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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR Frances Perkins, Secretary B U R E A U OF L A B O R ST A T IS T IC S Isador Lubin, Commissioner T h e W age and H our Structure o f the Furniture ^M anufacturing Industry October 1937 + Prepared by the Division of Wage and Hour Statistics JACOB P E R L M A N , Chief B ulletin lo. 669 U N IT E D ST A T E S G O V E R N M E N T P R IN T IN G OFFICE W A S H IN G T O N : 1940 For sale by the Superintendent o f Documents, Washington, D . C. Price 20 cents CONTENTS Page Preface__________________________________________________________________________ P art 1.— Background material_______________________________________________ C hapter I.— The furniture-manufacturing industry___________________ Definition of industry_______________________________________________ Growth of industry__________________________________________________ Heterogeneous nature of products__________________________________ C hapter II.— Characteristics of furniture-manufacturing industry___ Geographical distribution___________________________________________ Corporate affiliation and size of establishment____________________ Mechanization and labor cost_______________________________________ Union organization__________________________________________________ Distribution of products_____________________________________________ C hapter III.— Employment and pay rolls, 19 23-39___________________ Changes in employment and pay rolls, 1923-37___________________ Fluctuations in average hourly earnings and weekly hours and earnings, 1933 -3 7__________________________________________________ Changes since August 1937_________________________________________ C hapter IV .— Scope and method_______________________________________ Product coverage____________________________________________________ Characteristics of sample____________________________________________ Nature of data obtained_____________________________________________ P art 2.— W ood household furniture__________________________________________ C hapter V .— Average hourly earnings_________________________________ Data for branch as a whole_________________________________________ Differences by product______________________________________________ Upholstered furniture__________________________________________ Novelty furniture_______________________________________________ Case goods______ ________________________________________________ Kitchen furniture_______________________________________________ Variations among States____________________________________________ C hapter V I.— Relation of size of community, unionization, and size of plant to average hourly earnings_____________________________ Differences by size of community___________________________________ Differences between trade-union and non-trade-union plants___ Differences between trade-union and non-trade-union plants as affected by size of community____________________________________ Hourly earnings and size of plant___________________________________ C hapter V II.— Weekly hours___________________________________________ Data for branch as a whole_________________________________________ Weekly hours by product___________________________________________ Differences between trade-union and non-trade-union plants____ Weekly hours by size of community________________________________ C hapter V III.— Weekly earnings_______________________________________ Data for branch as a whole_________________________________________ Differences by product______________________________________________ Differences between trade-union and non-trade-union plants____ Differences by size of community___________________________________ hi xi 1 1 1 2 4 8 8 10 10 12 14 16 16 19 22 24 24 25 26 29 29 29 34 34 37 38 41 42 44 44 46 50 52 54 54 56 58 59 61 61 63 68 68 CONTENTS IV P art 2.— Wood household furniture— Continued. C hapter I X .— Average hourly earnings by occupational groups and sex_______________________________________________________________________ Data for males_______________________________________________________ Data for females_____________________________________________________ P art 3.— Office furniture______________________________________________________ C hapter X . — W ood office furniture_____________________________________ Average hourly earnings_________________ Weekly hours_________________________________________________________ Weekly earnings____________________________________________________ C hapter X I .— Metal office furniture____________________________________ Average hourly earnings_____________________________________________ Weekly hours_______________________________________________________ Weekly earnings_______________________________ P art 4.— Public seating_______________________________________________________ C hapter X I I .— Public seating___________________________________________ Average hourly earnings_________________ Weekly hours_______________________________________________________ Weekly earnings____________________________________________________ P art 5.— Comparisons and summaries_______________________________________ C hapter X I I I .— Comparisons and summaries_________________________ Interdivisional comparisons--------------------------------------------------------------Data for wood household and office furniture combined_________ Comparisons of hourly earnings between 1937 and previous years in wood household and wood office furniture combined________ Comparisons between wood and metal office furniture____________ Data for furniture-manufacturing industry as a whole____________ Page 71 71 81 85 85 85 89 92 94 94 99 100 103 103 103 107 108 111 111 111 112 114 116 117 L is t o f S u m m a r y T a b le s T able T able T able T able T able T able T able T able T able 1.— Number of establishments, number of wage earners, wages paid, and value of products in furniture-manufacturing in dustry, 1899 to 1937___________________________________________ 2.— Value of products in furniture-manufacturing industry for the United States in 1937_________________________________________ 3.— Number of establishments, number of wage earners, wages paid, and value of products in furniture-manufacturing in dustry, by States, 1937________________________________________ 4.— Classification of establishments, wage earners, value of pro ducts, and value added by manufacture in furniture-manu facturing industry, according to type of operation, 1929___ 5.— Distribution of establishments in furniture-manufacturing in dustry according to number of wage earners, 1937_________ 6.— Index numbers of employment and pay rolls in the furniture manufacturing industry, by months, January 1923 to June 1939______________________________________________________ 7.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings in the furniture-manufacturing industry, March 1933 to June 1939_______________________________________________________ 8.— Average hourly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by product, skill, and region, October 1937_________________ 9.— Simple percentage distribution of all workers according to average hourly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by skill, October 1937_________________________________________ 2 5 9 10 11 16 19 29 31 CONTENTS V Page T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e 10.— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937________________________________ 11.— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in upholstered furniture of wood householdfurniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937________ 1 2 .— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in novelty furniture of wood householdfurniture branch, by skill, October 1937_______________________ 13.— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in case-goods furniture of wood householdfurniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937________ 14.— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in kitchen furniture of wood householdfurniture branch, by skill, October 1937_____________________ 15.— Average hourly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by States, October 1937_________________________________________ 16.— Average hourly earnings of workers in wood household-furni ture branch, by region, size of community, and skill, October 1937____________________________________________________________ 17.— Average hourly earnings of workers in trade-union and non trade-union plants of wood household-furniture branch in the North, by product and skill, October 1937_____________ 18.— Distribution of individual plant average hourly earnings in wood household-furniture branch in the North, by product and unionization, October 1937_______________________________ 19.— Average hourly earnings of workers in trade-union and non trade-union plants in wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937________________________________ 20.— Distribution of individual plant average hourly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by region and unioniza tion, October 1937_____________________________________________ 2 1 .— Average hourly earnings of workers in trade-union and nontrade-union plants in wood household-furniture branch in the North, by size of community and skill, October 1937__ 2 2 .— Distribution of individual plants in wood household-furniture branch, by average hourly earnings and size of plant, October 1937___________________________________________________ 23.— Distribution of plants according to full-time weekly hours in wood household-furniture branch, by region, October 1937_ _ 24.— Distribution of workers according to actual weekly hours in wood household-furniture branch, by region, October 1937__ 25.— Average actual weekly hours in wood household-furniture branch, by product, region, and skill, October 1937________ 26.— Distribution of workers according to actual weekly hours in case goods and upholstered furniture, by region, October 1937____________________________________________________________ 27.— Distribution of workers according to actual weekly hours in novelty and kitchen furniture, October 1937________________ 28.— Average actual weekly hours of workers in trade-union and non-trade-union plants of wood household-furniture branch in the North, by product, October 1937_____________________ 33 35 37 40 41 43 45 47 47 48 49 51 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 VI CONTENTS Page T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e 29.— Distribution of plants according to full-time weekly hours, in wood household-furniture branch, by region and union ization, October 1937__________________________________________ 30.— Average actual weekly hours of workers in wood householdfurniture branch, by size of community and region, October 1937____________________________________________________________ 31.— Average actual weekly hours of workers in trade-union and non-trade-union plants in wood household-furniture branch in the North, by size of community, October 1937_________ 32.— Distribution of workers according to actual weekly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by skill, October 1937_ 33.— Average actual weekly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by product, skill, and region, October 1937_______ 34.— Distribution of workers according to actual weekly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937___________________________________________________ 35.— Percentage distribution of workers according to actual weekly earnings in case goods of wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937____________________________ 36.— Percentage distribution of workers according to actual weekly earnings in upholstered furniture of wood household-furni ture branch, by region and skill, October 1937_____________ 37.— Percentage distribution of workers according to actual weekly earnings in novelty furniture of wood household-furniture branch, by skill, October 1937________________________________ 38.— Percentage distribution of workers according to actual weekly earnings in kitchen furniture of wood household-furniture branch, by skill, October 1937________________________________ 39.— Average actual weekly earnings of workers in trade-union and non-trade-union plants of wood household-furniture branch in the North, by product and skill, October 1937___________ 40.— Average actual weekly earnings of workers in trade-union and non-trade-union plants of wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937____________________________ 41.— Average actual weekly earnings of workers in wood household-furniture branch, by region, size of community, and skill, October 1937_____________________________________________ 42.— Average actual weekly earnings in trade-union and non-tradeunion. plants in wood household-furniture branch in the North, by size of community and skill, October 1937_____ 43.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of workers in wood household-furniture branch, by region, sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937___________ 44.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of workers in case goods of wood household-furniture branch by region, sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937_ 45.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of workers in upholstered furniture of wood household-furni ture branch, by region, sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937___________________________________________________ 46.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of workers in novelty furniture of wood household-furniture branch, by sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937- 59 60 60 61 62 63 65 65 66 66 67 68 69 70 72 75 77 79 CONTENTS V II Page T able 47.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of male workers in kitchen furniture of wood householdfurniture branch, by skill and occupational group, October 1937____________________________________________________________ T able 48.— Simple percentage distribution of female workers according to average hourly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937_____________________________ T able 49.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings in wood office-furniture division, by region and skill, October 1937____________________________________________________________ T able 50.— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to aver age hourly earnings in wood office-furniture division, by skill, October 1937_____________________________________________ T able 51.— Distribution of individual plants in wood office-furniture division in the North, by size* of community and average hourly earnings, October 1937________________________________ T able 52.— Distribution of individual plants in wood office-furniture division in the North, by average hourly earnings and size of plant, October 1937________________________________________ T able 53.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of workers in wood office-furniture division, by sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937____________________________ T able 54.— Distribution of workers according to actual weekly hours in wood office-furniture division, October 1937_________________ T able 55.— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to actual weekly earnings in wood office-furniture division, by skill, October 1937___________________________________________________ T able 56.— Distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in metal office-furniture division, by skill, October 1937___ T able 57.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of workers in metal office-furniture division, by skill, October 1937____________________________________________________________ T able 58.— Distribution of individual plants in metal office-furniture division, by size of community and average hourly earnings, October 1937___________________________________________________ T able 59.— Distribution of individual plants in metal office-furniture division, by average hourly earnings and size of plant, October 1937___________________________________________________ T able 60.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of workers in metal office-furniture division, by sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937_______________________ T able 61.— Distribution of workers according to actual weekly hours in metal office-furniture division, October 1937________________ T able 62.— Distribution of workers according to actual weekly earnings in metal office-furniture division, by skill, October 1937___ T able 63.— Average hourly earnings in public-seating furniture division, by region and skill, October 1937____________________________ T able 64.— Distribution q f workers according to average hourly earnings in public-seating furniture division, by skill, October 1937__ T able 65.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of workers in public-seating furniture division, by sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937_________________________ 80 82 85 87 88 89 90 92 93 94 95 97 97 98 99 100 103 104 106 V III CONTENTS Page T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e .— Distribution of workers according to actual weekly hours in public-seating furniture division, October 1937_____________ 67.— Average weekly hours and earnings in public-seating furniture division, by region and skill, October 1937__________________ 6 8 .— Distribution of workers according to actual weekly earnings in public-seating furniture division, by skill, October 1937-_ 69.— Average hourly earnings in furniture industry by product, region, and skill, October 1937_______________________________ 70.— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in wood household and wood office furniture combined, by region and skill, October 1937________________ 71.— Average hourly earnings in wood household and wood office furniture combined, by region and skill, October 1937_____ 72.— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in wood household and wood office furniture combined, 1931 and 1937_____________________________________ 73.— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in office furniture in the ISlorth, by product and skill, October 1937________________________________________ 74.— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to aver age hourly earnings in office-furniture divisions, by product and skill, October 1937________________________________________ 75.— Simple percentage distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in furniture industry as a whole, by region and skill, October 1937________________________________________ 76.— Average hourly earnings for the furniture industry as a whole, by region and skill, October 1937____________________________ 66 107 108 109 111 113 114 115 117 118 120 121 List o f Charts C h a r t C h a r t C h a r t C h a r t C h a r t C h a r t I.— Average hourly earnings of workers in the furniture-manu facturing industry, by branchand region,October 1937_____ xn II.— Index numbers of employment and pay rolls in the furniture manufacturing industry, by months, January 1923 to M ay 1939___________________________________________ ________________ 17 III.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings in the furniture-manufacturing industry, March 1933 to M ay 1939______________________________________________________ 21 IV .— Percentage distribution of employees in wood householdfurniture branch, by average hourly earnings, by region, October 1937______________________________________________________ 30 V .— Percentage distribution of employees in wood office-furniture division, by average hourlyearnings, October 1937___________ 86 V I.— Percentage distribution of employees in metal office-furniture and public-seating division, by average hourly earnings, October 1937______________________________________________________ 95 Letter of Transmittal U n ited S tates D epar tm en t of L a b o r , B u r e a u of L abor S tatist ic s , W ashington , D . C ., June 15, 1939 The S e c r e ta r y of L a b o r : I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on The Wage and Hour Structure of the Furniture-Manufacturing Industry, October 1937. This report was prepared by the Division of Wage and Hour Statistics, Jacob Perlman, chief. Respectfully submitted. I sador L u b in , Commissioner o f Labor Statistics. Hon. F ran ces P e r k in s , Secretary of Labor. IX PREFACE The Bureau of Labor Statistics has made a number of surveys of wages and horns in the furniture-manufacturing industry. The earlier surveys covered only selected occupations, but those for 1915, 1929, and 1931, as well as the present one, have included all oc cupations. Prior to 1937, data were obtained only from establishments engaged primarily in the manufacture of wood household and wood office furniture. The scope of the present survey is wider, as metal office furniture and public seating have also been covered. Not included were such products as store and lunchroom furniture and fixtures as well as professional furniture, which as a rule are not made on a massproduction basis. Since the last survey in 1931, the industry has been profoundly affected by Federal legislation and changes in industrial conditions. In particular, the N. R. A. code tended to raise wages and reduce hours of work. The purpose of the present survey was to ascertain what changes had taken place recently in the wage and hour structure of the furniture-manufacturing industry. The Bureau is indebted to the many employers who cooperated by furnishing the data upon which the report is based. The Bureau also appreciates the assistance of the National Association of Furni ture Manufacturers, the Southern Furniture Manufacturers’ Associa tion, the Steel Office Furniture Institute, and the Trade Practice Committee of the Public Seating Industry. Likewise, the Bureau wishes to thank the various trade-unions in the industry for their aid in the survey. This report was prepared under the direction of Jacob Perlman, Chief of the Division of Wage and Hour Statistics. The text was written by Jacob Perlman, Victor S. Baril, and H. O. Rogers. Victor S. Baril was in charge of the survey. Abner C. Lakenan, John J. McCarthy, Edward Kilpatrick, and Vera C. Holtzclaw compiled the data. The following field representatives collected the data: Hugh F. Brown, Fred B. Cunningham, Wilbert E. Dinger, Clarence H. Doughty, Mell W. Fleetwood, Victor E. Green, H. S. Hammond, Ann Herlihy, Charles F. Jackson, John F. Laciskey, Fred B. Lindsey, Clarence T. Lundquist, Samuel J. Nordan, Charles Rubenstein, William C. Sims, Bernard L. Smith, George E. Votava, and Paul E. W arwick. I sador L u b in , Commissioner o j Labor Statistics. J u n e 15, 1939. XI CHART I. AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS OF WORKERS IN THE FU RNITU RE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY BY BRANCH AND REGION OCTOBER, 19 3 7 KITCHEN FURNITURE TO TAL WOOD H 0 U S E H 0 L D 5 3 .4 F U R N IT U R E WOOD OFFICE FURNITURE METAL OFFICE FURNITURE PUBLIC SEATING 20 40 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS IN CENTS U N IT E D S TATES U S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 60 Bulletin 7Slo. 669 o f the U nited States Bureau o f Labor Statistics T h e W a g e and H our Structure o f the F urnitureM anufacturing Industry, October 1937 P A R T 1.— Background Material Chapter I.— T h e Furniture-M anufacturing Industry Definition o f Industry There are various definitions of the furniture-manufacturing indus try. That of the United States Census of Manufactures is fairly broad. It embraces under the designation of “ furniture, including store and office fixtures” any establishments engaged primarily in the making of furniture out of wood, metal, fiber, reed, rattan, and willow. In addition to the different materials used, the industry thus defined produces a wide variety of articles. These are classified by the Census of Manufactures as follows: Household furniture, or furniture commonly used in dwellings (exclusive of mattresses, bed. springs, and refrigerators), porch and camp furniture, and radio and sewing-machine cases and cabinets; office furniture; store and lunch room furniture and fixtures; furniture for professional use in labora tories, hospitals, barber shops, beauty parlors, etc.; furniture for public buildings, including seats for public conveyances; shelving; lockers; and telephone booths. According to the Census of Manufactures, there were 3,097 estab lishments in the furniture industry in 1937 whose product was valued at $5,000 or more. They employed an average of 170,072 wage earners during the year. They were paid $172,558,291 in wages. The total value of products amounted to $658,466,694, of which $350,163,047 was the value added by manufacture. 1 2 W AG E A N D H O U R S T R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G T able 1 .— N u m b er o f establishm ents, num ber o f wage earners, wages pa id, and value o f products in fu rn itu re-m a n u fa ctu rin g in d u stry, 1 8 9 9 to 1 9 8 7 Num ber of estab lish ments i Year Furniture plants with a product valued at $500 or more: 1899____________________________ 1904____________________________ 1909____________________________ 1914____________________________ 1919____________________________ Furniture plants with a product valued at $5,000 or more: 1921____________________________ 1923____________________________ 1925____________________________ 1927 3__________________________ 19293__________________________ 19313__________________________ 1933 3___________________________ 1935 3___________________________ 19373___________________________ Ratio of Number wages of wage Average Value of to earners Wages paid 1 annual products 1 value (average wages 2 of for year)1 prod ucts 1,929 2,637 3,188 3, 338 3. 279 88,964 113,486 127, 088 130, 423 140, 252 $36. 443, 360 51, 655, 685 65,047, 325 73, 401, 611 143,152, 217 $410 $128, 264,001 455 176,615, 364 512 236,942, 836 563 271, 610, 464 1,021 579,906, 396 28.4 29.2 27.5 27.0 24.7 3,038 3,047 3,239 3, 228 3, 778 3,148 2, 411 3,035 3,097 124,362 168,157 181,016 188,143 193, 399 127,605 105, 488 130, 781 170, 072 144,148,061 204,566,063 225, 297, 743 238, 240,167 242,832,096 125,972,086 76,346, 466 113,898, 288 172, 558, 291 1,159 1,217 1, 245 1,266 1, 256 987 724 871 1, 015 26.2 26.3 25.9 26.9 25.6 26.1 25.6 26.2 26.2 550,413,020 776, 846, 732 868, 719, 971 885, 204, 300 948,116, 358 482, 289, 230 297, 729,981 434, 443, 514 658, 466, 694 1 Taken from U. S. Census of Manufactures. 2 These annual earnings were arrived at by dividing the total wages paid by the average number of wage earners for the year. 3 Includes also figures for sewing-machine cases, cabinets, and tables. G ro w th o f Industry Prior to the introduction of machinery, furniture was made for the most part in shops by master cabinetmakers aided by a few journey men and apprentices. All of the work was done at a bench with the aid of hand tools. On the whole, these shops were small and their output consisted almost exclusively of custom-made furniture in tended to meet the needs of the upper and middle classes. The poorer classes used very little furniture, which was generally made by themselves or by the local carpenter. The transition of furniture making from handicraft to factory stage took place largely during the latter half of the nineteenth century. On the one hand, this change was brought about by the widening of markets for furniture products, which followed the rapid industrial development of the country and the consequent improved purchasing power of wage earners. On the other hand, it was made possible by the introduction of machines, which tended to lower production costs, thus bringing factory-made furniture within the reach of lower income groups. The rapid progress in the furniture industry continued after the turn of the century. This may be seen by an examination of the data from the Census of Manufactures since 1899, which are shown in table 1. In number of furniture plants, including all with a value of products of $500 or more, the industry expanded from 1,929 in 1899 to 3,338 in 1914, decreasing slightly to 3,279 in 1919. Since 1921 reports are available only for the establishments with a value of BACKGROUND M A T E R IA L 3 products of $5,000 or over; the number amounted to 3,038 in 1921. There was very little change in 1923, but by 1925 the number had increased to 3,239. After hardly any change in 1927, an all-time peak of 3,778 plants was reached in 1929. The effect of the depression upon the industry in the early thirties is shown by the reduction in the number of establishments to 3,148 in 1931 and 2,411 in 1933. By 1935, however, the number had risen to 3,035 and in 1937, it was 3,097, which figures are near the level of the early twenties. Employment in furniture plants with a product valued at $500 or more rose from 88,964 in 1899 to 140,252 in 1919, a gain of 58 percent. On the basis of establishments with a product valued at $5,000 or more, the number of wage earners increased from 124,362 in 1921 to a peak of 193,399 in 1929, an advance of 56 percent. The effect of the depression upon the industry is shown by a reduction in the number of workers to 105,488 in 1933, a decline of 46 percent. By 1935, however, the number of wage earners had risen to 130,781, increasing further to 170,072 in 1937. The latter year, therefore, was still considerably below the 1929 peak. In the year 1899, furniture workers earned an average of $410. By 1914, the annual wages had increased to $563. During the war period, however, annual wages rose sharply, the figure amounting to $1,021 in 1919. There was a further advance to $1,217 in 1923. From 1923 to 1929, the average annual wages were quite stable. During the depression, the annual earnings fell off sharply, dropping to $987 in 1931 and to $724 in 1933. Despite the advance between 1933 and 1937, the average for the latter year ($1,015) was still sub stantially belov that for any census year between 1923 and 1929. Changes in wages on the whole kept close pace with those in value of products. This was not entirely true between 1899 and 1919, when the relative gain in wages was somewhat smaller than in value of products. During this interval, the former advanced from $36,443,360 to $143,152,217 and the latter from $128,264,001 to $579,906,396. While much of this gain occurred between 1904 and 1914, by far the greater part took place during the war years (1914 to 1919). From 1921 to 1929, the relative increase in wages was only slightly smaller than that in value of products, the former increasing from $144,148,061 to $242,832,096 and the latter from $550,413,020 to $948,116,358. By 1933, wages had declined to $76,346,466 and value of products to $297,729,981. In 1935, wages stood at $113,898,288 and value of products at $434,443,514. During the next 2 years, both wages and value of products advanced sharply, so that by 1937 the former amounted to $172,558,291 and the latter to $658,466,694. It is interesting to note that from 1921 to 1937 the ratio of wages to value of products remained almost constant, namely, about 26 percent. 4 W AGE AND H O U R ST R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G Heterogeneous N ature o f Products As mentioned at the outset, the furniture industry has an extremely wide range of products. Thus, under each of the classifications used by the Census of Manufactures (see table 2), there are numerous subgroups, each of which in turn covers a large number of articles. Moreover, these articles in many instances vary with respect to ma terials used, and in some cases there is keen competition between items that differ only in materials. There is also lack of standard ization in the various articles, so that a given item may differ greatly in quality and design. Lastly, all of these factors are reflected in the manufacturing processes, which range from hand to mass production and vary widely with the materials involved. By far the most important classification is that of household furni ture, which in 1937 accounted for 73 percent of the total value of the in dustry’s products. This group covers living room and library, bedroom, dining room, kitchen, porch, camp, hall, juvenile, and miscellaneous furniture, as well as furniture in white. Not only is the greatest variety of individual articles found in this classification, but it also presents the widest range in quality and design. On the whole, most of the above items are the result of mass production, although the more expensive furniture is usually made by hand. On the basis of materials used, wood comprised 88.6, metal 10.6, and other materials 0.8 percent of the total value of household furni ture in 1937. Yet, in spite of the fact that wood dominates this field as a whole, metal furniture is a competitive factor of some im portance. Thus, an examination of the data for each of the various subgroups within the classification reveals that the proportion of total value of products for metal amounted to 8 percent for the living room and library, 7 percent for bedroom, 26 percent for kitchen, 68 percent for porch, and 42 percent for camp furniture. Hence, metal dominates porch furniture, and is an important factor in both kitchen and camp furniture. However, it is relatively of minor importance in living room, library, and bedroom furniture. It should be added, however, that metal has increased considerably in popularity in living room and library (particularly modernistic) and kitchen furni ture during recent years, while the trend in metal bedroom furniture has been in the opposite direction. Office furniture constitutes another important classification, com prising 8 percent of the total value of products in the industry in 1937. Compared to furniture for household use, office furniture covers a relatively smaller variety of products. However, this limited range in items, coupled with their more or less standardized nature, is responsible for the greater utilization of mass-production methods in this branch of the industry. BACKGROUND 5 M A T E R IA L To a much greater extent than in household furniture, there exists very keen competition between wood and metal office furniture. Metal is the more important of the two, its products accounting for 61 percent of the total value of office furniture. An examination of the subgroups, however, reveals the fact that chairs and desks and tables are to a large extent made of wood rather than metal, the distribution being 67 percent for the former and 33 percent for the latter. On the other hand, all but 6 percent of the total value of filing cabinets and cases were metal. Of importance also are the products classified by the Census of Manufactures as store and lunchroom furniture and fixtures. In 1937, these items represented 9 percent of the total product value of the industry. Included in this group are counters, tables, partitions, window backs, showcases, wall cases, cabinets, chairs and stools, display fixtures, and miscellaneous other items. Most of these are made of wood, which on the basis of value of products accounted for 72 percent of this group. The manufacture of store and lunchroom furniture and fixtures is highly specialized, and for that reason it does not readily lend itself to mass production. T able 2, — Value of products in furniture-m anufacturinq industry fo r the United States in 1987 1 Products Value 1. “Furniture, including store and office fixtures” industry, all products, total value $658,466, 694 2. Furniture and store and office fixtures made in the industry ____ _ _ 625, 697,020 3. Other products (not normally belonging to the industry)-._ _ _ ___ __________ ___ _ _ 31,012,084 4. Receipts for contract, custom, and repair work.__ _ ___ _ __________ 1, 757, 590 5. Furniture and store and office fixtures made as secondary products in other industries. _ 50,152,934 Furniture and store and office fixtures, aggregate value (sum of 2 and 5) __ _ _ _ 675,849,954 Wood_____________________________________________________________________ 528, 546,050 M etal_____________________ _ _ ______ 143, 372,165 Fiber____ _ ... _ ___________. . . _ . . _ _ 3, 931, 739 Household furniture, total . . . __ 496, 404,392 Wood, total______________ _________________ _______ _______________ 439, 660,837 Living room and library. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 212,160, 430 Bedroom___ ____ _ ___ _ __ ___ __ 116, 558, 588 Diningroom____________ __ __ ___ _ ______________ __ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 57,155, 223 Kitchen ______ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 18,866, 633 3,894, 386 Porch, ____ _ _____ _ ___________________ _ _ _ _ _ ____ _ 2,255, 554 Camp. __________ __ ____ _____ __ _ ___ 779, 687 Hall ______________________________________________________________ 4, 739, 425 Juvenile_____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1,193,187 Furniture in the white____ ____ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ ______ 8, 204,093 Built-in furniture __ __ _ _ __ _____ 13,853, 631 Other, miscellaneous, and not specified __ _ _ 52,831,166 __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ Metal, total _ _ ____ _ 18, 762, 515 Living room and library _ ________________ _ _ _________ 8, 778,173 Bedroom ______ __________ ____ ___ _ _ 6,463, 238 Kitchen _________ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ ____ 8,398, 798 Porch _ _ _ __________ ____ __ _______ ____ 1, 659,182 Camp _ _ _ __ _______ _ 8, 769, 260 Other, miscellaneous, and not specified _____ _ ____ ___ __ ______ 3, 912, 389 Fiber, rattan, reed, and willow __ _ -----i Taken from U. S. Census of Manufactures. 161633°— 39------2 6 T able W AGE AND H O U R ST R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G 2.— Value o f products in furniture-m anufacturing industry fo r the United States in 1937— Continued Value Products 5. Furniture and store and office fixtures—Continued. $116,791,116 Furniture and fixtures for offices and stores, total _ __ _ _ ___ _ _ Wood and fiber __ __ _ __ _ _ ______ ________ __ _ _ __ __ _ 65, 534, 635 Metal __ _ _ _ ______ ____ ______ _____ ______ 51, 256, 481 55, 766,956 Office furniture, total _________________ _____ ______ - __________ ____ __ Wood___ ___ . . _ _ . ________________________________________ 221, 552,481 Metal _ ________ _ __ __ _ __ ______ _ _ __ _ ___ _____ _ 34, 214, 475 Chairs, total ___________ ____ _____ ______ __ ___ ___ 9, 255,952 26, 398, 343 Wood _ ____________ ____ ____ ____ -__ -__ _____ ____ 2,857, 609 Metal______________________________________________________________ Desks and tables, to ta l-_____ _ _ _ _ _________ ______ ____ ____ 16, 210,533 Wood______________________________________________________________ 210, 545,057 Metal ________ _____________ ________ ___ __ __ _ __ 5,665, 476 Filing cabinets and cases, total _____ ______ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 21, 952, 524 Wood______________________________________________________________ 1, 212, 951 Metal __ ____ _________ _ _________ _ ______ _ 20, 739, 573 Other office furniture and such furniture not reported in detail, total_______ 8,347, 947 Wood__________ ____ ___________ _ _____ _____ _ ______ ____ __ 23,396,130 Metal __ _ ______ ________ _ __ ____ ___________ _________ _ 4, 951,817 Store and lunchroom furniture and fixtures, total _______________ ___ 61,024,160 Wood______________________________________________________________ 43, 982,154 Metal _ _ ____ _ ________ ______ ____ ___ _______ ____________ 17,042,006 Counters, tables, partitions, window backs, showcases, wall cases, and cabi nets, total _ ___ ___ _____ __ ___ _ _________ ______ ___________ 33,688,014 Wood__________________________ ______________________________ _ 28, 753, 356 Metal____ _ _ _ _____ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4,934, 658 Chairs and stools, total-- _ __________ __ _________ __________________ 4, 918, 569 Wood______________________________________________________________ 2,998, 233 Metal _________ _ _ ________ __ __ ___ ___ __ _ _____ _ 1,920, 336 Display fixtures, total _ ______ _ _ __ _ __ ______ _ _ __ _ _ 9, 642, 923 Wood____________________________________________________ _ 3, 770, 349 Metal___________________________________________________ 5,872, 574 Other store and lunchroom furniture and fixtures and such furniture and fix _ __ tures not reported in detail, total______________ _______ 12, 774, 654 Wood ____ _ _____ _ ______ _ _ _ __ __ 8, 460, 216 MetaL. ______ ___ _____ _ _ _____ _______ _ ___ _ _ __ 4, 314, 438 Professional, laboratory, hospital, barber-shop, and beauty-parlor furniture, total 14,273,605 Wood and fiber________ _______ ______ ___ _______ _______ 6,048,060 Metal______ _____________________ _____________ _ . 8, 225, 545 Furniture for public buildings (schools, theaters, assembly halls, churches, libraries, etc.), total______ _____ ___________ _ _ _____ 23, 517, 790 Wood and fiber_____ _ _ _ _____ 14, 477,066 Metal________________ __ 9,040, 724 Seats for public conveyances, total _ _ _ _____ 6,030, 421 Wood_________________________________ _ 421,376 Metal___ __ ___ ____ _ 5, 609,045 Shelving, total _______ _ _ _ __ __ 8,960,948 Wood_________________________________ _ _ 708, 354 Metal_________________________________ 8, 252, 594 Lockers, total__ ___ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4, 965, 922 Wood___________________________ _ 4, 821 Metal _____ _ _ __ ___ __ _ ___ _ ___ 4,961,101 Telephone booths, wood___ ___ _________ _ 1,085,089 Not reported by class, total.. ____ ___ _ ___ 3,820, 671 Wood___________________________ 625,162 M e ta l___ __ ___ _ 3,195,509 2Includes data for a small amount of fiber furniture- BACKGROUND M A T E R IA L 7 Professional furniture, which in 1937 accounted for only 2 percent of the total value of furniture products, is another specialty group. Among the more important items included here are laboratory, hos pital, barber-shop, and beauty-parlor furniture. In terms of total value of products for this classification, 58 percent of the furniture was made of metal and 42 percent of wood and fiber. Due to its small size and also to its highly specialized nature, mass-production methods cannot be applied satisfactorily to this branch of the industry. Public seating includes furniture for such public buildings as schools, theaters, assembly halls, churches, libraries, etc., as well as seats for public conveyances. This is a rather small branch of the industry, the value of its products amounting in 1937 to only 4 per cent of the industry total. One half of public-seating equipment is made up of wood and fiber, as one may see from the fact that these materials accounted for 50 percent of the value of products for the group. The manufacture of public seating lends itself to quantity production, so that it resembles in that respect household and office furniture. Public-seating products, however, are entirely different in nature, which explains the fact that plants engaged in their manu facture generally specialize in them and seldom enter other fields. Likewise, household and office-furniture establishments, as a general rule, do not go into the public-seating field. Also included in the furniture industry are shelving and lockers, the combined product value of which amounted to 2 percent of the industry total in 1937. Of the two products, shelving is by far the more important. It is significant that these items were nearly all made of metal. Thus, in terms of value of products, less than 1 percent of the lockers and only 8 percent of the shelving were made of wood. Chapter II.— Characteristics of Furniture^ Manufacturing Industry Geographical D istribution At the outset, the manufacture of furniture was concentrated in the New England and Middle Atlantic States. Following the west ward shift in population and the consequent widening of markets, the industry began to spread toward the Middle West. Another reason for this shift was the presence of an ample supply of lumber in that area, particularly in Michigan. A third reason is the bulky nature of furniture and the high transportation costs from the East. Not until the close of the century, however, did the industry begin to develop in the South, being encouraged there by an abundance of lumber, cheap labor, and a wide market for low-priced furniture. The development of the industry in the South has been very rapid. Fur thermore, the trend here has been toward the manufacture of a better grade of furniture, so that now the southern region not only supplies its own needs but is also able to compete with most northern producers. More recent has been the development of the furniture industry on the Pacific Coast. Prohibitive freight rates from eastern furniture centers and an abundance of lumber explain this trend. At present, the Pacific Coast is practically self-sufficient as far as its furniture needs are concerned. The wide geographical distribution of the industry may be seen from the fact that in 1937 furniture plants were found in 42 of the 48 States and the District of Columbia, as shown in table 3. However, the industry is chiefly concentrated in a few States. According to the 1937 Census of Manufactures, the leading State in the northern area was New York, which had 20,380 wage earners. Other important States were Illinois with 17,697, Indiana with 15,406, Michigan with 14,851, Pennsylvania with 11,021, Ohio with 10,481, Massachusetts with 7,798, and Wisconsin with 6,574 workers. On the Pacific Coast, California was the leading State, employing 7,311 wage earners. Among the southern States, North Carolina came first with 16,789 workers, followed by Virginia with 8,504 wage earners. As will be shown later, the geographical distribution varies with the different products in the industry. 8 C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S OE F U R N I T U R E -M A N U F A C T U R I N G I N D U S T R Y 9 T able 3.— Num ber o f establishments, number o f wage earners, wages paid, and value of products in furniture-m anufacturing industry, by States, 1937 1 States United States. Alabama . . . . Arkansas California___ ___ __ __ _________ Colorado_____ __________ __ __ _ ... Connecticut __ . . . Florida___________________________________ Georgia____ __________ __ ____________ Illinois _ ___ __ _ _ _________ Indiana __ __ . . . _____ ________ _ Iowa _ _ ... __ _ ______ . . . Kansas__ ____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____ __ _ Kentucky ___ _ _ _ _ _ Louisiana. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Maine____ _____ __ _ ___________________ Maryland__ __ __ __ ___ _________________ Massachusetts. _ __ _ _ __ __ Michigan ___ _____ ___ Minnesota. _ __ _____ Mississippi__ ____ _ _ _ ____ Missouri, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Nebraska____________ _____ _ _ _ ______ New Hampshire... __ _ _ __ _ New Jersey__________ __ _______ ______ New York___________ ____________________ North Carolina _ _____ _ __ _ _ Ohio______ ___ __ ___ __ ___ _____________ Oregon_ _ _ _ __ __ ____ ___ Pennsylvania_____ _ __ __ _____________ Rhode Island _ _ __ South Carolina _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Tennessee... ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Texas. __________ _ _ ______ Utah______ _______________________________ Vermont _______ _ _ __ _ ____ Virginia ___ ____ Washington _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ West Virginia. _ _ _ _ Wisconsin. _ _ _ _ _ Other States 2__ _ _______________ ___ _ _ Number of Wage earners establish (average for Wages paid ments the year) 3,097 7 14 293 16 40 19 35 297 153 19 11 34 22 5 41 212 159 47 5 62 17 20 70 648 130 153 30 244 8 10 28 36 3 11 49 51 7 84 7 170, 072 $172, 558, 291 174, 345 196 1, 434,842 1, 962 8, 781, 640 7, 311 347, 304 305 950, 253 917 349, 326 376 1,418, 030 2,106 17, 697 20,130, 903 15, 406 14,471, 390 983, 884 1, 006 350, 503 345 3,062, 459 3, 205 590, 533 910 242, 337 216 1, 335, 716 1,392 8, 371, 208 7,798 14, 851 16,176, 028 1, 436, 011 1,241 58, 591 88 3,134, 438 2, 878 418, 233 433 931, 538 1,010 2,983, 568 2, 472 20, 380 24, 426,156 16, 789 12, 504, 982 10, 841 12, 279, 651 2, 458, 517 2, 223 11, 021 11, 202, 043 156, 556 149 1,094 631, 306 2, 391, 220 3, 308 1,450, 940 1,606 124,159 96 944 833,125 8, 504 6, 601, 638 1, 845 1, 852,951 265 207, 924 6, 574 7, 067, 086 236, 957 316 Value of products $658, 466, 694 648, 003 6,827, 435 30,156, 271 1,459, 511 4,459,440 1,176, 550 5, 604, 406 76, 749, 649 57, 094, 049 4, 587, 341 1,115, 650 10, 727, 528 3,071, 466 824,151 5, 067, 614 29, 634, 013 57,899,188 4, 808, 316 308,140 11,161,009 2, 228, 531 2, 833, 291 11,954, 624 96, 785, 336 48,412, 936 47, 666, 099 7, 876, 999 41, 458, 211 631, 026 2, 579, 788 9, 326, 727 5,927, 606 502, 858 2, 943,907 30, 016, 087 5, 519, 383 769, 177 26,179, 608 1, 474, 770 1 Taken from U. S. Census of Manufactures. 2 District of Columbia, 1 establishment; Idaho, 1; Montana, 1; Oklahoma, 3; and Wyoming, 1. It is significant that within most of the principal furniture-manu facturing States, the industry has tended to concentrate in certain localized areas. Nearness to an abundant supply of lumber was once the motivating force, but proximity to both labor and consumer markets have been more important factors in recent years. Among the furniture manufacturing centers are a number of smaller cities, such as Grand Rapids, Mich., High Point, N. C., Jamestown, N. Y., Evansville, Ind., Rockford, 111., and Gardner, Mass. The industry has also developed rapidly in and around the larger cities, such as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. On the Pacific Coast, the industry has tended to concentrate almost entirely around the larger cities, as most of the plants are found in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Portland, Tacoma, and Seattle. 10 W A G E A N D H O U R ST R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G Corporate A ffiliation and Size. o f Establishment The making of furniture is, on the whole, not controlled by any one company or a few companies. There are relatively few large estab lishments in the industry, most of the units being of medium and small size. It should be noted, however, that certain large establishments play an important role in this industry, especially with respect to specific products. As shown in table 4, all but 232 of the 3,778 establishments reporting to the Census of Manufactures in 1929 were independent or single-unit operations, whether owned and operated by a corporation, individual, or partnership. These single-unit operations had somewhat more than three-fourths of the wage earners (78 percent), and they also accounted for approximately the same proportion (77 percent) of the total product value of the industry. On the other hand, although they constituted only 6 percent of the number of establishments, the multiple-unit operations had 22 percent of the wage earners and an output with a value equal to 23 percent of the total. T able 4 .— Classification of establishments, wage earners, value o f products, and value added by manufacture in furniture-m anufacturing industry, according to type o f operation, 1929 1 Type of operation Plural unit __ _____ __ _ ___ Single unit _ ___ ____ ____ _ _ _ _ Total____ __ _____________ __ __ _ Number of establish ments 232 3, 546 3, 778 Number of wage earners Value of products 42, 695 $217, 648, 321 150, 704 730, 468, 037 193, 399 948,116, 358 Value added by manufacture $115, 254, 881 406, 407, 308 521, 662,189 1 Taken from U. S. Census of Manufactures. The predominance of small and medium-sized establishments in the furniture-manufacturing industry may be seen from the fact that, according to the Census of Manufactures in 1937, all but 30 of the plants had 500 workers or less. There were only 31 plants that reported no wage earners, but 2,593 had from 1 to 100 workers. There were 443 establishments with 101 to 500 employees in that year. Of the total number of wage earners reported, 36.5 percent worked in plants with 1 to 100 employees, 50.0 percent in those with 101 to 500, and only 13.5 percent in those with 501 or over. (See table 5). M echanisation and Labor Cost Machines are now used extensively in the manufacture of fur niture. The mechanization of the industry was rather slow at the outset. Crude woodworking machines, such as power-driven saws, planers, and lathes, were introduced at first to perform the heavier and rougher woodworking operations. These machines were rather C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S O F F U R N I T U R E -M A N U F A C T U R I N G I N D U S T R Y 11 simple, any journeyman being able to operate them. Gradually, however, the crude machines were improved and new ones developed. As the operation of the latter grew more and more involved, it became necessary to train men especially for their use. As a result, there developed a greater division of labor than heretofore, particularly in the larger establishments, which gave rise to a sizable class of semi skilled workers. It is almost impossible to measure accurately the extent to which the furniture industry has been mechanized. The rated horsepower capacity of prime movers and electric motors driven by purchased energy compiled by the Census of Manufactures, however, indicates the degree to which power is used by the industry, thus measuring in a limited way the extent of mechanization. In 1899, the total horse power of the entire industry was 111,880, or 1.3 horsepower per wage earner. This gradually increased until 1929, the last year for which information is available, when the total horsepower was 503,970, or 2.6 horsepower per man. Thus, in 30 years the horsepower per wage earner doubled. T able 5 .— D istribution o f establishments in furniture-m anufacturing according to number o f wage earners, 1987 1 Establishments and wage earners Total Number of establishments.. 2 3,097 Number of wage earners___ 170, 072 101 to 251 to 500 250 wage wage earners earners industry 501 to 1,000 wage earners 1, 001 to 2,500 wage earners 630 390 342 101 612 961 25 1,939 11, 251 20, 613 28, 331 51, 310 33, 635 16, 531 5 6,462 1 to 5 6 to 20 21 to 51 to wage wage 50 wage lOOwage earners earners earners earners 1 Taken from U. S. Census of Manufactures. 2 In addition there were 31 plants which had no wage earners. Labor cost is an important factor in the furniture-manufacturing industry. In 1937, as reported by the Census of Manufactures, wages paid by the industry represented over one-fourth (26.2 percent) of the total value of products and almost one-half (49.3 percent) of the value added by manufacture. Compared to other manufacturing industries, these ratios are high. Thus, of 19 important industries,1 only 3— foundries and machine shops, lumber and timber products, and glass— showed a ratio of wages to value of product either equal to or higher than that of the furniture-manufacturing industry (34.1, 32.4, and 26.2 percent, respectively), the other 16 having ratios ranging from 5.5 percent for petroleum refining and tobacco manufacturing to 25.4 percent for cotton manufactures. Likewise, the ratio of furniture wages to value added by manufacture was higher than in 14, lower than in 4, and identical with 1 of the 19 industries. Tobacco manufacturing 1 These industries are: Agricultural implements, bakeries, blast furnaces, cement, chemicals, cotton manufactures, foundries and machine shops, glass, leather, lumber and timber products, motor vehicles, meat packing, men’s, youths’ and boys’ clothing, paper and pulp, petroleum refining, planing-mill products, rubber industries, steel works and rolling mills, and tobacco manufacturing. 12 WAGE AND H O U R ST R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G had the lowest ratio, 21.6 percent, and cotton goods the highest, 56.9 percent. Furthermore, instead of decreasing, these ratios in recent years have tended to increase somewhat in the furniture industry.2 U nion Organisation Until recently there has been very little trade-union organization in the furniture industry. Such organization as did exist was gener ally confined to skilled occupations. Jurisdiction over these workers was divided by the American Federation of Labor among the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, the Upholsterers’ International Union of North America, and the International Wood Carvers’ Association of North America. The first attempt at organization in this field came in 1873 when the International Furniture Workers Union was formed. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners came into existence in 1881 and in time absorbed the membership of the older union. The highly skilled upholsterers have been organized into their own craft union since 1892, when the Upholsterers International Union was formed. This union joined the American Federation of Labor in 1900. The furniture industry has shared in the recent expansion of union organization in all industries. A new union, the United Furniture Workers of America (Congress of Industrial Organizations affiliate) has entered the field, embracing all workers in the industry, organized on an industrial basis. Likewise, the craft unions of the American Federation of Labor, which had formerly confined their activities to skilled occupations, are now taking in all production workers in an establishment, excluding only such occupations as truck drivers, operating engineers, and firemen and oilers, which are left in most instances to their own respective organizations. At present there is considerable overlapping in jurisdiction between the two A. F. of L. unions, the upholsterers and carpenters. While the former normally covers the upholstering department and the latter the woodworking department, in a number of establishments either union will include the workers in both departments. Because of the diverse nature of the furniture industry, other unions have also organized workers in some branches of the industry. The Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (A. F. of L.) and the United Elec trical, Radio and Machine Workers (C. I. O.) are found in some plants manufacturing radio cabinets. The Steel Workers’ Organizing Com mittee (C. I. O.) has organized plants manufacturing metal office furniture, and the United Automobile Workers (C. I. O.) has some agreements in the metal-furniture branch of the industry as well as 2 Between 1929 and 1935, the ratio of wages to total value of products rose from 25.6 to 26.2 percent, while the ratio to value added by manufacture increased from 46.5 to 50.3 percent. In 1937, however, the former ratio remained unchanged at 26.2, while the latter dropped to 49.3. C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S OF F U R N I T U R E -M A N U F A C T U R I N G I N D U S T R Y 13 the public-seating branch. Also, there are some federal labor unions, affiliated directly with the American Federation of Labor. The International Wood Carvers’ Association of North America, organized in 1883, at present has only a small number of skilled artisans organized on a craft basis under the American Federation of Labor. Most of the furniture workers in the Jamestown, N. Y., area at one time were organized into the nonaffiliated Jamestown Furniture Workers’ As sociation. Recently, locals in some of these plants have become affiliated with the United Furniture Workers. It is estimated that at the present time less than 50 percent of the workers in the furniture industry are members of trade-unions, and a smaller percentage (under 40 percent) are working under union agree ments with their employers. Of the 150,000 workers employed in the wood household furniture, wood and metal office furniture, and public-seating branches of the furniture industry, not more than 60,000 work under union agreements. Union membership is much more extensive in the upholstery branch of the industry than in the other branches. A factor contributing to higher union organization within this industry is the location of the plants, which are largely confined to the northern, midwestern, and western areas and to metropolitan areas which have traditionally been centers of trade-union organization. It is estimated that over twothirds of the workers in this branch are working under union agree ments. The predominant union in upholstered furniture is the Uphol sterers’ International Union. In collective bargaining, this union has no Nation-wide agreement, but it attempts to standardize conditions through the issuance of standards of work to be used as the basis for local negotiations. Although the union tries to obtain participation in a standard agreement by local employers’ associations or groups of manufacturers in a particular locality, the usual practice is to negotiate and sign agreements with individual manufacturers. The Inter national Executive Board of the union first approves all demands which the local union presents to the employer. Although the youngest union in the industry, the United Furniture Workers started with a strong nucleus in upholstered furniture made up of locals of the older A. F. of L. union which had transferred affiliation to the C. I. O. These locals include such metropolitan areas as New York City, Boston, Newark, and Baltimore. The union now includes not only these transferred locals but newly organized locals in other sections of the country. The extent of union organization in the case-goods, novelties, and kitchen-furniture branches of household furniture is less than that found in the upholstery branch of the industry. The Southern States, where more than 40 percent of this type of furniture is produced, are 14 W AGE AND H O U R ST R U C TU R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G as yet almost entirely unorganized. Plants in the North and Middle West, particularly Indiana and Illinois, are largely covered by union agreements, but such areas as Grand Rapids, Mich., traditionally the hub of this industry, are largely unorganized. Not more than 25 percent of the wage earners in this branch work under union agree ments with their employers. The United Furniture Workers is the dominant union in the casegoods and novelty-furniture industry. Agreements are negotiated and signed on the basis of collective bargaining with individual em ployers. The Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners also has some locals in this branch of the furniture industry, chiefly in the North and West. With few exceptions, agreements with the carpenters’ union in the furniture industry are on the basis of negotiations with indi vidual employers. No standard agreement is drawn up, but use of the union label is restricted to those plants which grant the 8-hour day and the closed shop. The extent and degree of organization in the manufacture of wood office furniture is approximately the same, about 25 percent, as that prevailing in the case-goods and novelties branches of the industry. The manufacture of metal office furniture, however, because of the nature of the material used as well as the location of the plants, presents a somewhat different situation. The location of plants near other metal-manufacturing areas has resulted in a somewhat higher degree of unionization. It is estimated that slightly more than onethird of the workers in this branch of the industry are now under union agreements. These workers are largely organized into locals of the United Automobile Workers, the International Association of Machinists, and the Steel Workers Organizing Committee. The public-seating branch of the furniture industry has only about 13 percent of its employees working under union agreement. Of the 25 establishments in this branch, only 4 have union agreements; 2 with the United Automobile Workers, one with the Upholsterers’ International Union, and one with a directly affiliated American Federation of Labor local union. D istribution o f Products As a general rule, furniture manufacturers, especially those making household furniture, sell their products directly to retailers specializing in furniture or to department stores. Only a minor part of all furni ture produced is sold to wholesalers. The manufacturer reaches the retailers through traveling salesmen, as well as through the various furniture marts. In the more remote sections of the country, however, the manufacturer generally deals with a wholesaler, who in turn reaches the various retailers in his territory. Few manufacturers have their own retail outlets. C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S OF F U R N I T U R E -M A N U F A C T U R I N G I N D U S T R Y 15 Furniture marts play an important part in the distribution of furniture. Because of its bulky nature, wide variety of products, and lack of standardization, furniture cannot be sold on the road by using samples. Furthermore, it cannot readily be sold from catalogues. Hence, in order to give buyers an opportunity to actually examine the various furniture products, the industry has devised a system of marts or exhibitions. These marts are held at least twice each year in the principal furniture producing and consuming centers. The shows are so timed that buyers can conveniently attend two or more of them in succession. At these shows, the various manufacturers display some of their products, particularly the “ new lines,” come in contact with the buyers, and take advance orders. Traveling salesmen then follow up the exhibitions, visit retailers, and take further orders. The different furniture marts precede the two generally recognized seasons in the industry, namely, the spring and fall seasons. In addition to seasonal fluctuations, the industry is also very sensi tive to any changes in general business conditions. This is due to the very nature of furniture products. It is only natural for people to want new furniture, particularly articles they have never possessed, and to satisfy this desire in times of prosperity. In periods of depres sion, however, people must confine themselves to essentials, especially insofar as furniture is concerned, with the result that furniture manu facturing falls off sharply. As previously stated, manufacturers sell most of their furniture to retailers, who in turn sell it to the consumer. To a very great extent, the retail business is done on a credit or installment basis, the length of the credit period varying widely. Practically all of the furniture manufactured in this country is intended for the domestic market. According to the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, exports in 1937 represented less than 1 percent of the total value of furniture produced. About three-fifths of the exports consisted of metal furniture. Furniture imports were even lower than exports in 1937. Imported furniture is limited to wood and fiber, there being no record of any imports of metal furniture. Chapter III.— Employment and Pay Rolls, 1923-39 Changes in Em ploym ent and Pay R olls, 1923-37 A detailed picture of the fluctuations in the activities of the fur niture-manufacturing industry may be obtained from the data on employment and pay rolls, which are compiled monthly by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The index numbers of employment and pay rolls since 1923 are presented in table 6 and plotted in chart 2. An examination of the data from 1923 to date shows that on the whole the furniture industry has two well-defined seasons, one in the spring and another in the fall. Generally, the peak in the fall season is reached in October or November, which is followed by a low point in December or January. The highest point in the spring season is usually attained in February or March, and another low point is reached in June or July. The fall season is ordinarily more important than the spring season. The seasonal fluctuations are clearly indicated by the index numbers from 1923 to 1929, but they are obscured somewhat by the changes in the business cycle since 1929. It should also be noted that the fluctuations are more pronounced for pay rolls than for employment. T a b l e 6 .-— In dex numbers o f em ploym ent and pay rolls in the furniture-m anu factu ring industry, by months, J anuary 1928 to Jun e 1989 1 [Index numbers are based on 3-year average 1923-25=100 and are adjusted to 1937 Census of Manufactures] Month January _ . February __ _ March. _ ___ April__ May ___ ___ June... . _ July________ August___ _ September___ October . ... November___ December___ Average___ 1924 1923 1925 1926 1928 1927 1 Em Pay Em Pay Em Pay Em Pay Em Pay Em Pay ploy rolls ploy ploy ploy ploy ploy ment ment rolls ment rolls ment rolls ment rolls ment rolls 97.5 92.4 94.9 91.7 104.4 99.1 95.1 97.8 99.9 106.5 99.6 97.6 98.3 99.2 106.8 98.9 97.8 96.9 98.2 104.6 98.2 97.6 94.0 93.1 101.3 97.0 95.8 90.6 89.1 99.7 97.2 94.8 89.7 82.9 99.2 98.2 94.8 91.3 90.4 102.7 97.2 96.2 95.3 95.2 106.0 98.5 100.8 99.3 103.1 110.4 98.9 100.9 101.6 104.1 113.4 97.4 98.9 104.6 109.3 112.9 98.1 96.9 96.2 96.4 105.7 101.9 107.6 109.2 103.3 100.7 98.3 94.9 102.7 106.5 116.6 119.8 119.3 106.7 110.0 112.2 112.2 110.1 106.0 104.1 103.8 107.2 112.0 116.2 115.8 114.5 110. 3 1 Prepared by the Bureau’s Division of Employment Statistics. 16 109.5 116.0 116.1 112.4 106.7 105.6 100.3 109.6 115.4 123.0 124.6 121.9 113.4 109.1 109.5 109.4 106.8 104.8 104.4 104.5 107.6 111.0 114.0 114.3 110.7 108.8 109.2 114.8 115.5 111.9 108.2 106.0 102.7 109.8 113.5 119.2 117.7 113.5 111.8 106.0 106.9 107.5 104.4 101.0 100.4 100.8 104.6 108.8 113.0 113.9 113.0 106.7 101.9 109.4 108.7 102.1 98.6 100.6 96.5 104.6 111.5 119.7 120.2 116.0 107.5 EM PLOYM ENT AND PAY ROLLS, 17 19 2 3 - 3 9 T able 6.— Index numbers of em ploym ent and pay rolls in the furn iture-m an u factu ring industry, by months, January 1923 to June 1939— Continued 1929 Month 1932 1931 1930 1934 1933 Em Em Em Em Em Em ploy Pay ploy Pay ploy Pay ploy Pay ploy Pay ploy Pay ment rolls ment rolls ment rolls ment rolls ment rolls ment rolls January, _ February____ March______ April____ _ May______ , June_____ _ July______ _ A u g u st.____ September___ October___ November___ December___ Average___ 109. 3 110.7 110.0 108.2 106.8 107.3 110.1 114.7 119.2 121.8 116.9 107.6 111.9 107.3 100. 4 113.2 98.0 113.1 96.2 111. 3 92.8 109.2 89.3 109.2 88.0 106.8 83.8 117.9 84.9 124.3 85.3 131. 2 86.6 119.6 83.3 105.2 79.0 114.0 89.0 93.6 92.4 90. 2 85.1 82.2 79.4 71.3 76.3 78.6 80.6 72.1 66.2 80. 7 75.1 76.3 76.2 74.9 74.1 73.0 70.9 73.4 74.5 74.6 72.3 69.5 73.7 1935 Month January., _ February,. March___ April____ M ay_____ June_____ July______ August___ September, October___ November, December, _ Average, _ 60.2 65.0 65.5 62. 5 61.3 58.2 55.8 58.4 60.1 59. 5 53.1 50.8 59.2 64.9 68.6 63. 1 58.9 54.7 52.3 49.4 50.4 55.0 58.7 57.4 55.7 57.4 43.9 44.4 41.3 36.1 31.5 29.0 25.0 28.5 33.6 37.6 33. 3 31.2 34.6 51.0 52.0 48.0 48.1 52.6 58.4 61. 5 67.9 76. 6 78.1 72.2 65.9 61.0 25.7 27. 5 21.7 24.0 28.4 33.6 35.6 43.5 52.4 54.6 44. 6 39.7 35.9 59.7 62.8 63.1 60.8 61.7 63.2 63.4 65.3 67.7 69.7 68.6 68.8 64.6 34.4 39.9 40. 7 39. 7 40.1 41.0 39.5 43.5 45.4 48.3 45.7 47.0 42.1 1937 Em Em Em Em Em ploy Pay ploy Pay ploy Pay ploy Pay ploy Pay ment rolls ment rolls ment rolls ment rolls ment rolls 68.0 70.9 73.2 72.9 71.4 71.4 74.2 78.5 81.2 82.9 82.2 80.3 75.6 44.3 47.8 50.4 49.9 47.9 49.1 49.6 57.2 61.2 64.3 60.8 60.1 53.6 77.3 78.2 78.5 78.4 79.8 81.7 85.4 91.2 95.1 97.7 99.3 99.1 86.8 53.6 97.4 56.8 97.8 58.2 99.5 58.6 99.1 59.3 99.7 62.3 101.8 63.8 101.0 72.8 102.6 75.7 102.4 82.3 100.0 83.2 92.0 84.0 86.5 67.6 98.3 77.3 81.3 83.4 85.2 83.5 85.8 81.3 86.9 86.1 84.5 72.8 66.8 81.2 79.4 79.1 78.9 75.9 74.0 74.9 75.3 80.4 83.5 84.3 84.1 84.4 79.5 54.9 59.4 59.9 54.8 53.2 55.3 54.1 66.0 71.9 72.2 68.5 71.5 61.8 80.7 83.3 83.4 82.4 81.4 83.2 63.6 69.6 69.8 67.0 66.6 68.5 Disregarding seasonal fluctuations,- the trend in employment was steadily upward between January 1923 and October 1929. During this interval, using 1923-25 as a base or 100, the index of employment rose from 97.5 to 121.8 and the index of pay rolls from 92.4 to 131.2. After October 1929, there occurred a precipitous decline that continued until March 1933, at which time the index of employment stood at 48 and the index of pay rolls at 21.7. It will be noted that during this period of depression the decline in pay rolls was much greater than in employment. The rise in employment and pay rolls between March and October 1933 was very pronounced, the former increasing to 78.1 and the latter to 54.6. This sudden advance was due largely to the movement within the industry to build up inventories, in anticipation of higher labor and other production costs under the N. R. A. Following the fall season, however, the index numbers 18 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING P l a t e l .—C u t - o f f S a w O p e r a t o r . S'* i P l a t e 2.—T e n o n e r O p e r a t o r . EM PLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS, 1 9 2 3 -3 9 19 dropped to 59.7 for employment and 34.4 for pay rolls in January 1934. Overlooking seasonal variations, the trend in employment and pay rolls then increased sharply between January 1934 and the fall of 1936, the index numbers being 99.3 in November for the former and 84.0 in December for the latter. This advance continued on a much more limited scale until August 1937, when the index of employ ment was 102.6 and that of pay rolls 86.9. Fluctuations in Average H ourly Earnings and W eekly Hours and Earnings, 1933-37 Using the data on employment and pay rolls, it is possible to com pute average weekly earnings. Moreover, in recent years the Bureau has been obtaining data on man-hours, which makes it possible also to calculate average hourly earnings and weekly hours. These figures, being available since 1933, are presented in table 7 and chart 3. T a b l e 7 .— A verage h ou rly ea rn in g s , w eekly h ou rs , and w eekly earnings fu rn itu re-m a n u fa ctu rin g in d u s try , M a r c h 1 9 8 8 to J u n e 1 9 8 9 1 Year and month 1933 March.. ______ A p ril____ _________ May__________________ J u n e .----------- ----------July__________________ August _______ _ _ _ September. _ _ ______ October____ ________ November. __ _____ December______ _____ Yearly average _. 1934 January__ __ _ February __ _______ __ March___ _ __ _____ _ April_________________ M ay_____ __ _ ___ __ June ___ _ _ _ _ _ __ July__________________ August_______ ___ ___ September. _ _ _ ______ October. . _ _ __ ____ November. _ ____ December. ____ _ __ Yearly average__ Average earnings Aver age weekly hours Hour Weekly ly 30.7 $0. 338 33.0 .337 36.9 .325 39.7 .322 41.9 .310 39.3 .379 37.7 .421 38.0 .421 34.9 .426 33.0 .437 36.2 .337 29.9 35.6 34.3 34.5 33.3 34.3 32.4 34.9 35.4 36.5 35.2 36.2 34.6 .443 .414 .433 .437 .454 .447 .445 .444 .444 .441 .446 .449 .442 Year and month 1935 the Average earnings Aver age weekly hours Hour Week ly ly $10. 55 11.73 12. 60 13. 46 13.43 15. 01 15. 84 16. 08 14. 28 13.98 13. 71 January____ _ . February.. _ . March. _. _ _ _ ._ April _ . _ _ ___ M ay __. _ . . . . .. June__ . _ _______ July__________________ August _____ _ _ September _ _ _ _ _ _ October_____ _ __ _ _ November _ December_____ _ . Yearly average___ 35.0 $0.441 37.4 .436 38.0 .446 37.8 .448 36.8 .449 37.7 .453 36.5 .449 10.2 .448 41.5 .450 42.9 .450 40.5 .451 40.8 .454 38.9 .448 13. 39 14.79 14.98 15.18 15. 23 15.28 14.62 15. 70 15.94 16. 41 15. 85 16. 41 15.37 January ._ _ _ ___ February______ __ March. _______ _. April _ ___________ _ May___ _ __ ------J u n e._____ _ July__________________ A u g u s t...____ __ -__ September____________ October____ __ ---------November. _ ___ ... December_______ _____ Yearly average ... 38.2 39. 5 40.1 40.0 40.3 42.1 41.1 44.1 44.0 46.2 45.3 45.2 42.4 1936 in .452 .454 .456 .460 .458 .449 .451 .452 .448 .453 .461 .468 .455 $15.68 16.39 17.03 16.94 16.65 17.15 16. 54 18.13 18. 79 19.37 18.43 18. 70 17. 58 17.27 17.86 18. 25 18. 31 18.44 18.89 18. 55 19.82 19.69 20.80 20. 76 21.11 19. 25 1 Prepared by the Bureau’s Division of Employment Statistics. The average earnings per week are based on data furnished by all reporting firms. Average hourly earnings and average weekly hours, how ever, are based on a smaller sample of firms which furnish man-hours in addition to the employment and pay-roll data. 20 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING T able 7 . — A verage h ourly earnings, w eekly hours, and w eekly ea rnings in fu rn itu re-m a n u fa ctu rin g in d u stry, M a r c h 1 9 3 3 to J u n e 1 9 3 9 — Continued Year and month 1987 January_______________ February_____ _____ March___ _ _____A p r il..____ _____ May ___ __ June. _________ July__________________ August___ - ____ - -September.-- . _ ------October .. ___ _ __ - Novem ber____ ___ December____ _ __ _ Yearly average__ 1988 January____ ___ February__________ - March____ _ _ __ _ _ Average earnings Aver age weekly hours Hour Weekly ly 41.8 $0.476 43.5 .480 43.1 .488 43.0 .497 41.3 .503 41.0 .510 39.4 .512 41.2 .513 40.5 .516 40.4 .524 37.0 .532 36.0 .537 40.7 .507 31.7 34.8 35.2 .539 .534 .538 $19.69 20. 69 20.81 21.21 20.63 20.80 20.01 21.04 20. 85 21.11 19. 66 19.19 20.50 Year and month 1988—Continued April_______________ May_- _________ June _ _________ _ . . July_____ ___________ August___________ ___ September____________ October_____ _ __ __ November _ __ ___ _ ___ December__________ __ Yearly average___ 1939 January----------------------February______________ March. __ ____ _ _ 17.16 April. __ _ __ _ __ 18.56 M ay_______ ______ _____ _ 18. 87 June _ the Average Aver earnings age weekly hours Hour Week ly ly 33.2 $0.544 33.2 .543 35.0 .531 34.3 .522 39.3 .522 39.9 .524 40.5 .518 37.9 .524 39.5 .526 36.3 .529 $17.92 17.89 18.42 17.87 20.43 21.50 20. 77 19. 75 20.60 19.22 36.9 38.8 38.5 37.3 37.5 38.0 19.13 20.26 20.20 19. 74 19. 86 19. 91 .521 .523 .527 .532 .530 .527 The lowest point in average hourly earnings, 31 cents, was reached in July 1933.3 By September, however, the average rose sharply to 42.1 cents. This advance coincides with the President’s Reemploy ment Agreement, which was undoubtedly signed by a large number of furniture manufacturers. Average earnings per hour continued to advance, and in January 1934, or shortly after the adoption of the N. R. A. code, they stood at 44.3 cents. Disregarding minor fluctua tions, the trend was slightly upward until October 1936. It is inter esting to note that the abolition of the code (May 1935) did not affect the average hourly earnings for the industry as a whole. Beginning with October 1936, average earnings per hour rose sharply from 45.3 cents to 51.3 cents in August 1937. This upward trend coincided with the period of general wage increases throughout the country. Average hours per week advanced from 30.7 in March 1933 to 41.9 in July of that year. The effect of the President’s Reemployment Agreement, coupled with the fall decline in activity, was to bring about a sharp reduction in the average to 33.0 in December 1933. The decline continued during the first month of the code, the weekly hours dropping to 29.9 at the low point of the season in January 1934. After that, disregarding seasonal variations, the trend in average weekly hours rose. It is significant that, through out the life of the N. R. A., the industry average did not exceed 38.0, 3 In his letter of transmittal to the President, in connection with the Code of Fair Competition for the Furniture Manufacturing Industry, as approved on Dec. 7, 1933, Administrator Johnson stated: “In June 1933 more than 58 percent of the employees in northern factories and 68 percent of the employees in southern factories, more than 54,000 workers in all, earned less than the minimum rates established by the code." These rates were 34 cents in the North and 30 cents in the South. CHART 3. >SS9T9T AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS, WEEKLY HOURS AND WEEKLY EARNINGS IN THE FURNITURE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY EM PLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS, 19 2 3 - 3 9 U. S. BUREAU OF LABOR S T A T IS T IC S to I— * 22 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING or 2 hours below the maximum established by the code. Shortly after the discontinuance of the code, however, average weekly hours rose to 40.2, reaching a peak of 46.2 hours in October 1936. Ex cept for 3 months, average hours remained above 40.0 per week until October 1937. Following this month, average hours per week declined rapidly, reaching a low of 31.7 in January 1938. For the period as a whole, if minor fluctuations are overlooked, the general trend in average weekly earnings was upward. Thus, be tween March 1933 and April 1937, average earnings per week more than doubled, rising from $10.55 in the former to $21.21 in the lat ter month. Changes Since August 1937 The highest point in both employment and pay rolls was reached in August 1937, at which time, as noted before, the index numbers were respectively 102.6 and 86.9. Although employment and pay rolls began to drop after August, the real decline did not set in until November. The lowest point in the employment index (74.0) was reached in May 1938. On the other hand, the index numbers of pay rolls dropped to 54.9 in January 1938, after which there was a small seasonal rise to 59.9 in March, followed by another reduction to 53.2 in May. In December, the index of both employment and pay rolls stood respectively at 84.4 and 71.5 and in June 1939 at 83.2 and 68.5. Despite the sharp decline in employment and pay rolls, average hourly earnings advanced between August 1937 and April 1938, the only exceptions being February and March 1938. This advance may largely be explained by the fact that in periods of recession the least skilled and consequently the lowest-paid workers are the first to be laid off. This practice tends to raise average hourly earnings for the industry as a whole. In April 1938, average earnings per hour amounted to 54.4 cents. Average hourly earnings declined to 54.3 cents in May, 53.1 cents in June, and 52.2 cents in July and August but rose slightly to 52.4 cents in September. That the average did not drop sharply between July and September is surprising, in view of the substantial increases in employment and pay rolls during this interval.4 Following a decline to 51.8 cents in October, average hourly earnings rose to 52.4 cents in November and to 52.6 cents in December 1938. In June 1939 average hourly earnings were 52.7 cents. The effect of the recession has also been to reduce average weekly hours from 41.2 in August 1937 to 31.7 in January 1938. Due to seasonal activity, the weekly hours increased to 35.2 in March, only 4 It should be noted that, for the same reason, average hourly earnings have a tendency to fluctuate In versely with seasonal activity, increasing at the low and decreasing at the high points of the season. EM PLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS, 19 2 3 - 3 9 23 to decline to 33.2 in April and May. With the start of the fall season, however, weekly hours rose sharply to 40.5 in October. After drop ping to 37.9 in November, weekly hours advanced to 39.5 in December. In June 1939, average weekly hours were 38.0. The average weekly earnings were $21.11 in October 1937, but they declined to $17.16 in January 1938. Due to seasonal activity, there was a rise to $18.87 in March, which was followed by a reduction to $17.89 in May 1938. As a result of the sharp advance in hours be tween July and August, weekly earnings rose to $20.43 in the latter month. The further advance to $21.50 in September was due both to higher average weekly hours and average hourly earnings. In December average weekly earnings were $20.60 and in June 1939 they were $19.91. Chapter IV .— Scope and Method Product Coverage While for many purposes the furniture-manufacturing industry may be treated as a whole, any analysis of the wage structure must take into account the heterogeneous nature of the products. The products covered by this survey were limited to wood house hold furniture, both wood and metal office furniture, including shelv ing and lockers, and public seating. In selecting these products, the Bureau attempted to confine the survey to the branches of the in dustry that were operating primarily on a mass-production basis. There were excluded, therefore, such products as store and lunchroom furniture and fixtures and furniture for professional use and for laboratories, hospitals, barber shops, beauty parlors, etc., most of which are made on a custom-order rather than quantity basis.1 In covering wood household furniture, the survey also excluded a few of the highly specialized products of lesser importance, such as porch, camp, and juvenile furniture. The combined value of these products amounted to only $10,889,365 in 1937, or slightly over 2 per cent of the total value of wood household furniture. Included in the survey were living-room and library, bedroom, dining-room, kitchen, hall, and miscellaneous furniture, the value of which amounted to $428,771,472. In dealing with the wood household-furniture products covered here, however, it is customary to separate them into four groups, namely, case goods, upholstered furniture, novelties, and kitchen fur niture. Case goods include primarily bedroom and dining-room sets, as well as library and certain articles of living-room furniture. Uphol stered furniture embraces primarily overstuffed pieces used in the living room and other parts of the home. Novelties include a large variety of specialties, such as small tables, chairs, etc., which constitute the odds and ends that go to complete household furniture. Lastly, kitchen furniture is limited to cabinets, tables, chairs, and other items found in the modern kitchen. As a rule, upholstered and kitchen furniture are specialized fields, so that each constitutes a fairly dis tinct part of wood household furniture. On the other hand, it is difficult to draw a clear-cut line between case goods and novelties, as both types are often made in the same plant. However, in view of the different problems encountered in the making of the two types of 1 The survey also excludes the relatively unimportant item of wood telephone booths. 24 SCOPE AND METHOD 25 product, it was decided to keep them separate in the survey, which means that mixed establishments had to be classified according to their principal production. It should also be mentioned that most of the competition among plants is confined to those within each of these four groups, namely, case goods, upholstered, novelty, and kitchen furniture. The survey excluded any household furniture made of metal, as well as of the relatively unimportant materials of fiber, rattan, reed, and willow. As pointed out before, there is considerable competition between metal and wood household furniture. On the other hand, having left out porch and camp furniture from the wood household group, any comparison between metal and wood products would have to be confined to living-room and library, bedroom, kitchen, and mis cellaneous furniture. These products in metal, however, are not only varied, but they also account for a relatively small part of the total value of products. Hence, a break-down of these according to the four groups indicated under wood household furniture would provide a very thin coverage for metal. For these reasons, metal household furniture was excluded from the scope of the survey. In view of the fact that office furniture is an important branch of the industry, it was included in this survey. Moreover, as indicated previously, there exists some very keen competition between wood and metal, each product being produced in substantial quantities. Among the products covered here were chairs, desks and tables, filing cabinets and cases, and other office furniture. Since shelving and lockers are used to considerable extent in offices, these products were also in cluded as part of the office-furniture branch. Lastly, the survey covered public seating, which includes furniture for public buildings, such as schools, theaters, assembly halls, libraries, etc., and seats for public conveyances. This is a distinct branch of the furniture industry. Moreover, although plants in the other branches of the industry are potential competitors of those in public seating, most of the competition takes place between the establishments of this branch proper. Since the same plants may use wood and fiber, as well as metal, in making public seating, no separate account was taken of these materials. Characteristics o f Sample The survey was made on a sample basis, but the size of the sample varied from one branch of the industry to another. In selecting the sample for each branch, great care was exercised to make it fully repre sentative of the branch. Among the factors considered, there were: Product (within a given branch), geographical distribution (within a given State, as well as between States), size of community, corporate affiliation, and size of establishment. 26 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING The sample for wood household furniture covers 33,199 wage earners, which represents roughly about 25 percent of the industry branch in terms of employees. In view of the fact that this branch is the largest in the industry, it was felt that a 25-percent coverage was sufficient for the purpose. Classified according to their principal products, 129 establishments with 16,175 wage earners made case goods; 99 plants with 8,333 workers, upholstered furniture; 49 establishments with 6,716 wage earners, novelties; and 21 plants with 1,975 workers, kitchen furniture. Thus, nearly one-half (48.7 percent) of the total employees were in the case goods, one-fourth (25.1 percent) in the upholstered, one-fifth (20.2 percent) in the novelties, and the balance (6.0 percent) in the kitchen groups. These proportions in the sample correspond roughly to the importance of each of these divisions within the wood household branch of the industry covered here. As regards office furniture, the survey covered 50 plants and 7,111 wage earners. Of these, 31 establishments with 2,976 workers manu factured wood products and 19 plants with 4,135 employees made metal goods. In selecting the establishments, every effort was made to obtain the same proportion of wood and metal furniture as is found in this branch of the industry. The coverage here is approximately one-half of the total, a larger sample being required in view of the smallness of the branch. Due to the very small size of public seating, the survey attempted to cover all plants engaged in this branch of the industry. The number obtained was 25, which employed a total of 3,118 workers. Altogether, therefore, the survey included 373 establishments, em ploying 43,428 wage earners. Nature o f Data Obtained As in similar surveys, the information was obtained here by actual visits of field representatives of the Bureau to the establishments covered. The data collected included wages and hours, annual earn ings,2 and general plant information.3 The wages and hours data are based on an exact transcription made from the pay rolls of each establishment for every worker included within the scope of the survey. All employees were covered except clerical workers and plant supervisors.4 For each person, there was 2 For an analysis of annual earnings in the Furniture Manufacturing Industry see April 1939 issue of the Monthly Labor Review, pp. 781-788. 2 The general plant information covered such items as corporate affiliation, product, full-time hours, overtime, wage deductions and penalties, employer-employee relations, etc. 4 Working supervisors were included in this survey. SCOPE AND METHOD 27 obtained his occupation, sex, color, 5 method of wage payment, and number of actual hours worked and total earnings for one pay-roll period.6 The wages and hours data for the most part covered a pay-roll period during the month of October 1937. Since the real decline in employment and pay rolls began with November 1937, a period in October presents a complete cross section of the occupational struc ture of the industry. Using the above data, the Bureau compiled averages and distribu tions of hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings by product, skill, region, unionization, size of community, sex, and occupation. In classifying the various occupations according to skill, the Bureau took into consideration the consensus in the industry with respect to the skill of each occupation, a classification of occupations by skill having been obtained from a person in charge of operations in every one of the plants visited. In case of those occupations for which the opinions were more or less evenly divided, the Bureau consulted experts in the industry, whose opinions were used in making the final allocation of the occupation according to skill. In setting up the data on a geographical basis, the Bureau accepted the two broad wage areas established by the industry’s code under the National Recovery Administration. These two areas coincide in a general way with the North and South. In the South were included the States of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. It should be mentioned, however, that under the code Missouri was divided up between the North and South. All other States were included in the North. One of the tabulations of the wages and hours data in this report covers a break-down according to unionization. In preparing this tabulation, the Bureau took into consideration not the employee’s membership in an organization but whether or not his occupation came within the jurisdiction covered by an agreement entered into between the union and employer. A distinction was made between trade-union and non-trade-union establishments. The former in cludes plants having agreements with outside labor organizations, or those affiliated with national or international unions or directly con- 5 Not a sufficient number of colored workers was found to justify any separate tabulations. 6 In case the pay-roll period exceeded 1 week, there was also obtained the number of hours worked during 1 continuous week within the pay-roll period. This enabled the Bureau to present weekly hours, as well as weekly earnings covering all employees. 28 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING nected with the American Federation of Labor or the Congress of Industrial Organizations. It also includes independent organizations of labor, which covered more than one establishment.7 Separate tabulations were also made of the data according to size of community. This tabulation was prepared on the basis of metro politan areas. For places with a population of 100,000 or more, the Bureau utilized the metropolitan districts set up by the United States Bureau of the Census. On the other hand, for communities with less than 100,000 population, the Bureau set up similar metropolitan areas including not only the population within a political subdivision but also that of the nearby area. In other words, an attempt was made here to classify wages according to labor market areas, within which there is competition among workers for jobs, as well as among em ployers for workers, thus influencing the wage levels. i This includes the Jamestown Furniture Workers’ Association. P A R T 2.— Wood Household Furniture Chapter V .— Average H ourly Earnings Data for Branch as a W hole The 33,199 wage earners employed in the 298 establishments cov ered in the wood household branch of the furniture industry averaged 48.0 cents an hour in October 1937. (See table 8 and chart 4.) This average, of course, merely indicates the central tendency for the entire group. Hence, one must examine the hourly earnings in greater detail, in order to obtain a more complete picture of the wage structure. T a b l e 8 .— A verage hourly earnings in wood h o u sehold -furniture branch, by product , skill, and region, October 1 9 3 7 Total workers Skilled workers Product and region Semiskilled workers Num ber Aver Aver Aver Aver of age Num age Num age Num age plants Num hourly hourly hourly hourly ber earn ber earn ber earn ber earn ings ings ings ings A ll products 231 23, 226 $0. 534 9,113 $0. 621 10, 295 $0. 508 67 9, 973 .357 3, 285 .432 4, 445 .339 298 33,199 .480 12, 398 .569 14, 740 .456 Case goods 88 9, 237 41 6, 938 129 16,175 .513 .347 .441 3,654 2,172 5, 826 .578 .419 .518 4,046 3,145 7,191 83 16 99 6, 218 2,115 8, 333 .627 .398 . 565 3,037 849 3, 886 .742 .478 .681 43 6 49 6,199 517 6, 716 .503 .334 .489 1,899 165 2, 064 17 1, 572 4 403 1,975 21 . .447 .361 .431 523 99 622 North___ ______________ South ___ ____________ Total______ _ ____ North___________________ South ____ __ __ Totals ________ Unskilled workers 3,818 2, 243 6,061 $0.399 .281 .355 .494 .330 .422 1, 537 1, 621 3,158 .402 .280 .339 2,481 868 3, 349 .556 .371 .505 700 398 1,098 .393 .287 .354 .564 .392 .550 3,027 230 3,257 .505 .326 .491 1,273 122 1, 395 .405 .272 .392 .502 .413 .488 741 202 943 .442 .365 .427 308 102 410 .366 .300 .351 Upholstered furniture North _ _ __ _ _ _ South____________________ Total______________ Novelty furniture North___ ______________ South___________________ Total______________ Kitchen furniture North_________________ _ South__ _________ _____ Total _ _ __ According to the distribution for all workers in table 9 (see chart 4), there is considerable variation in the hourly earnings of indi viduals. Even if the relatively few employees with extremely low or 29 30 W AG E A N D H O U R S T R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G CHART 4. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES IN WOOD HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE BRANCH BY AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS OCTOBER,1937 PERCENT OF TOTAL UNITED STATES NORTH SOUTH U .S . BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS PERCENT OF TOTAL W OOD HOUSEHOLD 31 F U R N IT U R E high earnings are omitted, the range is from 17.5 cents to $1.20, within which are found 98.9 percent of the total labor force. More over, there is no very pronounced concentration in any of the classes between these limits, although three-fourths received between 30 and 67.5 cents. In terms of 5-cent intervals, the largest or modal class, namely 37.5 and under 42.5 cents, had only 14.0 percent of the workers. Looking at the cumulative percentages, it will be seen that 3.8 per cent of the workers earned less than 25 cents an hour,1 and as many as one-tenth (9.5 percent) were paid under 30 cents. Furthermore, over one-third (36.7 percent) received less than 40 cents, and two-thirds earned under 52.5 cents. On the other hand, less than one-tenth (8.5 percent) were paid 77.5 cents and over, with only 2.2 percent receiving as much as $1 and more. T able 9.-— S i m p l e p e r c e n ta g e d i s t r ib u t io n o f all w o r k e r s a c c o r d in g to a vera g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s i n w o o d h o u s e h o l d -f u r n it u r e b r a n ch , b y s k ill, O cto b er 1 9 3 7 Total workers Average hourly earnings Under 12.5 c e n t s -- _______ __ 12.5 and under 17. 5 cents____ 17.5 and under 22.5 cents____ 22. 5 and under 25.0 cents____ 25.0 and under 27. 5 cents___ _ _ ___ __ _ _ _ ________________ __ _ _ __ _ . ___ __ _----_____ _____ _____ __ ___ ___ ___ 0.1 .4 1.7 1.6 3. 6 Skilled workers Semi skilled workers Un skilled workers 0.2 .2 .7 0.1 .3 1.3 1.4 3. 3 0.2 1.1 6.0 4.8 10.0 2.1 9.1 6.3 7. 1 4.7 .6 4.1 3.5 5. 4 4.1 2.3 10.1 7.6 8. 1 5.1 4.8 17.3 9.0 8. 0 4.9 (0 27. 5 and 30. 0 and 32. 5 and 35.0 and 37. 5 and under under under under under 30.0 c e n ts ___ _ _______ __ 32. 5 cents______ ___ _______ - ___ 35.0 cents. _________ _ __ __ ___ 37. 5 cents— _ _______ - __ __ _______ __ 40. 0 cents_____ 40.0 and 42. 5 and 47. 5 and 52. 5 and 57. 5 and under under under under under 42. 5 cents-- . _ _ _ _ ________ __ 47. 5 cents____ ________ _________ ___ 52. 5 cents___ _ _ 57. 5 cents_____ __ _ __ __ __ __ _ — 62. 5 cents- ___ ______ ____ __ __ 9.3 10.9 9.6 6.7 6.3 8.0 10.9 11.0 8.7 8. 3 9.6 12.2 10.2 6.7 6.1 10.9 8.5 6.0 2.5 2. 7 62. 67. 72. 77. 82. under under under under under 67. 5 cents. . ___ ____________ _________ 72. 5 cents____ _________ __ _____________ 77. 5 cents______ _______ __ __ __ ___ _ 82. 5 cents____ _ __ ______________ ___ _ 87. 5 cents______________ ________ __ ___ - 5.4 3.6 3.0 2.0 1.9 7.2 5.6 4.8 3.6 3.3 5.2 3.2 2.5 1.5 1.5 2.1 .4 .5 .1 87. 5 and under 92.5 cents___ _______ _________ _____ __ - 92. 5 cents and under $ 1 _____________ - - - - - - - - - - ___ _ $1 and u n d o r $ 1 . 1 0 1 .4 1 .0 1 .0 2.7 2.1 2. 2 .8 .5 .3 .6 1 .4 5 and 5 and 5 and 5 and 5 and $1 1 0 a n d yin dp/r $ 1 . 2 0 $1 2 0 a n d lyndp.r $ 1 . 4 0 $1 40 and ovpr .4 .2 .9 .5 .1 .1 (9 .1 0) 0) Total_______________________________________________ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100 .0 Number of workers----------------------------------------------------------- 33,199 12, 398 14, 740 6,061 i Less than Ho of 1 percent. To some extent, the wide dispersion in hourly earnings may be accounted for by variation in skill. Despite the fact that wood household furniture is largely the result of quantity production, more than one-third (37.3 percent) of the employees were in occupations classified as skilled by the industry. However, the degree to which i Since Oct. 24, 1938, when the Fair Labor Standards Act went into effect, the number of workers receiving less than 25 cents an hour has undoubtedly been greatly reduced, if not eliminated. 32 WAGE AND H O U R STRU CTU RE, F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G mass-production methods are carried on in this branch is evidenced by the fact that semiskilled workers constitute the principal group, or 44.4 percent. The number of unskilled employees amounted to only 18.3 percent. The average hourly earnings were 56.9 cents for skilled, 45.6 cents for semiskilled, and 35.5 cents for unskilled workers. The skilled averaged 11.3 cents more than the semiskilled, who in turn received on an average 10.1 cents more than the unskilled. Hence, the total spread between skilled and unskilled employees amounted to 21.4 cents. Comparing the respective distributions, which appear in table 9, the number of workers earning under 25 cents an hour amounted to only 0.4 percent for skilled and 3.1 percent for semiskilled, as against 12.1 percent for unskilled. If 30 cents is taken as the upper limit, the percentages are respectively 1.7, 8.7, and 26.9. Moreover, the num ber receiving less than 40 cents amounted to 18.8 percent for skilled, 39.6 percent for semiskilled, and 66.1 percent for unskilled. In con trast, as many as 21.5 percent of the skilled employees were paid 72.5 cents and over, which may be compared with 7.2 percent of the semiskilled and only 0.8 percent of the unskilled. Yet, the variation in skill alone does not account entirely for the differences in hourly earnings. These differences may also be ex plained to a large extent by regional differences in earnings. As noted before, a considerable proportion of the industry is located in the Southern States. In wood household furniture, out of the 298 establishments covered, 67 were in the southern and 231 in the northern region. In terms of wage earners, the representation of the South was even greater, the actual figure being 9,973, or 30.0 percent, as against 23,226, or 70.0 percent, in the northern area. It should also be pointed out that there is considerable difference in the skill composition of the labor force between the northern and the southern regions. There were substantially more skilled (39.2 as against 32.9 percent) but fewer unskilled (16.4 as compared to 22.5 percent) workers in the North than in the South. In both regions, the relative number of semiskilled workers was about the same (44.4 percent in the North and 44.6 percent in the South). Differences in product and possibly in methods of manufacture may account for these variations. Despite the regional variations in the skill set-up of the industry, there still exists in each skill group substantial differentials in favor of northern workers. These differentials amounted to 18.9 cents for skilled, 16.9 cents for semiskilled, and 11.8 cents for unskilled workers. In the North, the average earnings for all employees amounted to 53.4 cents an hour. Looking at the distribution in table 10, it is found that all but 2.8 percent earned between 25 cents and $1.10. 33 WOOD H OUSEH OLD FU R N IT U R E The largest total concentration within the above spread in the north ern region was from 35.0 to 72.5 cents, which included nearly threefourths (73.2 percent) of the labor force. On the basis of 5-cent intervals, the largest single class, with 14.8 percent of the total, was 37.5 and under 42.5 cents. 10.— Sim ple percentage distribution o f workers according to average hourly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1987 T able North Average hourly earnings South U n Semi Semi U n Total Skilled skilled skilled Total Skilled skilled skilled workers workers workers workers workers workers workers workers Under 12.5 cen ts.................... 0) 0.2 12.5 and under 17.5 cents___ 17.5 and under 22.5 cents___ .6 .4 22.5 and under 25.0 cents___ 25.0 and under 27.5 cents___ 1.9 1.2 27.5 and under 30.0 cents___ 3.5 30.0 and under 32.5 cents___ 3.3 32.5 and under 35.0 cents___ 5.2 35.0 and under 37.5 cents___ 4.4 37.5 and under 40.0 cents___ 10.4 40.0 and under 42.5 cents___ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents___ 12.7 47.5 and under 52.5 cents___ 11.6 8.4 52.5 and under 57.5 cents___ 8.3 57.5 and under 62.5 cents___ 7.3 62.5 and under 67.5 cents___ 4.9 67.5 and under 72.5 cents___ 4.1 72.5 and under 77.5 cents 2.8 77.5 and under 82.5 cents___ 2.6 82.5 and under 87.5 cents___ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents___ 1.9 1.4 92.5 cents and under $ 1 ___ 1.3 $1 and under $1.10__ __ _ .8 $1.10 and under $1.20_ _ _ _ .5 $1.20 and under $1.40 .3 $1.40 and over „ Total- ______ ________ 100.0 Number of workers. _____ 23, 226 0) 0) 0) 0.3 .3 1.3 1.4 2.6 2.7 6.8 10.5 11.0 9.5 9.6 8.9 7.0 6.2 4.6 4.3 3.6 2.7 2.9 1.9 1.2 .7 100.0 9,113 0.1 .5 .4 1.5 1.2 3.1 3.6 5.9 4.8 11.3 14.7 13.1 9.1 8.5 7.4 4.5 3.5 2.1 2.1 1.1 .7 .5 .2 .1 0) 0.7 2.3 1.2 6.4 3.3 10.1 6.8 9. 5 7.2 16.7 13.0 9.4 3.9 4.3 3.4 .6 .8 .1 .2 .1 0) C) 100.0 10, 295 100.0 3, 818 0.2 .9 4.3 4.3 7.6 4.4 22.2 13.3 11.4 5.5 6.5 6.9 5.2 2.7 1.8 1.0 .7 .3 .3 .2 .1 .1 .1 (0 0) 100.0 9,973 0.1 .6 .7 2.0 1.6 12.1 9.1 12.9 7.9 11.4 11.9 11.2 6.4 4.6 2.8 1.8 .9 .7 .5 .4 .2 .1 .1 0. 2 .9 3.1 3.6 7.5 4.9 26.2 16.9 13.1 5.9 5.7 6.3 3.3 1.2 .6 .2 .3 .1 0) 0. 5 1.9 12.3 10.9 16.0 7.4 29.6 12.6 5.6 1.0 1.1 .8 .2 .1 0) 0) C) 0) 100.0 3, 285 100.0 4, 445 100.0 2, 243 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. In the southern region, the average hourly earnings of all workers were 35.7 cents. According to the distribution, the spread here in the hourly earnings of individuals was much narrower than in the North, which may be seen from the fact that 97.1 percent were paid between 17.5 and 67.5 cents. Furthermore, the largest total concen tration within these limits in the South, covering as many as 83.0 percent of the total, is only between 25 and 52.5 cents. Lastly, the modal 5-cent interval is 27.5 and less than 32.5 cents. It contained more than one-fourth (26.6 percent) of all employees. The differential in average earnings per hour for all wage earners between the northern and the southern areas was 17.7 cents. Com paring the two distributions, it will be seen that, while only 1.2 percent 34 WAGE AND H O U R STRU CTU RE, FU R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G of the northern workers received under 25 cents an hour, there were as many as 9.7 percent found in that classification in the southern region. Using 30 cents as the upper limit, the respective percentages are 4.3 and 21.7. Moreover, the number earning less than 40 cents amounted to 20.7 percent in the North, as against 74.1 percent in the South. At the other end of the distribution, it is found that 36.2 percent received 57.5 cents and over in the northern area, which may be compared with only 4.6 percent in the southern territory. Differences by Product As previously stated, wood household products may be classified into four groups, namely case goods, upholstered, novelty, and kitchen furniture. Differences in average hourly earnings exist among these groups, but they are due to a considerable extent to the varying distribution of the labor force as to skill and region. Hence, it is necessary to survey the wage structure separately for each product group. Upholstered Furniture The highest average hourly earnings in October 1937, namely 56.5 cents, are shown for the 8,333 wage earners in the 99 upholsteredfurniture plants. As indicated by the distribution in table 11, the range of individual earnings upon which this average is based was considerable, with 99.0 percent of the workers receiving from 17.5 cents to $1.40. Moreover, the distribution does not reveal any pro nounced concentration. There were 2.9 percent paid less than 25 cents and 7.2 percent under 30 cents. Slightly over one-fourth (25.7 percent) of the total earned less than 40 cents. On the other hand, well over one-third (36.7 percent) received at least 62.5 cents, nearly one-sixth (16.2 percent) at least 82.5 cents, and 6.5 percent $1 and over. One reason for upholstered furniture having the highest average is that, unlike other wood household groups, its workers are predomi nantly skilled. Of the total number covered 46.6 percent were skilled, 40.2 percent semiskilled, and only 13.2 percent unskilled. This clearly indicates that the manufacture of upholstered furniture does not lend itself as readily to mass production as other wood householdfurniture products. For instance, the difficult operation of uphol stering must be performed by hand. Skilled employees averaged 68.1 cents an hour, semiskilled 50.5 cents, and unskilled 35.4 cents. Hence, there was a difference of 17.6 cents between the averages of skilled and semiskilled workers, with a further difference of 15.1 cents between the averages of the latter and unskilled employees. T a b l e 1 1 .— Sim ple percentage distribution o f workers according to average hourly earnings in upholstered fu rn itu re o f wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1987 United States Average hourly earnings (i) 0.3 1.5 1.1 2.8 1.5 5.9 4.1 5.2 3.3 6.3 8.7 9.4 6.7 6.5 6.3 5.4 4.8 4.0 3. 7 3.3 2. 7 2,8 1.8 1. 2 .7 100.0 8, 333 Skilled workers Semi skilled workers 0.1 .1 .1 .5 .5 1.9 1.9 2.8 2. 7 4.7 6.6 8.8 7.1 7.6 7.3 7.0 6. 7 6.2 5.6 5.1 4.2 5.1 3.7 2.3 1.4 100.0 3, 886 0.1 1.3 .9 2.4 1.6 7.4 5.4 7.2 4.4 8.1 10.5 10.5 7.2 6. 7 6.7 5.0 4.0 2.7 2.5 2.2 1.6 1.0 .4 .2 0) 100.0 3, 349 Unskilled workers 0. 2 1.7 6.6 5.0 12.6 4.8 15.7 8.2 7.5 2.5 6.4 11.0 8.7 3. 5 2.1 2.0 .5 .3 .2 .1 .3 .1 100.0 1,098 Total workers (i) 0.3 1.1 .4 1.7 .6 2.8 2.1 3.6 2.1 5.5 8.1 9.7 7. 3 7.6 7.7 6.8 6. 2 5. 2 4.8 4. 3 3.5 3.7 2.4 1.6 .9 100.0 6,218 Skilled workers (*) 0) 0.1 .3 .3 1.1 .6 1.5 1.4 2.8 4.5 6.9 6.4 7.5 7.8 8.3 8.3 7.6 7.0 6.4 5.3 6.5 4.6 3.0 1.8 100.0 3,037 South Semi skilled workers 0.2 1.2 .5 1.7 .9 2.9 2.4 4.8 2.7 7.8 10.1 12.0 8.8 8. 7 8.8 6.8 5.3 3.7 3.4 2.9 2.2 1.4 .5 .3 0) 100.0 2,481 Unskilled workers 0.1 2.3 5.4 1.7 7.9 1.3 10.2 7.0 8.4 3.1 8.7 16.4 13.5 5.4 3. 3 3.1 .9 .4 .3 .1 .4 .1 100.0 700 Skilled workers Semi skilled workers 0.2 2.4 3.0 6.1 4.0 15.0 10.2 9.8 6.8 8.6 10.9 9.1 4.9 3.6 2.5 1.0 .6 .4 .3 .2 .2 .1 .1 0.1 .5 .2 1.1 1.4 4.7 6.4 7.5 7.2 11.2 13.9 15.7 9. 7 7.9 5.8 2.5 1.3 .9 .6 .5 .5 .2 .2 0 .1 1.4 2.1 4.4 3.3 20.3 13.8 13.8 9.0 9.0 12.1 6.5 2. 5 1.0 .5 .1 .1 100.0 2,115 100.0 849 100.0 868 Total workers (!) Unskilled workers 0.3 .8 8.8 10.8 20.8 11.0 25.5 10.3 5.8 1.3 2.3 1.8 .5 WOOD H OUSEH OLD F U R N IT U R E Under 12.5 cen ts_______________________ 12.5 and under 17.5 cen ts______________ 17.5 and under 22.5 cents______________ 22.5 and under 25.0 cents______________ 25.0 and under 27.5 cents______________ 27.5 and under 30.0 cents______________ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents______________ 32.5 and under 35.0 cents_______ ______ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents______________ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents______________ 40,0 and under 42.5 cents______________ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents______________ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents______________ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents 57.5 and under 62.5 cents 62.5 and under 67.5 cents 67.5 and under 72.5 cents 72.5 and under 77.5 cents 77.5 and under 82.5 cents 82.5 and under 87.5 cents 87.5 and under 92.5 cents 92.5 cents and under $1 $1 arid under $1.10 $1.10 and under $1.20 $1.20 and under $1.40 $1.40 and over T otal_______________________ Num ber of workers_____ __ _____ Total workers North 100.0 398 i Less than Ht> of 1 percent. CO Ox 36 WAGE AND H O U R STRU CTU RE, FU R N ITU R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G Another reason for the high average in upholstered furniture is that, to a large extent, it is manufactured in the North. In terms of plants covered, 83 were in the northern and 16 in the southern area, the respective percentages for wage earners being 74.6 and 25.4. The hourly earnings were much higher in the North, where workers averaged 62.7 cents, or 22.9 cents above the southern average of 39.8 cents. This difference is also reflected in the distributions shown in table 11. In the northern region, only 14.7 percent of the employees earned less than 40 cents, 4.1 percent less than 30 cents, and 1.8 percent less than 25 cents. By contrast, 57.5 percent of the southern workers were paid below 40 cents, 15.7 percent below 30 cents, and 5.6 per cent below 25 cents. Moreover, while few southern wage earners (1.9 percent) received as much as 72.5 cents and more, nearly onethird (32.6 percent) of the northern workers had earnings as high as, or higher than, that figure. Some of the regional variation in hourly earnings for upholstered furniture is due to differences in the skill composition of the labor force. In the North, 48.8 percent of the employees were skilled, 39.9 percent semiskilled, and only 11.3 percent unskilled. In the South, however, semiskilled were slightly more numerous than skilled work ers (41.1 against 40.1 percent), with the unskilled accounting for 18.8 percent of the total. To some extent differences in manufacturing processes and consequently in the occupational set-up of plants account for the regional variation in skill. All of the 16 southern establishments made their own frames, machining the parts in their own woodworking departments. On the other hand, 33 of the 83 northern plants, accounting for one-fifth (19.7 percent) of the workers, bought the frame parts already machined, some even buying fully assembled frames, thereby eliminating the many less-skilled occu pations generally found in the woodworking and frame-assembly departments. Nevertheless, within each skill group there are still found sub stantial differentials in favor of northern workers. The widest regional difference (26.4 cents) occurred in the hourly earnings of skilled em ployees, the northern average being 74.2 cents and the southern 47.8 cents. For semiskilled workers, there was a difference of 18.5 cents, those in the North averaging 55.6 cents and in the South 37.1 cents. The unskilled averages were only 10.6 cents apart, the figures being 39.3 cents in the northern and 28.7 cents in the southern region. However, even after the influence of varying proportions of skilled workers and regional location of factories has been eliminated (see table 8), upholstered furniture pays higher wages than the other groups. The skilled workers in upholstered furniture in the North averaged WOOD H O USEH OLD FU R N IT U R E 37 about 17 cents more than in case goods and novelty furniture. In the South, the difference amounts to between 6 and 8 cents. Among the semiskilled workers in the various branches there is some difference in earnings, amounting to between 4 and 6 cents in favor of upholstery workers. But in the case of unskilled workers it is noteworthy that the averages show no significant differences as between the various products in the wood household-furniture branch. N o v e lt y F u rn itu re Next to upholstered furniture, the highest average was 48.9 cents an hour for the 6,716 workers in the 49 establishments making novelty furniture. All but 2.7 percent of the individual employeesaveraged between 25.0 and 92.5 cents. (See table 12.) Only 1.7 percent re ceived less than 25 cents and 6.1 percent less than 30 cents. Onefourth (25.5 percent) of the total were paid under 40 cents. By con trast, over one-fourth (27.2 percent) earned 57.5 cents and more, and 5.0 percent received at least 82.5 cents. 12.— Sim ple percentage distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in novelty furn iture of wood household-furniture branch, by skill, October 1937 T able United States Average hourly earnings Semi U n Semi U n Total Skilled skilled Total Skilled skilled skilled skilled workers workers workers workers workers workers workers workers 12.5 and under 17.5 cents___ 17.5 and under 22.5 cents___ 22.5 and under 25.0 cents___ 25.0 and under 27.5 cents___ 27.5 and under 30.0 cents___ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents___ 32.5 and under 35.0 cents___ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents___ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents___ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents___ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents___ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents___ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents___ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents___ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents___ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents___ 72.5 and under 77.5 cents____ 77.5 and under 82.5 cents___ 82.5 and under 87.5 cents___ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents___ 92.5 cents and under $1 $1 and under $1.10 $1.10 and under $1.20 $1.20 and over Total__ __ __ ______ Num ber of workers.__ _ _ 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. 161633°— 39- North 4 0.1 .8 .8 2.9 1.5 5.0 3.7 6.3 4.4 14.5 13.9 10.9 8.0 7.9 4.7 3.9 3.3 2.4 2.8 1.2 .5 .3 .2 C1) 100.0 6, 716 o .i .1 1.1 .2 2.5 1.8 4.2 3.9 10.1 12.8 12.1 11.6 10.6 6.8 5.9 3.3 3.5 3.9 2.5 1. 4 .8 .7 .1 0.5 .6 1.9 1.3 4.4 4.5 6.9 4.2 14.2 15.4 11.7 7.5 8.1 4.1 3.9 3.9 2.6 3.1 .9 .2 .1 100.0 100.0 2,064 0. 6 2.5 2.0 8.1 4.1 10.3 4.4 8.1 5.7 21.4 12.6 7.4 3.8 3.2 2.7 .9 1.6 .1 .4 .1 0.1 .3 .3 2.2 1.5 3.1 3.5 5.7 4.7 14.9 14.4 11.7 8.5 8.4 5.0 4.2 3.5 2.6 3.0 1.3 .6 .3 .2 0) 3, 257 100.0 1, 395 100.0 6,199 6.6 .2 1.3 1.5 2.9 3.9 9.5 12.7 12.8 12.4 11.2 7.2 6.3 3.6 3.8 4.2 2.7 1. 5 .9 .7 0.3 .3 1.1 1.1 2.3 4.1 6.3 4.5 14. 6 15.7 12.5 8.1 8.8 4.5 4.2 4.2 2.8 3.3 1.0 .2 .1 0.5 1.0 .9 6.9 4.5 7.6 4.9 8.3 6.2 23.2 13.7 8.1 4.1 3.5 3.0 1.0 1.8 .2 .5 .1 .1 100.0 1,899 100.0 3,027 100.0 1, 273 38 WAGE AND H O U R STRU CTU RE, FU R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G Novelty furniture products are, as a rule, comparatively simple in construction, and for that reason mass-production methods can be employed here to advantage. This is clearly indicated by the skill set-up of the labor force. Not far from one-half (48.5 percent) of all novelty workers were semiskilled, whereas only 30.7 percent were skilled and 20.8 percent unskilled. Between the average hourly earnings of skilled (55.0 cents) and unskilled (39.2 cents), there was a difference of 15.8 cents. In distinct contrast with the upholstered furniture branch, skilled workers’ earnings in novelty furniture were only 5.9 cents more than the average for semiskilled, 49.1 cents. The chief reason that workers in the novelty-furniture division as a whole averaged 4.8 cents more than workers in the case-goods division is that the southern representation in this industry is very small. Only 6 of the 49 plants in the sample and 517 of the 6,716 wage earners were found in the South. Despite its limited size, the southern sample is nevertheless representative of the novelty-furniture group in that region. Care should be exercised in using these averages. Northern workers in novelty furniture averaged 50.3 cents an hour, or 16.9 cents more than the southern average of 33.4 cents. The northern differential amounted to 17.2 cents for skilled, 17.9 cents for semiskilled, and 13.3 cents for unskilled workers. As may be seen from table 12 only 0.7 percent of the novelty-furni ture workers in the North earned less than 25 cents an hour and only 4.4 percent less than 30 cents. Over one-fifth (21.4 percent) averaged under 40 cents. On the other hand, 37.6 percent earned 52.5 cents or more and 11.5 percent earned 72.5 cents and over. When a comparison is made of the average hourly earnings of workers in northern novelty-furniture and case-goods factories, there is little difference as between these two branches in the earnings of all employees, or of the different skill groups. Case Goods Although the largest of the 4 groups, the 16,175 wage earners in the 129 case-goods establishments had next to the lowest average hourly earnings, namely 44.1 cents. Exactly 96.0 percent earned between 17.5 and 77.5 cents an hour, as shown by the distribution in table 13. It will also be seen that 5.1 percent of the workers averaged under 25.0 cents, 12.0 percent under 30.0 cents, and as many as 46.1 percent under 40.0 cents. On the other hand, only 8.3 percent received as much as 67.5 cents, and only 3.5 percent were paid as much as 77.5 cents. As indicated by the skill distribution of the employees, case goods are also largely the result of mass production, although a somewhat WOOD H O USEH OLD F U R N IT U R E 39 greater proportion of skilled labor is required here than in novelty furniture. Of the total number of workers in case goods, 44.5 percent were semiskilled and 36.0 percent skilled. Unskilled wage earners accounted for one-fifth (19.5 percent) of the labor force. Primarily because of the slightly higher proportion of skilled workers in case goods, average hourly earnings in case goods in the North and in the South are about 1 cent an hour higher than earnings in these respective regions in the novelty-furniture division. Case-goods workers averaged 51.3 cents an hour in the northern area, as against 34.7 cents in the southern region. The fact that there were relatively more skilled workers in case goods in the North than in the South (39.6 against 31.3 percent) but fewer semiskilled (43.8 as compared to 45.3 percent) and unskilled (16.6 as against 23.4 percent) wage earners accounts for the difference in hourly earnings for the division as a whole between the North and the South being greater than that for any one of the skill groups. The substantially higher earnings of northern wage earners may be verified from the distributions in table 13. The number earning under 25.0 cents was less than 1 percent in the North, but it amounted to 10.9 percent in the South. Moreover, the relative number paid below 30.0 cents was only 3.0 percent in the former, as compared with 23.8 percent in the latter territory. Furthermore, if 40 cents is taken as the upper limit, the proportion was only one-fifth (21.2 percent) in the North, although nearly four-fifths (79.6 percent) were found under that figure in the South. Looking at the other end of the distribution, it will be seen that, while 13.4 percent of the northern employees received 67.5 cents and over, there were only 1.4 percent found in that classification in the South. Case goods showed substantial differentials in favor of northern over southern workers in the hourly earnings of each group according to skill. In the North, skilled workers averaged 57.8 cents an hour, semi skilled 49.4 cents, and unskilled 40.2 cents. This compares with 41.9, 33.0, and 28.0 cents, respectively, for southern employees. Hence, the differentials amounted to 15.9 cents for skilled, 16.4 cents for semiskilled, and 12.2 cents for unskilled wage earners. Among the 4 product groups in wood household furniture, the southern representation was greatest in case goods, which accounts largely for the relatively low hourly earnings for the division as a whole. Of the total plants covered, 41 were located in the southern and 88 in the northern area. In terms of employees, the proportion in the South was even greater, namely 42.9 percent, which may be compared with 57.1 percent in the North. 13.— Sim ple percentage distribution o f workers according to average hourly earnings in case-goods furn iture o f wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1987 Under 12.5 cents__ __ 12.5 and under 17.5 cents. ______ __ 17.5 and under 22.5 cents__________ __ 22.5 and under 25.0 c e n t s . .___ __ _ 25.0 and under 27.5 cents__________ __ 27.5 and under 30.0 cents_________ . 30.0 and under 32.5 cents______ __ 32.5 and under 35.0 cents_____ _____ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents________ __ 37.5 and under 40.0 cen ts. _ ____ __ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents______ __ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents____________ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents____________ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents____________ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents______ __ 62.5 and under 67.5 c e n t s ___ _ _ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents _. _ 72.5 and under 77.5 c e n t s _____ __ _ 77.5 and under 82.5 cents _ 82.5 and under 87.5 cen ts____ . . . 87.5 and under 92.5 cents_________ 92.5 cents and under $1 $1 and under $1.10 __ _ _ $1.10 and under $1.20 _ $1.20 and over_________________ _ _ Total_______________________ Number of workers__________________ iLess than Ho of 1 percent. Total workers (i) 0. 5 2.4 2. 2 4.3 2.6 12.0 8.3 8.4 5.4 8.4 10.7 9.1 6.0 5.8 5. 6 2. 7 2.1 .9 .8 .6 .4 .4 .2 Skilled workers (i) 0.3 .3 .9 .8 5.9 4.8 7.5 5.1 9.1 12.3 11.5 8.8 8.1 7.8 4.8 4.2 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.0 .8 Semiworkers 0. 5 1.8 1.9 4.3 3.0 13.7 10.1 9.2 5.8 8.0 11.4 9.2 5.8 5.2 5.3 2.2 1.2 .5 .4 .2 .1 .1 .4 .5 .1 .2 100.0 16,175 100.0 5,826 100.0 7,191 Unskilled workers 0.1 1. 2 7.9 6.4 10.4 4.9 20.0 10.8 8.1 5.3 7.9 6.0 4.3 1.4 2.9 2.1 .2 .1 0) 100.0 3,158 Total workers 0) Skilled workers 0.5 .2 1.4 .9 3.6 3.3 5.8 5.5 10.4 14.5 12.9 9.1 9.2 9.3 4.3 3.4 1.5 1.3 1.0 .7 .6 0.1 .1 .2 1.0 1.4 3.1 3.1 7.9 13.2 12.7 10.9 10.8 11.3 6.7 6.2 2.8 2.5 2.0 1. 5 1.3 .3 .3 .5 .7 100.0 9,237 100.0 3,654 South Semi skilled workers 0) 0.3 .1 1.1 .9 3.2 3.5 6.2 6.1 10.8 16.8 14.8 9.8 8.9 9.3 3.7 2.1 .8 .7 .4 .2 .2 Unskilled workers 0. 2 2.0 1.2 5.2 2.3 10.8 7.4 11.1 9.8 15.6 11.8 8.8 2.7 6.0 4.4 .3 .3 .1 .1 100. 0 4,046 Total workers (i) 1.1 5.0 4.8 8.1 4.8 23.5 15.1 11.9 5.3 5.7 5.6 3.9 1.9 1.3 .6 .6 .3 .2 .1 .1 .1 (i) 0) 0) 100.0 1, 537 100.0 6,938 Skilled workers Semi skilled workers 0.1 .6 .8 2.1 1.8 14.2 10.5 15.0 8.6 11.0 11.0 9.6 5.2 3.4 1.8 1.6 .8 .7 .5 .4 .2 .1 1.1 3.7 4.1 8.5 5.6 27.3 18.6 13.2 5.3 4.5 4.5 2.0 .6 .4 .2 .3 .1 0) 0) 0) 100.0 2,172 Unskilled workers 0.1 2.2 13.5 11.4 15.4 7.3 28.4 13.9 5.3 1.0 .7 .6 .1 .1 0) 0) 100.0 3,145 100.0 1,621 WAGE AND H O U R STRU CTU RE , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G North United States Average hourly earnings 40 T able 41 WOOD H O USEH OLD FU R N IT U R E K itc h e n F u rn itu re The kitchen-furniture group is not only the smallest in size, but it also has the lowest average hourly earnings of the 4 divisions in wood household furniture. The 1,975 wage earners in the 21 kitchen-furniture establishments averaged 43.1 cents an hour. All but 4.5 percent of these workers received between 22.5 and 77.5 cents. There were 3.4 percent paid less than 25 cents, 10.1 percent under 30 cents, and as many as 43.2 percent less than 40 cents. At the upper end of the distribution, 13.8 percent earned 57.5 cents and over, but only 2.5 percent were paid as much as 77.5 cents and more. (See table 14.) 14.— Sim ple percentage distribution o f workers according to average hourly earnings in kitchen furn itu re of wood household-furniture branch, by skill, October 1937 T able North U nited States Average hourly earnings Under 12.5 cents ________ 12.5 and under 17.5 cents___ 17.5 and under 22.5 cents___ 22.5 and under 25.0 cents___ 25.0 and under 27.5 cents___ 27.5 and under 30.0 cents___ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents___ 32.5 and under 35.0 cents___ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents___ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents___ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents___ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents___ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents___ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents___ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents___ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents___ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents___ 72.5 and under 77.5 cents 77.5 and under 82.5 cents___ 82.5 and under 87.5 cents___ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents___ 92.5 cents and under $1 $1 and under $1.10 $1.10 and under $1.20 $1-20 and under $1.40 T otal-_ _ __ ___ __ Num ber of workers____ _ U n Semi U n Semi Total Skilled skilled Total Skilled skilled skilled skilled workers workers workers workers workers workers workers workers 0.9 .5 .6 1.4 3.4 3.3 12.6 8.1 6.9 5.5 11.5 12.8 11.0 7.7 4.4 2.6 2. 6 1. 7 .9 .3 .5 .4 .2 .1 .1 100.0 1,975 0.2 .2 .2 1.1 6.8 6.3 5.9 4.2 12.7 18.0 14.1 7.7 6.8 3.2 4. 2 2. 7 1.9 .6 1. 6 .8 .3 .2 .3 100.0 622 0.8 .6 .6 2.2 4.6 3.3 10.8 7.2 6.9 6.3 11.6 12.0 10.8 9.3 4.1 3.3 2. 7 1.8 .6 .2 .2 .1 2.2 .5 1.5 1.2 5.9 6.8 25.4 12.7 8.5 5.6 9.8 7.6 6.8 4.1 1.2 .2 100.0 943 100.0 410 6.2 .6 1.5 4.1 3.6 7.4 7.2 6.7 5.5 12.7 14.5 11.1 8.4 5.0 3.3 3.1 2.2 1.1 .4 .6 .4 .2 .1 .1 100.0 1, 572 0.2 .2 1.3 3.6 5.9 5.4 3.8 13.2 19.0 13.4 7.8 7.1 3.8 5. 0 3.3 2.3 .8 1.9 1.0 .4 .2 .4 100.0 523 0.1 .5 2.6 5.5 3.5 6.2 6.2 6.9 6.1 12.8 13.3 10.3 10.0 5.0 4.2 3.0 2.3 .8 .3 .3 .1 0.3 1.9 1.3 7.5 7.8 16.7 11.7 8.4 7.1 11.7 9.1 9.1 5.5 1.6 .3 100.0 741 100.0 308 The proportion of workers in the various skill groups in kitchen furniture is about the same as that found in novelty furniture. The break-down among employees in kitchen furniture was 31.5 percent skilled, 47.7 percent semiskilled, and 20.8 percent unskilled. The average hourly earnings in kitchen furniture amounted to 48.8 cents for skilled, 42.7 cents for semiskilled, and 35.1 cents for unskilled. Hence, the differentials were 6.1 cents between the averages of skilled and semiskilled and 7.6 cents between those of the latter and unskilled workers. 42 WAGE AND H O U R STRU CTU RE, F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G The manufacture of kitchen furniture is largely concentrated in the North, but the proportion of this division in the South was somewhat greater than in novelty furniture. Of the total coverage in kitchen furniture, 17 plants and 1,572 wage earners were in the northern and only 4 establishments and 403 workers in the southern area. Al though small, the southern coverage is quite representative of this branch of the industry in that section. The average hourly earnings of kitchen-furniture workers amounted to 44.7 cents in the North and 36.1 cents in the South. This is a differentia] of only 8.6 cents. The northern differential was 8.9 cents for skilled, 7.7 cents for semiskilled, and 6.6 cents for unskilled workers. It will be seen from table 14 that well over one-third (36.8 percent) of the workers in the North earned less than 40 cents an hour and that one-tenth received less than 30 cents. There were 2.3 percent who averaged under 25 cents. Not far from one-half of the workers (46.7 percent) had earnings ranging from 40.0 to 57.5 cents. Only 5.1 percent of the employees earned as much as 72.5 cents and only 1.8 percent as much as 82.5 cents. Variations Am ong States Thus far, the analysis has concerned itself with broad regional variations, pointing out the differential in average hourly earnings between the northern and southern territories. The fundamental character of this differential is confirmed by the fact that the lowest State average in the North (43. 2 cents) is 4.0 cents higher than the highest State average in the South (39.2 cents). Nevertheless, this should not overshadow the fact that variations also exist among the several States within each region, as well as within each State, which are due to such factors as type and quality of product, size of com munity, and unionization. Unfortunately, the coverage is too thin to justify a break-down of the State figures by these factors, so that any differences within a given region must be studied on the basis of the data for each State as a whole. In the North, the average earnings per hour by States covered a fairly wide spread, ranging from 43.8 cents in Ohio to 66.4 cents in California. (See table 15.)2 The highest averages, those above 60 cents, are shown for the 3 Pacific States (Washington, Oregon, and California) and New York and New Jersey. In each case, the high hourly earnings are the result both of unionization and size of com munity. For example, all of the 23 plants covered on the Pacific Coast were located in large cities, and of these 13 had trade-union contracts. Similarly, there were 18 unionized establishments among the 49 covered in the States of New York and New Jersey, and 23 2 The average for M issouri was 43.2 cents. Of the six establishm ents covered in this State, four were classified w ith the North and two w ith the South. 43 WOOD H OUSEH OLD F U R N IT U R E (including 15 with trade-union contracts) of these were located in the metropolitan area of New York City. Conversely, lack of unioniza tion and/or location in smaller communities accounts for the lowest averages, such as are shown for Missouri, Maine and New Hampshire combined, Ohio, Indiana, and Iowa. T able 15.— Average hourly earnings in wood household-furniture States, October 1937 State Num ber Number Average of em hourly of plants ployees earnings branch, by Range of average hourly earnings of individual plants Low High United States__________________ __________________ _ 298 33,199 $0,480 $0.181 $1.085 Arkansas __ __ __ ___ - ___ __ _ _ ___ _ ___ __ _ California________ ________________ _____ _ _ Connecticut and Rhode Island L_ ______ _________ Georgia, F lorida,1 and Alabama 2__________ ______ Illinois__ _______ __ ___ _______________ ___ _ Indiana____ ___ ___________________________________ Iow a_____________________ ____________ ____________ K entucky____ __ ___ __ __ _ ____ __________ _ Louisiana____________________ ______________ __ M aine 1 and N ew Hampshire____ _ ________ ___ M aryland. ________ _ _ __________________ __ __ M assachusetts__________ _ ________________ _____ M ichigan_____________ __ _ ____ __ . . . ______ _ M innesota___ ______________________________________ M issouri___________________ _______________ ___ N ew Jersey, ___ ______________________________ _ . N ew York____________________ _________ ______ North Carolina and South Carolina 2____ ________ Ohio____________________ . . . ______ __ __ ______ . Oklahoma 1 and Texas __ ______________ _____ Oregon. _ . . . _ _______ ____________ Pennsylvania____ ______ __ __ __ _ ____________ Tennessee____ _ ______ _______________ ____ Verm ont________________ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ ________ _ V ir g in ia .___ ________________ ___ _ _ ____ _ W ashington. __________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ W iscon sin ________ _______________ _ _ _ __ 4 17 6 10 21 30 3 5. 3 4 4 15 18 4 6 7 42 23 14 5 3 22 7 3 8 3 11 522 1,369 244 725 2,929 3, 339 189 535 185 272 393 1,052 2,122 373 432 965 3,780 4,408 1,096 476 558 2,159 855 221 2,121 404 1,475 .382 .664 .490 .326 .550 .447 .461 .392 .274 .439 .569 .506 .510 .493 .432 .635 .617 .360 .438 .392 .659 .495 .354 .510 .345 .607 .499 .250 .468 .413 .243 .366 .305 .441 .336 .181 .320 .509 .382 .381 .373 .358 .488 .332 .250 .327 .297 .645 .300 .333 .347 .319 .594 .429 .428 .917 .638 .471 .755 .570 .588 .438 .306 .542 .618 .740 .662 .724 .555 .763 1.085 .453 .621 .459 .662 .964 .384 .556 .372 .646 .771 1 Includes only 1 plant. 2 Includes only 2 plants. In the southern territory, there is considerably ]ess of a spread in the average hourly earnings among the various States, the range being from 27.4 cents in Louisiana to 39.2 cents in Kentucky and in Okla homa and Texas combined. This relatively narrower spread here as compared with the North is due largely to the fact that in the South there are only a few trade-union establishments and no very large metropolitan areas. In analyzing the State averages in both the northern and southern areas, however, there appear no well-defined sections within each territory, so that there is apt to be just as much difference between States that are close together as between those that are far apart. Chapter V I.— Relation of Size o f Com m unity, Unions ization, and Size of Plant to Average H ourly Earnings Differences by Sise o f Com m unity Average hourly earnings in wood household furniture not only differ by product, skill, and region, but they apparently also vary in accordance with size of community within which the plants are located. According to table 16, 72 out of the 231 establishments and 27.2 percent of the workers in the North were found in communities with a population of 1,000,000 and over. In contrast to this concentration in the largest centers, 10 plants with only 2.8 percent of the employees were in rural territory, namely, communities of less than 2,500. Between these limits, the remaining establishments were fairly well scattered, with some tendency to concentrate in places of 10,000 and under 25,000 and of 100,000 and under 250,000. A somewhat different picture prevailed in the southern territory. There are no metropolitan areas here with a population of over 500.000. However, the largest concentration, i.e., 32 of the 67 plants with 54.9 percent of the workers, was found in communities between 5.000 and 25,000. A smaller concentration occurred in centers of 50.000 and under 100,000, but some establishments were also located in each of the other classes. As in the northern region, only a rela tively small portion of the industry was found in the rural area. With some exceptions, the average hourly earnings of all workers in the North varied directly with size of community. The lowest average was 41.7 cents in places of less than 2,500 population and the highest 64.8 cents in centers of 1,000,000 and over, the latter being 23.1 cents, or 55.4 percent, higher than the former. The earnings in communities between 2,500 and 5,000 averaged 44.5 cents, but those in the next higher class of 5,000 to 10,000 were about the same as in rural terri tory. In places with 10,000 and under 50,000, however, the average earnings were around 47 to 48 cents. The averages for communities in all of the classes between 50,000 and 1,000,000 were all well over 50 cents, the lowest figure being 52.6 cents for places between 100,000 and 250,000 and the highest 57.2 cents for centers between 250,000 and 500,000. On the other hand, communities with 50,000 and under 100.000 had the same average, namely 55.2 cents, as those of 500,000 and less than 1,000,000. The largest metropolitan areas, namely with 1.000. 000 and over, averaged 7.6 cents more than those between 250.000 and 500,000 and 9.6 cents above those between 500,000 and 1,000,000. 44 45 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS T able 16.— Average hourly earnings o f workers in wood household-furniture branch, by region, size o f com m unity, and skill, October 1987 Total workers N um ber of plants Region and size of community N um ber Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers Average Average Average Average hourly N um hourly N um hourly N um hourly earn earn ber ber earn ber earn ings ings ings ings United States Under 2,500_________________ 2,500 and under 5,000___ __ _ 5,000 and under 10,000,,, - _ 10,000 and under 25,000___ _ 25,000 and under 50,000_____ 13 23 35 36 24 878 , 795 4,856 5, 392 2, 530 $0. 395 .415 .368 .425 .471 315 970 1,615 1,870 945 $0. 451 .482 .439 .487 .537 404 1,363 2,191 2,427 1,116 $0.392 .396 .350 .417 .457 159 462 1,050 1,095 469 $0. 294 .326 .291 .334 .374 50,000 and under 100.000-,, _ 100,000 and under 250,000___ 250,000 and under 500,000— _ 500,000 and under 1,000,000. _ ,000,000 and over, _ _ _ 25 30 24 16 72 3,797 3, 537 1,951 1,157 , 306 .473 .492 .499 .552 .648 1,469 1,310 523 2, 695 .542 .573 .600 .673 .768 1,676 1,592 871 446 2, 654 .462 .476 .471 .513 .597 652 635 394 188 957 .346 .367 .383 .336 .463 298 33,199 .480 12, 398 .569 14, 740 .456 6, 061 .355 .417 .445 .418 .472 .484 241 739 556 1,194 793 .479 .513 .477 .525 .542 297 20 647 2, 059 1,409 3, 361 2,097 619 1, 551 924 .412 .425 .401 .463 .475 109 309 234 616 380 .298 .352 .318 .384 .382 15 24 15 16 72 2, 064 2, 865 1,261 1,157 , 306 .552 .526 .572 .552 .648 847 1,071 454 523 2, 695 .617 .601 .659 .673 .768 923 1,299 571 446 2, 654 .539 .515 .544 .513 .597 294 495 236 188 957 .408 .394 .471 .336 .463 231 23, 226 .534 9,113 .621 10, 295 .508 3,818 .399 3 3 231 736 3, 447 2, 031 .341 .320 .345 .347 74 231 1,059 676 .373 .381 .416 .418 107 352 1, 572 876 .345 .300 .327 .334 50 153 816 479 .284 .260 .282 .271 10 6 4 9 433 1,733 672 690 .417 .393 .352 .368 152 622 239 232 .508 .456 .447 .488 192 753 293 300 .381 .383 .314 .334 89 358 140 158 .341 .300 .276 .255 67 9, 973 .357 3,285 .432 4, 445 .339 2,243 .281 1 Total_____ _________ 2 6 686 North Under 2,500_________________ 2,500 and under 5,000_____ _ 5,000 and under 10,000____ 10,000 and under 25,000___ 25,000 and under 50,000___ __ 50,000 and under 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ,100,000 and under 250,000___ 250,000 and under 500,000___ 500,000 and under 1,000,000. _ ,000,000 and over,__ _ 1 T o t a l,,, _ ,, 10 20 13 26 6 1,011 South Under 2,500_________________ 2,500 and under 5,000_______ 5,000 and under 10,000____ __ 10,000 and under 25,000_____ 25,000 and under 50,00050,000 and under 100,000____ 100,000 and under 250,000___ 250,000 and under 500,000___ Total, _ __ _ _ ___ 22 10 Similarly, the average earnings per hour in the North varied directly with size of community for each skill group, but the extent of correlation was highest for skilled, somewhat less for semiskilled, and lowest for unskilled workers. Likewise, the spread in the averages between places of under 2,500 population and those with 1,000,000 and over was highest for skilled (28.9 cents), next highest for semi skilled (18.5 cents), and lowest for unskilled (16.5 cents) employees. Moreover, as regards the average varying directly with size of com munity, there were only 2 exceptions to the rule among the skilled, but 3 or more among the semiskilled and unskilled workers. In fact, for the unskilled wage earners the highest average, 47.1 cents, was found in centers with 250,000 and under 500,000, this figure being 0.8 cents above the average in metropolitan areas of 1,000,000 and over. 46 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING In the southern region, on the other hand, the data indicate lack of correlation between average hourly earnings and size of community. It should be added, however, that the averages for the same class of labor in the same size community were in all cases lower in the South than in the North. Differences Betw een Trade^Union and N on -T rad e^U nion 1 Plants In addition to product, skill, region, and size of community, union organization also appears to exert an influence on average hourly earnings in wood household furniture. The existence of a differential in average earnings per hour in favor of trade-union as compared with non-trade-union plants is indicated by table 17, which presents figures for the northern region on a product basis. The differential for all employees in favor of trade-union over non-trade-union plants was highest for upholstered furniture (15.3 cents) and kitchen furniture (13.8 cents), lowest for case goods (7.8 cents) and novelty furniture (6.7 cents). By skill groups, the highest differential was 16.2 cents for skilled employees in upholstered furni ture, while the lowest was 5.7 cents for semiskilled wage earners in novelty furniture. It is interesting to note that, with the exception of kitchen furniture, the differential for unskilled was higher than that for semiskilled, while in case goods and kitchen furniture it also exceeded the one for skilled workers.2 i Includes 10 plants with employee-representation plans or independent unions confined to a single establishment. These plants employed only 2.8 percent of the total workers in wood household furniture. Of the 10 establishments, 4 were in case goods, 4 in upholstered furniture, 2 in novelty furniture, and none in kitchen furniture. Having classified the data for the northern area according to unionization and skill, it is interesting to compare the average hourly earnings among the four product groups. For all workers, the highest earnings per hour were found in upholstered furniture plants, the averages being 73.8 cents for trade-union and 58.5 cents for non-trade-union establishments. On the other hand, there was very little difference among the averages in trade-union plants for the remaining three product groups, the figures ranging from 54.3 cents for kitchen furniture to 56.8 cents for case goods. In non-trade-union estab lishments, the hourly earnings in case goods and novelty furniture were both around 49 cents, but those for kitchen furniture were only 40.5 cents. As regards skilled workers, the highest average hourly earnings, namely, 85.3 cents in trade-union and 69.1 cents in non-trade-union, were again found in upholstered furniture establishments. There was very little difference in the averages of case goods and novelty furniture, both for trade-union and non-tradeunion plants, but the hourly earnings of each product group were respectively lower than those found in upholstered furniture. The figures for kitchen furniture were the lowest, this being especially the case in trade-union establishments. Semiskilled workers in the upholstered-furniture branch also averaged more per hour than those in the other product groups. It will be noted, however, that the differential in favor of upholstered plants was much less pronounced here than in the case of skilled workers. As regards the other product groups, there was very little difference in the average hourly earnings for trade-union establishments, the figures ranging only from 54.3 cents for kitchen furniture to 55.1 cents for case goods. Similarly, in the non-trade-union plants, there was little difference between the case goods and novelty furniture averages, which were, respec tively, 46.8 and 48.9 cents, but the figure for kitchen furniture was definitely lower, being 39.7 cents. On the whole, there is relatively little variation in the average hourly earnings of unskilled workers among the four product groups for either trade-union or non-trade-union plants. In trade-union establishments the averages ranged from 46.5 cents for novelty to 48.6 cents for upholstered furniture. In the nonunion plants there was very little difference among novelty furniture (38.5 cents), upholstered furniture (37.7 cents), and case goods (37.4 cents), but the average of kitchen furniture was considerably lower (32.8 cents). In other words, the average earnings per hour were, in nearly all instances, highest in upholstered furni ture and lowest in kitchen furniture. There was very little difference in the averages between case goods and novelty furniture, but in general the former paid somewhat higher wages than the latter. 3 47 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS T able 17 .— A verage hourly earnings o f workers in tra d e-u n ion and n o n -tra d e-u n io n plants o f wood h ousehold-furniture branch in the N o rth , by product and skilly October 1 9 3 7 Product and unionization Total workers Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers Num ber Aver Aver Aver Aver of age Num age Num age Num age plants Num hourly hourly hourly hourly ber earn ber earn ber earn ber earn ings ings ings ings Case goods Trade-union plants_______ Non-trade-union plants. __ Total__________ _ 20 68 88 2,769 $0. 568 6,468 .490 9,237 .513 986 $0. 638 2, 668 .557 3, 654 .578 1,308 $0. 551 2, 738 .468 4,046 .494 Trade-union plants_______ Non-trade-union plants____ Total. _ ... __ 31 52 83 1, 813 4,405 6, 218 .738 .585 .627 1, 027 2,010 3,037 .853 .691 .742 673 1,808 2,481 Trade-union plants____... Non-trade-union plants____ Total_____ ______ _ 12 31 43 1, 780 4, 419 6,199 .552 .485 .503 487 1, 412 1,899 .628 .545 .564 Trade-union plants_____ Non-trade-union plants___ Total. __ ______ _____ 4 13 17 534 1,038 1, 572 .543 .405 .447 188 335 523 .582 .464 .502 Upholsteredfurniture Noveltyfurniture Kitchen furniture 475 1,062 1,537 $0.467 .374 .402 .610 .537 .556 113 587 700 .486 .377 .393 947 2,080 3, 027 .546 .489 .505 346 927 1, 273 .465 .385 .405 250 491 741 .543 .397 .442 96 212 308 .466 .328 .366 The difference in wage levels between trade-union and non-tradeunion establishments is also indicated to some extent by table 18, which presents the distribution of average hourly earnings of individual plants by unionization and product. T able 18 .— D istrib u tio n o f in divid u al plant average h ou rly ea rnings in w ood house h old -fu rn itu re branch in the N o r th , by product and u n io n iza tio n , October 1 9 3 7 All products Average hourly earnings 30 and under 35 cents ... 35 and under 40 cents__ _ 40 and under 45 cents____ 45 and under 50 cents_______ 50 and under 55 cents.._ _ 55 and under 60 cents _ 60 and under 65 cents 65 and under 70 cents 70 and under 75 cents 75 and under 80 cents 80 and under 85 cents 85 and under 90 cents 90 and under 95 cents 95 cents and under $1 $1 and under $1.05 $1.05 and under $1.10 Total_______. . . _____ Case goods Upholstered furniture Novelty furniture Kitchen furniture Non Trade- Non Trade- Non- Trade- Non Trade- Non Trade- tradetradetradeunion tradeunion union union tradeunion plants union union union union union plants plants plants plants plants plants plants plants plants 4 8 9 7 9 8 5 4 4 2 3 2 1 1 67 8 24 27 34 28 18 13 3 5 3 1 164 3 3 3 4 2 3 1 5 10 11 16 12 7 6 1 1 20 68 1 2 1 4 5 3 4 2 2 3 2 1 1 31 1 2 7 9 7 9 7 2 5 2 1 52 I 3 4 1 2 7 7 6 8 2 1 1 2 5 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 12 31 4 13 48 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING Due to the small number of trade-union establishments in the South, it is not feasible to make a comparison between these and non-trade-union plants in that region. Taking the wood household-furniture branch as a whole for the entire country, 74 of the 298 plants scheduled had union contracts. In terms of employees, the trade-union establishments accounted for 24.5 percent of the total sample. Of the trade-union plants, 7 were located in the southern and 67 in the northern area, their respective employment amounting to 7.2 and 32.0 percent. According to table 19, the differential in favor of trade-union over non-trade-union plants in wood household furniture was 13.1 cents for the country as a whole. The differential was greatest for skilled workers, namely 14.9 cents, while the figures were 11.1 cents for semi skilled and 11.7 cents for unskilled employees. T able u n io n 1987 19 .— A verage hourly earnings o f workers in tra d e-u n ion and n o n -tra d eplants in wood h ousehold-furniture branch , b y region and sk ill , October Region and unionization United States Unskilled Total workers Skilled workers Semiskilled workers workers Num ber Average Average Average of Average plants Num hourly Num hourly Num hourly Num hourly ber earn ber earn ber earn ber earn ings ings ings ings Trade-union plants. _ _ _ Non-trade-union plants____ Total. ___________ 74 7,659 $0.583 2,913 $0. 686 3, 488 $0. 542 224 25, 640 .452 9, 485 .537 11, 252 .431 298 33,199 .480 12, 398 .569 14, 740 .456 1,158 4, 903 6,061 $0.451 .334 .355 Trade-union plants. _______ Non-trade-union plants____ Total___ _______ 67 6,896 164 16, 330 231 23, 226 .603 .507 .534 2,688 6, 425 9,113 .708 3,178 .588 7,117 .621 10, 295 .560 .485 .508 1,030 2,788 3, 818 .469 .374 .399 Trade-union plants _____ _ Non-trade-union plants Total_______________ 7 60 67 663 9, 310 9,973 .399 .354 .357 225 3, 060 3,285 .465 .429 .432 .381 .335 .339 128 2,115 2,243 .328 .278 .281 North South 310 4,135 4, 445 The absolute differential in favor of trade-union over non-tradeunion establishments for all workers was twice as large in the North as in the South, the respective figures being 9.6 and 4.5 cents. In the northern area, the differential was greatest for skilled workers, namely 12.0 cents, while the differentials of semiskilled and unskilled were respectively 7.5 and 9.5 cents. On the other hand, there was very little variation in the differential according to skill in the southern region, the figures being 3.6 cents for skilled, 4.6 cents for semiskilled, P l a t e 3.—A u t o m a t i c L a t h e O p e r a t o r . P l a t e 4.—C u t t i n g , M a t c h i n g , a n d T a p i n g V e n e e r . 49 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS and 5.0 cents for unskilled workers. It will be seen that, for each skill group, the differential in the North was considerably larger than in the South.3 The higher wage level in trade-union as compared with non-tradeunion establishments in the wood household-furniture branch as a whole also appears to be borne out by table 20, which presents the average hourly earnings of individual plants by unionization and region. According to this table there was not a single trade-union plant in the North averaging less than 40 cents an hour, which may be compared with 32 non-trade-union establishments found under that limit. On the other hand, as many as 30 trade-union plants had averages of 65 cents and over, as against only 12 non-trade-union establishments. Furthermore, while 13 trade-union plants averaged 80 cents and over, there was only 1 non-trade-union establishment in that classification. A similar situation existed in the South, although the number of trade-union plants in this area is too limited to draw any definite conclusions. T able 20 .— D istrib u tio n o f in dividual plant average h ou rly earnings in h o u sehold-furniture branch, by region and u n io n iza tio n , October 1 9 3 7 United States Average hourly earnings 15 and under 20 cents. _ _ 20 and under 25 cents _ 25 and under 30 cents. ____ 30 and under 35 cents ______ 35 and under 40 cents __ 40 and under 45 cents __ 45 and under 50 cents __ ... 50 and under 55 cents 55 and under 60 cents 60 and under 65 cents 65 and under 70 cents 70 and under 75 cents _ _ 75 and under 80 cents. 80 and under 85 cents 85 and under 90 cents __ _ _ 90 and under 95 cents . 95 cents and under $1___ . $1 and under $1-05. . ___ $1.05 and under $1.10 Total________________ Tradeunion plants 1 2 6 10 9 7 9 8 5 4 4 2 3 2 1 1 74 North Non tradeunion plants 1 1 6 32 44 33 36 28 18 13 3 5 3 1 224 South Non tradeunion plants Tradeunion plants 4 8 9 7 9 8 5 4 4 2 3 2 1 1 67 w ood Non tradeunion plants Tradeunion plants 8 24 27 34 28 18 13 3 5 3 1 164 1 2 2 2 1 1 6 24 20 6 2 7 60 3 It is now possible to measure the regional differential separately for trade-union and non-trade-union establishments. As regards trade-union plants, the difference in favor of the northern over the southern territory amounted to 20.4 cents for all workers. It was highest for skilled (24.3 cents), followed by semi skilled (17.9 cents), and lowest for unskilled (14.1 cents) employees. The differentials were much smaller for non-trade-union establishments, being 15.3 cents for all workers, 15.9 cents for skilled, 15.0 cents for semiskilled, and 9.6 cents for unskilled workers. 50 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING It should be noted, however, that there is considerable overlapping in the distributions of individual plant averages between trade-union and non-trade-union establishments. It is also noteworthy that the dispersion in the distribution of trade-union plants is greater than that in non-trade-union establishments. Differences Betw een Trade-U nion and N on-Trade-U nion Plants as Affected by Sise o f Com munity The preceding analysis dealt separately with variations in hourly earnings according to the organizational status of employees and size of community, but a closer scrutiny of the data indicates that the two factors are closely interrelated. This may be seen by an examina tion of the figures in the northern region, where the coverage is sufficiently large to permit an analysis of the data. Referring back to table 20, it will be remembered that all 32 estab lishments averaging less than 40 cents an hour were non-trade-union. It may be argued, however, that the lower averages are due to the fact that practically all of these plants were located in smaller com munities, 21 being found in localities of less than 10,000 and all but 5 in places of less than 25,000. It is also of interest that the 42 plants with average hourly earnings of 65 cents or more, whether trade-union or non-trade-union, were nearly all located in the largest centers. Thus, 24 of the 30 trade-union and all 12 non-trade-union establish ments with such hourly earnings were found in metropolitan areas of 1,000,000 or more. 4 On the other hand, it may be seen from table 21 that, with one exception, the trade-union plants in the North paid higher wages than the non-trade-union establishments in communities of corre sponding sizes. This is not only the case for the working force as a whole, but it is also true for each skill group. Moreover, the margin in favor of the trade-union plants was frequently of a decisive char acter. In fact, the difference amounted to more than 10 cents an hour in a number of cases. Taking the extreme example, in cities with a population of 250,000 and under 500,000 unskilled workers in unionized establishments averaged 57.3 cents, but those employed in non-trade-union plants averaged only 30.5 cents, a difference of 26.8 cents. As a rule, however, the spread was much narrower, frequently amounting to only a few cents. The single exception mentioned above 4 There is a marked concentration of trade-union plants in the largest cities. Of the 67 trade-union estab lishments included in the northern sample, almost one-half with considerably more than one-third (36.2 percent) of the employees were found in the metropolitan areas of more than 1,000,000 inhabitants. For the non-trade-union plants, on the other hand, somewhat less than one-fourth of the establishments (39 of 164) were located in these centers, the number of workers amounting to 23.3 percent. (See table 21.) 51 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS is found in places of 25,000 and less than 50,000, where both the skilled and semiskilled workers of non-trade-union establishments showed a small differential over those employed in unionized plants. But even in these communities the average of the unskilled workers was some what higher in the establishments with trade-union contracts. For the largest metropolitan areas, where the trade-union plants were rela tively numerous, the differential in favor of trade-union establish ments amounted to 9.7 cents for all employees, 13.0 cents for skilled, 3.2 cents for semiskilled, and 4.9 cents for unskilled. T able 21 .— A verag e h ou rly earnings o f workers in tra d e-u n ion and n on -tra d e-u n io n plants in wood h o usehold-furniture branch in the N orth , by size o f co m m u n ity and skill, October 1 9 8 7 Unionization and size of community Total workers Skilled workers Semiskilled workers 130 0 ) 541 $0.490 106 1,047 (9.519 721 .477 233 0 ) 615 .544 794 .637 211 .706 2, 498 .708 6,896 .603 34 ) 198 $0.0 554 49 0 ) 261 .567 283 .522 110 (9 189 .610 267 .704 106 .772 1,191 .843 2,688 .708 80 (9 262 $0.469 40 ) 557 0.526 338 .463 99 315 (9.543 373 .615 87 .662 1,027 .617 3,178 .560 16 81 17 229 100 24 111 154 18 280 1,030 207 541 507 933 510 737 882 187 417 1, 504 6,425 217 749 579 994 586 824 984 198 359 1,627 7,117 93 228 217 387 280 270 384 82 170 677 2,788 Unskilled workers Num ber Aver Aver Aver Aver of age Num age Num age Num age plants Num hourly hourly hourly hourly ber earn ber earn ber earn ber earn ings ings ings ings Trade-union Under 2,500______________ 2,500 and under 5,000 _____ 5,000 and under 10,000_____ 10,000 and under 25,000____ 25,000 and under 50,000... . 50.000 and under 100,000. 100.000 and under 250,000___ 250,000 and under 500,000__ 500,000 and under 1,000,000. _ 1,000,000 and over_________ Total. __ _ . . . 1 4 2 4 7 2 6 5 3 33 67 Under 2,500______________ 2,500 and under 5,000___ ... 5,000 and under 10,000____ 10,000 and under 25,000____ 25,000 and under 50,000__ 50,000 and under 100,000.. . 100,000 and under 250,000___ 250,000 and under 500,000___ 500,000 and under 1,000,000. . 1,000,000 and over_________ Total______________ 9 517 16 1,518 11 1,303 22 2, 314 13 1,376 13 1,831 18 2, 250 10 467 13 946 39 3,808 164 16,330 Non-trade-union .393 .430 .409 .452 .487 .545 .521 .480 .523 .611 .507 .463 .498 .467 .515 .552 .609 .599 .606 .652 .713 .588 .375 .410 .394 .430 .481 .533 .507 .430 .484 .585 .485 (9 $0.407 (9 .446 .400 (9 .432 .573 .498 .469 (9 .283 .334 .311 .347 .376 .409 .384 .305 .315 .449 .374 1No average computed for less than 3 plants or less than 50 employees. Despite a number of inconsistencies, there is direct correlation manifested between the size of community in which the plant is located and average hourly earnings in non-trade-union establishments. The lowest earnings for all employees (39.3 cents) were reported in the smallest places and the highest average (61.1 cents) in the large metropolitan centers of 1,000,000 and over. It is noteworthy, more over, that this order was maintained for each of the skill groups, 52 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE M ANUFACTURING although the margin in favor of the largest centers was greatest among the skilled. Between these extremes, however, the order is often in verted, with the confusion greatest in the unskilled group. These irregularities appear to be due, at least in part, to the thinness of the sample. A similar situation appears among the unionized establishments. For all employees the average was highest (70.8 cents) in the largest communities, becoming progressively lower, with one exception, as the size of the community decreased. It is noteworthy, however, that the earnings were lowest in places of 25,000 and under 50,000. Some interest also attaches to the fact that the largest metropolitan areas had the highest over-all average only because of the substantially higher earnings of the skilled employees. H ou rly Earnings and Sise o f Plant As in the furniture industry as a whole, the wood householdfurniture branch is not dominated by a few large plants, but it is made up mostly of a considerable number of relatively small and medium sized units. Of the 298 establishments covered here, over half reported not more than 100, and over a fourth employed not more than 50 wage earners. There were only 19 plants that had a labor force in excess of 500, with 6 having over 1,000. It should be noted that none of the establishments manufacturing kitchen furniture employed as many as 500 workers. Considering the wood household-furniture branch as a whole, there are no indications of any correlation between size of establishment and average hourly earnings, as shown in table 22. For example, not only did the plants with the lowest and highest hourly earnings belong to the same size group, namely the one with 21 to 50 workers, but the 65 establishments found in the latter had averages in virtually every 5-cent interval between 15 cents and $1.10. Of equal significance is the fact that none of the 6 largest plants having from 1,001 to 2,500 employees are found in the same earnings class, the averages of these establishments ranging from a figure between 35 and 40 cents to one between 75 and 80 cents. Moreover, of the 9 lowest-paid plants, whose hourly earnings were below 30 cents, 3 had from 21 to 50, 2 from 51 to 100, 1 from 101 to 250, 2 from 251 to 500, and 1 from 501 to 1,000 wage earners. Likewise, of the 14 highest-paid establish ments, with averages exceeding 80 cents, 1 employed between 6 and 20, 7 between 21 and 50, 3 between 51 and 100, 2 between 101 and 250, and 1 between 501 and 1,000 workers. Even when allowance is made for regional differences, there are still sharp variations in average hourly earnings among plants of the same size group. Of the 13 establishments employing more than 500 workers in the North, 1 averaged between 40 and 45 cents, 2 between AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS 53 45 and 50 cents, 2 between 50 and 55 cents, 1 between 60 and 65 cents, 3 between 65 and 70 cents, 2 between 70 and 75 cents, 1 between 75 and 80 cents, and 1 between 80 and 85 cents. Even greater variation in hourly earnings is to be found in the smaller plants. The range of earnings was much narrower in the South, but at least 1 of the estab lishments with less than 50 employees was found in every 5-cent interval from 15 to 50 cents. Likewise, of the plants employing over 500 workers, 1 averaged between 25 and 30 cents, 2 between 30 and 35 cents, 1 between 35 and 40 cents, 1 between 40 and 45 cents, and 1 between 45 and 50 cents. Neither does there seem to be any appreciable correlation between average hourly earnings and size of establishment if the figures for each region are analyzed on the product basis. T able 22 — . D istrib u tio n o f individual plants in wood household -furniture branch, by average hourly earnings and size o f plant, October 1 9 3 7 Size of plant in terms of number of workers Average hourly earnings 15 and under 20 cents- - ___ 20 and under 25 cents. __ ___ 25 and under 30 cents. _ ~ . 30 and under 35 cents. _ __ . 35 and under 40 cents______ 40 a n fi n nrlpr 45 pfvnts 45 and under 50 cents______ 50 and under 55 cents______ 55 and under 60 cents 60 and under 65 cents 65 and under 70 cents 70 and under 75 cents 75 and under 80 cents „ _ 80 and under 85 cents 85 and under 90 cents 90 and under 95 cents . 95 cents and under $1 $1 and under $1.05 ___ $1.05 and under $1.10 T o ta l.._____ _____ Total 21 to 50 6 to 20 1 1 7 32 46 39 46 37 25 22 1 1 2 4 2 1 11 10 7 4 3 3 2 1 1 1 298 12 51 to 100 1 1 1 4 5 8 9 8 8 6 1 4 2 1 3 2 1 65 251 to 500 101 to 250 2 7 13 7 13 13 5 7 1 3 2 1 1 11 18 17 12 10 9 6 4 1 1 1 501 to 1,000 2 7 8 3 5 2 2 2 2 1 1, 001 to 2,500 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 76 92 34 13 6 One reason for the lack of direct correlation betw een average hourly earnings and size of establishment is the fact that the majority of the unionized plants employed ffhver than 250 workers, which may be coupled with the fact that the establishments with trade-union con tracts showed, on the whole, the highest averages. In fact, of the 14 plants with the highest hourly earnings (80 cents and over), in the North, all but 1 employed less than 250 wage earners, and each of these, except 1, was unionized. Nevertheless, even if the trade-union and non-trade-union establishments are treated separately, neither shows any correlation between size of plant and average hourly earn ings, nor does this tendency exist even if the figures are analyzed on the basis of individual cities. 161633°— 39------5 Chapter V II.— W eekly Hours Data for Branch as a Whole The full-time hours of work in the 298 plants of the wood householdfurniture branch in October 1937 were fairly well scattered, ranging all the way from 35 to 59 per week. According to table 23, however, there were important concentrations at 40 and 45 hours, with minor concentrations at 44, 50, and 55 hours. It will be noted that by far the largest number of establishments (220) had a workweek of 45 hours and less.1 T able 23.— D istrib u tio n o f plants according to fu ll-tim e w eekly h ou seh old -fu rn itu re branch, by region, October 1 9 8 7 hours in wood Full-time weekly hours Region Over Over Over Total Un Ex Over 40 Ex 44 Ex 45 Ex 50 Ex der actly and actly and actly and actly and actly Over 40 40 under 44 under 45 under 50 under 55 55 44 45 50 55 United States __ _ ______ 298 North___ ________ _ 231 South___ _________ _ __ 67 9 9 101 90 11 2 2 30 24 6 8 7 1 70 41 29 19 13 6 36 30 6 6 4 2 16 10 6 1 1 The distribution of northern plants according to full-time hours per week was similar to that in the country as a whole. It should be pointed out that the 9 establishments with normal hours of less than 40 were all located in the North. The largest number of plants in any single class in the southern area was at 45 hours, while in the northern region this appeared at 40 hours. Moreover, a propor tionately greater number of establishments had full-time hours of over 45 in the South (20 out of 67) than in the North (58 out of 231). The actual weekly hours of all wage earners in wood household furniture for the country as a whole averaged 42.5 in October 1937. Looking at the distribution upon which this average is based in table 24, it will be seen that nearly one-half (48.8 percent) of the employees worked 40 and under 48 hours per week. The largest concentration was exactly 25.0 percent in the class of 44 and less than 48 hours. 1 This shows the influence of the code under the N. R. A., which established a 40-hour week to be averaged over a 6-month period, with the maximum of 45 hours in any 1 week. 54 55 W EEKLY HOURS The proportion working 40 and under 44 hours was somewhat less than this figure, and 18.0 percent had a workweek of exactly 40 hours. About the same percentage worked 32 and under 40 (13.9) as 48 and less than 52 hours (13.4). Slightly over one-tenth (10.4 percent) had a workweek of under 32 hours, these being employees who worked part time during the week covered. On the other hand, 13.5 percent had a workweek of 52 hours and over. Many of these were employed in plants with long full-time hours, but quite a number belonged to occupations that usually required a workweek in excess of the prevail ing normal hours in any establishment. The fact that weekly hours were higher in the southern than in the northern region is also confirmed by an examination of the data relating to actual hours worked. As regards average hours per week, the figures for all wage earners were respectively 43.1 and 42.3. Com paring the 2 distributions, the relative number of employees working 32 and under 48 hours was 65.4 percent in the North, as against 55.7 percent in the South. On the other hand, the number whose work week was 48 hours and over amounted to only 24.6 percent in the northern area, which may be compared with 32.7 percent in the southern territory. T able 24 .— D istrib u tio n o f workers according to actual w eekly hours in wood h ousehold-furniture branch, by region , October 1 9 3 7 United States Weekly hours Under 24_____ _ _ . ____ 24 and under 32_______ _ __ 32 and under 40___ __ _ ___ __ Exactly 40______ _ ___ Over 40 and under 44. __ _ _ 44 and under 48 ... _____ _ _ 48 and under 52.__ ... ___ 52 and under 56____ 56 and under 64. _ ________ 64 and over______________ _ Total.. _ ___ ___ __ __ North South Number of Simple Number of Simple Number of Simple workers percentage workers percentage workers percentage 1,364 2,104 4,617 5,961 1,924 8, 262 4, 457 2,897 1,103 510 33,199 4.1 6.3 13.9 18.0 5.8 25.0 13.4 8.7 3.3 1.5 100.0 927 1,388 3, 450 4, 520 1, 311 5, 927 2,924 1,711 730 338 23, 226 4.0 6.0 14.9 19.4 5.6 25.5 12.6 7.4 3.1 1.5 100.0 437 716 1,167 1, 441 613 2,335 1,533 1,186 373 172 9,973 4.4 7.2 11.7 14.4 6.1 23.5 15.4 11.9 3.7 1.7 1C0.0 It should also be pointed out that there was very little difference in the actual hours worked among the various skill groups. According to table 25, the averages for the country as a whole were 42.8 for skilled, 42.2 for semiskilled, and 42.7 hours for unskilled workers. There was just as little variation among the skill groups in the northern territory, but in the southern region skilled workers averaged somewhat more than either semiskilled or unskilled. 56 T able WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING 25 .— A verage actual w eekly hours in w ood h ou seh old -fu rn itu re branch, by product, region, and skill, October 1 9 8 7 Product and region All products Total workers Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers North___________________________ _______ South____________________________________ Total________________________________ 42.3 43.1 42.5 42.3 44.0 42.8 42.1 42.7 42.2 42.9 42.5 42.7 North__ _____________________________ South_________________________ _ _ __ Total________________________________ 42.6 42.9 42.8 43.2 44.4 43.6 42.5 42.6 42.5 41.8 41.7 41.7 North_____ _____________________________ South_____________________________________ Total________________________________ 39.6 42.6 40.3 39.2 42.6 39.9 39.4 42.3 40.2 41.6 43.6 42.3 North______________________ ____________ South.. . . . _ ________________ __ ... . Total________________________________ 43.8 47.7 44.1 44.7 47.1 44.9 43.0 47.4 43.3 44.3 49.0 44.7 North________ ._ _______ _____________ _ South------- ------------------------------------------ . Total________________________________ 45.1 41.7 44.4 45.6 43.9 45.4 44.5 40.4 43.6 45.7 42.3 44.9 Case goods Upholstered furniture Novelty furniture Kitchen furniture W eekly Hours by Product The weekly hours also differed by product. For the country as a whole, the average actual hours worked per week for all workers were lowest in upholstered furniture, namely 40.3, which is followed by 42.8 hours for case goods, 44.1 for novelties, and 44.4 for kitchen furniture. However, as pointed out previously, the coverage by region differed from one product to another. Hence, it is essential to analyze the actual hours worked separately for each product on a regional basis. In case goods, the average actual hours worked per week for all employees were practically the same in both regions, the figures being 42.6 in the North and 42.9 in the South. On the other hand, there are striking differences between the 2 distributions, as shown by table 26. The number of wage earners working 32 and under 48 hours was 70.6 in the northern area, as against 56.7 percent in the southern territory. By contrast, the number who worked 48 hours and over was 21.8 percent in the North, which may be compared with 31.5 in the South. The relative number working part time during the week, under 32 hours, was also larger in the southern than in the northern region, the respective percentages being 11.8 and 7.6. The average actual hours worked for all employees in upholstered furniture were 39.6 in the northern and 42.6 in the southern area, a difference of exactly 3 hours. This is also brought out by a comparison of the 2 distributions. (See table 26.) The relative number of wage W EEKLY HOURS 57 earners working less than 44 hours was 66.0 percent in the North, as against 36.7 percent in the South. Conversely, while only 34.0 percent worked 44 hours and over in the northern region, 63.3 percent were found in that classification in the southern territory. The average actual hours per week for all wage earners in novelty furniture amounted to 43.8 in the northern and 47.7 in the southern territory, which is a difference of nearly 4 hours. T a b l e 26 .— D istrib u tio n o f workers according to actual w eek ly hours in case goods and upholstered fu rn itu re , by region, October 1 9 3 7 United States Weekly hours Number of workers Simple per centage North Number of workers South Simple per centage Number of workers Simple per centage Case goods Under 24__ _____ _ ___ 24 and under 32_____________ 32 and under 40_____________ Exactly 4 0 _____ _ _ ___ Over 40 and under 4 4 ______ 44 and under 48. _ _____ __ 48 and under 52_ _____ ___ 52 and under 56_ _ ______ 56 and under 64 ___________ 64 and over_______ ___ ___ Total_______ _____ 528 998 1,885 3,384 945 4,226 2,041 1,337 594 237 16,175 3.3 6.2 11.7 20.9 5.8 26.0 12.6 8.3 3.7 1.5 100.0 243 465 1,087 2, 234 496 2, 690 1,020 534 362 106 9,237 2.6 5.0 11.8 24.2 5.4 29.2 11.0 5.8 3.9 1.1 100.0 285 533 798 1,150 449 1, 536 1,021 803 232 131 6,938 4.1 7.7 11.5 16.6 6.5 22.1 14.7 11.6 3.3 1.9 100.0 Under 24___ _____________ 24 and under 32_____________ 32 and under 40_ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ Exactly 40_________ Over 40 and under 44_______ 44 and under 4 8 _____ __ _ 48 and under 52 __ _ _ 52 and under 56__ _ __ ___ 56 and under 64_ _ 64 and over _ __ Total______ _______ 529 771 1, 569 1,447 561 1, 660 1,046 458 198 94 8,333 6.3 9.3 18.9 17.4 6.7 19.8 12.6 5.5 2.4 1.1 100.0 412 653 1,318 1, 280 438 940 680 282 137 78 6,218 6.6 10.5 21.3 20.6 7.0 15.1 10.9 4.5 2.2 1.3 100.0 117 118 251 167 123 720 366 176 61 16 2,115 5.5 5.6 11.9 7.9 5.8 34.0 17.3 8.3 2.9 .8 100.0 Upholstered furniture As may be seen from the distribution presented in table 27, 64.3 percent of the employees in the North worked 32 and under 48 hours and 28.6 percent 48 hours and over. The number who worked less than 32 hours was 7.1 percent of the total. It is interesting to note that in kitchen furniture alone the average of actual hours worked per week for all wage earners was considerably greater in the northern as against the southern area, the figures being respectively 45.1 and 41.7, which is probably due to the thinness of the coverage in the South. Comparing the averages of actual hours worked per week for all employees in each region, it will be seen that, if kitchen furniture is excluded, the lowest figure is shown for upholstered furniture, followed by case goods, and the highest for novelty furniture. As regards 58 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE M ANUFACTURING kitchen furniture, it has the highest average in the northern but the lowest in the southern territory. Occupational averages for the group as a whole as well as for each product are presented in tables 43 to 47 inclusive. T a b l e 2 1 ,— D istrib u tio n o f w orkers according to actual w eek ly hours in and kitchen fu rn itu re , October 1 9 8 7 North United States Weekly hours Novelty furniture Number of workers novelty Simple per centage Number of workers Simple per centage Under 24 __ ______ ___ _____ ______ ___ ___ 24 and under 32_______ __________ _ _ ____ _____ 32 and under 40________ _________ _________________ Exactly 40 _____ ___ _____ _ -- - __ Over 40 and under 4 4 ___ _ _______ __ _______ 44 and under 48___ ______________ __ __ _____ 48 and under 52 __ _____ __ _ _ __ 52 and under 56 _ __ ______ _ ________ __ __ 56 and under 64________ ___ _ _____________ _ 64 and over______________________ ______ ________ Total____ ______________ _ ______ ____ ____ _ 228 263 909 932 330 1,950 850 832 262 160 6, 716 3.4 3.9 13.5 13.9 4.9 29. 0 12. 7 12.4 3.9 2.4 100.0 210 231 884 880 305 1,922 748 668 205 146 6,199 3.4 3.7 14.3 14.2 4.9 30.9 12.1 10.8 3.3 2.4 100.0 Under 24__ _ _________ - _____ _ _________ _ 24 and under 32________ ____________ __ _ _____ 32 and under 40__ _______ ___ ___ __ __ __ __ Exactly 40 ____ ______ ______ ___ Over 40 and under 44__ ________ _ _ _____________ 44 and under 4 8 ____ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _____ _ _ 48 and under 5 2 ______ __ _ _____ _ _ _ _ 52 and under 5 6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ 56 and under 64__ __ __ __ __ _____ ___ 64 and over_________ __ __ _ ________________ __ _ Total __ __ ____________________________ 79 72 254 198 88 426 520 270 49 19 1,975 4.0 3.6 12.9 10.0 4.5 21.6 26.2 13. 7 2.5 1.0 100.0 62 39 161 126 72 375 476 227 26 8 1,572 3.9 2.5 10.2 8.0 4.6 23.9 30.3 14.4 1.7 .5 100.0 Kitchen furnitur Differences Betw een Trade^Union and Non^Trade^Union Plants The weekly hours were lower in trade-union than in non-trade-union plants. This is shown by an analysis of the data relating to full-time hours as well as actual average hours worked per week. As mentioned previously, any comparisons on a product basis must be confined to the northern area, but it is possible to present figures for both terri tories for all products combined. In the northern region, the average actual weekly hours were lower in trade-union than in non-trade-union establishments for each of the 4 products, the differentials being 1.3 hours in case goods, 3.5 hours in upholstered furniture, 4.8 hours in novelties, and 7.0 in kitchen furni ture. (See table 28.) It should also be noted that for each kind of plant the lowest average was reported in upholstered furniture. In trade-union establishments, novelty and kitchen furniture came next, with case goods showing the highest average. In non-trade-union plants, on the other hand, the order following upholstered furniture was case goods, novelties, and kitchen furniture. 59 W EEKLY HOURS 2 8 . — A verage actual w eek ly hours o f workers in tra d e-u n ion and n on -tra d eu n io n plants o f wood hou seh old-fu rn itu re branch in the N orth , by product, October 1937 T able Trade-union Non-tradeplants union plants Product Case goods . _ _____ ____________ ______ _______________ ___ ____ Upholstered furniture-_____ _ _ _______ ___ _ ____ _ _ _ _ _ __ Novelty furniture__ ____ ________ _______ __ _ _ _ _ _ Kitchen furniture___ ________ ____ ___ _____ __ _____ _____ _ 41.7 37.1 40.4 40.5 43.0 40.6 45.2 47.5 For all products in the North, the average actual hours per week amounted to 40.1 in trade-union and 43.2 in non-trade-union estab lishments, which makes for a differential of 3.1 hours. The fact that the weekly hours were shorter in trade-union than non-trade-union plants is confirmed by table 29, which shows the distribution of full time weekly hours. In trade-union establishments, the 40-hour week predominated, with 39 out of the 67 plants observing these hours. In fact, 47 trade-union establishments had normal hours of 40 or less. Of the remaining 20 plants, 14 reported full-time hours of exactly 45, with none of the establishments exceeding 50 hours. In the non-trad e-union plants, however, the normal hours ranged all the way from under 40 to over 55, with concentrations at exactly 40, 44, 45, 50, and 55. In the southern territory, the average actual weekly hours were 46.3 in trade-union and 42.8 in non-trade-union establishments, which is entirely contrary to the experience in the North. This is probably due to the small number of trade-union plants found in the southern area. T able 2 9 . — D istrib u tio n o f plants according to fu ll-tim e w eek ly hours, in wood h ou seh old -fu rn itu re branch, by region and u n ion iza tion , October 1 9 3 7 North United States Weekly hours Tradeunion Under 40____ ___ ______ Exactly 40_________________ Over 40 and under 4 4 ______ Exactly 44 _ ________ ______ Over 44 and under 45_____ _ Exactly 45____ _ __ ___ __ Over 45 and under 50______ Exactly 50_______ _____ Over 50 and under 55 _ _ _ Exactly 55. _____ Over 55 _ _ __ Total________________ Non-tradeunion 8 40 1 16 5 4 74 1 61 2 30 7 54 14 32 6 16 1 224 Tradeunion South Non-tradeunion 8 39 1 14 2 3 67 1 51 2 24 6 27 11 27 4 10 1 164 Tradeunion Non-tradeunion 1 2 3 1 7 10 6 1 27 3 5 2 6 60 W eekly Hours by Siz;e o f Com m unity There is almost no relationship between average actual weekly hours and size of community in wood household furniture, as may be seen in table 30. In the North, the lowest average (37.9 hours) appears 60 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING in communities with a population of 50,000 and under 100,000, the next lowest (40.6 hours) being found in metropolitan areas with 1,000,000 and over. The highest average (47.2 hours) is shown for places with 5,000 and under 10,000, but the communities with less than 5,000 averaged under that figure. The same lack of relationship is found in the southern territory, except that the smallest com munities, namely under 2,500, had the longest weekly hours (51.1). T able 30.— Average actual weekly hours o f workers in wood household-furniture branch, by size o f com m unity and region, October 1937 United States Size of community North South Under 2,500_____________________________________________________________ 2,500 arid under 5,000 _____ . . . _____ __ . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ ________ __ 5,000 and under 10,000 ___ . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ __ ___ 10,000 and under 25,000________________________________________________ _____ 25,000 and under 50,000___ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ __ _________ 45.5 43.5 43.8 42.9 43.2 43.6 44.7 47.2 43.1 42.7 51.1 40.1 42.4 42.7 45.8 50,000 and under 100,000._ ___ ____ __ _____ ______ ____ 100,000 and under 250,000. _ _ _ _ __ _____ __ ________ 250,000 and under 500,000 _ ______ _ __ _ _ _ _ ______ _ __ 500,000 and under 1,000,000 __ _ _ ______ __ ________ _ 1,000,000 and over. _ ______ _______ __ _ _ _ _ ___ ________ ______ 40.7 43.3 41.9 44.8 40.6 37.9 42.9 41. 7 44.8 40.6 44.0 44.7 42.4 42.5 42.3 43.1 Total__ ____ _________ __ __ __ __ ______ ______ _ __ __ It will also be seen that the average actual hours per week in the North were not always greater than in the South. In communities for which a comparison is possible, the northern averages were greater in all except those between 2,500 and 25,000. There is some tendency for the average actual weekly hours to vary inversely with the size of community in trade-union plants, as shown in table 31, but no such relationship is evident in the data for non trade-union establishments. It should also be noted that, in all except the smallest (under 2,500) communities and centers of 50,000 and under 100,000, the average actual hours per week were greater in non-trade-union than in trade-union plants. 31.— Average actual w eekly hours o f workers in trade-union and non-tradeunion plants in wood household-furniture branch in the North, by size o f com m unity, October 1987 T able Size of community Trade-union ts Non-tradeunion plants Under 2,500________________ 2,500 and under 5,000______ 5.000 and under 10,000_____ 10.000 and under 25,000___ 25.000 and under 50,000___ 44.0 43.2 41.1 40.8 40.1 43.5 45.2 47.7 44.1 44.0 50.000 and under 100,000-100.000 and under 250,000-. 250.000 and under 500,000.. 500.000 and under 1,000,000 1 ,000,000 and over_________ 38.2 41.3 39.0 38.1 39.2 37.8 43.4 46.2 46.3 41.5 40.1 43.2 Total. Chapter V III.— W eekly Earnings Data for Branch as a W hole Taking the wood household-furniture branch as a whole, the average weekly earnings of all wage earners amounted to $20.42 in October 1937. However, this figure conceals wide differences, as may be seen in table 32. A fairly large proportion of the workers (27.0 percent) received less than $15, but it must be remembered that many of these were on a part-time basis during the week covered. Less than onehalf of the total (47.3 percent) were paid $15 and under $25, which indicates that the weekly earnings of the majority were not relatively high. Another fifth (20.6 percent) received $25 and less than $35. On the other hand, the representation in the upper brackets was extremely meager, with only 5.1 percent earning as much as $35 and over and 1.5 percent being paid $45 and over. T able 32.— D istribution o f workers according to actual weekly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by skill, October 1937 Total workers Skilled workers Unskilled workers Semiskilled workers Weekly earnings Num ber 8,642 7,130 4, 370 2,460 766 428 216 161 83 13.2 7.4 2.3 1.3 .7 .5 .3 2, 302 1, 615 559 357 186 135 77 18.6 13.0 4.5 2.9 1.5 33,199 100.0 12, 398 100.0 $25 and $30 and $35 and $40 and $45 and $50 and $60 and Total--- $ 3 0 -_ _ ________ $35____________ $40-____ _ $45____________ $50____________ $60 -_ ______ __ Per centage 91 357 1,219 2,617 2,883 6, 200 1.5 N um ber 18.7 25.9 21.4 498 2, 245 Under $5________ _ _ _______ __ $5 and under $10_____________ $10 and under $15_____ __ _ _ $15 and under $20_____ ______ $20 and under $25-. ________ under under under under under under over Per centage 6.8 0.7 2.9 9.8 21.1 23.3 1.1 .6 N um ber 198 1,050 2, 976 4,168 3, 388 1, 838 798 198 67 27 26 6 14,740 Per centage 1.3 7.1 20.2 28.3 23.0 12.5 5.4 1.3 .5 .2 .2 Num ber Per centage 209 838 2,005 1,857 859 3.4 13.8 33.2 30.6 14.2 230 47 9 4 3 3.8 .8 .1 .1 0) (0 100.0 6,061 100.0 i Less than Mo of 1 percent. As in the case of hourly earnings, the weekly earnings differed con siderably among the three skill groups. The averages amounted to $24.35 for skilled, $19.27 for semiskilled, and $15.19 for unskilled em ployees. (See table 33.) Hence, there was a differential of $5.08 between the skilled and semiskilled, and of $4.08 between the semi skilled and unskilled. These differentials reflect almost entirely the respective ones in hourly earnings, due to the fact that there was very little variation in the average actual weekly hours among the three groups. 61 62 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE M ANUFACTURING Comparing the three distributions according to skill, it will be seen that the relative number paid under $15, which is just below the average of the unskilled workers, was 50.4 percent for the unskilled and 28.6 percent for the. semiskilled, as against only 13.4 percent for the skilled. If $20 is taken as the upper limit, which is just above the semiskilled average, the percentages were 81.0 percent for the un skilled, 56.9 percent for the semiskilled, and 34.5 percent for the skilled workers. However, the number earning $25 (or just above the average of the skilled) and over amounted to as much as 42.2 percent for the skilled, which may be compared with 20.1 percent for the semiskilled and only 4.8 percent for the unskilled wage earners. T able 33.— Average actual weekly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by product, skill, and region, October 1937 Total workers Product and region Skilled workers Semi skilled workers U n skilled workers A l l products $22.58 15.39 $26.27 19.01 $21.35 14.46 $17.09 11.95 ___________ 20.42 24.35 19.27 15.19 North___ _______ _ ___ __________ _________ ____ __ South __ ___ ____________ __________ ___ _ __ __ 21.87 14.90 24.95 18. 57 21.02 16. 79 14.03 11.66 18.88 22.57 17.96 14.16 24.80 __ 16.96 29.10 20.34 21.91 15.69 16.37 12. 51 __ 22.81 27.18 20.30 14.97 North- __ ________ ____ _____ _ _______________ __ _ _ _______ _______ _____ _____ ______ ____ South __ __ 22.03 15. 92 25.24 18.47 21.73 15.45 17.94 13.34 21.56 24. 70 21.29 17. 53 ________ __ __________ __ _________ __________ __ ___ _ 20.17 15.07 22.90 18.16 19.66 14. 76 16. 76 12. 69 ___________________________ _____ __ 19.13 22.14 18.61 15. 75 North South _ _ _ ___________ _____ __________ _ _ __ ____ __ _ _ _ _ __ _________ ___ __ T o t a l _____ __________ ___________ Case goods Total_________ __ _________ ________ ________ __ _ Upholstered furniture North_____________________________________________________ _______ - ________ ________ South _ _ _ _ __ T otal____ _ _________ _____ __ ___________ Novelty furniture T otal_______________________________________________ Kitchen furniture N orth.. __ _ ___ __ South____ ___ ________ Total_____ __ Weekly earnings were substantially higher in the North than in the South. Compared with an average of $22.58 for all employees in the northern plants, the average for the southern wage earners was $15.39, a difference of $7.19. This difference also reflects largely the one in hourly earnings, since the average actual weekly hours in the southern region were only slightly higher than in the northern area. According to table 34, more than four-fifths (81.6 percent) of the total earned less than $20 a week in the southern as compared with two-fifths (40.8 percent) in the northern territory. Wholly different intervals of principal concentration are responsible for these marked variations. 63 W EEKLY EARNINGS In the South, the modal concentration, accounting for 36.0 percent, occurs in the class of $10 and under $15. In the North, however, the largest proportion (25.8 percent) is found in the class of $20 and less than $25. Conspicuous differences also appear at the upper end of the distributions. The number earning $20 and under $30 amounted to 42.9 percent in the northern but only 15.4 percent in the southern region. Lastly, as many as 16.3 percent were paid $30 and over in the North, but only 3.0 percent were found in that classification in the South. Differences by Product Weekly earnings were highest in upholstered furniture, the over-all average for this division amounting to $22.81. Next in rank were the plants manufacturing novelty lines, whose average was $21.56. Earnings in the other divisions were appreciably lower, averaging $19.13 in kitchen furniture and $18.88 in case goods. In the case of hourly earnings, it will be remembered that the dif ferences among the four products were to a considerable degree due to the varying distribution of the labor force as to skill and region. The same thing applies in connection with the differences in earnings per week. In addition, however, the weekly earnings are also affected by the differences in weekly hours among the several products. T able 34.— D istribution o f workers according to actual weekly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937 North Skilled workers Total workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers W eekly earnings Number Simple per centage 1.0 Number Simple per centage Number Simple per centage 44 153 481 1, 571 2, 238 0.5 1.7 5.3 17.2 24.6 96 390 1,231 2, 780 2,951 12.0 Under $5 ____ $5 and under $10____ $10 and under $15___ $15 and under $20___ $20 and under $25___ 2, 622 5, 784 5, 999 3.6 11.3 24.9 25.8 $25 and $30 and $35 and $40 and $45 and $30___ $35___ $40___ $45___ $50___ 3,966 2,248 703 405 203 17.1 9.7 3.0 1.7 .9 1,983 1,425 501 334 176 21.8 $50 and under $60___ $60 and over _ 158 81 .7 .3 23, 226 100.0 under under under under under Total 223 834 0.9 3.8 Number Simple per centage 2.2 27.0 28.6 83 291 910 1, 433 810 15.6 5.5 3.7 1.9 1, 753 777 193 67 25 17.0 7.5 1.9 .7 230 46 9 4 .2 2 6.0 1.2 .2 .1 .1 132 75 1.4 26 .3 .8 6 .1 9,113 100.0 10, 295 100.0 3,818 100.0 7.6 23.8 37.6 21.2 64 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING 34. D istribution o f workers according to actual weekly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937— Continued T able South Total workers Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers W eekly earnings Number Simple per centage 2.8 275 1,411 3, 578 2,858 1,131 14.1 36.0 28.7 11.3 $30___ $35___ $40___ $45___ $50___ 404 4.1 212 2.1 .6 .2 .1 $50 and under $60__. $60 and o v e r ,.. _ ___ 3 Total____________ 9,973 Under $5____________ $5 and under $10____ $10 and under $15___ $15 and under $20___ $20 and under $25___ $25 and $30 and $35 and $40 and $45 and under under under under under 63 24 12 2 0) C1) 100.0 Number 47 204 738 1,046 645 319 190 58 23 10 Simple per centage 1.4 6.2 22.5 31.8 19.6 102 660 1,745 1, 388 437 9.7 5.8 85 1.8 5 .7 .3 2 .1 .1 3,285 100.0 3 Number Simple per centage Number 2.3 14.8 39.4 31.2 9.8 126 547 1,095 424 49 1.9 .5 1 0) 1 0) 21 2 4, 445 .1 0) 100.0 2,243 Simple per centage 5.6 24.4 48.9 18.9 2.2 100.0 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. It will also be recalled that for each product the average earnings per hour were substantially greater in the North than in the South. Due to the fact that the average actual weekly hours were longer in the southern than in the northern area in case goods, upholstered fur niture, and novelties, the regional differentials in average earnings per week were relatively narrower than in average hourly earnings in each instance. These differentials amounted to $6.97 for case goods, $7.84 for upholstered furniture, and $6.11 for novelty furniture. In kitchen furniture the differential was $5.10, or relatively higher than in average hourly earnings, because of the fact that the average actual hours per week were longer in the North than in the South. The same contrast between the northern and southern regions is brought out by the distributions for case goods and upholstered fur niture, which appear in tables 35 and 36, respectively. Taking the number of employees earning under $20 a week, there were in this category in case goods 42.3 percent in the North as against 84.7 per cent in the South. The respective percentages for upholstered furni ture were 35.7 and 72.3. Tables 37 and 38, which relate to novelty and kitchen furniture, respectively, do not include distributions for the southern workers. T able 35.— Percentage distribution of workers according to actual weekly earnings in case goods of wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937 United States Weekly earnings Total workers 1.7 8.9 22.6 27.2 19.2 11.9 5.5 1.5 .8 .4 .2 .1 100.0 Total______________ Semi skilled workers 0.7 3.5 12.4 24.8 23.5 17. 6 10.8 1.3 9.3 24.6 29.5 19.7 4.1 17.9 37.0 27.2 11.0 3.2 .4 10.1 3. 5 .8 .2 .1 3. 2 1.9 .9 .5 (l) .2 0) 100.0 U n skilled workers 100. 0 .1 Total workers 0.9 3.6 0.5 11.2 5.0 19.7 26.9 23. 2 14. 2 4.0 2.5 26.6 26.7 18. 4 8.3 2. 2 1.1 .6 (i) 0) ioo. 6 Skilled workers Semi skilled workers 1.8 .3 .1 1.2 .8 .2 100. 0 100.0 U n skilled workers 0.7 3.4 2.0 8.8 11.6 25.1 37.1 19.4 6. 6 28.9 29.2 18. 4 5.9 1.3 .3 .8 .1 .2 .1 .1 100.0 ioo. o Total workers 2. 7 15.9 37.8 28.3 9.3 3.2 1.9 Semi skilled workers U n skilled workers 1.0 2.1 6.1 6.4 24.9 33.5 18.0 16.9 41.4 30.1 7.3 1.5 .5 26.6 48.1 17.8 1.3 8.1 5.2 .6 .2 .1 1. 7 100.0 1C0.0 (!) 0) (l) Skilled workers .7 .3 .1 .1 .2 .1 0) 100.0 100.0 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. T able 36.-— Percentage distribution o f workers according to actual weekly earnings in upholstered fu rn itu re o f wood household-furniture branch by region and skill, October 1937 W eekly earnings Total workers Under $5_______________ $5 and under $10________ $10 and under $15_____ __ $15 and under $20_______ $20 and under $ 2 5 ______ $25 and under $30_______ $30 and under $35___ ___ $35 and under $ 4 0 ______ $40 and under $45______ $45 and under $ 5 0 _____ $50 and under $66___ ____ $60 and over _______ T otal_____________ 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. 1.4 5.2 16.8 21.7 18.9 14.7 10. 7 4.2 2.7 1. 5 1.4 .8 100.0 United States Semi Skilled skilled workers workers 0.9 2.2 8.2 16.8 17.8 18.8 16.2 7.3 4.9 2.9 2.4 1. 6 100.0 1.2 5.8 20.1 26.2 21.5 13. 6 7.4 2.1 1.0 .4 .6 .1 100.0 South North U n skilled workers 3.6 13.8 37.3 25.1 15.0 4.0 .9 .2 .1 100.0 Total workers 0.9 3.8 11.9 19.1 20.1 17.3 13.1 5.4 3.5 2.0 1.8 1.1 100.0 Skilled workers 0.4 1.4 6.0 13.6 16.7 19.9 18.3 8.8 6.1 3.6 3.1 2.1 100.0 Semi skilled workers U n skilled workers 0.7 4.8 15.0 23.1 23.7 17.1 9.9 2.8 1.3 .6 .8 3.6 11.1 26.3 29.3 21.6 6.3 1.4 .3 100.0 100.0 .1 .2 Total workers Skilled workers Semi skilled workers 2.9 9.1 31.2 29.1 15.7 7.2 3.5 .8 .3 .2 (H 2.7 5.3 16.0 28.1 21.9 14.4 8.4 1.9 .8 .4 .1 100.0 100.0 100.0 .1 2.6 8.5 34.4 35.4 15.2 3.5 .3 U n skilled workers 3.8 18.6 56.5 17.6 3.5 100.0 W EEKLY EARNINGS Under $5_____ __________ $5 and under $10_________ $10 and under $15___ __ $15 and under $20___ __ $20 and under $ 2 5 _ _____ $25 and under $30 _ _ $30 and under $35___ __ $35 and under $ 4 0 _______ $40 and under $45________ $45 and under $50 __ _ $50 and under $60________ $60 and over _ _ _ _ Skilled workers South North 66 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING T able 37.— Percentage distribution o f workers according to actual w eekly earnings in novelty fu rn itu re o f wood household-furniture branch, by skill, October 1937 North United States Weekly earnings Under $5____________ $5 and under $10___ $10 and under $15___ $15 and under $20___ $20 and under $25___ $25 and $30 and $35 and $40 and $45 and under $30___ under $35._ _ under $40___ under $45___ under $50,__ $50 and under $60__ $60 and over T o t a l . . ______ Total workers Skilled workers 1.0 0.6 2.0 4.0 11.2 27.4 29.3 14.5 8.7 2.2 1.1 .4 .2 0) 100.0 5.3 17.4 31.3 21.4 14.1 4.0 2.4 .9 Semiworkers 1.0 3.9 10.7 28.0 31.4 100.0 Total workers Skilled workers 1.6 1.0 7.1 3.2 9.6 27.1 30.3 0.5 1.5 4.0 16.5 31.6 15.4 9.3 2.3 22.4 15.1 4.2 1.2 2.6 1.0 21.0 40.9 22.1 14.3 4.8 8.1 1.8 .6 .1 1.8 .4 .2 .1 .4 .1 .5 .1 Unskilled workers .2 0) 0) 100.0 100.0 100.0 Semi Unskilled skilled workers workers 1.0 1.6 3.4 8.9 27.5 32.3 5.4 19.5 42.0 23.6 15.3 5.3 1.9 .4 8.8 1.9 .7 .2 .1 .1 .1 .5 .1 C1) 100.0 100.0 100.0 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. T able 38.— Percentage distribution of workers according to actual weekly earnings in kitchen fu rn itu re o f wood household-furniture branch, by skill, October 1937 United States Weekly earnings North Total workers Skilled workers Semi skilled workers Under $5____________ $5 and under $10___ $10 and under $15___ $15 and under $20___ $20 and under $25. __ 2.4 5.3 19.8 29.0 24.1 0.3 3.7 11.3 25.0 28.4 3.0 6.5 19.8 28.1 24.8 $25 and $30 and $35 and $40 and $45 and $30___ $35_.. $40___ $45__$50-__ 12.7 4.7 17.4 13.3 3.1 1.3 .4 .3 10.1 1.6 1.0 .8 $50 and under $60-__ $60 and o v e r ____ - .1 .1 .2 .2 Total_________ 100.0 100.0 under under under under under 1.1 Unskilled workers Total workers Skilled workers 4.1 5.1 33.2 37.2 16.3 1.7 3.7 16. 2 28.9 26.3 0.4 3.3 4.1 15.3 5.7 1.3 .4 .3 19.5 11.7 1.7 .1 .1 .2 .2 100.0 100.0 .1 100.0 100.0 8.0 23.9 29.2 1.1 .8 Semi Unskilled skilled workers workers 2.4 4.3 16.3 28.2 27.0 2.3 2.9 29.9 39.6 19.8 16.3 3.8 5.5 1.6 .1 100.0 100.0 Differences Betw een Trade-U nion and N on-Trade-U nion Plants It has been pointed out previously that in the northern region the average hourly earnings were higher and average actual weekly hours shorter in trade-union than in non-trade-union establishments. As a result, the differentials in favor of the former establishments against the latter were relatively less pronounced in average weekly earnings. The differentials in favor of trade-union plants in the North amounted to $2.58 in case goods, $2.72 in kitchen furniture, $3.59 in upholstered furniture, and only 37 cents in novelty furniture. (See table 39.) Skilled employees in novelty furniture were the only group that earned on the average less (11 cents) in trade-union than in non-trade-union establishments, while the semiskilled workers averaged only 19 cents more in the former as compared with the latter. In all other skill groups for each product, however, the dif- 67 W E EK LY EARNINGS ferentials were very substantial, varying from $1.07 for skilled em ployees in kitchen furniture to $3.58 for unskilled employees in case goods. The differentials were particularly conspicuous for the un skilled workers in each product. It is interesting to compare in the northern territory the average weekly earnings among the four product groups by trade-union and non-trade-union plants. For all establishments combined, it will be remembered, the highest average was in upholstered furniture, which was followed by novelties, case goods, and kitchen furniture. The same order prevailed in non-trade-union plants, but in trade-union establishments the order was upholstered furniture, case goods, novelties, and kitchen furniture. T 39.— Average actual weekly earnings of workers in trade-union and now-tradeunion plants o f wood household-furniture branch in the North, by product and skill, October 1937 a b l e Total workers Product and unionization Skilled workers Semi skilled workers U n skilled workers Case goods Trade-union plants _ __ _ _______________ ____ _____ Non-trade-union plants __ __ __________________ $23. 68 2 1 .1 0 $26. 65 24. 32 $ 2 3 .0 5 2 0 .0 5 $ 1 9 .2 7 1 5 .6 9 T o ta l._________________________________________ 21. 87 2 4 .9 5 2 1 .0 2 1 6 .7 9 27. 34 23. 75 3 1 .2 5 2 7 .9 9 22. 77 2 1 .5 9 1 9 .0 1 1 5 .8 6 24. CO 2 9 .1 0 2 1 .9 1 16. 37 __________ ___ ______ 22. 29 2 1 .9 2 2 5 .1 6 25. 27 2 1 .8 6 2 1 .6 7 1 9 .4 1 17. 39 ___ _________ 22. 03 2 5 .2 4 2 1 .7 3 1 7 .9 4 2 1 .9 7 19. 25 2 3 .5 8 2 2 .5 1 2 1 .9 3 18. 51 1 8 .9 0 1 5 .7 9 2 0 .1 7 2 2 .9 0 1 9 .6 6 1 6 .7 6 Upholstered furniture Trade-union plants - __ Non-trade-union p la n ts ___ __________________ ____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Total___________________ _____ __ __________ _ Novelty furniture Trade-union plants _____ __________ Non-trade-union plants. _______ __ T o t a l - __ ___ __ __ Kitchen furniture Trade-union plants Non-trade-union plants Total____ __ _ _ ______ ____ ____ ____ ________ ___ ___ __________ _____ __ According to table 40, the differential in favor of trade-union as against non-trade-union plants for both regions in wood household furniture was $4.18. By skill groups, the differential amounted to $4.01 for skilled, $3.72 for semiskilled, and $4.50 for unskilled workers. The absolute differentials were somewhat higher in the South than in the North. In the southern area, the differentials amounted to $3.32 for all workers, $2.56 for skilled, $3.42 for semiskilled, and $3.69 for unskilled. On the other hand, the differentials in the northern region were $2.23 for all workers, $2.34 for skilled, $1.74 for semiskilled, and $2.95 for unskilled. Substantial differentials in favor of the northern as against the southern region are also found separately for trade-union and non trade-union establishments. In case of trade-union plants, the dif- 68 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING ferential amounted to $5.66 for all workers, $6.52 for skilled, $4.91 for semiskilled, and $3.82 for unskilled. In non-trade-union establish ments, the differentials were $6.75 for all workers, $6.74 for skilled, $6.59 for semiskilled, and $4.56 for unskilled. 40.— Average actual weekly earnings o f workers in trade-union and non trade-union plants o f wood household-furniture branch, by region and sk ill, October 1987 T able Total workers Region and unionization Skilled workers Semi skilled workers U n skilled workers United States Trade-union plants___ ________ _______ __________ _ Non-trade-union plants________________ ___ __ __ $23.65 19.47 $27. 42 23.41 $22.11 18.39 $18.83 14. 33 Total _____________________________________ 20.42 24. 35 19. 27 15.19 Trade-union p la n ts ____ _______ _____ ________________ 24.15 27. 92 21.92 ___ _________Non-trade-union __ plants ___ 25. _ 58 22. 55 20. 81 19. 25 16. 30 „ North Total_____ ____________________________________ 22. 58 26. 27 21.35 17.09 18.49 15.17 21.40 18. 84 17.64 14.22 15. 43 11.74 15. 39 19.01 14.46 11.95 South Trade-union plants______ ___ __________ __________ Non-trade-union plants____________________ _____ __ Total____________ __ __ _______ __ _________ _ Differences by Sise o f Com m unity With one exception, the average earnings per week of all wage earners in the northern region varied directly with size of community, as may be seen from table 41. The spread was from $18.16 in rural territory (with less than 2,500 population) to $26.31 in the largest metropolitan areas (with 1,000,000 and over), the difference amounting to $8.15. The only exception was in case of communities with 2,500 and under 5,000, which averaged slightly more than places of 5,000 and less than 10,000. As regards skilled workers in the North, the average weekly earn ings varied directly with size of community without any exception, the figures ranging from $20.77 in the smallest places to $30.74 in the largest metropolitan areas, which is a difference of almost $10. There was only one exception in the correlation for semiskilled employees, namely the communities of 2,500 and under 5,000 having a 50-cent advantage over those of 5,000 and less than 10,000. The spread in average earnings per week for this group was from $17.84 for rural territory to $24.42 for the largest metropolitan areas. This is a difference of $6.58, or below that found for skilled workers. On the other hand, the correlation for unskilled employees had several ex ceptions, but nevertheless there is sufficient evidence of average weekly earnings varying directly with size of community. The averages ranged from $13.29 for rural territory to $19.41 for places with 250,000 and under 500,000, although the largest metropolitan areas had an average only slightly below the latter ($19.10). 69 W E EK LY EARNINGS T able 41.— Average actual w eekly earnings o f workers in wood household-furniture branch, by region, size o f com m unity, and skill, October 1937 Total workers Region and size of community Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers United States Under 2,500___________________ ______________________ 2,500 and under 5,000_________________________________ 5,000 and under 10,000________________ ________ ______ 10,000 and under 25,000______________________________ 25,000 and under 50,000______________________________ $17.97 18.04 16.09 18.25 20.38 $20.37 21.44 19.83 21.41 23.25 $17.79 17.00 15.02 17.67 19.65 $13.65 13.95 12.56 14.14 16.33 50,000 and under 100,000__________________ __ _ _____ 100,000 and under 250,000-____ ______________________ 250,000 and under 500,000____________________________ 500,000 and under 1,000,000_________ __ _ __________ 1,000,000 and over_____ ____________________________ 19. 25 21.29 20.92 24.70 26. 31 22.20 24.89 25.38 28.98 30.74 18.62 20.40 19. 66 23.22 24.42 14.21 16.12 15.94 16. 26 19.10 ----- 20. 42 24. 35 19. 27 15.19 Under 2,500__________________________________________ 2,500 and under 5,000 ------ --------------------------------------5,000 and under 10,000________________________________ 10,000 and under 25,000______ ______________________ 25,000 and under 50,000------------------- ------------------------ 18.16 19.89 19. 72 20. 30 20. 64 20. 77 22.89 23.11 23. 21 23. 30 17.84 18.86 18. 36 19. 75 20.03 13.29 16.09 15.26 16.06 16.57 50.000 and under 100,000__________ _________________ 100.000 and under 250,000_____________ ____________ 250,000 and under 500,000____________________________ 500,000 and under 1,000,000__________________________ 1,000,000 and over____________________________________ 20.91 22.59 23.83 24. 70 26. 31 23. 59 26.06 27. 69 28.98 30.74 20.06 21.79 22.60 23. 22 24.42 15.87 17.17 19.41 16.26 19.10 T o t a l..______ __________________________________ 22.58 26. 27 21.35 17.09 Under 2,500___________________________________________ 2,500 and under 5,000----------- ----------------------------------5,000 and under 10,000_________ __________________ 10,000 and under 25,000-------------- ----------------------------- 17.41 12.85 14.60 14.86 19.08 16.84 18.11 18.22 17. 65 11.64 13. 71 13.98 14.45 9. 62 11.78 11.67 25,000 and under 50,000 _____________________________ 50,000 and under 100,000_____________________________ 100,000 and under 250.000______________ _________ 250,000 and under 500,000___________________________ 19.10 17. 27 15. 76 15. 60 22.99 20. 31 19.63 20.87 17.78 16.86 14.20 14.08 15. 32 12.85 12.42 10. 75 15. 39 19.01 14.46 11.95 T otal----------------------- ----------------------------- North S o u th Total______________________ ______ __________ -- If the northern figures are shown separately by trade-union and non-trade-union plants, there is still considerable evidence of direct correlation between average weekly earnings and size of community in each case. (See table 42.) The existence of such correlation is especially noticeable in the data relating to non-trade-union establishments. As regards all workers, there are two exceptions to the correlation, but the difference between the averages in rural territory and the largest metropolitan areas was $8.30. Considering the data on a skill basis, there is one exception to the correlation for skilled, three exceptions for semiskilled, and a number of exceptions for unskilled wage earners, but the ranges between the smallest and largest communities amounted, respectively, to $9.63, $8.07, and $6.03. In spite of the thinness of the coverage, there is also sufficient evi dence of direct correlation between average weekly earnings and size of community in trade-union plants. For all workers, the range was from $21.18 in places of 2,500 and under 5,000 to $27.72 in metro politan areas of 1,000,000 and over, although the lowest average of 161633°— 39------ 6 70 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING $19.15 (the only exception) was reported in communities with 25,000 and less than 50,000. Similarly, the disparity for skilled employees was from $23.82 in places of 2,500 and under 5,000 to $32.09 in metropolitan areas of 1,000,000 and over, but the former figure was somewhat larger than the one ($23.47) in communities of 10,000 and less than 25,000 and considerably higher than the one ($21.05) in centers of 25,000 and under 50,000. The variance for semiskilled workers was from $20.24 in places of 2,500 and less than 5,000 to $24.69 in metropolitan areas of 1,000,000 and over. However, communities of 25,000 and under 50,000 averaged less than the former, while those of 500,000 and under 1,000,000 averaged somewhat more than the latter. For unskilled employees, the situation was more confused, but nevertheless the figures justify the statement that there is some correlation between the two factors. 4 2 . — Average actual w eekly earnings in trade-union and non-trade-union plants in wood household-furniture branch in the North, by size o f com m unity and skill, October 1937 T able Total workers Unionization and size of community Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers Trade-union Under 2,500______ . . . . _____ _______ __ _______ . . . 2,500 and under 5,000___ ___________ __________ . . . 5,000 and under 10,000 ___________ ______ . - - - - - . . 10,000 and under 25,000________ _________ _______ . . _ _ 25,000 and under 50,000- _ . . . _ __________ 50,000 and under 100,000 ___ ___ ____ ___ _ -----100,000 and under 250,000.__ ____ __ _ _ _ _ 250,000 and under 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 .___ ___ __________ _____ 500,000 and under 1,000,000_____ ------------------------------1,000,000 and over. _ ----------- ---------------------- ------- 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 22. 47 0) 0) 0) $21.18 21.19 19.15 $23.82 23.47 21.05 $20.24 21.17 18.17 22.34 24.03 25.41 24.69 $17.76 18.63 17.05 24.81 26.89 27- 72 25.71 27.27 28.66 32.09 _______ 24.15 27.92 22. 55 19. 25 Under 2,500__________________________________________ 2,500 and under 5,000.. . . . . ___ _________ _______ 5,000 and under 10,000 ________ . . _________ ______ 10,000 and under 25,000______________________________ 25,000 and under 5 0 ,0 0 0 ._______ ______ . . . ___ 17.09 19.43 19. 53 19.90 21.42 20.06 22.54 22.91 23.14 24. 55 16.17 18.38 18.22 18.95 21.11 12.60 15.50 15.10 14. 55 16.39 50.000 and under 100,000--------------------------. ----100,000 and under 250,000._ ____ __ _ . . . _______ 250,000 and under 500,000. __ . . . ___ ______ . . 500,000 and under 1,000,000____. . . . . . . _________ 1 ,000,000 and over____________________________________ 20. 63 22. 62 22.17 24. 21 25.39 23.34 26.14 28.29 29.07 29.69 19. 76 21.62 19.90 22. 69 24.24 15.89 17.12 13.70 15.49 18.63 21.92 25.58 20.81 16.30 Total______ ________ . . . __ _ 0) 17.34 22.45 20. 24 Non-trade-union Total________ _________________ _ ----------------- i N o average computed for less than 3 plants or less than 50 employees. It should also be pointed out that, with a number of exceptions, the average weekly earnings in the North were higher in trade-union than in non-trade-union plants in communities of the same size. Nearly all of these exceptions related to skilled workers. As in case of average hourly earnings, there is no indication of any correlation between average earnings per week and size of com munity in the southern territory. However, the averages for the same class of labor in the corresponding size of community were in nearly every instance lower in the southern than in the northern region. Chapter IX .— Average H ou rly Earnings by Occupa tional Groups and Sex Data for Males According to table 43, the highest average hourly earnings among males of the wood household-furniture branch in the North were 81.0 cents for upholsterers, who also constituted numerically the largest occupational group of the skilled employees. Working foremen averaged 72.8 cents and miscellaneous skilled workers in the upholstery department 71.3 cents. The “ other skilled workers” had an average of 66.2 cents. There were 2 other occupational groups with an average of over 60 cents, namely the miscellaneous skilled workers in the maintenance (61.5 cents) and paint (61.3 cents) departments. The averages of the remaining 11 occupational groups were found within a relatively narrow range from 57.6 cents for miscellaneous skilled assemblers to 51.4 for belt sanders. Among semiskilled males in the northern territory, the highest average earnings per hour were 64.8 cents for miscellaneous semi skilled workers in the upholstery department, which is 6.5 cents less than those for the miscellaneous skilled workers in the same depart ment. Next to miscellaneous semiskilled workers in the upholstery department, the highest average, namely 62.5 cents, was reported for springers. The lowest average, amounting to 41.2 cents, was found for apprentices. Excluding the above, the remaining 15 occupational groups had averages ranging from 54.2 cents for polishers and rubbers to 47.1 cents for hand-finish sanders. The largest occupation numeri cally was that of miscellaneous semiskilled assemblers, whose average amounted to 52.3 cents, or 5.3 cents less than that for the miscella neous skilled assemblers. 71 able 4 3 . — Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings o f workers in wood household-furniture branch, by region, sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937 Aver age weekly earn ings N um ber of workers Aver age hourly earn ings Aver age weekly hours Aver age weekly earn ings N um ber of workers Aver age hourly earn ings Aver age weekly hours $23.46 24.16 31.54 21.50 19.36 22.24 20.45 . 28 22. 93 22.61 28.02 21.94 26.85 .484 .618 43.9 43.2 46.6 43.7 42.7 43.3 42.9 44.0 43.9 43.4 37.1 43.7 46.8 42.3 40.9 42.8 46.4 27.25 20.69 28. 69 1,016 474 828 262 406 297 308 153 324 671 1,631 1,078 342 218 300 227 271 $0.576 .575 .728 .543 .514 .557 .521 .544 .575 .567 .810 .550 .615 .613 .713 .521 .662 43.6 43.4 46.3 43.3 42.7 42.7 43.0 44.5 42.9 43.6 36.7 43.5 45.4 42.9 40.4 42.7 45.7 $25.12 24.94 33. 66 23. 51 21. 91 23. 79 22.40 24. 23 24.64 24. 75 29. 75 23. 92 27.90 26.30 28. 81 22. 25 30. 28 331 40 351 134 242 128 142 99 146 252 360 510 156 132 57 72 90 $0,408 .363 .560 .393 .353 .418 .380 .388 .419 .393 .515 .403 .493 .360 .435 .366 .493 45.0 41.2 47.3 44.7 42.7 44.6 42.7 43.1 45.7 43.0 39.1 44.0 49.8 41.4 43.8 43.1 48.5 $18.35 14.97 26. 51 17.58 15.00 18.64 16. 21 16.73 19.11 16.90 20.17 17.74 24. 57 14.89 19.03 15.78 23.89 12,048 .573 42.8 24.56 8,806 .626 42.4 26.58 3,242 .434 44.0 19.08 234 2,800 486 1,076 466 959 837 954 852 482 541 560 349 .412 .471 .465 .409 .419 .488 .418 .418 .439 .465 .578 .456 .470 41.5 43.1 43.0 42.9 42.5 41.2 41.4 41.7 42.8 42.9 37.7 43.1 43.4 17.08 20. 29 233 1,935 343 630 278 695 524 621 527 340 454 444 262 .412 .523 .513 .475 .478 .542 .491 .471 .497 .509 .625 .487 .506 41.5 43.2 42.9 43.6 42.3 41.8 40.7 41.8 42.7 42.9 36.7 42.7 43.3 17.09 22.58 .97 N um ber of workers Aver age hourly earn ings 1,347 514 1,179 396 648 425 450 252 470 923 1,991 1,588 498 350 357 299 361 $0.534 .559 .677 .492 .454 .514 .477 .484 .523 .520 .754 .502 .574 .520 Aver age weekly hours Aver age weekly earn ings M a les Skilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, skilled__________________________ ______________________ Finishers___________________________ Foremen, working_______________ ___________________________ Inspectors____________________________________________________ Sanders, belt_________________________________________________ Sawyers, band, ____________________________________________ Sawyers, cut-off________________________ __________ __________ Sawyers, other, skilled____________ __ _ ___ ________ Shaper operators___ _____ _ ___ _____________________ _______ Sprayers_____________________________________________________ Upholsterers____________________ ______ _ ___ _____________ Woodworking-machine operators, other, skilled____________ Miscellaneous skilled workers, maintenance departm ent.._ Miscellaneous skilled workers, paint department. ________ Miscellaneous skilled workers, upholstery department_____ Miscellaneous skilled workers, veneer department_________ Other skilled workers___________________ ______________ A ll males, skilled__________________________________________ Semiskilled: Apprentices__________________________________________________ Assemblers, miscellaneous, semiskilled______ _________ __ Boring-machine operators__________________________________ Craters, packers, and wrappers_____________________________ Gluers, rough stock________________________________ _________ Polishers and rubbers________________________________________ Sanders, cabinet, hand_____________________________________ Sanders, finish, hand________________________________________ Sanders, machine, other than belt___________________ _______ Sawyers, rip__________________________________________________ Springers___________ _______________________________________ Stainers and fillers, h a n d ......................... .............. ....................... Trimmers and u p fitters...________________ ________ _________ .666 21 22.00 20.02 17.53 17.80 20.11 17.30 17.41 18.82 19.95 21.81 19. 64 20.40 21 20.68 20. 21 22.64 20.00 19. 69 21. 22 21.80 22. 93 20.83 21.90 1 865 143 446 188 264 313 333 325 142 87 116 87 0 ) .354 .353 .312 .332 .338 .301 .318 .346 .361 .369 .339 .363 0 ) 42.9 43.4 42.0 42.9 39.8 42.5 41.4 43.1 43.0 43.3 44.4 43.8 0 ) 15.17 15. 33 13.08 14. 25 13. 47 12.80 13.16 14.92 15. 51 15.96 15.06 15. 89 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE M ANUFACTURING Sex, skill, and occupational group South North United States 72 T 756 290 219 321 1,353 .469 .490 .580 .431 .461 42.0 42.8 39.0 42.2 46.3 19. 72 20. 98 22. 64 18. 22 21. 34 520 230 171 A ll males, sem iskilled___ ______________ _____ ____________ 13,535 .458 42.6 366 252 1, 534 304 767 539 270 803 89 255 720 .325 .375 .335 .354 .368 .374 .326 .376 .402 .378 .364 40.9 45.0 41.7 42.5 42.5 42.5 57.0 42.4 40.6 41.1 41.8 Unskilled: Beginners_______ ________ __ __ __ _____________ _______ Helpers, assemblers’ _________ _ __ _________________ Helpers, woodworking-machine operators’_____ . . . _______ Janitors and sweepers____ ___ __________________________ _ _______________________________ Laborers, general______ Truckers and stock movers, hand _ ___ ___ _______ ______ W atchmen_____ _________ ___ __ __ __________ __________ Miscellaneous unskilled workers, paint department________ Miscellaneous unskilled workers, upholstery departmentMiscellaneous unskilled workers, veneer department Other unskilled workers________ ________ _ 854 .522 .528 .648 .479 .521 42.6 43.3 38.0 41.9 46.3 19. 53 9,281 .512 42.5 13. 31 16.84 13. 99 15.02 15. 65 15. 88 18.60 15. 95 16. 29 15. 54 15. 24 198 910 170 517 362 174 432 63 150 487 .370 .399 .374 .419 .412 .411 .347 .447 .454 .444 .404 41.1 45.8 42.3 42.0 41.4 42.4 57.4 42.8 39.4 41.0 42.3 220 222 22. 27 22.86 499 .347 .338 .364 .331 .357 40.6 40.8 42.6 42.9 46.4 14.10 13.79 15.50 14. 20 16.58 21.80 4, 254 .340 42.8 14. 57 15.20 18. 29 15. 82 17.60 17. 06 17. 45 19. 91 19.11 17. 91 18.22 17. 07 144 54 624 134 250 177 96 371 26 105 233 .256 .276 .278 .273 .285 .298 .288 .293 .285 .284 .279 40.7 41.7 40.8 43.0 44.7 42.5 56.3 41.9 43.4 41.3 40.9 10.40 11.51 11. 31 11.74 12. 73 12. 65 16. 21 12.28 12. 38 11. 73 11. 42 24. 64 20. 07 24.12 236 60 48 101 5, 899 .356 42.8 15.24 3, 685 .401 43.0 17. 21 2, 214 .282 42.4 11.97 31, 482 .483 42.7 20. 65 21, 772 .539 42.6 22. 96 9,710 .359 43.1 15.48 Skilled: All females, skilled_____________________________ 350 .432 39.7 17.18 307 .450 39.1 17. 61 43 .320 44.0 14.07 Semiskilled: Packers and wrappers__________________________ __________ Sanders, finish, hand________________________________________ Sewers, hand and/or machine_______ _ __________ _________ Other semiskilled workers ________ _____ ______ __ ___ . _ 105 228 545 327 .352 .344 .488 .433 38.0 40.5 36.3 38.9 13. 40 13. 92 17.69 16. 84 72 177 467 298 .368 .375 .517 .444 40.6 40.3 35.4 38.7 14. 95 15.10 18. 30 17.18 33 51 78 29 .310 .238 .340 .327 32.3 41.2 41.3 40.6 9.80 14.04 13. 30 1,205 .432 37.9 16. 37 1, 014 .457 37.6 17.18 191 .306 39.6 12.10 10. 24 All males, unskilled ___________ _____ __ Total, all males___________________ __ Females All females, semiskilled___________________________________ Unskilled: All females, unskilled . 10.01 _________________________________ 162 .322 41.2 13. 26 133 .342 40.7 13. 92 29 .235 43.6 Total, all fem ales.. _ _________________________________ 1, 717 .421 38.6 16. 24 1, 454 .444 38.2 16. 97 263 .300 40.8 12.22 Total, all occupations____________________________________________ 33,199 .480 42.5 20. 42 23, 226 .534 42.3 22. 58 9,973 .357 43.1 15. 39 i N o average shown for 1 employee. 73 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS AND SEX Woodworking-machine operators, other, semiskilled_______ Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, paint department____ Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, upholstery department. Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, veneer department____ Other semiskilled workers______ ______ _ _______________ _ _ 74 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING Miscellaneous unskilled workers in the upholstery department also showed the highest average hourly earnings among the unskilled males in the North. This figure amounted to 45.4 cents, which is 19.4 cents less than that received by the miscellaneous semiskilled workers in the same department. The lowest average was that of watchmen, namely 34.7 cents. Hand truckers and stock movers, general laborers, and janitors and sweepers averaged between 41 and 42 cents. In the southern territory, the highest average earnings per hour among skilled males were 56.0 cents for working foremen. This is followed by 51.5 cents for upholsterers. Miscellaneous skilled work ers in the maintenance department and “ other skilled workers” both averaged 49.3 cents. Among the remaining 13 occupational groups, the averages ranged from 43.5 cents for miscellaneous skilled workers in the upholstery department down to 35.3 cents for belt sanders. The average hourly earnings of the 17 occupational groups shown for semiskilled males in the South covered a spread from 36.9 cents for springers to 30.1 cents for hand cabinet sanders. Likewise, there was even less variation among the occupational averages for unskilled workers, the figures ranging from 29.8 cents for hand truckers and stock movers down to 25.6 cents for beginners. For every occupational group, the average hourly earnings were higher in the northern than in the southern area. Among skilled males, the differentials ranged from 12.2 cents for miscellaneous skilled workers in the maintenance department to 29.5 cents for upholsterers. The semiskilled differentials showed a spread from 14.3 cents for trimmers and upfitters to 28.4 cents for miscellaneous semiskilled workers in the upholstery department. Lastly, for un skilled employees, the range was from 5.9 cents for watchmen to 16.9 cents for miscellaneous unskilled workers in the upholstery department. The occupational group averages for each of the four wood household divisions are presented in tables 44, 45, 46, and 47. 44.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings o f workers in case goods o f wood household-furniture branch by region, sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1987 Sex, skill, and occupational group Number Average Average Average Number Average Average Average Number Average Average Average hourly weekly weekly hourly weekly weekly of of of hourly weekly weekly workers earnings hours earnings workers earnings hours earnings workers earnings hours earnings Males 43.5 43.5 46.2 44.5 41.9 43.4 42.6 43.5 44.2 42.8 40.2 43.0 46.3 42.3 43.5 42.8 45.0 43.6 $22.63 20.95 30.56 19.96 18.56 21.95 19. 73 19. 62 22.20 20.92 26.06 20.69 26.16 19. 34 24.65 19.69 27. 57 22.64 676 139 395 100 228 135 153 77 165 315 155 473 179 95 29 143 128 3, 585 $0,567 .508 .715 .512 .526 .558 .521 .512 .558 .551 .734 .546 .616 .582 .637 .502 .642 .580 43.1 44.1 45.9 44.1 41.6 42.5 43.0 43.8 43.0 42.3 38.6 42.6 44.1 44.0 42.4 42.8 45.7 43.2 $24.44 22.42 32.82 22.59 21.86 23.69 22.40 22.41 24. 01 23.33 28. 33 23. 25 27.17 25.59 26.99 21.49 29.33 25.05 264 31 232 94 196 77 109 72 103 174 63 363 113 116 11 65 69 2,152 $0.405 .351 .571 .382 .349 .420 .381 .385 .419 .379 .464 .398 .494 .347 P).367 .497 .420 44.4 40.9 46.8 44.9 42.3 45.0 41.9 43.2 46.1 43.7 44.2 43.6 49.7 41.0 P) 42.9 48.9 44.4 $18.00 14.36 26. 72 17.16 14. 74 18.88 15. 99 16.64 19.30 16. 57 20.49 17. 36 24. 56 14. 22 0)15.74 24.36 18.63 42.7 43.6 41.6 42.4 41.0 42.3 41.3 42.8 42.9 42.3 42.2 41.6 43.2 42.8 42.8 45.6 42.6 18.13 19. 64 15.83 16.81 18. 40 16.09 16.07 18. 31 19. 21 18.84 18.91 18.62 20.87 19.74 17.85 19.65 18.06 629 158 267 148 289 216 289 268 183 257 119 262 140 87 147 405 3,864 .511 .504 .469 .463 .533 .479 .454 .502 .504 .487 .499 .512 .529 .520 .474 .497 .497 42.4 42.9 42.4 41.9 42.6 41.3 41.2 42.1 42.7 42.0 42.5 42.3 44.2 42.6 42.8 45.5 42.6 21.69 21.64 19.88 19.44 22.73 19.81 18. 70 21.13 21. 51 20.45 21.22 21.64 23.40 22.16 20. 31 22.63 21.20 636 79 327 146 221 241 236 214 109 95 56 163 47 35 97 362 3,064 .339 .349 .306 .331 .328 .295 .310 .339 .353 .335 .338 .340 .331 .316 .330 .358 .331 43.0 44.9 40.9 42.8 38.9 43.2 41.5 43.6 43.4 43.2 41.4 40.5 40.2 43.5 42.8 45.6 42.6 14.60 15.64 12. 52 14.15 12.75 12.75 12.84 14.77 15. 33 14. 48 13.98 13. 77 13.33 13.72 14.12 16. 32 14.11 75 Skilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, skilled___________________ __ 940 $0.521 Finishers___________________________ ________ ______ 170 .481 Foremen, w ork in g..._________________________ _____ 627 .661 Inspectors____________________________ _______________ 194 .448 Sanders, belt______________________ __________________ 424 .443 Sawyers, band______________ _____________ ______ 212 .506 Sawyers, cut-off______________________________________ 262 .464 Sawyers, other, skilled________________________________ 149 .451 Shaper operators_____________________________________ 268 .502 489 Sprayers_______ _______ ___________________________ .489 Upholsterers___ ____________________________________ 218 .648 Woodworking-machine operators, other, skilled__________ 836 .481 Miscellaneous skilled workers, maintenance department. 292 .565 211 Miscellaneous skilled workers, paint department_________ .457 40 Miscellaneous skilled workers, upholstery department___ .566 Miscellaneous skilled workers, veneer department _ ___ 208 .460 197 Other skilled workers. . . ____ _____ _ ... ... _______ .613 All males, skilled________________________ ____ ______ 5,737 .519 Semiskilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, semiskilled_____________ ____ 1,265 .424 Boring-machine operators_____________ ____ ___________ 237 .451 Craters, packers, and wrappers___ __________ ________ 594 .381 Gluers, rough stock___________________________________ 294 .397 Polishers and rubbers_____________ _____ ____________ .449 510 Sanders, cabinet, hand________________________________ 457 .380 Sanders, finish, hand_______ ________________ _____ 525 .389 482 Sanders, machine, other than belt. ________ ________ .428 292 SawjTers, rip. _______________________________________ .447 352 .445 Stainers and fillers, hand______________________________ 175 .448 Trimmers and upfitters_______________________________ 425 .448 Woodworking-machine operators, other, semiskilled______ 187 .483 Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, paint department____ 122 .461 Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, upholstery department 244 .417 Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, veneer department___ 767 .431 Other semiskilled workers_______________ __________ . .424 All males, semiskilled___ ___________ _______________ 6,928 South North United States AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS AND SEX T able 44.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of workers in case goods of wood household-furniture branch by region, sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937— C ontinued Sex, skill, and occupational group Number Average Average Average Number Average Average Average Number Average Average Average hourly weekly weekly of hourly weekly weekly of of hourly weekly weekly workers earnings hours earnings workers earnings hours earnings workers earnings hours earnings Unskilled: 79 Helpers, assemblers'__________________________________ Helpers, woodworking-machine operators_______________ 911 Janitors and sweepers_________________________________ 170 Laborers, general_________________ __________________ 403 Truckers and stock movers, han d_____ _______ 296 Watchmen_____________ ___ __________ _ _ _____ 135 434 Miscellaneous unskilled workers, paint department______ Miscellaneous unskilled workers, veneer department___ . 198 Other unskilled workers____________ ________________ 491 All males, unskilled___ _________________ ___ _____ 3,117 Total, all males.______ ... _________________________ 15, 782 Females Skilled: All females, skilled__________________________________ 89 Semiskilled: Packers and wrappers_________________________________ 49 Sanders, finish, hand____ _ _ _______ ______________ 91 Sewers, hand and/or machine_____ __________________ 52 Other semiskilled workers_____________________________ 71 All females, semiskilled________________________ ____ 263 Unskilled: 41 All females, unskilled_______________________________ 393 Total, all females___ ______________________________ Total, all occupations___ . . ------------- ------------------------ 16,175 i Too few employees to compute separate averages. South 41.4 39.8 43.7 43.2 41.3 57.2 41.7 41.3 40.0 41.7 42.9 $11.53 11.06 11. 70 12.15 12.08 16.47 12.19 11.73 10.49 11.68 14.96 0) 0) 0) 15 41 8 17 81 0).212 0) 0) .263 0)42.2 0) C1) 41.9 0) 8.97 0) 0) 11.04 10 111 6,938 0) .262 .347 0) 42.3 42.9 0) 11.10 14.90 $0.330 .331 .328 .358 .354 .323 .349 .355 .330 .340 .443 40.9 40.7 43.3 41.0 41.8 56.4 41.7 40.2 40.5 41.7 42.8 $13.48 13.46 14. 21 14. 70 14. 79 18.24 14. 52 14.29 13. 37 14.18 19. 02 31 446 80 228 159 74 146 94 248 1, 506 8,955 $0.412 .384 .399 .422 .406 .354 .460 .438 .394 .403 .515 40.0 41.6 42.8 39.4 42.2 55.7 41.6 39.1 41.1 41.8 42.7 $16.49 15.97 17.04 16. 65 17.13 19.69 19.12 17.12 16.18 16.86 22. 01 48 465 90 175 137 61 288 104 243 1, 611 6,827 .436 41.8 18. 25 69 .473 41.8 19. 77 20 .388 .306 .491 .389 .378 41.8 41.4 38.7 40.0 40.6 16. 22 12.66 18.99 15. 56 15. 36 34 50 44 54 182 .424 .385 .520 .413 .432 41.9 40.8 38.4 39.3 40.0 17. 78 15.69 19. 99 16.24 17. 28 .299 .383 .441 41.0 40.9 42.8 12.28 15. 69 18.88 31 282 9,237 .347 .433 . 513 39.5 40.4 42.6 13. 71 17. 50 21. 87 $0. 279 .278 .267 .282 .292 .288 .292 .284 .262 .280 .348 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING North United States 76 T able hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings o f workers in upholstered fu rn itu re o f wood household-furniture branch, by region, sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937 United States Sex, skill, and occupational group South Aver Aver Num Aver Aver Aver Aver Aver Num Aver Num Aver age age age age age age ber hourly ber hourly age weekly ber hourly age weekly age weekly earn weekly weekly of weekly earn of of earn earn earn earn workers ings hours ings workers ings hours ings workers ings hours ings Males Skilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, skilled_____ ___________ . 162 Finishers _______ _ __ ... _________ __________ 123 284 Foremen, working_____... __________ __________ _____ Inspectors___________________________________________ 65 52 Sanders, belt_________________________________________ Sawyers, band_______________________________________ 117 Sawyers, cut-off_____ ... _________________ _______ 91 Shaper operators____________________ ________________ 77 Sprayers_____________________________________________ 118 Upholsterers ._ ___ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - ___ 1, 754 Woodworking-machine operators, other, skilled. __ _ 298 94 Miscellaneous skilled workers, maintenance department... Miscellaneous skilled workers, upholstery department____ 312 Other skilled workers____ . _ ._ _____ . 163 All males, skilled_________________________________ 3,710 Semiskilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, semiskilled_________________ 436 Boring-machine operators________ ._ _________ ______ 115 Craters, packers, and wrappers. ._ _____ ... ______... 182 Gluers, rough stock______________ __________________ 68 Polishers and rubbers.______. . . ____ _ .. ______ ____ 73 Sanders, cabinet, hand_____ __________________________ 102 Sanders, finish, hand___________ _ ___________ ____ 104 Sanders, machine, other than belt______________________ .170 Sawyers, rip_____________ ______ ... . . . ________ 62 491 Springers.. _________________________________________ Woodworking-machine operators, other, semiskilled______ 143 Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, upholstery department190 573 other semiskilled workers____ ___... All males, semiskilled_______________________________ 2,709 $0.627 .662 .758 .529 .480 .562 .517 .553 .544 .772 .569 .603 .679 .682 .690 43.2 42.5 45.6 41.0 43.5 41.1 41.3 42.1 42.8 36.7 43.4 46.1 40.6 44.0 40.0 $27.11 28.10 34. 54 21.67 20. 85 23.09 21.35 23.26 23.26 28. 34 24. 72 27. 80 27. 59 30.01 27. 63 119 118 192 37 30 80 68 49 69 1, 464 193 65 266 130 2,880 $0. 701 .671 .854 .601 .548 .630 .572 .635 .615 .822 .653 .648 .723 .736 .756 42.3 42.3 45.1 39.8 43.6 40.1 39.7 40.6 45.0 36.4 42.2 44.3 40.2 43.8 39.3 $29. 69 28. 40 38.49 23. 92 23. 91 25. 27 22.70 25. 76 27. 66 29. 94 27. 56 28. 69 29.04 32. 22 29.70 43 5 92 28 22 37 23 28 49 290 105 29 46 33 830 $0. 438 0) .563 .439 C1) .424 0) .423 .431 .531 .426 .515 .445 .475 .481 45.6 C1) 46.7 42.6 C43.3 1) 0)44.6 39.6 38.2 45.7 50.1 43.1 44.9 42.5 $19. 97 0)26. 30 18. 70 C1) 18. 38 0) 18.89 17.06 20. 27 19. 47 25. 79 19.16 21.30 20. 45 .544 .508 .442 .479 .515 .412 .428 .432 .486 .598 .555 .668 .460 .513 41.5 40.4 43.1 40.7 43.7 41.0 42.0 41.4 41.9 37.1 40.9 37.2 44.5 41, 22.55 20. 54 19.08 19. 49 22. 47 16.89 17. 96 17. 89 20. 34 22.20 22.70 24. 86 20. 47 21.09 316 76 105 41 35 44 54 92 46 419 109 155 445 1,937 .592 .575 .521 .565 .655 .488 .484 .498 .524 .642 .615 .745 .487 .572 41.9 40.2 42.9 39.1 43.1 44.3 44.8 40.2 41.2 36.1 40.3 36.0 43.6 40.4 24. 72 23.10 22.37 22.06 28.24 21. 60 21.68 20.02 21.60 23.18 24.75 26. 83 21.25 23.12 120 39 77 27 38 58 50 78 16 72 34 35 128 772 .414 .379 .336 .362 .388 .346 .359 .359 0) .386 .374 .377 .374 .374 40.7 41.0 43.5 43.0 44.2 38.5 38.9 42.8 0) 42.9 43.1 42.7 47.5 42.8 16.85 15. 54 14. 61 15. 59 17.15 13.32 13.94 15.37 0) 16. 55 16.12 16.09 17.78 15.98 77 North AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS AND SEX T a b l e 4 5 . — Average 4 5 . — Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings o f workers in upholstered fu rn itu re o f wood household-furniture branch, by region, sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937— Continued Unskilled: Helpers, woodworking-machine operators’_______________ Janitors and sweepers_________ l.____________ __________ Laborers, general_____________________________________ Truckers and stock movers, hand______________________ Watchmen______________________________________ ____ Miscellaneous unskilled workers, paint department______ Miscellaneous unskilled workers, upholstery department, _ Other unskilled workers_____________________ _________ All males, unskilled____________________ ________ ___ Total, all males__________________ ____ ____________ Females Aver Aver Num Aver Aver Aver Aver Aver Num Aver Num Aver age age age age age age ber hourly age weekly age weekly ber hourly ber hourly age weekly of weekly earn of of earn weekly earn earn workers earn weekly hours hours workers hours workers earn ings ings ings ings ings ings 172 86 103 72 61 71 81 396 1,042 7,461 Skilled: All females, skilled_________________ ____ ____________ 176 Semiskilled: Sewers, hand and/or machine__________________________ 490 Other semiskilled workers____ __________________ _ ___ _ 150 All females, semiskilled______ _______________________ 640 Unskilled: All females, unskilled__________________ _____________ 56 872 Total, all females_________________________________ Total, all occupations_______________________ _____________ 8, 333 i Too few employees to compute separate averages. 42.7 43.2 49.2 0) 0)40.3 0) 42.4 43.6 42.8 $12.22 12.43 14.29 0) 0)12.00 0) 11.95 12. 56 17.20 C1) 0) (0 69 27 96 .343 .348 .344 41.3 32.3 38.8 14.15 11.22 13.33 19 134 2,115 0) .333 .398 (0 40.2 42.6 (0 13.39 16.96 $0,329 .380 .375 .383 .322 .334 .411 .357 .357 .577 41.4 41.4 42.4 41.8 59.5 42.9 40.1 41.0 42.4 40.8 $13.61 15.73 15.93 15.98 19.13 14. 32 16. 51 14. 64 15.17 23. 52 84 53 68 54 42 25 59 278 663 5,480 $0.376 .443 .431 .415 .338 .390 .456 .390 .399 .645 40.0 40.2 38.9 40.2 62.5 47.7 39.4 40.4 41.8 40.0 $15.06 17.79 16.77 16.67 21.09 18.60 17.95 15.79 16.66 25.80 88 33 35 18 19 46 22 118 379 1,981 .466 38.1 17.73 157 .484 37.2 17.99 19 .488 .409 .469 36.0 36.8 36.2 17. 55 15.04 16.96 421 123 544 .516 .420 .493 35.1 37.8 35.7 18.10 15.87 17.60 .281 .455 .565 40.0 36.8 40.3 11.26 16. 75 22.81 37 738 6, 218 .287 .480 .627 38.9 36.2 39.6 11.13 17. 36 24. 80 $0.286 .288 .290 0) 0).298 0) .282 .288 .402 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING Sex, skill, and occupational group South North United States 78 T able P l a t e 5.— F i t t i n g D r a w e r s a n d F i n i s h i n g . PLATE 6.—PAINTING FURNITURE. AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS AND SEX 79 T a b l e 46.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings o f workers in novelty furn iture o f wood household-furniture branch, by sex, skillt and occu pational group, October 1937 North United States Sex, skill, and occupational group Num ber of workers Aver Aver Aver Num Aver Aver Aver age age age age ber hourly age weekly age weekly hourly weekly of earn hours earn workers earn weekly earn hours ings ings ings ings Males Skilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, skilled_____________ __ __ _ Finishers____________________ Foremen, w orking.____ ____ Inspectors___________________ Sanders, belt_________________ Sawyers, band... _______ .. Sawyers, cut-off_____ ______ Sawyers, other, skilled___ ___ Shaper operators_____________ Sprayers____________________ Woodworking-machine opera tors, other, skilled_______... Miscellaneous skilled workers, maintenance department. .. Miscellaneous skilled workers, paint department . ___ ... Miscellaneous skilled workers, veneer department__ ______ Other skilled workers______ _. All males, skilled___________ Semiskilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, semi skilled_____________________ Boring-machine operators___ _ Craters, packers, and wrappers. _ Gluers, rough stock. _ ________ Polishers and rubbers... _ Sanders, cabinet, hand .. _ . Sanders, finish, hand_________ Sanders, machine, other than belt____ ____ ______________ Sawyers, r ip ._________ Stainers and fillers, hand___ Trimmers and upfitters_______ Woodworking-machine opera tors, other, semiskilled____ _ Miscellaneous semiskilled work ers, paint department______ Miscellaneous semiskilled work ers, veneer department______ Other semiskilled workers____ All males, semiskilled_____ Unskilled: Helpers, assemblers’______ Helpers, woodworking-machine operators’__________________ Janitors and sweepers... _ ... _ Laborers, general_________ Truckers and stock movers, hand Watchmen. . . . ____ _____ Miscellaneous unskilled work ers, paint department_______ Miscellaneous unskilled work ers, veneer department______ Other unskilled workers_______ All males, unskilled__ _____ Total, all males___________ 187 $0.537 167 .588 206 .642 104 .576 126 .491 81 .492 70 .487 60 .523 104 .578 200 .562 365 .524 88 .598 82 .599 72 .518 69 .594 1,981 .557 46.6 $25.04 44.6 26.25 48.4 31.06 43.2 24. 85 45.2 22.17 45.7 22.48 45.5 22.16 43.9 22.96 43.7 25.27 44.2 24.85 44.6 23.33 47.6 28.49 42.3 25.31 42.2 21.86 45.9 27.25 45.1 25.11 791 98 211 82 362 232 195 166 98 153 98 142 51 66 233 2,978 .521 .487 .438 .453 .536 .518 .480 .482 .509 .491 .530 .472 .500 .477 .466 .498 43.7 44.6 45.3 44.2 40.9 40.3 42.8 44.7 42.8 44.1 46.2 44.4 43.1 39.8 48.4 43.6 150 331 38 185 127 53 221 55 173 1,333 6, 292 .397 .357 .424 .390 .411 .341 .433 .454 .398 .394 .495 47.6 43.9 42.8 44.4 44.5 56.3 42.7 44.0 44.5 44.8 44.3 171 $0.554 165 .592 186 .664 98 .588 113 .507 72 .504 67 .492 51 .545 95 .598 190 .573 322 .542 82 .610 77 .616 70 .523 61 .611 1,820 .572 46.2 44.6 47.8 42.8 45.1 45.4 45.3 44.0 43.1 44.2 44.6 47.4 41.7 42.0 47.5 44.9 $25.62 26.39 31.72 25. 21 22.88 22.88 22.29 23.97 25. 75 25.33 24.15 28.89 25.70 21.94 29.07 25. 68 22.75 21.73 19. 85 19.98 21.96 20.87 20.57 21.54 21.79 21.65 24.50 20.94 21.56 19.02 22.58 21.75 731 83 185 74 357 225 172 147 91 146 90 123 49 65 212 2,750 .535 .514 .461 .475 .540 .527 .508 .500 .520 .500 .546 .492 .508 .479 .484 .514 43.4 44.5 44.9 44.2 40.8 40.0 42.1 44.9 42.9 43.7 45.5 44.9 42.9 39.7 47.8 43.3 23.25 22.87 20. 65 20.99 22.03 21.11 21.35 22.45 22.32 21.85 24.82 22.10 21.81 19.02 23.15 22.27 18.88 15.67 18.12 17.31 18.30 19.20 18.51 19.97 17.68 17. 63 21.94 148 293 33 158 121 46 195 55 162 1,211 5, 781 .399 .371 .446 .409 .417 .355 .456 .454 .408 .407 .510 47.6 43.4 42.1 43.8 43.8 55.6 42.1 44.0 44.2 44.4 44.0 19.01 16.09 18.81 17.94 18. 26 19.76 19. 22 19.97 18.03 18.06 22.46 80 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING T a b l e 46.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hoursf and weekly earnings o f workers in novelty fu rn itu re o f wood household-furniture branch by sex, skill} and occu pational grou p, October 1937— Continued United States Sex, skill, and occupational group Num ber of workers North Aver Aver Aver Num Aver Aver Aver age age age age ber hourly age weekly age weekly hourly weekly of earn hours earn workers earn weekly earn ings ings ings hours ings Females Skilled: 83 $0.364 40.9 All females, skilled__________ Semiskilled: Sanders, finish, hand----------- _ 118 .368 39.5 161 .439 40.3 Other semiskilled workers.......... 279 .409 40.0 All females, semiskilled--------Unskilled: 62 .367 42.4 All females, unskilled. __ ---.394 40.5 Total, all females.-------- = = =424 == = == = = = Total, all occupations--------- 6, 716 .489 44.1 $14.86 79 $0.370 40.5 $14.99 39.5 40.2 39.9 14.52 17.78 16.39 15. 54 62 .367 42.4 15.94 418 40.4-.. ' ------ = = ~ - .396-- ~ —1 21.56 6,199 .503 43.8 15. 54 16.00 22.08 14. 52 17. 70 16. 36 118 159 277 .368 .442 .411 — T a b l e 47.— Average hourly earnings, w eekly hours, and weekly earnings o f male workers in kitchen fu rn itu re o f wood household-furniture branch, by skill and occupational grou p, October 1937 1 United States Skill and occupational group North Aver Num Aver Aver Aver Num Aver age Aver age ber of age age ber of hourly age weekly age weekly work earn weekly earn work hourly earn weekly earn ers hours ers hours ings ings ings ings Males Skilled: Assemblers, m isc e lla n e o u s, 58 $0.476 skilled___________ _______ 54 .478 Finishers... _____________ 62 .597 Foremen, w orking.---------------33 .423 Inspectors---------------------------116 .553 Sprayers__________________ .. Woodworking-machine opera tors, miscellaneous, skilled. __ 241 .436 56 . 508 Other skilled workers-------------620 .488 All males, skilled------------... Semiskilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, semi 308 .435 skilled__________ _______.. . 89 .442 Craters, packers, and wrappers.. 46 .321 Sanders, cabinet, hand------------130 .431 Sanders, finish, hand_________ 48 .433 Trimmers and upfitters_______ Woodworking-machine opera tors, miscellaneous, semiskilled. 146 .408 Other sem iskilled workers. . . __ 153 .448 920 .428 All males, semiskilled_______ Unskilled: 77 .403 Helpers, assemblers’---------------Helpers, woodworking-machine 120 .316 operators’__________________ 76 .356 Laborers, general___ _ ____ Truckers and stock movers, 44 .376 hand______________________ 90 .334 Other unskilled workers_______ 407 .350 All males, unskilled_________ Total, all males___________ 1,947 .431 45. 2 $21.53 39.3 18.82 48.9 29.20 46. 5 19.68 45.5 25.18 45.0 19. 63 47.9 24. 32 45.4 22.16 50 $0.488 52 .482 55 .611 27 .433 97 .573 195 .446 45 .532 521 .502 44.6 39.8 48.2 46.5 45.6 46.1 47.8 45.6 $21.74 19.18 29.45 20.14 26.17 20.57 25.40 23.92 45.2 45.6 38.3 41.0 44.7 42.9 45.0 43.9 19.65 20.17 12. 32 17.65 19. 35 17. 50 20.18 18.78 259 73 39 106 38 92 123 730 .440 .464 .345 .449 .441 .421 .472 .443 46.0 45.5 37.0 41.6 43.8 46.1 45.3 44.6 20.24 21.13 12.76 18.68 19.29 19.42 21.39 19.74 45.1 43.9 45.7 42.6 46.7 44.9 44.6 18.17 13.87 16.24 16.00 15.60 15.74 19.22 66 87 63 28 61 305 1,556 .416 .331 .365 .405 .346 .366 .448 45.5 44.9 45.5 42.7 49.1 45.8 45.2 18.94 14.87 16.61 17.29 17.00 16.76 20.22 1 Due to the very limited number of female workers, it was impossible to show averages for them. AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS AND SEX 81 In making regional comparisons for each of the occupational group averages, it should be remembered that on the whole the degree of skill is not as great in the South as in the North. This is due to differences in manufacturing processes as well as to the fact that a larger proportion of the furniture produced in the South is of cheaper grades than in the northern area. Occupational averages for the United States as a whole are also presented in each of the preceding tables. It should be kept in mind, however, that such figures are a combination of the relatively high data in the North and the low figures in the South. Data for Females Relatively few females were found in the wood household branch of the furniture industry. Out of a total of 33,199 wage earners, only 1,717 or 5.2 percent were women. Most of the females were employed in the upholstery and finishing departments, and many of them performed tasks not generally done by males. Of the female occupations, by far the most important is that of hand and/or machine sewers, although a number of women were also found among the packers and wrappers and hand-finish sanders. The average hourly earnings of all females in the country as a whole amounted to 42.1 cents in October 1937. Looking at table 48, it will be seen that as many as 6.7 percent of them received less than 25 cents, and 16.1 percent were paid under 30 cents an hour. Not far from one-half (47.6 percent) earned less than 40 cents, and more than two-thirds (68.4 percent) were paid under 47.5 cents. Only 4.5 percent of the women received as much as 72.5 cents an hour and over. Most of the female employees were semiskilled (1,205 out of 1,717), with the skilled (350) exceeding the unskilled (162) workers. Actu ally, the average earnings per hour were the same for both skilled and semiskilled wage earners, namely 43.2 cents, but the unskilled workers averaged 32.2 cents, or 11 cents less.1 1 The absence of a differential in favor of skilled over semiskilled females is largely due to the fact that piece work and to some extent bonus work, both of which make for higher earnings, were much more preva lent among the latter. As a matter of fact, in 2 of the 4 wood household-furniture branches (upholstered and novelty furniture), semiskilled workers actually averaged more per hour (0.3 and 4.5 cents, respectively) than skilled workers. 48.— Sim ple percentage distribution of fem ale workers according to average hourly earnings in wood household-furniture branch, by region and skill, October 1937 Semi Unskilled Total Skilled Semi Unskilled Total Skilled Semi Unskilled Total Skilled skilled skilled workers workers workers skilled workers workers workers workers workers workers workers workers workers 12.5 and under 17.5 cents. _____________ _______ 17.5 and under 22 5 cents. __ . . . . _____ 22.5 and under 25.0 cents. _ . ________ 25.0 and under 27.5 cents. _____________________ 27.5 and under 30.0 cents______ ________________ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents_______________________ 32.5 and under 35.0 cents_______________________ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents_______________________ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents. . _ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents 42.5 and under 47.5 cents. . ______________ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents. ___ _________ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents. ____________ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents. __ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents. __ _______ 67. 5 a n d u n d e r 72.5 c e n t s 72.5 a n d u n d e r 77.5 c e n t s 77.5 a n d u n d e r 82.5 c e n t s 3.0 1.9 82.5 and under 87.5 cents 8 7.5 a n d u n d e r 0 2.5 c e n t s 92.5 cents and under $1 $1 and under $1.10 $1.10 and under $1.20 $1.20 and under $1.40 2.6 2.4 1.7 5.8 3.6 10.1 8.0 7.6 5.8 8.2 12.6 9.3 5.4 4.9 4.5 _ _ _ $1 40 a n d o v e r Total__________________________________ _ 0.9 .6 .3 4.6 3.7 11.1 10.0 7.1 5.4 9.1 15.8 8.6 7.7 3.4 4.3 3.1 .8 .6 .5 1 .1 .6 .6 1 .1 .2 .3 .3 .3 .1 .1 100.0 6.8 6.2 5.6 18.4 3.1 17.3 3.7 10.5 1.2 9.3 6.8 4.9 3.7 1.9 .6 0.6 1.7 1.0 5.6 2.7 8.3 7.2 7.4 5.6 9.0 13.9 10.5 6.3 5.8 5.3 3.6 2.3 0.3 .3 4.6 2.6 9.1 8.1 7.2 5.2 10.1 16.6 9.8 8.8 3.9 4.9 0.3 1.9 1.1 4.1 2.8 6.5 7.3 7.1 6.2 8.6 13.9 11.4 5.7 6.8 6.0 3.6 4.0 1.3 1.0 .7 .6 .7 .7 1 .3 .2 .4 .3 .4 .3 .3 .3 .1 .1 .1 .3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 i Number of workers too small to permit the presentation of data. 2.6 2.4 1.7 4.5 3.7 8.8 8.0 7.4 6.5 7.7 12.3 10.0 5.0 5.7 5.1 3.4 2.4 1.0 .7 .4 100.0 3.0 4.5 2.3 18.7 2.3 20.2 3.8 10.5 1.5 11.3 8.3 6.0 4.5 2.3 14.1 6.1 5.7 7.2 8.7 19.9 12.5 8.7 6.8 2.7 4.9 1.9 .8 100.0 100.0 0) Q) 0) 0) 0) (0 0) 0) 0) 0) 14.7 5.2 4.7 6.3 8.4 21.0 11.5 8.9 7.9 3.1 4.7 2.6 1.0 0) (i) (i) (0 0) 0) 0) 0) .8 2.9 1.2 .8 .5 .3 .5 .1 100.0 100.0 100.0 1 0 0 .0 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING Average hourly earnings South North United States 82 T able AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS AND SEX 83 The average hourly earnings of all females were 44.4 cents in the northern and 30.0 cents in the southern area, which is a difference of 14.4 cents. Comparing the two distributions, it will be seen that, whereas only 3.3 percent of the northern females earned less than 25 cents, slightly over one-fourth (25.9 percent) were paid under that figure in the southern territory. The number receiving less than 30 cents was 11.6 percent in the northern and 41.8 percent in the southern region. Although 40.1 percent earned under 40 cents in the North, nearly nine-tenths (89.7 percent) received less than that figure in the South. Not a single female earned 57.5 cents and over in the southern terri tory, whereas one-fifth (20.2 percent) earned that much or more in the North. Substantial differentials in favor of the northern over the southern area were found in each skill group of female workers. The dif ferentials amounted to 13.0 cents for skilled, 15.1 cents for semiskilled, and 10.7 cents for unskilled. Of the three occupations (all semiskilled) sufficiently large to permit the presentation of separate data, the highest average hourly earnings (51.7 cents) in the North were re ported for hand and/or machine sewers, with the averages amounting to 37.5 cents for hand-finish sanders and 36.8 cents for packers and wrappers. The southern averages were, respectively, 34.0, 23.8, and 31.0 cents. Although the work of females in most instances is not comparable to that of males, it is interesting to make comparisons between the average hourly earnings of the two groups. In the wood-furniture industry for the United States as a whole, all male workers averaged 6.2 cents more than all female employees. The differential amounted to 9.5 cents in the northern and 5.9 cents in the southern territory. For the one occupation shown for both sexes, namely, hand-finish sanders, the differential in the North was 9.6 cents. On the other hand, in the southern territory, for hand-finish sanders the males had a differential of 8.0 cents. P A R T 3.— Office Furniture Chapter X .— Wood Office Furniture Average H ou rly Earnings The average hourly earnings of the 2,976 wage earners employed in the 31 wood office-furniture establishments covered in this survey were 44.4 cents in October 1937. (See table 49.) As one may see from the distribution of individual earnings in table 50 and chart 5, only 2.1 percent were paid less than 25 cents and 6.0 percent under 30 cents an hour. Approximately one-third (32.6 percent) earned 30 and less than 40 cents, so that 38.6 percent received below 40 cents. However, the largest concentration was between 40 and 52.5 cents, the number found between these limits also being 38.6 percent. Somewhat more than one-fifth (22.8 percent) were paid 52.5 cents and over, but only 6.9 percent earned as much as 67.5 cents and over. The relatively low earnings found on the whole in wood office furniture is surprising, in view of the fairly large proportion of skilled workers in this division. Of the total employees, 40.1 percent were skilled, 40.9 percent semiskilled, and 19.0 percent unskilled. More over, nearly all of the plants included were in the northern area. In fact, only 3 establishments with 450 employees were covered in the southern region. T a b l e 4 9 .— A verage h ou rly ea rn in g s, w eekly h ou rs, and w eek ly earnings in w ood office-furniture d iv isio n , by region and skill, October 1 9 8 7 United States Skill Num ber of work ers Aver Aver Aver age age age hour week week ly ly earn ly earn ings hours ings North Num ber of work ers Aver Aver Aver age age age hour week week ly ly earn ly earn ings hours ings Skilled workers.. _ 1,193 $0. 506 42.6 $21. 57 1,054 $0. 525 42.4 $22. 27 Semiskilled workers____ 1,217 .423 41.4 17. 53 1, 010 .447 41.0 18. 34 Unskilled workers_____ 566 .356 42.3 15. 06 462 .375 41.8 15. 71 Total_____ ____ 2, 976 .444 42.1 18. 68 2, 526 .467 41.8 19.50 South Aver Aver Num age Aver age age week ber of hour week work ly ly ly ers earn hours earn ings ings 139 $0. 368 207 .315 104 .275 450 .322 44.2 $16.28 43.3 13.62 44.3 12.19 43.8 14.11 As in other divisions of the furniture industry, the dispersion of hourly earnings in wood office furniture is explained in part by the diversity found among the different skill groups. Compared with an average of 50.6 cents for skilled employees, the hourly earnings of semiskilled averaged 42.3 cents, and the average for unskilled was 35.6 cents. Hence, the extreme spread was 15.0 cents, with the 161633°— 39------7 85 86 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING differential between skilled and semiskilled (8.3 cents) being somewhat higher than that between semiskilled and unskilled workers (6.7 cents). CHART 5 . PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES IN WOOD OFFICE FURNITURE DIVISION BY AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS OCTOBER, 19 3 7 PERCENT OF TOTAL UNITED STATES PERCENT OF TOTAL NORTH Comparing the three distributions, it will be noted that hardly any wage earners (0.1 percent) were paid under 25 cents an hour among skilled, as against 1.9 percent for semiskilled and 6.9 percent for un skilled workers. The number receiving less than 30 cents amounted to 1.1 percent for skilled, 5.5 percent for semiskilled, and 17.4 percent for unskilled employees. If 40 cents is taken as the upper limit, the percentages are 19.6 for skilled, 43.4 for semiskilled, and 68.6 for un- OFFICE FURNITURE 87 skilled workers. On the other hand, 36.6 percent of the skilled earned 52.5 cents and over, which may be compared with 18.0 percent for semiskilled and only 4.8 for unskilled employees. Regional differentials also contributed to the dispersion of hourly earnings. For all employees, the average was 46.7 cents for northern and 32.2 cents for southern plants, which is a spread of 14.5 cents. It should be remembered, however, that although the southern coverage is representative of the wood office-furniture division in that area, it is not sufficiently large in itself to permit anything except the broad generalization that wages in the North are higher than in the South. To some extent differences in the composition of the labor force are partly responsible for the spread in hourly earnings between the two regions. In the northern plants, 41.7 percent of the employees were skilled, 40.0 percent semiskilled, and 18.3 percent unskilled, the respective southern figures being 30.9 percent, 46.0 percent, and 23.1 percent. Substantial differentials in favor of the northern over southern establishments are found for each skill group. These differ entials are 15.7 cents for skilled, 13.2 cents for semiskilled, and 10.0 cents for unskilled workers. As may also be seen from table 50, few wood office-furniture workers in the North earned either less than 30 cents or less than 25 cents an hour, the respective percentages being 2.9 and 1.5. In contrast, there were 29.7 percent with hourly earnings under 40 cents. Al though more than one-fourth of the workers (26.6 percent) averaged at least 52.5 cents, only 5.4 percent received 72.5 cents or more. T able 5 0 .— S im p le percentage d istribution o f workers according to average h ou rly earnings in w ood office-furniture d iv isio n , by sk ill , October 1 9 8 7 United States North Un Semi Semi Un Total Skilled skilled skilled Total Skilled skilled skilled workers workers workers workers workers workers workers workers 1.4 0.1 1.2 4.6 1.1 Under 22.5 cents __ _ 1.2 3.7 .4 2.3 .7 .7 22.5 and under 25.0 cents ____ ____ .5 .9 .8 0.2 25.0 and under 27.5 cents, _ _____ 2.7 .6 2.3 7.8 .9 1.9 .4 1.2 2. 7 .6 1.3 .3 .5 27.5 and under 30.0 cents, __ _ ___ 1.7 4.0 3.1 30.0 and under 32.5 cents__________ 10.3 4.7 12.3 18.0 .7 13.9 6.2 2.4 7.2 12.2 5.3 32.5 and under 35.0 cents__________ .9 14.1 5.7 9.2 11.5 7.9 7.9 4.8 3.5 35.0 and under 37.5 cents,__ ______ 9.8 13.9 8.2 9.6 37.5 and under 40.0 cents__________ 6.6 9.2 9.5 7.5 10.9 11.7 15.4 11.8 17.5 40.0 and under 42.5 cents__________ 13.8 11.7 14.8 15.5 18.9 42.5 and under 47.5 cents,. ________ 14.4 17.6 14.3 16.6 19.2 17.0 7.6 9.3 47.5 and under 52.5 cents__________ 10.4 14.5 3.5 11.7 15.5 11.3 9.5 4.1 6.4 7.4 10.2 52.5 and under 57.5 cents__________ 9.4 5.7 1.8 6.8 2.2 57.5 and under 62.5 cents., _ ______ 8.5 1.9 6.6 9.2 5.7 4.8 5.7 2.4 4.4 62.5 and under 67.5 cents__________ 3.8 3.1 1.1 5.7 6.5 3.8 1.3 4.1 67.5 and under 72.5 cents, _________ 2.4 1.8 2.8 4.6 2.2 72.5 and under 77.5 cents, _______ 1.6 1.4 2.7 1.9 3.0 1.7 77.5 and under 82.5 cents__________ 1.1 2.3 .6 1.3 2.5 .7 .7 1.4 .4 .9 82.5 and under 87.5 cents ______ 1.6 .5 .4 .1 .1 87.5 and under 92.5 cents__________ .9 .5 1.0 92.5 cents and under $1____ __ _ __ .3 .4 .8 .9 .4 .1 .4 .1 $1 and over, __________________ _ .8 .9 Total________________ _____ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number of workers______________ 2,976 1,193 1,217 566 2, 526 1,054 1,010 462 Average hourly earnings 88 W A G E A N D H O U R ST R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G In addition to broad regional differentials, there is variation in average hourly earnings among the several States. All three southern plants were located in North Carolina, but in the northern area the plants covered a number of States. In the States with three or more establishments, the individual plant averages were 34.0, 35.6, 38.7, and 48.8 cents in Pennsylvania; 38.1, 38.2, 39.1, 43.3, and 44.0 cents in Indiana; 40.7, 43.2, 46.3, 50.2, and 73.9 cents in Michigan; 45.4, 46.5, 49.6, and 53.5 cents in Illinois; and 47.9, 58.4, and 61.7 cents in Ohio. On the whole, therefore, it appears that hourly earnings in Pennsylvania and Indiana were lower than in Michigan, Illinois, and Ohio, but it must be remembered that there is considerable overlapping in the averages among these States. The average hourly earnings in the North were higher in trade-union than in non-trade-union plants, the respective figures amounting to 54.6 and 46.0 cents. In both cases, there was considerable range in the average hourly earnings of establishments, which cannot be dis cussed separately for the two groups of plants without revealing their identity. Among the 28 establishments, there were 12 that averaged under 45 cents, nine between 45 and 50 cents, three between 50 and 55 cents, one between 55 and 60 cents, two between 60 and 65 cents, and one between 70 and 75 cents. According to table 51, the 28 northern plants were fairly well scattered with respect to size of community, being found in places varying in population all the way from rural territory under 2,500 to metropolitan areas of 1,000,000 and over. If there is any direct correlation in this division of the industry between average hourly earnings and size of community, it is that, on the whole, the lowestpaid groups are located in places under 100,000 and the highest paid in metropolitan centers of 100,000 and over. T a b l e 51.— D istrib u tio n o f in divid u al plants in w ood office-furniture d iv isio n in the N o r th , b y siz e o f c o m m u n ity and average h ou rly ea rn in g s , October 1 9 8 7 Size of community Under 2,500_______________ _ __ 2,500 and under 5,000__________ ... 5,000 and under 25,000_____________ 25,000 and under 100,000_________ 100,000 and under 250,000__________ 250,000 and under 1,000,000_ _ ____ 1,000,000 and over______________ Total............................................. Average hourly earnings Total 30 and 35 and 40 and 45 and 50 and 55 and 60 cents under under under under under under and 35 cents 40 cents 45 cents 50 cents 55 cents 60 cents over 4 3 4 2 5 2 8 28 1 1 1 2 2 1 6 1 1 1 2 5 1 1 1 6 9 1 2 1 3 1 1 2 3 O F F IC E 89 F U R N IT U R E On the other hand, there is little evidence of correlation between average earnings per hour and size of establishment in the North, as shown by table 52. The plant with the lowest average was in the 21 and under 50 group, and that with the highest average was in the 101 and under 250 group. The remaining establishments were scat tered. The 2 smallest plants had hourly earnings above the average for the whole division. T able 52.— D istrib u tio n o f in dividu al plants in w ood office-furniture d ivision in the N orth , by average h ourly earnings and size o f pla n t , October 1 9 3 7 Average hourly earnings Size of plant in terms of number of employees 6 to 20 employees____ 21 to 50 employees____ 51 to 100 employees___ 101 to 250 employees__ 251 employees and over. Total______ ____ 55 35 45 65 40 50 60 70 30 Total and and and and and and and and and under under under under under under under under under 55 65 35 45 50 75 40 60 70 cents cents cents cents cents cents cents cents cents 2 6 7 10 3 28 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 2 6 5 2 2 2 2 1 9 1 2 1 3 1 1 I 2 1 1 Male workers predominate in the manufacture of wood office furni ture, as only 57 females were found in the establishments covered. Among males, the occupational averages ranged from 65.3 cents an hour for working foremen to 32.5 cents for wood-working machine operator’s helpers. Outside of working foremen, the highest-paid skilled occupational groups were those of upholsterers, finishers, and miscellaneous maintenance workers, their respective averages being 59.9, 56.8, and 56.2 cents. The averages of the remaining skilled occupational groups ranged from 54.8 cents for “ other skilled workers” to 42.9 cents for belt sanders. There was considerable overlapping in the occupational averages of skilled and semiskilled males, which may be seen from the fact that the spread of the semiskilled occupa tional groups was from 48.9 cents for hand cabinet sanders to 37.3 cents for hand-finish sanders. The averages of the unskilled male occupational groups ranged from 39.3 cents for general laborers to 32.5 cents for wood-working machine operators’ helpers. The 57 women in this division averaged 38.1 cents. (See table 53.) W eekly Hours The full-time weekly hours of work in the 31 establishments making wood office furniture ranged from 40 to 50 in October 1937. Of the total, 10 plants had a workweek of 40, 1 of 41.5, 3 of 44, 6 of 45, 1 of 49.5, and 10 of 50 hours. 90 T W A G E A N D H O U R ST R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G 5 3 .— A verag e h ourly earnings, w eek ly hours, and w eek ly ea rnings o f w orkers in wood office-furniture d ivision , by sex, sk ill, and occupational grou p, October able 1987 Sex, skill, and occupational group Number Average Average Average of hourly weekly weekly workers earnings hours earnings Males Skilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, skilled___ _________________ ___ F inishers..._____ ______________ ________________ _______ Foremen, working___ _____ _ ___ ______. . . ________ Inspectors________________________________________________ Sanders, belt_____________________ ______________________ Sawyers, band.._ ______________________________ ... ... Sawyers, cut-off---------- ----------------------- ------------------------Shaper operators. . __________ ____ ________ ____________ Sprayers_________ _____________________________ _ _ _ Upholsterers_____________________________ _____ __________ Woodworking-machine operators, other, skilled______________ Miscellaneous skilled workers, maintenance department______ Miscellaneous skilled workers, veneer department . ... ... ... Other skilled workers____________ _________________________ All males, skilled______________________________ ________ Semiskilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, semiskilled_________ __________ Boring-machine operators______ . _ ^_____ __ ______ Craters, packers, and wrappers____ _ _________ __ ... . Gluers, rough stock________________ __ __________ ... . __ Polishers and rubbers. __________________ _____________ Sanders, cabinet, h a n d .__________________________________ Sanders, finish, hand_______ __________________ _________ Sanders, machine, other than belt---------------------------------------Sawyers, rip____________ _________ _______ ________ Stainers and fillers, hand-------------- ----------------------------------Trimmers and upfitters_________________ ____ ____ _ Woodworking-machine operators, other, semiskilled__________ Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, veneer department_______ Other semiskilled workers___ _ . . . _______ ______ ... All males, semiskilled___________________________________ Unskilled: Helpers, assemblers’__________ ------- . . . Helpers, woodworking-machine operators’ _________ __ Laborers, general___ _____________ . __ _ _ . . . ----------Truckers and stock movers, h a n d ..____ __ ______ ______ Watchmen... __ _______ ... __ ______________ . . . -----Other unskilled workers__ _ _ ___________________________ All males, unskilled_______ ______________ _______ Total, all males____________________________________ .. Females All female employees i____________________________________ Total, all occupations_____________________ ____ ________ 294 61 119 39 75 40 56 39 72 46 183 52 60 47 1,183 $0.477 .568 .653 .463 .429 .482 .455 .520 .486 .599 .477 .562 .433 .548 .507 42.5 39.7 45.5 41.5 42.1 42.6 42.0 41.6 42.3 42.0 41.4 45.9 41.7 46.2 42.6 $20.28 22.54 29.70 19. 22 18.09 20.50 19.11 21.62 20. 56 25.17 19. 76 25. 80 18.04 25.28 21. 62 116 44 84 42 95 46 117 93 51 99 62 98 44 181 1,172 .442 .447 .411 .400 .442 .489 .373 .439 .448 .432 .487 .442 .422 .387 .424 43.3 41.3 43.3 38.6 40.9 31.2 42.3 41.9 40.8 41.1 39.1 42.4 42.5 44.4 41.7 19.13 18.46 17. 78 15. 42 18.06 15.26 15.79 18. 43 18.29 17.74 19.03 18.74 17. 93 17.17 17. 71 30 158 89 35 33 219 564 2, 919 .375 .325 .393 .384 .346 .358 .356 .445 39.1 39.2 43.7 41.4 57.4 42.2 42.3 42.2 14. 66 12. 74 17.14 15.90 19.84 15.12 15.07 18.78 57 2,976 .381 .444 35.4 42.1 13.48 18.68 i Not enough female employees in the different occupational groups to justify the computation of an average. The actual weekly hours of all employees in wood office furniture for the United States as a whole amounted to 42.1 in October 1937. According to the distribution in table 54, seven-tenths of the total (70.9 percent) worked 40 and under 52 hours a week. There were 18.3 percent with an actual workweek of exactly 40 hours, and nearly one-fourth (23.6 percent) who worked 40 and less than 44 hours. This may be compared with 27.7 percent working 44 and under 48 and 19.6 O F F IC E F U R N IT U R E 91 percent 48 and under 52 hours. Only 5.5 percent had an actual work week of 52 hours or longer. On the other hand, nearly one-fourth (23.6 percent) worked less than 40 hours, most of these being wage earners who were on part time during the week covered by the survey. The actual weekly hours were higher in the southern as against the northern region, the respective averages being 43.8 and 41.8. The southern average also exceeded that for the North for every skill group. On the other hand, the differences in average actual hours worked among various skill groups were less pronounced, the figures for the country as a whole amounting to 42.6 for skilled, 41.4 for semiskilled, and 42.3 for unskilled workers. (See table 49.) Of the 5 trade-union establishments in the northern area, 2 had full time hours of 40 per week, while the remaining plants worked, respec tively, 44, 45, and 50. In terms of actual average hours per week, however, the shorter hours of trade-union as against non-trade-union establishments are quite evident, the figures being 35.6 for the former and 42.4 for the latter. Of the 10 plants having 50 as their full-time hours per week, 4 were located in rural territory (with a population of under 2,500), 3 in communities between 5,000 and 50,000, and 3 in places between 100,000 and 250,000. By contrast, of the 10 establishments with full-time hours of 40, 2 were found in communities under 5,000, 2 in places of 10,000 to 25,000, 1 in a community of 50,000 to 100,000, 1 in a place of 100,000 to 250,000, and the remaining 4 in metropolitan centers of 250,000 and over. In other words, there is some evidence that, on the whole, plants with longer hours are located in smaller communities. On the other hand, there is little evidence of correlation between full-time hours per week and size of plant. Among skilled males, the longest average actual weekly hours were 46.2 for “ other skilled workers/’ 45.9 for miscellaneous skilled workers in the maintenance department, and 45.5 for working foremen, the averages of the remaining occupational groups ranging from 39.7 hours for finishers to 42.6 hours for band sawyers. Of the semiskilled occupational groups, three averaged less than 40, but none exceeded 45 hours. As regards unskilled occupational groups, the watchmen were conspicuous with an average of 57.4 hours, while the remaining averages showed a spread from 39.1 for assemblers’ helpers to 43.7 for general laborers. The females averaged 35.4 hours. (See table 53.) 92 T able W A G E A N D H O U R ST R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E 54.— M A N U F A C T U R IN G D istrib u tio n o f workers according to actual w eekly hours in w ood officefu rn itu re d iv isio n , October 1 9 3 7 United States Weekly hours North Number of Simple Number of Simple workers percentage workers percentage Under 24__________________________________ ____ 24 and under 32___________ ______ _______________ 32 and under 40_________________ _______ _____ Exactly 40______________________________ ______ Over 40 and under 44_________________ 44 and under 48________________ ____________ 48 and under 52______________________ __________ 52 and under 56_______________ _______________ 56 and under 64----------------------------------------------------------64 and over------------------------ -----------------Total_________ _____ ________________________ 116 181 405 544 158 823 584 107 37 21 2,976 3.9 6.1 13.6 18.3 5.3 27.7 19.6 3.6 1.2 .7 100.0 98 168 369 488 126 665 487 71 33 21 2, 526 3.9 6.7 14.6 19.3 5.0 26.3 19.3 2.8 1.3 .8 100.0 W eekly Earnings The average earnings per week of all wage earners in wood office furniture for the country as a whole were $18.68 in October 1937. (See table 49.) From the distribution of individual earnings in table 55, it will be seen that more than four-fifths of the total (80.7 percent) received $10 and under $25 a week, with the modal concentration (35.9 percent) in the class of $15 and less than $20. Only 6.1 percent earned under $10, many of these being on a part-time basis during the week covered. At the upper end of the distribution, there were 13.2 percent paid $25 and over, but only 2.3 percent received as much as $35 and over. On the basis of skill groups, the average weekly earnings amounted to $21.57 for skilled, $17.53 for semiskilled, and $15.06 for unskilled workers. As a result, the differential between skilled and semiskilled ($4.04) is considerably larger than the one between semiskilled and unskilled ($2.47). Owing to the relatively small variation in average actual weekly hours, these differences reflect mainly the respective ones in average earnings per hour. A comparison of the three distributions shows that the number paid under $15, or just below the average of unskilled employees, amounted to 50.8 percent for unskilled and 30.4 percent for semi skilled, as against only 13.3 percent for skilled wage earners. By contrast, the number earning $20 and over, which is below the skilled average, was 54.9 percent for skilled and 29.6 percent for semiskilled, as compared with only 13.6 percent for unskilled workers. In spite of the fact that the average actual weekly hours for all employees were longer in the southern than in the northern territory, the differential in weekly earnings in favor of the latter over the former was $5.39, the respective averages being $19.50 and $14.11. O F F IC E T able 93 F U R N IT U R E 55.— S im p le percentage distribution o f w orkers according to actual w eekly earnings in w ood office-furniture d iv isio n , by sk ill , October 1 9 3 7 Weekly earnings Under $ 5 __ ___ _ $5 and under $10___ $10 and under $15__$15 and under $20. __ $20 and under $25___ $25 and under $30___ $30 and under $35. __ $35 and under $40_. _ $40 and under $45_._ $45 and over T o ta l______ Number of workers_ United States North Un Semi Total Skilled skilled skilled workers workers workers workers Semi Un Total Skilled skilled skilled workers workers workers workers 1.4 4.7 21.3 35.9 23.5 7.3 3.6 1.3 .6 .4 100.0 2,976 0.7 2.3 10.3 31.8 31.3 11.8 6.6 2.8 1.5 .9 100.0 1,193 2.0 4.5 23.9 40.0 21.3 5.7 2.1 .4 .1 100.0 1,217 1.8 10.2 38.8 35.6 11.8 1.2 .4 .2 100.0 566 1.3 4.0 15.5 36.9 26.9 8.4 4.2 1.5 .8 .5 100.0 2, 526 0.7 2.0 6.5 30.7 34.1 12.8 7.4 3.1 1.7 1.0 100.0 1,054 1.7 4.1 17.1 41.8 25.3 6.8 2.6 .5 .1 100.0 1,010 2.2 8.2 32.3 40.9 14.3 1.5 .4 .2 100.0 462 It is interesting to note that the average earnings per week were practically the same for both trade-union and non-trade-union establish ments, the respective figures being $19.46 and $19.50. It will be remem bered that the average hourly earnings were substantially higher in tradeunion than in non-trade-union plants, but the average actual weekly hours were sufficiently shorter in the former as against the latter to equalize the weekly earnings. The highest weekly earnings among skilled males were found in the three occupational groups which had the longest hours per week in addition to relatively high hourly earnings. These were working foremen, miscellaneous skilled workers in the maintenance department, and “ Other skilled workers,” whose average earnings per week amounted, respectively, to $29.70, $25.80, and $25.28. Upholsterers, who had relatively high hourly earnings but shorter hours per week, came next with an average of $25.17. Moreover, finishers, with relatively high hourly earnings but with weekly hours of less than 40, averaged only $22.54. Hand cabinet sanders, who had the highest earnings per hour and by far the shortest weekly hours among semi skilled males, showed the lowest earnings per week for the group, namely $15.26. On the other hand, watchmen, with relatively low hourly earnings but with the longest weekly hours, averaged $19.84 per week, or higher than any of the semiskilled and five of the skilled occupational groups. (See table 53.) Chapter X I.— Metal Office Furniture Average H ourly Earnings For all wage earners in the metal office division of the furniture in dustry, hourly earnings averaged 66.9 cents in October 1937. Prob ably the most noteworthy feature of the distribution of individual earnings in table 56 and chart 6 is the relatively small number of employees found in the lower-wage classes. Only 0.7 percent averaged less than 40 cents an hour, and all except 9.1 percent received 47.5 cents and over. Another distinguishing characteristic of the distribution is the absence of a pronounced concentration in any single class. Instead, nearly three-fourths (74.0 percent) are distributed in fairly uniform proportions over the 35-cent range from 47.5 to 82.5 cents. Slightly over one-sixth (16.9 percent), however, received 82.5 cents and over, with less than 1 percent paid $1.10 and over. T a b l e 56.— D istrib u tio n o f workers according to average h ourly ea rnings in metal office-furniture d iv isio n , by skill, October 1 9 3 7 Total workers Average hourly earnings Number Under 40.0 cents, _ _ 27 40.0 and under 42.5 cents___ 100 42.5 and under 47.5 cents___ 248 47.5 and under 52.5 cents _ _ 460 462 52.5 and under 57.5 cents___ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents . _ 474 62.5 and under 67.5 cents___ 486 67.5 and under 72.5 cents__ _ 450 72.5 and under 77.5 cents___ 400 335 77.5 and under 82.5 cents___ 235 82.5 and under 87.5 cents__ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents___ 197 152 92.5 cents and under $1_. . $1 and under $1.10_____ 81 17 $1.10 and under $1.20 11 $1.20 and over, _ 4,135 Total., __. Skilled workers . Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers Simple Simple Simple Simple per Number per Number per Number per centage centage centage centage 0.7 2.4 6.0 11.1 11.1 11.4 11.7 10.9 9.7 8.1 5.7 4.8 3.7 2.0 .4 .3 100.0 1 15 46 64 83 117 136 163 172 167 114 94 105 72 16 11 1,376 0.1 1.1 3.3 4.7 6.0 8.5 9.9 11.8 12.6 12.1 8.3 6.8 7.6 5.2 1.2 .8 100.0 14 44 132 220 275 268 273 242 189 127 99 93 46 8 1 0.7 2.2 6.5 10.8 13.5 13.2 13.4 11.9 9.3 6.3 4.9 4.6 2.3 .4 0) 12 41 70 176 104 89 77 45 39 41 22 10 1 1 1.6 5.7 9.6 24.2 14.3 12.2 10.6 6.2 5.4 5.6 3.0 1.4 .1 .1 2,031 100.0 728 100.0 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. These relatively high earnings may be explained partly by the fact that all of the 19 metal-office-furniture plants covered were located in the northern territory. On the other hand, the earnings are relatively high in spite of the fact that the semiskilled workers are the dominating group in this division. Of the 4,135 employees, 49.1 percent were semiskilled, as compared with 33.3 percent skilled and only 17.6 percent unskilled workers. (See table 57.) 94 M ETAL O F F IC E 95 F U R N IT U R E The average hourly earnings varied considerably among the different skill groups. The figures were 75.1 cents for skilled, 64.5 cents for semiskilled, and 57.8 cents for unskilled workers. The extreme spread, therefore, was 17.3 cents, of which 10.6 cents was the differential between skilled and semiskilled and 6.7 cents that between semiskilled and unskilled. CHART 6. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES IN M E T A L O F F IC E F U R N IT U R E AND P U B L IC SEATING D IV IS IO N S BY AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS UNITED STATES, OCTOBER 1937 PERCENT OF t o t a l PERCENT METAL OFFICE FURNITURE of t o ta l PUBLIC SEATING U. S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS T a b l e 57.— A verage hourly ea rn in gs, w eekly hours, and w eekly earnings o f workers in m etal office-furniture division, by skill, October 1 9 3 7 Skill Skilled workers Semiskilled workers_ __ _ __ __ __ __ _ Unskilled workers-__ ______ __ ______ _____ _ Total workers____________ _________ _ _ Number of workers Average hourly earnings 1,376 2,031 728 4,135 $0. 751 .645 .578 .669 Average weekly hours 40.8 39.9 39.9 40.2 Average weekly earnings $30. 66 25. 73 23. 03 26.90 96 W AGE AND H O U R ST R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G A comparison of the three distributions indicates that very few workers in each skill group averaged less than 40 cents an hour. The number paid under 47.5 cents was 4.5 percent for skilled, 9.4 percent for semiskilled, and 16.9 percent for unskilled employees. By contrast, the number paid 82.5 cents and over was 29.9 for skilled, which may be compared with 12.2 for semiskilled and only 4.6 for unskilled workers. Geographical location appears to have little bearing on average hourly earnings, as shown by the fact that plants located in the same State and often within proximity of each other have a wide range in average earnings. For example, the spread between the lowest and highest individual plant averages amounted to 13.7 cents in Western New York, 25.5 cents in Illinois, and 33.6 cents in Ohio. These rather wide variations are undoubtedly due to the competitive in fluence of wage levels of other industries in the same locality. Thus, wages in metal office-furniture plants located near the large steel producing centers are influenced by those paid in the steel plants. In terms of geographic divisions, the spread was 18.3 cents in the Middle Atlantic and 37.5 cents in the Midwestern States. In metal office furniture, the average hourly earnings were some what higher in non-trade-union than in trade-union plants, which is contrary to the experience in wood household and office furniture. The average earnings per hour in metal office furniture were 67.7 cents in non-trade-union and 65.3 cents in trade-union establishments. It is true that one of the three plants with the highest averages (over 70 cents) was unionized, but the establishment with the very lowest average was also operating under a trade-union agreement. In fact, all except two of the trade-union plants had hourly earnings below the average for the entire division. The 19 plants engaged in the production of metal office furniture were located in communities of different sizes, varying in population all the way from 5,000 to 1,000,000 and over. (See table 58.) The coverage is too thin to warrant any definite conclusions, but there does not seem to be any correlation here between average hourly earnings and size of community. In the 7 establishments located in places between 50,000 and 100,000, for example, the average earnings per hour varied from a figure under 50 cents to one over 70 cents. Furthermore, of the 6 plants averaging between 65 and 70 cents, one was located in a community between 10,000 and 50,000, 2 in places between 50,000 and 100,000, 2 in communities between 100,000 and 500,000, and 1 in a metropolitan area between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Lastly, the 2 establishments in communities of 1,000,000 and over averaged less than 60 cents, which is below the average for the entire division. M ETAL T able O F F IC E 97 F U R N IT U R E 5 8 .— D istrib u tio n o f in dividu al plants in m etal office-furniture d iv isio n , by size o f c o m m u n ity and average hourly ea rn in g s , October 1 9 8 7 Average hourly earnings Size of community Total 5.000 and under 10,000........... 10.000 and under 50,000.......... 50.000 and under 100,000........ 100.000 and under 500,000___ 500.000 and under 1,000,000. 1,000,000 and over__________ Total_______________ Under 50 cents 2 2 50 and under 55 cents 1 2 2 19 60 and under 65 cents 65 and under 70 cents 2 1 1 7 4 55 and under 60 cents 2 1 1 3 2 70 and under 75 cents 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 6 2 1 1 3 75 cents and over Most of the plants in metal office furniture were either medium sized or large. Of the 19 establishments, 4 had 100 employees or less, with the remaining plants varying in size from over 100 to over 500, as will be noted in table 59. Although the coverage is too thin to justify any conclusions, this table indicates the existence of direct correlation between size of establishment and average hourly earnings. For example, each of the 3 plants that averaged above 70 cents em ployed more than 500 workers. In fact, none of the 7 establishments that employed over 500 wage earners averaged less than 60 cents. By contrast, of the 7 plants with 250 employees or less, all but 2 averaged under 55 cents. T able 5 9 .— D istrib u tio n o f individual plants in metal office-furniture d iv isio n , by average h ou rly earnings and size o f pla n t , October 1 9 3 7 Average hourly earnings Size of plant in terms of number of employees 6 to 100 employees_____ _ 101 to 250 employees_______ 251 to 500 employees _ __ _ 501 employees and over. _ _ Total_______________ Total 4 3 5 7 19 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 and and and and and and and and under under under under under under under under 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 cents cents cents cents cents cents cents cents 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 3 6 2 2 1 1 Male workers predominate in the metal division of the officefurniture industry. Among the skilled male occupational groups, the highest average earnings per hour were 88.2 cents for tool and die makers, 87.1 cents for working foremen, and 84.7 cents for die setters. The averages of the remaining occupational groups ranged from 76.6 cents for miscellaneous skilled maintenance workers and welders other than spot to 66.1 cents for shear operators. The spread among 98 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING the semiskilled occupational groups was much narrower, the averages ranging from 68.8 cents for miscellaneous semiskilled maintenance workers to 59.3 cents for hand-finish sanders. As regards the un skilled occupational groups, the averages covered a spread from 62.0 cents for miscellaneous helpers in the paint department to 50.0 cents for watchmen. The 55 females found in this division averaged 50.2 cents. (See table 60.) T 60.— A v era g e h o u rly ea rn in g s, w eek ly h ou rs, and w eek ly earnings o f w orkers in m etal office-furniture d iv isio n , b y sex , skill, and occup ation al group, October 1937 a b l e Sex, skill, and occupational group Number Average Average Average of hourly weekly weekly workers earnings hours earnings Males Skilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, skilled_____________________ _ B pnding-machine operators______________ ______________ Die setters _ ____________________________________ Foremen, working ____________ ____ _________ ________ Grainers ____________________________ - __________ Inspectors . . _ __________ -- _______ ________ Maintenance workers, miscellaneous, skilled. _ _________ Shear operators _____________________________ ______ Sprayers _________________ ______ _________ _ Tool and die makers __ ____ ____________________ _____ Welders, other than spot________________ _________ _ Other skilled workers _______________________________ _ All males, skilled _ __ _ ________ __________ ___ Semiskilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, semiskilled. _ ____________ _ Craters, packers, and wrappers... . ____ ________ _ _ _ Dippers _ ______ ___ ___ _________ ___________ _ Filers __ __________________________________ ______ Grinders, miscellaneous __ _ ____ ________ _______ Helpers, assemblers’ _______ __ _ _______ _______ Helpers, welders’ __ _ _____ __ __ __ Maintenance workers, miscellaneous, semiskilled.________ Polishers and rubbers. _____ _________ ._ __ _________ Punch-press operators_____ _______ ____________ Sanders, finish, hand _ _______________ ____ _______ _ Trimmers and upfitters___ _____ ___ ________ ___ _ _ Welders, spot __________ _____ ______________ ________ Other semiskilled workers_________________ ___ ______ . All males, semiskilled_________________ ______________ Unskilled: Helpers, machine operators’ _ _____________________ _ Helpers, miscellaneous, paint department______ ._ _ _____ Janitors and sweepers ____ __ _ ____________ _ Laborers, general ___________________ ___ _ _ ___ _ Truckers, hand __________________ ___________________ Watchmen __ ________________ ___ ______________ Other unskilled workers______________________ ________ All males, unskilled______ ____ _____________________ Total, all males________ _________________________ _ Females All female employees i_ _ __ _____________________ _ Total, all occupations__________ _______ __________ 172 155 39 151 58 54 58 98 94 176 74 76 155 1, 360 $0,709 . 722 .847 .871 .703 .715 .689 .766 .661 .718 .882 .766 .750 .753 39 5 40.8 39. 6 44.3 37. 6 40.8 40. 2 43.6 39.0 40.6 40. 6 39. 7 41.4 40.9 $28.03 29.45 33. 57 38.62 26. 41 29.18 27. 71 33.40 25. 79 29.12 35.82 30. 42 31. 05 30.76 387 221 42 58 67 102 44 26 25 349 83 33 243 317 1,997 . 680 .629 .645 .660 .670 .600 . 617 .688 .670 .669 . 593 . 640 .668 .610 .648 39.6 40. 4 40. 6 40.8 38. 8 41. 7 37.2 43. 5 37.8 38.4 40.1 39.9 39.5 41.7 39.9 26. 91 25.40 26. 20 26. 92 26. 00 24. 99 22. 94 29. 96 25.32 25. 69 23. 78 25. 50 26. 41 25. 42 25. 87 158 112 47 38 145 53 170 723 4,080 .615 .620 . 505 .536 .561 .500 .593 .578 .671 39.0 39.7 42.8 41.4 37.9 46.7 39.3 39.9 40.2 24.00 24.58 21.60 22.19 21.23 23.33 23.29 23.07 27.00 55 4.135 .502 .669 38.1 40.2 19.10 26.90 i N ot enough female employees in the different occupational groups to justify the computation of separate 99 METAL OFFICE FURNITURE' W eekly Hours The 40-hour week generally prevailed in the metal office-furniture division in October 1937. Of the 19 plants, the weekly full-time hours were 40 in fourteen, 44 in one, 45 in three, and 48 in one. The actual weekly hours of all wage earners in metal office furniture averaged 40.2 in October 1937. (See table 57.) As is seen from the distribution in table 61, as many as 40.1 percent of the employees worked exactly 40 hours, with 46.1 percent working 40 and under 44 hours. There were 19.3 percent with a workweek of 44 and less than 48 hours, and 8.3 percent with a workweek of 48 and under 52 hours. Only 3.6 percent, nearly all of whom were in occupations that cus tomarily operate on a workweek in excess of the regular full-time hours for the plant as a whole, worked 52 hours or longer. This leaves 22.7 percent working less than 40 hours, most of whom were wage earners on part time for various reasons during the week scheduled. There was very little difference in actual weekly hours among the skill groups, the averages being approximately 41 for skilled and 40 for semiskilled and unskilled wage earners. Of the six unionized plants, the weekly full-time hours were 40 in four and 44 and 45 respectively in the two remaining establishments. As a result, the average actual weekly hours were slightly longer in trade-union than in non-trade-union plants, the respective figures being 40.6 and 40.0. An examination of the full-time hours in the 19 establishments does not show any evidence of correlation between weekly hours and either size of community or size of plant. T a b l e 61. — D istrib u tio n o f w orkers according to actual w eekly office-furniture d iv isio n , October 1 9 8 7 hours in metal Weekly hours Workers Total Under 24 hours Number of workers.. _ 4,135 Simple percentage____ 100.0 126 3.0 24 32 Over and and Ex 40 and under under actly under 40 32 40 44 hours hours hours hours 253 6.1 562 1,657 13.6 40.1 249 6.0 44 48 52 56 and and and and 64 under under under under hours 48 52 56 64 and hours hours hours hours over 797 19.3 342 8.3 79 1.9 59 1.4 11 0.3 Among skilled males, the average actual weekly hours were longest for working foremen and miscellaneous skilled maintenance workers, the figures being, respectively, 44.3 and 43.6. The averages in the remaining occupational groups ranged from 41.4 for “ other skilled workers” to 37.6 for grainers. The miscellaneous semiskilled main tenance workers had the highest average hours per week (43.5) of the semiskilled occupational groups, the remaining averages showing a spread from 37.2 for welders’ helpers to 41.7 for assemblers’ helpers 100 WAGE AND HOUR STRUCTURE, FURNITURE MANUFACTURING and “ Other semiskilled workers.” Of the unskilled occupational groups, the watchmen had the longest average weekly hours (46.7), with the averages of the remaining occupational groups ranging from 37.9 for hand truckers to 42.8 for janitors and sweepers. The females averaged 38.1 hours per week. (See table 60.) W eekly Earnings The average weekly earnings of all employees in metal office furni ture amounted to $26.90 in October 1937. (See table 57.) According to the distribution in table'62, four-fifths of the total (80.2 percent) received $15 and under $35, and nearly one-half (48.6 percent) were paid $20 and less than $30. Only 5.1 percent earned under $15, most of these having worked part time during the week covered. As many as 14.7 percent received $35 and over, but only 0.9 percent earned as much as $50 and over. T a b l e 62.— D istrib u tio n o f w orkers according to actual w eekly earnings in m etal office-furniture d iv isio n , by sk ill, October 1 9 8 7 Total workers Weekly earnings Number Under $5_ __ .. . $5 and under $10_______ $10 and under $15 . ... $15 and under $20--------------$20 and under $25.._ ______ $25 and under $30____ _____ $30 and under $35.______... $35 and under $40--------------$40 and under $45... .. _ __ $45 and under $50___ ______ $50 and under $55 __ _ . . . $55 and under $60 _ __ __ $60 and over _ ________ Total_____________ - 22 37 154 539 1,000 1,002 768 382 144 47 21 10 9 4,135 Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers Simple Simple Simple Simple per Number per Number per Number per centage centage centage centage 0.5 .9 3.7 13.0 24.3 24.3 18.6 9.2 3.5 1.1 .5 .2 .2 100.0 3 12 16 118 227 268 332 214 112 39 17 9 9 1,376 0.2 .9 1.2 8.6 16.5 19.5 24.0 15.6 8.1 2.8 1.2 .7 .7 100.0 9 16 96 269 527 574 352 145 31 7 4 1 0.4 .8 4.7 13.2 26.0 28.4 17.4 7.1 1.5 .3 .2 0) 10 9 42 152 246 160 84 23 1 1 1.4 1.2 5.8 20.9 33.8 22.0 11.5 3.2 .1 .1 2,031 100.0 728 100.0 i Less than Ho of 1 percent. As the average actual weekly hours differed but little among the skill groups, the average earnings per week reflect largely the varia tions in average hourly earnings. The average weekly earnings were $30.66 for skilled, $25.73 for semiskilled, and $23.03 for unskilled workers. If one compares the three distributions, it is found that the number of employees earning under $20 a week amounted to 29.3 percent for unskilled and 19.1 percent for semiskilled, which may be compared with only 10.9 percent for skilled wage earners. On the other hand, METAL OFFICE FURNITURE 101 as many as 29.1 percent of the skilled were paid $35 and over, as against only 9.1 percent of semiskilled and 3.4 percent of unskilled workers. The average earnings per week were slightly higher in non-tradeunion than in trade-union plants, the respective figures being $27.07 and $26.51. Of the skilled males, working foremen showed the highest average earnings per week, namely $38.62; due to the fact that they had the longest weekly hours and second highest hourly earnings. The next highest average earnings per week were $35.82 for tool and die makers, $33.57 for die setters, and $33.40 for miscellaneous skilled main tenance workers. The averages of the remaining occupational groups ranged from $31.05 for “ Other skilled workers” to $25.79 for shear operators. Among semiskilled males, the highest average was $29.96 for miscellaneous semiskilled maintenance workers, who had the highest hourly earnings and longest weekly hours in this group. The averages of the remaining occupational groups showed a spread from $26.92 for filers to $22.94 for welders’ helpers. For unskilled males, the averages ranged from $24.58 for miscellaneous helpers in the paint department to $21.23 for hand truckers. The females averaged $19.10 a week. (See table 60.) 161633° -3! -a P A R T 4.— Public Seating Chapter X II.— Public Seating Average H ourly Earnings The average earnings per hour of the 3,118 wage earners employed in the 25 plants making public seating amounted to 56.3 cents in October 1937. (See table 63.) Looking at the distribution of individual earnings in table 64 (see chart 6), the outstanding feature is the wide range covered by the data. Omitting the first and last classes the average hourly earnings of almost 99 percent of the employees covered a spread from 25 cents to $1.10, with none of the intervals between these extremes accounting for more than a relatively small fragment of the total. Such massing as does occur, in terms of 5-cent class intervals, appears in the 45-cent range from 32.5 to 77.5 cents, within which are found more than three-fourths (77.4 percent) of the labor force. Relatively few workers are found in the lowest-earnings classes, only 0.5 percent receiving less than 25 cents and 3.9 percent under 30 cents. However, as many as one-fifth (20.6 percent) were paid less than 40 cents. On the other hand, 14.6 percent earned 77.5 cents and over. Of the total number of public seating establishments, only three were located in the South, and these employed 10 percent of all wage earners. Another noteworthy feature of this division is the relatively large number of semiskilled employees, who constituted 51.2 percent of the total labor force. This may be compared with 33.2 percent skilled and only 15.6 percent unskilled workers. T able 63.— Average hourly earnings in 'public-seating fu rn itu re division, by region and skill, October 1987 Total workers Region United States___ _________ North. _________ ________ South____________________ Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers Average Average Average Average Number hourly Number hourly Number hourly Number hourly earnings earnings earnings earnings 3,118 2, 806 312 $0.563 .593 .342 1,035 940 95 $0. 644 .675 .399 1,597 1, 452 145 $0. 552 .579 .336 486 414 72 103 $0.428 .458 .272 1 0 4 W AG E A N D H O U R S T R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G T a b l e 64.— D istribution o f workers according to average hourly earnings in 'public seating fu rn iture division, by skill, October 1937 Total workers Average hourly earnings Number 17 Under 25.0 cents _______ 56 25.0 and under 27.5 cents___ 50 27.5 and under 30.0 cents___ 129 30.0 and under 32.5 cents___ 100 32.5 and under 35.0 cents___ 180 35.0 and under 37.5 cents----113 37.5 and under 40.0 cents___ 165 40.0 and under 42.5 cents----245 42.5 and under 47.5 cents___ 284 47.5 and under 52.5 cents. _ _ 268 52.5 and under 57.5 cents — 307 57.5 and under 62.5 cents----262 62.5 and under 67.5 cents----239 67.5 and under 72.5 cents----246 72.5 and under 77.5 cents----135 77.5 and under 82.5 cents----87 82.5 and under 87.5 cents----82 87.5 and under 92.5 cents----89 92.5 cents and under $1___ 45 $1 and under $1.10. ____ _ 19 $1.10 and over. - ______ Total____ _____ ____ 3,118 Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers Simple Simple Simple Simple per Number per Number per Number per centage centage centage centage 0.5 1.8 1.6 4.1 3.2 5.8 3.6 5.3 7.9 9.1 8.6 9.9 8.4 7.7 7.9 4.3 2.8 2.6 2.9 1.4 .6 100.0 4 1 17 28 52 18 50 64 70 72 93 80 73 93 77 59 65 69 31 19 1, 035 0.4 .1 1.6 2.7 5.0 1.7 4.8 6.2 6.8 7.0 9.0 7.7 7.1 9.0 7.4 5.7 6.3 6.7 3.0 1.8 100.0 4 13 17 66 67 96 69 80 100 153 156 192 152 158 144 54 26 16 20 14 0.3 .8 1.1 4.1 4.2 6.0 4.3 5.0 6.3 9.6 9.8 11.9 9.5 9.9 9.0 3.4 1.6 1.0 1.3 .9 13 39 32 46 5 32 26 35 81 61 40 22 30 8 9 4 2 1 27 8.0 6.6 9.5 1.0 6.6 5.3 7.2 16.7 12.6 8.2 4.5 6.2 1.6 1.9 .8 .4 .2 1,597 100.0 486 100.0 The wide dispersion in hourly earnings is partly explained by the different wage levels among the three skill groups. Skilled em ployees averaged 64.4 cents, as against 55.2 cents for semiskilled and 42.8 cents for unskilled workers. This makes a total spread of 21.6 cents, with the differential between skilled and semiskilled (9.2 cents) somewhat less than the one between semiskilled and unskilled (12.4 cents). No skilled workers earned less than 25 cents an hour, and only 0.3 percent of semiskilled and 2.7 percent of unskilled employees were found under that limit. The great majority of skilled wage earners (88.5 percent) received more than 40 cents, while all except 0.5 percent averaged more than 30 cents. Earnings of less than 40 cents, how ever, were reported for somewhat more than one-fifth (20.8 percent) of the semiskilled and almost two-fifths (39.7 percent) of the unskilled group. Moreover, although the hourly earnings of all except a very fewTof semiskilled employees (2.2 percent) were above 30 cents, 17.3 percent of unskilled workers were found below that limit. Conversely, the skilled group is relatively well represented at the upper end of the distribution, but very few semiskilled or unskilled employees are found in the higher wage brackets. Compared with not far from a third (30.9 percent) of the skilled group earning 77.5 cents and over, only 8.2 percent of semiskilled and 1.4 percent of unskilled workers had earnings of this amount. P U B L IC S E A T IN G 105 Although the southern representation in the coverage is relatively small, it gives some indication of existing sharp regional differentials. For all employees, the average earnings per hour were 59.3 cents in the northern and 34.2 in the southern territory, which is a spread of 25.1 cents. Substantial differentials in favor of northern over southern plants are also found in connection with each skill group. There are too few cases to present a detailed distribution by skill groups in the South, but it may be noted that among unskilled workers 9.8 percent received less than 25 cents, 59.2 percent less than 30 cents, and all received less than 40 cents. In the Northern States with 3 or more establishments, there is much greater difference between plant averages in a single State than there is between the averages for the various States. Thus, the highest wage plant in Michigan averaged 38.5 cents more than the lowest wage plant in that State. The spread was 33.5 cents in Indiana, 31.0 cents in Illinois, and 14.7 cents in Wisconsin. The relatively wide range in the averages for each State, coupled with the fact that there is considerable overlapping in the averages among the several States, indicates that on the whole geographical location appears to have little influence on hourly earnings within the northern region. Among the northern establishments, hourly earnings were generally higher in plants operating under trade-union agreements. In all except one of the unionized establishments, the average hourly earn ings were substantially above those for the entire division. The average for the 4 unionized establishments was 62.9 cents, or 4.2 cents higher than the 58.7-cent figure for the 18 non-trade-union plants in the North. As in other branches of the furniture industry, men constitute the overwhelming majority of the labor force in public seating. Of the 3,118 workers, 2,994 were males and only 124 females. Among the male occupational groups, the average earnings per hour ranged from 36.2 cents for watchmen to 89.9 cents for tool and die makers. Aside from watchmen, none of the occupational groups averaged less than 40 cents. In addition to tool and die makers, relatively high averages were reported for upholsterers (85.4 cents), welders (other than spot) (83.5 cents), and foundry molders (79.0 cents), all of which are skilled occupations. The averages of the remaining skilled occupational groups showed a spread from 53.6 cents for other skilled woodworkingmachine operators to 67.7 cents for miscellaneous skilled maintenance workers. Among the semiskilled occupational groups, finish grinders averaged 85.6 cents, but this high figure is due to the relatively high earnings of employees in one establishment who were paid straight piece rates. There were 3 other semiskilled occupations with averages above 60 cents, namely, miscellaneous semiskilled maintenance workers (64.6 cents), drill-press operators (63.1 cents), and spot welders 106 W AG E A N D H O U R S T R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G (61.4 cents), the averages of the remaining semiskilled occupational groups ranging from 45.4 cents for cabinet hand sanders to 56.4 cents for stainers and fillers and other semiskilled workers. Excluding watchmen, the averages of the unskilled occupational groups were spread from 40.6 cents for general laborers to 46.3 cents for miscel laneous helpers in the paint department. The 124 females averaged 50.6 cents, and the only occupation with a large enough number of women to justify a separate average was that of hand and/or machine sewers, who averaged 55.9 cents. (See table 65.) T able 65.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings o f workers in 'public-seating furn itu re division, by sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1987 Sex, skill, and occupational group Males Skilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, skilled _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ________ Foremen, working. __ _____________ __ _________ ____ Inspectors____ ___ __ ______ _____________ __ __ _ Maintenance workers, miscellaneous, skilled__ __ _____ Molders, foundry------------ ------------------------- --------Sanders, belt___ _____________ ______ _ ______ Sawyers, miscellaneous, skilled________ _____ ______ Shear operators_____________________________________ Sprayers_____________________________________________ Tool and die makers_______ ________ ____ ___ Upholsterers _ ___ __ _____ _ _____ _ Varnishers and finishers_____ ________________________ Welders, other than spot_______________________________ Woodworking-machine operators, other, skilled___ __ Other skilled workers____ ________ _ __ _ __ _ _ All males, skilled_____ _________ __ _________ — Semiskilled: Assemblers, miscellaneous, semiskilled. _ _ ---------_____ Craters, packers, and wrappers. _____ _______ __ __ D ippers.______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ ______ Drill-press operators __ __________ __ ------Gluers, rough stock. __ __ _ _______ _ _ _ ______ Grinders, finish, ___ _ _________ _ ----------------Maintenance workers, miscellaneous, semiskilled _____ _ Metalworking-machine operators, miscellaneous, semiskilled. Punch-press o p e r a to rs_____ _ __________________ ___ Sanders, cabinet, hand... ------ ---------- _ _ --------Sanders, finish, hand------ ------------------------------------------Sanders, machine_________ _____ ________________ Sawyers, miscellaneous, semiskilled__ ____ _________ Stainers and fille r s.-.------ ___ _ ___ _ _______ _____ Welders, spot------------- ------------------------------------------------Woodworking-machine operators, other, semiskilled.. __ _ Other semiskilled workers _ ______ ___ ___ All males, semiskilled--------------------- ---------------------- _ _ Unskilled: Helpers, machine, and off-bearers_____ ____________ Helpers, miscellaneous, paint department____ ___ ___ Janitors and sweepers__ _ _______ _______ _ _ ___ ___ _ Laborers, general___ ______ _ _______ _ __ _________ Stock movers and hand truckers.__ ____ ___________ _ Watchmen______________________________________ Yard laborers________ __________________ __ ___ _ _ ___ Other unskilled workers ____ _______ _____ All males, unskilled _____ _ . ___ _ _ ._____ Total, all males____________ _______________________ Number Average Average Average hourly weekly weekly of workers earnings hours earnings 62 92 43 75 35 50 69 25 72 36 104 41 45 113 134 996 $0. 543 .658 .604 .677 .790 .555 .557 .627 .539 .899 .854 .643 .835 .536 .670 .650 45.7 47.8 40.1 46.3 32.5 43.9 45.3 43.8 46.3 45.6 33.1 44.9 41.4 44.0 41.7 42.8 $24. 79 31.50 24.23 31.40 25.64 24.34 25.24 27. 44 24.93 40.98 28.26 28.86 34. 58 23.56 27.94 27. 84 308 131 34 29 27 47 25 34 153 32 58 83 44 30 59 64 360 1, 518 .545 .491 .535 .631 .523 .856 .646 .557 .558 .454 .475 .532 .533 .564 .614 .508 .564 .553 43.2 43.9 49.3 35.0 44.3 40.8 41.7 39.2 43.9 47.7 43.5 42.8 43.0 43.8 43.7 44.4 41.4 42.9 23. 54 21.55 26. 37 22.07 23.15 34.96 26. 94 21.83 24. 51 21.65 20.69 22. 80 22. 94 24.69 26. 81 22. 56 23. 34 23. 72 61 38 33 31 93 29 53 142 480 2,994 .416 .463 .425 .406 .449 .362 .412 .443 .429 .565 42.9 45.1 44.6 44.5 42.8 55.4 44.8 40.7 43.6 43.0 17. 85 20.88 18. 95 18. 08 19.21 20. 05 18. 47 18.05 18.70 24.29 P U B L IC T 107 S E A T IN G 65.— Average hourly earnings, w eekly hours, and weekly earnings o f workers in public-seating fu rn itu re division, by sex, skill, and occupational group, October 1937— Continued a b l e Number Average Average Average of hourly weekly weekly workers earnings hours earnings Sex, skill, and occupational group Females Skilled: All females, skilled-_ __ __________ ___ ____ ___ _ Semiskilled: Sewers, hand and machine __________ _ Other semiskilled workers All females, semiskilled _________ ______ _ _______ ____ _ _______ Total, all females-Total, all occupations________________________________ 39 $0.494 40.5 $20.03 41 38 79 1124 3,118 .559 .486 .521 1.506 .563 33.2 37.8 35.4 136.3 42.7 18.56 18. 37 18. 47 118.36 24. 05 1 Includes unskilled females who were too few in number to permit the presentation of separate data. W eekly Hours Of the 25 public-seating plants, 8 were operating on a full-time schedule of 40 hours a week in October 1937. Among the remaining establishments, 2 had full-time hours of 44, 6 of 45, 1 of 47.5, 2 of 48, 1 of 49, 2 of 49.5, 2 of 50, and 1 of 55. The effect of these full-time hours was to produce considerable dis persion in the distribution of actual weekly hours worked by indi viduals, as may be seen from table 66. Fully a fourth (25.5 percent) of the employees had an actual workweek of exactly 40 hours, and 7.0 percent worked over 40 and under 44 hours. There were 15.5 percent working 44 and under 48, 12.0 percent 48 and under 52, 7.5 percent 52 and under 56 hours. Relatively long hours (56 and over) are shown for 7.4 percent of the total. On the other hand, one-fourth (25.1 percent) worked short time during the week covered by the survey. T a b l e 6 6 .— D istribution o f workers according to actual weekly hours in public seating furn itu re division, October 1937 Weekly hours Under 24 _______ ___ 24 and under 32 ____ 32 and under 40 - ________ Exactly 40 _____________ OvPf OVt/I 40 xU utiH aiiu nndf»r lUlUul 44 ---—----44 and under 48 __- ___ Number Simple per of workers centage 105 177 500 796 218 484 3. 4 5. 7 16.0 25. 5 7. 0 15! 5 Weekly hours 48 and under 52 __ _ 52 and under 56_________ 56 and under 64 ______ _ _ 64 and over - - ___________ Total ______________ Number Simple of per workers centage 375 234 146 83 3,118 12.0 7. 5 4.7 2. 7 100.0 According to table 67, the average actual hours per week of all wage earners in the industry as a whole amounted to 42.7. There was very little variation in the averages among the skill groups, but substantially fewer hours were worked in the northern than in the southern territory. This was true of the average for each skill group as well as for all employees. 1 08 W AG E A N D H O U R S T R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G The 4 unionized plants in the northern territory averaged 42.5 hours, which may be compared with 41.8 hours for the 18 non-trade-union establishments. T a b l e 67.— Average weekly hours and earnings in 'public-seating fu rn itu re d ivision , by region and skill, October 1937 Region Semi Un Total Skilled skilled skilled workers workers workers workers Semi Un Total Skilled skilled skilled workers workers workers workers Weekly earnings Weekly hours United States.-North ____ South _ _ _ __ Region 42.7 41.9 50.2 42.7 41.9 51.0 42.5 41.6 51.6 43.3 42.8 46.4 United States. __ $24.05 $27.54 $23.46 North _______ 24. 81 28. 27 24.07 South_________ 17.18 20. 34 17. 37 $18. 55 19.58 12.63 Among the skilled male occupational groups, the longer average actual weekly hours were 47.8 for working foremen, 46.3 for miscel laneous skilled maintenance workers and sprayers, 45.7 for miscellan eous skilled assemblers, 45.6 for tool and die makers, and 45.3 for miscellaneous skilled sawyers. In 2 occupations, namely, upholsterers and foundry molders, the averages were very low, amounting respec tively to 33.1 and 32.5 hours. Of the remaining skilled occupational groups, the averages ranged from 40.1 for inspectors to 44.9 for varnishers and finishers. Among the semiskilled male occupations, only dippers (49.3) and hand cabinet sanders (47.7) had average weekly hours in excess of 45, and only miscellaneous semiskilled metalworking-machine operators (39.2) and drill-press operators (35.0) averaged below 40 hours. In the unskilled occupations, watchmen showed an average of 55.4 hours, the remaining occupational groups varying from 40.7 for “ Other unskilled workers” to 45.1 for miscellan eous paint-department helpers. The average weekly hours of all females were 36.3, although the skilled females had an average of as high as 40.5. (See table 65.) W eekly Earnings The average earnings per week of all workers in public seating for the country as a whole were $24.05 in October 1937. (See table 67.) On the basis of the distribution of individual earnings in table 68, more than three-fourths (77.5 percent) of the total earned $15 and under $35 a week, and not far from one-half (46.7 percent) were paid $20 and less than $30. One-tenth (9.9 percent) received $35 and over, but only 1.4 percent earned $45 and over. Lastly, one-eighth (12.6 percent) had weekly earnings less than $15, although a number of these worked part time during the week scheduled. P U B L IC T a b l e 6 8 .— 109 S E A T IN G D istribution o f workers according to actual weekly earnings in 'public seating furn itu re division, by skill, October 1937 Total workers Weekly earnings Number Under $10________ ______ $10 and under $15______ ___ $15 and under $20__________ $20 and under $25__________ $25 and under $30__________ $30 and under $35___ ____ $35 and under $40.__ ... ... $40 and under $45___ _____ $45 and under $50 $50 and over Total_______________ 110 284 589 800 656 372 180 83 28 16 3,118 Skilled workers Semiskilled workers Unskilled workers Simple Simple Simple Simple per Number per Number per Number per centage centage centage centage 3.5 9.1 18.9 25.7 21.0 11.9 5.8 2.7 .9 .5 100.0 21 57 129 223 223 168 123 53 22 16 1,035 2.0 5.5 12.5 21.6 21.6 16.2 11.9 5.1 2.1 1.5 100.0 44 150 307 433 381 193 55 28 6 2.8 9.4 19.2 27.0 23.9 12.1 3.4 1.8 .4 45 77 153 144 52 11 2 2 9.3 15.8 31.5 29.6 10.7 2.3 .4 .4 1,597 100.0 486 100.0 Reflecting largely the differentials in average hourly earnings, the average earnings per week amounted to $27.54 for skilled, $23.46 for semiskilled, and $18.55 for unskilled workers. Hence, the differentials were $4.08 between skilled and semiskilled and $4.91 between semi skilled and unskilled employees. According to the distribution of weekly earnings by skill groups, the relative number of wage earners receiving less than $15 a week was 7.5 percent for skilled and 12.2 percent for semiskilled, as against 25.1 per cent for unskilled employees. On the other hand, only 3.1 percent of the unskilled and 17.7 percent of the semiskilled were paid $30 and over, which may be compared with 36.8 percent of the skilled employees. For all employees, the differential in weekly earnings in favor of northern as against southern establishments amounted to $7.63, the respective averages being $24.81 and $17.18. Each skill group showed a substantial differential in favor of the North as compared with the South. The average weekly earnings amounted to $26.69 in trade-union and $24.54 in non-trade-union plants in the northern territory, which is a differential of $2.15 in favor of the former as against the latter. The highest average weekly earnings for any occupational group were $40.98 for tool and die makers. Welders other than spot came next with an average of $34.58, which was followed by $31.50 for working foremen and $31.40 for miscellaneous skilled maintenance workers. As regards the remaining skilled male occupational groups, the averages ranged from $28.86 for varnishers and finishers to $23.56 for other skilled woodworking-machine operators. It is interesting that, although upholsterers had the second highest average earnings per hour, their weekly earnings were sixth in order, due to the short 110 W AG E A N D H O U R S T R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G hours worked by them. Outside of finish grinders, who averaged $34.96 a week, the averages of the remaining semiskilled male occu pational groups covered a spread from $20.69 for hand-finish sanders to $26.94 for miscellaneous semiskilled maintenance workers. Al though watchmen had the lowest average hourly earnings among the unskilled occupational groups, their average weekly earnings ($20.05) were next to the highest. Of course, this is due to the relatively longer hours worked by watchmen. Miscellaneous helpers in the paint department had the highest average weekly earnings, $20.88, as well as the highest hourly earnings among unskilled workers. The remaining unskilled occupational groups had averages ranging from $17.85 for machine helpers and off-bearers to $19.21 for stock movers and hand truckers. The average weekly earnings of all females amounted to $18.36, but those of skilled females averaged $20.03. (See table 65.) P A R T 5.— Comparisons and Summaries Chapter X III.— Comparisons and Summaries Interdivisional Comparisons In connection with wood household furniture, a comparison has already been made of the data covering case goods, upholstered furni ture, novelties, and kitchen furniture. It now remains to compare these divisions with wood and metal office furniture and public seating. Looking at the average hourly earnings of the seven divisions in the furniture industry, it will be seen that the highest figure, namely 66.9 cents, appears for metal office furniture. The next highest average is 56.5 cents for upholstered furniture, which is only slightly higher than the figure of 56.3 cents reported for public seating. The latter is followed by 48.9 cents for novelties. There is very little difference among the averages of the remaining three divisions, the figures being 44.4 cents for wood office, 44.1 cents for case goods, and 43.1 cents for kitchen furniture. (See table 69.) Any comparison of the all-round averages among the seven divi sions, however, is obscured by differences in the composition of the respective coverages as to region and skill. Hence, a more logical comparison among these divisions would be for the same region and skill. T able 69. — Average hourly earnings in furn iture industry by product, region, and skill, October 1937 Wood household furniture Region United States....................... ....... Skilled ____ ____________ Semiskilled _ __________ Unskilled ____ _ _____ North___________ ___ ___ Skilled ______________ Semiskilled____________ _ Unskilled.... ........ ................. Sou th _____________________ Skilled__________________ Semiskilled ________ Unskilled __ ____ _____ Case goods $0. 441 . 518 .422 .339 .513 . 578 .494 .402 .347 .419 .330 .280 Office furniture Kitchen Novelty Uphol stered Metal furniture furniture furniture $0. 431 .488 .427 .351 .447 .502 .442 .366 .361 .413 .365 .300 $0. 489 .550 .491 .392 .503 .564 .505 .405 .334 .392 .326 .272 $0. 565 .681 .505 .354 .627 .742 .556 .393 .398 .478 .371 .287 $0.669 .751 .645 .578 .669 .751 .645 .578 Wood $0. 444 .506 .423 .356 .467 .525 .447 .375 .322 .368 .315 .275 111 Public seating $0. 563 .644 . 552 .428 .593 .675 .579 .458 .342 .399 .336 .272 112 W AG E A N D H O U R S T R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G If the comparison is limited to the northern region, the order of averages is 66.9 cents for metal office, 62.7 cents for upholstered, 59.3 cents for public seating, 51.3 cents for case goods, 50.3 cents for novelty, 46.7 cents for wood office, and 44.7 cents for kitchen furniture. The order among the averages for skilled workers is exactly the same, but it is somewhat different for semiskilled and unskilled employees. In each case, the highest averages are found in metal office furniture, and the lowest appear in kitchen furniture, with the averages in wood office furniture only slightly above those in kitchen furniture. Al though upholstered furniture has the second highest average for skilled workers, its averages rank third for semiskilled and fifth for unskilled employees. As the survey did not include metal office furniture in the southern territory, the comparison of wages within this region is restricted to the remaining six divisions of the industry. It should also be remem bered that there are relatively few southern plants in some of the divisions, so that the figures should be used with caution. With this limitation, it will be seen that the highest average, namely 39.8 cents, was reported for upholstered furniture. This is followed by 36.1 cents for kitchen furniture, 34.7 cents for case goods, and 34.2 cents for public seating. The lowest averages are 33.4 cents for novelties and 32.2 cents for wood office furniture. As regards each of the skill groups, the order of averages varied somewhat, but, except for un skilled workers, upholstered furniture ranked first and wood office furniture ranked last. It will also be seen that the variation among the averages in the southern territory was considerably less than that found in the northern region. Data for Wood Household and Office Furniture Combined 1 Thus far figures have been presented separately for wood household and wood office furniture. Since these divisions have many problems in common, it is interesting to combine the data for both in a single tabulation. It will be remembered that in selecting the sample, the coverage in terms of wage earners included one-fourth of the wood household-furniture and one-half of the wood office-furniture divisions. Hence, in developing tabulations for wood furniture combined, the figures for wood household were given a weight of 4 and those for wood office a weight of 2. However, one should keep in mind the fact that these weights are approximate, so that the resulting tabula tions are in effect estimates. 1 It should be noted that this does not cover the wood-furniture industry as a whole, as certain unim portant branches have been left out in connection with this survey. (See ch. IV, pp. 24 to 25.) T a b l e 70.— Sim ple percentage distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings in wood household and wood office furn itu re com bined, by region and skill, October 1937 Average hourly earnings (9 0.1 .3 1.3 1.4 3.3 2.3 10.1 7.6 8.1 5.3 9.8 12.2 10.1 6.7 6.1 5.1 3.2 2.4 1.4 1.4 .8 .5 .3 .2 100.0 0. 2 1.1 5.9 4.7 9.9 4.7 17.2 9.1 8.2 5.1 11.0 8.5 5.9 2.5 2. 7 2.1 .4 .5 .1 .1 .1 (9 100.0 Total workers 0) 0.1 .6 .4 1.8 1.1 3.5 3.4 5.4 4.7 10.7 13.0 11.6 8.3 8. 2 7. 2 4.8 4.0 2.7 2. 5 1.9 1. 3 1.3 1. 5 100.0 Skilled workers (9 (0 (9 0.3 .3 1.2 1.4 2.7 3.0 7.1 11.0 11.2 9.6 9.6 8.7 6.9 6.0 4. 5 4.1 3.4 2.6 2.8 3.6 100.0 Semi skilled Unskilled workers workers (i) 0.1 .5 .4 1.5 1.1 3.1 3.7 6.1 5.1 11.6 14.8 13.0 9.0 8.4 7. 2 4.4 3.4 2.1 2.0 1.1 .7 .5 .2 100.0 0) 0.7 2.4 1. 2 6.2 3.2 10.3 7.2 9.7 7.4 16.8 12.9 9.1 3.8 4.2 3. 2 .6 .7 .1 .2 .1 0) 100.0 Total workers Skilled workers 0.2 .9 4.3 4.3 7. 7 4.4 22.8 13.3 11.3 5.3 6.5 6.8 5.2 2.6 1. 7 1.0 .7 .3 .3 .2 .1 .1 (9 0) 100.0 0.1 .6 .7 2.0 1.6 12. 7 9.2 13.1 7.7 11.3 11.8 11.1 6.3 4.6 2. 7 1. 7 .9 .7 .4 .4 .2 .1 .1 100.0 Semi skilled Unskilled workers workers 0.2 .9 3.1 3.6 7.6 5.0 26.8 16.8 12.9 5.8 5.6 6.2 3.2 1.2 .5 .2 .3 .1 0) (9 (9 (9 0.5 1.9 12.2 10.9 16.4 7.4 29.6 12.4 5.5 1.0 1.1 .8 .2 .1 100.0 100.0 S U M M A R IE S 0.2 .2 .7 .6 4.2 3.4 5.4 4.2 8.2 11.3 11.1 8.7 8.3 7.2 5.6 4.7 3. 5 3. 2 2. 7 2.0 2.1 2. 7 100.0 Semi skilled Unskilled workers workers AND 0.1 .4 1.7 1.5 3.5 2.1 9.2 6.3 7.1 4.9 9.4 11.1 9.7 6.7 6.3 5.3 3. 6 2. 9 2.0 1.8 1. 4 1. 0 .9 1. 1 100.0 Skilled workers C O M P A R IS O N S Under 12.5 cents ... __________ _ 12.5 and under 17.5 cents_____________ 17.5 and under 22.5 cents_____________ 22.5 and under 25.0 cents_____________ 25.0 and under 27.5 cents_____________ 27.5 and under 30.0 cen ts.-______ _ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents_____________ 32.5 and under 35.0 cents_____ _______ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents___________ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents_________ ... 40.0 and under 42.5 cents_____________ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents_______ _____ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents___________ . 52.5 and under 57.5 cents______ ____ 57.5 and under 62.5 cen ts_____ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents 67.5 and under 72.5 cents 72.5 and under 77.5 cents 77.5 and under 82.5 cents __ _ 82.5 and under 87.5 cents _____ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents 92.5 cents and under $1 $1 and under $1.10 $1.10 and over __ __ _ __ Total________________________ Total workers South North United States 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. CO 114 W AG E A N D H O U R S T R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G The average hourly earnings of all wage earners in wood household and office furniture combined amounted to 47.9 cents in October 1937. The distribution presented in table 70 shows there were only 3.7 percent of the workers earning under 25 cents an hour and 9.3 percent less than 30 cents. However, 36.8 percent received under 40 cents. In terms of 5-cent intervals, the modal concentration, including 14.3 percent, is found in the class of 37.5 and less than 42.5 cents. There were 14.7 percent earning 67.5 cents and over, and 6.2 percent 82.5 cents and over. According to table 71, the average earnings per hour amounted to 56.7 cents for skilled, 45.5 cents for semiskilled, and 35.6 cents for unskilled employees. Hence, the spread between skilled and semi skilled was 11.2 cents, which is not much higher than that of 9.9 cents between semiskilled and unskilled workers. There is a well-defined difference between the average hourly earn ings of all workers in the northern and southern areas, the respective figures being 53.0 and 35.7 cents. The extent of this difference is confirmed by a comparison of the two distributions. Only 1.1 percent of the northern employees earned less than 25 cents an hour, but in the South this group amounted to 9.7 percent. The number receiving under 30 cents was 4.0 percent in the North, which may be compared with 21.8 percent in the South. Only 21.0 percent in the northern territory were paid less than 40 cents, as against almost three-fourths (74.5 percent) in the southern area. On the other hand, as many as 20.0 percent of the northern workers earned 67.5 cents and over, but only 1.7 percent were found in that category in the southern territory. T able 71.— Average hourly earnings in wood household and wood office furn iture combined, by region and skill, October 1937 Region United States__________ ______ __ ______ North___ __ __ ___ _ ________________ South _______ _____ _ ________ __________ Total workers $0. 479 .530 .357 Skilled workers $0. 567 .616 .431 Semi skilled workers $0.455 .505 .338 Un skilled workers $0.356 .397 .281 Comparisons o f H ourly Earnings Betw een 1937 and Previous Years in Wood Household and Wood Office Furniture Combined Surveys covering wood household and wood office furniture com bined have been made by the Bureau at intervals since 1910, but comparable data for all employees are available only for 1915, 1929, and 1931. The average hourly earnings of all workers were 21.4 cents C O M P A R IS O N S AND 115 S U M M A R IE S in 1915, 49.0 cents in 1929, and 41.1 cents in 1931.2 The 1937 figure of 47.9 cents, therefore, is 1.1 cents less than that of 1929 but 6.8 cents above the 1931 average. The 1931 survey covered 17 States.3 It included such wood house hold furniture as bedroom, dining room, sitting room, and parlor suites, library and hall pieces, tables, chairs, and radio cabinets and such wood office furniture as desks, tables, and chairs. The figures obtained were for a representative pay-roll period during the fall of 1931, mainly in the months of August, September, and October. It is interesting to compare the distribution in wood household and office furniture combined between 1937 and 1931. (See table 72.) In 1931 there were 13.8 percent of the employees earning less than 25 cents an hour, as against only 3.7 percent in 1937. As many as 23.8 percent received under 30 cents in 1931, but the figure was only 9.3 percent in 1937. The number paid less than 40 cents amounted to 47.8 percent in 1931 and 36.8 percent in 1937. At the other end of the distribution, it will be seen that whereas only 9.5 percent earned 65 cents and over in 1931, there were as many as 17.5 percent in that classification in 1937. T able 72.— Sim ple percentage distribution o f workers according to average hourly earnings in wood household and wood office furn iture com bined, 1981 and 1937 Average hourly earnings Under 15.0 cents _ ___ __ 15.0 and under 20.0 cents _____ 20.0 and under 25.0 cents_______ 25.0 and under 27.5 cents ___27.5 and under 30.0 cents______ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents - __ 32.5 and under 35.0 cen ts.____ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents -- 37.5 and under 40.0 cents ____ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents ___ 42 5 and u n d e r 45 0 nfvnts 45.0 and under 47.5 cents________ 47.5 and under 50.0 cents................ 50.0 and under 55.0 cents......... ....... 55.0 and under 60.0 cents________ 1931 1.7 4.7 7.4 6.3 3.7 7.0 4.7 7.4 4.9 8.4 4.1 6.3 3.4 9.7 5.7 1937 Average hourly earnings 1931 60.0 and under 65.0 cents _____ 5. 2 65.0 and under 70.0 cents ___2.9 70.0 and under 75.0 cents ______ 1.9 75.0 and under 80.0 cents _____ 1. 3 80.0 and under 85.0 cents _____ 1.0 85.0 and under 90.0 cents .5 90.0 and under 95.0 cents ____.6 .2 95.0 cents and under $1 ______ .4 $1 and under $1.10____________ .4 $1.10 and under $1.20 ________ $1.20 and over.. _______ _______ .3 4. 8 6.4 T otal___________________ 100.0 3.9 8 .8 6.2 0.1 .5 3.1 3.5 2.1 9. 2 6. 3 7.1 4. 9 9. 3 1937 6. 3 4.6 3.1 2. 5 2.0 1. 7 1.1 .5 .9 .6 .5 100.0 Using the data for identical States, it is possible to compute separ ately for the northern and southern regions 4 average hourly earnings for wood household and wood office furniture combined for 1929, 1931, and 1937. In 1929, the average hourly earnings in the North amounted to 52.5 cents, dropping to 45.8 cents in 1931, and increasing again to 2 See U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bull. No. 571: “Wages and hours of labor in the furniture industry, 1910 to 1931.” 3 These were as follows: California, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and Wisconsin. *The Northern region includes California, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mis souri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Included in the southern region are Georgia, Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. 116 W AG E A N D H O U R S T R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G 52.9 cents in 1937. In the southern region, the 1929 figure was 33.0 cents, as against 27.5 cents in 1931 and 35.6 cents in 1937. Comparing 1937 with 1929, it appears that the increase is much greater in the South than in the North. As a result, the differential between the two regions has decreased from 19.5 cents in 1929 to 17.2 cents in 1937. It is evident furthermore that the lower average hourly earnings for 1937, as compared with 1929, for the wood-furniture industry as a whole are due to the increasing importance of the industry in the South. In each area considered separately, hourly earnings in 1937 were higher than in 1929. In 1929, 17.0 percent of the wage earners covered were in plants located in southern States, whereas in 1937, 24.7 percent were in such plants.5 Comparisons Betw een Wood and Metal Office Furniture As noted before, there is considerable competition between plants in wood and metal office furniture, so that it is essential to compare the data between these divisions. However, since the coverage in metal office furniture was limited to the North, any such comparison must of necessity be for that region only. The average earnings per hour of all wage earners in the North in October 1937 amounted to 66.9 cents for metal office furniture and 46.7 cents for wood office furniture. This makes a differential of 20.2 cents. Comparing the two distributions as shown in table 73, less than 1.0 percent of employees in metal office furniture earned under 40 cents an hour, as against 29.7 percent in wood office furniture. Conversely, the relative number paid 52.5 cents and over was 26.6 percent in wood office furniture which maybe compared with 80.1 percent in metal office furniture. Furthermore, the number receiving 72.5 cents and over was only 5.4 percent in wood but 34.7 percent in metal office furniture. Substantial differentials in favor of metal as against wood office furniture also appear in the average hourly earnings for each skill group. The figures are 22.6 cents for skilled, 19.8 cents for semiskilled, and 20.3 cents for unskilled workers. (See table 69.) It has been argued that inasmuch as metal office-furniture plants, all of which are in the North, must compete with both northern and southern wood office-furniture establishments, any comparison of their respective average hourly earnings should be made for the country as a whole. 8 Since the census does not present employers separately for wood and metal furniture, it is impossible to compare these samples with the total number of wage earners in all plants. C O M P A R IS O N S T AND 117 S U M M A R IE S 73.— Sim ple percentage distribution o f workers according to average hourly earnings in office fu rn iture in the North, by product and skill, October 1987 a b l e Wood office furniture Average hourly earnings 22.5 and under 25.0 cents 30.0 and under 32.5 cents___ 32.5 and under 35.0 cents___ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents__ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents___ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents__ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents___ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents 52.5 and under 57.5 cents___ 57.5 and under 62 5 cents__ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents___ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents___ 72.5 and under 77.5 cents___ 77.5 and under 82.5 cents__ 82.5 and under 87.5 cents___ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents___ 92.5 cents and under $1 $1 and under $1.10 $1.10 and under $1.20 $1.20 and over Total- __ ___ Metal office furniture Semi Un Total Ski led Semi Un Total Skilled skilled ski led skilled skilled workers workers workers workers workers workers workers workers 1.1 .4 .8 .6 4.0 5.3 7.9 9.6 15.4 16.6 11.7 7.4 6.6 4.4 2.8 1.9 1.3 .9 .5 .4 .4 0.2 .3 .7 .9 3.5 7.5 11.8 19.2 15.5 10.2 9.2 6.5 4.6 3.0 2.5 1.6 1.0 .9 .9 (0 100.0 100. 0 1.2 .5 .9 .5 3.1 5.7 9.8 10.9 17.5 17.0 11.3 6.8 5.7 3.8 2.2 1.7 .7 .5 .1 3.7 .9 1.9 1.7 13.9 14.1 13.9 11.7 18.9 9.3 4.1 2.2 2.4 1.3 .1 100.0 100.0 0) 0) 0) 0 0.2 .2 2.4 6.0 11.1 11.2 11.6 11.7 10.9 9.7 8.1 5.7 4.8 3.7 2.0 .4 .3 100.0 0.1 1.1 3.3 4.7 6.0 8.5 9.9 11.8 12.6 12.1 8.3 6.8 7.6 5.2 1.2 .8 100.0 0.1 .1 0) .1 .3 2.2 6.5 10.8 13.6 13.2 13.4 11.9 9.3 6.3 4.9 4.6 2.3 .4 0 100.0 0.3 .1 .8 .4 5.7 9.6 24.2 14.3 12.2 10.6 6.2 5.4 5.6 3.0 1.4 .1 .1 100.0 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. Between the average hourly earnings of all metal office-furniture workers, 66.9 cents, and those of all wood office-furniture workers, 44.4 cents, there is a spread of 22.5 cents. It will be seen from the distribution in table 74 that, whereas less than 1 percent (0.4) of the metal office-furniture workers averaged less than 40 cents an hour, not far from two-fifths of the wood office-furniture workers (38.6 per cent) had such earnings. Four-fifths of the metal office-furniture workers (80.1 percent) averaged 52.5 cents or more, and over one-third (34.7 percent) at least 72.5 cents. In contrast, only 22.7 and 4.4 percent, respectively, of the wood office-furniture workers had such earnings. Data for Furniture-M anufacturing Industry as a W hole In addition to presenting figures for wood household and office fur niture combined, it is also possible to show data for all divisions of the furniture industry covered in this survey, namely, wood household furniture, wood and metal office furniture, and public seating. In selecting the sample, the coverage, it will be remembered, included one-fourth of the wood household, one-half of the wood and metal office furniture, and all of the public seating divisions. As a result, 161633°— 39------ 9 118 W AG E A N D H O U R S T R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G in preparing tabulations for the furniture industry as a whole, the figures for wood household furniture were given a weight of 4, those for wood office furniture a weight of 2, those for metal office furniture a weight of 2, and those for public-seating furniture a weight of 1. Of course, these weights are approximations, and the resulting tabu lations must be looked upon as estimates. T a b l e 74.— S im p le percentage d istribution o f workers according to average hourly earnings in office fu r n itu r e , by product and sk ill , October 1 9 3 7 Wood office furniture Average hourly earnings Under 22.5 cents 22.5 and under 25.0 cents___ 25.0 and under 27.5 cents___ 27.5 and under 30.0 cents__ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents___ 32.5 and under 35.0 cents___ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents___ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents___ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents___ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents___ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents___ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents___ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents___ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents___ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents 72.5 and under 77.5 cents___ 77.5 and under 82.5 cents___ 82.5 and under 87.5 cents___ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents___ 92.5 cents and under $1 $1 and under $1.10 $1.10 and under $1.20 $1.20 and over Total_______________ Metal office furniture Semi Un Semi Un Total Skilled skilled skilled Total Skilled skilled skilled workers workers workers 1workers workers workers workers workers 1.4 .7 2.7 1.2 10.3 6.2 7.9 8.2 13.8 14.5 10.4 6.4 5.7 3.8 2.4 1.6 1.1 .7 .4 .3 .3 (0 0.1 .6 .4 4.7 2.4 4.8 6.6 11.7 17.6 14.5 9.4 8.5 5.7 4.1 2.7 2.3 1.4 .9 .8 .8 1.2 .7 2.3 1.3 12.3 7.2 9.2 9.2 14.8 14.3 9.5 5.7 4.8 3.1 1.8 1.4 .6 .4 .1 100.0 100.0 100.0 4.6 2.3 7.8 2.7 18.0 12.2 11.5 9.5 15.5 7.6 3.5 1.8 1.9 1.1 .1 100.0 0) 0) 0) 0) 0.2 .2 2.4 6.0 11.1 11.2 11.6 11.7 10.9 9.7 8.1 5.7 4.8 3. 7 2.0 .4 .3 100.0 0.1 1.1 3.3 4.7 6.0 8.5 9.9 11.8 12.6 12.1 8.3 6.8 7.6 5.2 1.2 .8 100.0 0.1 .1 0) .1 .3 2.2 6.5 10.8 13.6 13.2 13.4 11. 9 9.3 6.3 4.9 4.6 2.3 .4 0) 100.0 0.3 .1 .8 .4 5.7 9.6 24.2 14.3 12.2 10.6 6. 2 5.4 5.6 3.0 1.4 .1 .1 100.0 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. For all wage earners, the average earnings per hour in the furniture industry as a whole were 49.0 cents in October 1937.6 From the distribution in table 75, it will be seen that only 3.4 percent were paid less than 25 cents an hour, and 8.7 percent earned under 30 cents. The number receiving below 40 cents was about one-third of the total (34.4 percent). One-sixth of the workers (16.9 percent) were paid 67.5 cents and over, and 4.9 percent earned as much as 87.5 cents and over. As one may see from table 76, the average hourly earnings were 57.7 cents for skilled, 46.8 cents for semiskilled, and 36.8 cents for unskilled workers. This makes for a total spread of 20.9 cents, 6 It will be recalled that the average for the furniture industry for October 1937, presented in connection with the per capita data by months from 1933 to date, was 51.8 cents. The difference is due at least in part to differences in coverage. The present study does not include any professional furniture or metal house hold furniture. It is believed that their inclusion would raise the average. C O M P A R IS O N S AND S U M M A R IE S 119 approximately one-half of which represents the differential between skilled and semiskilled and the other half for the one between semi skilled and unskilled employees. The differential in average hourly earnings of all wage earners between the northern and southern regions was 18.5 cents, the respec tive averages being 54.2 and 35.7 cents. Comparing the two distribu tions, it is found that most of the relatively low-paid workers are in the southern territory.7 This may be seen from the fact that the number earning under 25 cents an hour was 1.1 percent in the North and 9.6 percent in the South. The respective percentages of workers paid less than 30 cents were 3.8 and 21.7, while below 40 cents they amounted, respectively, to 19.4 and 74.7. Conversely, the number earning 67.5 cents and over was 22.3 percent in the northern area, as against 1.6 percent in the southern region. 7 It should be remembered that of the higher-wage divisions, i. e., metal office furniture and public seating, none of the plants in the former and only three in the latter were located in the South. S im p le percentage d istribu tion o f workers according to average hourly ea rnings in fu rn itu re in d u stry as a w h ole , b y region and skill, October 1 9 8 7 Average hourly earnings Under 12.5 cents ______________ __ 12.5 and under 17.5 cents_____________ 17.5 and under 22.5 cents_____________ 22.5 and under 25.0 cents. . . . _ . 25.0 and under 27.5 cents. _ . _______ 27.5 and under 30.0 cents_________ ... 30.0 and under 32.5 cents________ _ . 32.5 and under 35.0 cents_____________ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents... . . . _____ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents____________ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents_____________ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents_____________ 47.5 and under 52.5 cen ts____________ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents. . . _______ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents _. 62.5 and under 67.5 c en ts._____ ___ _ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents____. . . _____ 72.5 and under 77.5 cents . . . _____ 77.5 and under 82.5 cents. _ _________ 82.5 and under 87.5 cen ts____ ______ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents_____________ 92.5 cents and under $1______________ $1 and under $1.10___________ ___ $1.10 and over . __ _________ ____ Total............................................. Less than Mo of 1 percent. Total workers 0.1 .3 1.6 1.4 3.3 2.0 8.5 5.9 6.7 4.6 8.9 10.7 9.7 7.0 6.6 5.8 4.1 3.4 2.4 2.1 1.6 1.2 1.0 1.1 100.0 Skilled workers 0) 0.2 .2 .7 .6 3.9 3.2 5.1 4.0 7.8 10.7 10.7 8.5 8.3 7.3 5.9 5.1 4.0 3.5 2.9 2.4 2.3 2.7 100.0 South North Semi skilled workers Un skilled workers 0.1 .3 1.2 1.3 3.0 2.1 9.4 7.1 7.6 5.0 9.2 11.6 10.1 7.2 6.7 5.7 3.9 3.0 1.8 1.6 1.0 .6 .3 .2 100.0 0.2 1.0 5.5 4.4 9.3 4.5 16.2 8.5 7.8 4.8 10.7 8.7 7.0 3.2 3.2 2.6 .7 .8 .4 .3 .2 0) 0) 100.0 Total workers (i) 0.1 .6 .4 1.6 1.1 3.2 3.1 5.0 4.3 9.9 12.2 11.5 8.6 8.5 7.6 5.3 4.5 3.1 2.8 2.1 1.6 1.4 1.5 100.0 Skilled workers 0) 0) 0) 0.3 .3 1.1 1.3 2.5 2.8 6.6 10.4 10.7 9.3 9.5 8.8 7.2 6.5 5.0 4.4 3.7 3.1 3.0 3.5 100.0 Semi skilled workers Un skilled workers (!) 0) 0.1 .5 .4 1.4 1.0 2.8 3.3 5.6 4.7 10.6 13.7 12.8 9.4 9.0 7. 8 5.2 4.1 2.5 2.2 1.4 .8 .5 .2 100.0 0.6 2.2 1.1 5.6 3.0 9.4 6.5 9.0 6.8 15.6 12.7 10.5 4.8 4. 9 3.9 1.1 1.1 .6 .4 .2 0) 0) 100.0 Total workers Skilled workers 0.2 .8 4.3 4.3 7.7 4.4 22.9 13.5 11.3 5.3 6.5 6.8 5.1 2.6 1.7 1.0 .7 .3 .2 .2 .1 .1 0) 0) 100.0 0.1 .6 .7 2.0 1.6 12.6 9.2 13.1 7.7 11.4 11.8 11.1 6.3 4. 6 2. 7 1.7 .9 .7 .4 .4 .2 .1 .1 100.0 Semi skilled workers Un skilled workers 0.2 .9 3.0 3.6 7.5 5.0 26.9 16.9 13.0 5.8 5.6 6.1 3.2 1.2 .5 .2 .3 .1 (i) (!) 0) 0) 0.5 1.912.1 10.8 16.5 7.5 29.8 12.3 5.4 1.0 1.1 .8 .2 .1 100.0 100.0 W AG E A N D H O U R ST R U C T U R E , F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G United States 120 T a b l e 75. — C O M P A R IS O N S T a b l e 76.— AND 121 S U M M A R IE S A verage h ourly earnings f o r the fu rn itu re in d u stry as a w hole , hy region and s k i l l y October 1 9 8 7 Region Total workers United States. __________ _________ __ _ North____ ____ _____ . . . ____ _ ______ ____ South. ________ ________________ _ _ __ __ $0,490 . 542 .357 O Skilled workers $0. 577 .626 .430 Semiskilled workers $0.468 . 518 .338 Unskilled workers $0.368 . 412 .281
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