the men to other work. Women were
put on at the same rate and, the employment manager said, “They ran riot with
the job and before long were making over $50 a week.” Then the men wanted
another trial at the job, and as the employment manager does not approve of
having women in the machine shop and tries to discourage it, the men wrere given
another try-out at a slightly higher rate than the initial one. Again they failed
to turn out enough work to earn a satisfactory wage. Women have been
employed on this work ever since (about three years). Rates have been lowered
several times since the women have been working on the machines, as it was
stated that the work was in an experimental stage when the first rates were set.
Machine setters were employed for both men and women. The women now
make $25 to $30 a week.18
RESPONSIBILITY OF WOMEN FOR MAINTAINING OR SHARING IN
THE SUPPORT OF THEIR FAMILIES
The comparison of the earnings of women with those of men would
be less significant if women ordinarily received amounts consistent
with the maintenance of a reasonable American standard of living.
However, much of the material in this report has indicated that their
earnings are insufficient for this purpose.
The theoretical norm upon which the woman’s wage has been based
too often in the past—that, of a single woman in industry for a few
years, unstable on the job and having only herself to support—is
entirely at variance with the facts in too many cases to represent an
adequate basis for the determination of women’s wages at the present
time.
The data in this study form a not inconsiderable body of testimony
to the stability of the woman worker. In 5 of the States surveyed
over 15 per cent of the women in manufacturing, in 9 States over 20
per cent of those in general mercantile establishments, and in 7 States
over 20 per cent of those in laundries, were at least 40 years of age.
Considerable proportions of the women studied had been in the trade
10 years or longer—in manufacturing in all the States reported
practically 10 per cent or over, in 5 cases the range being from about
20 to nearly 40 per cent; in general mercantile establishments from
about 20 to 29 per cent of the women in 11 States; and in laundries
from 14 to 25 per cent of the women in 7 States, had had at least 10
years of experience.
The extent to which wage-earning women, "whether single or mar
ried, are called upon to contribute to family support has been the
subject of various studies by the Women’s Bureau and other agencies.
These have been summarized by Agnes L. Peterson in an article
18 U. S. Department of Labor. Women's Bureau. The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employ
ment Opportunities of Women. Bui. 65, 1928, p. 228.
158
WAGES OP WOMEN IN 13 STATES
published in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and
Social Science in May, 1929. This shows that of 169,255 women
reported in 17 State studies and 8 other special studies made by the
Women’s Bureau, nearly 30 per cent were married and over 17 per
cent were widowed, separated, or divorced. Of 61,679 women
reported in 22 studies made by various agencies from 1888 to 1923
over 53 per cent contributed all their earnings to their families and
more than 37 per cent contributed part of their earnings.
In a study made by the Women’s Bureau, in which 31,481 wage
earning women in 4 cities reported number of bread-winners in the
family, more than 20 per cent were the sole bread-winners and nearly
50 per cent one of two bread-winners. In three of these cities, of
2,331 women who were sole bread-winners and who reported size of
family, 32 per cent were supporting 3 or 4 persons and about 8 per
cent were supporting from 5 to 9 or more persons. In a study of
some 1,800 women made by the bureau in 1919, 1 in 3 of the single
women reported her mother to be entirely dependent upon her and
1 in 7 of the married women was the sole support of herself and
husband. In 8 studies made by various agencies, 16,964 women were
included, and though the term was not denned, 13.6 per cent of these
were reported as having total dependents. In 7 studies, aggregating
13,188 women, over one-fifth contributed to the support of dependents.
In view of the evidence here summarized, the following statement
from the Annals article cited seems sufficiently conservative:
That a large proportion of the families living in cities depend largely upon the
earnings of women, and that in many homes the entire income is earned by wife
or daughters. 19
GROWTH OF MANUFACTURING AND GROWTH IN WAGES
The data presented in this report indicate that the costs of living
bear heavily upon women, and that in a large proportion of cases the
wage received by them can not be considered adequate to meet these
costs.
Obviously it would be but poor social economy for wages to be so
low that human factors had to be sacrificed to the production of
material goods, since the chief use of material goods lies in their
contribution to the comfort and happiness of human beings. Yet it
is probable that too often the amount paid in wages, especially in
certain of the woman-employing industries, is determined by the
lowest price at which labor is purchasable in the market and presents
no adequate reflection of the proportion of the profit of the industry
that actually would be assignable to the labor factor in the budget.
The rapid growth in the profits resulting from the manufacturing
processes would seem to warrant a somewhat analogous advance in
wages.
Growth in labor output compared to real wages.
While the data on this subject do not apply particularly to women,
it is pertinent to inquire whether the evidence as to the movement
of wages in manufacturing would indicate a growth reasonably
commensurate with the increase that has taken place in the output
19 Peterson, Agnes L. The Share of Wage-Earning Women in Family Support. Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, May, 1929, pp. 84-85. A reprint of this article has been issued
as Women’s Bureau Bulletin No. 75, 1929, 20 pp.
RELATION OF WOMEN’S BUREAU DATA TO OTHER DATA
159
of labor. Various authorities have handled the subject of industrial
advance from the following angles: Growth in the physical volume of
manufactures, which, of course, shows the greatest increase of all;
growth in the value added to raw materials by the manufacturing
processes, which is substantial but not so great as the first; growth
in manufacturing output per person in the population, which gives
only the increase in goods potentially available to the individual;
growth in the output per person employed in industry, which may
include all wage earners, may exclude the clerical forces in manufac
turing industries, or may focus upon a single industry using either of
these two bases.
Of the many proofs of the increase in the physical volume of
manufactures, that of the Bureau of Labor Statistics shows output
per worker in manufacturing to have increased from 1898-1900 to
1926-27 by 49% per cent, and from 1918-1920 to 1926-27 by 43 per
cent.20
Figures from the Bureau of the Census show an increase in the
physical production index from 1919 to 1925 of 28.5 per cent.21
During this period there was a decrease in number of persons em
ployed, so, as the report states, “ Clearly output per worker must have
risen markedly.” 22 In a study entitled The Economic Significance
of the Increased Efficiency of American Industry, Woodlicf Thomas
gives an index of output per person in the manufacturing industries
in year’s in which the census of manufactures was taken, beginning
with 1899.23 A comparison of these figures with an index computed
for real earnings for the more recent years is as follows:
Year
Index of
Index of
output per real annual
earnings1
person
1914. _____________
1919
1921_______
100
100
96
99
112
115
Year
1923 __
1925_
1927........ .........................
Index of
Index of
output per real annual
earnings1
person
122
136
2 140-145
128
128
1 Douglas, Paul H. Unpublished material prepared for Women’s Trade Union League, May, 1929.
2 Estimated.
This summary shows an increase in real earnings but a decline in
output per person in 1919 and 1921; an increase in both in 1923, that
in real earnings being greater than output per person; in 1925 the
increase in output per pel-son considerably outran the increase in real
earnings.
If manufacturing production increased and number of workers
decreased, it is obvious that output per worker increased. Of course,
account must be taken of the fact that capital and equipment as well as
labor made large contributions to the increase in physical volume of
manufactures. Further, such increases as may occur in exchange
value often are attributable to economic factors other than increase in
capital or in productivity of labor; such, for example, as increased
demand. However, there is evidence that a large proportion of the
increased value added by manufacturing was attributable to labor
20 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review, January, 1929, p. 55.
21 U. S. Bureau of the Census. Monograph VIII. The Growth of Manufactures, 1899 to 1923, by
Edmund E. Day and Woodlief Thomas, 1928, p. 194.
22 Ibid., p. 37.
23 American Economic Review, March, 1928, Supplement, p. 128.
160
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
and that the actual productivity of labor has increased. In a recent
study of the productivity of labor, Charles W. Cobb and Paid H.
Douglas have made an estimate as to the proportion of the increase
in manufacturing productivity from 1899 to 1922 that may be attrib
uted to labor, and they have considered this to be about three-fourths
of the total increase. They give the following data as to the increase
in productivity and that in real wages:24
Index of
final
physical
produc
tivity of
labor
Year
Per cent
Relative
deviation
value pro Index of of real wage
ductivity
from value
per unit of real wage 1 produc
labor 1
tivity of
labor
1899........... ............. ..............................................................
100
101
1919_______________ _______ ____________
1920_______________________________________ _____
1921.................................................................................. .
1922___________________________________ ________
113
119
121
149
102
114
117
136
111
114
115
119
+9
0
-2
-17
1 Base, average of 1899-1908= 100.
From . these figures it will be seen that while the relative value
productivity per unit of labor in 1922 was 34 points above that in 1919
(and of course the physical productivity of labor had grown even
more), the increase in the real wage during the same period was only
8 points.
Naturally, great differences have existed in the degree of growth of
various industries. From certain figures given in the two census
monographs cited, a comparison of the increase in the value added by
manufacture in the chief woman-employing industries with the in
crease in the estimated full-time earnings of women, for the period 1919
to 1925, may be made as follows:
Per cent of increase
from 1919 to 1925 in—
Estimated
Value
added by annual full
time earn
manu
ings of
facture °
women *
Industry
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies___ _
____ ______________
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes__________ _ ____________________
____
0.9
«4.7
19.1
• • 24.2
57.7
24 6
14. 2
23.3
31.4
9.8
3.4
21.7
2.3
20.2
24.8
9. 0
9.6
6.1
° Census Monograph VIII. Table 43, p. 200.
e In this case the figure represents a decrease.
6 Census Monograph X. Computed from data
d Includes ice cream and chewing gum.
in Table A, p. 377.
• Cotton goods and lace.
24 Cobb, Charles W., and Douglas, Paul H. A Theory of Production. American Economic Review,
March, 1928, Supplement, p. 161; Table X, p. 163; Table XI, p. 164.
Professor Douglas’s new and comprehensive work. Real Wages in the United States, 1890 to 1926, did not
appear until the present study was practically completed. In two industries that employ many women,
taking the years of the census of manufactures, he shows the following: In food products, real earnings rose
above the relative value productivity in every census period from 1914 to 1923, inclusive, but fell 4 per cent
below in 1925; in textiles real earnings fell from 1 to 9 per cent below the value productivity in five of the
seven years reported, rising 1 and 4 per cent above in 1919 and 1921, respectively. The per cent that pay
ments in wages—exclusive of salaried employees—formed of total value added by manufacture was from
39.3 to 44.7 in the census years from 1899 to 1927, inclusive; when rent and taxes were subtracted from the
value of manufactures, the proportion paid in wages rose and formed from 42.4 to 46.3 per cent. (See Doug
las, Paul H., Real Wages in the United States, 1890 to 1926. Publications of the Poliak Foundation for
Economic Research. Houghton Mifflin. 1930. pp. 531, 540, and 542.)
RELATION OF WOMEN’S BUREAU DATA TO OTHER DATA
161
In the foregoing it is not certain that the figures for confectionery
and cotton manufactures can be considered comparable with the indus
tries in the present study. In only two of the seven other industries
had the earnings of women increased by as much as 10 per cent, while
the value added by manufacture had increased by more than 10 per
cent in five—in one of these by as much as 57.7 per cent and in three
others by over 20 per cent.
In regard to increased output of labor in specific industries, data
may be quoted from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, which published
in January, 1927, a summary of figures secured on the productivity of
labor in 11 industries—the output per man-hour. An index based on
the condition in 1914 was prepared for each industry. After 1921 the
productivity was above that in 1914 in every industry reported; in all
industries but two this increase was continuous to and including 1924.25
While the majority of these were not woman-employing industries, in
7 of the 11 the increase in labor productivity was above the 28 points
shown in the summary on page 159 to represent the increase in real
earnings in all manufacturing in the same period—from 1914 to 1925.
In the three that might be considered partially comparable with any
industry presented in this report—boots and shoes, paper and pulp,
and rubber tires—the increases in labor productivity in the period
under consideration were shown to be, respectively, 6, 34, and 211
points, and this included the least and the greatest increase in any of
the 11 industries included.
The subject of labor productivity and wages may be summarized by
the following quotation from an article by Mr. Ewan Clague, formerly
of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, based on the figures
given for the various industries:26
* * * there can be no doubt on this one point, namely, that there is no
immediate and exact connection between high productivity of labor in an indus
try and the wages paid in that industry * * *.
Where productivity is highest, there wages are likely to be high, too, but the
wages will not be by any means in proportion to productivity; and where pro
ductivity is lowest, the wages will be higher than productivity would justify.
The workers in industries where productivity is high ought not to permit them
selves to be misled into expecting wage rates so high that the industry will not
pay them, and, on the other hand, workers in industries of low productivity must
continue to rely upon bargaining power and an appeal for a decent standard of
living. But, taking the working class as a whole, this program of unrestricted
output would undoubtedly be profitable to follow, assuming, of course, that what
the workers want is steady work at good wages which have a high purchasing
power, with the benefits of productivity divided about equally between higher
wages and shorter hours for all workers.
Waste in industry and an advance in wages.
There are indications that in many industries a better wage could
be paid without reduction in profits, by further steps to minimize
material wastes in the production process. In 1921 the Federated
American Engineering Societies made a study of waste in six important
branches of industry, four of which were among the industries in
which the Women’s Bureau has reported for over 3,500 women:
Boots and shoes, men’s clothing, the metal trades, and textiles. In
each case the plants selected for study were considered the most rep
resentative of the industry. While the careful estimates made show
25 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review, January, 1927, p. 37, Table I.
26 Clague, Ewan. Productivity and Wages in the United States. American Federationist, March, 1927.
162
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
large proportions of waste, the report states that it seeks to make no
speculation in regard to the ultimate savings that may be possible.27 28
In the 17 boot and shoe plants studied, it was conservatively esti
mated that the net savings that might be obtained would form a
reduction in production costs of 21 per cent. Of this waste, manage
ment was responsible for 73 per cent, labor for only 11 per cent, and
other factors for 16 per cent. In “one of the best run plants in the
country” loss of productive working time under normal conditions
was estimated at about 24 per cent, almost entirely from causes assign
able to management or the public and not to the workers; in other
factories 30 to 35 per cent was lost, and this did not include shut
downs. In two factories loss of time from accidents had been reduced
about 18 per cent.
In the men’s clothing industry it was stated that “a 40 per cent
pick-up in effectiveness is easily in sight.” The responsibility for
waste in the nine plants included was assigned 75 per cent to manage
ment, 9 per cent to the public, and only 16 per cent to labor.
In the metal trades 15 plants were studied, and the average waste
was estimated at 28 per cent, the range being from 6 to 56 per cent.
Of this, 81 per cent was chargeable to management and only 9 per
cent to labor.
In textiles, most of the 13 mills studied were in Massachusetts, New
York, and Pennsylvania, and they produced woolen, cotton, and silk
cloth, thrown silk, and knit goods. The waste averaged 49.2 per cent,
the range being from 27.7 to 72 per cent. Of this about 50 per cent
was chargeable to management and only 10 per cent to labor.
The findings of the report are summarized by E. S. Furniss, of Yale
University, as follows:
There is no question that our industries could pay a living wage. The recent
report of Secretary Hoover’s committee on waste in industry showed a per
centage of waste in six of our major industries varying from 29 per cent to 64 per cent.
Even if the added payment in wages in consideration of the standard of living
should not come out of profit, there is certainly abundant opportunity for such a
raise in wages to be met through the elimination of waste, which amounts on the
average to about 40 per cent. Of this waste, more than 50 per cent is due to the
fault of management and less than 25 per cent to labor. The most efficient plant
in an industry is usually two or three times as efficient as the average plant.
Further testimony to the possibility of improvement in various
industries is given by L. P. Alford and J. E. Hannum,29 using a measure
of labor time as a basic gage for industrial growth. In certain indus
tries of interest to the present study, the per cents by which the least
efficient plants studied varied from the most efficient in production in
1925 were given as follows:
Per cent
Automobile parts
42
Cotton fabrics
79
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies_____________
Hosiery
39
Leather shoes
47
Paper and pulp
57
Hardware
101
49
27 Federated American Engineering Societies. Waste in Industry, Washington, 1921.
28 Furniss, E. S. Labor Problems. 1925, p. 127.
21 American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Annual meeting, December-1928. Alford, L. P., and
Hannum, J. E., A Basis for Evaluating Manufacturing Operation, pp. 5, 7.
RELATION OF WOMEN’S BUREAU DATA TO OTHER DATA
163
After reiterating the economic principle that low manufacturing
costs and high values added by manufacturing accompany high wages,
the authors state:
It appears that certain industries are caught in a vicious circle of low wages
and inefficiency.
CONCLUSION
In concluding this chapter, which constitutes but a very brief
summary of available indications as to several important questions
bearing on the sub ject of women’s wages, the following general state
ments would seem to be supportable: Sources of data on women’s
wages, in addition to the Women’s Bureau, include two Federal
bureaus, several State labor authorities, and an important manufac
turers’ organization. From the available estimates of living costs—
and these usually purport to give a minimum living-cost figure—it
woidd appear that most of the industrial workers in practically all
the States included in the present study earned amounts too low for
adequate subsistence. From the evidence at hand, it is apparent
that women earn less than men even in the same occupations, usually
very considerably less. That it is the rule for women to support
dependents as well as themselves or to bear a considerable share in
providing the necessary family income is indicated in studies that
give information on this phase of the subject of women’s wages. A
consideration of data from authorities furnishing material on the
increase in labor productivity would seem to warrant the conclusion
that in late years its rate has been considerably more rapid than the
increases usually are in rates of wages.30 Studies of waste in industry
made by engineers give proof that considerable cost reduction is
possible in many industries. The increase in productivity incident
to the manufacturing processes and the possibility of eliminating
waste by improvements in the science of management would indicate
that it should be possible for the wages of women to be increased
without seriously reducing the legitimate profits of industry.
30 Since the present report went to press, there has appeared in print an analysis of the productivity of
labor for 1849 to 1929, made by Ethelbert Stewart, U. S. Commissioner of Labor Statistics, from data of
the U. S. Census of Manufactures and data prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. In the period
from 1909 to 1929, the value that was added to the product by the manufacturing processes per wage earner
had increased 182.2 per cent; the per cent wages were of the value of product added by manufacture had
fallen 10 per cent; wholesale prices had increased 42.8 per cent, retail prices of food had increased 76.8 per
cent, and the index of wholesale prices of nonagricultural (manufactured) products had increased by
41.6.—Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, December, 1930, p. 36.
The wage data quoted were compiled from the average numbers of wage earners and total amounts of
wages given by the Census of Manufactures. There is no way of obtaining such data on the earnings of
women alone, but it is probable that they have advanced no more rapidly than those of men, over the
whole period.
APPENDIX
GENERAL TABLES
APPENDIX—GENERAL TABLES
Table
I.—Number of establishments and number of white women studied, by State and industry
Georgia
All States
Arkan
sas
(1922)
Dela
ware
(1924)
Industry
2
CO CO
—1 -u
la
H
a
©
B
o
is
52“
3
<o 2
t&S
W
a
©
a
o
£
la
H
All industries___ 1,472 100,967 101 3, 984
11 manufacturing____
Bakery products
Candy
Clothing:
Men’s clothing.......
Overalls
Men’s shirts
Women’s clothing..
Drugs and chemicals.
Electrical appliances.
Glass products
Metal products__ ....
Paper and paper
products. _
Printing and publishing
Rubber products
Shoes_______ _____
Textiles:
Cordage and twine.
Cotton goods
_
Hosiery and knit
goods ... ___
Yarns and thread..
847 79,162
48 2, 982
20
54
1,175
2,923
38
30
35
14
33
35
25
64
3,703
2,267
3,135
1, 248
2, 654
5, 683
1,023
6, 332
69
36
23
40
540
5,482
4,440
5
15
731
120 12, 943
3
a
©
a
o
is
9,033
1,861
45
9
6
5
la
w
55 1, 390
29
15
209
5
761
64
16 913
7 448
4 353
4
4
3
8
ffl CO
2b
«8 2
■ga
cn co
3a
2a
CO C
H
a
®
a
o
is
2
§
a la o
a
is
H
o
£
m
a
2°
a o
CO H
£
a
29
«S
to B
H
a
©
o
is
a
2
co co
•■-! 4-a
3a
a
W
a
©
o
is
a
2
CO CO
3a
Is
W
a
©
o
£
a
37 5,927 125 7,903 173 12, 234
22 4,886
3
59
261
5
260
4
894
37
11 1,001
73 9,160 126 15, 397 169 18,488
3
8
127
3 223
20 2,548
4
224
374
699
5
413
14 1, 273
7 1,151
469
455
295
3
95
4
124
2
.co co
|i
Tennes
see
(1925)
14
50
4
co w
H
a
South
Carolina
(1921)
91 1,813
5
3
2
co
—| co
Rhode
Island
(1920)
24
12
50
a
©
a
o
fs
Okla
homa
(1924)
Ohio
(1922)
68 1, 529 130 12,644 157 18,133 247 23,469
66 4,473
5
3
115
1,637
643
161
2
• a
08
•*-> 2
CO a
w
w
New
Jersey
(1922)
38 3,463
253
93
543
5
3
3
252
5
12
4
268
8
693
5
266
7 1, 867
19 2, 481
8
294
21 2, 516
8
650
7
6
89 7,419 127 10, 358
430
793
397
511
753
3
37
8 1, 811
9
556
24 2, 716
8
173
8
17 2, 307
224
15 1, 806
1,458
82
6
5
3
'go co a
11
a
la o
is
H
Missouri
(1922)
73 4,081 104 5, 794
4
138
a
©
a
o
tfc
Missis
sippi
(1924)
11
3
27
2
2
a
©
a
o
£
340
3
is
a
© ■i |
a
o ts
is w B
95 1,153
3,785
67
15
5
3
I CO
1m
js
Ken
tucky
(1921)
Other
places
(1921)
Atlanta
(1920)
11
534
6
590
9 1, 546
3 1,406
2, 053
17 1,590
4
14
6
14
145
734
59
321
3
302
6
936
2, 895
3
31
336
140
64 6,419
875
9
294
1,099
29 5, 273
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Ala
bama
(1922)
f
Tobacco products:
Wood products:
31893
Laundries
47
30
4
6,612
3,070
4
449
148
21
13
19
742
188
72
32
11
23
625
130
189
28
7
5
339
94
196
5 404
4
61
11
10
14
392
187
39
139
75
9
753
197
371
16
14
14
378
194
63
8 1,844
13
302
590
10
37 3, 535
408
15
26 1,038
3
14 2,334
8
662
327
15
9
12
307
149
28
114
15
12 2,101
14
20 2,437
424
11
26
623
25
20
32
626
314
649
6
5
4
723
154
164
4
6
505
352
8
3 1,106
5
3
52
20
254 14,342
150 3,051
221 <412
6 748
13 950
53
15 1,237
13
310
329
18
to
GENERAL TABLES
o*
•<r
Table II..
Number of white women in manufacturing for whom various types of information in addition to earnings are reported in the present
study, by State
05
00
Number of white women for whom information specified was obtained in—
Georgia
Type of information reported
All
Arkan
States Alabama
sas
Other
Atlanta places
Ken
tucky
Missis Missouri New
sippi
Jersey
Ohio
Okla
homa
Rhode
Island
South
Carolina
Tennes
see
847
48
29
15
7
38
66
24
73
126
169
14
22
89
127
79,162
2,982
209
761
448
3,463
4,473
894
9,160
15,397
18,488
224
4,886
7,419
10,358
Most common weekly hours (full 29,199
time workers)......... .................... .....
Weekly rates....................................... 13,240
Year’s earnings.......................... .........
8,422
Timework and piecework................... 77,994
Undertime, full time, and overtime- 66,940
Age........ ............................................... 39,141
Experience................................... ........ 35,670
Race of foreign born......... .................. 1 4,362
700
169
1,241
1,504
3,250
5,675
7,930
168
26
209
206
117
138
754
742
510
509
300
55
448
440
893
340
3,460
2, 364
1,363
1,332
2, 407
341
4,462
3, 454
3,043
2,804
1,259
1,184
9,022
7.553
5, 522
5,207
451
973
1,363
15,027
11,891
6,487
1,576
2, 510
18,297
17,092
10,733
160
22
214
213
1,446
342
4,828
4,175
1,191
658
7,379
6,711
1,994
784
10,253
9; 229
1,542
1,931
2,992
A 858
514
539
2,844
2,087
1,715
1,676
242
120
797
783
386
373
1 Total includes 121 foreign-born women in nine States not shown separately, the numbers ranging from 1 to 46.
'317
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Number of establishments visited--.
Week’s earnings—All women re
ported................................................
Dela
ware
>1
Table
III.—Week’s earnings of while women in manufacturing, by State
Women who receivedUnder $8
$8 and under $10
$10 and under $12
$12 and under $15
$15 and under $20
$20 and over
State
Number
Alabama......... ............. .................
Arkansas...,
_____ ......
Delaware*
____ _
Georgia:
Atlanta............................ .
Other places_____________
Kentucky.....
Mississippi
Missouri........................................
New Jersey. *
Ohio............................................
Rhode Island........................ ......
South Carolina........ ...................
Tennessee.
n a,
Median
of the
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number
earnings
Per cent Number Per cent
2,982
209
761
$8.39
10.24
13.26
1,356
64
119
45.3
30.6
15.6
661
36
109
22.2
17.2
14.3
418
34
95
14.0
16.3
12.5
330
40
135
11.1
19.1
17.7
182
33
173
6.1
15.8
22.7
35
2
130
1.2
1.0
17.1
448
3,463
4, 473
894
9,160
15, 397
18,488
224
4,886
7, 419
10,358
11.06
12.90
10.84
8.35
12. 27
15.23
14. 52
13.14
19.13
9.49
11.03
81
595
1,098
408
1,664
1,105
2,082
26
154
2,628
2,511
18.1
17.2
24.5
45.6
18.2
7.2
11.3
11.6
3.2
35.4
24.2
85
452
737
225
1,172
1,037
1,334
23
111
1,490
1,721
19.0
13.1
16,5
25.2
12.8
6,7
7.2
10.3
2.3
20.1
16.6
104
479
916
141
1,534
1,736
2,218
38
211
1,231
1,742
23.2
13.8
20.5
15.8
16.7
11.3
12.0
17.0
4.3
16.6
16.8
99
667
782
84.
1,971
3,563
4,195
77
719
1,175
2,051
22.1
19.3
17.5
9. 4
21.5
23.1
22.7
34.4
14.7
15.8
19.8
62
874
673
31
2,009
5,268
4,964
51
1,514
772
1,794
13.8
25.2
15.0
3.5
21.9
34.2
26.8
22.8
31.0
10.4
17.3
17
396
267
5
810
2,688
3,695
9
2,177
123
539
3.8
11.4
6.0
.6
8.8
17.5
20.0
4.0
44.6
1.7
5.2
O
1st
S3
Is!
£
t*
>
W
g
05
CO
Table
IV.—Median of the week’s earnings of white women in manufacturing, by State, industry, and date of survey
-I
O
Number of women and the median of their earnings in—
Total number
Industry
Georgia
Rhode Island
(1920)
Atlanta
(1920)
Other places
(1921)
South Carolina
(1921)
(1921)
Alabama
(1922)
Arkansas
(1922)
847
_
Glass products_____ __________________
Printing and publishing_________
Textiles:
Tobacco products:
Wood products:
4,886
$19.13
448
$11.06
3,463
20
54
Clothing:
Overalls- ...................... .........
79,162
___
1,175
2,923
38
30
35
14
33
35
25
64
69
36
23
40
3,703
2, 267
3; 135
1,248
2,654
5,683
1, 023
6, 332
3j 785
540
5,482
4,440
15
120
67
15
731
12, 943
9,033
1,861
223
2, 548
224
47
30
6,612
3,070
148
23
14
374
148
353
10.99
59
261
936
18.63
12.27
2,895
10.28
13.89
4,473
$10.84
260
12.48
$8.39
209
$10.24
8.42
0)
64
8.63
340
9.42
1,001
$9.49
2,982
45
9
7,419
10.00
20.94
95
295
127
82
13.98
9.18
13.00
543
253
10.01
16.10
748
950
11.07
10.58
139
75
7.50
10.15
11
(>)
o)
50
15.50
52
20
7. 67
11.50
10. 72
13. 55
12.77
10.91
0
12
5
17.39
734
321
$12.90
11.50
31
13.13
27
17.50
6,419
348
294
9.55
7.63
9.27
115
1, 637
643
161
9. 53
8.69
6.98
6.41
327
9.86
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Estab
lish Women Women Median Women Median Women Median Women Median Women Median Women Median Women Median
ments
«
Number of women and the median of their earnings in—
Industry
Missouri
(1922)
New Jersey
(1922)
Ohio
(11922)
Delaware
(1924)
Mississippi
(1924)
Oklahoma
(1924)
Tennessee
(1925)
Women Median Women Median Women Median Women Median Women Median Women Median Women
413
1,273
1,151
12.14
10. 21
11. 69
11. 67
15.89
913
Textiles:
11.78
11. 75
469
455
Clothing:
$12.27
374
699
12.19
2,307
12.78
1,106
1 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
$15.23
18,488
$14. 52
252
10.36
430
793
12. 50
10.63
13.16
268
15.21
1,806
15.08
11. 71
18. 04
15. 77
11. 97
13. 67
13.04
511
753
15. 20
15.07
1,811
556
2,716
1,458
16. 70
12. 37
12.50
12.72
534
14.80
2,053
1,590
140
2,101
16. 36
2,334
662
894
$8.35
224
$13.14
138
7.87
50
14.38
11.70
124
11.15
14.90
11.71
449
37
173
16.45
93
8.78
650
8.13
114
8. 64
15.06
12.79
14
<>)
$11.03
326
397
9.30
10, 358
9.81
9.69
215
393
605
229
302
12.39
16.17
11.66
9. 48
9.42
59
145
336
12.50
11.68
16.12
1,099
5,273
10.84
11.08
505
352
37
10.36
875
$13.26
17.19
15.53
12.44
16.15
17.05
761
19.57
693
266
1, 867
2,481
294
2,516
583
590
1,546
1,406
Tobacco products:
Wood products:
15,397
Median
8.69
13.23
69
53
8.67
8.30
GENERAL TABLES
9,160
j
Table
V.—Week’s earnings of white women in the chief woman-employing manufacturing industries reported, hy State and industry
Women who received—
State and industry
All women
reported
Under $8
$8 and under $10 $10 and under $12 $12 and under $15 $15 and under $20
$20 and over
Number Median Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
earnings
Georgia1................................. ......................
New Jersey....................................................
Ohio...............................................................
South Carolina.............................................
Tennessee......................................... .............
Cigars:
Delaware......................................................
Georgia 1............ ................... ......
Kentucky................. ...... ........ .................. .
New Jersey...................................................
Ohio....... .............. .........
South Carolina.................. ...........................
Tennessee.............................................. ......
Metal products:
New Jersey................... ........ .......................
Ohio...................... ........ ............. ..................
Rhode Island.................. .............................
Electrical appliances:
Missouri..................... ........ ............... ...........
New Jersey........... ........................................
Ohio.............. .................. ........... ..................
Rhode Island................................. ..............
Rubber products:
New Jersey....................................................
Ohio.......... .....................................................
Rhode Island.................................................
1, 637
2, 548
650
590
6,419
1,099
$8.69
12.77
8.13
12.44
9.55
10.84
676
426
315
35
2,209
245
41.3
16.7
48.5
5.9
34.4
22.3
407
349
138
62
1, 316
180
24.9
13.7
21.2
10.5
20.5
16.4
263
371
101
171
1,083
242
16.1
14.6
15.5
29.0
16.9
22.0
190
479
64
115
1,053
228
11.6
18.8
9.8
19.5
16.4
20.7
82
634
27
94
660
171
5.0
24.9
4.2
15.9
10.3
15.6
19
289
5
113
98
33
1.2
11.3
.8
19.2
1.5
3.0
643
124
224
1, 546
875
348
5,273
6. 98
11.15
10.91
16.15
11.70
7.63
11.08
383
18
63
101
107
185
1,362
59.6
14. 5
28.1
6.5
12.2
53.2
25.8
131
24
29
108
96
67
802
20.4
19.4
12.9
7.0
11.0
19.3
15.2
66
31
30
147
167
40
870
10. 3
25.0
13.4
9.5
19.1
11.5
16.5
45
31
52
294
243
25
1,062
7. 0
25. 0
23.2
19.0
27.8
7.2
20.1
18
20
35
496
185
27
971
2.8
J6.1
15.6
32.1
21.1
7.8
18.4
15
400
77
4
206
6.7
25.9
8.8
1.1
3.9
449
148
748
2,101
2, 334
327
505
16.45
16. 10
11.07
16. 36
14.90
9.86
8.69
28
11
210
220
329
130
206
6. 2
7.4
28.1
10.5
14. 1
39.8
40.8
61
10
94
141
213
36
124
13.6
6.8
12.6
6.7
9.1
11.0
24.6
41
17
127
191
212
40
105
9.1
11.5
17.0
9.1
9. 1
12.2
20.8
62
17
158
318
426
43
56
13.8
11.5
21.1
15.1
18.3
13.1
11.1
130
60
128
648
638
62
13
29.0
40.5
17.1
30.8
27.3
19.0
2.6
127
33
31
583
516
16
1
28.3
22. 3
4.1
27. 7
22.1
4.9
.2
12
295
2, 516
2, 716
734
59
(*)
13.98
13.67
12.50
18.63
12.50
21
191
322
20
2
7,1
7.6
11.9
2.7
3.4
3
37
202
185
7
10
0)
12.5
8.0
6.8
1.0
16.9
4
32
410
434
18
14
(*)
10.8
16.3
16.0
2.5
23.7
4
88
783
733
91
19
(*)
29.8
31.1
27.0
12.4
32.2
1
89
792
743
331
14
(*)
30. 2
31.5
27.4
45.1
23.7
28
138
299
267
9.5
5.5
11.0
36.4
455
2,481
1, 811
936
15.89
15.77
16.70
17.39
19
92
96
36
4.2
3.7
5.3
3.8
23
68
50
23
5.1
2.7
2.8
2.5
45
175
110
48
9.9
7. 1
6.1
5.1
96
750
403
176
21.1
30.2
22. 2
18.8
222
1,120
692
362
48.8
45.1
38.2
38.7
50
276
460
291
11.0
11.1
25.4
31.1
534
2, 053
2, 895
14.80
17.19
20. 94
34
205
55
6.4
10.0
1.9
33
64
45
6.2
3.1
1.6
78
150
78
14.6
7.3
2.7
131
377
347
24.5
18.4
12.0
182
675
766
34.1
32.9
26.5
76
582
1,604
14.2
28.3
55.4
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Cotton goods:
Alabama............ ...........................................
Georgia 1............................... ........................
Mississippi........................................ ......... .
New Jersey__________ _______________
South Carolina........................................... .
Tennessee......................................................
Hosiery and knit goods:
T
Shoes:
Kentucky............................. ........ .............. .
Missouri.___________________________
Ohio_____ _________________________
«
-------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------ 1------------------- T
543
2,307
1, 590
10. 72
12. 78
15. 53
124
330
142
22.8
14.3
8.9
106
333
151
1 Exclusive of Atlanta.
Table
19.5
14.4
9.5
87
345
189
16.0
15.0
11.9
100
471
258
18.4
20.4
16.2
87
487
404
16.0
21.1
25.4
39
341
446
7.2
14.8
28.1
i Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
VI.—Median of the week’s earnings of white women in manufacturing, according to whether working undertime, full time, or overtime,
by State
All women
reported
Overtime workers
Alabama............................. ..............
Arkansas............................................ .............. .
Delaware....................... „.............................
Georgia:
Atlanta......................................................
Other places............... ................................. .
Mississippi..........
Missouri___________ _______ .
New Jersey...... .................... ................. _
Ohio.................
Oklahoma............. . . .....
Rhode Island........... ............ .
South Carolina_______....
Tennessee....................................
........
2,087
206
742
$8.51
1,249
59.8
$7.14
31.2
702
33.6
$10. 38
22.0
136
6.5
13.14
325
43.8
10.02
2
406
54.7
16.48
25.4
11
1.5
440
2,364
3,454
783
7,553
11,891
17, 092
213
4,175
6,711
9,229
11.12
12.94
10.61
8.11
12.60
15.19
14. 41
13.16
19.19
9.51
11.04
270
1,094
1,634
428
4,038
5,499
7,611
111
1,915
4, 212
4,119
61 4
12.86
15.6
8.71
6.69
10.85
13.35
11.95
10.91
16.97
8.03
8.62
25.0
29.2
22.6
19.7
25.5
25.0
1,504
311
3,250
5,675
7.950
55
1,523
2,474
43.5
11.62
9.45
14.01
16.63
16.04
14. 54
18.88
12.05
12. 39
9.5
16.5
11.2
9.5
11.3
10.5
31.6
26.7
12.2
816
44
265
717
1,531
47
737
25
377
9.1
5.6
3.5
6.0
9.0
22.1
17.7
.4
4. i
47.3
54.7
53.5
46.2
44.5
52.1
45.9
62.8
44.6
1 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
10.1
33.4
28.0
4,733
39.7
43.0
47.7
46.5
25.8
36.5
36.9
51.3
$10.56
1.7
16.69
10.00
16.27
16. 84
16.66
15. 41
25.18
13.83
15.19
GENERAL TABLES
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
bywhich
bywhich
bywhich
median
median
Median
Per cent Median is below Number Per cent Median is above
Per cent Median median
Number earnings Number
of total earnings that of
of total earnings that of Number of total earnings is above
that of
all wom
full-time
full-time
en
workers
workers
reported
State
Full-time Workers
Undertime workers
43.6
5.8
16.1
1.3
3.9
6.0
33.4
14.8
22.6
aIn this case the figure shows a decline.
-vj
CO
Table
VII.—Earnings distribution of white women full-time workers in the chief woman-employing manufacturing industries reported, and
median earnings according to extent of time worked, by industry and State
Total
Women
Num
ber
of
wom
en
Me
dian
earn Num Per
ings
ber cent
Women
Me
dian
earn Num Per
ings
ber cent
Me
dian
earn
ings
Women
Women who received—
Per
cent
by
$20 and
$8 and
$10 and
$12 and
$15 and
which Under $8
Me
under $10 under $12 under $15
under $20
over
me
dian
dian
rose
Num Per earn
ings
above
ber cent
that
for all Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
wom ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
en
Cotton goods:
Alabama................. ... 1,313 .$8. 87
452 34.4 $10.65 20.1
754 57.4 $7. 47
Georgia 1 - 875 48.7 15.20 19.8
1, 797 12.69
895 49.8 10.16
Mississippi-............
219 38.9 9. 66 22.9
563 7.86 326 57.9 6.86
3.1
12. 44
159 26.9 9. 57
407 69. C 12.83
South Carolina
5, 905 9.55 3,848 65.2 8.19 2,034 34.4 12.17 27.4
621 58.3 12.37 14.1
Tennessee--____ -_ 1,066 10.84
439 41.2 8.38
Hosiery and knit goods:
118 29. 6 9.26 24.3
399 7. 45
269 67. 4 6.43
60
12.78 14.6
52.0 9. 67
61 48. 0 13.13 21.0
127 10 85
52 23.2 18.00 12.5
71 0 15.32
8.0
308 43.8 14.21
Ohio_-_
_______
704 13.16
321 45.6 10. 73
9 42 22.2
Tennessee
4,665 11.14 2,326 49.9 9.18 2,112 45.3 12.60 13.1
Metal products:
(2)
(2)
(2)
12 (2)
i.23 42.6 15.15
7.6
Kentucky
289 14. 08
121 41.9 11.81
3.1
New Jersey.
812 38.2 13.98
2,128 13. 56 1,155 54.3 12. 72
1,352 49.8 11. 55 1,021 37.6 15. 7€ 17. (
2, 714 13. 50
5.7
209 30.2 15.97 ' 479 69. 19.81
18. 75
27 45.8 10.25
25 42.4 14.38 15.0
59 12.50
Electrical appliances:
332 73.0 15.06
77 16. ( 17.7£ 12. C
455 15.89
819 33.1 16.13
2.4
2,474 15.75 1,427 57.7 15.00
'771 47.1 15.54
815 49.8 18.02
6.4
1,638 16. 93
318 39.4 14.34
4.0
370 45.8 18.12
Rhode Island............. '807 17.43
Overtime
13.9
4.6
27.9
122
89
57
27.0
10.2
26.0
200
39
9.8
6.3
325
70
16.0
11.3
35
3
9
29.7
5.0
14.8
38
9
4
32.2
15.0
6.6
2
44
255
.6
38. 9
12.1
1
23
280
.3
20. 4
13.3
.8
1.1
]
5
27
25
(2)
4.1
3.3
1
9
4
2.4
.5
108
119
51
153
452
175
23.9
13.6
23.3
37.6
22.2
28.2
89
164
34
105
557
174
19.7
18.7
15.5
25.8
27.4
28.0
55
322
13
65
427
132
12.2
36.8
5.9
16.0
21.0
21.3
15
11
12
3
52
15
395
12.7
18. 3
19.7
5.8
16.9
13.3
18.7
17
22
13
14
132
12
557
14.4
36.7
21.3
26.9
42.9
10.6
26.4
13
15
14
23
87
17
517
11.0
25.0
23.0
44.2
28.2
15. C
24.5
1
10
118
137
(2)
8.1
14.5
13.4
8.6
1
43
363
207
28
13
(2)
35.0
44.7
20.2
5.8
52.0
55
251
449
218
10
44.7
30.9
44. C
45.5
40.0
9
44
203
233
2
63
40
61
1
7
15
2
1.2
.£
1.8
.5
12
307
200
60
16. £
37.5
24.5
16.2
57
393
292
179
74. C
48. C
35.8
48.4
6
112
304
129
15
141
3
84
73
31
3.3
16.1
1.4
20.6
3.6
5.0
107
27
18
24
23
6
12
9
12
34
2
108
14.8
23.1
11.0
1.8
5.1
13
75
8.1 $10. 47
1.5 13. 83
3.2 8.00
4. 1 24.50
.4 14.17
.6 (!)
3. C
(2)
5.8 (!)
10.7 15.81
227
4.9 16.14
7.3
5.4
19. £
48.6
a
45
161
341
5
7
(2)
(2)
15.6 15. 75
7.6 16.83
12.6 13. 59
.7 p)
11.9 (?>
7.8
13.7
37. S
34.9
46
228
52
119
10.1
9.2
3.2
14.7
17. 67
17. 68
19.00
22.23
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
State and industry
Full time
Undertime
T
Cigars:
Delaware__________
448 16. 44
110 24.6 12. 44
333 74.3 17. 69
7.6
132 15.88
27 20.5 8. 70
105 79.5 17.05
7.4
Kentucky ________
442 10.00
138 31.2 6. 67
302 68.3 10.90 9.0
New Jersey________ 1,207 17.23
463 38.4 12. 47
736 61.0 18.92
9.8
Ohio___ ____ ____ 2,181 15. 02
771 35.4 10.80 1,383 63.4 17.71 17.9
303 9. 59
131 43.2 1. 81
172 56.8 13. 73 43.2
479 8.80
139 29.0 5. 36
340 71.0 9.87 12.2
Rubber products:
4fil 15.07
301 65.3 14. 76
148 32.1 15.29
1.5
2,048 17.19 1,151 56.2 14. 73
537 26.2 18.67
8.6
2,407 21.10 1, 239 51.5 20.01
571 23.7 19.23 3 8.9
Shoes:
Kentucky
425 10.12
262 61.6 9.22
144 33.9 10.61
4.8
Missouri
2,085 12. 70 1,032 49.5 10.57
923 44.3 14.10 10.7
Ohio______________ 1,509 15.30
700 46.4 12.45
774 51.3 16.93 11.0
1 Exclusive of Atlanta.
2.1
1.0
28J?
1.5
4.0
8.1
23.5
43 12.9
4
3.8
37| 12.3
21
2.9
101
7.3
26 15.1
96 28.2
28
11
62
33
105
29
97
8.4
10.5
20.5
4.5
7.6
16.9
28.5
34
11
63
96
228
33
53
10.2
10. 5
20.9
13.0
16.5
19.2
15.6
103
52
48
256
447
55
13
30.9
49. 5
15.9
34.8
32.3
32.0
3.8
118
26
6
319
447
15
1
35.4
24.8
2.0
43.3
32.3
8.7
.3
5
2
8
27
1. 1
w
.5 <s)
.7 (!)
1.2 18.17
4
16
23
9
11.1
2.5
1.2
2.7
3
.5
22
16
5
14.9
3.0
.9
40
121
100
27.0
22.5
17.5
70
196
225
47.3
36.5
39.4
12
204
238
8.1
38.0
41.7
12
2. 6 (2)
360 17. 6 20.32
597 24.8 26.64
37
113
47
25.7
12.2
6.1
34
142
81
23.6
15.4
10.5
27
242
139
18.7
26.2
18.0
19
247
233
13.2
26.8
30.1
11
156
265
7.6
16.9
34.2
19
130
35
a Not computed, owing to the small number involved
4.5 14.50
6.2 15.73
2.3 17. 38
* In this case the figure shows a decline.
GENERAL TABLES
7
1
86
11
55
14
80
-<r
176
WAGES OE WOMEN IN 13 STATES
VIII.—Earnings distribution of white women full-time workers who worked
the most common scheduled hours in manufacturing in nine industrial States, by
State
Table
State, total reported, and most common
scheduled hours 1
Alabama—700 full-time workers:
55 and under 60 hours.........................
Georgia—Atlanta—169 full-time workers:
52 and under 55 hours.........................
Georgia—Other places—1,241 full-time workers:
Over 48 and under 52 hours...........................
55 and under 60 hours_______ ____ ______
60 hours and over.............................................
Kentucky—1,504 full-time workers:
Under 48 hours................ ...... ............... .........
48 hours........ ................................................
Over 48 and under 52 hours....... —..............
52 and under 55 hours............. ......................
55 and under 60 hours. .................................
60 hours and over............... ............................
Missouri—3,250 full-tim'e workers:
Under 48 hours................................................
48 hours........... ............... ..............................
Over 48 and under 52 hours............................
52 and under 55 hours............. .................. --
New Jersey—5,675 full-time workers:
Under 48 hours.................................................
48 hours_____________ _______ _________
Over 48 and under 52 hours
52 and under 55 hours.....................................
Ohio—7,930 full-time workers:
Under 48 hours............................................ .
48 hours...........................................................
Over 48 and under 52 hours........ .................
Rhode Island—1,523 full-time workers:
48 hours............................................................
Over 48 and under 52 hours--------------------South Carolina—2,474 full-time workers:
52 and under 55 hours........ ........ ...................
55 and under 60 hours..............................—
60 hours and over................... ........................
Tennessee—4,733 full-time workers:
Under 48 hours............................................... 48 hours.............................................. ..............
Over 48 and under 52 hours........................
52 and under 55 hours.....................................
55 and under 60 hours............................. ........
Per cent who earned—
Full-time
workers -------with
$20
hours as Under $8 and $10 and $12 and $15 and and
under under under under
specified
$8
$10
$12
$20
$15
over
27.8
23.3
17.6
9.4
6.7
26.4
39.6
21.7
6.6
2.9
4.7
6.0
2.9
10.0
7.8
8.8
10.8
14.3
10.8
18.0
25.1
50.0
36.8
39.8
24.5
16. 2
10.5
1.2
1.8
13.2
16.2
29.5
9.3
17.4
14.8
15.8
8.6
34.9
18.6
17.4
35.4
25.2
35.0
21.7
23.0
27.4
19.3
29.7
21.8
36.8
37.9
31.1
13.9
12.6
5.0
5.7
9.9
5.0
3.5
.5
1,525
545
2.2
.1
6.0
1.5
3.7
3.5
10.8
3.3
7.1
23.1
19.9
15.8
24.2
30.8
28.9
37.2
49.0
27.8
27.6
33.0
13.8
14.7
7.0
9.2
1,9
1,283
1,495
856
.2
.5
.6
.8
4.0
1.5
2.2
2.1
5.0
17.3
4.9
16.7
34.0
27.2
27.3
45.4
41.9
33.0
28.6
28.7
14.1
19.7
36.2
1,780
628
5,522
.2
.2
2.0
2.0
3.5
4.8
7.2
9.6
12.3
14.7
34.1
27.3
37.0
30.1
31.4
38.9
22.6
22.1
.3
2.4
.3
16.9
14.6
41.4
43.8
38.9
41.2
12.7
22.6
16.1
27.0
17.4
43.4
20.5
6.4
12.7
3.5
20.0
15.9
20.4
24.6
26.3
31.8
55.6
20.8
22.2
19.3
29.9
20.5
6.3
6.9
2.8
544
19.7
106
102
687
334
161
219
676
222
220
106
492
688
939
582
118
2,160
109
5.1
10.4
33.9
11.0
16.1
28.4
415
151
520
1,213
2,434
3.1
.7
11.5
9.1
12.5
4.3
3.3
22.5
15.9
16.7
i Hour groups in which as many as 100 women were reported.
8.0
13.8
10.8
4.0
18.5
21.3
22.5
2.2
.9
Table
IX.—Week’s earnings and prevailing hours of white women full-time workers in the chief woman-employing manufacturing industries
reported, by State and industry
J
qq
Hour group having most women
State and industry
Total
number
of
women
Range of hours
Women with
these hours
Number Per cent
Second largest group
Largest group of women
Range
Number of
women
Range
Number of
women
Metal products:
407
662
179
225
1,984
'535
90.0
75.7
81.7
55. 3
97.5
86. 2
113
252
48
151
541
163
$10 and under $12...
$12 and under $15
Under $8-__
$12 and under $15
$10 and under $12
$12 and under $15
103
120
47
47
443
140
118
308
113
2,112
Cigars:
452
875
219
407
2,034
' 621
50
294
72
1,220
42.4
95.5
63.7
57.8
22
126
17
335
$8 and under $10_
------$15 and under $20
Under $8__ _______ ____
$15 and under $20..............
18
83
16
275
105
302
736
1,363
' 172
340
97
165
514
1,311
109
339
92.4
54.6
69.8
96.2
63.4
99.7
51
47
289
426
47
97
$20 and over
$10 and under $12...... ........
$15 and under $20----------$20 and over_
_
$12 and under $15. _ _ ___
$8 and under $10------------
25
45
160
417
18
96
85
430
577
297
69.1
53.0
56.5
62.0
37
193
244
151
$12 and
$15 and
$12 and
$20 and
under $15..............
under $20
under $15 _ --------over
28
135
141
129
458
747
370
55.9
91.7
100.0
252
293
179
$12 and under $15........ ......
$15 and under $20...... ........
$20 and over.................... .
138
247
129
123
812
1,021
'479
Over 48 and under 52.........
48
..................
48-
_____ ______
819
815
370
148
537
571
Ohio........... ....................................
52 and under 55..................
48... .
144 Over 48 and under 52.........
923 ___ do..................................
774 ....... do...................................
$12 and under $15
$15 and under $20.. . . .
22 )$12 and under $15...............
65
213
550
^$10
43.9 \$15 and under $12...... ........
and undei $20----------39.7 $20 and over.......................
96.3
111 $15 and under $20
231 ___ do....... ..........................
80
219
125
335
650
86.8
36.3
84.0
$10 and under $12...............
$8 and under $10...... ..........
$15 and under $20...............
31 $8 and under $10................
89 f$10 and under $12----------198 $20 and over........................
28
77
194
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Cotton goods:
Earnings of—
Cotton goods:
Alabama. .................
Georgia i.............. .
Mississippi_______
New Jersey_______
South Carolina____
Tennessee________
Hosiery and knit goods:
Alabama..-..............
Ohio_____________
South Carolina____
Tennessee________
Cigars:
Georgia i_________
Kentucky________
New Jersey_______
Ohio_____________
South Carolina____
Tennessee________
Metal products:
Kentucky________
New Jersey_______
Ohio_____________
Rhode Island_____
Electrical appliances:
New Jersey_______
Ohio............ ..........
Rubber products:
New Jersey..............
Ohio_____________
Rhode Island_____
Shoes:
Kentucky.................
Missouri..................
Ohio_____________
452
875
219
407
2,034
621
14
70
14
72
16
34
41
213
40
160
49
86
9.1
24.3
18.3
39.3
2.4
13.8
34
14
32
808
28.8
4.5
28.3
38.3
6
68
155
52
63
1
5. 7
22.5
21. 1
3.8
36. 6
.3
2
28
78
27
16
1
27
294
298
180
22. 0
36. 2
29. 2
37. 6
13
138
158
103
12
87
112
66
819
815
193
68
23. 6
8.3
153
45
34
11
148
537
571
52
168
21
35.1
31. 3
3.7
32
86
8
19
65
7
18
320
78
12.5
34.7
10.1
9
110
45
4
91
21
48.
118
308
113
2,112
105
302
736
1,363
' 172
340
123
812
1,021
'479
144
923
774
Under 48
48
Under 48
48......... ........... ...................
Under 48______________
i Exclusive of Atlanta.
9
44
10
49
12
14
12
f$10 and under $12
6 1$15 and under $20........ ......
27
224
(2)________________ ____
2 Each of four other amounts was earned by one woman.
9
4
4
5
197
(2)
16
39
9
15
180
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
X.—Median of the week's earnings of white women in manufacturing, according
to whether timeworkers, pieceworkers, or on both timework andpiecework, by State
Table
Timeworkers
All women
State
Georgia:
Per cent
by which
Median Number Per cent Median median
Number earnings
of total earnings was below
that for
all women
2,844
209
754
$8.45
10.24
13. 22
529
168
131
18.6
80.4
17.4
$8. 34
10. 50
10.29
1.3
i 2. 5
22.2
448
3,460
4,462
' 797
9,022
15,027
181297
214
4,828
7,379
10, 253
11.06
12.89
10.84
8.19
12.31
15.26
14. 54
13.23
19.16
9.48
11.03
300
907
2,419
245
3,465
5,333
6,812
160
1,456
1,208
2,198
67.0
26.2
54. 2
30. 7
38.4
35. 5
37.2
74.8
30.2
16.4
21.4
10.61
11.98
10.62
7.54
11.98
13.41
12.66
12.70
16.02
8.96
10.63
4. 1
7. 1
2.0
7. 9
2.7
12.1
12.9
i 4.0
16.4
5. 5
3.6
181
GENERAL TABLES
X.—Median of the week’s earnings of white women in manufacturing, accord
ing to whether timeworkers, pieceworkers, or on both timework and piecework bv
State—Continued.
Table
Women on both timework and
piecework
Pieceworkers
State
Per cent
by which
Per cent Median median
Per cent Median
Number of total
earnings was above Number of total earnings
that for
all women
Alabama.................. ............ ......
Arkansas......................................
Delaware__________ ________
Georgia:
2,284
35
619
80.3
16.7
82.1
$8.50
9. 70
14.18
0.6
2 5.3
7.3
31
6
4
Other places.. .....................
Kentucky_____________ _____
Mississippi..
Missouri____ ____ ___________
New Jersey_________________
Ohio...............................................
Oklahoma
Rhode Island..___ __________
South Carolina ...
Tennessee. ....................... ...........
131
2,145
1,946
513
4, 952
8,674
10, 452
48
2,969
5, 577
7,810
9Q 9
62.0
43.6
64.4
54.9
57.7
57. 1
22.4
61.5
75.6
76.2
13.39
11.36
8.57
12.66
16.55
16. 34
13.50
21.34
9.68
11.18
3.9
4.8
4.6
2.8
8.5
12.4
2.0
11.4
408
97
39
605
1,020
1,033
6
403
594
1 In this case the figure shows an increase.
2 In this case the figure shows a decline.
8 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
2.1
1.4
245
1.1
2.9
.5
n o
11.8
2. 2
4.9
6.7
6.8
5.6
2 8
8.3
8.0
2.4
$6 75
(3j
(>)
- -_
12.19
9.05
12. 53
16. 42
15. 41
(3)
20 40
11.80
Table XI.—Earnings distribution of white women full-time workers in the chief woman-employing manufacturing industries reported in
11 States, according to whether timeworkers or pieceworkers, by State and industry
Alabama
i
Industry and earnings
Timeworkers
Pieceworkers
Timeworkers
Pieceworkers
Timeworkers
Mississippi
Kentucky
Georgia 1
Delaware
Pieceworkers
Timeworkers
Pieceworkers
Timeworkers
Missouri
Pieceworkers
Timeworkers
Pieceworkers
All manufacturing:
Number of women reported ...........
169 100.0
508
Median of the earnings__________ $9.87
$10. 63
.......
Under $8_____________________ _
27 16.0
96
$8 and under $10_____
____
62 36.7
115
$10 and under $12
40 23.7
111
$12 and under $15________ ____
23 13.6
109
$15 and over........... .........................
77
17 10.1
584 100.0 1,057
75 100.0
325 100.0
504 100.0
$11.54
$17.87
$13. 85
$16. 42
$10.06
.......
........
121
24 4.1
18.9
12 3.7
32 6.3
158
71 14.1
25 4.3
22.6
37 49.3
16 4.9
332
74 14.7
21.9
63 10.8
18 24.0
21 6.5
243
96 19.0
108 18.5
21. 5
16 21.3
46 14.2
15.2
4 5.3 230 70.8 231 45.8 364 62.3 203
100.0
Cotton goods:
$9.17
367 100.0
406 100. 0
$15.88
$15. 01
$11. 26
24.2
47jj
Hosiery and knit goods:
5
36 10 5
7.1
5 1
82 24.0
64 18.7
100.0
3 (2)
(2)
(')
$15 and over................................
$9.13
100.0
30 32. 3
7 7 5
16 17.2
13 14.0
13
61
54
55
184
$12.60
100.0
16. 7
3 16. 7
10 55. 6
2 11.1
16.6
14.7
15.0
50.1
24
19
48
83
232
5.9
4.7
11.8
20.4
57.1
42 100.0
31 100 0
29 100.0
$16. 25
$13.00
$10. 44
3
7.1
14. 3
8 19. 0
12 28.6
13 31.0
9
3
8
7
4
29.0
9.7
25.8
22.6
12.9
1 3.4
3 10.3
6 20.7
19 65.5
418 100.0
85 100.0
151 100.0 1,490
$11. 86 — $9.31 — $9.66
$12.88
—
60 14.4
37 24.5
43
11.4
30 35.3
134
14.9
69 16.5
18 21.2
45 29.8
32 21.2
355
87 20.8
25 29.4
31.4
23 15.2
496
106 .25.4
10 11.8
23.0
462
19.2
96 23.0
2 2.4
14 9.3
100.0
—
135 100.0
69 100. 0
$9.19
$9. 75
27
14
19
9
39. 1
34
20. 3 -----37
27. 5
28
22
13.0
14
25.2
27.4
20.7
16.3
10.4
100.0 1,495 100.0
$15.53 —
.....
2.9
9.0
23.8
33.3
31.0
60 4.0
71 4.7
169 11.3
380 25.4
815 54.5
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
W.
Cigars:
Number of women reported _
Median of the earnings____
31893
Under $8_._...........................$8 and under $10--------------$10 and under $12_________
$12 and under $15_________
’
$15 and over................. ..........
Metal products:
Number of women reported.
Median of the earnings_____
Jri
*0
53 100.0
275 100.0
$18.88
19.38
64.2
28.3
3.8
3.8
100.0
7
9
2.5
3.3
4.4
31 11.3
216 78.5
12
102 100.0
$17.18~.
(2)
i Exclusive of Atlanta, in which industries specified were not surveyed.
7.6
15.2
24.6
28.4
24.2
10.0
3.3
3.3
107 100.0
$15. 28
100.0
(2)
4.7
6.5
34.6
54.2
54
$18. 31
(2)
11.1
88.9
115
$10. 29
13.0
29.6
27.0
17.4
13.0
518 100.0
$16.17
405
29
$15.17
$12.
3. 4 _
10. 3j_
10.3L
24. l|_
51.7.
18
84
95
109
99
2 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
4.4
20.7
23.5
26.9
24,
5
1.0
29
47;
1331
304
5.6
9.1
25.7
58. 7
GENERAL TABLES
Under $S.__...........
$8 and under $10..
$L0 and under $12.
$12 and under $15.
$15 and over_____
$12.
77.8
5.6
3.9
9.8
9.8
76.5
$8 and under $10. ................ .
$10 and under $12.............
$12 and under $15_________
$15 and over..........................
Electrical appliances:
Number of women reported.
Median of the earnings^___
$10 and under $12........ ..........
$12 and under $15_________
$15 and over............................
Shoes:
Number of women reported
Median of the earnings_____
211 100.0
21
90
16.73
(2)
V
Table XI.—Earnings distribution of white women full-time workers in the chief woman-employing manufacturing industries reported in
11 States, according to whether timeworkers or pieceworkers, by State and industry—Continued
New Jersey
Timeworkers
Industry and earnings
Ohio
Pieceworkers
Timeworkers
Rhode Island
Pieceworkers
Timeworkers
South Carolina
Pieceworkers
Timeworkers
Tennessee
Pieceworkers
Timeworkers
Pieceworkers
All manufacturing:
Number of women reported .
Median of the earnings
Under $8 ______ ____
__
2,392 100. C 2,936 loo.o 3,184 100. C 4,179 100. C
747 100. C
644 100.0
43C 100. C 1,875 100.0 1,095 100.0 3, 487 100.0
$14. 29
$18. 74
$13.89
$18. IS
$18.16
$20. 40
$11.30
$12.45
$11. 55
$12. 79
...
$10 and under $12______ _____ ____
$12 and under $15 ...
$15 and over _____________
20
116
294
936
1,026
.8
4.8
12.3
39.1
42.9
10
32
197
406
2,291
.3
1.1
6.7
13.8
78.0
17
154
574
1,184
1, 255
.5
4.8
18.0
37.2
39.4
97
159
254
651
3, 018
2.3
3.8
6.1
15.6
72.2
Cotton goods:
Number of women reported __ _ _ .
139 100.0
247 100.0
Median of the earnings_____ _____ $12.25
$17.17
Under $8.__________ ___ _ .
$8 and under $10________________
$10 and under $12____________
$12 and under $15
Hosiery and knit goods:
Number of women reported....... .
Median of the earnings ... _
Under $8........................................
$8 and under $10________________
$10 and under $12
$12 and under $15. ___ ________
$15 and over_________
58
73
8
41.7
52.5
5.8
91
18
138
3
14
35
5.8
26.9
67.3
3
6
4C
595
.5
.9
6.2
92.4
28
129
107
120
46
18
106
80
105
35
121 100.0
126 100.0
$14.13
$16. 45
.........
2.3
25.6
72.2
6.5
30 0
24.9
27.9
10.7
225
254
377
481
538
12.0
13. 5
20.1
25.7
28.7
67
6.1
228 20.8
317 28.9
269 24.6
214 19.5
400
488
610
841
1,148
11. 5
17.5
24.1
32.9
344 100. 0 1,554 100.0
165 100. 0
438 100.0
$11.41
$12.58
$11.14
$12.95
36.8
7.3
55.9
52 100.0
$18.00
17
191
539
21
63
37
17. 4
52.1
30.6
2
1
11
34
78
1.6
.8
8. 7
27.0
61.9
5. 2
30. 8
23. 3
30. 5
10. 2
27 100.0
$9.64
9
7
7
1
3
33. 3
25.9
25.9
3.7
11.1
162
203
319
422
448
1
16
99
33
16
.6
9. 7
60. 0
20. 0
9. 7
86 100. 0
283
$9.27
$11. 88
100. 0
35
16
8
11
16
10. 4
13.1
20. 5
27.2
28. 8
40. 7
18. 6
9. 3
12.8
18.6
37
53
73
135
140
8. 4
io
30.8
32.0
1, 759 100 0
$12. 82
32
42
n 3
14.8
231
13.1
79
56
27.9
19.8
460
549
26. 2
31.2
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
ber cent
ber cent
ber cent
Cigars:
Number of women reported.
Median of the earnings____
Under $8_______ _________
$8 and under $10__________
$10 and under $12_................
$12 and under $15_________
$15 and over___ _____ _____
Metal products:
Number of women reported.
Median of the earnings_____
$10 and under $12_________
$12 and under $15_________
$15 and over_____________
Rubber products:
Number of women reported.
Median of the earnings____
$8 and under $10__________
$10 and under $12_________
$12 and under $15_________
$15 and over_____________
Shoes:
Number of women reported.
Median of the earnings____
6
19
18
30
42
5. 2
16. 5
15. 7
26.1
36. 5
5
2
13
61
531
.8
.3
2.1
10.0
86.8
9
6
41
33
10.1
6.7
46.1
37.1
54
88
98
17*5
852
(2)
4. 3
6.9
7.7
14.0
67.1
1 166.6
290 100.0
390 100.0
450 100.0
281 100.0
171 100. 0
374 100.0
$12. 91
$11. 92
$16.28
$18. 82
$22. 50
$14.82
206
87
17.4
55.1
23. 3
48
137
187
.8
3.8
12.3
35.1
47.9
23
128
63
76
7.9
44. 1
21. 7
26.2
2
7
98
343
.4
1.6
21.8
76. 2
26
255
9.3
90. 7
2
169
1. 2
98. 8
468 100.0
209 100.0
346 100.0
414 100.0
84 100. 0
242 100.0
$19. 26
$15. 65
$20. 31
$15.38
$18. 27
$14. 07
5
1.1
1
192
41 0
188
.5
96
90.0
g
150
188
2.3
1
54. 3
373
.2
9 7
90.1
39
45
53.6
1
14
227
.4
5 8
93.8
118 100.0
345 100.0
216 100.0
78 100.0
100.0
301 100.0
$21.20
$17.00
$13. 85
$20.04
$18. 02
$13.84
1
17
33
27
1.3
21.8
42. 3
34. 6
Under $8________
$8 and under $10. .
$10 and under $12.
$12 and under $15.
$15 and over_____
3
5
5
37
6.0
10. 0
10.0
74.0
4
64
50
3.4
54. 2
42.4
8
2. 3
3? 10.1
302 87. 5
1 100.0
80
221
26. 6
73.4
3
4
17
192
1.4
1.9
7.9
88.9
170 100.0
$13. 82
14
25
29
32
70
0
8.2
14.7
17.1
18.8
41.2
7 100.0
2
4
1
M
(“)
(!)
(!)
6 100.0
6 100.0
333 100.0
$9. 84
80
94
93
52
14
24.0
28.2
27.9
15.6
4.2
19 100.0
$15.17
2
7
10
10.5
36.8
52.6
GENEKAL TABLES
Under $8________________
$8 and under $10__________
$10 and under $12_________
$12 and under $15_________
$15 and over_____________
Electrical appliances:
Number of women reported.
Median of the earnings____
89 100.0 1, 270 100.0
115 100.0
612 100.0
$13. 50
$20.02
$13. 76
$18.14
392 100.0
358 100.0
$15.15
$19. 69
9
42
52
87
202
2.3
10.7
13.3
22.2
51.5
5
28
48
277
1.4
7. 8
13.4 ...........
77. 4
2 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
CO
Gi
Table
XII.—Median of the week’s earnings of white women full-time workers in manufacturing in 11 States, according to'whether timeworkers
or pieceworkers, by State
All full-time workers
State i
Alabama____
Delaware________________
Georgia:
Atlanta^___ ____________
Other places
_ ___ _ _
_
Kentucky__________________
Mississippi __________ ____
Missouri ____________ ____
New Jersey
Ohio______ __ _
Rhode Island
South Carolina___ ______ _
Tennessee
Per cent
by
which
median
Per cent Median
was
of all
of the
above
work
earn
that of
ers 8
ings
all
workers
in the
State
Num
ber
Full-time pieceworkers
Per cent Per cent
by
by
which
which
Per cent Median median median
of all
was
of the
was
full
above
below
earn
time
that of
ings
that of all timeworkers
all full workers
time
in the
workers
State
Num
ber
678
401
23.8
53.2
$10.46
16.46
23.8
24.5
169
75
24.9
18.7
$9.87
10.06
0.6
63.6
18.3
3 2.2
508
325
74.9
81.0
$10.63
17.87
1.6
8.6
25.1
26.0
7.7
77. 6
169
1,240
1,503
249
3,207
5,620
7,849
1,509
2,458
4, 696
37.7
35.8
33.7
31.2
35.5
37.4
42.9
31.3
33.3
45.8
12.86
15.27
11.62
9. 64
14.04
16. 66
16.09
18.90
12.03
12.41
16.3
18.5
7.2
17.7
14.1
9.2
10.7
31.4
26.9
12.5
103
504
1,057
85
1,490
2,392
3,184
747
430
1,095
60.9
40.6
70.3
34.1
46.5
42.6
40.6
49.5
17.5
23.3
12. 71
13.85
11.54
9.31
12.88
14.29
13.89
18.16
11.30
11.55
1.2
10.3
.7
3.5
9.0
16.6
15.8
4.1
6.5
7.4
19.8
15.6
8.7
23.5
7.5
6.6
9.7
13.4
26.1
8.7
57
584
418
151
1,495
2,936
4,179
644
1,875
3,487
33.7
47.1
27.8
60.6
46.6
52.2
53.2
42.7
76.3
74.3
14.50
16.42
11.86
9.66
15. 53
18.74
18.13
20.40
12.45
12.79
12.8
7.5
2.1
.2
10.6
12.5
12.7
7.9
3.5
3.1
12.8
22.6
4.4
12.7
22.7
13.2
11.0
3 4.4
23.6
14.4
14.1
18.6
2.8
3.8
20.6
31.1
30.5
12.3
10.2
10.7
1 States from which reports on timework and piecework were made for 250 or more women in manufacturing industries.
2 Total number for whom it was possible to determine whether on timework or piecework.
3 In this case the figure shows a decline.
Per cent Per cent Per cent
by
by
by
which
Per cent
which
which
median median
of all Median median
was
full
of the
was
was
above
time
above
above
earn
that of that of
work
ings
that of all piece
all full workers
timeers
time
work
in the
workers
ers
State
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Num
ber
Full-time timeworkers
»—i
^
Table
m
XIII.—Age distribution of white women in manufacturing in 11 States, and increase in earnings with increased age, by State1
All women re
porting
State
Number
1
2
s
4
Median 16 and 18 and 20 and 25 and 30 and 40 and
of the under under under under under under
18
20
25
30
40
50
earnings
years years years years years years
$8. 76
13.83
11. 91
11.25
8.51
12.55
15.29
15.47
18.55
10. 13
11. 82
12.5
22.2
13. 1
12.9
14.0
13.4
13.1
18.8
16.3
8.9
16.3
23.1
15.3
15.5
17.9
18.5
18.5
17.5
18.0
15.3
18.2
23.0
19.2
20.5
22.2
24.9
23.0
29.0
29.7
25.6
21.8
25.6
12.7
10.4
15.4
12.6
13.0
13.1
14.8
16. 2
14.5
14.6
13.1
18.7
12.5
19.3
16.7
16.6
17.4
15.8
21.4
13.1
19.0
17.8
12.0
6.5
10.7
11.7
8.5
10.0
6.0
10.3
5.9
9.4
9.9
50 and
under
60
years
3.8
2.5
4.0
6.6
3.9
3.9
2.1
3.6
3.7
2.8
5.1
_
over
1.0
3.5
1.6
1.8
1.3
.9
.7
1.3
.5
.9
1.4
Per cent by which median of earnings at ages specified
was above the median at 16 and under 18 years
Median
earnings
of women
of 16 and 18 and 20 and 25 and 30 and 40 and 50 and
under 18 under under under under under under
50
60
20
30
40
25
years
years
years years years years
years
$6.66
11.61
10.32
9.23
7.27
10.38
12.41
413.48
16.39
8.71
8.20
21.6
37.8
15.4
17.8
16.9
13.3
16.0
w
11.5
9.1
25.5
Median not computed, owing to the small number involved.
In this case the figure shows a decline.
Exclusive of Atlanta.
Women 16 and under 18 not tabulated, because of law limiting their hours of work. Group 18 and under 20 used as the base.
30.3
41.5
25.5
30.6
15. 5
27.3
31.3
18.0
21.5
19.1
48.7
41.4
22.7
43.6
33.7
33.0
31.3
33.2
26.8
24.5
30.9
60.0
56.6
28.0
39.0
38.9
31.8
38.4
33.8
22.9
20.3
34.3
63.7
40.2
5.5
30.0
24.3
13.5
24.8
22.3
13.3
.7
13.8
54.6
36.3
0)
16.3
14.3
5.0
17.7
8.8
2 6.3
6.8
6.8
43.4
3.6
2 33.9
2 7.9
9.1
13.5
6.0
2.1
2 11.0
2 8.5
2 2.4
32.4
GENERAL TABLES
Alabama____
1,715
Delaware____________
510
Georgia 3_ _____ 1,363
Kentucky
3, 043
Mississippi___ ____ .
386
Missouri_____ _______
5,522
New Jersey__________
6, 487
Ohio
10,733
Rhode Island _ _____
1,173
South Carolina. .......... .
3,092
Tennessee_____ ... _
5,117
Per cent of all women reporting whose age was—
00
Table
XIV.—Nativity and earnings of white women in manufacturing in four States, by State and industry
h-*
8S
MISSOURI
Native-born women
Foreign-bom women
Largest group or groups
Industry
Clothing:
Men’s clothing_____ _ _ ____
Overalls_____ _____ __________
Men’s shirts..
----Paper and paper products_____ ____
Shoes... ... . --- _____ --- ____
Tobacco products—Tobacco------------
Per cent
of total
Median
number of earnings
women
Women
Country of origin
5,886
5,191
88.2
$12.54
451
7.7
$13. 50
240
446
218
433
90.8
97.1
12.04
12.03
22
11
9.2
2.5
11. 50
0
Italy___ ______ _____ —
Austria-Hungary
240
762
626
247
160
521
1, 583
1,061
164
744
566
242
155
504
1,554
611
68.3
97.6
90.4
98.0
96.9
96.7
98. 2
57.6
11.69
10. 28
12.14
11. 86
16.30
12.55
13. 26
13. 52
76
18
60
5
5
17
29
208
31.7
2.4
9.6
2.0
3.1
3.3
1.8
19.6
13. 20
16.00
13. 75
0
0
12. 38
12.70
14.40
Number
Median
Per cent of earnings
total for
eign bom
129
28.6
$13.03
6
27.3
0)
Italy....... ...........
.. ----Germany___________ ____
Austria-Hungary......... ........
41
4
28
53.9
22.2
46.7
12.83
0
14.20
Italy _ __------------------- --
Germany------- ------Italy----- ------------------------
4
6
84
23.5
20.7
40.4
(>)
(0
13. 18
/Italy____
/Hungary-.
294
88
19. 1
5.7
$14. 86
19. 75
NEW JERSEY
All manufacturing.
Candy______ _____ ____
Clothing:
Men’s shirts________ *
Women’s clothing------Drugs and chemicals-------Electrical appliances_____
Glass products___________
Metal products__________
Paper and paper products..
Rubber products.................
Textiles:
Cotton goods________
Hosiery and knit goods.
Tobacco products—Cigars..
6,566
4,935
75, 2
$15.09
23.5
$ia
122
110
90.2
9.74
153
165
282
1,530
179
1, 609
256
309
92
120
214
1,185
140
1,310
226
260
60. 1
72.7
75.9
77.5
78.2
81.4
88.3
84.1
16.29
11.86
13. 53
16.43
12.53
13. 86
14.00
15.61
12
9.8
(0
56
35
67
345
37
279
30
47
36.6
21.2
23.8
22.5
20.7
17.3
11.7
15.2
14.
9.
12.
16.
13.
14.
12.
15.
Italy___
----- do_
_
Poland...
Italy___
___ do_
_
___ do.—
___ do —
/England _
/Scotland.
17
25
17
66
16
38
21
9
9
30.4
71.4
25.4
19. 1
43.2
13.6
70.0
19.1
19.1
15.50
9. 17
12.10
17.17
12.00
14. 17
11.50
o)
(0
305
1,031
625
168
861
249
55. 1
83. 5
39.8
15.00
16. 77
16.55
137
168
329
44.9
16.3
52.6
18.
16.
18.
Italy____
___ do___
Hungary..
72
39
88
52.6
23.2
26.7
15.00
16. 50
19.75
1,542
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
All manufacturing
Bakery products__________________
Number
Per cent
of women
of total
Median
reporting Number number of earnings Number
women
OHIO
All manufacturing.
6.4
3.6
3.8
4.7
Italy___________
7
17.5
«
Germany_______
___ do__________
Hungary________
fEngland. ....... .
1 Germany_______
Austria-Hungary..
Poland_________
Bohemia________
Austria_________
fEngland________
\Germany_______
47
4
24
13
13
19
74
27
90
6
6
17.6
18.2
24.7
17.3
17.3
35.8
16.9
19. 1
24.9
22.2
22.2
19.88
(0
15.17
(l)
(')
12.75
14. 38
10.06
20.33
o
o)
Hungary..
57
30.0
16.13
17. 50 ___ do____ _____
19. 33 Austria-Hungary..
43
23
31.4
32.9
18. 75
19.50
41
26
20
12.9
8.2
6.3
$17. 38
20. 40
14.50
26
20
25.2
41.7
20. 40
14. 50
41
26.1
17. 38
8,819
78.3
$15. 51
1,931
17.1
$15.66
162
238
148
198
91.4
83.2
12. 20
11.68
14
40
8.6
16.8
0)
11. 86
1,292
379
185
1,157
429
1, 611
1,000
1, 552
732
1,025
357
88
1,082
303
1,120
770
1,191
705
79.3
94.2
47.6
93.5
70.6
69.5
77.0
76.7
96.3
20.13
15. 22
15.18
16.72
12. 53
15.05
13. 38
18. 25
16. 36
267
22
97
75
53
437
141
361
27
20.7
5.8
52.4
6.5
12.4
27.1
14. 1
23.3
3.7
20. 69
18. 33
14. 96
16. 23
12. 56
13. 86
11. 72
18.91
16.50
28
496
28
306
61.7
11. 50
12.50
190
38.3
14.15
1, 500
503
1,209
289
80.6
57.5
15.38
10.08
137
70
9.1
13.9
Hungary. _
Germany .
Poland_
_
Austria__
RHODE ISLAND
1,176
Rubber products!
859
73.0
$18.40
317
27.0
$18. 65
500
141
47
488
397
93
38
331
79.4
66.0
80. 9
67.8
17. 97
16. 90
13. 57
20.44
103
48
9
157
20.6
34.0
19. 1
32.2
18.83
17. 50
(!)
19. 83
[Portugal---------------------- ..
[Italy________
------
Portugal______ __________
GENERAL TABLES
Bakery products...............
Candy_________________
Clothing:
Men’s clothing_______
Men’s shirts_________
Women’s clothing____
Electrical appliances........ _.
Glass products.___ ______
Metal products__________
Paper and paper products.
Rubber products.................
Shoes__________________
Textiles:
Cordage and twine____
Hosiery and knit goods.
Tobacco products:
Cigars.____ _________
Tobacco.___ ________
$16. 50
19. 25
14. 38
20. 33
124
70
74
90
11,264
> Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
og
o
190
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
XV.—Week’s earnings of white women in general mercantile establishments,
6-and-10-cent stores, and laundries compared with earnings in manufacturing,
by State
Table
Manufacturing
State
Alabama.----------- ------- ---------------Arkansas___ ____ __________
Delaware.._...
..
Georgia:
Atlanta
Other places______________ ____
Kentucky _____ _______ ___________
Mississippi____ _______ ____ ____
Missouri
New Jersey------------------- -------Ohio __
Oklahoma-- .
____
Rhode Island.......... ..................
_____
South Carolina_______ _______ ______
Tennessee...
Number of
women
Median
earnings
General mercantile establishments
Number of
women
Median
earnings
Per cent by
which median
was above
{+) or below
(—) median
for manufac
turing
2,982
209
761
$8.39
10. 24
13.26
742
625
339
$12. 44
15.12
11.68
+48.3
+47.7
-11.9
448
3, m
4, 473
894
9,160
16, 397
18,488
224
4,886
7,419
10,358
11.06
12.90
10. 84
8.36
12.27
15. 23
14. 52
13.14
19.13
9.49
11.03
404
392
763
378
2,437
1, 844
3,535
626
723
307
3,237
17.03
13. 96
11.54
14.91
14.43
16.92
14.34
17.46
13.27
15.49
14. 55
+54.0
+8.2
+6.5
+78.6
+17.6
+11.1
-1.2
+32.9
-30.6
+63. 2
+31.9
191
GENERAL TABLES
Table XV.—Week’s earnings of white women in general mercantile establishments,
S-and-10-cent stores, and laundries compared with earnings in manufacturing,
by State—Continued
5-and-10-cent stores
State
Number of
women
Alabama_______
Arkansas...........
Delaware........ .
Georgia:
Atlanta___
Other places
Kentucky______
Mississippi_____
Missouri_______
New Jersey_____
Ohio__________
Oklahoma______
Rhode Island___
South Carolina.. .
Tennessee______
Median
earnings
188
130
94
$8.07
9.41
9.64
187
111 7
194
424
302
408
314
154
149
310
9.22
8.68
8.39
9. 77
11.12
10.49
9. 32
11.92
8.84
9.17
Laundries
Per cent by
which median
was above
(+) or below Number of
women
(—) median
for manufac
turing
-3.8
-8.1
-27.3
-28.5
-19.9
+.5
-20.4
-27.0
-27.8
-29.1
-37.7
-6.8
-16.9
72
189
196
61
39
371
63
623
590
1,038
649
164
28
329
Median
earnings
$11.
00
10.40
9. 34
14.61
9.75
10.64
9.13
11.82
12.84
12.36
11.49
12. 46
10.83
8. 93
Per cent by
which median
was above
(+) or below
(—) median
for manufac
turing
+31.1
+ 1.6
-29.6
+32.1
-24.4
-3.7
-15.7
-14.9
12.6
-
-34.9
+14.1
—19_0
T
Table
XVI.— Week’s earnings of white women in the four types of industry, by State
MANUFACTURING
Alabama
Week’s earnings
Arkansas
Number Per cent
distri
of
bution
women
Georgia
Delaware
Atlanta
Other places
Kentucky
Mississippi
Number Per cent Number Per cent N umber Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
distri
distri
distri
of
distri
of
distri
distri
of
of
of
of
bution
bution
bution
bution
bution
bution
women
women
women
women
women
women
2,982
L, 356
661
418
330
182
35
100.0
45.5
22.2
14.0
11.1
6.1
1.2
209
64
36
34
40
33
2
Total..................................
Under $8
$8 and under $10
$10 and under $12_______ _____
$12 and under $15
$15 and under $20
$20 and over
742
85
115
129
152
159
102
100.0
11.5
15.5
17.4
20.5
21.4
13.7
625
64
42
59
137
194
129
100.0
10.2
6.7
9.4
21.9
31.0
20.6
188
91
69
20
5
1
2
100.0
48.4
36.7
10.6
2.7
.5
LI
130
33
52
19
21
4
1
100.0
25.4
40.0
14.6
16.2
3.1
.8
94
19
36
31
7
1
72
21
5
14
21
8
3
100.0
29.2
6.9
19.4
29.2
11.1
4.2
189
18
45
85
23
13
5
100.0
9.5
23.8
45.0
12.2
6.9
2.6
196
44
75
42
24
10
1
100.0
30.6
17.2
16.3
19.1
15.8
1.0
761
119
109
95
135
173
130
100.0
15.6
14.3
12.5
17.7
22.7
17.1
100.0
18.1
19.0
23.2
22.1
13.8
3.8
3,463
595
452
479
667
874
396
100.0
17.2
13.1
13.8
19.3
25.2
11.4
4,473
1,098
737
916
782
673
267
100.0
24.5
16. 5
20.5
17.5
15.0
6.0
894
408
225
141
84
31
5
100.0
45.6
25.2
15.8
9.4
3.5
.6
392
16
42
69
84
107
74
100.0
4.1
10.7
17.6
21.4
27.3
18.9
753
133
133
133
144
124
86
100.0
17.7
17.7
17.7
19.1
16.5
11.4
378
43
30
50
67
93
95
100.
11. <
7.9
13.
17.7
24.
25.1
187
45
75
45
18
4
448
81
85
104
99
62
17
100.0
24.1
40.1
24.1
9.6
2.1
197
61
81
30
15
8
9
100.0
31.0
41.1
15.2
7.6
4.1
1.0
194
68
107
10
9
100.0
35.1
55.2
5.2
4.6
39
17
3
2
9
4
4
100.0
43.6
7.7
5.1
23. 1
10.3
10.3
371
48
94
119
71
30
9
100.0
12.9
25.3
32.1
19.1
8.1
2.4
63
23
12
15
6
4
3
100.
36.5
19.
23.5
9.5
6.3
4.8
GENERAL MERCANTILE ESTABLISHMENTS
339
26
65
85
85
65
13
100.0
7.7
19.2
25. 1
25.1
19.2
3.8
404
4
16
44
91
115
134
100.0
1.0
4.0
10.9
22. 5
28.5
33.2
5-AND-10-CENT STORES
Total____
____ _____
100.0
20.2
38.3
33.0
7.4
1.1
LAUNDRIES
Total........ ............ .............
Under $8
$8 and under $10
$10 and under $12
$12 and under $15--.................. .
$15 and under $20...... ........... —
$20 and over..................................
100.0
22.4
38.3
21.4
12.2
5.1
,5
61
2
3
6
23
22
5
100.0
3.3
4.9
9.8
37.7
36.1
8.2
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Total
Under $8__________________
$8 and under $10 $10 and under $12_____ ______
$12 and under $15_____ ____
$15 and under $20........$20 and over____________ _____
MANUFACTURING—Continued
Missouri
Week’s earnings
Total_____
Under $8___ ________________
$8 and under $10___ ___...
$10 and under $12____________
$12 and under $15 _ .
$15 and under $20-------- ---------$20 and over
New Jersey
Number Per cent
distriof
bution
women
Ohio
Oklahoma
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Tennessee
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
of
distriof
distridistriof
distriof.
distri- .
of
distriof
bution
bution
bution
bution
bution
bution
women
women
women
women
women
women
9,160
100.0
15,397
100.0
18,488
100.0
224
100.0
4, 886
100.0
7,419
100.0
10,358
100.0
1,664
1,172
1,534
1,971
2,009
810
18.2
12.8
16.7
21.5
21.9
8.8
1,105
1,037
1,736
3, 563
5,268
2,688
7.2
6.7
11.3
23.1
34.2
17.5
2,082
1,334
2,218
4,195
4, 964
3, 695
11.3
7.2
12.0
22.7
26.8
20.0
26
23
38
77
51
9
11.6
10.3
17.0
34.4
22.8
4.0
154
111
211
719
1.514
2,177
3.2
2.3
4.3
14.7
31.0
44.6
2,628
1,490
1,231
1,175
772
123
35.4
20.1
16.6
15.8
10.4
1.7
2,511
1,721
1,742
2,051
1,794
539
24.2
16.6
16.8
19.8
17.3
5.2
GENERAL MERCANTILE ESTABLISHMENTS—Continued
2,437
100.0
1,844
100.0
3, 535
100.0
626
100.0
723
100.0
307
100.0
1, 237
100.0
$8 and under $10 ___
$10 and under $12
$12 and under $15.
___ __
$15 and under $20. __ ___ ____
$20 and over___ _____________
96
127
351
768
776
319
3.9
5.2
14.4
31.5
31.8
13.1
22
31
140
416
754
481
1.2
1.7
7.6
22.6
40.9
26.1
214
169
421
1,118
1,117
496
6.1
4.8
11.9
31.6
31.6
14.0
19
26
50
79
256
196
3.0
4.2
8.0
12.6
40.9
31.3
47
35
92
344
161
44
6.5
4.8
12.7
47.6
22.3
6.1
3
4
47
75
117
61
1.0
1.3
15.3
24.4
38.1
19.9
72
93
168
307
362
235
5.8
7.5
13.6
24.8
29.3
19.0
Total............. .....................
424
100.0
302
100.0
408
100.0
314
100.0
154
100.0
149
100.0
310
100.0
Under $8___ _____ __________
$8 and under $10
$10 and under $12____________
$12 and under $15........................
$15 and under $20 __
$20 and over__ _____ ________
93
144
110
58
17
2
21.9
34.0
25.9
13.7
4.0
.5
22
45
99
120
15
1
7.3
14.9
32.8
39.7
5.0
.3
55
105
131
92
24
1
13.5
25.7
32.1
22.5
5.9
.2
68
146
87
12
1
21.7
46.5
27.7
3.8
.3
23
18
37
61
13
2
14.9
11.7
24.0
39.6
8.4
1.3
36
72
29
6
5
1
24.2
48.3
19.5
4.0
3.4
.7
58
159
77
13
2
1
18.7
51.3
24.8
4.2
.0
.3
Total........................ ..........
623
100.0
590
100.0
1,038
100.0
649
100.0
164
100.0
28
100.0
329
100.0
Under $8
$8 and under $10. _______ _____
$10 and under $12.........................
$12 and under $15__ ________
$15 and under $20__ ________
$20 and over________ ______
79
103
140
151
115
35
12.7
16.5
22.5
24.2
18.5
5.6
54
37
141
190
131
37
9.2
6.3
23.9
32.2
22.2
6.3
105
150
209
340
198
36
10. 1
14.5
20.1
32.8
19.1
3.5
73
110
181
183
82
20
11.2
16.9
27.9
28.2
12.6
3.1
7
31
38
43
33
12
4.3
18.9
23.2
26.2
20.1
7.3
5
4
6
3
8
2
17.9
14.3
21.4
10.7
28.6
7.1
120
74
40
40
46
9
36.5
22.5
12.2
12.2
14.0
2.7
5-AND-10-CENT STORES—Continued
LAUNDRIES-Continued
GENERAL TABLES
Total
Under $8
Table
XVII.—Week’s earnings of white women full-time workers in the four types of industry, by State
Alabama
Week’s earnings
Arkansas
Delaware
^
Georgia
Atlanta
Other places
Kentucky
Mississippi
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
distri
of
of
distri
of
distri
of
distri
of
distri
of
distri
of
distri
bution
bution
bution
bution
bution
women
women
bution
bution
women
women
women
women
women
702
130
188
156
133
80
15
100.0
18.5
26.8
22.2
18.9
11.4
2.1
93
14
15
16
25
22
1
100.0
15.1
16.1
17.2
26.9
23.7
1.1
406
12
53
40
64
118
119
100.0
3.0
13.1
9.9
15.8
29.1
29.3
169
6
16
41
54
38
14
100.0
3.6
9.5
24.3
32.0
22.5
8.3
1,241
61
108
162
241
475
194
100.0
4.9
8.7
13.1
19.4
38.3
15.6
1,504
183
229
428
361
254
49
100.0
12.2
15.2
28.5
24.0
16.9
3.3
311
67
123
66
37
15
3
100.0
21.5
39.5
21.2
11.9
4.8
1.0
614
72
107
112
127
112
84
100.0
298
100.0
17.4
18.2
20.7
18.2
13.7
17
41
57
80
85
5.7
13.8
19.1
26.8
28.5
GENERAL MERCANTILE ESTABLISHMENTS
Total____ ___ _____
Under $8
$8 and under $10____ _
$10 and under $12___________
$12 and under $15 _____ ____
$15 and under $20........................
$20 and over_____ ___________
628
32
96
116
135
151
98
100.0
5.1
15.3
18.5
21.5
24.0
15.6
515
21
28
36
123
184
123
100.0
4.1
5.4
7.0
23.9
35.7
23.9
310
19
56
78
83
61
13
100.0
6.1
18.1
25.2
26.8
19.7
4.2
367
100.0
320
9
34
83
113
128
2.5
9.3
22.6
30.8
34.9
27
54
69
99
69
100.0
.6
8.4
16.9
21.6
30.9
21.6
130
8
61
43
14
4
100.0
6.2
46 9
33.1
10.8
3.1
156
28
75
29
14
8
2
100.0
163
100.0
48 1
18 6
90
5.1
1.3
10
9
5.5
29
10
2
1
8
4
4
100.0
34.5
6.9
3.4
27.6
13.8
13.8
251
8
60
97
59
21
6
100.0
3 2
23.9
38.6
23.5
8.4
2.4
47
10
11
15
4
4
3
5-AND-10-CENT STORES
Total....___ __________
Under $8
$10
and under $12
$15 and under $20
$20 and over
138
42
68
20
5
1
2
100.0
30.4
49.3
14.5
3.6
.7
1.4
103
10
48
19
21
4
1
100.0
9.7
46.6
18.4
20.4
3.9
1.0
67
6
27
26
7
1
30
1
2
5
15
5
2
100.0
3.3
6.7
16.7
50.0
16.7
6.7
123
100.0
27
67
14
10
5
22.0
54.5
11.4
8.1
4.1
134
5
63
37
21
7
1
100.0
9.0
40.3
38. 8
10.4
1. 5
LAUNDRIES
Total...................................
Under $8....... ...............................
$8 and under $10......... ...... ..........
$10 and under $12........................
$12 and under $15.................... .
$15 and under $20_____ ______
$20 and over...... .................... ......
100.0
3. 7
47.0
27.6
15.7
5.2
.7
50
100.0
1
3
20
21
5
2.0
6.0
40.0
42.0
10.0
100.0
23.4
31.9
8.5
8.5
6.4
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Total........... .......................
Under $8__________ ____
$8 and under $10.........
$10 and under $12.. ... ___
$12 and under $15____ _______
$15 and under $20
$20 and over______
1-1
MANUFACTURING
MANUFACTURING—Continued
New Jersey
Missouri
Week’s earnings
Ohio
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number
distri
distri
of
of
of
bution
bution
women
women
women
Rhode Island
Oklahoma
South Carolina
Tennessee
Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
distri
of
distriof
distriof
distri
distri
of
bution
bution
bution
bution
women
bution
women
women
women
3,250
100.0
5,675
100.0
7,950
100.0
$8 and under $10. _
$10 and under $12____________
$12 and under $15. .......................
$15 and under $20
$20 and over____________
111
224
583
974
1,033
325
3.4
6.9
17.9
30.0
31.8
10.0
30
151
506
1,419
2,199
1, 370
.5
2.7
8.9
25.0
38.7
24.1
116
325
869
1,988
2, 593
2,059
1.5
4.1
10.9
25.0
32.6
25.9
2,060
100.0
100.0
55
5.5
9.1
47.3
27.3
10.9
3
5
26
15
6
1,523
3
25
244
645
606
100.0
2,474
100.0
4,733
100.0
.2
1.6
16.0
42.4
39.8
277
409
539
642
514
93
11.2
16.5
21.8
25.9
20.8
3.8
488
739
953
1,152
1,062
339
10.3
15.6
20.1
24.3
22.4
7.2
GENERAL MERCANTILE ESTABLISHMENTS—Continued
Total_________________
1,538
100.0
2,830
100.0
528
100.0
567
100.0
266
100.0
1,055
100.0
6
90
272
967
1,026
469
.2
3.2
9.6
34.2
36.3
16.6
2
15
35
61
230
185
.4
2.8
6.6
11.6
43.6
35.0
10
15
40
309
153
40
1.8
2.6
7.1
54.5
27.0
7.1
1
3
37
60
107
58
.4
1.1
13.9
22.6
40.2
21.8
21
70
133
281
337
213
2.0
6.6
12.6
26.6
31.9
20.2
237
100.0
130
100.0
123
100.0
241
100.0
17
122
85
12
1
7.2
51.5
35.9
5.1
.4
15
12
29
60
12
2
11.5
9.2
22.3
46.2
9.2
1.5
15
68
29
6
4
1
12.2
55.3
23.6
4.9
3.3
.8
8
142
75
13
2
1
3.3
58.9
31.1
5.4
.8
.4
100.0
92
100.0
21
100.0
238
100.0
.4
14.9
29.9
34.3
16.4
4.1
1
25
18
29
16
3
1.1
27.2
19.6
31.5
17.4
3.3
4
2
4
1
8
2
19.0
9.5
19.0
4.8
38.1
9.5
61
55
37
36
40
9
25.6
23.1
15.5
15.1
16.8
3.8
$8 and under $10.
$10 and under $12
$12 and under $15
$15 and under $20 ...
$20 and over____ ____________
12
60
249
687
740
312
.6
2.9
12.1
33.3
35.9
15.1
7
104
356
642
429
.5
6.8
23. 1
41.7
27.9
Total_________________
324
100.0
240
100.0
$8 and under $10. _ _
$10 and under $12___
..
$12 and under $15____________
$15 and under $20..
$20 and over_____ ___________
24
123
105
54
16
2
7.4
38.0
32.4
16.7
4.9
.6
2
28
80
115
14
1
.8
11.7
33.3
47.9
5.8
.4
304
100.0
410
100.0
5-AND-10-CENT STORES—Continued
312
80
116
91
24
1
100.0
25.6
37.2
29.2
7.7
.3
LAUNDRIES—Continued
Total_____________ ____
$8 and under $10_______ ___
$10 and under $12. _
$12 and under $15... ----- ------$15 and under $20... ____ ___
$20 and over........ .........................
8
35
69
96
73
23
2.6
11.5
22.7
31.6
24.0
7.6
10
113
160
101
26
2.4
27.6
39.0
24.6
6.3
431
25
58
203
122
23
100.0
5.8
13.5
47.1
28.3
5.3
469
2
70
140
161
77
19
GENERAL TABLES
Total_________________
196
WAGES OP WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Table XVIII.—Week’s earnings of white women full-time workers compared, to
those of all white women, by State and type of industry
Manufacturing
All white
women re
ported
Per
Me Num cent
Num dian ber of all
ber earn of
re
ings wom port
en
ed
2,087 $8. 51
206 10. 21
742 13.14
440
2, 364
3,454
783
7,553
11,891
17,092
213
4,175
6,711
9. 229
11.12
12.94
10. 61
8.11
12.60
15.19
14. 41
13.16
19.19
9. 51
11.04
702
93
406
169
1,241
1,504
311
3,250
5, 675
7, 950
55
1, 523
2,474
4,733
1 In this case the figure shows a decline.
All white
women re
ported
Full-time workers
State
Alabama....................... .
Arkansas___
__ __ .
Delaware.......... .............
Georgia:
Atlanta
Other places ..............
Kentucky____ _ ___
Mississippi
Missouri. ____ ___
New Jersey. _ ____ _
Ohio.____________ _
Oklahoma
Rhode Island________
SouthCarolina______
Tennessee
General mercantile establishments
Me
dian
earn
ings
Per
Per
cent
cent
by
Per
by
which
Me Num cent Me which
median Num dian ber of all dian median
ber earn of
was
re earn was
above
ings wom port ings above
en
that
ed
that
for all
for all
women
women
33.6 $10. 38
45.1 12.08
54.7 16.48
22.0
18.3
25.4
38.4
52.5
43. 5
39.7
43.0
47.7
46.5
25.8
36.5
36.9
51.3
15.6
18. C
9.5
16.5
11.2
9.5
11.3
10.5
i 1.6
26.7
12.2
12.86
15.27
11. 62
9. 45
14.01
16.63
16.04
14. 54
18.88
12.05
12. 39
Full-time workers
742 $12.44
624 15.11
339 11.68
404
392
753
370
2,435
1,844
3, 534
626
723
289
1.236
17.03
13.96
11.54
14. 73
14. 43
16. 92
14. 34
17.46
13.27
15. 55
14.56
628
515
310
367
320
614
298
2, 060
1, 538
2,830
528
567
266
1,055
84.6 $12. 80
82.5 15.58
91.4 12.03
2.9
3.1
3.0
90.8
81.6
81.5
80.5
84.6
83.4
80. 1
84.3
78.4
92.0
85.4
2.1
8.6
5.8
5.4
4.6
2.1
5.9
4.0
4.7
.6
3.9
17.38
15.16
12. 21
15. 52
15. 09
17.28
15.18
18.15
13.90
15. 65
15.13
197
GENERAL TABLES
Table XVIII.—Week’s earnings of white women full-time workers compared to
those of all white women,
by State and type of industry—Continued
5-and-10-cent stores
All white
women re
ported
All white
women re
ported
Full-time workers
State
Per
Me Num cent
Num dian ber of all
ber earn of
re
ings wom port
ed
en
Alabama
Arkansas _______ __
Delaware __
Georgia:
Atlanta.___________
Other plaees
____
Kentucky___ _____j_
Mississippi. . ■___ _
Missouri-New Jersey
Ohio__________
Oklahoma
Rhode Island
South Carolina _____
Tennessee--______
Laundries
Me
dian
earn
ings
Full-time workers
Per
cent
by
Per
which
Me Num cent
median Num dian ber of all
ber earn of
was
re
above
ings wom port
that
ed
en
for all
women
Me
dian
earn
ings
Per
cent
by
which
median
was
above
that
for all
women
188 $8.07
130 9.41
94 9.64
138
103
67
73.4 $8.60
79.2 9.80
71.3 10.03
6.6
4.1
4.0
66 $11.00
183 10.44
196 9.34
30
123
134
45.5 $12. 80
67.2 10. 56
68.4 9. 96
16.4
1.1
6.6
187 9.22
197 8.68
194 8.39
424 9. 77
302 11.12
408 10.49
314 9. 32
154 11.92
149 8. 84
310 9.17
130
156
163
324
240
312
237
130
123
241
69.5
79.2
84.0
76.4
79.5
76.5
75.5
84.4
82.6
77.7
7.0
39 9. 75
3.7
351 10.72
2.3
61 9. 38
4.6
616 11.76
9.1
585 12.83
4.1 1,005 12.32
4.3
643 11. 53
2.9
142 11.88
3.4
28 10.83
4.7
329 8.93
29
251
47
304
410
431
469
92
21
238
74.4
71.5
77.0
49.4
70.1
42.9
72.9
64.8
75.0
72.3
26.2
3. 7
8.8
8.7
4.1
9.6
6.2
3. 5
15.4
13.3
9.87
9.00
8.58
10.22
12.13
10. 92
9. 72
12.26
9.14
9.60
12. 30
11.12
10. 21
12.78
13. 35
13. 50
12. 25
12. 29
12. 50
10.12
T
XIX.—Per cent of white women full-time workers working the most common scheduled hours who earned under $10 and $15 and over,
by State and type of industry
General mercantile estab
lishments
Manufacturing
State1 and most common scheduled hours2
^Number
Under
$10
$15 and
over
47.4
11.6
5.7
28.3
5.9
74.5
687
334
14.7
13.8
53.0
50.3
10.6
19.2
28.0
32.0
38.2
34.9
47.8
36.1
17.4
13.1
5.0
6.6
1,504
48
161
219
576
222
220
106
52 and under 55........................................................-
159
414
20. 8
21.3
Under
$10
$15 and
over
Number
of
full-time
workers
Per cent who
earned—3
Under
$10
$15 and
over
45.9
36.7
360
2.5
65.3
191
110
14.1
.9
50.3
55.5
238
286
32.8
29.4
32.4
29.7
62.8
42.4
34.6
42.2
155
1.3
.9
17.1
52.2
40.2
Jj
8.8
_
_
142
28.9
9.9
13.2
30.3
279
68.4
1, 573
281
60.2
113
324
2,060
5.9
3.6
16.7
4.8
251
156
614
3,250
492
688
1,525
545
$15 and
over
Per cent who
earned—8
320
1,241
102
Under
$10
Number
of
full-time
workers
367
169
106
full-time
workers
Per cent who
earned— 3
628
700
544
Number
Laundries
294
39.8
6. 1
234
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
full-time
workers
Per cent who
earned—3
5-and-10-cent stores
198
Table
New Jersey.
31893
o
5, 675
1, 980
1, 273
Under 48__________
48____________ ____
Over 48 and under 52.
52 and under 55_____
1, 495
856
Ohio...................................
7,930
52l 8
64.8
5, 522
Rhode Island....................
939
582
South Carolina,'___ ____
2,474
6.9
53.5
1,865
.3
80.3
113
3.4
51.8
152
9.2
141
207
4.8
39.7
28.0
4.7
29.2
37.3
20.9
431
312
312
25.6
8.0
17.8
343
12.9
130
8.0
31.0
101
266
1.0
2.4
50.0
68.5
257
25.0
29.2
29.1
22.0
238
241
1,055
4, 733
13.6
9.8
56.8
51.1
164
57.3
i Only those States are included that had sufficient numbers in manufacturing to warrant comparison with other types of industry.
s Hour groups in which as many as 100 women were reported,
s For State totals, without regard to hours, see Table XVII.
8.6
36.9
31.7
33.8
127
1, 213
53.2
567
Over 48 and under 52.
52 and under 55------55 and under 60_........
60 and over.............
Under‘48.....................
48________________
Over 48 and under 52.
52 and under 55------55 and under 60_____i
1.5
2,830
1, 523
Under 48_.............. .
48_______ ____ _____
Over 48 and under 52.
52 and under 55-------
201
GENERAL TABLES
Under 48__________
48___ ____________
Over 48 and under 52.
Tennessee........................
74.4
5.7
2.8
2.9
410
240
1, 538
.6
153
2G0
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
XX.—Age distribution of white women in general mercantile establishments
5-and-10-cent stores, and laundries in 13 States, and increase in earninqs with
increased age, by State
Table
All women
reporting
State and industry
Per cent of all women reporting whose age was—
Medi 16 and
18 and 20 and 25 anc 30 and 40 and 50 and 60
Num an of under under under under under under under
the
years
ber
18
20
25
30
40
50
60
and
earn years years
years years years years years over
ings
General mercantile:
Alabama_________
396 $12.32
Arkansas............ ........
514 14.77
Delaware___________
264 11.33
Georgia 3___ _______
186 15. 30
Kentucky______________
403 11.32
Mississippi_____
160 14. 50
Missouri___ ________
1,225 14. 39
New Jersey____ __
406 17.44
Ohio_____________
2,032 15.00
Oklahoma___ ______
347 17.46
Rhode Island _
303 13. 26
South Carolina_
_
141 15.20
Tennessee
451 14.14
6-and-10-cent stores:
Alabama_______
_ _.
124
8.28
Arkansas_
_ ________
106
9.52
Georgia 3___ _____
125
9.69
Kentucky______________
143
8. 88
Mississippi__ ___
114
8. 59
Missouri _______
247 10.10
New Jersey. _____ ___
145 12. 01
Ohio... ___ _
195 10. 43
Oklahoma___ _. _ _
183
9.28
Rhode Island_____ _
102 12.31
South Carolina_
_
101
8. 89
Tennessee___
183
9.26
Laundries:
Arkansas________ _
171 10.36
Delaware. _ _ _
138
9.83
Kentucky.. ______
249 10.66
Missouri________ __
305 12.04
New Jersey.. _______
269 13.31
Ohio__________ __
583 12.65
Oklahoma_
_ ___
369 11.96
Tennessee_________
140 10.11
.
1
8.6
5.4
7.6
10.2
15.1
1.3
2.9
4.4
16.7
10.3
10.2
10.2
16.1
9.4
12.3
11.3
11.4
6.1
9.6
18.4
12.0
31.6
25.7
25.8
17.7
23.1
23.8
22.4
36.9
25.0
22.8
24.8
26.2
22.0
13.9
17.3
14.0
14.5
12.2
17.5
16.4
17.2
16.2
15.9
17.8
9.9
18.4
17.2
24.5
22.0
23.1
19.1
20.6
25.6
18.5
24.9
32.9
20.8
17.7
20.2
10.6
14.2
12.1
18.3
10.4
20.0
16.3
9.9
15.5
15.9
17.8
18.4
15.5
28.2
27.4
24.8
23.1
28.1
24.7
29.7
46.2
45.9
22.5
19.8
32.2
24.2
42.5
20.8
25.2
35.1
21.1
20.0
30.8
32.2
20.6
25.7
35.5
7.3
10.4
7.2
9.1
10.5
9.3
4.1
8.7
4.4
8.8
5.0
9.3
10.5
3.8
10.4
14.0
1.8
5.3
1.4
9.7
2.7
6.9
4.0
4.9
.8
*8
9.6
2.1
3.5
2.8
.7
4.1
1.1
1.0
4.0
1.1
.8
.8
.8
.7
.5
1.2
14.6
23.2
14.1
9.8
9.3
11.8
2.2
8.4
7.9 | 10.7
16.4
17.4
15.3
12.1
12.6
14. 1
20.9
17.1
14.6
5.1
14.1
11.8
7.8
12.7
12.2
17.1
25.1
11.6
24.1
28.9
17.8
25.7
28.7
22.9
18.1
7.2
16.1
19.3
18.6
18.2
19.0
17.9
1.7
2.3
7.1
2.2
28.2
16.0
25.6
26.6
21.1
34.8
43.4
13.7
39.2
36.6
16.9
5.3
28.3
8.4
7.9
14.9
1 For exceptions, see footnotes 5 and 6.
3 Median not computed, owing to the small number involved
3 Exclusive of Atlanta.
1.5
2.1
6.1
4.3
3.0
6.3
3.6
1.7
6.0
4.6
5.0
1.4
7.5
""’"a 4
2.3
1.6
1.0
1.3
.5
1.0
.3
2.0
.7
2.2
1.0
5.0
4.7
5.8
6.0
8.9
13.0
12.7
7.3
6.4
1.2
1.4
2.0
1.3
5.9
4.8
1.4
201
GENERAL TABLES
Table XX.—Age
distribution of white women in general mercantile establishments,
5-and-l 0-cent stores, and laundries in 13 States, and increase in earnings with
increased age, by State—Continued
Median
earn
ings of
State and industry
Per cent by which median of earnings at ages
specified was above the median at 16 and under
18 years
of 16 18 and
25 and
50 and 60
and un under 20 and under 30 and 40 and under
under
under under
years
der 18
and
40
60
20
25
30
50
years 1
years years years years years years over
General mercantile:
$8. 50
7. 55
9. 36
12. 25
8.08
5 9. 63
'Missouri-" - ............................................... 10.81
11.50
6 12. 07
5 10. 56
6 12. 57
5 12. 50
s 10. 50
5-and-lucent stores:
7.92
8.63
9. 14
8. 46
8.00
9. 65
10. 79
6 10. 31
8.07
11.40
8.43
8. 85
Laundries:
16.5
44.9
3.0
8. 59
9.36
9.00
11.67
e 11.39
« 10.88
5 8. 25
(2)
72. 1
104.9
30.2
34.7
55.8
48.8
36.4
58.0
27.8
73.3
7.4
m
43.3
77.6
13.2
4 3.8
33.4
29.8
22.8
50.0
13.4
45. 6
2.7
14.0
18.8
.5
5.0
1.2
4.7
6.3
5.8
13.3
8.2
15.4
5.8
5.3
9.1
14.0
19.4
0
(!)
w
14.4
9.1
.8
1.4
18.1
21.3
15.7
5.9
13.9
10.6
5.0
6.7
15.7
32.7
21.0
36.7
20.0
15.0
5.7
6. 1
16.4
(2)
17.5
14.5
38.9
46.8
35.0
30.2
14.1
12.0
5.7 4 15.9
57. 6
33.3
20.3
(6)
13.5
21.0
(»)
(6)
(«)
(«)
(6)
(6)
(*)
0
0
41.2
(*)
2.9
(2)
.7
0
(2)
(2)
1
83.1
120.8
34.0
32.0
74.9
84.3
49.5
62.0
30.5
75.4
13.2
41.6
50.8
76.5
140.7
54.9
48.6
85.6
80.0
47.3
66. 4
31.9
75.7
10.7
26. 6
65. 7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(2)
0
(2)
0
0
(2)
(2)
6.4
0
(»)
(2)
12.8
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
17.5
42.6
20.0
12.0
11. 1
27.3
(2)
0
0
0
0
61.8
36.4
(2)
27.8
103. 6
7.4
0
52.4
0
0
0
0
0
(2)
(2)
(2)
0
(2)
it
(2)
18.9
32.2
.7
12.2
14.9
0
0
0
(2)
0
0
0
26.8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(2)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4 5.7
9.7
0
0
4 In this case the figure shows a decline.
5 Women 16 and under 18 years too few for the computation of a median, so group 18 and under 20 used as
the base.
* Women 16 and under 18 years not tabulated, because of law limiting their hours of work. Group 18
and under 20 used as the base.
XXI.—Comparison of earnings of white women on early and late pay rolls, undertime and full-time workers, in the four types of industry
by State
’
Early pay roll
Late pay roll
Per ce nt who
worlred—
State and type of industry
Date 1
1921.......... .
1923__________
1920
1920
1923
1920-21............
1920__________
All
women
for whom
extent of
time
worked Under
time
was
available
Date 1
Full time
Per cent by which median earn
ings were above (+) or below
(—) those of early pay roll
for—
All women
for whom Under
extent of
Full-time
time worked time
workers
was avail workers
able
1,640
338
2,415
2,889
578
5,208
6,158
75.5
29.6
47.9
50.5
69.7
55.2
64.1
22.1
66.3
49.2
45.9
27.9
41.0
35.1
1922....
1924-...
1920-21.
1921---1924___
1922___
1921___
2,087
742
2,364
3, 454
783
7,553
6, 711
59.8
43.8
46.3
47.3
54.7
53.5
62.8
33.6
54.7
52.5
43.5
39.7
43.0
36.9
-0.1
-13.6
-6.7
-8.0
+4.0
-3.8
-35.4
-6.7
-15.7
-6.5
-4.5
-5.1
-1.0
-35.0
-10.6
+.2
-6.7
-10.3
-14.6
-7.0
-35.8
February, 1921...
September, 1923....
April, 1920___
May, 1921_____
862
252
376
657
17.3
11.1
17.8
21.0
January, 1921
November, 1920...
1,313
260
20.9
11.2
82.7
88.9
82.2
78.7
78! 2
88.5
February, 1922. _
September, 1924..
October, 1920___
September, 1921..
December, 1924..
May, 1922______
November, 1921..
742
339
392
753
370
2, 435
289
14.2
8.6
17.9
18. 1
19.2
15.4
8.0
84.6
91.4
81.6
81.5
80.5
84.6
92.0
-1.2
-5.2
+11.7
+.6
-1.3
+2.9
+.5
-1.6
+7.8
+20.5
-2.9
-14.3
+2.1
+10.7
-4.6
-4.2
+17.3
-.8
+1.3
+.1
-.3
February, 1921...
September, 1923—
December, 1920
181
79
237
70.2
73.4
65.8
December, 1923...
January, 1921___
November, 1920...
130
412
168
29.3
26.6
33.8
20 8
20.0
23.1
38.1
80.0
76.7
61.9
February, 1922. _.
September, 1924..
February, 1921...
October, 1921___
December; 1924..
April, 1922_____
November, 1921..
188
94
187
197
194
424
149
26.6
28.7
30.5
20.8
14.9
23.1
17.4
73.4
71.3
69.5
79.2
84.0
76.4
82.6
-6.7
+4.7
+7.3
-8.1
+6.7
-12.6
-6.1
-13.9
+10.7
+1.4
+2.3
-.5
-16.7
-5.9
-7.7
+3.3
+8.0
-9.6
+5.5
-12.0
-11.9
February, 1921___
August, 1923
May, 1920
June, 1921
December, 1923.. _
January, 1921
November, 1920...
80
153
36
347
40
742
16
22.5
35.3
25.0
27.4
30.0
40.3
25.0
66.3 February, 1922...
64.1 September, 1924..
75.0 February, 1921...
72.6 November, 1921. _
67.5 December, 1924..
59.0 April, 1922_____
75.0 J November, 1921. _
66
196
39
351
61
616
28
48.5
31. 6
20.5
27.6
21.3
44.6
25.0
45.5
68.4
74.4
71.5
77.0
49.4
75.0
-15.4
-3.4
-20.9
-.2
+12.6
-5.7
-30.1
-18.6
-12.3
cf)
+14.5
(')
-2.2
-11.7
-.4
-8.9
-.4
+15.9
-7.6
M
1 In manufacturing, only the year is given, as the month varied according to industry.
2 In the case of the early pay roll, only the chief manufacturing industries are included.
Per cent who
worked—
All women
for whom
extent of
time worked
was avail Under
Full time
able
time
3 Exclusive of Atlanta.
4 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
WAGES OE WOMEN IN 13
Manufacturing:2
Alabama_______________ ___
Delaware_____ _____________
Georgia 3___________________
Kentucky________ __________
Mississippi_________________
Missouri.___ _______________
South Carolina______________
General mercantile establishments:
Alabama________ ______ ____
Delaware___________________
Georgia 3___________________
Kentucky________________ ’
Mississippi_________________
Missouri___ ______________ "
South Carolina______________
5-and-10-cent stores: *
Alabama___________________
Delaware.,____ ____________
Georgia 3___________________
Kentucky________ __________
Mississippi_________________
Missouri___________________
South Carolina.
_______
Laundries:
Alabama________ _____ _____
Delaware___________________
Georgia 3____ _______________
Kentucky.___ ______________
Mississippi___ ______________
Missouri___________________ '
South Carolina______________
202
Table
Ui
a
ce
Table XXII.—Comparison of earnings of white women on early and late pay rolls, undertime and full-time workers in certain manufacturing
industries, by State and industry
Late pay roll
Early pay roll
All
women
State and industry 1
Date
South Carolina
Hosiery and knit goods:
South Carolina______ _____ __
Cigars:
Date
Full
time
February, 1921---November, 1920...
February, 1921---July, 1923
November, 1920. __
September, 1923February, 1920----
Tobacco:
Missouri!______________________ January, 1921____
All women
for whom Under
extent of
time
time
workers
worked was
available
Full
time
workers
«
(2)
+38.3
+9.0
-12.8
-.5
+4.9
+39.1
-6.4
+.6
+4.1
-2.7
-13.6
-9.6
-37.7
28
66
270
21.4
50.0
53.3
78.6
50.0
46.7
February, 1922---August, 1920------May, 1922
62
50
547
100.0
26.0
55.2
72.0
44.4
+13.1
34.5
58.4
58.8
38.8
October, 1921-----April, 1922
425
2,085
61.6
49.5
33.9
44.3
1,232
1,789
533
5,593
79.8
48.1
70.4
66.1
18.3
48.9
27.0
33.0
February, 1922---February, 1921---December, 1924
November, 1921...
1,313
1, 797
563
5,905
57.4
49.8
57.9
65.2
34.4
48.7
38.9
34.4
+. 5
—35. 9
96
75
150
164
90.6
45.3
58.0
50.6
5.2
52.0
39.3
49.4
February, 1922---August, 1924------October, 1920-----November, 1921..-
399
124
127
196
67.4
51. 6
52.0
42.3
29.6
-5.6
48.0
67.7
+7.6
—33.9
229
126
267
160
24.5
37.3
47.6
28.8
73.8 September, 1924. __
62.7 October, 1920-----52.4 October, 1921—---71.3 ___ do....................
448
132
442
303
24.6
20.5
31.2
43.2
74.3
79. 6
68.3
56.8
+1.6
+50.8
— 19.8
—34.2
-3.3
+2.6
— 13.6
-78.7
-30.4
-15.8
643
1, 278
48.1
52.8
47.1 ___ do............ ........
40.2 April, 1922.............
721
1,104
59.6
57.1
38.8
39.1
-8.8
—15, b
+13.2
—7.5
-6.4
—6.9
-13.0
..2. 7
+21. 6
+8.9
203
1 Industries are those having considerable numbers of women reported in early pay rolls.
2 Median not computed, owing to the small number involved.
3 Exclusive of Atlanta.
.
Full
time
177
1, 502
February, 1921---May, 1920..........
Shoes:
Cotton goods:
extent of
time
worked
was avail Under
time
able
All women
for whom
extent of
time
worked was
available
Under
time
Per cent by which median earn
ings were above (+) or below
(—) those of early pay roll
for—
GENERAL TABLES
Overalls:
Per cent who
worked—
Per cent who
worked—
XXIII.—Earnings distribution of negro full-time workers in manufacturing and laundries, by State and weekly hours
204
Table
MANUFACTURING
Women who received
Number
of women
reported
State and hours 1
Under $8
$8 and under $10
$10 and under $12
$12 and under $15
$15 and under $20
$20 and over
Georgia 2___________
63
..
Kentucky________________
Over 48 and under 52 hours................
52 and under 55 hours____
_______
55 and under 60 hours... _
Missouri—Over 48 and under 52 hours. __
Ohio........................... ....................
............
Over 48 and under 52 hours..
South Carolina____________________
Under 48 hours. _ _ ______________
55 and under 60 hours_____ _____ ___
Tennessee_______ ___________ _
Over 48 and under 52 hours.............. .
52 and under 55 hours _____________
55 and under 60 hours______________
29
46.0
17
27.0
10
15.9
5
7.9
2
3.2
41
18
22
7
53.7
38.9
13
4
31.7
22.2
5
3
12.2
16.7
1
2
2.4
11.1
2
11.1
276
52 and under 55 hours.................... .
104
37.7
76
27.5
56
20.3
28
10.1
12
4.3
194
44
38
73
18
13
37.6
40.9
34.2
51
21
4
26.3
47.7
10.5
35
4
17
18.0
9.1
44.7
23
11.9
12
6.2
4
Per cent
10.5
51
22
43.1
19
37.3
4
7.8
2
3.9
4
7.8
146
28
19.2
27
18.5
31
21.2
37
25.3
15
10.3
8
5.5
142
27
19.0
27
19.0
29
20.4
36
25.4
15
10.6
8
5.6
113
80
70.8
27
23.9
4
3.5
2
1.8
78
29
51
27
65.4
93.1
24
1
30.8
3.4
3
1
3.8
3.4
245
104
42.4
64
26.1
31
12.7
33
13.6
12
4.9
1
.4
38
102
103
9
50
45
23.7
49.0
43.7
23
17
24
60.5
16.7
23.3
5
4
20
13.2
3.9
19.4
1
21
11
2.6
20.6
10.7
g
3
8. 8
2.9
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number
LAUNDRIES
Alabama------ ------------------------------------.
203
189
93.1
Under 48 hours------ ---------- --------48 hours---------------- ----------------------52 and under 55 hours----------------
65
27
60
59
39
22
60
90.8
92.9
81.5
100.0
Georgia—Atlanta______ _______________
181
145
80.1
10
52 and under 55 hours---------------------55 (.ind iindei 00 hours. -------------- ... —
46
71
60
84.5
4.9
4.8
14.8
2
1
9.9
3.7
1.7
10.9
2.8
1
2
2.2
2.8
3.7
_
2
0.5
1.5
3.9
aU
7
2.4
0.5
1
1
1
1
1.0
2
1.2
2.6
4.3
3.6
6.1
2
8.7
1
39
23
55
33
33
20
43
25
84.6
87.0
78.2
75.8
13.4
(3)
12.8
6
18.2
2
39.8
31
35.2
19
21.6
3
(3)
33.3
4
14
o)
19.4
1
1
1
1
3.4
New Jersey............................. ......
..
----
35
14
72
______
iii
88
2
33
45.8
7
24
87
20
23.0
38
43.7
10
11.5
15
17.2
4
4..6
20
40.0
12
26
24. 0
70.3
5
5
10.0
13.5
10
5
20.0
13.5
3
1
6.0
2.7
5
3.9
1
.8
2
1.6
1
Missouri_______ ____________
3
4.8
1.7
11.5
1
3.8
1
1
1.7
3.8
46
12.7
25
6.9
8
50
37
South Carolina____________________ ___
GENERAL TABLES
164
Over 48 and under 52 hours . -------
52 and under 55 hours. _ ________ - 55 and under 60 hours. _ _ ---- ---- -- -
22
1
Georgia—Other places---------------------------
127
119
52 und UJidtii 5g hours---------------------55 and under 60 hours-------- ----------60 hours and over---------------- ----------
58
26
13
56
21
13
Tennessee................ .....................................
361
93.7
96.6
80.8
100. 0
278
66
293
48
72.7
13
33
(3)
19.7
11.3
23
p)
1.4
—
3.0
7.8
2.2
4
1.1
3.0
2.0
1
3
1.5
1.0
...
205
1 States in which hours were reported for fewer than 50 women and hour groups containing fewer than 10 women are omitted.
2 Exclusive of Atlanta.
3 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
XXIV.
X
Median of the week’s earnings of negro women in manufacturing and in laundries, by State and industry
All
States
Industry
Arkansas
(1922)
Georgia *
(1921)
Kentucky
(1921)
Mississippi
(1924)
Missouri
(1922)
New Jersey Ohio (1922) South Caro Tennessee
(1922)
lina (1921)
(1925)
Num
ber of Wom Me Wom Me Wom Me Wom Me Wom Me Wom Me Wom Me Wom Me Wom Me Wom Me
wom en dian en dian
en dian en dian en dian en dian en
dian
en dian en dian en dian
en
3,144
Candy.......................................
58
Clothing:
Men’s shirts_____ ___________
19
Women’s clothing______ ______
45
Drugs and chemicals_______ ___
54
Glass products _________________
75
Metal products___
___ __
74
Paper and paper products
97
Printing and publishing._
_____
16
Textiles:
Cotton goods ______________
131
Hosiery and knit goods. _ _ ...
147
Tobacco products:
C igars __________________
464
Tobacco ............ . .......
1, 626
Wood products:
Boxes and crates.._____ _____
184
Furniture___ ...
139
Other manufacturing 2
12
2, 630
133 $5. 80
26
7.00
2
48 $5.15
176 $6.74 1,052 $8.34
168 $5. 57
244 $6.92
«
98
2
(>)
1
m
5. 33
11
96
46
(2)
6.45
2
89 $10. 55
6.56
201
9.37
272
(!)
(!)
(’)
(')
11.00
2
1,051
8.35
242
138
2
514 $8.92
t2)
1
75
8.11
6.95
$7.86
14
35
51
(2)
8. 13
8. 02
8
16
73 10.78
54 8. 60
89 7.10
0)
9.20
P)
9.00
47
10.19
14
29
154
144
8.15
8.90
(2) 4. 94
5
20
190
4.80
7
189
m
139
(2)
2
249
484
7.84
646
6.53
7.54
5.53
(2)
6.11
233 $4.89
«
3
5.23
t2)
6.11
5. 63
5
10
1
2
20
66
410
27
6.01
353
9.79
148
(2)
10.20
71
9.79
205
5.66
1 Exclusive of Atlanta.
2 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
!
2 (Alabama), men’s Nothing 1 (Kentucky), overalls 1 (Alabama), rubber 2 (New Jersey), and cordage 6 (Alabama and Georgia).
In addition, 54 women reported in Oklahoma had a median of $8, and 274 in the city of Atlanta a median of $6.94. In neither case were negro women reported in manufacturing.
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Manufacturing—Total_____________
Alabama
(1922)
206
Table
Table
XXV.—Age and earnings of negro women in tobacco manufacturing and in laundries, by State
TOBACCO MANUFACTURING
State
Women whose age was—
All women re
porting
16 and under 18 18 and under 20 20 and under 25 25 and under 30 30 and under 40 40 and under 50 50 and under 60
years
years
years
years
years
years
years
60 years and
over
Num Median Num Median Num Median Num Median Num Median Num Median Num Median Num Median Num Median
earn
earn
earn
earn
earn
earnearn
earn
ber
earn
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ings
ings
ings
ings
ings
tags
ings
ings
ings
521
133
59
125
$9.08
8.23
8. 79
7.50
9
3
4
0)
<•>
(>)
25 .$7. 63
(')
10
M
4
8 . 0)
85
29
13
18
$8.41
7.50
0
7.67
98
20
4
21
$10.44
10.00
0
7.90
162
40
12
37
$10.13
9.00
O
7.92
95
21
18
20
$9.28
8.17
10. 50
6. 25
31
9
5
13
$7.50
8
16
1
3
4
$4.67
(>)
(1)
m
h
LAUNDRIES
Alabama
Arkansas..^
Georgia:
Atlanta_____ ____
Other places
Kentucky __
Mississippi..... ...
Missouri
New Jersey_____
___
Ohio _________________
Oklahoma_______
South Carolina___ _____
Tennessee... _
263
181
$6.17
9.36
17
3
$6.64
0
37
16
$5.66
9.17
67
33
$6.16
9.11
63
51
$6.43
9.04
44
42
$6. 21
26
$6.22
9.73
6
6
0)
c>)
3
0
62
142
41
123
134
39
24
38
82
305
7. 44
6. 33
8.96
6.22
9.90
10.44
9. 64
8.50
5. 74
6.78
8
18
1
8
9
2
0
6.29
0)
(>)
(!)
0)
17
33
6
22
30
7
8
8
21
80
7.39
6.06
0
6.11
9.86
(i)
0
(!)
5. 72
6.85
7
24
4
21
25
9
7
9
17
60
0)
6.29
(l)
6.08
10. 64
(1)
(i)
0)
5. .50
6.56
(')
6. 75
0)
6. 46
10.38
to
0
0
0)
0
0)
1
4
0
1
0)
5
12
9
46
(0
0
(l)
6.81
9 63
<>)
1
4
8
10
0)
9
12
8
10
15
9
0
6. 33
(*)
6.00
0)
5.58
9. 08
(l)
0
(l)
5.29
6. 43
12
27
12
25
38
5
7
20
2
17
15
3
4
5
26
62
1
M
(1)
8.25
4
3
19
0
(i)
7.17
20
$7.00
2
GENERAL TABLES
Kentucky
Missouri......._....................
Ohio.. __________
Tennessee_ _ ...
_
to
«
16
1 Not computed, owing to the small number involved.
8
208
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
Table
XXVI.—Tear’s earnings of white women in chief woman-employing
manufacturing industries reported, by State and industry
Year for which Number
earnings were of women
reported
recorded—
State and industry1
Women earning un
der $500 in the Median
Esti
year
mated
of the
weekly
year’s
earnings earnings2
Number Per cent
Year ended—
Cotton goods:
1,408
Tennessee
Metal products:
59.9
4.0
68.9
7.4
23.1
24.4
<854
4 180
21.1
110
35
30
160
116
385
68
3
7
2
8
79
27
247
411
64
$464
862
392
783
623
600
$8. 92
16. 58
7. 54
15. 06
11. 99
11. 54
61.8
8.6
23.3
1.3
6.9
20.5
459
725
625
995
714
625
8.83
i3. 94
12.02
19.13
13.74
12.02
1
4
40
3.7
1.6
9.7
669
760
687
925
12.86
14. 61
13. 21
17. 79
12
1. 9
28
241
268
80
11
1
4.6
.4
750
842
799
882
14.42
16.20
15. 36
16. 96
37
6.7
45
344
167
13
18
6
28.9
5.2
3.6
581
800
877
11.18
15.38
16. 86
4 572
85
14.9
87
49
144
244
23
7
6
1
56
15
8.0
12. 2
.7
23.0
65.2
905
753
900
603
471
17.41
14.43
17.31
11. 00
9.05
» 23
4. 2
3
1
15
2.2
1.6
5.8
718
789
685
758
13.82
15. 17
13.17
14. 58
4 762
Kentucky.................. ........... November, 1921...
September, 1922. .
___ do ..................
Electrical appliances:
New Jersey............................
30. 2
176
10
73
5
141
20
556
February, 1922___
August, 1924------October, 1920__
-- September, 1922.. _
___ do.
February, 1925----
New^Jersey----------------
425
294
248
10G
68
610
82
617
February, 1922---February, 1921___
Mississippi.-------- ------------- December, 1924.
September, 1922.. _
New Jersey
November, 1921__
Tennessee_____ . -------- - February, 1925___
Hosiery and knit goods:
All States______________
April, 1922............
September, 1922...
November, 1922...
Shoes:
All States--------------------April, 1922
Ohio......... .............................. September, 1922.. _
Cigars:
All States................ ............
Delaware................................ September, 1924...
New Jersey.......................... . September, 1922.. _
October, 1924.........
Paper products:
April, 1922
New Jersey........................... September, 1922..-
136
62
257
26
1 Industries in which over 500 women were reported; States in which over 20 women were reported in
industry specified.
.
,
,
2 Exact median for the year, before changing to round number, divided by 52.
3 Exclusive of Atlanta.
< Total exceeds details, as some States had fewer than 20 women reported.
k
i
i
Table XXVII.— Year’s earnings of white women in the four types of industry, by State
Id
h-1
O
MANUFACTURING
Number of women whose earnings were—
State
Date of
survey
Number Median
of the
of
year’s
women
reported earnings1
$481
525
817
1920
1921
1921
55
340
341
1922
1922
1922
1924
1920
1921
1925
Georgia:
1,184
1,363
2,510
22
342
658
784
655
817
626
400
747
838
735
663
915
619
621
$1,100
and
under
$1,200
$1,000
and
under
$1,100
$1,200
and over
41
1
115
4
139
7
13
107
3
19
64
3
14
33
5
17
23
3
25
12
3
1
1
11
16
7
16
1
20
8
7
17
63
21
82
40
145
5
7
53
37
4
181
272
378
1
70
68
74
5
51
14
1
116
222
254
1
60
32
47
91
144
141
1
43
11
27
40
70
77
52
80
102
108
138
10
52
49
3
212
282
478
5
62
96
112
15
5
43
38
9
54
67
17
224
175
493
6
22
140
161
1
28
8
8
3
14
38
76
14
147
75
380
3
8
144
174
30
6
10
2
2
15
40
31
3
52
33
5
7
44
3
3
GENERAL MERCANTILE ESTABLISHMENTS
Georgia:
2
13
4
4
21
6
6
31
14
9
30
15
13
27
10
3
10
6
5
5
7
1
7
5
4
13
6
2
1
3
12
2
12
4
14
5
3
1
9
3
8
12
10
37
5
134
21
15
7
30
8
4
9
15
49
12
124
16
16
6
22
5
6
3
8
21
21
67
28
10
4
11
4
8
2
4
19
26
45
8
3
5
11
9
10
3
9
22
38
63
19
1
5
8
12
9
27
1
96
6
25
7
29
5
2
3
2
2
3
1
6
6
32
1
69
9
3
2
8
1922
1922
1924
163
73
49
$729
784
753
6
1920
1921
1921
1924
1922
1922
1922
1924
1920
1921
1925
46
47
62
69
238
124
646
125
77
37
147
900
942
689
853
819
1,085
805
920
733
856
788
1
4
16
20
30
13
1
2
10
.
4
16
WAGES OF WOMEN IN 13 STATES
1924
539
26
138
1922
$300 and $400 and $500 and $600 and $700 and $800 and $900 and
under
under
under
under
under
under
under
$800
$900
$1,000
$600
$700
$400
$500
Under
$300
5-AND-10-CENT STORES
Alabama_______________ ____
Arkansas________ ___________
Delaware____________ - _____
Georgia, other places
Kentucky___________
..
Mississippi____ ______ ______
Missouri.. __ _______ ___
New Jersey................ ........... ......
Ohio_________
___ ____
Oklahoma___ __ ________
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Tennessee
1922
1922
1924
1921
1921
1924
1922
1922
1922
1924
1920
1921
1925
36
19
19
21
22
34
66
34
78
57
19
18
38
$431
489
525
481
567
431
613
667
612
510
613
488
510
10
2
1
1
1
9
5
3
1
2
4
20
9
8
11
6
20
2
1
11
23
1
8
13
5
2
7
6
8
5
24
2
25
23
6
6
16
1
4
3
2
3
|
2
1
3
18
22
7
7
2
5
9
14
1
6
12
12
5
27
10
46
10
9
2
34
9
2
2
9
2
3
2
2
1
LAUNDRIES1
1922
1922
1924
1921
1924
1922
1922
1922
1924
1920
1925
19
24
36
35
19
160
57
180
118
17
42
$663
550
572
671
463
674
681
654
647
758
542
3
2
1
3
1
4
8
2
2
2
1
10
11
9
5
19
11
14
11
1
7
31
8
1
1
18
4
13
3
1
5
GENERAL TABLES
Alabama.......................................
Arkansas___ ______
___
Delaware __
Kentucky
Mississippi
Missouri.___
New Jersey...
Ohio___ ___________________
Oklahoma _________________
Rhode Island_________ ______
Tennessee
1 Medians computed on $50 groupings.
211
PUBLICATIONS OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU
[Any of these bulletins still available will be sent free of charge upon request]
*No.
1.
No. 2.
No. 3.
No. 4.
*No. 5.
No. 6.
No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
7.
8.
9.
10.
No. 11.
♦No. 12.
No. 13.
♦No. 14.
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No.
No.
No.
No.
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♦No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
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No.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
No. 42.
Proposed Employment of Women During the War in the Industries of
Niagara Falls, N. Y. 16 pp. 1918.
Labor Laws for Women in Industry in Indiana. 29 pp. 1919.
Standards for the Employment of Women in Industry. 8 pp. Fourth
ed., 1928.
.
Wages of Candy Makers in Philadelphia in 1919. 46 pp. 1919.
The Eight-Hour Dav in Federal and State Legislation. 19 pp. 1919.
The Employment of Women in Hazardous Industries in the United
States. 8 pp. 1921.
.
Night-Work Laws in the United States. (1919.) 4 pp. 1920.
Women in the Government Service. 37 pp. 1920.
Home Work in Bridgeport, Conn. 35 pp. 1920.
Hours and Conditions of Work for Women in Industry in Virginia.
32 pp. 1920.
„
Women Street Car Conductors and Ticket Agents. 90 pp. 1921.
The New Position of Women in American Industry. 158 pp. 1920.
Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls. 48 pp.
1921.
A Physiological Basis for the Shorter Working Day for Women. 26 pp.
1921.
Some Effects of Legislation Limiting Hours of Work for Women. 20 pp.
1921.
(See Bulletin 63.)
Women’s Wages in Kansas. 104 pp. 1921.
Health Problems of Women in Industry. 6 pp. Revised, 1931.
Iowa Women in Industry. 73 pp. 1922.
Negro Women in Industry. 65 pp. 1922.
Women in Rhode Island Industries. 73 pp. 1922.
Women in Georgia Industries. 89 pp. 1922.
The Family Status of Breadwinning Women. 43 pp. 1922.
Women in Maryland Industries. 96 pp. 1922.
_
Women in the Candy Industry in Chicago and St. Louis. 72 pp. 1923.
Women in Arkansas Industries. 86 pp. 1923.
The Occupational Progress of Women. 37 pp. 1922.
Women’s Contributions in the Field of Invention. 51 pp. 1923.
Women in Kentucky Industries. 114 pp. 1923.
The Share of Wage-Earning Women in Family Support. 170 pp.
1923.
What Industry Means to Women Workers. 10 pp. _ 1923.
Women in South Carolina Industries. 128 pp. 1923.
Proceedings of the Women’s Industrial Conference. 190 pp. 1923.
Women in Alabama Industries. 86 pp. 1924.
Women in Missouri Industries. 127 pp. 1924.
Radio Talks on Women in Industry. 34 pp. 1924.
Women in New Jersey Industries. 99 pp. 1924.
Married Women in Industry. 8 pp. 1924.
Domestic Workers and Their Employment Relations. 87 pp. 1924.
(See Bulletin 63.)
.
„
Family Status of Bread winning Women m Four Selected Gities.
List o/ References on Minimum Wage for Women in the United States
and Canada. 42 pp. 1925.
.
No. 43. Standard and Scheduled Hours of Work for Women in Industry.
68 pp. 1925.
.
No. 44. Women in Ohio Industries. 137 pp. 1925.
No. 45. Home Environment and Employment Opportunities of Women in
Coal-Mine Workers’ Families. 61 pp. 1925.*
* Supply exhausted.
212
PUBLICATIONS OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU
213
No. 46. Facts about Working Women—A Graphic Presentation Based on
Census Statistics. 64 pp. 1925.
No. 47. Women in the Fruit-Growing and Canning Industries in the State of
Washington. 223 pp. 1926.
*No. 48. Women in Oklahoma Industries. 118 pp. 1926.
No. 49. Women Workers and Family Support. 10 pp. 1925.
No. 50. Effects of Applied Research upon the Employment Opportunities of
American Women. 54 pp. 1926.
No. 51. Women in Illinois Industries. 108 pp. 1926.
No. 52. Lost Time and Labor Turnover in Cotton Mills. 203 pp. 1926.
No. 53. The^Status of Women in the Government Service in 1925. 103 pp.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
Changing Jobs. 12 pp. 1926.
Women in Mississippi Industries. 89 pp. 1926.
Women in Tennessee Industries. 120 pp. 1927.
Women Workers and Industrial Poisons. 5 pp. 1926.
Women in Delaware Industries. 156 pp. 1927.
Short Talks About Working Women. 24 pp. 1927.
Industrial Accidents to Women in New Jersey, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
316 pp. 1927.
No. 61. The Development of Minimum-Wage Laws in the United States, 1912
to 1927. 635 pp. 1928.
No. 62. Women’s Employment in Vegetable Canneries in Delaware. 47 pp
1927.
No, 63. State Laws Affecting AVorking Women. 51pp. 1927. (Revision of
Bulletins 16 and 40.)
No. 64. The Employment of Women at Night. 86 pp. 1928.
* No. 65. The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Opportunities of
Women. 498 pp. 1928.
No. 66. History of Labor Legislation for Women in Three States; Chronological
Development of Labor Legislation for Women in the United States.
288 pp. 1929.
No. 67. Women Workers in Flint, Mich. 80 pp. 1929.
No. 68. Summary: The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment
Opportunities of Women. (Reprint of chapter 2 of Bulletin 65.)
22 pp. 1928.
No. 69. Causes of Absence for Men and for Women in Four Cotton Mills.
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24 pp. 1929.
No. 70. Negro Women in Industry in 15 States. 74 pp. 1929.
No. 71. Selected References on the Health of Women in Industry. 8 pp. 1929.
No. 72. Conditions of Work in Spin Rooms. 41 pp. 1929.
No. 73. Variations in Employment Trends of Women and Men. 143 pp. 1930.
No. 74. The Immigrant Woman and Her Job. 179 pp. 1930.
No. 75. What the Wage-Earning Women Contributes to Family Support.
20 pp. 1929.
No. 76. Women in 5-and-10-cent Stores and Limited-Price Chain Department
Stores. 58 pp. 1930.
No. 77. A Study of Two Groups of Denver Married Women Applying for Jobs.
11 pp. 1929.
No. 78. A Survey of Laundries and Their Women Workers in 23 Cities. 166 pp
1930.
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No. 79. Industrial Home Work. 20 pp. 1930.
No. 80. Women in Florida Industries. 115 pp. 1930.
No. 81. Industrial Accidents to Men and Women. 48 pp. 1930.
No. 82. The Employment of Women in the Pineapple Canneries of Hawaii.
30 pp. 1930.
No. 83. Fluctuation of Employment in the Radio Industry. 66 pp. 1931.
No. 84. Fact Finding with the Women’s Bureau. 37 pp. 1931.
No. 85. Wages of Women in 13 States. 213 pp. 1931.
No. 86. Activities of the Women’s Bureau of the United States. (In press.)
No. 87. Sanitary Drinking Facilities, with Special Reference to Drinking
Fountains. (In press.)
Pamphlet. Women’s Place in Industry in 10 Southern States. (In press.)
Annual Reports of the Director, 1919*, 1920*, 1921*, 1922, 1923, 1924*
1925, 1926, 1927*, 1928*, 1929, 1930.
* Supply exhausted.
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