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Transportation Energy Data Book Edition 37 Stacy C. Davis and Robert G. Boundy Transportation Energy Data Book Quick Facts Petroleum • • • • • • • • • • In 2017 the U.S. produced more than 13 million barrels of petroleum per day (mmbd), or 14.2% of the world’s 92.0 mmbd. The U.S. consumed 19.9 mmbd, or 20% of the world’s 98.5 mmbd in 2017. Net imports of petroleum to the U.S. in 2017 were nearly 4 mmbd, which was 19% of U.S. petroleum. U.S. transportation petroleum use was 70% of total U.S. petroleum use in 2017. In 2017 U.S. transportation petroleum use was 106% of total U.S. petroleum production. Petroleum comprised 92% of U.S. transportation energy use in 2017. Cars and light trucks accounted for 63% of U.S. transportation petroleum use in 2016. Medium trucks (Class 3-6) accounted for 4% of U.S. transportation petroleum use in 2016. Heavy trucks (Class 7-8) and buses accounted for 19% of U.S. transportation petroleum use in 2016. Nonhighway modes accounted for the rest of U.S. transportation petroleum use in 2016 (14%). Energy • • • • • In 2017 U.S. transportation energy use accounted for about 29% of total U.S. energy use. Cars and light trucks accounted for 59% of U.S. transportation energy use in 2016. Medium trucks accounted for 5% of U.S. transportation energy use in 2016. Heavy trucks and buses accounted for 19% of U.S. transportation energy use in 2016. Nonhighway modes accounted for the rest of U.S. transportation energy use in 2016 (18%). Light Vehicle Characteristics • • • • • In 2016 there were 113 million cars and 133 million light trucks in the U.S. (246 million total light vehicles). Light vehicles accounted for 90% of the 3.2 trillion vehicle miles driven in the U.S. in 2016. U.S. cars: o 6,080,000 cars were sold in 2017 which was 36% of new light vehicle sales. o In 2016 the average age of a U.S. car was 11.6 years. o In 2016 the average fuel economy for the U.S. car fleet (all cars on the road) was 26.8 mpg. U.S. light trucks: o 10,738,000 light trucks were sold in 2017 which was 64% of new light vehicle sales. o In 2016 the average age of a U.S. light truck was 11.6 years. o In 2016 the average fuel economy for the U.S. light truck fleet (all light trucks on the road) was 19.1 mpg. The average U.S. household vehicle travels 11,200 miles per year (2017 NHTS). Heavy Truck Characteristics • • • 11,499,000 heavy trucks were registered in the U.S. in 2016. Heavy trucks and buses accounted for 10% of the 3.2 trillion vehicle miles driven in 2016. In 2002 (the last time a survey was conducted), heavy trucks accounted for 80% of medium and heavy truck fuel use. ORNL/TM-2018/987 (Edition 37 of ORNL-5198) Energy and Transportation Science Division TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37 Stacy C. Davis Oak Ridge National Laboratory Robert G. Boundy Roltek, Inc. January 2019 Transportation Energy Data Book: Edition 37 can be found online at: cta.ornl.gov/data Prepared for the Vehicle Technologies Office Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy U.S. Department of Energy Prepared by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831-6073 Managed by UT-BATTELLE, LLC for the U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY under Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 DOCUMENT AVAILABILITY Reports produced after January 1, 1996, are generally available free via US Department of Energy (DOE) SciTech Connect. Website http://www.osti.gov/scitech/ Reports produced before January 1, 1996, may be purchased by members of the public from the following source: National Technical Information Service 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, VA 22161 Telephone 703-605-6000 (1-800-553-6847) TDD 703-487-4639 Fax 703-605-6900 E-mail info@ntis.gov Website http://www.ntis.gov/help/ordermethods.aspx Reports are available to DOE employees, DOE contractors, Energy Technology Data Exchange representatives, and International Nuclear Information System representatives from the following source: Office of Scientific and Technical Information PO Box 62 Oak Ridge, TN 37831 Telephone 865-576-8401 Fax 865-576-5728 E-mail reports@osti.gov Website http://www.osti.gov/contact.html This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof. Users of the Transportation Energy Data Book are encouraged to comment on errors, omissions, emphases, and organization of this report to one of the persons listed below. Requests for additional data or information on an existing table should be referred to Ms. Stacy Davis, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Stacy C. Davis Oak Ridge National Laboratory National Transportation Research Center 2360 Cherahala Boulevard Knoxville, Tennessee 37932 Telephone: (865) 946-1256 FAX: (865) 946-1541 E-mail: DAVISSC@ornl.gov Website Location: cta.ornl.gov/data Rachael Nealer Vehicle Technologies Office Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Department of Energy, EE-3V Forrestal Building 1000 Independence Avenue, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20585 Telephone: (202) 586-3916 FAX: (202) 586-1600 E-mail: Rachael.Nealer@ee.doe.gov Website Location: energy.gov/eere/vehicles Spreadsheets of the tables in the Transportation Energy Data Book include data for years not presented in the published document. Spreadsheets can be found on the web at: cta.ornl.gov/data Find useful data and information in other products from the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Vehicle Technologies Office. Light Duty Electric Drive Vehicles www.anl.gov/es/light-duty-electric-drive-vehicles-monthlysales-updates Barriers to New Vehicle Technology Acceptance www.nrel.gov/transportation/consumer-data.html Subscribe to the Transportation Fact of the Week energy.gov/eere/vehicles/transportation-fact-week v TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................... xxi ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... xxiii INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................xxv CHAPTER 1 PETROLEUM ................................................................................................1–1 Table 1.1 Proved Reserves of Crude Oil and Natural Gas, 1980–2017............................1–2 Table 1.2 World Crude Oil Production, 1960–2017 .........................................................1–3 Table 1.3 World Petroleum Production, 1973–2017 ........................................................1–4 Table 1.4 World Petroleum Consumption, 1960–2017 ....................................................1–5 Figure 1.1 World Oil Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1980 ...............................1–6 Figure 1.2 World Oil Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1998 ...............................1–6 Figure 1.3 World Oil Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 2017 ...............................1–7 Table 1.5 World Oil Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1980, 1998 and 2017 .....1–7 Table 1.6 U.S. Petroleum Imports, 1960–2017.................................................................1–8 Table 1.7 Imported Crude Oil by Country of Origin, 1973-2017 .....................................1–9 Table 1.8 Crude Oil Supplies, 1973-2017.......................................................................1–10 Figure 1.4 Refinery Gross Output by World Region, 2007 and 2017 ..............................1–11 Table 1.9 U.S. Refinery Input of Crude Oil and Petroleum Products, 1987–2016.........1–12 Table 1.10 U.S. Refinery Yield of Petroleum Products from a Barrel of Crude Oil, 1978–2017.......................................................................................................1–13 Table 1.11 United States Petroleum Production, Imports, and Exports, 1950–2017 .......1–14 Table 1.12 Petroleum Production and Transportation Petroleum Consumption in Context, 1950–2017 ........................................................................................1–15 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 vi Figure 1.5 United States Petroleum Production and Consumption – All Sectors, 1970–2050.......................................................................................................1–16 Figure 1.6 United States Petroleum Production and Transportation Consumption, 1970–2050.......................................................................................................1–17 Table 1.13 Consumption of Petroleum by End-Use Sector, 1950–2017 ..........................1–18 Table 1.14 Highway Transportation Petroleum Consumption by Mode, 1970–2016 ......1–19 Table 1.15 Nonhighway Transportation Petroleum Consumption by Mode, 1970–2016.......................................................................................................1–20 Table 1.16 Transportation Petroleum Use by Mode, 2015–2016 .....................................1–21 CHAPTER 2 ENERGY .........................................................................................................2–1 Figure 2.1 World Consumption of Primary Energy, 2015 .................................................2–2 Table 2.1 U.S. Consumption of Total Energy by End-Use Sector, 1973–2017 ...............2–3 Table 2.2 Distribution of Energy Consumption by Source, 1973 and 2017 .....................2–4 Table 2.3 Distribution of Transportation Energy Consumption by Source and Sector, 1950–2017.........................................................................................................2–5 Figure 2.2 World Natural Gas Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1980 ................2–6 Figure 2.3 World Natural Gas Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1997 ................2–6 Figure 2.4 World Natural Gas Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 2015 ................2–7 Table 2.4 World Natural Gas Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1980, 1997, and 2015 ..................................................................................................2–7 Figure 2.5 Natural Gas Production and Reserves for the Top Ten Natural Gas Producing Countries, 2015 ...............................................................................2–8 Table 2.5 Alternative Fuel and Oxygenate Consumption, 2005–2011 .............................2–9 Table 2.6 Fuel Ethanol and Biodiesel Production, Net Imports, and Consumption, 1981–2017.......................................................................................................2–10 Table 2.7 Domestic Consumption of Transportation Energy by Mode and Fuel Type, 2016 ..............................................................................................2–11 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 vii Figure 2.6 Domestic Consumption of Transportation Energy by Mode and Fuel Type, 2016 .......................................................................................................2–12 Table 2.8 Transportation Energy Use by Mode, 2015–2016 ..........................................2–13 Table 2.9 Highway Transportation Energy Consumption by Mode, 1970–2016 ...........2–14 Table 2.10 Nonhighway Transportation Energy Consumption by Mode, 1970–2016 .....2–15 Table 2.11 Off-Highway Transportation-Related Fuel Consumption, 2016 ....................2–16 Table 2.12 Highway Usage of Gasoline and Diesel, 1973–2016 .....................................2–17 Table 2.13 Passenger Travel and Energy Use, 2016.........................................................2–18 Table 2.14 Energy Intensities of Highway Passenger Modes, 1970–2016 .......................2–19 Table 2.15 Energy Intensities of Nonhighway Passenger Modes, 1970–2016 .................2–20 Figure 2.7 Energy Intensity of Light Rail Transit Systems, 2016 .....................................2–21 Figure 2.8 Energy Intensity of Heavy Rail Systems, 2016................................................2–22 Figure 2.9 Energy Intensity of Commuter Rail Systems, 2016 .........................................2–22 Table 2.16 Energy Intensities of Freight Modes, 1970–2016 ...........................................2–23 CHAPTER 3 ALL HIGHWAY VEHICLES AND CHARACTERISTICS .....................3–1 Table 3.1 World Production of Cars and Trucks, 2000 and 2016 ....................................3–2 Figure 3.1 World Car Production, 1983–2016 ..................................................................3–3 Figure 3.2 World Truck and Bus Production, 1983–2016 .................................................3–3 Table 3.2 Car Registrations for Selected Countries, 1960–2016 ......................................3–4 Table 3.3 Truck and Bus Registrations for Selected Countries, 1960–2016 ....................3–5 Table 3.4 U.S. Cars and Trucks in Use, 1970–2016 .........................................................3–7 Table 3.5 New Retail Vehicle Sales, 1970–2017..............................................................3–8 Figure 3.3 Vehicles per Thousand People: U.S. (Over Time) Compared to Other Countries (in 2006 and 2016) ...........................................................................3–9 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 viii Table 3.6 Vehicles per Thousand People in Selected Countries/Regions, 2006 and 2016 .................................................................................................3–11 Table 3.7 Vehicles per Thousand People in the United States, 1990–2016 ...................3–12 Table 3.8 Shares of Highway Vehicle-Miles Traveled by Vehicle Type, 1970–2016.......................................................................................................3–13 Table 3.9 Cars in Operation by Age, 1970, 2000, and 2013 ...........................................3–14 Table 3.10 Trucks in Operation by Age, 1970, 2000, and 2013 .......................................3–15 Table 3.11 U.S. Average Vehicle Age, 1970–2016 ..........................................................3–16 Table 3.12 Annual Mileage for Cars and Light Trucks by Vehicle Age .........................3–17 Table 3.13 Survival Rates for Cars and Light Trucks by Vehicle Age ............................3–18 Table 3.14 Heavy Truck Scrappage and Survival Rates, 1970, 1980, and 1990 Model Years ....................................................................................................3–19 CHAPTER 4 LIGHT VEHICLES AND CHARACTERISTICS ......................................4–1 Table 4.1 Summary Statistics for Cars, 1970–2016..........................................................4–3 Table 4.2 Summary Statistics for Two-Axle, Four-Tire Trucks, 1970–2016 ...................4–4 Table 4.3 Summary Statistics for Light Vehicles, 1970–2016 .........................................4–5 Table 4.4 Summary Statistics on Class 1, Class 2a, and Class 2b Light Trucks ..............4–6 Table 4.5 Examples of Class 2b Vehicle Models, 2017 ...................................................4–6 Figure 4.1 Truck Registrations by Class and Type, 2014 ..................................................4–7 Figure 4.2 Class 2b and 3 Registrations by Fuel Type, 2014 ............................................4–7 Table 4.6 New Retail Car Sales in the United States, 1970–2017 ....................................4–8 Table 4.7 New Retail Sales of Trucks 10,000 Pounds GVW and Less in the United States, 1970–2017 .................................................................................4–9 Figure 4.3 Fuel Use versus Fuel Economy.......................................................................4–10 Table 4.8 Production, Production Shares, and Production-Weighted Fuel Economies of New Domestic and Import Cars, Model Years 1975–2017........................4–11 Table 4.9 Definition of Car Sport Utility Vehicles in Model Year 2017........................4–12 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 ix Table 4.10 Production, Production Shares, and Production-Weighted Fuel Economies of New Domestic and Import Light Trucks, Model Years 1975–2017 ..........4–13 Table 4.11 Production and Production-Weighted Fuel Economies of New Domestic and Import Cars, Light Trucks and Light Vehicles, Model Years 1975–2017.......................................................................................................4–14 Table 4.12 Light Vehicle Production Shares, Model Years 1975–2017 ..........................4–15 Figure 4.4 Light Vehicle Production Shares, Model Years 1975–2017 ...........................4–16 Figure 4.5 Car and Light Truck Production by Transmission Speed, Model Years 1980–2017.......................................................................................................4–17 Figure 4.6 Horsepower, Fuel Economy, Weight, and 0-60 Time for New Light Vehicles, Model Years 1980–2017..................................................................4–18 Table 4.13 Car Technology Penetration, 1996–2017 .......................................................4–19 Table 4.14 Light Truck Technology Penetration, 1996–2017 ..........................................4–20 Table 4.15 Production-Weighted Engine Size of New Domestic and Import Cars, Model Years 1975–2017 .................................................................................4–21 Table 4.16 Production-Weighted Engine Size of New Domestic and Import Light Trucks, Model Years 1975–2017....................................................................4–22 Table 4.17 Production-Weighted Loaded Vehicle Weight of New Domestic and Import Cars, Model Years 1975–2017............................................................4–23 Table 4.18 Production-Weighted Loaded Vehicle Weight of New Domestic and Import Light Trucks, Model Years 1975–2017 ..............................................4–24 Table 4.19 Average Material Consumption for a Domestic Light Vehicle, Model Years 1995, 2000, and 2016 ...........................................................................4–25 Table 4.20 List of Top Twenty Tier 1 Global Suppliers, 2017 .........................................4–26 Table 4.21 U.S.-Based Tier 1 Suppliers in the Global Top 100, 2017 .............................4–27 Table 4.22 New Light Vehicle Dealerships and Sales, 1970–2017 ..................................4–29 Table 4.23 Conventional Refueling Stations, 1993–2013 ................................................4–30 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 x Table 4.24 Fuel Economy and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Standards, MY 2012–2025 ...............................................................................................4–31 Table 4.25 Fuel Economy and Carbon Dioxide Targets for Model Year 2025 ................4–32 Table 4.26 Car Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards versus Sales-Weighted Fuel Economy Estimates, 1978–2017 ..................................4–33 Table 4.27 Light Truck Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards versus Sales-Weighted Fuel Economy Estimates, 1978–2017 .......................4–34 Table 4.28 Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Fines Collected as of April 2018 .......................................................................................................4–35 Table 4.29 The Gas Guzzler Tax on New Cars ................................................................4–36 Table 4.30 List of Model Year 2017 Cars with Gas Guzzler Taxes .................................4–37 Table 4.31 Tax Receipts from the Sale of Gas Guzzlers, 1980–2016 ..............................4–39 Table 4.32 Fuel Economy by Speed, Autonomie Model Results .....................................4–40 Table 4.33 Fuel Economy by Speed, 1973, 1984, 1997, and 2012 Studies ......................4–41 Figure 4.7 Fuel Economy by Speed, 1973, 1984, 1997, and 2012 Studies and Autonomie Model Results ...............................................................................4–42 Table 4.34 Driving Cycle Attributes .................................................................................4–43 Figure 4.8 City Driving Cycle ..........................................................................................4–44 Figure 4.9 Highway Driving Cycle...................................................................................4–44 Figure 4.10 Air Conditioning (SC03) Driving Cycle .........................................................4–45 Figure 4.11 Cold Temperature (Cold FTP) Driving Cycle ................................................4–45 Figure 4.12 High Speed (US06) Driving Cycle ..................................................................4–46 Figure 4.13 New York City Driving Cycle ..........................................................................4–47 Figure 4.14 Representative Number Five Driving Cycle ...................................................4–47 Table 4.35 Comparison of U.S., European, and Japanese Driving Cycles Attributes ......4–48 Table 4.36 Example of Differing Results Using the U.S., European, and Japanese Driving Cycles .................................................................................4–49 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xi CHAPTER 5 HEAVY VEHICLES AND CHARACTERISTICS .....................................5–1 Figure 5.1 Examples of Body Types in Each Truck Class ..................................................5–2 Table 5.1 Summary Statistics for Class 3-8 Single-Unit Trucks, 1970–2016 ..................5–3 Table 5.2 Summary Statistics for Class 7-8 Combination Trucks, 1970–2016 ................5–4 Table 5.3 New Retail Truck Sales by Gross Vehicle Weight, 1970–2017 .......................5–5 Table 5.4 Diesel Share of Medium and Heavy Truck Sales by Gross Vehicle Weight, 1995–2017.........................................................................................................5–6 Table 5.5 Truck Statistics by Gross Vehicle Weight Class, 2002 ....................................5–8 Table 5.6 Truck Harmonic Mean Fuel Economy by Size Class, 1992, 1997, and 2002 ............................................................................................................5–8 Table 5.7 Truck Statistics by Size, 2002...........................................................................5–9 Table 5.8 Percentage of Trucks by Size Ranked by Major Use, 2002 ...........................5–10 Table 5.9 Percentage of Trucks by Fleet Size and Primary Fueling Facility, 2002........5–11 Table 5.10 Share of Trucks by Major Use and Primary Fueling Facility, 2002 ...............5–12 Figure 5.2 Distribution of Trucks over 26,000 lb by Vehicle-Miles Traveled..................5–13 Figure 5.3 Share of Heavy Trucks with Selected Electronic Features, 2002 ..................5–14 Table 5.11 Effect of Terrain on Class 8 Truck Fuel Economy .........................................5–16 Table 5.12 Fuel Economy for Class 8 Trucks as Function of Speed and Tractor-Trailer Tire Combination ...................................................................5–17 Figure 5.4 Class 8 Truck Fuel Economy as a Function of Speed and Tractor-Trailer Tire Combination and Percentage of Total Distance Traveled as a Function of Speed ...........................................................................................5–18 Figure 5.5 Class 8 Truck Percent of Total Fuel Consumed as a Function of Speed and Tractor-Trailer Tire Combination ...........................................................5–19 Table 5.13 Class 8 Truck Weight by Component .............................................................5–20 Table 5.14 Gross Vehicle Weight vs. Empty Vehicle Weight..........................................5–21 Figure 5.6 Distribution of Class 8 Trucks by On-Road Vehicle Weight, 2008 ................5–22 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xii Table 5.15 Value of Goods Shipped in the United States: Comparison of the 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007, and 2012 Commodity Flow Surveys.................................5–24 Table 5.16 Tons of Freight in the United States: Comparison of the 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007, and 2012 Commodity Flow Surveys...........................................5–25 Table 5.17 Ton-Miles of Freight in the United States: Comparison of the 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007, and 2012 Commodity Flow Surveys.................................5–26 Table 5.18 Average Miles per Shipment in the United States: Comparison of the 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007, and 2012 Commodity Flow Surveys.......................5–27 Figure 5.7 Maximum Daytime Truck Speed Limits by State, 2017 ..................................5–28 Figure 5.8 Routes Where Longer Combination Vehicles Are Permitted ..........................5–29 Table 5.19 Truck Stop Electrification Sites by State, 2018 ..............................................5–30 CHAPTER 6 ALTERNATIVE FUEL AND ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY VEHICLES AND CHARACTERISTICS ....................................................6–1 Table 6.1 Estimates of Alternative Fuel Highway Vehicles Made Available, 2004-2017 .........................................................................................................6–3 Table 6.2 Hybrid and Plug-In Vehicle Sales, 1999–2017.................................................6–4 Table 6.3 Alternative Fuel Transit Vehicles, 2016 ...........................................................6–5 Table 6.4 E85 Flex-Fuel Vehicles Available by Manufacturer, Model Year 2018 ..........6–6 Table 6.5 B20, CNG, and LPG Vehicles Available by Manufacturer, Model Year 2018 ..............................................................................................6–7 Table 6.6 Hybrid-Electric Vehicles Available by Manufacturer, Model Year 2018 ..............................................................................................6–8 Table 6.7 Electric-Drive Vehicles Available by Manufacturer, Model Year 2018 ..........6–9 Table 6.8 Number of Alternative Fuel Vehicle Models Available, 1991–2018 .............6–10 Table 6.9 Hybrid-Electric Medium/Heavy Trucks and Buses Available by Manufacturer, 2018 .........................................................................................6–11 Table 6.10 Electric-Drive Medium/Heavy Trucks and Buses Available by Manufacturer, 2018 .........................................................................................6–12 Table 6.11 Number of Alternative Refuel Sites by State and Fuel Type, 2018................6–14 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xiii Table 6.12 Number of Alternative Refuel Stations, 1992–2018.......................................6–15 Figure 6.1 Clean Cities Coalitions ...................................................................................6–16 Table 6.13 Properties of Conventional and Alternative Liquid Fuels ..............................6–17 Table 6.14 Properties of Conventional and Alternative Gaseous Fuels ...........................6–18 CHAPTER 7 FLEET VEHICLES AND CHARACTERISTICS........................................7–1 Figure 7.1 Fleet Vehicles in Service as of January 1, 2017 ...............................................7–2 Table 7.1 Fleet Vehicles in Service, 2006–2017 ..............................................................7–3 Table 7.2 Average Length of Time Commercial Fleet Vehicles Are in Service, 2016.....................................................................................................7–4 Table 7.3 Average Annual Vehicle-Miles of Travel for Commercial Fleet Vehicles, 2016...................................................................................................7–4 Figure 7.2 Average Miles per Domestic Federal Vehicle by Vehicle Type, 2015 ..............7–5 Table 7.4 Federal Government Vehicles, 2001–2015.......................................................7–6 Table 7.5 Federal Fleet Vehicle Acquisitions by Fuel Type, FY 2002–2015 ..................7–7 Table 7.6 Fuel Consumed by Federal Government Fleets, FY 2000–2015 ......................7–7 Table 7.7 Federal Government Vehicles by Agency, FY 2015 ........................................7–8 Table 7.8 Summary Statistics on Demand Response Vehicles, 1994–2015 .....................7–9 Table 7.9 Summary Statistics on Transit Buses and Trolleybuses, 1994–2016 .............7–10 CHAPTER 8 HOUSEHOLD VEHICLES AND CHARACTERISTICS..........................8–1 Table 8.1 Population and Vehicle Profile, 1950–2016 .....................................................8–2 Table 8.2 Vehicles and Vehicle-Miles per Capita, 1950–2016 ........................................8–3 Table 8.3 Licensed Driver Statistics, 1950–2016 .............................................................8–4 Table 8.4 Household Vehicle Ownership, 1960–2016 .....................................................8–5 Table 8.5 Demographic Statistics from the 1969, 1977, 1983, 1990, 1995 NPTS and 2001, 2009, 2017 NHTS ............................................................................8–6 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xiv Table 8.6 Average Annual Vehicle-Miles, Vehicle Trips and Trip Length per Household 1969, 1977, 1983, 1990, 1995 NPTS and 2001, 2009, 2017 NHTS .......................................................................................................8–7 Table 8.7 Average Number of Vehicles and Vehicle Travel per Household, 1990 NPTS and 2001, 2009, 2017 NHTS.........................................................8–8 Table 8.8 Trip Statistics by Trip Purpose, 2001 and 2017 NHTS ....................................8–9 Figure 8.1 Average Household Vehicle Occupancy by Vehicle Type, 1995 NPTS and 2009, 2017 NHTS ............................................................................................8–10 Figure 8.2 Average Household Vehicle Occupancy by Trip Purpose, 1977 NPTS and 2009, 2017 NHTS ............................................................................................8–11 Table 8.9 Average Annual Miles per Household Vehicle by Vehicle Age, 1983, 1990, 1995 NPTS and 2001, 2009, 2017 NHTS ..................................8–12 Table 8.10 Self-Reported vs. Odometer Average Annual Miles, 1995 NPTS and 2001 NHTS .....................................................................................................8–13 Figure 8.3 Share of Vehicle Trips by Trip Distance, 2017 NHTS ....................................8–14 Figure 8.4 Share of Vehicle Trips to Work by Trip Distance, 2017 NHTS ......................8–14 Table 8.11 Share of Vehicles by Annual Miles of Travel and Vehicle Age, 2017 NHTS .....................................................................................................8–15 Table 8.12 Household Vehicle Trips, 1990, 1995 NPTS and 2001, 2009, 2017 NHTS .....................................................................................................8–16 Figure 8.5 Average Daily Miles Driven (per Driver), 2017 NHTS ..................................8–16 Table 8.13 Daily Vehicle Miles of Travel (per Vehicle) by Number of Vehicles in the Household, 2001, 2009, and 2017 NHTS .................................................8–17 Table 8.14 Daily and Annual Vehicle Miles of Travel and Average Age for Each Vehicle in a Household, 2017 NHTS .............................................................8–17 Figure 8.6 Daily Vehicle Miles of Travel for Each Vehicle in a Household, 2017 NHTS ......................................................................................................8–18 Figure 8.7 Annual Vehicle Miles of Travel for Each Vehicle in a Household, 2017 NHTS ......................................................................................................8–18 Figure 8.8 Annual Vehicle Miles of Travel by Fuel Type, 2017 NHTS ............................8–19 Table 8.15 Characteristics of U.S. Daily per Vehicle Driving by Housing Density, 2017 NHTS .....................................................................................................8–20 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xv Table 8.16 Housing Unit Characteristics, 2017 ................................................................8–20 Table 8.17 Average Length and Duration of Trips To and From Work by Mode, 2017 NHTS .....................................................................................8–21 Table 8.18 Workers by Commute Time, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2016 .............................8–21 Table 8.19 Means of Transportation to Work, 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2016 .....................8–22 Figure 8.9 Walk and Bike Trips by Trip Purpose, 2017 NHTS ........................................8–23 Table 8.20 Long-Distance Trip Characteristics, 2001 NHTS ...........................................8–25 CHAPTER 9 NONHIGHWAY MODES .............................................................................9–1 Table 9.1 Nonhighway Energy Use Shares, 1970–2016 ..................................................9–2 Table 9.2 Summary Statistics for U.S. Domestic and International Certificated Route Air Carriers (Combined Totals), 1970–2017 .........................................9–3 Table 9.3 Summary Statistics for General Aviation, 1970–2016 .....................................9–4 Table 9.4 Tonnage Statistics for Domestic and International Waterborne Commerce, 1970–2016 .....................................................................................9–5 Table 9.5 Summary Statistics for Domestic Waterborne Commerce, 1970–2016 ...........9–6 Table 9.6 Recreational Boat Energy Use, 1970–2016 ......................................................9–7 Table 9.7 Class I Railroad Freight Systems in the United States Ranked by Revenue Ton–Miles, 2016 ................................................................................9–8 Table 9.8 Summary Statistics for Class I Freight Railroads, 1970–2016 .........................9–9 Table 9.9 Intermodal Rail Traffic, 1965–2016 ...............................................................9–10 Table 9.10 Summary Statistics for the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak), 1971–2016 ......................................................................................9–11 Table 9.11 Summary Statistics for Commuter Rail Operations, 1984–2016....................9–12 Table 9.12 Summary Statistics for Rail Transit Operations, 1970–2016 .........................9–13 CHAPTER 10 TRANSPORTATION AND THE ECONOMY .........................................10–1 Figure 10.1 Transportation Services Index, January 1990–January 2018 ........................10–3 Table 10.1 Average Annual Expenditures of Households by Income, 2016 ....................10–4 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xvi Table 10.2 Annual Household Expenditures for Transportation, 1985-2016 ...................10–5 Table 10.3 Gasoline Prices for Selected Countries, 1990–2017 .......................................10–6 Table 10.4 Diesel Fuel Prices for Selected Countries, 1990–2017 ...................................10–7 Figure 10.2 Gasoline Prices for Selected Countries, 1990 and 2017 ................................10–8 Figure 10.3 Diesel Prices for Selected Countries, 1990 and 2017 ....................................10–9 Table 10.5 Prices for a Barrel of Crude Oil and a Gallon of Gasoline, 1978–2017 .......10–10 Figure 10.4 Prices for a Barrel of Crude Oil and a Gallon of Gasoline, 1978–2017 .....10–11 Figure 10.5 Gasoline Price Components, 2000-2017 ......................................................10–12 Table 10.6 Retail Prices for Motor Fuel, 1978–2017 .....................................................10–13 Figure 10.6 Oil Price and Economic Growth, 1970–2017...............................................10–14 Figure 10.7 Costs of Oil Dependence to the U.S. Economy, 1970–2016 .........................10–15 Table 10.7 Refiner Sales Prices for Propane and No. 2 Diesel, 1978–2017 ...................10–16 Table 10.8 Refiner Sales Prices for Aviation Gasoline and Jet Fuel, 1978–2017 ..........10–17 Table 10.9 Federal Excise Taxes on Motor Fuels, 2015 .................................................10–18 Table 10.10 State Gasoline Tax Rates, August 2018 ........................................................10–19 Table 10.11 Federal, State, and Local Alternative Fuel Incentives, 2018 ........................10–20 Table 10.12 Federal, State, and Local Advanced Technology Incentives, 2018 ..............10–21 Table 10.13 Average Price of a New Car (Domestic and Import), 1970–2017 ................10–22 Table 10.14 Average Price of a New Light Truck (Domestic and Import), 1990–2017.....................................................................................................10–23 Table 10.15 Car Operating Cost per Mile, 1985–2017 .....................................................10–24 Table 10.16 Fixed Car Operating Costs per Year, 1975–2017 .........................................10–25 Table 10.17 Personal Consumption Expenditures, 1970–2017 ........................................10–26 Table 10.18 Consumer Price Indices, 1970–2017 ............................................................10–27 Table 10.19 Transportation-Related Employment, 1990, 2000 and 2017 ........................10–28 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xvii Table 10.20 U.S. Employment for Motor Vehicles and Motor Vehicle Parts Manufacturing, 1990–2017 ...........................................................................10–29 CHAPTER 11 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS ............................................................11–1 Table 11.1 World Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1990, 2005, and 2017 .............................11–2 Figure 11.1 World Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1990–2017 ..............................................11–3 Table 11.2 Numerical Estimates of Global Warming Potentials Compared with Carbon Dioxide .......................................................................................11–4 Table 11.3 U.S. Emissions of Greenhouse Gases, Based on Global Warming Potential, 1990–2016 ......................................................................................11–5 Table 11.4 Total U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions by End-Use Sector, 2016 ..................11–6 Table 11.5 U.S. Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuel Consumption by End-Use Sector, 1990–2016 ...........................................................................11–7 Table 11.6 Transportation Sector Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Consumption, 1973–2017 ...............................................................................11–8 Table 11.7 U.S. Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion in the Transportation End-Use Sector, 1990–2016 ...................................................11–9 Table 11.8 Transportation Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Mode, 1990–2016................11–10 Figure 11.2 GREET Model ...............................................................................................11–11 Figure 11.3 GREET Model Feedstocks and Fuels ...........................................................11–12 Figure 11.4 Well-to-Wheel Emissions for Various Fuels and Vehicle Technologies .......11–13 Figure 11.5. Vehicle Manufacturing Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Vehicle Component .......................................................................................11–14 Table 11.9 Production-Weighted Annual Carbon Footprint of New Domestic and Import Cars, Model Years 1975-2017 ..........................................................11–16 Table 11.10 Production-Weighted Annual Carbon Footprint of New Domestic and Import Light Trucks, Model Years 1975-2017 .............................................11–17 Table 11.11 Average Annual Carbon Footprint of New Vehicles by Vehicle Classification, Model Years 1975 and 2017 .................................................11–18 Table 11.12 Carbon Content of Transportation Fuels.......................................................11–19 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xviii CHAPTER 12 CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANTS ................................................................12–1 Table 12.1 Total National Emissions of the Criteria Air Pollutants by Sector, 2017 .......12–2 Table 12.2 Total National Emissions of Carbon Monoxide, 1970–2017 .........................12–3 Table 12.3 Emissions of Carbon Monoxide from Highway Vehicles, 1970–2014 ..........12–4 Table 12.4 Total National Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides, 1970–2017 ............................12–5 Table 12.5 Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides from Highway Vehicles, 1970–2014 .............12–6 Table 12.6 Total National Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds, 1970–2017 .......12–7 Table 12.7 Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Highway Vehicles, 1970–2014.......................................................................................................12–8 Table 12.8 Total National Emissions of Particulate Matter (PM–10), 1970–2017 ..........12–9 Table 12.9 Emissions of Particulate Matter (PM–10) from Highway Vehicles, 1970–2014.....................................................................................................12–10 Table 12.10 Total National Emissions of Particulate Matter (PM-2.5), 1990–2017 ........12–11 Table 12.11 Emissions of Particulate Matter (PM-2.5) from Highway Vehicles, 1990–2014.....................................................................................................12–12 Table 12.12 Total National Emissions of Sulfur Dioxide, 1970–2017.............................12–13 Table 12.13 Tier 3 Non-Methane Organic Gases and Nitrogen Oxide Standards ............12–15 Table 12.14 Tier 3 Particulate Matter Emission Standards for Light Gasoline Vehicles, MY 2017 and Beyond ...................................................................12–16 Table 12.15 Tier 3 Evaporative Emission Standards ........................................................12–16 Table 12.16 Light-Duty Vehicle, Light-Duty Truck, and Medium-Duty Passenger Vehicle – Tier 2 Exhaust Emission Standards ..............................................12–17 Table 12.17 Light-Duty Vehicle, Light-Duty Truck, and Medium-Duty Passenger Vehicle – Tier 2 Evaporative Emission Standards .......................................12–18 Table 12.18 Heavy-Duty Highway Compression-Ignition Engines and Urban Buses – Exhaust Emission Standards .........................................................................12–19 Table 12.19 Heavy-Duty Highway Spark-Ignition Engines – Exhaust Emission Standards .......................................................................................................12–21 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xix Table 12.20 Heavy-Duty Highway Compression-Ignition and Spark-Ignition Engines – Evaporative Emission Standards...................................................................12–23 Table 12.21 California New Car, Light Truck and Medium Truck Emission Certification Standards, Model Year 2015–On ............................................12–24 Table 12.22 Aircraft – Exhaust Emission Standards ........................................................12–25 Table 12.23 Nonroad Compression-Ignition Engines – Exhaust Emission Standards .....12–26 Table 12.24 Nonroad Large Spark-Ignition Engines – Exhaust and Evaporative Emission Standards .......................................................................................12–28 Table 12.25 Locomotives – Exhaust Emission Standards ................................................12–29 Table 12.26 Marine Compression-Ignition (CI) Engines – Exhaust Emission Standards .......................................................................................................12–31 Table 12.27 Marine Spark-Ignition Engines and Vessels – Exhaust Emission Standards .......................................................................................................12–35 Table 12.28 Nonroad Recreational Engines and Vehicles – Exhaust Emission Standards .......................................................................................................12–37 Table 12.29 Gasoline Sulfur Standards.............................................................................12–39 Table 12.30 Highway, Nonroad, Locomotive, and Marine (NRLM) Diesel Fuel Sulfur Standards ............................................................................................12–40 APPENDIX A. SOURCES & METHODOLOGIES ............................................................ A–1 APPENDIX B. CONVERSIONS ............................................................................................ B–1 GLOSSARY.............................................................................................................................. G–1 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xx TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xxi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to express their gratitude to the many individuals who assisted in the preparation of this document. First, we would like to thank Rachael Nealer, Jacob Ward, Heather Croteau and the Vehicle Technologies Office staff for their continued support of the Transportation Energy Data Book project. We would also like to thank Mark Robbins for the cover design and David Gohlke for his thorough review of the report. We are indebted to Debbie Bain, who has masterfully prepared the manuscript since 1998. This book would not be possible without the leadership, guidance, and vision of Phil Patterson, who began this book in the 1970’s. We hope to continue this report into the future with the same level of excellence. The authors and the transportation research community will be forever grateful for his efforts. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xxii TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xxiii ABSTRACT The Transportation Energy Data Book: Edition 37 is a statistical compendium prepared and published by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) under contract with the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Vehicle Technologies Office. Designed for use as a desk-top reference, the Data Book represents an assembly and display of statistics and information that characterize transportation activity, and presents data on other factors that influence transportation energy use. The purpose of this document is to present relevant statistical data in the form of tables and graphs. The latest edition of the Data Book is available via the Internet (cta.ornl.gov/data). This edition of the Data Book has 12 chapters which focus on various aspects of the transportation industry. Chapter 1 focuses on petroleum; Chapter 2 – energy; Chapter 3 – highway vehicles; Chapter 4 – light vehicles; Chapter 5 – heavy vehicles; Chapter 6 – alternative fuel vehicles; Chapter 7 – fleet vehicles; Chapter 8 – household vehicles; Chapter 9 – nonhighway modes; Chapter 10 – transportation and the economy; Chapter 11 – greenhouse gas emissions; and Chapter 12 – criteria pollutant emissions. The sources used represent the latest available data. There are also two appendices which include detailed source information for some tables and measures of conversion. A glossary of terms is also included for the reader’s convenience. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xxiv TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xxv INTRODUCTION In January 1976, the Transportation Energy Conservation (TEC) Division of the Energy Research and Development Administration contracted with Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) to prepare a Transportation Energy Conservation Data Book to be used by TEC staff in their evaluation of current and proposed conservation strategies. The major purposes of the Data Book were to draw together, under one cover, transportation data from diverse sources, to resolve data conflicts and inconsistencies, and to produce a comprehensive document. The first edition of the TEC Data Book was published in October 1976. With the passage of the Department of Energy (DOE) Organization Act, the work being conducted by the former Transportation Energy Conservation Division fell under the purview of the DOE's Office of Transportation Programs. This work continues today in the Vehicle Technologies Office. Policymakers and analysts need to be well-informed about activity in the transportation sector. The organization and scope of the data book reflect the need for different kinds of information. For this reason, Edition 37 updates much of the same type of data that is found in previous editions. In any attempt to compile a comprehensive set of statistics on transportation activity, numerous instances of inadequacies and inaccuracies in the basic data are encountered. Where such problems occur, estimates are developed by ORNL. To minimize the misuse of these statistics, an appendix (Appendix A) is included to document the estimation procedures. The attempt is to provide sufficient information for the conscientious user to evaluate the estimates and to form their own opinions as to their utility. Clearly, the accuracy of the estimates cannot exceed the accuracy of the primary data, an accuracy which in most instances is unknown. In cases where data accuracy is known or substantial errors are strongly suspected in the data, the reader is alerted. In all cases it should be recognized that the estimates are not precise. The majority of the statistics contained in the data book are taken directly from published sources, although these data may be reformatted for presentation by ORNL. Consequently, neither ORNL nor DOE endorses the validity of these data. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 xxvi TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–1 Petroleum Summary Statistics from Tables/Figures in this Chapter Source Table 1.3 World Petroleum Production, 2017 (million barrels per day) 92.00 13.09 U.S. Production (million barrels per day) 14.2% U.S. Share Table 1.4 World Petroleum Consumption, 2017 (million barrels per day) 98.49 19.88 U.S. Consumption (million barrels per day) 20.2% U.S. Share OECD Europe OECDb Americas Gasoline 19.9% 41.1% Diesel oil 29.9% 28.4% Residual fuel 8.2% 4.2% Kerosene 15.5% 8.8% Other (includes naptha and LPG) 26.5% 17.5% b Figure 1.4 Average Refinery Yield, 2017 Table 1.12 U.S. transportation petroleum use as a percent of U.S. petroleum production, 2017 106.2% Table 1.12 Net imports as a percentage of U.S. petroleum consumption, 2017 18.8% Table 1.13 Transportation share of U.S. petroleum consumption, 2017 69.7% Table 1.16 Highway share of transportation petroleum consumption, 2016 86.2% Table 1.16 Light vehicle share of transportation petroleum consumption, 2016 63.2% In this document, petroleum is defined as crude oil (including lease condensate) and natural gas plant liquids. _________________________ a Organization for Economic Co‑operation and Development. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–2 As new technologies appear, and new areas are explored, the amount of proved reserves of crude oil and natural gas has grown. Although the reserves of natural gas in the United States were 60% higher in 2017 than it was in 1980, the U.S. share of World natural gas reserves is lower. Table 1.1 Proved Reserves of Crude Oil and Natural Gas, 1980–2017 Year 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1970-2017 2007-2017 Crude Oil Reserves Natural Gas Reserves U.S. Share of (billion barrels) (trillion cubic feet) Crude Oil World United States Reserves World United States 641.8 31.2 4.9% 2,585.7 201.0 651.1 31.3 4.8% 2,647.8 199.0 669.8 31.0 4.6% 2,920.5 201.7 665.5 29.5 4.4% 3,031.9 201.5 667.3 29.3 4.4% 3,201.6 200.2 701.2 30.0 4.3% 3,401.2 197.5 698.5 29.9 4.3% 3,483.6 193.4 698.5 28.3 4.1% 3,641.1 191.6 889.3 28.7 3.2% 3,789.0 187.2 907.9 28.2 3.1% 3,921.6 168.0 1,001.8 27.9 2.8% 3,980.7 167.1 1,000.1 27.6 2.8% 4,215.4 169.3 933.2 25.9 2.8% 2,626.5 167.1 940.1 25.0 2.7% 2,941.5 165.0 942.3 24.1 2.6% 3,016.2 162.4 943.1 23.6 2.5% 3,004.2 163.8 951.8 23.5 2.5% 2,958.0 165.1 1,021.4 23.3 2.3% 4,946.8 166.5 1,023.4 23.9 2.3% 5,087.3 167.2 1,034.1 22.4 2.2% 5,141.7 164.0 1,018.2 23.2 2.3% 5,149.7 167.4 1,029.6 23.5 2.3% 5,288.6 177.4 1,033.4 23.8 2.3% 5,457.3 183.5 1,214.5 24.0 2.0% 5,505.1 186.9 1,266.2 23.1 1.8% 6,078.7 189.0 1,278.4 22.6 1.8% 6,044.6 192.5 1,289.2 23.0 1.8% 6,124.2 204.4 1,319.9 22.3 1.7% 6,190.5 211.1 1,328.5 22.8 1.7% 6,213.3 237.7 1,336.4 20.6 1.5% 6,261.9 244.7 1,356.7 22.3 1.6% 6,637.8 272.5 1,475.0 25.2 1.7% 6,707.8 304.6 1,523.4 29.0 1.9% 6,808.9 334.1 1,643.9 33.4 2.0% 6,844.9 308.0 1,650.6 36.5 2.2% 6,972.2 338.3 1,657.9 39.9 2.4% 6,950.5 368.7 1,650.6 35.2 2.1% 6,878.7 307.7 1,645.7 35.2 2.1% 6,922.9 322.2 Average Annual Percentage Change 2.6% 0.3% 2.7% 1.3% 2.2% 4.7% 1.1% 4.3% U.S. Share of Natural Gas Reserves 7.8% 7.5% 6.9% 6.6% 6.3% 5.8% 5.6% 5.3% 4.9% 4.3% 4.2% 4.0% 6.4% 5.6% 5.4% 5.5% 5.6% 3.4% 3.3% 3.2% 3.3% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.1% 3.2% 3.3% 3.4% 3.8% 3.9% 4.1% 4.5% 4.9% 4.5% 4.9% 5.3% 4.5% 4.7% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics, February 2018. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–3 In 2017, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) accounted for 43.3% of world oil production. World crude oil production reached an all-time high in 2017, while U.S. production was over 9 mmbd. Table 1.2 World Crude Oil Production, 1960–2017a (million barrels per day) Year 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 United States 7.04 7.80 9.64 8.38 8.60 8.97 8.68 8.35 8.14 7.61 7.36 7.42 7.17 6.85 6.66 6.56 6.46 6.45 6.25 5.88 5.82 5.80 5.74 5.65 5.44 5.18 5.09 5.07 5.00 5.35 5.48 5.64 6.50 7.47 8.75 9.41 8.86 9.35 1960–2017 1970–2017 2007–2017 0.5% -0.1% 6.3% U.S. share 33.5% 25.7% 21.0% 15.9% 14.4% 16.6% 15.4% 14.7% 13.9% 12.7% 12.2% 12.3% 11.9% 11.4% 10.9% 10.5% 10.1% 9.8% 9.3% 8.9% 8.5% 8.5% 8.5% 8.1% 7.5% 7.0% 6.9% 6.9% 6.7% 7.3% 7.3% 7.6% 8.5% 9.8% 11.2% 11.7% 11.0% 11.5% Total OPECb OPEC share 8.70 41.4% 14.35 47.3% 23.30 50.8% 26.01 49.2% 25.56 42.9% 15.54 28.8% 17.75 31.5% 17.89 31.6% 19.90 33.9% 21.61 36.1% 22.77 37.6% 22.72 37.8% 24.03 40.0% 24.78 41.2% 25.21 41.2% 25.87 41.4% 26.39 41.4% 27.70 42.1% 28.78 42.9% 27.63 41.9% 29.43 42.9% 28.58 41.9% 26.93 40.0% 28.42 40.9% 31.04 42.8% 32.53 44.0% 32.19 43.8% 31.94 43.6% 33.31 44.9% 31.61 43.3% 32.50 43.5% 32.67 43.7% 33.86 44.5% 32.89 43.1% 32.94 42.1% 34.19 42.4% 35.17 43.6% 35.06 43.3% Average annual percentage change 2.5% 0.9% 0.9% Total nonOPEC 12.29 15.98 22.59 26.82 34.00 38.43 38.57 38.76 38.80 38.19 37.73 37.41 36.07 35.39 35.96 36.56 37.43 38.11 38.25 38.33 39.10 39.55 40.36 41.04 41.56 41.33 41.38 41.30 40.81 41.32 42.14 42.06 42.30 43.41 45.26 46.38 45.51 45.97 World 20.99 30.33 45.89 52.83 59.56 53.97 56.33 56.65 58.70 59.80 60.50 60.13 60.10 60.17 61.17 62.43 63.82 65.81 67.03 65.97 68.53 68.13 67.29 69.46 72.60 73.85 73.57 73.25 74.12 72.93 74.64 74.73 76.16 76.30 78.20 80.57 80.68 81.03 2.3% 1.5% 1.1% 2.4% 1.2% 1.0% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, June 2018. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) a b Includes lease condensate. Excludes natural gas plant liquids. See Glossary for membership. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–4 This table shows petroleum production, which includes both crude oil and natural gas plant liquids. Because other liquids and processing gain are not included, the world total is often smaller than world petroleum consumption (Table 1.4). The United States was responsible for 14.2% of the world’s petroleum production in 2017 and 11.5% of the world’s crude oil production (Table 1.2). Table 1.3 World Petroleum Production, 1973–2017a (million barrels per day) Year United States 1973–2017 2007–2017 0.4% 6.7% 1973 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 10.95 10.01 10.17 10.58 8.91 9.08 8.87 8.58 8.39 8.32 8.29 8.27 8.01 7.73 7.73 7.67 7.62 7.37 7.25 6.90 6.82 6.86 6.78 7.26 7.55 7.86 8.90 10.07 11.77 12.75 12.37 13.09 U.S. share 18.7% 18.0% 16.2% 18.3% 13.7% 14.0% 13.7% 13.2% 12.6% 12.2% 11.9% 11.5% 11.0% 10.7% 10.3% 10.3% 10.3% 9.6% 9.0% 8.4% 8.4% 8.4% 8.2% 8.9% 9.0% 9.4% 10.4% 11.7% 13.3% 14.0% 13.5% 14.2% Total OPECb OPEC share Total nonOPEC 30.13 51.5% 28.33 26.38 47.4% 29.23 26.29 41.8% 36.66 16.42 28.4% 41.32 24.06 37.0% 40.96 24.02 37.1% 40.78 25.40 39.2% 39.38 26.22 40.3% 38.83 26.93 40.5% 39.62 27.64 40.6% 40.37 28.16 40.5% 41.36 29.56 41.3% 42.09 30.73 42.1% 42.30 29.65 41.1% 42.50 31.52 42.1% 43.38 30.89 41.3% 43.94 29.33 39.6% 44.76 30.97 40.5% 45.55 34.02 42.5% 46.11 35.78 43.8% 45.93 35.50 43.5% 46.09 35.37 43.4% 46.09 36.88 44.7% 45.60 35.20 43.2% 46.24 36.17 43.3% 47.28 36.38 43.4% 47.38 37.72 44.1% 47.85 36.65 42.7% 49.18 36.64 41.6% 51.51 37.98 41.8% 52.99 38.98 42.7% 52.29 39.02 42.4% 52.98 Average annual percentage change 0.6% 1.4% 1.0% 1.4% NonOPEC share 48.5% 52.6% 58.2% 71.6% 63.0% 62.9% 60.8% 59.7% 59.5% 59.4% 59.5% 58.7% 57.9% 58.9% 57.9% 58.7% 60.4% 59.5% 57.5% 56.2% 56.5% 56.6% 55.3% 56.8% 56.7% 56.6% 55.9% 57.3% 58.4% 58.2% 57.3% 57.6% World 58.46 55.62 62.95 57.74 65.02 64.79 64.78 65.05 66.55 68.01 69.52 71.65 73.04 72.15 74.90 74.83 74.10 76.52 80.12 81.71 81.58 81.47 82.48 81.44 83.45 83.76 85.57 85.82 88.16 90.97 91.28 92.00 1.0% 1.2% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics website, July 2018. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) Includes natural gas plant liquids, crude oil and lease condensate. Does not account for all inputs or refinery processing gain. b Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. See Glossary for membership. c Not comparable with previous data. Includes other inputs and refinery processing gains. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–5 During the 1980s and 1990s, the United States accounted for about one-quarter of the world’s petroleum consumption, but from 2000 to 2012 that share had been decreasing. In 2017 the United States accounted for only 20.2%. World petroleum consumption decreased in 2008 but has continued to increase thereafter. Non-OECD consumption has continued to increase. Table 1.4 World Petroleum Consumption, 1960–2017 (million barrels per day) Year 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 United States 9.80 11.51 14.70 16.32 17.06 15.73 16.28 16.67 17.28 17.33 16.99 16.71 17.03 17.24 17.72 17.72 18.31 18.62 18.92 19.52 19.70 19.65 19.76 20.03 20.73 20.80 20.69 20.68 19.50 18.77 19.18 18.89 18.49 18.97 19.10 19.53 19.69 19.88 1960–2017 1970–2017 2007–2017 1.2% 0.6% -0.4% U.S. share Total OECDa 45.9% 15.78 37.0% 22.81 31.4% 34.69 29.0% 39.23 27.0% 41.87 26.2% 37.70 26.3% 38.80 26.4% 39.59 26.6% 40.92 26.2% 41.63 25.5% 41.76 24.9% 42.17 25.3% 43.19 25.5% 43.68 25.7% 44.98 25.3% 45.43 25.6% 46.56 25.4% 47.30 25.6% 47.48 25.8% 48.41 25.6% 48.45 25.3% 48.51 25.2% 48.48 25.0% 49.20 24.9% 50.03 24.6% 50.39 24.2% 50.20 23.9% 50.08 22.8% 48.27 21.9% 46.29 21.5% 46.96 21.0% 46.31 20.3% 45.88 20.6% 45.95 20.4% 45.58 20.5% 46.28 20.3% 46.73 20.2% 47.20 Average annual percentage change 1.9% 0.7% -0.6% Total non-OECD 5.56 8.33 12.12 16.97 21.24 22.39 23.02 23.51 24.05 24.46 24.77 24.96 24.05 23.82 23.94 24.65 25.10 26.08 26.55 27.29 28.53 29.16 29.88 30.81 33.12 34.21 35.46 36.43 37.21 39.25 42.14 43.52 45.13 46.22 47.98 49.06 50.12 51.30 World 21.34 31.14 46.81 56.20 63.11 60.08 61.82 63.11 64.98 66.09 66.54 67.14 67.24 67.50 68.93 70.08 71.65 73.38 74.03 75.70 76.98 77.67 78.36 80.01 83.16 84.60 85.66 86.51 85.48 85.54 89.10 89.83 91.01 92.17 93.56 95.34 96.85 98.49 4.0% 3.1% 3.5% 2.7% 1.6% 1.3% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, June 2018. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) a Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. See Glossary for membership. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–6 Figure 1.1. World Oil Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1980 Source: See Table 1.5. Figure 1.2. World Oil Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1998 Source: See Table 1.5. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–7 Figure 1.3. World Oil Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 2017 Source: See Table 1.5. Table 1.5 World Oil Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1980, 1998 and 2017 Crude oil reserves (billion barrels) Reserve share Petroleum production (million barrels per day) United States OPEC Rest of world 31.0 426.7 184.1 5% 66% 29% 10.8 28.0 25.2 United States OPEC Rest of world 24.0 809.9 189.5 2% 79% 19% 9.3 32.3 34.1 United States OPEC Rest of world 35.2 1,210.1 400.5 2% 74% 24% 15.6 39.3 43.1 Production share 1980 17% 44% 39% 1998 14% 43% 45% 2017 16% 40% 44% Petroleum consumption (million barrels per day) Consumption share 17.1 2.5 43.4 27% 4% 69% 18.9 5.0 50.0 26% 7% 68% 19.9 9.7 65.8 21% 10% 69% Note: Consumption for OPEC and Rest of World in 2017 are actually 2015 consumption, which are the latest available. Total consumption is higher than total production due to refinery gains including alcohol and liquid products produced from coal and other sources. See Glossary for OPEC countries. Sources: Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics, July 2018. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–8 The share of petroleum imported to the United States can be calculated using total imports or net imports. Net imports, which are the preferred data, rose to over 50% of U.S. petroleum consumption for the first time in 1998, while total imports reached 50% for the first time in 1993. OPEC share of net imports has been below 50% since 1993. Due to rising petroleum exports, net imports have decreased substantially over the last five years, while total imports remained fairly constant. Table 1.6 U.S. Petroleum Imports, 1960–2017 (million barrels per day) Year 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Net OPECa imports 1.23 1.44 1.29 3.60 4.30 1.83 4.30 4.09 4.09 4.27 4.25 4.00 4.21 4.57 4.91 4.95 5.20 5.53 4.61 5.16 5.70 5.59 5.52 5.98 5.95 4.78 4.91 4.56 4.27 3.72 3.24 2.89 3.45 3.36 1960–2017 1970–2017 2007–2017 1.8% 2.1% -5.6% Net OPECa Net imports as a share share Net imports of U.S. consumption 68.0% 1.61 16.5% 58.3% 2.28 19.8% 37.8% 3.16 21.5% 59.5% 5.85 35.8% 62.2% 6.36 37.3% 36.1% 4.29 27.3% 53.6% 7.16 42.2% 53.7% 6.63 39.6% 51.9% 6.94 40.7% 49.6% 7.62 44.2% 47.2% 8.05 45.5% 45.3% 7.89 44.5% 44.4% 8.50 46.4% 45.0% 9.16 49.2% 45.8% 9.76 51.6% 45.6% 9.91 50.8% 45.4% 10.42 52.9% 46.6% 10.90 55.5% 39.9% 10.55 53.4% 42.1% 11.24 56.1% 43.4% 12.10 58.4% 40.7% 12.55 60.3% 40.2% 12.39 59.9% 44.4% 12.04 58.2% 46.1% 11.11 57.0% 40.9% 9.67 51.5% 41.6% 9.44 49.2% 39.8% 8.45 44.8% 40.3% 7.39 40.0% 37.7% 6.24 32.9% 35.0% 5.07 26.5% 30.6% 4.71 24.1% 34.2% 4.87 24.8% 33.4% 3.73 18.8% Average annual percentage change 1.5% -1.0% -11.1% Total imports 1.81 2.47 3.42 6.06 6.91 5.07 8.02 7.63 7.89 8.62 9.00 8.83 9.48 10.16 10.71 10.85 11.46 11.87 11.53 12.26 13.15 13.71 13.71 13.47 12.92 11.69 11.79 11.44 10.60 9.86 9.24 9.45 10.06 10.08 3.1% 2.3% -2.9% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Washington, DC, March 2018, Table 3.3a. (Additional resources: www.eia.gov) a Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. See Glossary for membership. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–9 More than half of the oil imported to the United States in 2017 was from the western hemisphere. Canada, Mexico, and Venezuela provided most of the oil from the western hemisphere, along with small amounts from Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, and the U.S. Virgin Islands (these countries are not listed separately). Table 1.7 Imported Crude Oil by Country of Origin, 1973–2017 (million barrels per day) Year 1973 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Saudi Arabia 0.49 0.71 1.26 0.17 0.68 0.75 1.07 1.22 1.34 1.80 1.72 1.41 1.40 1.34 1.36 1.41 1.49 1.48 1.57 1.66 1.55 1.77 1.56 1.54 1.46 1.48 1.53 1.00 1.10 1.19 1.37 1.33 1.17 1.06 1.11 0.95 Venezuela 1.13 0.70 0.48 0.60 0.79 0.80 0.79 0.87 1.02 1.03 1.17 1.30 1.33 1.48 1.68 1.77 1.72 1.49 1.55 1.55 1.40 1.38 1.55 1.53 1.42 1.36 1.19 1.06 0.99 0.95 0.96 0.81 0.79 0.83 0.80 0.67 Nigeria 0.46 0.76 0.86 0.29 0.44 0.53 0.62 0.82 0.80 0.70 0.68 0.74 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.70 0.70 0.66 0.90 0.89 0.62 0.87 1.14 1.17 1.11 1.13 0.99 0.81 1.02 0.82 0.44 0.28 0.09 0.08 0.24 0.33 1973-2017 2007-2017 1.5% -4.3% -1.2% -6.8% -0.8% -11.6% Other OPECa countries Canada Mexico 0.91 1.32 0.02 1.42 0.85 0.07 1.70 0.45 0.53 0.76 0.77 0.82 0.92 0.81 0.70 0.97 0.85 0.65 1.03 1.00 0.75 1.23 0.93 0.77 1.13 0.93 0.76 0.55 1.03 0.81 0.52 1.07 0.83 0.82 1.18 0.92 0.87 1.27 0.98 0.55 1.33 1.07 0.56 1.42 1.24 0.69 1.56 1.39 1.00 1.60 1.35 1.33 1.54 1.32 1.19 1.81 1.37 1.43 1.83 1.44 1.03 1.97 1.55 1.14 2.07 1.62 1.45 2.14 1.66 1.36 2.18 1.66 1.52 2.35 1.71 2.00 2.45 1.53 2.25 2.49 1.30 1.90 2.48 1.21 1.80 2.54 1.28 1.59 2.73 1.21 1.51 2.95 1.03 1.30 3.14 0.92 1.19 3.39 0.84 0.93 3.76 0.76 1.31 3.78 0.67 1.40 4.02 0.68 Average annual percentage change 1.0% 2.6% 8.3% -3.5% 5.1% -7.8% Russia 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.09 0.07 0.09 0.21 0.25 0.30 0.41 0.37 0.41 0.47 0.56 0.61 0.62 0.48 0.46 0.33 0.37 0.44 0.38 Other nonOPEC countries 1.90 1.52 1.62 1.64 1.86 2.10 2.11 2.17 1.99 1.67 1.88 2.19 2.46 2.41 2.57 2.63 2.83 2.95 3.00 2.98 3.20 3.15 3.34 3.87 3.76 3.09 2.70 2.66 2.46 2.32 1.87 1.62 1.44 1.66 1.72 1.63 5.9% -0.8% -0.3% -6.2% Total imports 6.26 6.06 6.91 5.07 6.22 6.68 7.40 8.06 8.02 7.63 7.89 8.62 9.00 8.83 9.48 10.16 10.71 10.85 11.46 11.87 11.53 12.26 13.15 13.71 13.71 13.47 12.92 11.69 11.79 11.44 10.60 9.86 9.24 9.45 10.06 10.07 1.1% -2.9% Sources: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Washington, DC, March 2018, Tables 3.3c and 3.3d. (Additional resources: www.eia.gov) a Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. See Glossary for membership. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–10 The Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) began in October 1977 as a result of the 1975 Energy Policy and Conservation Act. Its purpose is to provide protection against oil supply disruptions. The U.S. consumed 19.9 million barrels per day in 2017. At that rate of consumption, the SPR supply would last 33 days if used exclusively and continuously. Table 1.8 Crude Oil Supplies, 1973-2017 Year 1973 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1973-2017 2007-2017 Strategic Petroleum Reserve 0.0 107.8 493.3 585.7 568.5 574.7 587.1 591.7 591.6 565.8 563.4 571.4 567.2 540.7 550.2 599.1 638.4 675.6 684.5 688.6 696.9 701.8 726.6 726.5 696.0 695.3 696.0 691.0 695.1 695.1 662.8 c -0.5% Other crude oil Total U.S. petroleum stocksa crude oil stocks consumption (million barrels) (million barrels per day) 242.5 242.5 17.3 358.2 466.0 17.1 320.9 814.2 15.7 322.7 908.4 17.0 324.6 893.1 16.7 318.1 892.9 17.0 335.4 922.5 17.2 337.2 928.9 17.7 303.3 895.0 17.7 283.9 849.7 18.3 304.7 868.1 18.6 323.5 894.9 18.9 284.5 851.7 19.5 285.5 826.2 19.7 312.0 862.2 19.6 277.6 876.7 19.8 268.9 907.3 20.0 285.7 961.3 20.7 307.7 992.2 20.8 295.8 984.4 20.7 268.4 964.3 20.7 308.2 1,010.1 19.5 307.1 1,033.8 18.8 312.1 1,038.6 19.2 308.2 1,004.2 18.9 337.8 1,033.1 18.5 327.2 1,023.2 19.0 360.9 1,051.8 19.1 449.2 1,144.3 19.5 484.6 1,179.7 19.7 421.1 1,084.0 19.9 Average annual percentage change 1.3% 3.5% 0.3% 4.6% 1.2% -0.4% Number of days the SPR would supply the U.S.b 0 6 31 34 34 34 34 33 33 31 30 30 29 27 28 30 32 33 33 33 34 36 39 38 37 38 37 36 36 35 33 c -0.3% Sources: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Washington, DC, March 2018, Tables 3.1 and 3.4. (Additional resources: www.eia.gov) a Other crude oil stocks include stocks held by petroleum companies, as well as stocks of Alaskan crude oil in transit. b Strategic Petroleum Reserves divided by U.S. consumption per day. This would only hold true if the SPR were the only oil used for that many days. c Not applicable. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–11 Other parts of the world refine crude oil to produce more diesel fuel and less gasoline than the OECD Americas. The OECD Asia Oceania countries produce the lowest share of gasoline and highest share of diesel in 2017. Figure 1.4. Refinery Gross Output by World Region, 2007 and 2017 Source: International Energy Agency, Monthly Oil Survey, December 2017 and Monthly Oil Statistics, December 2008. (Additional resources: www.iea.org) Includes jet kerosene and other kerosene. Includes motor gasoline, jet gasoline, and aviation gasoline. c Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. See Glossary for membership. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–12 Oxygenate refinery input increased significantly in 1995, most certainly due to the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 which mandated the sale of reformulated gasoline in certain areas beginning in January 1995. The use of MTBE has declined over the last 15 years due to many states banning the additive. The other hydrocarbons and liquids category includes unfinished oils, motor gasoline blending components and aviation gasoline blending components. Table 1.9 U.S. Refinery Input of Crude Oil and Petroleum Products, 1987–2016 (thousand barrels) Year 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Crude oil 4,691,783 4,848,175 4,891,381 4,894,379 4,855,016 4,908,603 4,968,641 5,061,111 5,100,317 5,195,265 5,351,466 5,434,383 5,403,450 5,514,395 5,521,637 5,455,530 5,585,875 5,663,861 5,555,332 5,563,354 5,532,097 5,361,287 5,232,656 5,374,094 5,404,347 5,489,516 5,589,006 5,784,637 5,908,550 5,924,395 1987–2016 2006–2016 0.8% 0.6% Oxygenates Natural gas Fuel Other liquids ethanol MTBEa oxygenatesb c c d 280,889 c c d 304,566 c c d 182,109 c c d 170,589 c c d 172,306 c c d 171,701 179,213 3,351 49,393 1,866 169,868 3,620 52,937 1,918 172,026 9,055 79,396 4,122 164,552 11,156 79,407 3,570 151,769 11,803 86,240 4,246 146,921 11,722 89,362 4,038 135,756 13,735 94,784 4,147 138,921 15,268 90,288 4,005 156,479 16,929 87,116 4,544 155,429 26,320 90,291 2,338 152,763 55,626 67,592 1,937 154,356 74,095 47,600 940 161,037 84,088 39,751 612 182,924 117,198 11,580 57 184,383 136,603 1,610 0 177,559 190,084 480 0 177,194 240,955 90 0 161,479 285,883 901 0 178,884 297,266 1,154 0 186,270 304,155 806 0 181,112 310,568 915 0 186,601 317,171 719 1 188,722 325,858 830 0 196,281 334,767 1,062 0 Average annual percentage change d d d -1.2% 0.7% 11.1% -21.3% -100.0% Other hydrocarbons and liquids 132,720 105,645 223,797 260,108 280,265 272,676 280,074 193,808 190,411 214,282 201,268 206,135 225,779 201,135 192,632 224,567 163,459 194,203 295,064 322,989 349,807 548,843 518,998 523,015 541,059 425,946 495,476 490,213 446,744 483,229 4.6% 4.1% Total input to refineries 5,105,392 5,258,386 5,297,287 5,325,076 5,307,587 5,352,980 5,482,538 5,483,262 5,555,327 5,668,232 5,806,792 5,892,561 5,877,651 5,964,012 5,979,337 5,955,475 6,027,252 6,135,055 6,135,884 6,198,102 6,204,500 6,277,893 6,169,893 6,345,372 6,422,710 6,406,693 6,577,077 6,779,342 6,870,704 6,939,734 1.1% 1.1% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual 2016, Vol. 1, 2017, Table 16, and annual. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE). Includes methanol and other oxygenates. c Reported in “Other hydrocarbons and liquids” category in this year. d Data are not available. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–13 When crude oil and other hydrocarbons are processed into products that are, on average, less dense than the input, a processing volume gain occurs. Due to this gain, the product yield from a barrel of crude oil is more than 100%. For the last 20 years, the processing volume gain has been about 5-7%. Table 1.10 U.S. Refinery Yield of Petroleum Products from a Barrel of Crude Oil, 1978–2017 (percentage) Year 1978 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Motor gasoline 44.1 44.5 45.6 45.7 46.4 46.0 45.7 45.6 45.7 46.0 46.1 45.5 46.4 45.7 45.7 46.2 46.5 46.2 46.2 47.3 46.9 46.8 46.2 45.8 45.5 44.2 46.6 46.3 45.6 45.7 45.7 45.7 46.0 47.0 46.5 Distillate fuel oil 21.4 19.7 21.6 21.2 20.5 20.8 20.8 20.9 21.3 21.2 21.9 22.3 21.8 22.7 22.5 22.3 22.3 23.1 23.8 23.2 23.7 23.9 25.0 25.4 26.1 27.8 26.6 27.2 28.6 28.7 29.1 29.5 29.5 28.4 29.0 Jet fuel 6.6 7.4 9.6 9.8 10.0 10.0 10.1 10.7 10.3 9.9 9.2 9.8 9.7 10.4 10.3 9.9 10.2 10.3 9.8 9.8 9.5 9.7 9.8 9.3 9.1 9.7 9.2 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.6 9.8 9.9 Liquefied petroleum gas 2.3 2.4 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.6 4.0 3.6 3.8 4.3 4.1 4.2 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.3 4.3 4.2 4.0 3.6 3.9 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.3 4.0 4.0 3.9 4.0 3.7 3.8 3.7 Othera 29.6 30.0 24.6 24.8 24.5 24.4 24.2 24.1 24.1 24.0 24.2 23.8 23.3 22.6 22.6 23.1 22.6 22.1 21.6 21.4 22.2 22.4 21.6 21.7 21.7 20.8 19.9 19.8 19.1 18.6 18.5 17.6 17.1 17.2 17.1 Totalb 104.0 104.0 104.5 104.7 104.8 104.8 104.8 104.9 105.2 105.4 105.5 105.6 105.7 105.9 105.7 105.9 106.1 106.2 105.7 106.0 106.5 106.8 106.2 106.1 106.5 106.6 106.4 106.8 106.6 106.4 106.6 106.2 105.9 106.2 106.2 Source: Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Navigator, April 2018. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) Includes aviation gasoline (0.1%), kerosene (0.0%), residual fuel oil (2.5%), naphtha and other oils for petrochemical feedstock use (1.1%), other oils for petrochemical feedstock use (0.7%), special naphthas (0.2%), lubricants (0.7%), petroleum coke (5.3%) asphalt and road oil (1.9%), still gas (4.0%), and miscellaneous products (0.6%). b Products sum to greater than 100% due to processing gain. The processing gain for years 1978 to 1980 is assumed to be 4 percent. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–14 Domestic petroleum production increased in 2009 for the first time in 20 years and reached an all-time high of 13 mmbd in 2017. Most of the petroleum imported by the United States is in the form of crude oil. Exports were at an all-time high in 2017 as well, due to a lift of export restrictions in December 2015. Table 1.11 United States Petroleum Production, Imports, and Exports, 1950–2017 (million barrels per day) 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1950–2017 1970–2017 2007–2017 Domestic production Natural gas Crude plant oil liquids Totala 5.41 0.50 5.91 6.81 0.77 7.58 7.05 0.93 7.98 7.80 1.21 9.01 9.64 1.66 11.30 8.38 1.63 10.01 8.60 1.57 10.17 8.97 1.61 10.58 7.36 1.56 8.91 6.56 1.76 8.32 6.46 1.83 8.29 6.45 1.82 8.27 6.25 1.76 8.01 5.88 1.85 7.73 5.82 1.91 7.73 5.80 1.87 7.67 5.74 1.88 7.62 5.65 1.72 7.37 5.44 1.81 7.25 5.18 1.72 6.90 5.09 1.74 6.82 5.07 1.78 6.86 5.00 1.78 6.78 5.35 1.91 7.26 5.48 2.07 7.55 5.64 2.22 7.86 6.50 2.41 8.90 7.47 2.61 10.07 8.75 3.01 11.77 9.41 3.34 12.75 8.86 3.51 12.37 9.32 3.74 13.06 0.8% -0.1% 6.3% 3.0% 1.7% 7.7% Total imports Crude Petroleum oil products Total 0.49 0.36 0.85 0.78 0.47 1.25 1.02 0.80 1.82 1.24 1.23 2.47 1.32 2.10 3.42 4.11 1.95 6.06 5.26 1.65 6.91 3.20 1.87 5.07 5.89 2.12 8.02 7.23 1.61 8.83 7.51 1.97 9.48 8.23 1.94 10.16 8.71 2.00 10.71 8.73 2.12 10.85 9.07 2.39 11.46 9.33 2.54 11.87 9.14 2.39 11.53 9.66 2.60 12.26 10.09 3.06 13.15 10.13 3.59 13.71 10.12 3.59 13.71 10.03 3.44 13.47 9.78 3.13 12.92 9.01 2.68 11.69 9.21 2.58 11.79 8.94 2.50 11.44 8.53 2.07 10.60 7.73 2.13 9.86 7.34 1.90 9.24 7.36 2.09 9.45 7.85 2.20 10.07 7.91 2.16 10.07 Average annual percentage change 1.2% 4.2% 2.7% 3.8% 0.3% 3.9% 0.1% 2.3% 6.7% -2.3% -4.5% -2.9% Exports Crude oil 0.10 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.29 0.20 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.13 0.35 0.47 0.59 1.12 Petroleum products 0.21 0.34 0.19 0.18 0.25 0.20 0.26 0.58 0.75 0.85 0.87 0.90 0.83 0.82 0.99 0.95 0.97 1.01 1.02 1.13 1.29 1.41 1.77 1.98 2.31 2.94 3.14 3.49 3.82 4.27 4.67 5.23 Total 0.31 0.37 0.20 0.19 0.26 0.21 0.54 0.78 0.86 0.95 0.98 1.00 0.94 0.94 1.04 0.97 0.98 1.03 1.05 1.16 1.32 1.43 1.80 2.02 2.35 2.99 3.20 3.62 4.18 4.74 5.26 6.34 3.7% 10.6% 43.6% 4.9% 6.7% 14.0% 4.6% 7.0% 16.1% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Washington, DC, March 2018, Tables 3.1 and 3.3b. (Additional resources: www.eia.gov) a Total domestic production includes crude oil, natural gas plant liquids and small amounts of other liquids. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–15 U.S. petroleum production has been increasing and petroleum imports decreasing from 2008 to 2017. Net imports of petroleum in 2017 were at the lowest level since 1970. In 2016, domestic production declined slightly, but rose to over 13 mmbd in 2017. Table 1.12 Petroleum Production and Transportation Petroleum Consumption in Context, 1950–2017 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1950–2017 1970–2017 2007–2017 Domestic petroleum productiona Net petroleum imports 5.91 7.58 7.99 9.01 11.30 10.01 10.17 10.58 8.91 8.32 8.29 8.27 8.01 7.73 7.73 7.67 7.62 7.37 7.25 6.90 6.83 6.86 6.78 7.26 7.55 7.86 8.90 10.07 11.77 12.75 12.37 13.06 0.55 0.88 1.62 2.28 3.16 5.85 6.36 4.29 7.16 7.89 8.50 9.16 9.76 9.91 10.42 10.90 10.55 11.24 12.10 12.55 12.39 12.04 11.11 9.67 9.44 8.45 7.39 6.24 5.07 4.71 4.79 3.73 1.2% 0.3% 6.7% 2.9% 0.4% -11.1% Transportation U.S. petroleum petroleum consumption consumption (million barrels per day) World petroleum consumption b 3.36 6.46 b 4.46 8.46 5.15 9.82 21.34 6.04 11.51 31.14 7.78 14.70 46.81 8.92 16.32 56.20 9.55 17.06 63.12 9.84 15.73 60.08 10.99 16.99 66.54 11.50 17.72 70.26 11.83 18.31 71.88 12.14 18.62 73.60 12.40 18.92 74.27 12.74 19.52 75.98 12.99 19.70 76.93 12.91 19.65 77.73 13.18 19.76 78.46 13.25 20.03 80.09 13.67 20.73 83.06 13.90 20.80 84.56 14.11 20.69 85.57 14.20 20.68 86.72 13.50 19.50 86.05 13.16 18.77 84.97 13.35 19.18 89.17 13.14 18.89 89.88 12.86 18.49 91.09 13.09 18.97 92.32 13.30 19.10 93.61 13.49 19.53 95.36 b 13.72 19.69 b 13.86 19.88 Average annual percentage change b 2.1% 1.7% b 1.2% 0.6% b -0.2% -0.4% Transportation Net imports U.S. petroleum petroleum use as as a share of consumption as a share of U.S. a share of world domestic consumption consumption production 8.4% 10.4% 16.5% 19.8% 21.5% 35.8% 37.3% 27.3% 42.2% 44.5% 46.4% 49.2% 51.6% 50.8% 52.9% 55.5% 53.4% 56.1% 58.4% 60.3% 59.9% 58.2% 57.0% 51.5% 49.2% 44.8% 40.0% 32.9% 26.5% 24.1% 24.8% 18.8% b b 46.0% 37.0% 31.4% 29.0% 27.0% 26.2% 25.5% 25.2% 25.5% 25.3% 25.5% 25.7% 25.6% 25.3% 25.2% 25.0% 25.0% 24.6% 24.2% 23.8% 22.7% 22.1% 21.5% 21.0% 20.3% 20.5% 20.4% 20.5% b b 56.8% 58.8% 64.5% 67.0% 68.9% 89.4% 93.9% 93.0% 123.2% 138.2% 142.6% 146.8% 154.8% 164.8% 168.0% 168.4% 172.9% 179.8% 188.6% 201.6% 206.7% 207.0% 199.0% 181.3% 176.9% 167.2% 144.6% 130.0% 112.9% 106.6% 110.9% 106.2% Sources: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Washington, DC, March 2018, Tables 2.5, 3.1, and A3. (Pre-1973 data from the Annual Energy Review). World petroleum consumption - U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics website, April 2018. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) a b Total domestic production includes crude oil, natural gas plant liquids and small amounts of other liquids. Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–16 Before 1989 the U.S. produced enough petroleum to meet the needs of the transportation sector but was still short of meeting the petroleum needs of all the sectors, including industrial, residential and commercial, and electric utilities. In 1973 the gap between what the U.S. produced and what was consumed was 5.8 million barrels per day. By 2050, the gap is expected to be only 1.5 million barrels per day if petroleum and other inputs are included or 2.9 million barrels per day if only conventional petroleum is used. Figure 1.5. United States Petroleum Production and Consumption – All Sectors, 1970–2050 Notes: “Total U.S. Petroleum Production” includes crude oil, natural gas plant liquids, and refinery gains. It does not include dry natural gas. “Total U.S. Petroleum Production” is for all uses. “Total U.S. Petroleum Production with Other Inputs” also includes non-petroleum sources such as ethanol, biomass, liquids from coal, other blending components, other hydrocarbons, and ethers which were domestically produced. The change from historical values to projected values is between 2016 and 2017. The sharp increase in the value for heavy trucks between 2006 and 2007 is the result of the Federal Highway Administration’s methodology change. Sources: Historical transportation petroleum use – See Tables 1.14 and 1.15. Historical petroleum use for other sectors – See Table 1.13. Historical U.S. petroleum production – Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review August 2018, Table 3.1. Historical other inputs - Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review August 2018, Tables 10.3 and 10.4. Forecasted petroleum use and petroleum production – Energy Information Administration, 2018 Annual Energy Outlook, February 2018, reference case tables 7, 11, and 36. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–17 In 1989, for the first time, petroleum consumption for transportation surpassed total U.S. petroleum production, which was declining. These contrasting trends in production and consumption created a gap that was met with foreign imports of petroleum. In 2009, however, the U.S. production of petroleum (for all uses including, but not limited to, transportation) began to increase substantially because of new hydraulic fracturing and oil extraction technology. In 2015, total production exceeded all transportation sector petroleum consumption. With other inputs included, such as ethanol, domestic production has exceeded transportation consumption since 2014. Transportation accounts for about 70% of all U.S. petroleum consumption. The Energy Information Administration expects petroleum production to be greater than transportation consumption through 2050. Including non-petroleum sources such as ethanol, the production will exceed transportation demand by approximately six million barrels per day in 2050. Figure 1.6. United States Petroleum Production and Transportation Consumption, 1970–2050 Notes: “Total U.S. Petroleum Production” includes crude oil, natural gas plant liquids, and refinery gains. It does not include dry natural gas. “Total U.S. Petroleum Production” is for all uses, including but not limited to transportation. “Total U.S. Petroleum Production with Other Inputs” also includes non-petroleum sources such as ethanol, biomass, liquids from coal, other blending components, other hydrocarbons, and ethers which were domestically produced. The change from historical values to projected values is between 2016 and 2017. The sharp increase in the value for heavy trucks between 2006 and 2007 is the result of the Federal Highway Administration’s methodology change. Sources: Historical transportation petroleum use – See Tables 1.14 and 1.15. Historical U.S. petroleum production – Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review August 2018, Table 3.1. Historical other inputs - Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review August 2018, Tables 10.3 and 10.4. Forecasted petroleum use and petroleum production – Energy Information Administration, 2018 Annual Energy Outlook, February 2018, reference case tables 7, 11, and 36. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–18 Transportation accounted for about 70% of the U.S. petroleum use from 2008 to 2017. Total petroleum consumption reached more than 20 million barrels per day from 2003 to 2007 but has been below that level from 2008 through present. Table 1.13 Consumption of Petroleum by End-Use Sector, 1950–2017 (million barrels per day) Year 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1950–2017 1970–2017 2007–2017 Transportation 3.36 4.46 5.14 6.04 7.78 8.95 9.55 9.84 10.19 10.50 10.85 10.94 10.89 10.76 10.88 11.12 11.42 11.67 11.92 12.10 12.42 12.76 13.01 12.94 13.21 13.29 13.72 13.96 14.18 14.29 13.62 13.30 13.50 13.29 13.02 13.25 13.46 13.65 13.89 14.02 2.2% 1.3% -0.2% Percentage Residential Commercial 52.0% 0.66 0.41 52.7% 0.89 0.52 52.4% 1.12 0.59 52.4% 1.24 0.67 52.9% 1.42 0.76 54.8% 1.29 0.65 56.0% 0.89 0.63 62.6% 0.81 0.53 62.6% 0.80 0.57 63.0% 0.85 0.55 62.8% 0.87 0.54 63.1% 0.88 0.51 64.1% 0.74 0.49 64.4% 0.74 0.46 63.9% 0.75 0.44 64.5% 0.77 0.41 64.4% 0.76 0.41 65.8% 0.74 0.38 65.1% 0.81 0.40 65.0% 0.78 0.38 65.7% 0.72 0.36 65.4% 0.82 0.37 66.0% 0.87 0.41 65.8% 0.85 0.41 66.8% 0.82 0.38 66.3% 0.86 0.43 66.2% 0.84 0.42 67.1% 0.81 0.39 68.5% 0.69 0.34 69.1% 0.71 0.34 69.9% 0.76 0.35 70.8% 0.68 0.35 70.4% 0.66 0.34 70.4% 0.61 0.34 70.4% 0.51 0.30 69.9% 0.57 0.30 70.5% 0.61 0.32 69.9% 0.58 0.48 70.5% 0.52 0.47 70.3% 0.53 0.47 Average annual percentage change -0.3% 0.2% -2.1% -1.0% -2.9% 3.4% Industrial 1.82 2.39 2.71 3.25 3.81 4.04 4.84 4.07 4.09 4.21 4.35 4.25 4.30 4.22 4.52 4.44 4.67 4.59 4.82 4.95 4.84 5.03 4.90 4.89 4.93 4.92 5.22 5.10 5.19 5.06 4.56 4.27 4.51 4.51 4.56 4.72 4.58 4.69 4.70 4.84 1.5% 0.5% -0.4% Electric utilities 0.21 0.21 0.24 0.32 0.93 1.39 1.15 0.48 0.64 0.55 0.68 0.75 0.57 0.53 0.43 0.49 0.47 0.33 0.36 0.41 0.58 0.53 0.51 0.56 0.43 0.53 0.53 0.55 0.29 0.29 0.21 0.17 0.17 0.14 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 -1.1% -4.6% -10.1% Total 6.46 8.46 9.80 11.51 14.70 16.32 17.06 15.73 16.28 16.67 17.28 17.33 16.99 16.71 17.03 17.24 17.72 17.72 18.31 18.62 18.92 19.52 19.70 19.65 19.76 20.03 20.73 20.80 20.69 20.68 19.50 18.77 19.18 18.89 18.49 18.97 19.10 19.53 19.69 19.96 1.7% 0.7% -0.4% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Washington, DC, March 2018, Tables 3.7a–3.7c. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–19 Cars and light trucks use most of the petroleum in the transportation sector. Light trucks include pick-ups, minivans, sport-utility vehicles, and vans. See Table 2.9 for highway energy use in trillion Btu. Table 1.14 Highway Transportation Petroleum Consumption by Mode, 1970–2016a (thousand barrels per day) Year 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Cars 4,424 4,836 4,565 4,508 4,509 4,587 4,609 4,665 4,773 4,782 4,784 4,821 4,538 4,196 4,268 4,374 4,428 4,440 4,515 4,559 4,677 4,780 4,766 4,798 4,923 4,866 4,919 5,050 4,893 4,852 4,664 4,344 4,060 3,891 3,777 3,737 3,684 3,602 3,539 Light trucks 803 1,245 1,552 1,546 1,481 1,562 1,670 1,785 1,897 1,996 2,130 2,170 2,323 2,493 2,670 2,795 2,878 2,975 3,089 3,222 3,292 3,448 3,453 3,491 3,602 3,963 4,137 3,840 3,959 4,034 3,992 4,033 4,220 4,291 4,331 4,276 4,502 4,627 4,769 1970-2016 2006-2016 -0.5% -3.2% 3.9% 1.9% Light vehicle subtotal 5,227 6,081 6,117 6,054 5,989 6,149 6,280 6,450 6,670 6,778 6,914 6,992 6,861 6,688 6,938 7,169 7,305 7,415 7,604 7,781 7,969 8,228 8,219 8,290 8,525 8,829 9,055 8,890 8,852 8,885 8,656 8,376 8,280 8,182 8,108 8,013 8,185 8,229 8,308 1.0% -0.6% Class Class Motor3-6 7-8 cycles Buses trucks trucks 4 62 140 598 7 58 181 771 13 68 247 1,055 14 69 253 1,077 13 71 253 1,077 11 72 257 1,097 11 69 266 1,132 12 72 265 1,131 12 76 271 1,155 12 77 279 1,190 13 80 284 1,211 14 79 291 1,242 12 78 304 1,294 12 83 310 1,320 12 87 315 1,345 13 86 325 1,386 13 86 343 1,463 13 87 357 1,523 13 88 367 1,564 13 91 370 1,579 13 93 382 1,630 14 96 420 1,792 14 98 437 1,861 13 93 436 1,859 12 91 456 1,944 12 90 443 1,890 13 92 411 1,752 12 93 461 1,965 14 94 470 2,006 31 92 585 2,495 32 95 591 2,521 31 95 549 2,341 28 90 558 2,379 28 92 525 2,240 32 95 525 2,238 31 97 537 2,288 30 98 545 2,325 29 100 542 2,311 30 98 556 2,372 Average annual percentage change 4.6% 1.0% 3.0% 3.0% 7.7% 0.4% 1.7% 1.7% Heavy Trucks subtotal 738 952 1,302 1,329 1,330 1,354 1,398 1,396 1,426 1,469 1,495 1,534 1,597 1,630 1,660 1,711 1,806 1,881 1,931 1,949 2,012 2,212 2,298 2,295 2,401 2,334 2,162 2,426 2,476 3,080 3,112 2,890 2,937 2,766 2,763 2,824 2,871 2,853 2,928 c 3.0% 1.7% Highway subtotal 6,031 7,099 7,500 7,466 7,403 7,586 7,758 7,930 8,184 8,336 8,503 8,618 8,549 8,413 8,698 8,979 9,211 9,396 9,636 9,834 10,086 10,550 10,630 10,690 11,029 11,265 11,323 11,422 11,436 12,089 11,895 11,392 11,335 11,068 10,998 10,965 11,184 11,210 11,364 Total transportationb 7,301 8,435 9,092 9,154 8,929 9,062 9,351 9,526 9,882 10,099 10,328 10,490 10,414 10,236 10,574 10,811 11,082 11,340 11,595 11,769 12,004 12,636 12,786 12,655 12,939 13,119 13,387 13,555 13,600 14,291 13,985 13,257 13,294 13,003 12,794 12,692 12,873 12,975 13,184 1.4% -0.1% 1.3% -0.3% Source: See Appendix A, Section 2.1 Highway Energy Use. Each gallon of petroleum product was assumed to equal one gallon of crude oil. The oil used to produce electricity is also estimated. See Appendix A, Section 2.4 for details. b Total transportation figures do not include military and off-highway energy use and may not include all possible uses of fuel for transportation (e.g., snowmobiles). c Due to changes in the FHWA fuel use methodology, motorcycle, bus, and heavy truck data are not comparable with data before the year 2007. Car and light truck data changed after 2008; see Appendix A, Section 7, Car/Light Truck Shares. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–20 Although 18% of transportation energy use is for nonhighway modes, only 14% of transportation petroleum use is for nonhighway. This is because some nonhighway modes, such as pipelines and transit rail, use electricity. An estimate for the petroleum used to make electricity is included in the data. See Table 2.10 for nonhighway transportation energy use in trillion Btu. Table 1.15 Nonhighway Transportation Petroleum Consumption by Mode, 1970–2016a (thousand barrels per day) Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 1970-2016 2006-2016 Air 625 651 697 814 884 920 958 960 991 928 942 961 1,004 1,036 1,068 1,113 1,102 1,202 1,236 1,161 1,079 1,094 1,188 1,226 1,216 1,215 1,160 1,029 1,040 1,044 1,006 987 997 1,025 1,054 1.1% -1.4% Water 381 423 625 564 601 626 644 688 655 690 724 653 635 668 644 574 566 625 662 546 572 496 596 625 661 709 664 613 677 638 543 486 426 486 531 Pipeline Rail 14 250 16 246 11 259 4 214 6 207 5 211 6 217 6 218 5 214 4 201 3 207 4 213 4 229 2 238 3 244 3 245 4 246 4 255 3 254 4 255 3 256 3 262 3 276 3 279 2 285 2 276 1 265 1 221 1 240 1 253 1 247 1 253 1 265 1 254 1 234 Average annual percentage change 0.7% -6.2% -0.1% -2.2% -8.3% -1.9% Nonhighway subtotal 1,270 1,336 1,592 1,596 1,698 1,763 1,825 1,872 1,865 1,823 1,876 1,831 1,871 1,944 1,959 1,935 1,918 2,086 2,156 1,966 1,910 1,855 2,064 2,133 2,163 2,202 2,091 1,864 1,959 1,935 1,797 1,727 1,689 1,765 1,820 Total transportationb 7,301 8,435 9,092 9,526 9,882 10,099 10,328 10,490 10,414 10,236 10,574 10,811 11,082 11,340 11,595 11,769 12,004 12,636 12,786 12,655 12,939 13,119 13,387 13,555 13,600 14,291 13,985 13,257 13,294 13,003 12,794 12,692 12,873 12,975 13,184 0.8% -1.7% 1.3% -0.3% Source: See Appendix A, Section 2.3. Nonhighway Energy Use. a Each gallon of petroleum product was assumed to equal one gallon of crude oil. The oil used to produce electricity is also estimated. See Appendix A, Section 2.3 Nonhighway Energy Use for details. b Total transportation figures do not include military and off-highway energy use and may not include all possible uses of fuel for transportation (e.g., snowmobiles). TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–21 Highway vehicles were responsible for 86.2% of all transportation petroleum use in 2016. See Table 2.8 for transportation energy use in trillion Btu. Table 1.16 Transportation Petroleum Use by Mode, 2015–2016a HIGHWAY Light vehicles Cars Light trucksc Motorcycles Buses Transit Intercity School Medium/heavy trucks Class 3-6 Class 7-8 NONHIGHWAY Air General aviation Domestic air carriers International air carriers Water Freight Recreational Pipeline Rail Freight (Class I) Passenger Transit Commuter Intercity HWY & NONHWY TOTALd Off-Highwaye Thousand barrels per day 2015 2016 11,210.5 11,364.4 8,257.9 8,337.9 3,601.6 3,538.7 4,627.1 4,768.9 29.2 30.4 99.8 98.1 42.4 40.2 16.5 16.6 40.9 41.2 2,852.8 2,928.4 542.0 556.4 2,310.8 2,372.0 1,764.9 1,819.7 1,024.9 1,054.2 102.6 107.0 712.9 741.9 209.4 205.3 485.6 530.9 360.0 404.9 125.6 126.0 0.8 0.7 253.6 233.7 242.9 223.0 10.7 10.7 0.2 0.1 6.4 6.6 4.1 3.9 12,975.4 1,115.1 13,184.0 1,134.7 Percentage of totalb 2015 2016 86.4% 86.2% 63.6% 63.2% 27.8% 26.8% 35.7% 36.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.8% 0.7% 0.3% 0.3% 0.1% 0.1% 0.3% 0.3% 22.0% 22.2% 4.2% 4.2% 17.8% 18.0% 13.6% 13.8% 7.9% 8.0% 0.8% 0.8% 5.5% 5.6% 1.6% 1.6% 3.7% 4.0% 2.8% 3.1% 1.0% 1.0% 0.0% 0.0% 2.0% 1.8% 1.9% 1.7% 0.1% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% Percentage of total U.S. petroleum consumptionb 2015 2016 56.9% 57.2% 41.9% 41.9% 18.3% 17.8% 23.5% 24.0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.5% 0.5% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% 0.2% 14.5% 14.7% 2.8% 2.8% 11.7% 11.9% 9.0% 9.2% 5.2% 5.3% 0.5% 0.5% 3.6% 3.7% 1.1% 1.0% 2.5% 2.7% 1.8% 2.0% 0.6% 0.6% 0.0% 0.0% 1.3% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 65.9% 66.3% Source: See Appendix A, Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Each gallon of petroleum product was assumed to equal one gallon of crude oil. The oil used to produce electricity is also estimated. See Appendix A, Section 2.4 for details. b Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. c Two-axle, four-tire trucks. d Civilian consumption only. Totals may not include all possible uses of fuels for transportation (e.g., snowmobiles). e Includes equipment that does not travel on roads, such as equipment from agriculture, construction, and airports. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1–22 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–1 Chapter 2 Energy Summary Statistics from Tables in this Chapter Source Table 2.1 Transportation share of U.S. energy consumption, 2017 28.8% Table 2.2 Petroleum share of transportation energy consumption, 2017 91.9% Table 2.6 Fuel ethanol consumption, 2017 (million gallons) 14,394.9 Biodiesel consumption, 2017 (million gallons) Table 2.8 1,954.6 (trillion Btu) (transportation energy share) Cars 6,578 24.8% Light trucks 8,889 33.5% Medium/heavy trucks 6,142 23.2% 203 0.8% 21,874 82.5% Air 2,178 8.2% Water 1,154 4.4% Pipeline 800 3.0% Rail 520 2.0% Transportation energy use by mode, 2016 Buses Total Highway TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–2 Petroleum accounted for 35% of the world’s energy use in 2015. Although petroleum and natural gas are the dominant energy sources for OECD countries, the non-OECD countries rely on coal and petroleum. The U.S. shares of primary energy sources are similar to the OECD countries as a whole, but with a lesser reliance on hydroelectric and renewables and a greater reliance on natural gas. Figure 2.1. World Consumption of Primary Energy, 2015 Note: The United States data are shown separately but are also included in the OECD data. Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics, September 2018. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–3 Total energy use was 97.8 quads in 2017 with transportation using 28.2%. The Energy Information Administration includes renewable energy in each sector. Table 2.1 U. S. Consumption of Total Energy by End-Use Sector, 1973–2017 (quadrillion Btu) Year 1973 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Transportation 18.6 18.2 19.7 20.1 20.8 21.5 22.3 22.5 22.4 22.1 22.4 22.8 23.4 23.8 24.4 24.8 25.3 25.9 26.6 26.3 26.8 26.9 27.8 28.3 28.7 28.9 27.5 26.7 27.1 26.7 26.2 26.8 27.0 27.4 28.0 28.2 1973–2017 2007–2017 1.0% -0.2% Percentage transportation of total Industrial Commercial 24.6% 32.6 9.5 25.4% 29.4 9.5 25.2% 32.0 10.6 26.3% 28.8 11.5 27.1% 28.3 11.6 27.2% 28.4 11.9 27.0% 30.7 12.6 26.5% 31.3 13.2 26.5% 31.8 13.3 26.2% 31.4 13.4 26.1% 32.6 13.4 26.1% 32.6 13.8 26.3% 33.5 14.1 26.2% 34.0 14.7 26.0% 34.9 15.2 26.2% 35.2 15.7 26.8% 34.8 16.0 26.8% 34.8 16.4 26.9% 34.7 17.2 27.3% 32.7 17.1 27.5% 32.7 17.3 27.5% 32.6 17.3 27.8% 33.5 17.7 28.2% 32.4 17.9 28.9% 32.4 17.7 28.6% 32.4 18.3 27.8% 31.3 18.4 28.4% 28.5 17.9 27.8% 30.7 18.1 27.6% 31.0 18.0 27.8% 31.0 17.4 27.5% 31.6 17.9 27.5% 31.8 18.3 28.1% 31.5 18.1 28.7% 31.5 18.0 28.8% 31.6 18.1 Average annual percentage change -0.1% 1.5% -0.2% -0.1% Residential 14.9 14.8 15.8 16.0 16.0 16.3 17.1 17.8 16.9 17.4 17.4 18.2 18.1 18.5 19.5 19.0 19.0 19.6 20.4 20.0 20.8 21.1 21.1 21.6 20.7 21.5 21.7 21.1 21.8 21.3 19.9 21.1 21.4 20.5 20.1 20.0 Totala 75.7 72.0 78.1 76.4 76.7 79.1 82.7 84.8 84.5 84.4 85.8 87.4 89.1 91.0 94.0 94.6 95.0 96.7 98.8 96.2 97.6 97.9 100.1 100.2 99.5 101.0 98.9 94.1 97.6 96.9 94.1 97.3 98.5 97.5 97.6 97.8 0.7% -0.7% 0.6% -0.3% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, March 2018, Washington, DC, Table 2.1. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) a Electrical energy losses have been distributed among the sectors. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–4 In transportation, the alcohol fuels blended into gasoline to make gasohol (10% ethanol or less) are counted under “renewables” and are not in with petroleum. The petroleum category, however, still contains other blending agents that are not actually petroleum but are not broken out into a separate category. Table 2.2 Distribution of Energy Consumption by Source and Sector, 1973 and 2017 (percentage) Energy source Petroleuma Natural gasb Coal Renewable Nuclear Electricityc Total Transportation 1973 2017 95.8 91.9 4.0 2.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 100.0 100.0 Residential 1973 2017 18.8 4.3 33.4 22.9 0.6 0.0 2.4 2.8 0.0 0.0 44.8 70.0 100.0 100.0 Energy source Petroleuma Natural gasb Coal Renewable Nuclear Electricityc Total Industrial Electric utilities 1973 2017 17.8 0.6 19.0 25.6 44.0 34.0 14.4 16.7 4.6 22.6 0.2 0.5 100.0 100.0 1973 27.9 31.8 12.4 3.7 0.0 24.2 100.0 2017 26.5 31.2 3.9 8.0 0.0 30.4 100.0 Commercial 1973 2017 16.8 4.6 27.8 18.2 1.7 0.1 0.1 1.4 0.0 0.0 53.6 75.7 100.0 100.0 Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, March 2018, Washington, DC, Tables 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, and 2.6. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) In transportation, the petroleum category contains some blending agents which are not petroleum. Includes supplemental gaseous fuels. Transportation sector includes pipeline fuel and natural gas vehicle use. c Includes electrical system energy losses. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–5 Total transportation energy consumption was 28.2 quads in 2017. Petroleum has accounted for more than 90% of transportation energy consumption since the mid-1950’s. Renewables, including ethanol and biodiesel, were 5% of the total in 2017. Table 2.3 Distribution of Transportation Energy Consumption by Source, 1950–2017 Total Year Petroleuma 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 78.8% 92.1% 95.6% 95.4% 95.1% 96.5% 96.5% 96.9% 97.1% 97.0% 96.6% 96.6% 96.5% 96.6% 96.7% 96.5% 96.3% 96.3% 96.4% 96.2% 96.7% 96.7% 96.7% 96.7% 96.5% 96.5% 96.5% 96.3% 95.9% 95.3% 94.2% 93.5% 93.1% 92.6% 92.3% 91.6% 92.1% 92.2% 91.9% 92.0% Natural gasb 1.5% 2.7% 3.4% 4.2% 4.6% 3.3% 3.3% 2.6% 2.4% 2.5% 2.8% 2.9% 3.0% 2.8% 2.7% 2.8% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.2% 2.6% 2.6% 2.5% 2.5% 2.6% 2.3% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.3% 2.5% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 3.0% 3.3% 2.8% 2.7% 2.6% 2.7% Coal Renewables 18.4% 4.4% 0.7% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.3% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.6% 0.9% 1.0% 1.2% 1.7% 2.1% 3.0% 3.5% 4.0% 4.3% 4.4% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 5.1% 5.1% Electricityc 1.3% 0.8% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% (trillion Btu) 8,492.5 9,550.2 10,595.9 12,432.5 16,098.2 18,245.0 19,696.7 20,087.9 20,788.8 21,468.9 22,317.7 22,477.9 22,419.6 22,118.0 22,415.1 22,711.7 23,365.1 23,851.1 24,439.2 24,751.3 25,260.1 25,949.5 26,555.3 26,282.2 26,845.7 26,900.2 27,842.8 28,280.3 28,716.7 28,858.3 27,486.3 26,687.1 27,059.1 26,712.2 26,219.2 26,749.9 26,996.4 27,375.9 28,005.8 28,199.2 Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, March 2018, Washington, DC, Table 2.5. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) In transportation, the petroleum category contains some blending agents which are not petroleum. Includes supplemental gaseous fuels. Transportation sector includes pipeline fuel and natural gas vehicle use. c Includes electrical system energy losses. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–6 Figure 2.2. World Natural Gas Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1980 Source: See Table 2.4. Figure 2.3. World Natural Gas Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1997 Source: See Table 2.4. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–7 Figure 2.4. World Natural Gas Reserves, Production and Consumption, 2015 Source: See Table 2.4. Table 2.4 World Natural Gas Reserves, Production, and Consumption, 1980, 1997, and 2015 (trillion cubic feet) Natural gas reserves Reserve share Natural gas production United States OPEC Rest of world 201.0 997.1 1,387.6 8% 38% 54% 19.4 2.4 31.5 United States OPEC Rest of world 166.5 2,057.6 2,722.7 3% 42% 55% 18.9 11.9 49.7 United States OPEC Rest of world 368.7 3,461.4 3,120.4 5% 50% 45% 25.8 26.2 72.6 Production share 1980 36% 5% 59% 1997 23% 15% 62% 2015 21% 21% 58% Natural gas consumption Consumption share 19.9 2.4 30.7 37% 5% 58% 22.7 8.5 49.9 28% 10% 62% 26.6 18.9 78.4 22% 15% 63% Note: World and OPEC data were not available for 2016, thus this table was not updated. Production data are dry gas production. OPEC production and consumption are 2014 data. See Glossary for OPEC countries. Source: Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics, and International Energy Outlook, August 2017. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–8 In 2015, the United States and Russia were by far the top natural gas producing countries with more than triple that of any other country. Although the United States produced more than Russia, Russia has almost five times more reserves. Figure 2.5. Natural Gas Production and Reserves for the Top Ten Natural Gas Producing Countries, 2015 Note: Data for 2015 are the latest available. Source: U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook, August 2017. (Additional resources: www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–9 The Energy Information Administration no longer publishes national data on alternative use. They do publish fuel use data for four types of alternative fuel vehicle fleets at www.eia.gov/renewable/afv. Table 2.5 Alternative Fuel and Oxygenate Consumption, 2005–2011 (thousand gasoline–equivalent gallons) Alternative fuel Liquefied petroleum gas Compressed natural gas Liquefied natural gas E85a Electricityb Hydrogen Biodiesel Other Subtotal Oxygenates MTBEc Ethanol in gasohol Total 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 188,171 166,878 22,409 38,074 5,219 25 91,649 2 512,427 173,130 172,011 23,474 44,041 5,104 41 267,623 2 685,426 152,360 178,585 24,594 54,091 5,037 66 367,764 2 782,479 147,784 189,358 25,554 62,464 5,050 117 324,329 2 754,658 129,631 199,513 25,652 71,213 4,956 140 334,809 2 756,916 126,354 210,007 26,072 90,323 4,847 152 270,170 0 727,925 124,457 220,247 26,242 137,165 7,635 174 910,968 0 1,426,888 1,654,500 2,756,663 4,923,590 435,000 3,729,168 4,849,594 0 4,694,304 5,476,783 0 6,442,781 7,197,439 0 7,343,133 8,099,342 0 8,527,431 9,255,356 0 8,563,841 9,990,729 Note: These are the latest data available from the Energy Information Administration. See text box for additional information. Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Alternative Fuel Vehicle Data website, May 2013, www.eia.doe.gov/renewable. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) Consumption includes gasoline portion of the mixture. Vehicle consumption only; does not include power plant inputs. c Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether. This category includes a very small amount of other ethers, primarily Tertiary Amyl Methyl Ether (TAME) and Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (ETBE). a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–10 Ethanol is an oxygenate blended with gasoline in amounts up to 10% to be used in conventional vehicles and is blended in higher amounts up to 85% for use in flex-fuel vehicles. The production of ethanol grew to over 15 billion gallons in 2016 and 2017, with consumption reaching over 14 billion gallons. Beginning in 2010, the United States began exporting more fuel ethanol than it imports. Biodiesel is a renewable fuel typically made from vegetable oils or animal fats. It can be burned in standard diesel engines and is often blended with petroleum diesel. In 2016, over 2.0 billion gallons of biodiesel were consumed. Table 2.6 Fuel Ethanol and Biodiesel Production, Net Imports, and Consumption, 1981–2017 (million gallons) Year 1981 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Production 83.1 617.1 747.7 866.3 985.0 1,154.3 1,288.9 1,357.7 973.5 1,288.3 1,405.0 1,465.0 1,622.3 1,765.2 2,140.2 2,804.4 3,404.4 3,904.4 4,884.3 6,521.0 9,308.8 10,937.8 13,297.9 13,929.1 13,218.0 13,292.7 14,312.8 14,807.2 15,413.2 15,844.9 1981-2017 2007-2017 15.7% 9.3% Fuel ethanol Net imports a a a a a 10.2 11.7 16.3 13.1 3.6 2.8 3.7 4.9 13.2 12.9 12.3 148.8 135.8 731.1 439.2 529.6 198.2 (382.8) (1,023.3) (247.4) (242.0) (771.6) (740.5) (1,134.1) (1,302.3) a a Consumption Production a 83.1 a 617.1 a 747.7 a 866.3 a 985.0 a 1,151.0 a 1,288.9 a 1,382.6 a 991.7 a 1,255.8 a 1,387.6 a 1,442.7 a 1,653.4 1,740.7 8.6 2,073.1 10.5 2,826.0 14.2 3,552.2 28.0 4,058.6 90.8 5,481.2 250.4 6,885.7 489.8 9,683.4 678.1 11,036.6 515.8 12,858.5 343.4 12,893.3 967.5 12,881.9 990.7 13,215.6 1,359.5 13,444.0 1,279.0 13,946.7 1,263.3 14,356.3 1,567.7 14,394.9 1,592.4 Average annual percentage change a 15.4% 7.7% 12.5% Biodiesel Net imports a Consumption a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a 1.7 5.9 (0.7) (1.1) 0.0 10.5 (136.1) (374.6) (194.9) (85.0) (38.1) (92.5) 146.0 109.4 246.9 620.8 300.6 a 10.3 16.4 13.5 26.8 90.8 260.9 353.7 303.6 321.8 260.1 886.2 899.0 1,428.8 1,416.9 1,494.2 2,085.4 1,954.6 a a a 18.6% Note: The Energy Information Administration no longer publishes the nationwide consumption of E-85. Net imports are total imports minus exports. Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Washington, DC, March 2018, Table 10.3. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) a Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–11 As data about alternative fuel use become available, an attempt is made to incorporate them into this table. Sometimes assumptions must be made in order to use the data. Please see Appendix A for a description of the methodology used to develop these data. See Table 1.16 for transportation petroleum use in thousand barrels per day. Table 2.7 Domestic Consumption of Transportation Energy by Mode and Fuel Type, 2016a (trillion Btu) HIGHWAY Light vehicles Cars Light trucksd Motorcycles Buses Transit Intercity School Medium/heavy trucks Class 3-6 trucks Class 7-8 trucks NONHIGHWAY Air General aviation Domestic air carriers International air carrierse Water Freight Recreational Pipeline Rail Freight (Class I) Passenger Transit Commuter Intercity TOTAL HWY & NONHWYc Gasoline 15,650.2 15,023.9 6,535.8 8,429.9 58.2 8.9 1.0 7.9 617.3 567.9 49.4 214.8 22.6 22.6 192.2 192.2 - Diesel fuel 6,121.0 443.2 37.6 405.6 173.4 59.1 35.4 78.9 5,504.4 770.6 4,733.8 830.8 - 334.0 279.5 54.5 496.5 474.2 22.3 Liquefied petroleum gas 74.5 53.4 Jet fuel - Residual fuel oil - Natural gas 23.3 - 0.6 0.6 - - 23.3 23.3 0.3 0.3 20.5 20.3 0.2 - - - - - 627.7 - 719.1 - 104.4 - - 2,155.5 2,155.5 195.2 1,535.4 424.9 - 627.7 627.7 - - - - - 719.1 - 80.7 23.7 53.4 13.9 8.4 15,865.0 6,951.4 74.5 2,155.5 627.7 742.4 Electricityb 5.0 4.7 3.8 0.9 23.7 15.9 6.0 1.8 Totalc 21,873.9 15,525.3 6,577.2 8,889.8 58.2 206.5 84.4 35.4 86.8 6,142.1 1,358.8 4,783.3 4,652.2 2,178.1 217.8 1,535.4 424.9 1,153.9 907.1 246.8 799.8 520.2 474.2 46.0 15.9 20.0 10.1 109.1 26,525.9 Source: See Appendix A, Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Civilian consumption only. Totals may not include all possible uses of fuels for transportation (e.g., snowmobiles). b Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. c Totals may not sum due to rounding. d Two-axle, four-tire trucks. e One half of fuel used by domestic carriers in international operation. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–12 The gasoline and diesel used in highway modes accounts for the majority of transportation energy use (82.4%) and nearly all highway use. Figure 2.6. Domestic Consumption of Transportation Energy Use by Mode and Fuel Type, 2016a Note: Residual fuel oil is heavier oil which can be used in vessel bunkering. Source: See Table 2.7 or Appendix A, Section 2. Energy Use Sources. a Civilian consumption only. Totals may not include all possible uses of fuels for transportation (e.g., snowmobiles). Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–13 Nonhighway modes were responsible for 17.5% of all transportation energy use in 2016. See Table 1.16 for transportation energy use in thousand barrels per day. Table 2.8 Transportation Energy Use by Mode, 2015–2016a HIGHWAY Light vehicles Cars Light trucksb Motorcycles Buses Transit Intercity School Medium/heavy trucks Class 3-6 trucks Class 7-8 trucks NONHIGHWAY Air General aviation Domestic air carriers International air Water Freight Recreational Pipeline Rail Freight (Class I) Passenger Transit Commuter Intercity HWY & NONHWY TOTAL Off-highwayc Trillion Btu 2015 21,619.3 15,425.9 6,715.5 8,654.4 56.0 209.8 88.6 35.1 86.1 5,983.6 1,323.7 4,659.9 4,505.4 2,117.7 208.9 1,475.4 433.4 1,045.6 799.6 246.0 779.7 562.5 516.4 46.1 16.1 19.6 10.4 26,124.7 2,234.3 2016 21,873.9 15,525.3 6,577.2 8,889.8 58.2 206.5 84.4 35.4 86.8 6,142.1 1,358.8 4,783.3 4,652.2 2,178.1 217.8 1,535.4 424.9 1,153.9 907.1 246.8 799.8 520.2 474.2 46.0 15.9 20.0 10.1 26,525.6 2,273.8 Percentage of total based on Btus 2015 2016 82.8% 82.5% 59.0% 58.5% 25.7% 24.8% 33.1% 33.5% 0.2% 0.2% 0.8% 0.8% 0.3% 0.3% 0.1% 0.1% 0.3% 0.3% 22.9% 23.2% 5.1% 5.1% 17.8% 18.0% 17.2% 17.5% 8.1% 8.2% 0.8% 0.8% 5.6% 5.8% 1.7% 1.6% 4.0% 4.4% 3.1% 3.4% 0.9% 0.9% 3.0% 3.0% 2.2% 2.0% 2.0% 1.8% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 100.0% Source: See Appendix A, Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Civilian consumption only. Totals may not include all possible uses of fuels for transportation (e.g., snowmobiles). Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. b Two-axle, four-tire trucks. c Includes equipment that does not travel on roads, such as equipment from agriculture, construction, and airports. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–14 Light trucks include pick-ups, minivans, sport-utility vehicles, and vans. See Table 1.14 for highway petroleum use in thousand barrels per day. Table 2.9 Highway Transportation Energy Consumption by Mode, 1970–2016 (trillion Btu) Year 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Cars 8,479 9,298 8,800 8,693 8,673 8,802 8,837 8,932 9,138 9,157 9,158 9,232 8,688 8,029 8,169 8,368 8,470 8,489 8,634 8,710 8,936 9,134 9,100 9,161 9,391 9,255 9,331 9,579 9,316 9,221 8,831 8,209 7,657 7,336 7,121 7,047 6,951 6,716 6,578 Light trucks 1,539 2,384 2,975 2,963 2,837 2,990 3,197 3,413 3,629 3,819 4,078 4,156 4,451 4,774 5,117 5,356 5,515 5,695 5,917 6,169 6,303 6,602 6,607 6,678 6,883 7,551 7,861 7,296 7,550 7,679 7,572 7,635 7,971 8,104 8,180 8,077 8,506 8,654 8,889 1970-2016 2006-2016 -0.6% -3.4% 3.9% 1.6% Light vehicles subtotal 10,018 11,682 11,775 11,656 11,510 11,792 12,034 12,345 12,767 12,976 13,236 13,388 13,139 12,803 13,286 13,724 13,985 14,184 14,551 14,879 15,239 15,736 15,707 15,839 16,274 16,806 17,192 16,875 16,866 16,900 16,404 15,843 15,628 15,440 15,300 15,124 15,454 15,370 15,467 Motorcycles 7 14 26 27 25 22 22 23 23 24 25 26 24 23 24 25 26 25 24 25 26 26 26 24 24 24 25 24 28 59 61 60 53 53 61 58 57 56 58 Buses 129 124 143 145 151 152 146 153 160 164 169 169 167 177 184 183 183 184 186 192 196 203 209 196 192 190 194 196 199 195 200 200 190 195 200 204 206 210 207 0.9% -0.9% 4.7% 7.6% 1.0% 0.4% Class Class Heavy 3-6 7-8 trucks trucks trucks subtotal 333 1,220 1,553 430 1,574 2,003 929 1,757 2,686 1,065 1,659 2,724 1,182 1,525 2,707 1,121 1,649 2,770 1,072 1,801 2,873 986 1,897 2,883 920 2,038 2,958 858 2,203 3,061 860 2,257 3,118 869 2,330 3,199 891 2,442 3,334 895 2,507 3,402 897 2,570 3,468 906 2,671 3,577 936 2,842 3,778 954 2,983 3,937 958 3,088 4,045 945 3,141 4,086 967 3,251 4,218 1,054 3,584 4,638 1,085 3,734 4,819 1,074 3,738 4,813 1,114 3,921 5,035 1,083 3,812 4,895 1,003 3,532 4,535 1,126 3,963 5,088 1,149 4,045 5,193 1,429 5,031 6,460 1,444 5,083 6,527 1,341 4,720 6,061 1,363 4,797 6,160 1,283 4,517 5,801 1,282 4,512 5,794 1,310 4,613 5,924 1,332 4,689 6,022 1,324 4,660 5,984 1,359 4,783 6,142 Average annual percentage change 3.1% 3.0% 3.0% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% b Highway subtotal 11,707 13,823 14,630 14,552 14,393 14,736 15,075 15,404 15,908 16,225 16,548 16,782 16,664 16,405 16,962 17,509 17,972 18,330 18,806 19,182 19,679 20,603 20,761 20,872 21,525 21,915 21,946 22,183 22,286 23,615 23,192 22,165 22,032 21,489 21,356 21,310 21,742 21,619 21,874 1.4% -0.2% Total transportationa 15,192 17,204 18,760 18,558 18,055 18,188 18,773 19,017 20,086 20,578 21,131 21,487 21,383 20,985 21,646 22,125 22,729 23,263 23,773 24,126 24,461 25,758 26,069 25,741 26,331 26,512 26,970 27,377 27,554 29,013 28,381 26,895 26,974 26,388 26,001 25,905 26,109 26,125 26,526 1.2% -0.4% Note: Totals may not add due to rounding. Source: See Appendix A, Section 2.1 Highway Energy Use. Total transportation figures do not include military and off-highway energy use and may not include all possible uses of fuel for transportation (e.g., snowmobiles). Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. b Due to changes in the FHWA fuel use methodology, motorcycle, bus, and heavy truck data are not comparable with data before the year 2007. Car and light truck data changed after 2008; see Appendix A for car/light truck shares. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–15 About 18% of transportation energy use is for nonhighway modes. Air travel accounts for 47% of nonhighway energy use. See Table 1.15 for nonhighway petroleum use in thousand barrels per day. Table 2.10 Nonhighway Transportation Energy Consumption by Mode, 1970–2016 (trillion Btu) Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Air 1,287 1,234 1,434 1,677 1,823 1,899 1,978 1,981 2,046 1,916 1,945 1,986 2,075 2,141 2,206 2,300 2,275 2,483 2,554 2,397 2,229 2,260 2,456 2,532 2,511 2,509 2,396 2,127 2,149 2,157 2,077 2,037 2,060 2,118 2,178 1970-2016 2006-2016 1.1% -1.4% Water 836 927 1,393 871 1,323 1,378 1,417 1,516 1,442 1,523 1,599 1,437 1,394 1,468 1,411 1,250 1,232 1,367 1,454 1,186 1,247 1,074 1,299 1,368 1,450 1,559 1,460 1,340 1,485 1,392 1,183 1,055 918 1,046 1,154 Pipeline Rail 826 537 680 540 734 570 597 468 578 454 613 464 712 476 729 478 760 471 699 442 685 455 723 469 787 502 803 523 814 536 856 537 735 540 745 560 742 559 724 561 768 563 689 575 662 607 681 613 681 626 720 610 748 586 771 492 775 533 790 560 835 549 942 562 803 587 780 563 800 520 Average annual percentage change 0.7% -0.1% -0.1% -2.3% 1.6% -1.8% Nonhighway subtotal 3,486 3,381 4,130 3,613 4,178 4,354 4,583 4,705 4,719 4,580 4,684 4,615 4,758 4,935 4,967 4,943 4,782 5,156 5,309 4,869 4,807 4,597 5,024 5,194 5,269 5,399 5,190 4,731 4,942 4,900 4,644 4,596 4,367 4,505 4,652 Total transportationa 15,192 17,204 18,760 19,017 20,086 20,578 21,131 21,487 21,383 20,985 21,646 22,125 22,729 23,263 23,773 24,126 24,461 25,758 26,069 25,741 26,331 26,512 26,970 27,377 27,554 29,013 28,381 26,895 26,974 26,388 26,001 25,905 25,992 26,125 26,526 0.6% -1.2% 1.2% -0.4% Note: Totals may not add due to rounding. Source: See Appendix A, Section 2.3 Nonhighway Energy Use. a Total transportation figures do not include military and off-highway energy use and may not include all possible uses of fuel for transportation (e.g., snowmobiles). Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–16 The Environmental Protection Agency's MOVES model estimates fuel use for different types of nonroad equipment and off-highway vehicles. Most of these vehicles/equipment use diesel fuel. Recreational equipment, such as offhighway motorcycles, snowmobiles, and all-terrain vehicles, are mainly fueled by gasoline. Table 2.11 Off-Highway Transportation-Related Fuel Consumption, 2016 (trillion Btu) Gasoline Diesel LPG CNG Total Agricultural equipment Tractors, mowers, combines, balers, and other farm equipment which has utility in its movement. 8.7 621.9 0.0 0.0 630.6 Airport ground equipment 0.3 17.1 0.3 a 17.7 11.4 1,007.1 1.9 a 1,020.4 7.7 143.4 214.6 19.3 385.0 1.9 22.0 a a 23.9 0.2 3.9 00 a 4.1 189.9 2.2 0.1 a 192.2 220.0 1,817.6 216.9 19.3 2,273.8 Construction and mining equipment Pavers, rollers, drill rigs, graders, backhoes, excavators, cranes, mining equipment Industrial equipment Forklifts, terminal tractors, sweeper/scrubbers Logging equipment Feller/buncher/skidder Railroad maintenance equipment Recreational equipment Off-road motorcycles, snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles, golf carts, specialty vehicles Total Source: Environmental Protection Agency, MOVES2014a model, www.epa.gov/otaq/models/moves. a There is no equipment listed for this fuel type. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–17 The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) cautions that data from 1993 on may not be directly comparable to earlier years. Some states have improved reporting procedures in recent years, and the estimation procedures were revised in 1994. The FHWA no longer publishes separate estimates of gasohol or ethanol used in gasohol. Table 2.12 Highway Usage of Gasoline and Diesel, 1973–2016 (billion gallons) Year 1973 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Total gasoline and gasohol 100.6 99.4 101.2 99.6 98.5 100.1 101.4 103.6 106.8 108.7 109.8 110.6 110.2 107.9 111.0 113.7 115.0 117.1 119.5 120.9 124.7 128.7 128.9 129.7 133.0 134.1 136.5 135.2 134.8 135.4 132.2 132.9 133.1 131.5 130.9 131.3 136.5 132.2 136.3 1973–2016 2006–2016 0.7% 0.1% Diesela Percent diesel 9.8 8.9% 9.6 8.8% 13.8 12.0% 14.9 13.0% 14.9 13.1% 16.0 13.8% 17.3 14.6% 17.8 14.6% 18.4 14.7% 19.0 14.9% 20.1 15.5% 21.2 16.1% 21.4 16.3% 20.7 16.1% 22.0 16.5% 23.5 17.1% 25.1 17.9% 26.2 18.3% 27.2 18.5% 29.4 19.6% 30.2 19.5% 31.9 19.9% 33.4 20.6% 33.4 20.5% 34.8 20.7% 35.5 20.9% 37.4 21.5% 39.1 22.4% 40.1 22.9% 40.7 23.1% 38.6 22.6% 35.3 21.0% 36.6 21.6% 37.1 22.0% 37.4 22.2% 38.4 22.6% 39.7 22.5% 40.5 23.5% 41.6 23.4% Average annual percentage change 3.2% 0.4% Total highway fuel use 110.5 109.0 115.0 114.5 113.4 116.1 118.7 121.3 125.2 127.7 129.9 131.9 131.6 128.6 132.9 137.2 140.1 143.3 146.7 150.3 154.9 160.7 162.3 163.1 167.8 169.6 173.9 174.3 174.9 176.1 170.8 168.1 169.7 168.6 168.3 169.7 176.2 172.9 177.9 1.0% 0.2% Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2016, Washington, DC, 2017, Table MF-27 and annual. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov) a Consists primarily of diesel fuel, with small quantities of other fuels, such as liquefied petroleum gas and E85. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–18 Great care should be taken when comparing modal energy intensity data among modes. Because of the inherent differences among the transportation modes in the nature of services, routes available, and many additional factors, it is not possible to obtain truly comparable national energy intensities among modes. These values are averages, and there is a great deal of variability even within a mode. Table 2.13 Passenger Travel and Energy Use, 2016a Cars Personal trucks Motorcycles Demand responseb Buses Transit Intercityd Schoold Air Certificated routee General aviation Recreational boats Rail Intercity (Amtrak) Transit Commuter Number of vehicles (thousands) 112,961.3 116,697.7 8,679.4 71.3 Passengermiles (millions) 2,238,169 2,124,615 23,728 2,056 c c 70.2 2,255 20,565 9.1 37,404 4,102 694.7 c c c c c c c c c c c c 5,758 661,911 114.9 266,640 2,320 c c c c c 1,498 316 810.2 372 39,211 6,520 20,923 11,768 26.2 20.6 25.8 31.7 30,700 31,958 19,654 53,709 1,173 1,551 761 1,696 c c 211.8 14,019.0 20.5 0.4 12.9 7.2 c c c c c c Load factor (persons/ vehicle) 1.5 1.8 1.2 1.3 Energy intensities (Btu per (Btu per vehiclepassengermile) mile) 4,526 2,939 6,255 3,437 2,847 2,454 16,052 12,625 Vehiclemiles (millions) 1,453,356 1,167,371 20,455 1,617 c c c c c c c Energy use (trillion Btu) 6,577.2 7,302.6 58.2 26.0 206.5 84.4 35.4 86.8 1,753.2 1,535.4 217.8 246.8 46.0 10.1 15.9 20.0 Source: See Appendix A, Section 3. Passenger Travel and Energy Use. Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. b Demand response data are for 2015. Includes passenger cars, vans, and small buses operating in response to calls from passengers to the transit operator who dispatches the vehicles. c Data are not available. d Energy use is estimated. e Only domestic service and domestic energy use are shown on this table. (Previous editions included half of international energy.) These energy intensities may be inflated because all energy use is attributed to passengers– cargo energy use is not taken into account. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–19 Great care should be taken when comparing modal energy intensity data among modes. Because of the inherent differences among the transportation modes in the nature of services, routes available, and many additional factors, it is not possible to obtain truly comparable national energy intensities among modes. These values are averages, and there is a great deal of variability even within a mode. Table 2.14 Energy Intensities of Highway Passenger Modes, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 (Btu per vehicle-mile) 9,250 8,993 7,916 7,164 7,194 6,959 6,683 6,589 6,169 5,912 5,956 6,087 6,024 5,902 5,874 5,797 5,767 5,821 5,687 5,626 5,662 5,535 5,489 5,607 5,511 5,513 5,466 5,239 5,117 5,032 4,950 4,873 4,797 4,647 4,526 1970-2016 2006-2016 -1.5% -1.9% Cars Light truckb (Btu per (Btu per passenger-mile) vehicle-mile) 4,868 12,479 4,733 11,879 4,279 10,224 4,110 8,730 4,197 8,560 4,128 8,359 4,033 8,119 4,046 7,746 3,856 7,746 3,695 7,351 3,723 7,239 3,804 7,182 3,765 7,212 3,689 7,208 3,683 7,247 3,646 7,251 3,638 7,260 3,684 7,327 3,611 7,158 3,583 7,080 3,607 7,125 3,525 7,673 3,496 7,653 3,571 7,009 3,510 6,974 3,512 6,904 3,526 6,830 3,380 7,159 3,301 6,919 3,246 6,795 3,193 6,675 3,144 6,557 3,095 6,631 2,998 6,486 2,939 6,366 Average annual percentage change -1.1% -1.5% -1.8% -0.9% Transit Busesc (Btu per (Btu per vehicle-mile) passenger-mile) 31,796 2,472 33,748 2,814 36,553 2,813 38,876 3,423 37,889 3,545 36,247 3,594 36,673 3,706 36,754 3,732 37,374 3,794 37,732 3,877 40,243 4,310 39,043 4,262 36,932 4,225 36,936 4,271 37,238 4,315 38,622 4,407 41,062 4,374 40,351 4,320 41,466 4,506 38,320 4,123 37,340 4,110 36,900 4,191 37,665 4,342 37,244 4,229 39,397 4,297 39,748 4,352 39,726 4,328 39,073 4,233 35,858 4,107 37,648 4,232 37,037 4,023 37,273 4,052 35,237 3,810 36,322 4,059 37,404 4,102 0.4% -0.5% 1.1% -0.5% Source: See Appendix A, Section 4. Highway Passenger Mode Energy Intensities. Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. b All two-axle, four-tire trucks. c Series not continuous between 1983 and 1984 because of a change in data source by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA). a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–20 Great care should be taken when comparing modal energy intensity data among modes. Because of the inherent differences between the transportation modes in the nature of services, routes available, and many additional factors, it is not possible to obtain truly comparable national energy intensities among modes. Table 2.15 Energy Intensities of Nonhighway Passenger Modes, 1970–2016a Year 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Air Certificated air carriersb (Btu per passenger-mile) 10,115 7,625 5,561 5,774 5,412 5,133 5,298 5,053 5,011 4,827 4,861 4,844 4,797 4,602 4,455 4,490 4,407 4,349 4,199 4,173 3,987 4,108 3,960 3,943 3,718 3,614 3,505 3,346 3,250 3,153 3,055 2,901 2,825 2,772 2,633 2,568 2,506 2,477 2,449 1970-2016 2006-2016 -3.0% -2.8% Intercity Amtrak (Btu per passenger-mile) c 3,311 2,859 2,414 2,551 2,359 2,417 2,237 2,037 1,989 1,967 2,082 2,052 2,011 2,117 2,142 1,917 2,071 2,194 2,289 2,246 2,362 2,651 2,690 2,537 2,145 2,068 2,025 1,948 1,824 1,745 1,773 1,668 1,628 1,561 1,608 1,629 1,589 1,551 Average annual percentage changed -1.8% -2.3% Rail Rail transit (Btu per passenger-mile) 712 866 763 855 891 931 1,002 927 1,004 1,003 1,014 960 998 1,074 1,041 1,113 1,102 1,102 996 943 931 919 923 925 948 936 907 919 893 851 832 830 832 812 791 793 786 777 761 0.1% -1.6% Commuter rail (Btu per passenger-mile) c c c c c c 1,798 1,720 1,720 1,628 1,666 1,622 1,622 1,601 1,565 1,782 1,605 1,580 1,541 1,630 1,612 1,670 1,542 1,533 1,542 1,542 1,536 1,658 1,539 1,543 1,579 1,714 1,753 1,681 1,703 1,676 1,638 1,661 1,696 -0.2% 1.0% Source: See Appendix A, Section 5. Nonhighway Passenger Mode Energy Intensities. Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. b These data differ from the data on Table 2.13 because they include half of international services. These energy intensities may be inflated because all energy use is attributed to passengers–cargo energy use is not taken into account. c Data are not available. d Average annual percentage calculated to earliest year possible. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–21 The energy intensity of light rail systems, measured in Btu per passenger-mile, varies greatly. The weighted average of all light rail systems in 2016 is 1,206 Btu/passenger-mile. Figure 2.7. Energy Intensity of Light Rail Transit Systemsa, 2016 Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, 2016 National Transit Database, August 2018. www.transit.dot.gov/ntd) (Additional resources: Typically an electric railway with a light volume traffic capacity with power drawn from an overhead electric line. Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–22 Figure 2.8. Energy Intensity of Heavy Rail Systemsa, 2016 Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, 2016 National Transit Database, August 2018. www.transit.dot.gov/ntd) (Additional resources: Figure 2.9. Energy Intensity of Commuter Rail Systemsb, 2016 Note: Does not include systems classified as hybrid rail. Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, 2016 National Transit Database, August 2018. www.transit.dot.gov/ntd) (Additional resources: a An electric railway with the capacity for a heavy volume of traffic. Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. b Electric car or diesel-propelled railway for urban passenger train service between a central city and adjacent suburbs. Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–23 Great care should be taken when comparing modal energy intensity data among modes. Because of the inherent differences between the transportation modes in the nature of services, routes available, and many additional factors, it is not possible to obtain truly comparable national energy intensities among modes. Table 2.16 Energy Intensities of Freight Modes, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 1970-2016 2006-2016 Heavy single-unit and combination trucks Class I freight railroad (Btu per vehicle-mile) (Btu per freight car-mile) (Btu per ton-mile) 24,960 17,669 691 24,631 18,739 687 24,758 18,742 597 25,059 18,629 572 24,297 18,404 553 23,853 17,864 525 23,585 17,795 510 23,343 17,500 497 23,352 17,265 486 22,923 16,790 456 22,596 16,758 443 22,411 16,894 437 22,795 16,619 420 22,749 15,835 391 22,609 16,043 393 22,373 16,056 389 22,193 16,340 388 22,097 15,992 372 22,109 15,747 368 21,340 15,784 370 21,516 15,372 365 22,884 15,363 363 23,449 14,917 352 23,024 15,108 346 23,462 15,003 345 22,461 15,016 344 20,540 15,274 341 22,866 15,152 337 b 23,340 14,990 330 28,452 14,846 320 28,695 14,573 305 21,024 13,907 291 21,499 13,733 289 21,677 14,043 298 21,524 13,800 294 21,540 14,607 296 21,573 14,533 292 21,382 14,405 297 21,335 14,557 299 Average annual percentage change -0.3% -0.4% -1.8% -0.9% -0.3% -1.0% Waterborne commerce on taxable waterways (Btu per ton-mile) a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a 266 256 266 270 253 253 251 241 241 235 225 252 225 217 211 211 233 214 a a a a Source: See Appendix A, Section 6. Freight Mode Energy Intensities. a b 2007. Data are not available. Due to changes in the FHWA fuel use methodology, truck data are not comparable with data before the year TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2–24 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–1 All Highway Vehicles and Characteristics Summary Statistics from Tables in this Chapter Source Table 3.2 U.S. share of world car registrations, 2016 12.7% Table 3.3 U.S. share of world truck & bus registrations, 2016 42.1% Table 3.4 Number of U.S. cars, 2016 (thousands) 112,961 Table 3.4 Number of U.S. trucks, 2016 (thousands) 146,182 Table 3.8 Vehicle miles traveled, 2016 (million miles) Table 3.11 3,174,408 Cars 45.8% Two-axle, four-tire trucks 44.0% Combination trucks 5.5% Other single-unit trucks 3.6% Motorcycles 0.6% Buses 0.5% Average age of vehicles, 2016 Cars (years) 11.6 Light trucks (years) 11.6 All light vehicles (years) 11.6 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–2 The top countries producing the world’s cars and trucks have changed over the last 16 years. In 2016, China was the largest producer of cars and trucks. In 2000, Japan produced the most cars and the United States produced the most trucks (includes light trucks). Table 3.1 World Production of Cars and Trucks, 2000 and 2016 (thousands) Cars China Japan Germany U.S. Brazil India Russia Mexico Spain UK France Czech Republic All Other Countries Total World Trucksa China U.S. South Korea India Japan Canada Thailand All Other Countries Total World 2000 605 8,363 5,132 5,542 1,362 605 969 1,130 2,366 1,641 2,880 428 10,205 41,229 2016 13,129 7,874 5,747 3,917 1,781 2,621 1,125 1,993 2,354 1,670 1,626 1,344 11,372 56,553 2000 2016 1,464 7,263 513 283 1,781 1,411 315 4,685 17,717 14,990 8,261 2,137 1,868 1,331 1,567 1,139 6,185 37,478 Source: Ward’s Communications, www.wardsauto.com. a Includes light trucks, heavy trucks, and buses. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 Percent change 2000-2016 2,071% -6% 12% -29% 31% 333% 16% 76% -1% 2% -44% 214% 11% 37% Percent change 2000-2016 924% 14% 317% 559% -25% 11% 262% 32% 112% 3–3 Figure 3.1. World Car Production, 1983–2016a Source: See Table 3.1. Figure 3.2. World Truck and Bus Production, 1983–2016a Source: See Table 3.1. a The sharp decrease in 2009 coincides with the recession. Note that the scales of the two figures differ. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–4 Use caution comparing historical data because of disconnects in data series and definitional differences among countries. The United States uses light trucks (SUVs, minivans, pickups) for personal travel which are not counted as cars in this table. China’s light trucks were not counted in this table until 2014, when a reclassification of vehicle types added them as cars. The U.S. share of world cars continues to decline. The growth in the World total comes mainly from developing countries, like China, Indonesia, India, and South Korea. Table 3.2 Car Registrations for Selected Countries, 1960–2016 (thousands) Country Argentina Brazil Canadab Chinac France Germanyd India Indonesia Japan Malaysia Pakistan Russia South Korea United Kingdom United States U.S. percentage of world World total 2,075 52,437 4,213 375 20,353 8,084 2005 5,340 18,370 18,124 8,900 30,100 46,090 7,654 3,850 57,091 6,402 411 25,285 11,122 2010 7,605 25,541 20,121 34,430 31,300 42,302 13,300 8,891 58,347 9,115 1,726 34,350 13,632 2015 11,003 33,566 22,068 135,119 32,000 45,071 30,570 13,846 61,873 11,279 2,470 41,000 16,561 2016 11,042 33,888 22,410 165,600 32,390 45,804 34,361 13,481 61,404 11,335 2,627 44,696 17,338 Average annual percentage change 1990-2016 3.7% 4.0% 2.2% 18.8% 1.2% 1.0% 11.0% 9.8% 2.2% 7.3% 5.0% 5.0%e 8.5% 15,438 121,601 22,528 143,550 27,185 127,721 30,652 132,909 31,258 129,053 33,542 126,014 34,378 123,553 1.6% -0.6% 38.0% 320,390 32.3% 444,900 23.3% 548,558 21.5% 617,914 17.8% 723,567 13.6% 923,590 12.7% 973,353 3.1% 1960 474 1970 1,482 1980 3,112 1990 4,284 12,127 12,622 1,897 23,550 35,512 2,300 1,200 34,924 1,811 738 a a a 4,104 6,602 a a 4,950 4,856 11,860 14,376 10,256 351 18,440 23,236 a a a a a a 457 8,779 23,660 a a a a a a a a a a a a a 5,650 61,671 11,802 89,244 62.7% 98,305 46.1% 193,479 2000 5,060 15,393 16,832 3,750 28,060 43,772 5,150 a Source: Ward’s Communications, www.wardsauto.com. Data are not available. Data from 2000 and later are not comparable to prior data. Canada reclassified autos and trucks prior to 2000. c Light trucks were reclassified into the car category in 2014. d Data for 1990 and prior include West Germany only. Kraftwagen are included with automobiles. e Data for earliest year available. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–5 Use caution comparing historical data because of disconnects in data series and definitional differences among countries. The United States totals include SUVs, minivans, and light trucks, many of which are used for personal travel. Thus, countries that only use trucks for freight movement will not be comparable to the United States. China’s light trucks were included in this table until a reclassification in 2014. Table 3.3 Truck and Bus Registrations for Selected Countries, 1960–2016 (thousands) Country 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 Argentina 392 788 1,217 1,501 1,554 1,730 2,511 3,305 3,400 a a a 936 3,917 4,653 6,524 8,959 9,196 1,056 1,481 2,955 3,931 739 786 933 1,147 1,860 Chinac a a 1,480 4,314 9,650 21,750 43,590 23,191 28,400 France 1,650 1,850 2,550 4,910 5,733 6,198 6,444 6,652 6,728 786 1,228 1,617 2,764 3,534 3,133 2,960 3,356 3,482 India a a a 2,050 2,390 4,145 9,500 11,230 11,679 Indonesia a a a 1,391 2,373 2,950 6,938 9,237 9,032 896 8,803 14,197 22,773 20,211 16,734 15,512 14,981 14,412 Malaysia a a a 616 1,030 1,323 1,138 1,335 1,375 Pakistan a a a 172 385 414 538 678 685 Russia South Korea United Kingdom United States U.S. percentage of world World total a a a 7,200 5,041 5,705 6,304 8,000 7,101 a a a 1,320 3,956 4,275 4,310 4,428 4,465 1,534 1,769 1,920 3,774 3,361 3,943 4,220 4,677 4,862 12,186 19,175 34,195 45,106 85,579 104,788 119,179 146,154 147,014 42.6% 28,583 36.2% 52,899 37.7% 90,592 32.7% 138,082 42.1% 203,272 42.6% 245,798 38.5% 309,395 43.3% 337,250 42.1% 348,919 Brazil Canadab Germanyd Japan Average annual percentage change 1990-2016 3.2% 9.2% -2.8% 7.5% 1.2% 0.9% 6.9% 7.5% -1.7% 3.1% 5.5% -0.1% 4.8% 1.0% 4.6% 3.6% Source: Ward’s Communications, www.wardsauto.com. Data are not available. Data from 2000 and later are not comparable to prior data. Canada reclassified autos and trucks prior to 2000. c Light trucks were reclassified into the car category in 2014. d Data for 1990 and prior include West Germany only. Kraftwagen are included with automobiles. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–6 VEHICLES IN USE Both the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and IHS Automotive report figures on the car and truck population each year. The two estimates, however, differ by as much as 11.2% (1981). The differences can be attributed to several factors: • The FHWA data include all vehicles which have been registered at any time throughout the calendar year. Therefore, the data include vehicles which were retired during the year and may double count vehicles which have been registered in different states or the same states to different owners. IHS Automotive data include only those vehicles which are registered on July 1 of the given year and would not include vehicles registered after that date. • The classification of mini-vans, station wagons on truck chassis, and utility vehicles as cars or trucks causes important differences in the two estimates. IHS Automotive data included passenger vans in the car count until 1980; since 1980 all vans have been counted as trucks. • Starting in 1993, the FHWA reclassified some minivans and sport utility vehicles into the truck category which were previously included with cars. This change produced a dramatic change in the individual percentage differences of cars and trucks. The difference in total vehicles has been less than 5% each year since 1990 and does not appear to be significantly affected by the FHWA reclassifications. Beginning with 2009, the FHWA discontinued the car/2-axle, 4-tire truck designations on Table VM-1. The data since 2009 come from Tables MV-1 and MV-9. • The FHWA data include all non-military Federal vehicles, while IHS Automotive data include only those Federal vehicles which are registered within a state. Federal vehicles are not required to have State registrations, and, according to the General Services Administration, most Federal vehicles are not registered. • In 2012 both IHS Automotive and FHWA changed their methodologies for the car/light truck split which created a significant decrease in the number of cars reported and a corresponding increase in the number of light trucks. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–7 In the early 1980's, researchers had to make a conscious choice of which data series to use, since they differed by as much as 11%. In 2005 the two sources differed by less than 1%. Both sources changed their methodologies for the car/light truck split causing significant decreases to the number of cars in 2012. Table 3.4 U.S. Cars and Trucks in Use, 1970–2016 (thousands) Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 FHWA 89,243 106,706 121,601 127,885 130,004 131,482 133,836 134,559 133,700 128,300 126,581 127,327 127,883 128,387 129,728 129,749 131,839 132,432 133,621 137,633 135,921 135,670 136,431 136,568 135,400 135,933 137,080 134,880 130,892 125,657 111,290 113,676 113,899 112,864 112,961 Cars IHS Automotive 80,448 95,241 104,564 114,662 117,268 119,849 121,519 122,758 123,276 123,268 120,347 121,055 121,997 123,242 124,613 124,673 125,966 126,869 127,721 128,714 129,907 131,072 132,469 132,909 135,047 135,222 135,882 132,500 129,053 127,577 120,902 120,214 120,984 122,322 123,553 Percentage difference 10.9% 12.0% 16.3% 11.5% 10.9% 9.7% 10.1% 9.6% 8.5% 4.1% 5.2% 5.2% 4.8% 4.2% 4.1% 4.1% 4.7% 4.4% 4.6% 6.9% 4.6% 3.5% 3.0% 2.8% 0.3% 0.5% 0.9% 1.8% 1.4% -1.5% -8.0% -5.4% -5.9% -7.7% -8.6% FHWA 18,797 25,781 33,667 43,210 45,103 46,826 49,941 52,172 54,470 59,206 63,136 66,082 69,491 72,458 75,940 77,307 79,062 83,148 87,108 92,045 92,939 94,944 100,016 103,819 107,944 110,498 110,242 110,561 110,322 118,483 133,130 132,931 137,531 141,256 146,182 Trucks IHS Automotive 17,688 24,813 35,268 42,387 44,826 47,344 50,221 53,202 56,023 58,179 61,172 65,260 66,717 70,199 73,681 76,398 79,077 82,640 85,579 87,969 91,120 94,810 99,698 105,475 109,596 113,479 113,931 116,472 119,179 121,355 130,595 132,501 137,043 141,872 147,014 Percentage difference 6.3% 3.9% -4.5% 1.9% 0.6% -1.1% -0.6% -1.9% -2.8% 1.8% 3.2% 1.3% 4.2% 3.2% 3.1% 1.2% 0.0% 0.6% 1.8% 4.6% 2.0% 0.1% 0.3% -1.6% -1.5% -2.6% -3.2% -5.1% -7.4% -2.4% 1.9% 0.3% 0.4% -0.4% -0.6% FHWA 108,040 132,487 155,267 171,095 175,106 178,308 183,777 186,731 188,171 187,505 189,717 193,409 197,375 200,845 205,669 207,056 210,901 215,580 220,729 229,678 228,860 230,614 236,447 240,387 243,344 246,431 247,322 245,441 241,214 244,140 244,420 246,607 251,430 254,120 259,144 Total IHS Automotive 98,136 120,054 139,832 157,049 162,094 167,193 171,740 175,960 179,299 181,447 181,519 186,315 188,714 193,441 198,294 201,071 205,043 209,509 213,300 216,683 221,027 225,882 232,167 238,384 244,643 248,701 249,813 248,972 248,232 248,932 251,497 252,715 258,027 264,194 270,566 Percentage difference 10.1% 10.4% 11.0% 8.9% 8.0% 6.6% 7.0% 6.1% 4.9% 3.3% 4.5% 3.8% 4.6% 3.8% 3.7% 3.0% 2.9% 2.9% 3.5% 6.0% 3.5% 2.1% 1.8% 0.8% -0.5% -0.9% -1.0% -1.4% -2.8% -1.9% -2.8% -2.4% -2.6% -3.8% -4.2% Source: FHWA - U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1970-2008, Highway Statistics 2008 and earlier, Washington, DC, 2009, Table VM-1 and annual. 2009-2016 data from Tables MV-1 and MV-9, Highway Statistics 2016. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov) IHS Automotive - IHS Automotive, Detroit, Michigan. Used with permission. FURTHER REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED. (Additional resources: https://www.ihs.com/industry/automotive.html) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–8 Table 3.5 New Retail Vehicle Sales, 1970–2017 (thousands) Calendar Year 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Cars 8,399 8,486 9,957 11,004 11,107 10,512 8,949 8,488 7,956 9,148 10,324 10,979 11,404 10,187 10,544 9,776 9,301 8,185 8,213 8,518 8,991 8,620 8,479 8,217 8,085 8,638 8,778 8,352 8,042 7,556 7,483 7,660 7,762 7,562 6,769 5,402 5,636 6,093 7,245 7,586 7,708 7,517 6,873 6,080 1970–2017 2007–2017 -0.7% -2.2% Light Subtotal Trucksa Light Vehicles 1,457 9,856 2,053 10,539 2,719 12,676 3,109 14,113 3,474 14,581 2,845 13,357 1,960 10,909 1,746 10,234 2,063 10,019 2,521 11,669 3,255 13,579 3,688 14,667 4,594 15,998 4,610 14,797 4,800 15,344 4,610 14,386 4,548 13,849 4,122 12,307 4,629 12,842 5,351 13,869 6,033 15,024 6,053 14,673 6,519 14,998 6,797 15,014 7,299 15,384 8,073 16,711 8,386 17,164 8,598 16,950 8,633 16,675 8,938 16,494 9,254 16,737 9,114 16,774 8,574 16,336 8,305 15,867 6,246 13,015 4,834 10,236 5,758 11,394 6,449 12,542 6,975 14,220 7,693 15,279 8,484 16,192 9,578 17,095 10,296 17,169 10,738 16,818 Average annual percentage change 4.3% 1.1% 2.6% 0.6% Heavy Trucks 334 298 324 376 441 391 271 226 184 189 282 295 277 302 348 330 297 242 276 330 387 428 411 430 526 641 579 452 402 420 538 664 694 537 432 312 378 500 569 606 671 732 697 732 1.7% 3.1% Source: Ward’s Communications, www.wardsauto.com. a Includes light trucks of 10,000 lb. gross vehicle weight and less. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 Total Vehicle Sales 10,190 10,837 13,000 14,489 15,022 13,748 11,180 10,460 10,203 11,858 13,861 14,962 16,275 15,099 15,692 14,716 14,146 12,549 13,118 14,199 15,411 15,101 15,409 15,444 15,910 17,352 17,743 17,402 17,077 16,914 17,275 17,438 17,030 16,404 13,447 10,548 11,772 13,042 14,789 15,884 16,862 17,827 17,866 17,551 1.2% 0.7% 3–9 The graphs below show the number of motor vehicles per thousand people for various countries. The data for the United States are displayed in the line which goes from 1900 to 2016. The points labeled on that line show data for the other countries/regions around the world and how their vehicles per thousand people compare to the United States at two different points in time, 2006 and 2016. For instance, the graph shows that in 2006, Eastern Europe’s vehicles per thousand people was about where the United States was in 1942, but by 2016 it is about where the United States was in 1953. The lower part of the graph (1900-1930) is shown enlarged on the facing page. Figure 3.3. Vehicles per Thousand People: U.S. (Over Time) Compared to Other Countries (in 2006 and 2016) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–10 Source: See Tables 3.5 and 3.6. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–11 Though some countries are listed separately in this table, those countries are also included in the regional total. For instance, China is listed separately, but is also included in the Asia, Far East region. Table 3.6 Vehicles per Thousand People in Selected Countries/Regions, 2006 and 2016 Country/Region Africa Asia, Far East Asia, Middle East Brazil Canada Central & South America China Europe, East Europe, West India Indonesia Mexico Pacific United States Vehicles per 1,000 people 2006 2016 25.2 38.9 49.7 105.6 99.8 147.4 129.0 209.3 599.6 686.3 102.4 174.7 26.6 141.2 254.4 362.1 593.7 606.0 11.6 36.3 31.7 87.2 217.6 317.5 524.7 634.9 840.7 831.9 Sources: 2016 population – U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division, International Data Base (IDB) World, July 31, 2018. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/population/international) 2016 vehicles – United States: See Table 3.6. All other countries: Ward’s Communications, www.wardsauto.com. 2006 data – Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Transportation Energy Data Book: Edition 27, ORNL-6981, 2008. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–12 The number of vehicles per thousand people in the United States has grown tremendously since 1900. After a peak in 2007 at 844.5, the number declined but began rising in 2012. By 2016 there were 831.9 vehicles per thousand people in the United States. Table 3.7 Vehicles per Thousand People in the United States, 1900–2016 Year 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 U.S. vehicles per 1,000 people 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.2 3.5 5.1 6.8 9.9 12.9 17.8 24.8 35.5 49.6 59.7 72.5 86.8 96.7 111.5 134.9 Year 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 U.S. vehicles per 1,000 people 154.4 173.3 189.1 195.8 204.9 219.3 217.3 210.4 195.4 192.4 199.9 208.6 222.6 233.3 229.7 236.9 245.6 261.6 244.7 225.9 220.2 221.8 243.1 262.6 Year 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 U.S. vehicles per 1,000 people 280.2 299.6 323.7 337.1 340.6 353.7 361.4 379.8 387.6 392.1 392.2 402.8 410.4 415.1 426.1 438.8 451.6 466.9 489.3 500.7 516.5 533.4 545.4 562.5 Year 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 U.S. vehicles per 1,000 people 585.6 615.2 632.3 640.1 659.5 669.0 690.2 700.4 710.7 715.2 714.0 724.3 728.2 744.5 753.3 758.6 772.9 777.0 773.4 760.2 758.0 761.9 766.9 771.0 Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 U.S. vehicles per 1,000 people 781.2 776.0 781.2 790.1 800.3 825.8 815.7 816.1 829.9 837.3 840.7 844.5 841.6 828.7 808.4 812.5 807.8 809.2 817.3 821.5 831.9 Sources: Population – U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division, International Data Base (IDB) World, February 2018. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/programs-surveys/international-programs.html) Vehicles – U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2016, Washington, DC, 2017. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–13 Total vehicle-miles traveled increased each year from 2011 to 2016. The trend of using two-axle, four-tire trucks, such as pickups, vans, and sport-utility vehicles, for personal travel is evident in these data; two-axle, four-tire trucks account for 33% more travel in 2016 than in 1970, and cars account for 37% less travel in that time period. Table 3.8 Shares of Highway Vehicle-Miles Traveled by Vehicle Type, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 1970–2016 2006–2016 Cars 82.6% 77.9% 72.8% 70.2% 69.2% 68.5% 67.6% 66.8% 65.7% 62.5% 61.0% 59.9% 59.6% 59.4% 59.1% 58.7% 58.9% 58.3% 58.3% 58.2% 58.1% 57.8% 57.3% 57.1% 56.1% 55.2% 54.3% 53.0% 50.4% 49.4% 48.4% 48.4% 47.5% 46.7% 45.8% Two-axle, Other four-tire single-unit Combination Motorcycles trucks trucks trucks 0.3% 11.1% 2.4% 3.2% 0.4% 15.1% 2.6% 3.5% 0.7% 19.0% 2.6% 4.5% 0.5% 22.0% 2.6% 4.4% 0.5% 23.1% 2.5% 4.4% 0.5% 23.8% 2.5% 4.5% 0.5% 24.8% 2.4% 4.4% 0.5% 25.6% 2.4% 4.4% 0.4% 26.8% 2.4% 4.4% 0.4% 29.9% 2.4% 4.4% 0.4% 31.5% 2.4% 4.4% 0.4% 32.5% 2.5% 4.5% 0.4% 32.4% 2.6% 4.6% 0.4% 32.6% 2.6% 4.8% 0.4% 32.8% 2.6% 4.8% 0.4% 33.2% 2.6% 4.9% 0.4% 33.0% 2.6% 4.9% 0.4% 33.5% 2.6% 4.9% 0.4% 33.6% 2.6% 4.9% 0.3% 33.7% 2.6% 4.9% 0.3% 33.8% 2.7% 4.9% 0.3% 34.0% 2.7% 4.8% 0.3% 34.6% 2.6% 4.8% 0.3% 34.8% 2.6% 4.8% 0.4% 35.9% 2.7% 4.7% 0.4% 36.7% 2.7% 4.8% 0.5% 37.3% 2.8% 4.8% 0.7% 36.1% 4.1% 5.7% 0.6% 38.8% 3.7% 5.9% 0.6% 40.4% 3.5% 5.6% 0.7% 41.3% 3.6% 5.5% 0.7% 41.2% 3.6% 5.6% 0.7% 42.1% 3.6% 5.6% 0.6% 43.1% 3.5% 5.5% 0.6% 44.0% 3.6% 5.5% Average annual percentage change Buses 0.4% 0.5% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% Total vehicle-miles traveled (million miles) 1,109,724 1,327,664 1,527,295 1,774,826 1,834,872 1,921,204 2,025,962 2,096,487 2,144,362 2,172,050 2,247,151 2,296,378 2,357,588 2,422,696 2,485,848 2,561,695 2,631,522 2,691,056 2,746,925 2,797,287 2,855,508 2,890,412 2,964,788 2,989,430 3,014,369 a 3,032,399 2,973,509 2,956,764 2,967,266 2,950,401 2,969,433 2,988,281 3,025,656 3,095,372 3,174,408 2.3% 0.5% Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2016, Washington, DC, 2017, Table VM-1 and annual. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov). 2009-2016 cars and 2-axle 4-tire trucks – see Section 7 in Appendix A. a Due to FHWA methodology changes, data from 2007-on are not comparable with previous data. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–14 In 1970 only 2.9% of the car population was 15 years old or older; by 2013 that number rose to nearly 20%. Table 3.9 Cars in Operation by Age, 1970, 2000, and 2013 1970 Age (years) Vehicles (thousands) Under 1b 6,288 7.8% 7.8% 1 9,299 11.6% 19.4% 2 8,816 11.0% 30.3% 3 7,878 9.8% 40.1% 4 8,538 10.6% 50.8% 5 8,506 10.6% 61.3% 6 7,116 8.8% 70.2% 7 6,268 7.8% 78.0% 8 5,058 6.3% 84.3% 9 3,267 4.1% 88.3% 10 2,776 3.5% 91.8% 11 1,692 2.1% 93.9% 12 799 1.0% 94.9% 13 996 1.2% 96.1% 14 794 1.0% 97.1% 100.0% Percentagea 15 and older 2,336 2.9% Subtotal 80,427 100.0% 22 Age not given Total 80,449 Cumulative percentagea 2000 Vehicles (thousands) 6,665 Percentagea 5.2% 8,177 6.4% 11.6% 7,655 6.0% 17.6% 7,906 6.2% 23.8% 7,413 5.8% 29.6% 8,675 6.8% 36.4% 7,628 6.0% 42.4% 7,650 6.0% 48.4% 7,021 5.5% 53.9% 7,109 5.6% 59.4% 7,071 5.5% 65.0% 7,338 5.7% 70.7% 6,876 5.4% 76.1% 6,084 4.8% 80.9% 5,334 4.2% 85.0% 19,119 15.0% 100.0% 127,721 100.0% 0 121,721 Cumulative percentagea 5.2% Vehicles (thousands) 2013 Percentagea Cumulative percentagea 9,287 7.1% 7.1% 7,700 5.9% 13.1% 5,957 4.6% 17.6% 6,159 4.7% 22.4% 5,484 4.2% 26.6% 7,226 5.6% 32.1% 7,896 6.1% 38.2% 7,706 5.9% 44.1% 7,843 6.0% 50.2% 6,924 5.3% 55.5% 7,237 5.6% 61.1% 7,167 5.5% 66.6% 6,660 5.1% 71.7% 6,889 5.3% 77.0% 5,487 4.2% 81.2% 24,457 18.8% 100.0% 130,078 100.0% 0 130,078 Source: IHS Automotive, Detroit, MI. Used with permission. FURTHER REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED. Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. Includes cars which were sold prior to July 1, 1970, and similarly, sold prior to July 1, 2000. For 2013, cars sold prior to December 31, 2013 were included. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–15 The number of trucks in the United States has grown significantly since 1970, some of it due to the use of light trucks (pickups, vans, sport utility vehicles) as personal passenger vehicles. Those light trucks, as well as medium and heavy trucks, are included in the data. In 1970 about 15% of trucks were age 15 or older; by 2013, that increased to 20.8%. Table 3.10 Trucks in Operation by Age, 1970, 2000, and 2013 1970 Age (years) Vehicles (thousands) Under 1b 1,262 7.1% 7.1% 1 1,881 10.6% 17.8% 2 1,536 8.7% 26.5% 3 1,428 8.1% 34.6% 4 1,483 8.4% 43.0% 5 1,339 7.6% 50.5% 6 1,154 6.5% 57.1% 7 975 5.5% 62.6% 8 826 4.7% 67.3% 9 621 3.5% 70.8% 10 658 3.7% 74.5% 11 583 3.3% 77.8% 12 383 2.2% 80.0% 13 417 2.4% 82.3% 14 414 2.3% 84.7% 15 and older 2,710 15.3% 100.0% Subtotal 17,670 100.0% Age note given Total Percentagea Cumulative percentagea 2000 Vehicles (thousands) 6,439 Percentagea 7,726 7.5% 9.0% 7.7% 7.4% 2013 Vehicles (thousands) Percentagea 7.5% 8,097 6.5% 6.5% 16.6% 6,391 5.1% 11.6% 24.3% 6,417 5.2% 16.8% 31.7% 4,972 4.0% 20.8% 6.2% 37.9% 3,991 3.2% 24.0% 6.8% 44.7% 6,927 5.6% 29.5% 6.1% 50.8% 7,587 6.1% 35.6% 5.1% 55.8% 7,580 6.1% 41.7% 4.1% 60.0% 7,585 6.1% 47.8% 4.0% 63.9% 7,978 6.4% 54.2% 3.8% 67.8% 7,201 5.8% 60.0% 4.3% 72.0% 6,850 5.5% 65.5% 4.0% 76.0% 6,163 4.9% 70.4% 3.3% 79.4% 5,673 4.6% 75.0% 14,838 3.3% 82.7% 5,217 4.2% 79.2% 17.3% 100.0% 25,917 20.8% 100.0% 85,579 100.0% 124,545 100.0% 6,630 6,313 5,300 5,818 5,206 4,335 3,547 3,411 3,258 3,665 3,421 2,860 2,812 Cumulative percentagea 15 0 0 17,685 85,579 124,545 Cumulative percentagea Source: IHS Automotive, Detroit, MI. Used with permission. FURTHER REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED. Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. Includes trucks which were sold prior to July 1, 1970, and similarly, sold prior to July 1, 2000. For 2013, trucks sold prior to December 31, 2013 were included. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–16 The average age of cars and light trucks has grown to a record level in 2016—11.6 years. Light trucks, which include pickups, vans, and sport utility vehicles, previously had a lower average age than cars. In 2014 through 2016, however, there is no difference in their ages. Table 3.11 U.S. Average Vehicle Age, 1970–2016 Calendar Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Passenger cars 5.6 6.0 6.6 7.6 7.8 7.9 8.1 8.3 8.4 8.4 8.5 8.7 8.9 9.1 9.1 9.3 9.8 9.9 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.8 11.1 11.3 11.4 11.4 11.5 11.6 Light trucks 7.3 6.9 7.1 8.1 8.0 8.1 8.4 8.6 8.4 8.3 8.3 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.4 8.4 9.4 9.0 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.6 9.8 10.1 10.5 10.8 11.1 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 All light vehicles b b b b b b b b b 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.8 8.8 8.9 8.9 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.8 9.9 10.0 10.1 10.3 10.6 10.9 11.2 11.4 11.4 11.5 11.6 a Note: Data for 2016 are the latest available. Source: IHS Automotive, Detroit, MI. Used with permission. FURTHER REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED. (Additional resources: https://www.ihs.com/industry/automotive.html) In 2013, IHS Automotive published a data series showing vehicle age from 2002-2013. These data did not match the previous data published by IHS Automotive. The data prior to 2002 came from earlier IHS Automotive news releases and is not comparable to the revised data. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–17 The Environmental Protection Agency estimated the annual vehicle miles of travel for cars and light trucks up to 30 years old for the mid-term evaluation of the Light Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards. The “Total” row represents the number of miles a car or light truck would travel if it is in operation for 30 years. Typical lifetime miles from a 2006 study by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) are shown below the total. Table 3.12 Annual Mileage for Cars and Light Trucks by Vehicle Age Vehicle age (years) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Total NHTSA 2006 study – typical lifetime miles Estimated annual vehicle miles of travel for cars 13,843 13,580 13,296 12,992 12,672 12,337 11,989 11,630 11,262 10,887 10,509 10,129 9,748 9,370 8,997 8,629 8,270 7,922 7,586 7,265 6,962 6,679 6,416 6,177 5,963 5,778 5,623 5,499 5,410 5,358 5,358 278,134 Estimated annual vehicle miles of travel for light trucks 15,962 15,670 15,320 15,098 14,528 14,081 13,548 13,112 12,544 12,078 11,595 11,131 10,641 10,153 9,691 9,239 8,797 8,383 8,009 7,666 7,358 7,089 6,862 6,684 6,556 6,481 6,466 6,466 6,466 6,466 6,466 310,610 152,137 179,954 Sources: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Draft Technical Assessment Report: Midterm Evaluation of Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards for Model Years 2022-2025, EPA-420-D-16-900, July 2016. (Additional resources: https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissionsvehicles-and-engines/midterm-evaluation-light-duty-vehicle-greenhouse-gas-ghg#TAR) U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Vehicle Survivability and Travel Mileage Schedules, January 2006. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–18 The Environmental Protection Agency estimated the survival rates for cars and light trucks for the mid-term evaluation of the Light Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards. Table 3.13 Survival Rates for Cars and Light Trucks by Vehicle Age Vehicle age (years) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Estimated survival rate for cars 1.000 0.997 0.994 0.991 0.984 0.974 0.961 0.942 0.920 0.893 0.862 0.826 0.788 0.718 0.613 0.510 0.415 0.332 0.261 0.203 0.157 0.120 0.092 0.070 0.053 0.040 0.030 0.023 0.013 0.010 0.007 0.002 Estimated survival rate for light trucks 1.000 0.991 0.982 0.973 0.960 0.941 0.919 0.891 0.859 0.823 0.784 0.741 0.697 0.651 0.605 0.553 0.502 0.453 0.407 0.364 0.324 0.288 0.255 0.225 0.198 0.174 0.153 0.133 0.117 0.102 0.089 0.027 Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Draft Technical Assessment Report: Midterm Evaluation of Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards for Model Years 2022-2025, EPA-420-D-16-900, July 2016. (Additional resources: https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissionsvehicles-and-engines/midterm-evaluation-light-duty-vehicle-greenhouse-gas-ghg#TAR) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–19 Using current registration data and a scrappage model by Greenspan and Cohen [1996 paper: www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/1996/199640/199640pap.pdf], ORNL calculated heavy truck (trucks over 26,000 lb gross vehicle weight) scrappage rates. The expected median lifetime for a 1990 model year heavy truck is 29 years. These data are fitted model values which assume constant economic conditions. Table 3.14 Heavy Trucka Scrappage and Survival Rates 1970, 1980, and 1990 Model Years Vehicle ageb (years) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Median lifetime 1970 model year Survival Scrappage ratec rated 98.8 1.2 97.2 1.6 95.3 1.9 93.2 2.3 90.7 2.6 88.1 3.0 85.2 3.3 82.1 3.6 78.8 4.0 75.4 4.3 71.9 4.7 68.3 5.0 64.6 5.3 61.0 5.7 57.3 6.0 53.7 6.3 50.1 6.7 46.6 7.0 43.2 7.3 39.9 7.6 36.7 8.0 33.7 8.3 30.8 8.6 28.0 8.9 25.4 9.3 23.0 9.6 20.7 9.9 1980 model year Survival Scrappage ratec rated 98.5 1.5 96.7 1.9 94.5 2.3 92.0 2.7 89.1 3.1 86.0 3.5 82.7 3.9 79.1 4.3 75.4 4.7 71.6 5.1 67.7 5.5 63.7 5.9 59.7 6.3 55.7 6.7 51.8 7.1 47.9 7.4 44.2 7.8 40.6 8.2 37.1 8.6 33.7 9.0 30.6 9.4 27.6 9.7 24.8 10.1 22.2 10.5 19.8 10.9 17.6 11.2 15.5 11.6 1990 model year Survival Scrappage ratec rated 99.4 0.6 98.6 0.8 97.6 1.0 96.5 1.2 95.2 1.3 93.8 1.5 92.2 1.7 90.5 1.9 88.6 2.0 86.7 2.2 84.6 2.4 82.4 2.6 80.2 2.7 77.9 2.9 75.5 3.1 73.0 3.3 70.5 3.4 68.0 3.6 65.4 3.8 62.8 3.9 60.3 4.1 57.7 4.3 55.1 4.5 52.6 4.6 50.0 4.8 47.6 5.0 45.1 5.1 20.0 years 18.5 years 28.0 years Source: Schmoyer, Richard L., unpublished study on scrappage rates, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 2001. Heavy trucks are trucks over 26,000 lb gross vehicle weight. It was assumed that scrappage for vehicles less than 4 years old is 0. c The percentage of heavy trucks which will be in use at the end of the year. d The percentage of heavy trucks which will be retired from use during the year. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 3–20 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–1 Light Vehicles and Characteristics Summary Statistics from Tables in this Chapter Source Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.7 Table 4.8 Table 4.8 Table 4.9 Table 4.9 Table 4.9 Table 4.33 Cars, 2016 Registrations (thousands) Vehicle miles (billion miles) Fleet average fuel economy (miles per gallon) Two-axle, four-tire trucks, 2016 Registrations (thousands) Vehicle miles (billion miles) Fleet average fuel economy (miles per gallon) Light truck share of total light vehicle sales 1970 calendar year 2017 calendar year Cars, 2016 model year Production (thousands) New car fuel economy (miles per gallon) Car SUVs, 2016 model year Production (thousands) New car SUV fuel economy (miles per gallon) Truck SUVs, 2016 model year Production (thousands) New truck SUV fuel economy (miles per gallon) Pickups, 2016 model year Production (thousands) New pickup fuel economy (miles per gallon) Vans, 2016 model year Production (thousands) New van fuel economy (miles per gallon) Average fuel economy loss from 50 to 70 mph 112,961 1,453.4 26.8 132,716 1,396.4 19.1 14.8% 63.8% 7,130 29.2 1,870 25.6 4,730 22.2 1,907 18.9 630 21.7 24.5% The definition of light truck can change from table to table in this document due to differing definitions among federal government regulations and public nomenclature. See page 4-2 for additional information. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–2 Definition of Light Truck Often for regulatory purposes, agencies within the federal government have differing definitions for the term “light truck.” Private data collectors, such as Ward’s Communications or IHS Automotive/Polk, have their own definitions as well. The paragraphs below are intended as a guide to the different definitions which are used in this document. The data on Table 4.2 are from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). From 1970 to 2008 the FHWA defined light trucks as two-axle, four-tire trucks, including pickups, vans, SUVs, and other two-axle, four-tire trucks under 10,000 lb gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR). In 2009, the FHWA changed methodologies and no longer publishes vehicle miles, fuel use, and fuel economy of light trucks separately from cars. They continue to publish vehicle registrations for pickups, vans, SUVs and other two-axle, four tire trucks under 10,000 lb. The methodology used by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) to continue the data series on Table 4.2 after 2008 is based on the FHWA data for all light vehicles, thus uses the same definition of light trucks. See Section 7.2 in Appendix A for the methodology of light truck data on Table 4.2 after 2008. Data on energy use in Tables 2.7 through 2.9 also use the FHWA definition of light truck. Tables 3.11, 4.4, 4.5, and 4.7 are light truck sales based on Ward’s Communications data. Ward’s definition of light trucks includes pickups, vans, SUVs, and specialty purpose vehicles up to 14,000 lb GVWR. However, in most cases, data are available by individual GVWR and ORNL summarized only light trucks that were 10,000 lb GVWR or less and did not include the heavier trucks. Thus, the definition on these tables is nearly identical to the FHWA definition. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), issued joint rulemaking to establish Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards and greenhouse gas emissions standards beginning with model year 2012. The rulemaking established new definitions of cars and light trucks. Before the rule, CAFE standards applied to cars and light trucks (pickups, vans, SUVs, and other trucks) less than 8,500 lb GVWR. After the rule, some two-wheel drive SUVs are considered cars instead of light trucks, and personal passenger vehicles (vans and SUVs) up to 10,000 lb GVWR are considered light trucks. Thus, data are now categorized as cars, car SUVs, truck SUVs, pickups and vans. Table 4.9 gives a listing of which SUVs are considered car SUVs for model year 2016. The EPA revised their data series back to 1975, so the definitions are consistent historically. Data on tables 4.8 through 4.15 are based on EPA data and thus use this definition of cars and light trucks. The CAFE data on Table 4.21 apply to cars only through 2011 and cars plus car SUVs after that. The CAFE data on Table 4.22 are for trucks up to 8,500 lb GVWR through 2011 and after that are for truck SUVs and vans up to 10,000 lb GVWR, and pickup trucks up to 8,500 lb GVWR. Because of these different definitions, caution is advised when comparing light truck data from different sources. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–3 The data in this table from 1985–on DO NOT include minivans, pickups, or sport utility vehicles. Much of the data for 2009-on were estimated; the FHWA no longer publishes travel and fuel data for cars. A methodology change for the number of cars registered affected the series in 2012. Table 4.1 Summary Statistics for Cars, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1980 1985c 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Registrationsa (thousands) 89,244 106,706 121,601 127,885 130,004 131,482 133,836 134,559 133,700 128,300 126,581 127,327 127,883 128,387 129,728 129,749 131,839 132,432 133,621 137,633 135,921 135,670 136,431 136,568 135,400 135,933 137,080 134,880 130,892 125,657 111,290 113,676 113,899 112,864 112,961 Vehicle travel (billion miles) 916.7 1,034.0 1,111.6 1,246.8 1,270.2 1,316.0 1,370.3 1,401.2 1,408.3 1,358.2 1,371.6 1,374.7 1,406.1 1,438.3 1,469.9 1,502.6 1,549.6 1,569.1 1,600.3 1,628.3 1,658.5 1,672.1 1,699.9 1,708.4 1,690.5 1,672.5 1,615.9 1,566.8 1,496.4 1,457.8 1,438.6 1,446.0 1,436.6 1,445.4 1,453.4 1970–2016 2006–2016 0.5% -1.8% 1.0% -1.5% Average annual Fuel use miles per vehicle (million gallons) 10,272 67,820 9,690 74,140 9,141 69,981 9,749 71,518 9,770 73,174 10,009 73,308 10,238 73,345 10,413 73,913 10,533 69,568 10,586 64,318 10,836 65,436 10,797 67,047 10,995 67,874 11,203 68,072 11,330 69,221 11,580 69,892 11,754 71,695 11,848 73,283 11,976 73,065 11,831 73,559 12,202 75,471 12,325 74,590 12,460 75,402 12,510 77,418 12,485 75,009 12,304 74,377 11,788 71,497 11,616 66,587 11,432 62,245 11,601 59,646 12,928 57,899 12,720 57,290 12,613 56,470 12,807 55,212 12,866 54,248 Average annual percentage change 0.5% -0.5% 0.3% -3.6% Average fuel economyb per vehicle (miles per gallon) 13.5 13.9 15.9 17.4 17.4 18.0 18.7 19.0 20.2 21.1 21.0 20.5 20.7 21.1 21.2 21.5 21.6 21.4 21.9 22.1 22.0 22.4 22.5 22.1 22.5 22.5 22.6 23.5 24.0 24.4 24.9 25.2 25.4 26.2 26.8 1.5% 1.8% Source: 1970-2008: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2009, Washington, DC, 2011, Table VM-1 and annual. 2009-on: See Section 7.1 in Appendix A. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov) This number differs from IHS Automotive’s estimates of “number of cars in use.” See Table 3.4. Average fuel economy for all cars. c Beginning in this year the data were revised to exclude minivans, pickups and sport utility vehicles which may have been previously included. d Due to FHWA methodology changes, data from 2009-on are not comparable with previous data. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 d 4–4 Much of the data for 2009-on were estimated; the FHWA no longer publishes travel and fuel use data for two-axle, four-tire trucks. A methodology change for the number of registrations affected the data series in 2012. Table 4.2 Summary Statistics for Two-Axle, Four-Tire Trucks, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1980 1985b 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Registrations (thousands) 14,211 20,418 27,876 37,214 39,382 41,107 43,805 45,945 48,275 53,033 57,091 59,994 62,904 65,738 69,134 70,224 71,330 75,356 79,085 84,188 85,011 87,187 91,845 95,337 99,125 101,470 101,235 100,154 102,702 105,571 120,847 120,523 124,681 128,553 132,716 Vehicle travel (billion miles) 123.3 200.7 290.9 391.0 423.9 456.9 502.2 536.5 574.6 649.4 706.9 745.8 764.6 790.0 816.5 850.7 868.3 901.0 923.1 943.2 966.0 984.1 1,027.2 1,041.1 1,082.5 1,112.3 1,108.6 1,066.5 1,152.1 1,192.7 1,225.5 1,231.8 1,274.0 1,334.3 1,396.4 1970–2016 2006–2016 5.0% 3.0% 5.4% 2.6% Average annual Fuel use miles per vehicle (million gallons) 8,675 12,313 9,830 19,081 10,437 23,796 10,506 27,363 10,764 29,074 11,114 30,598 11,465 32,653 11,676 33,271 11,902 35,611 12,245 38,217 12,381 40,929 12,430 42,851 12,156 44,112 12,018 45,605 11,811 47,354 12,115 49,389 12,173 50,462 11,957 52,859 11,672 52,939 11,204 53,522 11,364 55,220 11,287 60,758 11,184 63,417 10,920 58,869 10,920 60,685 10,962 61,836 10,951 61,199 10,649 61,824 11,218 64,687 11,298 65,786 10,142 66,395 10,220 65,555 10,218 69,012 10,448 70,933 10,521 73,107 Average annual percentage change 0.4% 3.9% -0.4% 1.9% Average fuel economya per vehicle (miles per gallon) 10.0 10.5 12.2 14.3 14.6 14.9 15.4 16.1 16.1 17.0 17.3 17.4 17.3 17.3 17.2 17.2 17.2 17.0 17.4 17.6 17.5 16.2 16.2 17.7 17.8 18.0 18.1 17.3 17.8 18.1 18.5 18.8 18.5 18.8 19.1 1.4% 0.7% Source: 1970-2008: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2009, Washington, DC, 2011, Table MV-9. Previous years Table VM-1. 2009-on: See Section 7.2 in Appendix A. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov) Average fuel economy for all two-axle, four-tire trucks. Beginning in this year the data were revised to include all vans (including mini-vans), pickups and sport utility vehicles. c Due to FHWA methodology changes, data from 2009-on are not comparable with previous data. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 c 4–5 These data are the combination of the car and two-axle, four-tire truck data from Tables 4.1 and 4.2 thus the data may not match exactly with the FHWA VM-1 table’s light-duty vehicle data. The methodology change after 2008 affects these data as well. Table 4.3 Summary Statistics for Light Vehicles, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1980 1985b 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Registrations (thousands) 103,455 127,124 149,477 165,099 169,386 172,589 177,641 180,504 181,975 181,333 183,672 187,321 190,787 194,125 198,862 199,973 203,169 207,788 212,706 221,821 220,932 222,857 228,276 231,905 234,525 237,403 238,315 235,034 233,594 231,228 232,137 234,199 238,580 241,417 245,677 1970–2016 2006–2016 1.9% 0.5% Vehicle travel Average annual Fuel use (billion miles) miles per vehicle (million gallons) 1,040 10,053 80,133 1,235 9,712 93,221 1,403 9,383 93,777 1,638 9,920 98,881 1,694 10,001 102,248 1,773 10,272 103,906 1,872 10,541 105,998 1,938 10,735 107,184 1,983 10,896 105,179 2,008 11,071 102,535 2,078 11,316 106,365 2,120 11,320 109,898 2,171 11,378 111,986 2,228 11,479 113,677 2,286 11,497 116,575 2,353 11,768 119,281 2,418 11,901 122,157 2,470 11,888 126,142 2,523 11,863 126,004 2,572 11,593 127,081 2,625 11,879 130,691 2,656 11,919 135,348 2,727 11,946 138,819 2,749 11,856 136,287 2,773 11,824 135,694 2,785 11,730 136,213 2,724 11,432 132,696 2,633 11,204 128,411 2,648 11,338 126,932 2,650 11,463 125,432 2,664 11,476 124,294 2,678 11,434 122,845 2,711 11,361 125,482 2,780 11,514 122,940 2,850 11,599 127,355 Average annual percentage change 2.2% 0.3% 1.0% 0.3% -0.2% -0.6% Average fuel economya per vehicle (miles per gallon) 13.0 13.2 15.0 16.6 16.6 17.1 17.7 18.1 18.9 19.6 19.5 19.3 19.4 19.6 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.6 20.0 20.2 20.1 19.6 19.6 20.2 20.4 20.4 20.5 20.5 20.9 21.1 21.4 21.8 21.6 22.6 22.4 1.2% 0.9% Sources: Tables 4.1 and 4.2. Average fuel economy for all light vehicles. Beginning in this year the data were revised to include all vans (including mini-vans), pickups and sport utility vehicles. c Due to FHWA methodology changes, data from 2009-on are not comparable with previous data. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 c 4–6 Because data on class 2b trucks are scarce, the U.S. DOE funded a study to investigate available sources of data. In the final report, four methodologies are described to estimate the sales of class 2b trucks. The 1999 data are the latest available for fuel use and vehicle miles of travel of class 2b trucks. Table 4.4 Summary Statistics on Class 1, Class 2a, and Class 2b Light Trucks Class (truck weight) Class 1 (0-6,000 lbs) Class 2a (6,001 – 8,500 lbs) CY 1999 truck sales (millions) 5.7 1.8 Class 2b (8,501 – 10,000 lbs) 0.5 2000 truck population (millions) 49.7 19.2 Percent diesel trucks in population 0.3% 2.5% Average age (years) 7.3 7.4 24.0% 8.6 5.8 Estimated annual milesa (billions) 672.7 251.9 76.7 Estimated fuel use (billiona gallons) 37.4 18.0 5.5 Estimated fuel economy (miles per gallon) 18.0 14.0 13.9 Note: CY - calendar year. Source: Davis, S.C. and L.F. Truett, Investigation of Class 2b Trucks (Vehicles of 8,500 to 10,000 lbs GVWR), ORNL/TM2002/49, March 2002, Table 16. Table 4.5 Example of Class 2b Vehicle Models, 2017 Manufacturer Chevrolet Model Silverado 2500HD Type Pickup Chevrolet Express 2500, 3500 Van FCA Dodge Ram 2500 Pickup FCA Dodge Ram ProMaster 1500 Van Ford E-Series 350 Van Ford F-250, F-350 Pickup Ford F-250, F-350 CC Chassis Cab Ford Transit 150, 250, 350, 350HD Van Ford Transit CC / CA 150, 250, 350, 350HD Chassis Cab / Cutaway Van GMC Savana 2500 Van GMC Sierra 2500 Pickup GMC Yukon 2500 SUV Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Van Source: Birky, Alicia, et al., Electrification Beyond Light-Duty: Class 2b-3 Commercial Vehicles, ORNL/TM-2017/744, December 2017. a Estimates derived using 2000 population data and 1997 usage data. See source for details. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–7 Figure 4.1. Truck Registrations by Class and Type, 2014 Source: Birky, Alicia, et al., Electrification Beyond Light Duty: Class 2b-3 Commercial Vehicles, ORNL/TM-2017/744, December 2017. Figure 4.2. Class 2b and 3 Registrations by Fuel Type, 2014 Source: Birky, Alicia, et al., Electrification Beyond Light Duty: Class 2b-3 Commercial Vehicles, ORNL/TM-2017/744, December 2017. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–8 Car sales in 2009 and 2010 were below 6 million but increased to more than 7.7 million by 2014 before declining from 2015 to 2017. In 1980, Chrysler/FCA, Ford and General Motors held 73.8% of the market; by 2017, that had dropped to 25.8%. Table 4.6 New Retail Car Sales in the United States, 1970–2017 Calendar year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Domestica 1970–2017 2007–2017 -0.9% -1.2% 7,112 6,945 6,580 8,205 6,917 6,162 6,286 6,742 7,255 7,114 7,206 6,862 6,705 6,919 6,762 6,254 5,817 5,473 5,333 5,473 5,417 5,197 4,491 3,558 3,791 4,146 5,120 5,433 5,610 5,595 5,152 4,608 Importb Totalc Percentage (thousands) imports 1,209 8,321 14.5% 1,541 8,486 18.2% 2,369 8,949 26.5% 2,775 10,979 25.3% 2,384 9,301 25.6% 2,023 8,185 24.7% 1,927 8,213 23.5% 1,776 8,518 20.9% 1,735 8,991 19.3% 1,506 8,620 17.5% 1,272 8,479 15.0% 1,355 8,217 16.5% 1,380 8,085 17.1% 1,719 8,638 19.9% 2,016 8,778 23.0% 2,098 8,352 25.1% 2,226 8,042 27.7% 2,083 7,556 27.6% 2,149 7,483 28.7% 2,187 7,660 28.5% 2,345 7,762 30.2% 2,365 7,562 31.3% 2,278 6,769 33.7% 1,843 5,402 34.1% 1,844 5,636 32.7% 1,947 6,093 32.0% 2,125 7,245 29.3% 2,153 7,586 28.4% 2,098 7,708 27.2% 1,922 7,517 25.6% 1,721 6,873 25.0% 1,473 6,080 24.2% Average annual percentage change 0.4% -0.7% -4.6% -2.2% Percentage FCA/Ford/GM salesd e e 73.8% 72.9% 65.7% 64.2% 65.8% 67.3% 65.9% 65.3% 64.1% 62.2% 59.7% 58.3% 55.0% 51.4% 48.4% 47.1% 44.9% 43.1% 40.5% 36.9% 34.2% 31.3% 31.7% 33.3% 31.6% 32.4% 31.2% 29.7% 27.9% 25.8% Percentage diesel 0.07% 0.32% 4.32% 0.83% 0.08% 0.10% 0.06% 0.04% 0.04% 0.03% 0.09% 0.09% 0.14% 0.16% 0.26% 0.18% 0.39% 0.52% 0.40% 0.63% 0.82% 0.11% 0.11% 2.93% 2.69% 1.47% 2.69% 2.45% 2.41% 1.14% 0.12% 0.09% Source: Domestic and import data - 1970–97: American Automobile Manufacturers Association, Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures 1998, Detroit, MI, 1998, p. 15, and annual. 1997 data from Economic Indicators, 4th Quarter 1997. 1998–2017: Ward’s Communication, www.wardsauto.com. Diesel data - Ward's Communications, www.wardsauto.com. Any vehicle built in North America regardless of manufacturer. Any vehicle built outside of North America regardless of manufacturer. Does not include import tourist deliveries. c Sums may not add to totals due to rounding. d Includes Ford, General Motors, and Fiat-Chrysler (and predecessor entities). e Data are not available. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–9 Light trucks, which include pick-ups, minivans, sport-utility vehicles, and other trucks less than 10,000 pounds gross vehicle weight (GVW), accounted for more than half of light vehicle sales from 2001 to 2007 and again in 2010, 2011, and from 2013-on. In 2017, nearly 64% of light vehicles sold were light trucks. Table 4.7 New Retail Sales of Trucks 10,000 Pounds GVW and Less in the United States, 1970–2017 Calendar year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Light truck salesa (thousands) 1,457 2,053 1,960 3,688 4,548 4,122 4,629 5,351 6,033 6,053 6,519 6,797 7,299 8,073 8,386 8,598 8,633 8,938 9,254 9,114 8,574 8,305 6,246 4,834 5,758 6,449 6,975 7,693 8,484 9,578 10,296 10,738 1970–2017 2007–2017 4.3% 2.6% Percentages Importb 4.5% 10.0% 24.4% 22.6% 13.5% 13.1% 8.8% 7.1% 6.8% 6.6% 6.7% 8.5% 9.0% 9.6% 10.2% 11.4% 12.4% 13.7% 13.5% 13.3% 15.7% 16.7% 17.6% 18.3% 15.6% 15.2% 15.2% 16.1% 16.0% 18.6% 20.7% 22.4% FCA/Ford/GM salesc Dieseld f Not available f Not available Not available 4.0% 78.2% 4.0% 80.9% 2.3% 79.4% 3.2% 83.1% 2.5% 83.4% 2.3% 82.9% 2.5% 83.4% 3.8% 83.8% 3.1% 81.9% 2.7% 80.5% 2.6% 78.0% 2.9% 76.1% 3.4% 75.3% 2.9% 74.7% 2.7% 72.4% 2.9% 70.1% 2.8% 68.2% 2.7% 63.9% 2.8% 61.9% 3.2% 61.2% 3.4% 57.8% 4.2% 57.6% 4.9% 59.4% 5.4% 57.7% 5.5% 57.3% 5.3% 57.6% 5.4% 57.0% 5.5% 55.6% 5.4% 54.2% 4.4% Average annual percentage change Light trucks of all light vehicle salese 14.8% 20.9% 17.5% 25.1% 32.8% 33.5% 36.0% 38.6% 40.2% 41.3% 43.5% 45.3% 47.4% 48.3% 48.9% 50.7% 51.8% 54.2% 55.3% 54.3% 52.5% 52.3% 48.0% 47.2% 50.5% 51.4% 49.0% 50.3% 52.4% 56.0% 60.0% 63.8% Source: Ward’s Communications, www.wardsauto.com. Includes all trucks of 10,000 pounds gross vehicle weight and less sold in the United States. Excluding transplants. c Includes Ford, General Motors, and Fiat-Chrysler (and predecessor entities). d Based on model year factory installations. e Includes cars and light trucks up to 10,000 lb gross vehicle weight. f Indicates less than 1 percent. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 Light trucks of total truck sales 77.8% 78.6% 78.1% 77.7% 93.8% 94.4% 94.4% 94.2% 94.0% 93.2% 93.4% 93.4% 92.6% 92.0% 92.8% 94.3% 94.9% 95.0% 94.3% 93.1% 92.3% 93.3% 92.9% 93.0% 93.8% 92.7% 92.6% 92.7% 92.7% 92.7% 93.7% 93.6% 4–10 The relationship between gallons used over a given distance and miles per gallon (mpg) is not linear. Thus, an increase in fuel economy by 5 mpg does not translate to a constant fuel savings amount. Replacing a low-mpg car or truck with one that has just slightly better fuel economy will save more fuel than replacing a high-mpg car or truck with a more efficient vehicle. For example, replacing a truck that gets 10 mpg for a new one that gets 15 mpg will save 33 gallons of fuel for every 1,000 miles driven. In contrast, replacing a 30-mpg car with a new car that gets 35 mpg will save 5 gallons of fuel for every 1,000 miles driven. Figure 4.3. Fuel Use versus Fuel Economy Note: Each category on the horizontal axis shows a five-mile per gallon improvement in fuel economy. Source: U.S. Department of Energy fuel economy data www.fueleconomy.gov. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–11 The production-weighted fuel economy of cars increased dramatically from 1975 (13.5 mpg) to 1985 (23.0 mpg), but rose only 0.5 mpg from 1985 to 2005. Since 2005, fuel economy rose 6.5 mpg—from 23.5 mpg in 2005 to 30.0 mpg in 2017. The fuel economy values have been adjusted to provide the best estimate of real world performance. Table 4.8 Production, Production Shares, and Production-Weighted Fuel Economies of New Domestic and Import Cars, Model Years 1975-2017a Car Model year 1975 1980 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017c Production (thousands) 8,237 9,443 8,810 8,524 8,108 8,456 8,415 9,396 7,890 8,334 7,971 8,376 9,125 8,405 8,301 7,921 7,537 8,027 7,993 8,082 7,319 5,636 6,061 5,743 7,392 8,226 7,639 7,899 7,130 d Production share (%)b 99.9% 100.0% 99.3% 97.4% 97.1% 94.7% 96.2% 97.7% 96.5% 95.8% 94.6% 94.5% 93.7% 91.9% 93.2% 93.2% 92.2% 90.8% 91.4% 89.8% 88.8% 90.3% 86.9% 82.6% 85.4% 84.5% 83.0% 82.3% 79.2% 81.0% Fuel economy (mpg) 13.5 20.0 23.3 23.4 23.1 23.5 23.3 23.4 23.3 23.4 23.4 23.0 22.9 23.0 23.1 23.3 23.1 23.5 23.3 24.1 24.3 25.3 26.2 26.1 27.9 28.6 28.7 29.4 29.2 30.0 Car SUV Production (thousands) 10 0 65 224 243 473 332 220 287 361 454 488 617 743 603 575 639 813 751 919 924 608 915 1,207 1,265 1,514 1,566 1,701 1,870 d Production share (%)b 0.1% 0.0% 0.7% 2.6% 2.9% 5.3% 3.8% 2.3% 3.5% 4.2% 5.4% 5.5% 6.3% 8.1% 6.8% 6.8% 7.8% 9.2% 8.6% 10.2% 11.2% 9.7% 13.1% 17.4% 14.6% 15.5% 17.0% 17.7% 20.8% 18.9% Fuel economy (mpg) 11.1 14.6 18.8 18.2 17.8 17.0 18.0 17.8 18.4 19.2 18.2 18.5 17.9 18.8 19.3 19.9 20.0 20.2 20.5 20.6 21.2 22.0 23.0 23.7 23.4 24.5 24.6 25.3 25.6 26.0 Note: See Table 4.11 for all cars (car + car SUV). See Table 4.9 for car SUV listing. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economy-trends) The fuel economy data on this table are adjusted to provide the best estimate of real world performance. See section 10 of the source document for details on adjustment methodology. These data are typically 20-25% lower than Corporate Average Fuel Economy data. b Production share is based on total of cars plus car SUVs. Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. c Data for 2017 are preliminary. d Data are not available. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–12 A vehicle classification was created to match the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) methodology. Under CAFE, small, two-wheel drive sport utility vehicles will be held to the same standards as cars. The Environmental Protection Agency has defined these vehicles as “car SUVs.” The vehicles below make up this category. Table 4.9 Definition of Car Sport Utility Vehicles in Model Year 2017 Acura RDX FWD Bentley Bentayga BMW X3 sDrive 28i Buick Encore Buick Envision FWD BYD Motors e6 Cadillac XT5 Cadillac XT5 AWD Chevrolet Equinox AWD Chevrolet Equinox FWD Chevrolet TRAX Dodge Journey Fiat 500X Ford Edge FWD Ford Escape FWD Ford Escape FWD FFV GMC Terrain AWD GMC Terrain FWD Honda CR-V FWD Hyundai Santa Fe Sport AWD Hyundai Santa Fe Sport FWD Hyundai Santa Fe Sport Ultimate FWD Hyundai Tucson AWD Hyundai Tucson Eco AWD Hyundai Tucson Eco FWD Hyundai Tucson Fuel Cella Hyundai Tucson FWD Infiniti QX70 RWD Jeep Cherokee FWD Jeep Compass 4X2 Jeep Compass FWD Jeep Patriot FWD Jeep Renegade 4x2 Kia Sorento AWD Kia Sorento FWD Kia Sportage FE FWD Kia Sportage FWD Lexus NX 200t Lexus NX 200t AWD F Sport Lexus RX 350 Lincoln MKC FWD Lincoln MKX FWD Mazda CX-5 2WD Mercedes GLC 300 Mitsubishi Outlander Sport 2WD Nissan Rogue FWD Nissan Rogue FWD Hybrid Tesla Model X 60D Tesla Model X 75D Tesla Model X 90D Tesla Model X P100D Tesla Model X P90D Toyota RAV4 Toyota RAV4 LE/XLE Toyota RAV4 Limited AWD/SE AWD Volvo XC60 FWD VW Tiguan Note: 2WD = Two-wheel drive. 4WD = Four-wheel drive. AWD = All-wheel drive. FWD = Front-wheel drive. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economy-trends) a Alternative fuel vehicle. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–13 Production of sport utility vehicles (SUVs) has grown substantially since 1975. The production-weighted fuel economy of truck SUVs was more than 22 mpg in 2017. Estimates show 64% of all light trucks produced in 2017 were truck SUVs. Table 4.10 Production, Production Shares, and Production-Weighted Fuel Economies of New Domestic and Import Light Trucks, Model Years 1975-2017a Pickup Model Year 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017c Production (Thousands) 1,343 1,437 2,078 2,532 2,147 2,459 2,232 1,835 1,920 1,840 2,002 2,669 2,271 1,955 2,408 2,415 2,544 2,612 2,519 2,380 2,474 2,505 2,300 2,188 2,113 1,794 989 1,276 1,479 1,357 1,577 1,929 1,786 1,907 d Share (%)b 67.9% 77.1% 58.0% 59.0% 53.2% 55.3% 51.6% 49.1% 50.2% 48.1% 46.8% 49.6% 41.1% 39.4% 41.8% 40.0% 40.1% 38.2% 39.0% 33.0% 34.0% 33.3% 32.6% 34.4% 33.7% 31.7% 32.2% 30.8% 29.2% 28.3% 28.9% 30.6% 25.0% 26.2% 28.4% Fuel Economy (mpg) 11.9 16.5 18.2 18.9 19.0 18.1 17.8 17.4 18.2 17.5 17.6 17.4 16.9 17.1 16.8 17.0 16.3 16.7 16.0 15.8 16.1 15.7 15.8 16.1 16.2 16.5 16.9 16.9 17.2 17.2 17.4 18.0 18.8 18.9 18.9 Van Production (Thousands) 457 242 855 1,044 1,114 1,133 1,278 1,262 1,034 1,221 1,441 1,418 1,662 1,409 1,265 1,489 1,463 1,691 1,232 1,243 1,232 953 1,481 1,166 847 790 368 559 521 661 571 672 655 630 d Share (%)b 23.1% 13.0% 23.9% 24.3% 27.6% 25.5% 29.5% 33.7% 27.0% 31.9% 33.7% 26.4% 30.1% 28.4% 22.0% 24.7% 23.0% 24.8% 19.1% 17.2% 16.9% 12.7% 21.0% 18.3% 13.5% 14.0% 12.0% 13.5% 10.3% 13.8% 10.5% 10.7% 9.2% 8.7% 7.6% Fuel Economy (mpg) 11.1 14.1 16.5 17.5 17.7 17.9 17.8 17.8 17.9 17.9 18.2 17.8 18.1 18.3 18.2 18.7 18.3 18.6 18.0 18.7 19.0 19.2 19.3 19.5 19.5 19.8 20.1 20.1 21.0 21.3 21.1 21.3 21.9 21.7 22.8 Truck SUV Production (Thousands) 177 184 648 714 779 859 818 643 871 761 838 1,291 1,596 1,603 2,089 2,127 2,342 2,526 2,707 3,588 3,571 4,075 3,272 3,006 3,314 3,072 1,714 2,305 3,069 2,771 3,310 3,706 4,697 4,730 d Share (%)b 9.0% 9.9% 18.1% 16.6% 19.3% 19.3% 18.9% 17.2% 22.8% 19.9% 19.6% 24.0% 28.9% 32.3% 36.3% 35.3% 36.9% 37.0% 41.9% 49.8% 49.1% 54.1% 46.4% 47.3% 52.8% 54.3% 55.8% 55.7% 60.5% 57.9% 60.6% 58.8% 65.8% 65.1% 64.0% Fuel Economy (mpg) 11.0 13.2 16.5 17.0 17.3 17.0 16.6 16.4 16.7 16.2 16.3 16.0 16.0 16.2 16.1 16.2 16.1 16.0 16.4 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.7 17.2 17.7 18.2 19.3 19.7 19.8 20.0 20.8 21.6 21.9 22.2 22.2 Note: Data include pickups, vans, and truck SUV less than 8,500 lb. Beginning with 2011, truck SUV and passenger vans up to 10,000 lb were also included. See Table 4.11 for all light trucks (pickup + van + truck SUV). Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economy-trends) a The fuel economy data on this table are adjusted to provide the best estimate of real world performance. See section 10 of the source document for details on adjustment methodology. These data are typically 20-25% lower than Corporate Average Fuel Economy data. b Production share is based on the total of pickups, plus vans and truck SUVs. Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. c Data for 2017 are preliminary. d Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–14 The average fuel economy of cars more than doubled from 1975 to 2017 while the average fuel economy of light trucks grew by 82% in that same time period. This was not steady annual growth, but growth in the 1970’s and early 1980’s followed by a long period with little improvement. Growth resumed around 2008-2009. Table 4.11 Production and Production-Weighted Fuel Economies of New Domestic and Import Cars, Light Trucks and Light Vehicles, Model Years 1975-2017a Model Year 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017b All Cars Production Fuel (Thousands) Economy (mpg) 8,247 13.5 9,444 20.0 10,879 23.0 8,875 23.3 8,748 23.3 8,350 22.9 8,929 23.0 8,747 23.0 9,616 23.3 8,177 23.1 8,695 23.2 8,425 23.0 8,865 22.7 9,742 22.5 9,148 22.6 8,904 22.8 8,496 23.0 8,176 22.9 8,839 23.1 8,744 23.0 9,001 23.7 8,243 23.9 6,244 25.0 6,976 25.7 6,949 25.4 8,658 26.9 9,740 27.7 9,205 27.6 9,601 28.2 9,000 28.5 c 29.1 All Light Trucks Production Fuel (Thousands) Economy (mpg) 1,977 11.6 1,863 15.8 3,581 17.5 3,740 17.4 3,825 17.8 3,822 17.3 4,281 17.5 5,378 17.2 5,529 17.0 4,967 17.2 5,762 16.8 6,030 17.1 6,350 16.6 6,829 16.8 6,458 16.5 7,211 16.5 7,277 16.7 7,533 16.5 7,053 16.9 6,360 17.2 6,275 17.4 5,656 17.8 3,071 18.5 4,141 18.8 5,069 19.1 4,790 19.3 5,458 19.8 6,307 20.3 7,138 21.1 7,267 21.2 c 21.2 All Light Vehicles Production Fuel (Thousands) Economy (mpg) 10,224 13.1 11,307 19.2 14,460 21.3 12,615 21.2 12,573 21.3 12,172 20.8 13,210 20.9 14,125 20.4 15,145 20.5 13,144 20.4 14,457 20.2 14,455 20.1 15,215 19.7 16,571 19.8 15,606 19.6 16,115 19.5 15,773 19.6 15,709 19.3 15,892 19.9 15,104 20.1 15,276 20.6 13,898 21.0 9,316 22.4 11,116 22.6 12,018 22.3 13,448 23.6 15,198 24.2 15,512 24.1 16,739 24.6 16,267 24.7 c 25.2 Note: Data include pickups, vans, and truck SUV less than 8,500 lb. Beginning with 2011, truck SUVs and passenger vans up to 10,000 lb were also included. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economy-trends) The fuel economy data on this table are adjusted to provide the best estimate of real world performance. See section 10 of the source document for details on adjustment methodology. These data are typically 20-25% lower than Corporate Average Fuel Economy data. b Data for 2017 are preliminary. c Data are not available, but 58.1% of all light vehicles were cars (car + car SUV) and 41.9% were light trucks (pickups, vans, and truck SUV) in 2017. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–15 Back in 1975 only 19.3% of new light vehicles produced were light trucks. Because of the boom in production of minivans, sport utility vehicles, and pick-up trucks, that number rose to over 40% in 1998. The car SUV category was 11% of production in 2017 and the truck SUVs were nearly 27%. Table 4.12 Light Vehicle Production Sharesa, Model Years 1975–2017 Model Year 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017c Car 80.6% 83.5% 74.6% 71.7% 72.2% 70.2% 69.3% 69.8% 67.8% 66.6% 64.0% 59.6% 62.0% 60.0% 57.6% 55.1% 55.1% 55.1% 53.9% 51.5% 50.2% 48.0% 50.5% 52.9% 52.9% 52.7% 60.5% 54.5% 47.8% 55.0% 54.1% 49.2% 47.2% 43.8% 47.2% Car SUV 0.1% 0.0% 0.6% 0.4% 0.6% 0.7% 0.7% 0.5% 1.8% 2.0% 3.6% 2.3% 1.5% 2.2% 2.5% 3.1% 3.2% 3.7% 4.8% 3.7% 3.6% 4.1% 5.1% 5.0% 6.0% 6.6% 6.5% 8.2% 10.0% 9.4% 10.0% 10.1% 10.2% 11.5% 11.0% Pickup 13.1% 12.7% 14.4% 16.5% 14.4% 16.1% 15.4% 14.5% 15.3% 15.1% 15.2% 18.9% 15.0% 14.9% 16.7% 16.7% 16.7% 15.8% 16.1% 14.8% 15.7% 15.9% 14.5% 14.5% 13.8% 12.9% 10.6% 11.5% 12.3% 10.1% 10.4% 12.4% 10.7% 11.7% 11.9% Van 4.5% 2.1% 5.9% 6.8% 7.5% 7.4% 8.8% 10.0% 8.2% 10.0% 10.9% 10.0% 11.0% 10.7% 8.8% 10.3% 9.6% 10.2% 7.9% 7.7% 7.8% 6.1% 9.3% 7.7% 5.5% 5.7% 4.0% 5.0% 4.3% 4.9% 3.8% 4.3% 3.9% 3.9% 3.2% Truck SUV 1.7% 1.6% 4.5% 4.6% 5.2% 5.6% 5.7% 5.1% 6.9% 6.2% 6.3% 9.1% 10.5% 12.2% 14.5% 14.7% 15.4% 15.2% 17.3% 22.3% 22.6% 25.9% 20.6% 19.9% 21.7% 22.1% 18.4% 20.7% 25.5% 20.6% 21.8% 23.9% 28.1% 29.1% 26.8% Total Light Vehicles Produced (thousands) 10,224 11,306 14,460 15,365 14,865 15,295 14,453 12,615 12,573 12,172 13,211 14,125 15,145 13,144 14,458 14,456 15,215 16,571 15,605 16,115 15,773 15,709 15,892 15,104 15,276 13,898 9,316 11,116 12,018 13,449 15,198 15,512 16,739 16,267 d Production Share Light Carsb Trucks 80.7% 19.3% 83.5% 16.5% 75.2% 24.8% 72.1% 27.9% 72.8% 27.2% 70.9% 29.1% 70.1% 29.9% 70.4% 29.6% 69.6% 30.4% 68.6% 31.4% 67.6% 32.4% 61.9% 38.1% 63.5% 36.5% 62.2% 37.8% 60.1% 39.9% 58.3% 41.7% 58.3% 41.7% 58.8% 41.2% 58.6% 41.4% 55.3% 44.7% 53.9% 46.1% 52.0% 48.0% 55.6% 44.4% 57.9% 42.1% 58.9% 41.1% 59.3% 40.7% 67.0% 33.0% 62.8% 37.3% 57.8% 42.2% 64.4% 35.6% 64.1% 35.9% 59.3% 40.7% 57.4% 42.6% 55.3% 44.7% 58.1% 41.9% Note: Light truck data include pickups, vans, and truck SUVs less than 8,500 lb. Beginning with 2011, SUV and passenger vans up to 10,000 lb were also included. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economy-trends) Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. Cars include both car and car SUV categories. c Data for 2017 are preliminary. d Data are not available. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–16 The effects of the Japanese earthquake/tsunami in 2011 are apparent in the large decline in car production for that year. Light trucks were gaining market share from the early 1980s until 2004, mainly due to increases in the market share of sport utility vehicles (SUVs) and pickup trucks. Car SUVs are two-wheel drive SUVs that are counted as cars in the Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards for model years 2011-on. A listing of the makes/models of car SUVs is in Table 4.9. Figure 4.4. Light Vehicle Production Shares, Model Years 1975–2017 Source: See Table 4.12. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–17 The number of transmission speeds in new light vehicles has been growing over the last few decades. A greater number of gears improves fuel economy and performance by more closely matching the wheel speed to the optimum engine speed. By 2017, 48% of cars and 47% of light trucks were 6-speed. The sales share of light truck transmissions in the 9+ category grew to 10% in 2017. Continuously variable transmissions (CVTs) were almost one-third of the car market and 14% of the light truck market. Figure 4.5. Car and Light Truck Production by Transmission Speed, Model Years 1980-2017 Note: Data are production-weighted averages for each model year. Data for model year 2017 are preliminary. CVT data include both hybrid and non-hybrid. Data include light trucks less than 8,500 lb. Beginning with 2011, SUVs and passenger vans up to 10,000 lb were also included. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economy-trends) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–18 Increased performance typically comes as a trade-off with fuel economy. But light vehicle manufacturers have been able to employ advanced technologies to improve both performance and fuel economy. Despite a 123% increase in horsepower and 48% improvement in acceleration (measured by time to accelerate from 0 to 60 miles per hour) from model year 1980 to 2017, the fuel economy of vehicles improved 31%. In the 1990s and early 2000s, fuel economy decreased while vehicle weight increased. Fuel economy has improved nearly every year since 2004. Figure 4.6. Horsepower, Fuel Economy, Weight, and 0-60 Time for New Light Vehicles, Model Years 1980-2017 Note: Data are production-weighted averages for each model year and do not represent any individual vehicle. Data for model year 2017 are preliminary. Data include light trucks less than 8,500 lb. Beginning with 2011, SUVs and passenger vans up to 10,000 lb were also included. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economy-trends) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–19 Manufacturers have introduced new technologies that have played a significant role in improving the fuel economy of passenger cars. Turbocharging has enabled manufacturers to downsize engines without sacrificing performance while gasoline direct injection has improved combustion efficiency in the engine. Cylinder deactivation is another strategy for reducing engine displacement that shuts down cylinders under light load conditions. Stop-start reduces unnecessary idling by automatically shutting down the engine when the vehicle is stopped and restarting the engine only when needed. Continuously variable transmissions improve efficiency by maintaining optimum engine speed as the vehicle speed varies. Penetration of direct injection has grown rapidly and was installed on over half of all new cars in 2017. Turbochargers and continuously variable transmissions were each installed on about 30% of new cars produced in 2017. Table 4.13 Car Technology Penetration, 1996-2017 Model year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017b Turbo 0.3% 0.7% 1.4% 2.5% 2.2% 3.3% 3.9% 2.0% 3.6% 2.4% 3.2% 3.6% 4.5% 4.0% 4.1% 8.2% 9.7% 15.3% 18.4% 18.3% 23.8% 30.1% Continuously variable transmission (non-hybrid) 0.0% 0.1% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 1.0% 0.9% 1.1% 1.2% 6.7% 7.7% 8.3% 8.4% 8.8% 11.0% 13.7% 21.3% 26.3% 27.2% 27.6% Continuously variable transmission (hybrid) Gasoline direct injection Cylinder deactivation Stop-start (non-hybrid) Stop-start (hybrid) a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a 0.2% 0.3% 0.5% 0.8% 1.7% 1.5% 3.0% 3.2% 2.8% 5.5% 3.1% 4.0% 4.3% 3.7% 3.6% 2.4% 4.0% a a a a a a a a a a a a a 1.0% 2.0% 0.9% 2.0% 1.8% 2.1% 1.3% 1.7% 1.9% 2.2% 2.2% 2.1% 4.7% a 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.6% 0.9% 1.9% 1.5% 3.2% 3.3% 2.9% 5.6% 3.4% 4.7% 5.4% 4.2% 4.0% 2.7% 4.9% a a a a 3.1% 4.2% 9.2% 18.4% 27.6% 37.7% 43.2% 44.6% 50.0% 54.1% a a a a a a a a 0.9% 3.0% 6.8% 8.3% 9.1% 14.2% a Note: Based on production. Car category includes car SUV. See Table 4.9 for car SUV listing. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economytrends) a b The Environmental Protection Agency did not record market penetration for this technology in this year. Data for 2017 are preliminary. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–20 Manufacturers have introduced a number of engine and transmission technologies to improve the fuel efficiency and performance of light trucks. Gasoline direct injection has seen rapid market penetration from about 1% of all new light trucks produced in 2008 to nearly half by 2017. Cylinder deactivation, turbocharging, and stop-start have all seen increased penetration with each of these technologies reaching about 20% of production for light trucks in 2017. The penetration of continuously variable transmissions (CVT) is lower for light trucks than for cars because CVTs are not generally well suited to the high horsepower and high torque requirements of pickup trucks and large SUVs that provide greater load hauling and towing capability. Table 4.14 Light Truck Technology Penetration, 2002-2017 Model year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017b Turbo a 0.2% 0.8% 0.7% 0.6% 1.0% 1.0% 1.7% 1.8% 4.9% 6.1% 11.7% 9.9% 12.6% 15.2% 18.7% Continuously variable transmission (non-hybrid) 0.0% 0.6% 0.6% 1.7% 1.6% 2.9% 2.3% 5.1% 5.1% 6.9% 5.9% 8.4% 9.8% 15.0% 13.6% 12.6% Continuously variable transmission (hybrid) Gasoline direct injection Cylinder deactivation Stop-start (non-hybrid) Stop-start (hybrid) a a a a a a a a a 0.1% 1.5% 0.7% 1.3% 0.9% 0.8% 0.4% 0.3% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.8% 1.1% a 0.5% 5.9% 16.4% 13.5% 18.3% 13.8% 20.6% 19.6% 18.0% 22.9% 21.7% 20.7% 22.7% a 0.0% 0.1% 1.5% 0.8% 1.3% 0.9% 0.9% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3% 0.8% 1.2% a a a a 1.1% 4.2% 6.8% 11.3% 13.5% 18.4% 29.7% 39.0% 46.1% 48.1% a a a a a a a a 0.2% 1.1% 2.5% 5.6% 10.4% 20.3% a Note: Based on production. Data include pickups, vans, and truck SUV less than 8,500 lb. Beginning with 2011, truck SUVs and passenger vans up to 10,000 lb were also included. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economytrends) a b The Environmental Protection Agency did not record market penetration for this technology in this year. Data for 2017 are preliminary. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–21 The production-weighted average engine displacement of cars in 1975 was 4.72 liters but had declined to 2.27 liters by 2017. Car SUVs also experienced a decline in engine displacement. For a list of car SUVs, see Table 4.9. Table 4.15 Production-Weighted Engine Size of New Domestic and Import Cars Model Years 1975-2017 (litersa) Model Year Car Car SUV 1975 4.73 4.29 1980 3.08 4.59 1985 2.90 2.80 1986 2.74 2.78 1987 2.65 2.93 1988 2.63 3.26 1989 2.67 3.70 1990 2.67 3.42 1991 2.66 3.52 1992 2.78 3.44 1993 2.73 3.91 1994 2.75 3.42 1995 2.74 3.51 1996 2.71 3.52 1997 2.68 3.11 1998 2.68 3.58 1999 2.72 3.45 2000 2.71 3.47 2001 2.70 3.17 2002 2.71 3.00 2003 2.71 2.97 2004 2.76 3.13 2005 2.72 3.05 2006 2.82 3.01 2007 2.71 3.04 2008 2.70 2.93 2009 2.54 2.87 2010 2.56 2.81 2011 2.61 2.72 2012 2.42 2.74 2013 2.37 2.63 2014 2.40 2.52 2015 2.37 2.51 2016 2.32 2.33 2017b 2.27 2.32 Annual average percentage change 1975–2017 -1.7% -1.5% 2007–2017 -1.8% -2.7% Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economy-trends) a b 1 liter = 61.02 cubic inches. Data for 2017 are preliminary. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–22 The production-weighted engine size of truck sport utility vehicles (SUVs) declined an average of 2.5% per year from 2007 to 2017, while the engine size of pickups in 2017 decreased by only 0.3%. Table 4.16 Production-Weighted Engine Size of New Domestic and Import Light Trucks, Model Years 1975-2017 (litersa) Model Year 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017b 1975–2017 2007–2017 Pickup Van 5.02 5.20 3.86 4.72 3.63 3.87 3.38 3.73 3.31 3.70 3.76 3.75 3.86 3.69 4.04 3.69 3.80 3.60 4.01 3.64 4.00 3.57 4.06 3.70 4.20 3.79 4.12 3.61 4.33 3.61 4.13 3.56 4.38 3.65 4.18 3.55 4.41 3.75 4.45 3.57 4.33 3.59 4.61 3.58 4.65 3.53 4.55 3.54 4.69 3.59 4.69 3.60 4.70 3.53 4.80 3.51 4.63 3.47 4.69 3.44 4.62 3.43 4.80 3.49 4.54 3.32 4.36 3.37 4.54 3.31 Annual average percentage change -0.2% -1.1% -0.3% -0.8% Truck SUV 5.44 4.83 3.63 3.44 3.48 3.63 3.99 3.85 3.82 3.85 4.00 4.01 4.01 4.24 4.19 4.14 4.14 4.15 3.92 4.01 4.05 4.13 4.00 3.87 3.94 3.76 3.46 3.48 3.56 3.52 3.36 3.21 3.24 3.13 3.07 -1.4% -2.5% Note: Data include pickups, vans, and truck SUV less than 8,500 lb. Beginning with 2011, truck SUVs and passenger vans up to 10,000 lb were also included. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economy-trends) a b 1 liter = 61.02 cubic inches. Data for 2017 are preliminary. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–23 The production-weighted loaded vehicle weight of cars declined almost 570 lb from 1975 to 2017, while car SUVs declined by 87 lb. Table 4.17 Production-Weighted Loaded Vehicle Weighta of New Domestic and Import Cars, Model Years 1975–2017 (pounds) Model Year 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017b Car 4,058 3,101 3,093 3,041 3,031 3,047 3,099 3,176 3,154 3,240 3,207 3,250 3,263 3,282 3,274 3,306 3,365 3,369 3,380 3,391 3,417 3,462 3,463 3,534 3,507 3,527 3,464 3,474 3,559 3,452 3,465 3,497 3,489 3,468 3,490 Annual average percentage change 1975–2017 -0.4% 2007–2017 -0.0% Car SUV 4,000 4,000 3,469 3,479 3,492 3,495 3,497 3,518 3,733 3,713 3,848 3,735 3,763 3,710 3,549 3,824 3,831 3,870 3,765 3,747 3,716 3,854 3,848 3,876 3,935 3,902 3,846 3,949 3,890 3,915 3,966 3,865 3,868 3,782 3,913 -0.1% -0.1% Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economy-trends) a b Loaded vehicle weight is equal to the vehicle’s curb weight plus 300 pounds. Data for 2017 are preliminary. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–24 The production-weighted loaded vehicle weight of pickups, vans, and truck SUVs increased from 1975 to 2017. Pickups gained more than 1,200 lb while vans gained 266 lb and truck SUVs gained 278 lb. Table 4.18 Production-Weighted Loaded Vehicle Weight of New Domestic and Import Light Trucks, Model Years 1975–2017 (pounds) Model Year 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017b Pickup 4,012 3,740 3,642 3,574 3,526 3,737 3,803 3,928 3,779 3,976 3,996 4,056 4,182 4,190 4,415 4,282 4,486 4,340 4,551 4,690 4,642 4,939 4,988 4,968 5,144 5,161 5,176 5,309 5,268 5,335 5,429 5,485 5,165 5,150 5,246 Annual average percentage change 1975–2017 0.6% 2007–2017 0.2% Van Truck SUV 0.1% 0.0% 0.2% -0.7% 4,196 4,353 3,975 3,998 3,972 4,053 4,057 4,095 4,133 4,151 4,105 4,156 4,110 4,195 4,240 4,183 4,306 4,276 4,518 4,394 4,393 4,487 4,430 4,475 4,479 4,527 4,572 4,533 4,502 4,442 4,543 4,489 4,416 4,459 4,462 4,214 4,237 4,092 3,958 3,882 3,906 4,086 4,098 4,157 4,204 4,331 4,331 4,323 4,386 4,463 4,450 4,518 4,602 4,546 4,636 4,754 4,756 4,756 4,715 4,797 4,727 4,548 4,555 4,665 4,640 4,584 4,483 4,533 4,482 4,492 Note: Data include pickups, vans, and truck SUV less than 8,500 lb. Beginning with 2011, truck SUVs and passenger vans up to 10,000 lb were also included. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fuel-economy-trends) a b Loaded vehicle weight is equal to the vehicle’s curb weight plus 300 pounds. Data for 2017 are preliminary. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–25 The average light vehicle in 2016 contained more than 2,000 pounds of steel, most of it conventional steel. High and medium strength steel, however, were more than 18% of the vehicle. The use of aluminum grew from 1995 to 2015, while the use of iron castings declined. Table 4.19 Average Material Consumption for a Domestic Light Vehicle,a Model Years 1995, 2000, and 2016 Material Regular steel High and medium strength steel Stainless steel Other steels Iron castings Aluminum Magnesium castings Copper and brass Lead Zinc castings Powder metal parts Other metals Plastics and plastic composites Rubber Coatings Textiles Fluids and lubricants Glass Other materials Total Pounds 1,630 324 51 46 466 231 4 50 33 19 29 4 240 149 23 42 192 97 64 3,694 1995 Percentage 44.1% 8.8% 1.4% 1.2% 12.6% 6.3% 0.1% 1.4% 0.9% 0.5% 0.8% 0.1% 6.5% 4.0% 0.6% 1.1% 5.2% 2.6% 1.7% 100.0% Pounds 1,655 408 62 26 432 268 8 52 36 13 36 4 286 166 25 44 207 103 71 3,902 2000 Percentage 42.4% 10.5% 1.6% 0.7% 11.1% 6.9% 0.2% 1.3% 0.9% 0.3% 0.9% 0.1% 7.3% 4.3% 0.6% 1.1% 5.3% 2.6% 1.8% 100.0% Pounds 1,335 742 74 32 249 410 11 66 35 8 44 5 332 199 28 44 226 93 92 2016 Percentage 33.2% 18.4% 1.8% 0.8% 6.2% 10.2% 0.3% 1.6% 0.9% 0.2% 1.1% 0.1% 8.2% 4.9% 0.7% 1.1% 5.6% 2.3% 2.3% 4,026 Source: Ward’s Communications, www.wardsauto.com. (Original source: American Chemistry Council) a Data are for vehicles built in North America. Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 100.0% 4–26 In the automotive industry, a tier 1 supplier is a company that sells directly to the original equipment manufacturer (OEM). Globally, Robert Bosch GMbH is the top automotive supplier. Of the top 20 global tier 1 suppliers, only Magna International has more than half its market in North America (56%). Table 4.20 List of Top Twenty Tier 1 Global Suppliers, 2017 Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Company Robert Bosch GMbH ZF Friedrichshafen AG Magna International, Inc. Denso Corp. Continental AG Aisin Seiki Co. Hyundai Mobis Faurecia Lear Corp. Valeo SA Adient (spun from Johnson Controls) Delphi Automotive Yazaki Corp. Yanfeng Automotive Trim Systems Co. Sumitomo Electric Industries Mahle GmbH Panasonic Automotive Systems Co. Thyssenkrupp AG Schaeffler AG JTEKT Corp. Headquarters location Germany Germany Canada Japan Germany Japan Korea France United States France United States United States Japan China Japan Germany Japan Germany Germany Japan North America 19% 27% 56% 24% 26% 18% 20% 29% 40% 22% 46% 37% 26% 22% 26% 26% 31% 24% 20% 21% Market share Europe 46% 48% 34% 13% 50% 9% 12% 50% 38% 49% 40% 35% 17% 11% Asia 33% 22% 9% 62% 21% 71% 65% 17% 19% 27% 12% 26% 52% 67% 51% 9% 66% 50% 18% 19% 58% 8% 25% 56% a a Rest of World 2% 3% 1% 1% 3% 2% 3% 4% 3% 2% 2% 2% 5% a a 4% 2% 2% 5% 5% Source: Crain Communications, Automotive News Supplement, "Top 100 Global Suppliers," June 2017. (Additional resources: www.autonews.com) a Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% a 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 4–27 There are 22 U.S.-based companies in the top 100 automotive global suppliers. Nine of these companies had more than half of their sales in North America in 2017. Table 4.21 U.S.-Based Tier 1 Suppliers in the Global Top 100, 2017 Rank 9 11 Company Lear Corp. Adient (spun from Johnson Controls) Percent North American sales 40% 46% 12 Delphi Automotive 37% 27 BorgWarner, Inc. 33% 31 Tenneco, Inc. 49% 40 Flex-N-Gate Corp. 91% 44 Dana Holding Corp. 53% 45 Federal-Mogul 34% 57 American Axle & Mfg Holdings, Inc 84% 58 Nexteer Automotive 65% 60 Cooper-Standard Automotive 52% 65 Visteon Corp. 28% 67 Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. 38% 72 Inteva Products 34% 76 Novelis Inc. 48% Products Seating & electrical distribution systems Seating & seating systems & components Mobile electronics; powertrain, safety, thermal, controls & security systems; electrical/electronic architecture; in-car entertainment technologies Turbochargers, engine valve-timing systems, ignition systems, emissions systems, thermal systems, transmission-clutch systems, transmission-control systems, torque management systems & rotating electric machines Emission-control systems, manifolds, catalytic converters, diesel aftertreatment systems, catalytic reduction mufflers, shock absorbers, struts, electronic suspension products & systems Interior & exterior plastics, metal bumpers & hitches, structural metal assemblies, forward & signal lighting, mechanical assemblies, prototyping & sequencing Axles, driveshafts, sealing & thermal management products Pistons, rings, cylinder liners, piston pins, ignition and spark plugs, bearings, valve seats & guides, valvetrain products, gaskets, seals, heat shields, brake friction materials & products, systems protection products, lighting products, wipers, fuel pumps Driveline & drivetrain systems & related components Electric power steering, hydraulic power steering, steering columns & half shafts Systems & components, rubber & plastic sealings, fuel & rake lines, fluid transfer hoses & antivibration systems Cockpit electronics: instrument clusters, head-up & information displays, infotainment, connected audio & connectivity & telematics Tires Closure systems, interior systems, roof systems & motor & electronic systems Flat-rolled aluminum sheet for vehicle structures, body panels, heat exchangers & heat shields & other automotive applications (Continued) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–28 Table 4.21 (Continued) U.S.-Based Tier 1 Suppliers in the Global Top 100, 2017 Rank Company Percent North American Sales Products 79 Bridgewater Interiors 100% Automotive seating systems 83 Tower International 67% Body structures & assemblies, lower vehicle frames & structures, chassis modules & systems & suspension components 87 DowAutomotive/Related Businesses 40% 89 Gentex Corp. 36% 91 Piston Group 100% 92 Dura Automotive Systems 44% 97 Shiloh Industries Inc. 89% Glass bonding adhesive, structural adhesive, epoxy composites, polyurethane foam, acoustic foam, elastomer & fluids Interior & exterior auto-diming rearview mirrors, advanced electronic features & components SmartBeam HBA &DFL advanced lighting-assist, rear camera displays, compasses LED turn signals, side blind-zone indicators & driver assist features Electric batteries, cooling modules, brake corners, grille & shock assemblies instrument panels, seat trim, sun visors, arm rests/boosters, shades, injection molding & brazed evaporator heater cores Mechatronic control systems, shift-by-wire systems, electronic system, curators & advanced driver assist systems, lightweight structural body systems, including multilateral closures; exterior systems & decorative & electronic-infused exterior trim Lightweight, noise, vibration & harshness solutions, chassis & powertrain systems Note: Rank based on total global OEM automotive parts sales in 2017. Source: Crain Communications, Automotive News Supplement, "Top 100 Global Suppliers," June 2017. (Additional resources: www.autonews.com) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–29 The number of franchised dealerships which sell new light-duty vehicles (cars and light trucks) has declined 46% since 1970. This decline, along with increasing light vehicle sales, caused the average number of vehicles sold to be 1,001 vehicles per dealer. Table 4.22 New Light Vehicle Dealerships and Sales, 1970–2017 Calendar year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1970–2017 2007–2017 Number of franchised new New light vehicle salesb a light vehicle dealerships (thousands) 30,800 9,856 29,600 10,677 27,900 10,909 24,725 14,667 24,825 15,998 25,150 14,802 25,025 15,347 25,000 14,389 24,825 13,851 24,200 12,307 23,500 12,842 22,950 13,869 22,850 15,024 22,800 14,673 22,750 14,998 22,700 15,014 22,600 15,384 22,400 16,711 22,250 17,164 22,150 16,950 21,800 16,675 21,725 16,494 21,650 16,737 21,640 16,774 21,495 16,336 21,200 15,867 20,770 13,015 20,010 10,236 18,460 11,394 17,700 12,542 17,540 14,220 17,665 15,279 16,396 16,192 16,545 17,095 16,708 17,169 16,802 16,818 Average annual percentage change -1.3% 1.1% -2.3% 0.6% Light vehicle sales per dealer 320 361 391 593 644 589 613 576 558 509 546 604 657 644 659 661 681 746 771 765 765 759 773 775 760 748 627 512 617 709 811 865 988 1,033 1,028 1,001 2.5% 3.0% Source: Number of dealers - National Automobile Dealers Association website, www.nada.org. (Additional resources: www.nada.org). Light vehicle sales - See tables 4.5 and 4.6. a b As of the beginning of the year. Includes cars and trucks up to 10,000 lb gross vehicle weight. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–30 In 2010 the number of conventional refueling stations fell below 160,000 for the first time in the series history and continued to decline through 2013. The number of vehicles fueling at those stations fell in 2009 for the first time in several years but began rising slowly in 2011. In 2013, there were 0.61 fueling stations per thousand vehicles or 1.65 thousand vehicles per station. Table 4.23 Conventional Refueling Stations, 1993-2013 Year 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Number of retail outlets 207,416 202,878 195,455 190,246 187,892 182,596 180,567 175,941 172,169 170,018 167,571 167,346 168,987 167,476 164,292 161,068 162,350 159,006 157,393 156,065 152,995 Vehicles in operation (thousands) Conventional fuels 186,315 188,714 193,441 198,294 201,071 205,043 209,509 213,299 216,683 221,027 225,882 232,167 238,384 244,643 248,701 249,813 248,972 248,231 248,932 251,497 252,715 Stations per thousand vehicles Thousand vehicles per station 1.11 1.08 1.01 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.86 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.74 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.66 0.64 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.90 0.93 0.99 1.04 1.07 1.12 1.16 1.21 1.26 1.30 1.35 1.39 1.41 1.46 1.51 1.55 1.53 1.56 1.58 1.61 1.65 Notes: This data series was discontinued after 2013. The County Business Patterns (CBP) data published by the Bureau of the Census tells the number of establishments by North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). NAICS is an industry classification system that groups establishments into industries based on the activities in which they are primarily engaged. NAICS 447 represents gasoline stations. However, the CBP gasoline station data differ from the National Petroleum News Survey data by as much as 30% (117,189 stations in 2005); the CBP may not include every gasoline retail outlet due to the classification of the primary activity of the business. Alternative Fuel Refueling Stations are listed in Chapter 6. Sources: Conventional refueling stations: National Petroleum News Survey, 2013. (Source discontinued after 2013.) Conventional vehicles: IHS Automotive, Detroit, MI. Used with permission. FURTHER REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–31 The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and the Environmental Protection Agency issued joint rulemaking to establish a new National Program to regulate fuel economy and greenhouse gas emissions for model year (MY) 2012-2025 cars and light trucks. The standards for model years 2021-2025 are currently under review. Table 4.24 Fuel Economy and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Standards, MY 2012-2025 Year 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Cars Light trucks Combined cars and light trucks Average required fuel economy (miles per gallon) 33.3 25.4 29.7 34.2 26.0 30.5 34.9 26.6 31.3 36.2 27.5 32.6 37.8 28.8 34.1 40.1 29.4 35.4 41.6 30.0 36.5 43.1 30.6 37.7 44.8 31.2 38.9 46.8 33.3 41.0 49.0 34.9 43.0 51.2 36.6 45.1 53.6 38.5 47.4 56.2 40.3 49.7 Average projected emissions compliance levels under the footprint-based carbon dioxide standards (grams per mile) 263 346 295 256 337 286 247 326 276 236 312 263 225 298 250 212 295 243 202 285 232 191 277 222 182 269 213 172 249 199 164 237 190 157 225 180 150 214 171 143 203 163 Standards under review Standards under review Note: The required fuel economy and CO2 emissions shown here use a model year 2008 baseline. The presented rates of increase in stringency for NHTSA CAFE standards are lower than the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rates of increase in stringency for greenhouse gas (GHG) standards. One major difference is that NHTSA’s standards, unlike EPA’s, do not reflect the inclusion of air conditioning system refrigerant and leakage improvements, but EPA’s standards would allow consideration of such improvements which reduce GHGs but generally do not affect fuel economy. The 2025 EPA GHG standard of 163 grams/mile would be equivalent to 54.5 mpg, if the vehicles were to meet this level all through fuel economy improvements. The agencies expect, however, that a portion of these improvements will be made through reductions in air conditioning leakage, which would not contribute to fuel economy. Source: Federal Register, Vol. 77, No. 199, October 15, 2012. (Additional resources: www.nhtsa.gov/fuel-economy) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–32 The target levels for the fuel economy and carbon dioxide emission standards for vehicles manufactured in model years 2012-on are assigned based on a vehicle’s “footprint.” Each footprint has a different target. The vehicle footprint is calculated as: footprint = track width × wheelbase, where track width = lateral distance between the centerlines of the base tires at ground, and wheelbase = longitudinal distance between the front and rear wheel centerlines. Table 4.25 Fuel Economy and Carbon Dioxide Targets for Model Year 2025 Vehicle type Example model footprint (square feet) Example models CO2 emissions target (grams per mile) Fuel economy target (miles per gallon) 131 147 170 61.1 54.9 48.0 170 188 209 252 47.5 43.4 39.2 33.0 Example Passenger Cars Compact car Midsize car Fullsize car Honda Fit Ford Fusion Chrysler 300 40 46 53 Example Light-Duty Trucks Small SUV Midsize crossover Minivan Large pickup truck 4WD Ford Escape Nissan Murano Toyota Sienna Chevy Silverado 44 49 55 67 Notes: The model year 2025 targets are currently under review. Examples in table use model year 2012 vehicle specifications. The fuel economy from this table will not match the fuel economy listed on the window sticker of a new vehicle. Window sticker fuel economy is calculated by a different methodology than the Corporate Average Fuel Economy. Source: Federal Register, Vol. 77, No. 199, October 15, 2012. (Additional resources: www.nhtsa.gov/fuel-economy) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–33 The Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards were first established by the U.S. Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 (PL94-163). These standards must be met at the manufacturer level. Legislation passed in December 2007 changed the CAFE standards beginning in the 2011 model year (MY). Some two-wheel drive sport utility vehicles are classified as cars under the final standards for MY 2011-2021. Table 4.26 Car Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards versus Sales-Weighted Fuel Economy Estimates, 1978–2017a (miles per gallon) Model yearb 1978 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 CAFE standards Domestic Import 18.0 18.0 20.0 20.0 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5d 27.5 27.5d 27.5 27.5d 27.5 30.0 30.4 32.7 33.4 33.2 33.9 34.0 34.6 35.2 35.8 36.5 37.4 39.1 39.3 Cars CAFE estimatesc Domestic Import 18.7 27.3 22.6 29.6 26.3 31.5 26.9 29.9 27.3 30.1 27.0 29.2 27.8 29.6 27.5 29.6 27.7 30.3 28.1 29.6 27.8 30.1 28.6 29.2 28.0 29.0 28.7 28.3 28.7 29.0 29.1 28.8 29.1 29.9 29.9 28.7 30.5 29.9 30.3 29.7 30.6 32.2 31.2 31.8 32.1 33.8 33.1 35.2 32.7 33.7 34.8 36.0 36.1 36.8 36.3 36.9 37.2 37.3 37.3 38.2 39.2 38.7 CAFE estimates Cars and light trucks combined 19.9 23.1 25.4 25.4 25.6 25.1 25.2 24.7 24.9 24.9 24.6 24.7 24.5 24.8 24.5 24.7 25.1 24.6 25.4 25.8 26.6 27.1 29.0 29.3 29.0 30.8 31.6 31.7 32.2 32.2 32.9 Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, NHTSA, "Summary of Fuel Economy Performance," Washington, DC, December 2014 and updates 2017. (Additional resources: www.nhtsa.gov) Only vehicles with at least 75 percent domestic content can be counted in the average domestic fuel economy for a manufacturer. b Model year as determined by the manufacturer on a vehicle by vehicle basis. c All CAFE calculations are sales-weighted. d Unreformed standards, which were an option from 2008-2010. See Table 4.24 for reformed standards. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–34 The Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards for light trucks are lower than the car standards. Light trucks include pickups, minivans, sport utility vehicles and vans. New legislation passed in December 2007 changed the CAFE standards beginning in the 2011 model year (MY). Some two-wheel drive sport utility vehicles are classified as cars under the final standards for MY 2011-2021. Table 4.27 Light Truck Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards versus Sales-Weighted Fuel Economy Estimates, 1978–2017a (miles per gallon) Model yearc 1978 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 CAFE standards e e 19.5 20.0 20.2 20.2 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 21.0 21.6 22.2 22.4g 23.0g 23.4g 24.3 25.3 25.9 26.3 27.6 28.8 29.2 Light trucksb CAFE estimatesd Domestic Import f f 16.8 19.6 20.3 20.9 20.5 20.7 20.5 20.3 20.5 20.1 20.5 20.4 21.1 20.6 20.6 21.8 20.7 24.3 26.5 23.0 23.0 22.7 22.8 22.1 21.5 22.2 22.1 23.0 22.5 19.7 21.8 21.9 22.4 22.3 f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f Combined f 18.5 20.7 20.8 21.3 20.8 21.0 20.8 20.5 20.8 20.6 21.0 20.9 21.3 20.9 21.4 21.8 21.5 22.1 22.5 23.1 23.6 24.8 25.2 24.7 25.0 25.7 26.5 27.3 27.4 28.1 CAFE estimates Cars and light trucks combined 19.9 23.1 25.4 25.4 25.6 25.1 25.2 24.7 24.9 24.9 24.6 24.7 24.5 24.8 24.5 24.7 25.1 24.6 25.4 25.8 26.6 27.1 29.0 29.3 29.0 30.8 31.6 31.7 32.2 32.2 32.9 Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, NHTSA, "Summary of Fuel Economy Performance," Washington, DC, December 2014 and updates 2017. (Additional resources: www.nhtsa.gov) a Only vehicles with at least 75% domestic content can be counted in the average domestic fuel economy for a manufacturer. b Represents two- and four-wheel drive trucks combined. Gross vehicle weight of 0-6,000 pounds for model year 1978-1979 and 0-8,500 pounds for subsequent years. c Model year as determined by the manufacturer on a vehicle by vehicle basis. d All CAFE calculations are sales-weighted. e Standards were set for two-wheel drive and four-wheel drive light trucks, but no combined standard was set in this year. f Data are not available. g Unreformed standards, which were an option from 2008-2010. See Table 4.24 for reformed standards. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–35 Manufacturers of cars and light trucks whose vehicles do not meet the CAFE standards are fined. Data from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration show the CAFE fine in the year in which the money was collected, which may not be the same year in which it was assessed. A manufacturer can also use CAFE credits to offset fines. Fines for recent model years have not been collected. Table 4.28 Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Fines Collected, as of April 2018a Model year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Current dollars $120,000 $57,970 $5,958,020 $15,564,540 $29,871,815 $31,260,530 $43,470,545 $48,549,420 $48,308,615 $42,243,030 $38,286,565 $28,688,380 $31,498,570 $40,787,498 $19,301,930 $36,211,850 $21,739,774 $27,516,451 $51,067,038 $35,507,412 $20,041,533 $15,225,419 $30,411,986 $25,057,126 $40,933,954 $37,385,941 $11,619,696 $9,148,425 $23,803,412 $40,013,270 $14,962,382 $19,036,963 $2,289,788 2014 constant dollarsb $294,387 $137,795 $13,572,370 $34,241,988 $64,523,120 $65,146,945 $86,984,561 $92,680,843 $87,486,902 $73,418,386 $64,589,435 $46,991,566 $50,303,216 $63,342,984 $29,126,612 $53,412,479 $31,566,151 $39,100,876 $70,217,177 $47,473,409 $26,374,657 $19,595,114 $38,106,218 $30,369,236 $48,056,461 $42,694,745 $12,781,666 $10,090,713 $25,850,505 $42,093,960 $15,426,216 $19,341,554 $2,289,788 Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Office of Vehicle Safety Compliance, Washington, DC, December 2014 and updates, April 2018. Data accessed July 13, 2018. (Additional resources: www.nhtsa.gov) These are fines which are actually collected. Fines which are assessed in certain year may not have been collected in that year. b Adjusted using the Consumer Price Inflation Index. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–36 Consumers must pay the Gas Guzzler Tax when purchasing a car that has an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) fuel economy rating (combined city and highway) less than that stipulated in the table below. The Gas Guzzler Tax doubled in 1991 after remaining constant from 1986 to 1990. The tax has not changed since 1991. This tax does not apply to light trucks such as pickups, minivans, sport utility vehicles, and vans. Table 4.29 The Gas Guzzler Tax on New Cars (dollars per vehicle) Vehicle fuel economy (mpg) Over 22.5 22.0–22.5 21.5–22.0 21.0–21.5 20.5–21.0 20.0–20.5 19.5–20.0 19.0–19.5 18.5–19.0 18.0–18.5 17.5–18.0 17.0–17.5 16.5–17.0 16.0–16.5 15.5–16.0 15.0–15.5 14.5–15.0 14.0–14.5 13.5–14.0 13.0–13.5 12.5–13.0 Under 12.5 1980 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 200 300 300 550 550 1981 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 200 350 350 450 450 550 550 650 650 1982 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 200 350 350 450 450 600 600 750 750 950 950 1,200 1983 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 350 350 500 500 650 650 800 800 1,000 1,000 1,250 1,250 1,550 1,550 1984 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 450 450 600 600 750 750 950 950 1,150 1,150 1,450 1,450 1,750 1,750 2,150 1985 0 0 0 0 500 500 600 600 800 800 1,000 1,000 1,200 1,200 1,500 1,500 1,800 1,800 2,200 2,200 2,650 2,650 1986–90 0 500 500 650 650 850 850 1,050 1,050 1,300 1,300 1,500 1,500 1,850 1,850 2,250 2,250 2,700 2,700 3,200 3,200 3,850 Source: Internal Revenue Service, Form 6197, (Rev. 10-05), "Gas Guzzler Tax." (Additional resources: www.irs.ustreas.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1991 - on 0 1,000 1,000 1,300 1,300 1,700 1,700 2,100 2,100 2,600 2,600 3,000 3,000 3,700 3,700 4,500 4,500 5,400 5,400 6,400 6,400 7,700 4–37 Consumers who purchased these 2017 model year vehicles paid the Gas Guzzler tax. Table 4.30 List of Model Year 2017 Cars with Gas Guzzler Taxesa Manufacturer Aston Martin Aston Martin Aston Martin Aston Martin Audi Audi Bentley Bentley Bentley Bentley Bentley Bentley Bentley Bentley Bentley BMW BMW BMW BMW BMW BMW BMW Cadillac Cadillac Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Dodge Dodge Dodge Dodge Dodge Dodge Ferrari Ferrari Ferrari Ferrari Ferrari Ferrari Ford Ford Model(s) Rapide S V12 Vantage S V12 Vantage S Vanquish, S and Zagato R8 R8 Spyder Continental GT Continental GT Convertible Continental GT Convertible Continental Supersports Continental Supersports Convt Flying Spur Flying Spur Mulsanne Mulsanne EWB M6 Convertible M6 Convertible M6 Coupe M6 Coupe M6 Gran Coupe M6 Gran Coupe M760i xDrive CTS-V XTS Limo Camaro Camaro Corvette SS SS Challenger Challenger SRT Challenger SRT Challenger SRT Charger SRT Viper F12 Berlinetta F12 Berlinetta F12 tdf F12 tdf GTC4Lusso LaFerrari Aperta Ford GT Shelby GT350 Mustang Size class Subcompact Cars Two Seaters Two Seaters Minicompact Cars Two Seaters Two Seaters Compact Cars Subcompact Cars Subcompact Cars Compact Cars Subcompact Cars Midsize Cars Midsize Cars Midsize Cars Midsize Cars Subcompact Cars Subcompact Cars Subcompact Cars Subcompact Cars Compact Cars Compact Cars Large Cars Midsize Cars Special Purpose Vehicle 2WD Subcompact Cars Subcompact Cars Two Seaters Large Cars Large Cars Midsize Cars Midsize Cars Midsize Cars Midsize Cars Large Cars Two Seaters Two Seaters Two Seaters Two Seaters Two Seaters Minicompact Cars Two Seaters Two Seaters Subcompact Cars Unadjusted combined city/highway fuel economy 21 18 15 20 21 21 19 22 18 17 16 22 18 17 16 20 22 20 22 20 22 20 22 22 19 20 20 20 21 22 20 20 22 20 18 17 17 16 16 17 16 17 21 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 Adjusted combined city/highway fuel economy 17 14 12 16 17 17 15 17 15 14 13 17 15 14 13 16 17 16 17 16 17 16 17 17 15 16 16 16 17 17 16 16 17 16 14 13 13 13 12 13 13 14 16 4–38 Table 4.30 (Continued) List of Model Year 2017 Cars with Gas Guzzler Taxesa Make Lamborghini Lamborghini Lamborghini Lamborghini Lamborghini Lamborghini Lamborghini Lamborghini Maserati Maserati Maserati Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Rolls-Royce Rolls-Royce Rolls-Royce Rolls-Royce Rolls-Royce Rolls-Royce Rolls-Royce Rolls-Royce Roush Roush Model(s) Aventador Coupe Aventador Coupe LP740-4 Aventador Roadster Aventador Roadster LP740-4 Huracan Huracan 2WD Huracan Spyder Huracan Spyder 2WD Granturismo Convertible Granturismo Convertible Quattroporte GTS AMG S 63 4MATIC (convertible) AMG S 65 AMG SL 65 Maybach S 600 Maybach S 650 (convertible) S 600 S 65 AMG (convertible) S 65 AMG (coupe) Dawn Ghost Ghost EWB Phantom Phantom Coupe Phantom Drophead Coupe Phantom EWB Wraith Roush Stage 3 Mustang Roush Stage 3 Mustang Size class Two Seaters Two Seaters Two Seaters Two Seaters Two Seaters Two Seaters Two Seaters Two Seaters Subcompact Cars Subcompact Cars Large Cars Subcompact Cars Large Cars Two Seaters Large Cars Subcompact Cars Large Cars Subcompact Cars Compact Cars Compact Cars Large Cars Large Cars Large Cars Compact Cars Compact Cars Large Cars Midsize Cars Subcompact Cars Subcompact Cars Unadjusted combined city/highway fuel economy 16 15 16 15 21 21 20 20 20 20 22 22 20 21 20 20 20 20 20 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 19 21 20 Adjusted combined city/highway fuel economy 13 12 13 12 17 17 16 16 16 15 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 15 17 16 Source: U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fuel Economy Guide database, www.fueleconomy.gov a stickers. Tax is based on unadjusted combined fuel economy; adjusted combined fuel economy is used on window TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–39 The IRS collected $72.5 million in 2016 from those buying cars with combined city/highway fuel economy less than 22.5 miles per gallon. This tax does not apply to light trucks such as pickups, minivans, sport utility vehicles, and vans. It is worthy to note that total revenue from fines paid by consumers to purchase gas-guzzling vehicles greatly exceeds the overall fines paid by manufacturers whose vehicles fail to meet CAFE standards (see Table 4.26). Table 4.31 Tax Receipts from the Sale of Gas Guzzlers, 1980–2016 (thousands) Model year 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Current dollars 740 780 1,720 4,020 8,820 39,790 147,660 145,900 116,780 109,640 103,200 118,400 144,200 111,600 64,100 73,500 52,600 48,200 47,700 68,300 70,800 78,200 79,700 126,700 140,800 163,800 201,700 178,700 172,400 99,300 85,200 68,900 73,500 61,300 48,200 58,700 72,500 2016 constant dollarsa 2,155 2,059 4,278 9,687 20,374 88,754 323,352 308,248 236,923 212,213 189,508 208,640 246,679 185,362 103,809 115,751 80,461 72,077 70,235 98,394 98,679 105,977 106,329 165,266 178,894 201,296 240,126 206,853 192,181 111,089 93,777 73,515 76,834 63,155 48,866 59,441 72,500 Source: Ward’s Communications, Detroit, MI, 2018. Original data source: Internal Revenue Service. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/guzzler) a Adjusted using the Consumer Price Inflation Index. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–40 Autonomie is a system simulation tool for vehicle energy consumption and performance analysis. It is used to evaluate the energy consumption and cost of multiple advanced powertrain technologies. Autonomie was used to develop data on the relationship between steady-state vehicle speed and fuel economy. Table 4.32 Fuel Economy by Speed, Autonomie Model Results Speed (mph) 45 55 65 75 55 - 65 mph 65 - 75 mph 55 - 75 mph Gasoline conventional Diesel conventional Midsize Small Large Midsize Small Large car SUV SUV car SUV SUV (miles per gallon) 43 45 38 32 37 36 30 26 15% 15% 28% 16% 16% 29% Hybrid vehicle Midsize Car 35 31 29 25 57 55 45 37 48 45 36 30 48 40 35 29 55 46 38 33 7% 15% 21% 18% 18% 33% 19% 18% 34% 13% 17% 27% 18% 12% 28% Fuel economy loss Source: Argonne National Laboratory, Autonomie model, August 2016, www.autonomie.net. (Additional resources: www.anl.gov/energy/transportation) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–41 The latest study of vehicle fuel economy by speed indicated higher fuel economy around 40 miles per hour, as did the 1973 and 1984 studies. Engineers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory believe that the lowest speed in the vehicle's highest gear is where the best fuel economy is typically obtained. That speed will be different for individual vehicles. Table 4.33 Fuel Economy by Speed, 1973, 1984, 1997, and 2012 Studies (miles per gallon) Speed (miles per hour) 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 50–60 mph 60–70 mph 50–70 mph 1973a (13 vehicles) e e e 21.1 21.1 21.1 20.3 19.5 18.5 17.5 16.2 14.9 e e 10.3% 14.9% 23.6% 1984b (15 vehicles) 21.1 25.5 30.0 31.8 33.6 33.6 33.5 31.9 30.3 27.6 24.9 22.5 20.0 1997c (9 vehicles) 24.4 27.9 30.5 31.7 31.2 31.0 31.6 32.4 32.4 31.4 29.2 26.8 24.8 e e Fuel economy loss 13.5% 3.1% 18.5% 14.6% 29.5% 17.3% 2012d (74 vehicles) e e e e e 33.2 e 31.9 e 27.9 e 24.1 e 20.5 12.5% 13.6% 24.5% Sources: 1973- U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Office of Highway Planning, The Effect of Speed on Automobile Gasoline Consumption Rates, Washington, DC, October 1973. 1984 - U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Fuel Consumption and Emission Values for Traffic Models, Washington, DC, May 1985. 1997 - West, B.H., R.N. McGill, J.W. Hodgson, S.S. Sluder, and D.E. Smith, Development and Verification of LightDuty Modal Emissions and Fuel Consumption Values for Traffic Models, FHWA-RD-99-068, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, March 1999. 2012 - U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fuel Economy Guide website: www.fueleconomy.gov. The Green Car Congress, "ORNL researchers quantify the effect of increasing highway speed on fuel economy." February 8, 2013. Model years 1970 and earlier cars. Model years 1981–84 cars and light trucks. c Model years 1988–97 cars and light trucks. d Model years 2003-2012 cars and light trucks. e Data are not available. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–42 Figure 4.7. Fuel Economy by Speed, 1973, 1984, 1997, and 2012 Studies and Autonomie Model Results Sources: See Tables 4.32 and 4.33. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–43 This table shows the driving cycles for the new methodology that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) used to determine fuel economy ratings for new vehicles beginning in model year 2008. In addition to the Urban Driving Cycle and the Highway Driving cycle, the EPA will also use three additional tests to adjust fuel economy ratings to account for higher speeds, air conditioner use, and colder temperatures. Though the EPA uses a complex combination of these five cycles to determine the fuel economy that will be posted on a new vehicle window sticker, the manufacturer’s Corporate Average Fuel Economy is still calculated using only the city and highway driving cycles. To know more about new vehicle fuel economy ratings, visit www.fueleconomy.gov. Table 4.34 Driving Cycle Attributes Test schedule Trip type Top speed Average speed Max. acceleration Simulated distance Time Stops Idling time Engine startupa Lab temperature Vehicle air conditioning Higher speeds; harder acceleration & braking Air conditioner (AC) AC use under hot ambient conditions City test w/colder outside temperature 60 mph 48 mph 3.2 mph/sec 10.3 mi. 12.6 min. None None Warm 68-86° F 80 mph 48 mph 8.46 mph/sec 8 mi. 9.9 min. 4 7% of time Warm 68-86° F 54.8 mph 21 mph 5.1 mph/sec 3.6 mi. 9.9 min. 5 19% of time Warm 95° F 56 mph 21 mph 3.3 mph/sec 11 mi. 31.2 min. 23 18% of time Cold 20° F Off Off On Off City Highway High speed Low speeds in stop-and-go urban traffic Free-flow traffic at highway speeds 56 mph 21 mph 3.3 mph/sec 11 mi. 31.2 min. 23 18% of time Cold 68-86° F Off Source: U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fuel Economy website, www.fueleconomy.gov. a A vehicle’s engine doesn’t reach maximum fuel efficiency until it is warm. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 Cold temp 4–44 These driving cycles simulate the performance of an engine while driving in the city and on the highway. Once the city cycle is completed, the engine is stopped, and then started again for the 8.5-minute hot start cycle. Three additional cycles also influence new vehicle fuel economy ratings beginning with the 2008 model year. Figure 4.8. City Driving Cycle Figure 4.9. Highway Driving Cycle Source: Code of Federal Regulations, 40CFR, "Subpart B - Fuel Economy Regulations for 1978 and Later Model Year Automobiles - Test Procedures," July 1, 1988 edition, p. 676. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–45 Beginning with the 2008 model year, these cycles influence the new vehicle fuel economy ratings. Figure 4.10. Air Conditioning (SC03) Driving Cycle Source: U.S. Department of Energy and Environmental Protection Agency, Fuel Economy website, www.fueleconomy.gov. Figure 4.11. Cold Temperature (Cold FTP) Driving Cyclea Source: U.S. Department of Energy and Environmental Protection Agency, Fuel Economy website, www.fueleconomy.gov. Cold FTP uses the same speeds as the city driving cycle. Tests the effects of colder outside temperatures on cold-start driving in stop-and-go traffic. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–46 Beginning with the 2008 model year, this cycle influences the new vehicle fuel economy ratings. The US06 driving cycle was originally developed as a supplement to the Federal Test Procedure. It is a short-duration cycle (600 seconds) which represents hard-acceleration driving. Figure 4.12. High-Speed (US06) Driving Cycle Source: U.S. Department of Energy and Environmental Protection Agency, Fuel Economy website, www.fueleconomy.gov. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–47 Two other test cycles are sometimes used by researchers and engineers to test new vehicles (although these do not affect the fuel economy ratings). The New York Test Cycle was developed in the 1970's in order to simulate driving in downtown congested areas. The Representative Number Five Test Cycle was developed in the 1990's to better represent actual on-road driving by combining modern city and freeway driving. Figure 4.13. New York City Driving Cycle Figure 4.14. Representative Number Five Driving Cycle Source: Data obtained from Michael Wang, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, 1997. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–48 Testing cycles to determine vehicle fuel economy and emissions vary by country. The United States currently uses five different drive cycles to determine vehicle fuel economy. In Europe, the NEDC cycle is being replaced by the WLTC, but the NEDC continues to be used in China. The ARTEMIS cycles are not used in vehicle certification, but are used to represent real world driving in Europe. Table 4.35 Comparison of U.S., European, and Japanese Driving Cycles Attributes Average Time Distance Speed Cycle (seconds) (miles) (mph) United States City 1,872 11.0 21.2 Highway 765 10.3 48.3 High-Speed 594 8.0 48.4 Air Conditioner Use 594 3.6 21.2 Cold Temperatures 1,872 11.0 21.2 World Light Vehicle Test Cycle (WLTC) Low 589 1.9 11.7 Medium 433 3.0 24.5 High 455 4.4 35.1 Extra High 323 5.1 57.0 Total WLTC 1,800 14.5 28.9 Japan JC08 1,204 5.1 15.2 New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) Urban Driving Cycle (UDC) 780 2.5 11.8 Extra Urban Driving Cycle (EUDC) 400 4.3 38.9 Total NEDC 1,180 6.8 20.9 ARTEMIS Urban 993 3.0 11.0 Rural Road 1,082 10.7 35.7 Motorway 1,068 17.9 60.1 Total ARTEMIS 3,143 31.6 36.2 Maximum Speed (mph) Maximum Acceleration (mph/s) 56.0 60.0 80.0 54.8 56.0 3.3 3.2 8.5 5.1 3.3 35.1 47.6 60.5 81.6 81.6 3.6 3.6 3.7 2.3 3.7 50.7 3.8 31.1 74.6 74.6 2.3 1.9 2.3 35.9 69.3 81.9 81.9 6.4 5.3 4.3 6.4 Source: United States - U.S. Department of Energy, Fuel Economy Guide website, www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fe_test_schedules.shtml All other - Compiled from public sources by Aymeric Rousseau, Argonne National Laboratory, September 2016. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–49 Testing cycles to determine vehicle fuel economy and emissions vary by country and therefore it is difficult to make a direct comparison. Simulation results show up to a 28% difference in the test cycles for each vehicle type. Note that the differences in these cycle results also vary with each individual vehicle tested. Table 4.36 Example of Differing Results Using the U.S., European, and Japanese Driving Cycles Vehicle type Small car Large car Minivan Sport-utility vehicle Pickup U.S. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) cycle 34.8 26.6 23.9 20.2 18.8 Miles per gallon Percentage difference from New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) 32.4 24.7 20.5 Japan JC08 cycle 27.6 21.5 17.2 CAFE to NEDC -7% -7% -14% CAFE to JC08 -21% -19% -28% 17.6 15.9 14.6 13.5 -13% -15% -28% -28% Note: Simulation results for identical gasoline vehicles (i.e., results for the same small car on each of the three cycles). Source: The International Council on Clean Transportation, Passenger Vehicle Greenhouse Gas and Fuel Economy Standards: A Global Update, July 2009. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 4–50 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–1 Heavy Vehicles and Characteristics Summary Statistics from Tables in this Chapter Source Table 5.1 Class 3-8 single-unit trucks, 2016 Registration (thousands) Vehicle miles (millions) Fuel economy (miles per gallon) Table 5.2 113,338 7.4 Class 7-8 combination trucks, 2016 Registration (thousands) Vehicle miles (millions) Fuel economy (miles per gallon) Table 5.15 8,747 2,752 174,557 5.9 Freight Shipments, 2012 Commodity Flow Survey Table 5.15 Value (billion dollars) 13,852 Table 5.16 Tons (millions) 11,299 Table 5.17 Ton-miles (billions) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2,970 5–2 There are eight truck classes, categorized by the gross vehicle weight rating that the vehicle is assigned when it is manufactured. The pictures below show examples of some of the different body types that would be included in each class. Many of the body types can be in more than one category, depending on the vehicle’s attributes. Examples of this include pickups, box trucks, buses, and truck tractors. Figure 5.1. Examples of Body Types in Each Truck Class Source: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, National Transportation Research Center, Oak Ridge, TN. Gross vehicle weight category definitions from 49CFR565.6 (2000). TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–3 Class 3-8 single-unit trucks include trucks over 10,000 lb gross vehicle weight with the cab/engine and cargo space together as one unit. Most of these trucks would be used for business or for individuals with heavy hauling or towing needs. Very heavy single-units, such as concrete mixers and dump trucks, are also in this category. The data series was changed by the FHWA back to 2007. Table 5.1 Summary Statistics for Class 3-8 Single-Unit Trucks, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Registrations (thousands) 3,681 4,232 4,374 4,455 4,325 4,204 4,061 4,593 4,313 4,188 4,470 4,519 4,487 4,481 4,370 4,408 4,906 5,024 5,266 5,293 5,414 5,763 5,926 5,704 5,651 5,849 6,161 6,395 6,649 8,117 8,228 8,356 8,217 7,819 8,190 8,126 8,329 8,456 8,747 Vehicle travel (million miles) 27,081 34,606 39,813 39,568 40,658 42,546 44,419 45,441 45,637 48,022 49,434 50,870 51,901 52,898 53,874 56,772 61,284 62,705 64,072 66,893 67,894 70,304 70,500 72,448 75,866 77,757 78,441 78,496 80,344 119,979 126,855 120,207 110,738 103,803 105,605 106,582 109,301 109,597 113,338 1970–2016 2007–2016 1.9% 0.8% 3.2% -0.6% Average annual Fuel use miles per vehicle (million gallons) 7,357 3,968 8,177 5,420 9,102 6,923 8,882 6,867 9,401 6,803 10,120 6,965 10,938 7,240 9,894 7,399 10,581 7,386 11,467 7,523 11,059 7,701 11,257 7,779 11,567 8,357 11,805 8,172 12,328 8,237 12,879 8,488 12,492 9,032 12,481 9,216 12,167 9,409 12,638 9,576 12,540 9,741 12,199 9,372 11,897 9,563 12,701 9,667 13,425 10,321 13,294 8,881 12,732 8,959 12,275 9,501 12,084 9,852 14,781 16,314 15,417 17,144 14,386 16,253 13,477 15,097 13,276 14,214 12,894 14,376 13,116 14,502 13,123 14,894 12,961 14,850 12,958 15,338 Average annual percentage change 1.2% 3.0% -1.5% -0.7% Average fuel economy per vehicle (miles per gallon) 6.8 6.4 5.8 5.8 6.0 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.2 6.5 6.5 6.7 6.8 6.8 6.8 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.4 7.5 7.4 8.8 8.8 8.3 8.2 7.3 7.4 7.4 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.4 7.4 0.2% 0.2% Source: U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2016, Washington, DC, 2017, Table VM-1 and annual. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov) a Due to FHWA methodology changes, data from 2007-on are not comparable with previous data. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 a 5–4 Class 7-8 combination trucks include all trucks designed to be used in combination with one or more trailers with a gross vehicle weight rating over 26,000 lb. The average vehicle travel of these trucks (on a per truck basis) far surpasses the travel of other trucks due to long-haul freight movement. The data series was changed by the FHWA back to 2007. Table 5.2 Summary Statistics for Class 7-8 Combination Trucks, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Registrations (thousands) 905 1,131 1,417 1,261 1,265 1,304 1,340 1,403 1,408 1,530 1,667 1,707 1,709 1,691 1,675 1,680 1,681 1,696 1,747 1,790 1,831 2,029 2,097 2,154 2,277 1,908 2,010 2,087 2,170 2,635 2,585 2,617 2,553 2,452 2,469 2,471 2,577 2,747 2,752 Vehicle travela (million miles) 35,134 46,724 68,678 69,134 70,765 73,586 77,377 78,063 81,038 85,495 88,551 91,879 94,341 96,645 99,510 103,116 108,932 115,451 118,899 124,584 128,159 132,384 135,020 136,584 138,737 140,160 142,370 144,028 142,169 184,199 183,826 168,100 175,789 163,791 163,602 168,436 169,830 170,246 174,557 1970–2016 2007–2016 2.4% 0.5% 3.5% -0.6% Average annual Fuel use miles per vehicle (million gallons) 38,822 7,348 41,312 9,177 48,467 13,037 54,825 13,509 55,941 13,583 56,431 13,796 57,744 14,188 55,640 14,005 57,555 14,475 55,879 14,990 53,120 15,224 53,825 15,733 55,202 16,133 57,153 16,809 59,409 17,216 61,379 17,748 64,802 18,653 68,073 19,777 68,059 20,192 69,600 20,302 69,994 21,100 65,246 24,537 64,387 25,666 63,409 25,512 60,930 26,480 73,459 23,815 70,831 24,191 69,012 27,689 65,516 28,107 69,905 30,904 71,113 30,561 64,234 28,050 68,856 29,927 66,809 28,181 66,262 27,975 68,155 28,795 65,897 29,118 61,978 28,886 63,428 29,555 Average annual percentage change 1.1% 3.1% -1.1% -0.5% Average fuel economy per vehicle (miles per gallon) 4.8 5.1 5.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.7 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.9 6.1 6.1 5.4 5.3 5.4 5.2 5.9 5.9 5.2 5.1 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.9 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.9 5.9 0.4% -0.2% Source: U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2016, Washington, DC, 2017, Table VM-1 and annual. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov) a b The Federal Highway Administration changed the combination truck travel methodology in 1993. Due to FHWA methodology changes, data from 2007-on are not comparable with previous data. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 b 5–5 Truck sales rose in 2010 for the first time since the sales peak in 2004 and have thus far continued to rise. Trucks under 10,000 lb continue to dominate truck sales. Table 5.3 New Retail Truck Sales by Gross Vehicle Weight, 1970–2017a (thousands) Calendar year Class 1 6,000 lb or less Class 2 6,001– 10,000 lb 1970b 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1,049 1,101 985 896 1,102 1,314 2,031 2,408 408 952 975 850 961 1,207 1,224 1,280 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 3,380 3,435 3,467 3,313 3,451 3,246 3,608 4,119 4,527 4,422 4,829 5,085 5,263 5,707 5,965 6,073 6,068 6,267 6,458 6,586 6,136 5,682 4,358 3,528 4,245 4,714 5,164 5,615 6,209 7,161 7,724 8,102 1,214 1,175 1,333 1,297 1,097 876 1,021 1,232 1,506 1,631 1,690 1,712 2,036 2,366 2,421 2,525 2,565 2,671 2,796 2,528 2,438 2,623 1,888 1,306 1,513 1,735 1,811 2,077 2,275 2,417 2,572 2,637 1970–1985 1986–2017 2007–2017 5.7% 2.9% 3.6% 7.9% 2.5% 0.1% Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 10,001– 14,001– 16,001– 19,501– 14,000 lb 16,000 lb 19,500 lb 26,000 lb Domestic sales (import data are not available) 6 12 58 133 23 1 9 159 c 4 2 90 c 1 2 72 c 1 1 44 c c 1 47 c 6 5 55 c 11 5 48 Domestic and import sales c 12 6 45 14 2 8 44 14 21 8 54 19 27 7 39 21 27 5 38 21 24 3 22 26 26 4 28 27 33 4 27 35 44 4 20 40 53 4 23 52 59 7 19 53 57 9 18 102 43 25 32 122 49 30 48 117 47 29 51 102 52 24 42 80 38 24 45 91 40 29 51 107 47 36 70 167 49 46 60 150 50 49 70 166 51 45 54 135 36 40 39 112 20 24 22 161 12 31 29 195 10 42 41 223 9 55 40 254 12 60 47 264 13 67 52 283 14 72 55 296 14 72 62 317 19 79 63 Average annual percentage change c 4.1% -15.1% -6.6% 11.1% 7.8%d 8.7% 1.0% 6.7% -9.4% 5.8% 1.6% Class 7 26,001– 33,000 lb Class 8 33,001 lb and over Total 36 23 58 51 62 59 78 97 89 83 117 100 76 82 138 134 1,791 2,351 2,231 1,972 2,248 2,710 3,538 3,983 101 103 103 93 85 73 73 81 98 107 104 114 115 130 123 92 69 67 75 89 91 70 49 39 38 41 47 48 54 59 60 62 113 131 148 145 121 99 119 158 186 201 170 179 209 262 212 140 146 142 203 253 284 151 133 95 107 171 195 185 220 249 193 192 4,870 4,912 5,149 4,942 4,846 4,365 4,903 5,681 6,421 6,481 6,930 7,226 7,826 8,716 8,965 9,050 9,035 9,357 9,793 9,777 9,268 8,842 6,680 5,145 6,137 6,951 7,544 8,298 9,154 10,310 10,993 11,470 6.8% -1.7% -1.2% 2.8% 1.7% 2.4% 5.5% 2.8% 2.5% Source: Ward’s Communications, www.wardsauto.com. (Additional resources: www.wardsauto.com) Sales include domestic-sponsored imports. Data for 1970 is based on new truck registrations. c Data are not available. d 1987-2017. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–6 Based on factory sales, the share of diesel medium/heavy trucks sold has declined from 1995 to 2017 for truck gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) classes 4, 5, and 7. Class 6 diesel sales share increased in that period and class 8 continued to be 100% diesel. The result for all class 4 through 8 trucks combined was a decline from 87% diesel share in 1995 to 75% in 2017. Table 5.4 Diesel Share of Medium and Heavy Truck Sales by Gross Vehicle Weight, 1995–2017a Calendar year 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Class 4 14,001– 16,000 lb 68% 66% 61% 72% 62% 62% 91% 68% 74% 71% 74% 76% 78% 81% 87% 94% 82% 14% 39% 32% 24% 21% 16% Class 5 16,001– 19,500 lb 87% 92% 90% 91% 86% 93% 90% 93% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 91% 93% 80% 79% 80% 80% 80% 54% 52% Class 6 19,501– 26,000 lb 70% 69% 82% 88% 90% 54% 70% 66% 77% 76% 73% 75% 52% 58% 56% 92% 95% 95% 96% 91% 98% 89% 87% Class 7 26,001– 33,000 lb 74% 68% 70% 72% 74% 68% 59% 54% 47% 54% 56% 59% 50% 50% 36% 39% 49% 49% 46% 45% 48% 45% 45% Class 8 33,001 lb and over 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Source: Ward’s Communications, www.wardsauto.com. (Additional resources: www.wardsauto.com) a Estimates based on available factory sales. May not represent the entire industry. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 Total (Class 4 Class 8) 87% 85% 85% 88% 88% 83% 84% 82% 83% 85% 87% 88% 81% 84% 80% 87% 91% 89% 88% 88% 89% 78% 75% 5–7 The Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey (VIUS) was discontinued, thus the 2002 VIUS data remain the latest available. Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey The Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey (VIUS), which was formerly the Truck Inventory and Use Survey (TIUS), provides data on the physical and operational characteristics of the Nation's truck population. It is based on a probability sample of private and commercial trucks registered (or licensed) in each state. In 1997, the survey was changed to the Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey due to future possibilities of including additional vehicle types. The 2002 VIUS, however, only includes trucks. Internet site: www.census.gov/econ/overview/se0501.html Since 1987, the survey has included minivans, vans, station wagons on truck chassis, and sport utility vehicles in addition to the bigger trucks. The 1977 and 1982 surveys did not include those vehicle types. The estimated number of trucks that were within the scope of the 2002 VIUS and registered in the United States as of July 1, 2002 was 85.2 million. These trucks were estimated to have been driven a total of 1,115 billion miles during 2002, an increase of 6.8% from 1997. The average annual miles traveled per truck was estimated at 13,100 miles. The California Department of Transportation is conducting a survey to collect data on the physical and operational characteristics of the State’s commercial vehicle population called the California Vehicle Inventory Use and Survey. Internet site: www.dot.ca.gov/hq/tpp/offices/omsp/statewide_modeling/cal_vehicle_survey.html TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–8 Table 5.5 Truck Statistics by Gross Vehicle Weight Class, 2002 Manufacturer's gross vehicle weight class 1) 6,000 lb and less 2) 6,001 – 10,000 lb 3) 10,001 – 14,000 lb 4) 14,001 – 16,000 lb 5) 16,001 – 19,500 lb 6) 19,501 – 26,000 lb 7) 26,001 – 33,000 lb 8) 33,001 lb and up Total Light truck subtotal Medium truck subtotal Heavy truck subtotal Number of trucks 51,941,389 28,041,234 691,342 290,980 166,472 1,709,574 179,790 2,153,996 85,174,777 79,982,623 2,858,368 2,333,786 Percentage of trucks 61.0% 32.9% 0.8% 0.3% 0.2% 2.0% 0.2% 2.5% 100.0% 93.9% 3.4% 2.7% Average annual miles per truck 11,882 12,684 14,094 15,441 11,645 12,671 30,708 45,739 13,088 12,163 13,237 44,581 Harmonic mean fuel economy 17.6 14.3 10.5 8.5 7.9 7.0 6.4 5.7 13.5 16.2 8.0 5.8 Percentage of fuel use 42.7% 30.5% 1.1% 0.5% 0.3% 3.2% 0.9% 20.7% 100.0% 73.2% 5.2% 21.6% Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2002 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey, Microdata File on CD, 2005. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/svsd/www.tiusview.html) Table 5.6 Truck Harmonic Mean Fuel Economy by Size Class, 1992, 1997, and 2002 (miles per gallon) Manufacturer's gross vehicle weight class 1) 6,000 lb and less 2) 6,001–10,000 lb 3) 10,000–14,000 lb 4) 14,001–16,000 lb 5) 16,001–19,500 lb 6) 19,501–26,000 lb 7) 26,001–33,000 lb 8) 33,001 lb and over Light truck subtotal Medium truck subtotal Large truck subtotal 1992 TIUS 17.2 13.0 8.8 8.8 7.4 6.9 6.5 5.5 15.7 7.3 5.6 1997 VIUS 17.1 13.6 9.4 9.3 8.7 7.3 6.4 5.7 15.8 8.6 6.1 2002 VIUS 17.6 14.3 10.5 8.5 7.9 7.0 6.4 5.7 16.2 8.0 5.8 Note: Based on average fuel economy as reported by respondent. Sources: Estimates are based on data provided on the following public use files: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Transportation, Washington, DC, 1992 Truck Inventory and Use Survey, 1995; 1997 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey, 2000, and 2002 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey, 2005. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/svsd/www/tiusview.html) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–9 As expected, most light trucks travel within 50 miles of their home base and refuel at public stations. About sixty percent of heavy trucks travel over 50 miles from their home base and 36% of them refuel at central companyowned refueling stations. Table 5.7 Truck Statistics by Size, 2002 Under 50 miles 51–100 miles 101–200 miles 201–500 miles 501 miles or more Off-road Vehicle not in use Not reported Totalb Gas station Truck stop Own facility Other nonpublic facility Other Totalb Manufacturer's gross vehicle weight class Medium Light (10,001– Heavy (< 10,000 lb) 26,000 lb) (> 26,000 lb) Typical trip miles or range of operationa 69.2% 61.5% 40.7% 8.5% 11.7% 13.5% 2.4% 3.2% 6.7% 1.1% 1.8% 7.6% 1.4% 2.2% 10.4% 1.1% 3.5% 3.2% 2.2% 4.4% 3.2% 14.1% 11.7% 14.7% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Primary refueling facility 96.9% 62.4% 28.4% 0.7% 7.7% 31.9% 2.0% 27.3% 36.2% 0.3% 2.6% 3.5% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Total 68.2% 8.7% 2.5% 1.3% 1.7% 1.2% 2.3% 14.1% 100.0% 93.9% 1.8% 3.7% 0.5% 0.0% 100.0% Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2002 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey, Microdata. File on CD, 2005. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/svsd/www/tiusview.html) a b The respondent was asked to choose the category which best described the trips made by the vehicle. Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–10 More medium truck owners listed construction as the truck’s major use than any other major use category. Construction was the second highest major use for light trucks and heavy trucks. Table 5.8 Percentage of Trucks by Size Ranked by Major Use, 2002 Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Light (< 10,000 lb average weight) Personal 81.5% Construction 4.6% Other services a 2.5% Not in use 2.2% Agriculture 1.9% Retail 1.5% Unknown 1.3% Leasing 0.7% Manufacturing 0.7% Utilities 0.6% Waste management 0.6% Wholesale 0.6% Information services 0.4% For hire 0.4% Food services 0.3% Arts 0.2% Mining 0.1% Medium (10,001 – 26,000 lb average weight) Construction 18.4% Agriculture 16.2% For hire 9.6% Retail 7.1% Not in use 6.4% Leasing 6.2% Wholesale 5.5% Waste management 5.4% Utilities 5.0% Personal 4.8% Unknown 4.4% Manufacturing 3.3% Other servicesa 3.2% Food services 1.6% Information services 1.3% Mining 1.1% Arts 0.5% Heavy (> 26,000 lb average weight) For hire 30.1% Construction 15.9% Agriculture 12.2% Retail 5.4% Not in use 5.1% Waste management 5.0% Manufacturing 4.9% Wholesale 4.8% Leasing 4.6% Unknown 3.2% Personal 2.5% Mining 2.4% Other servicesa 1.3% Utilities 1.1% Food services 1.1% Arts 0.3% Information services 0.1% Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2002 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey, Micro data File on CD, 2005. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/svsd/www/tiusview.html) a Business and personal services. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–11 Nearly half of trucks in fleets of 11-20 and 21-50 vehicles use company-owned facilities. Most trucks in smaller fleets use public gas stations for fueling. Table 5.9 Percentage of Trucks by Fleet Size and Primary Fueling Facility, 2002 Truck fleet size 1–5 6–10 11–20 21–50 51 or more Fleets of 6 or more vehicles No fleet Gas station 73.8% 55.3% 41.1% 42.9% 48.3% 47.6% 96.4% Primary refueling facility Truck stop Own facility 6.1% 18.2% 5.7% 35.5% 5.1% 48.9% 3.7% 49.8% 6.3% 44.4% 5.2% 1.6% Other's facility 1.9% 3.4% 4.9% 3.6% 1.0% Totala 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 3.4% 0.3% 100.0% 100.0% 43.9% 1.7% Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2002 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey, Microdata File CD, 2005. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/svsd/www/tiusview.html) a Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 on 5–12 Most trucks are fueled at gas stations, but for-hire or warehousing trucks are more often fueled at truck stops. Mining trucks and vehicle leasing or rental trucks fuel at the companies’ own facility more than 30% of the time. Table 5.10 Share of Trucks by Major Use and Primary Fueling Facility, 2002 Major use Personal Other services Information services Retail trade Construction Accommodation or food services Manufacturing Arts, entertainment, recreation services Waste mgmt, landscaping, admin/support services Wholesale trade Utilities Agriculture, forestry, fishing, hunting Vehicle leasing or rental Mining For-hire or warehousing Overall Gas station 98.6% 96.0% 92.3% 86.6% 84.7% 82.4% 81.5% 81.1% 78.2% 76.2% 72.6% 62.7% 60.2% 48.7% 33.3% 93.9% Truck stop 0.6% 1.4% 0.4% 3.5% 3.3% 7.5% 5.1% 4.3% 3.0% 6.6% 1.8% 6.7% 1.3% 8.5% 38.7% 1.8% Own facility 0.7% 1.6% 7.2% 8.6% 9.8% 8.8% 11.9% 14.2% 17.1% 12.0% 24.3% 29.4% 31.8% 34.3% 25.8% 3.7% Others facility 0.1% 0.9% 0.1% 1.2% 2.2% 1.3% 1.5% 0.3% 1.6% 5.1% 1.3% 1.0% 6.8% 8.5% 2.3% 0.5% Other 0.1% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Alla 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2002 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey, Microdata File on CD, 2005. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/svsd/www/tiusview.html) a Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–13 The figure below shows the distribution of annual travel the two types of Class 7 and 8 vehicles–combination units (separate tractor and trailer) and single units (tractor and trailer on a single chassis). This information is for all trucks and trucks two years old or less. Combination trucks, dominated by box-type trailers, display the greatest amount of annual travel of all heavy vehicle types, as is evidenced both by the range of annual use. Most of the single-unit trucks in the survey travel 40,000 miles per year or less. Figure 5.2. Distribution of Trucks over 26,000 lb by Vehicle-Miles Traveled Note: Heavy trucks (class 7 & 8) are greater than 26,000 pounds gross vehicle weight based on the manufacturer’s rating. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2002 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey, Microdata File on CD, 2005. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/svsd/www/tiusview.html) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–14 The latest Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey asked truck owners if the truck had certain features as permanent equipment on the truck. Some of the features asked about were onboard computers, idle-reduction devices, navigational systems, and Internet access. Of the 2.3 million heavy trucks (class 7 & 8) in the United States, nearly 10% were equipped with onboard computers that had communication capabilities and another 5% had onboard computers without communication capabilities. Six percent of heavy trucks were equipped with idle-reducing technology. Navigational systems and Internet access were available in less than one percent of heavy trucks. Figure 5.3. Share of Heavy Trucks with Selected Electronic Features, 2002 Note: Heavy trucks (class 7 & 8) are greater than 26,000 pounds gross vehicle weight based on the manufacturer’s rating. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2002 Vehicle Inventory and User Survey, Microdata File on CD, 2005. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–15 Fuel Economy Study for Class 8 Trucks As part of a study sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Vehicle Technologies Office (VTO), the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in conjunction with several industry partners has collected data and information related to heavy-truck operation in real-world highway environments. The primary objective of the project was to collect real-world performance and spatial data for long-haul operations of Class 8 tractor-trailers from a fleet engaged in normal freight operations. Six model-year 2005 Class 8 trucks from the selected fleet, which operates within a large area of the country extending from the east coast to Mountain Time Zone and from Canada to the US-Mexican border, were instrumented and 60 channels of data were collected for over a year at a rate of 5 Hz (or 5 readings per second). Those channels included information such as instantaneous fuel rate, engine speed, gear ratio, vehicle speed, and other information read from the vehicle’s databus; weather information (wind speed, precipitation, air temperature, etc.) gathered from an on-board weather station; spatial information (latitude, longitude, altitude) acquired from a GPS (Global Positioning System) device; and instantaneous tractor and trailer weight obtained from devices mounted on the six participating tractors and ten trailers. Three of the six instrumented tractors and five of the ten instrumented trailers were mounted with New Generation Single Wide-Based Tires and the others with regular dual tires. Over the duration of this phase of the project (just over a year) the six tractors traveled nearly 700,000 miles. To find out more about this project, contact Oscar Franzese, franzeseo@ornl.gov, 865-9461304. The final report on this project is available on-line at: cta.ornl.gov/cta/Publications/Reports/ORNL_TM_2008-122.pdf. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–16 The type of terrain a truck is traveling on can cause significant differences in fuel efficiency. This study (see page 5–15 for project description) shows fuel economy on severe upslopes is less than half that on flat terrain. On severe downslopes, the fuel economy was two times higher than on flat terrain. Table 5.11 Effect of Terrain on Class 8 Truck Fuel Economy Type of terrain Severe upslope (>4%) Mild upslope (1% to 4%) Flat terrain (1% to 1%) Mild downslope (-4% to -1%) Severe downslope (<-4%) Share of data records 0.7% 13.2% 72.4% 12.6% 1.1% All trucks 2.90 4.35 7.33 15.11 23.5 Average fuel efficiency (mpg) Difference Tractors Tractors between dual with dual with single and single tires (wide) tires tires (percent) 2.86 2.94 2.91% 4.25 4.44 4.35% 7.08 7.58 7.13% 14.64 15.57 6.36% 21.82 25.3 15.97% Source: Capps, Gary, Oscar Franzese, Bill Knee, M.B. Lascurain, and Pedro Otaduy. Class-8 Heavy Truck Duty Cycle Project Final Report, ORNL/TM-2008/122, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, December 2008. (Additional resources: cta.ornl.gov/cta/Publications/Reports/ORNL_TM_2008-122.pdf) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–17 This table presents a distribution of distance traveled, fuel consumed, and fuel economy by speed and by type of tires for the vehicles participating in the project (see page 5-15 for project description). The speed bins are divided into 5-mile intervals, going from 0+ mph (i.e., speed > 0.00 mph) to 85 mph, while the four main columns of the table are organized by the type of tires that were mounted on the tractor and trailers. The first row of the table contains information about fuel consumed while the vehicle was idling (i.e., the vehicle was static with the engine on) with the following rows presenting information about the distance traveled, fuel consumed, and fuel economy for each one of the speed intervals. The next-to-the-last row shows the totals for both traveled distances and fuel consumed as well as the overall fuel economy for each tire-combination category. The latter are then used to compute the percentage difference in terms of fuel economy from dual tire tractors and trailers, which is the most common tire setup for large trucks at the present time. Table 5.12 Fuel Economy for Class 8 Trucks as Function of Speed and Tractor-Trailer Tire Combination Speed (mph) Idling 0+ to 5 5+ to 10 10+ to 15 15+ to 20 20+ to 25 25+ to 30 30+ to 35 35+ to 40 40+ to 45 45+ to 50 50+ to 55 55+ to 60 60+ to 65 Dual tire tractor – dual tire trailer Distance Fuel Fuel traveled cons. econ. (miles) (gal) (MPG) N/A 1,858.5 N/A 281 101.8 2.76 674 198.8 3.39 723 192.0 3.77 744 199.1 3.73 938 228.4 4.11 1,178 266.9 4.41 1,481 336.8 4.40 1,917 403.5 4.75 2,955 584.1 5.06 4,935 907.9 5.43 9,397 1,629.8 5.77 20,656 3,297.2 6.26 38,964 5,879.6 6.63 65+ to 70 70+ to 75 75+ to 85 Totala 58,304 56,378 7,849 207,374 Percent increase in fuel economy from dual tire trac/trail 8,313.2 7,483.2 808.2 30,831.0 7.01 7.53 9.71 6.73 0.00% Dual tire tractor – Single (wide) tire tractor – single (wide) tire trailer dual tire trailer Distance Fuel Fuel Distance Fuel Fuel traveled cons. econ. traveled cons. econ. (miles) (gal) (MPG) (miles) (gal) (MPG) N/A 967.9 N/A N/A 1,676.4 N/A 148 50.4 2.93 368.0 124.2 3.0 368 103.2 3.56 808.0 245.4 3.3 396 98.3 4.03 848.0 216.5 3.9 404 100.9 4.00 882.0 221.6 4.0 489 113.6 4.31 1,111.0 244.2 4.6 609 131.5 4.63 1,420.0 286.9 5.0 753 154.2 4.88 1,774.0 341.1 5.2 1,000 193.6 5.17 2,284.0 433.6 5.3 1,543 285.9 5.40 3,380.0 603.6 5.6 2,573 447.7 5.75 5,410.0 872.8 6.2 4,962 811.5 6.11 10,046.0 1,622.7 6.2 11,707 1,721.9 6.80 22,373.0 3,257.8 6.9 21,472 2,980.8 7.20 34,517.0 4,840.0 7.1 NOT ADJUSTED FOR TERRAIN: See note below. 27,931 3,652.2 7.65 65,063.0 9,256.4 7.0 21,751 2,745.5 7.92 66,882.0 8,435.6 7.9 3,610 403.2 8.95 11,513.0 911.1 12.6 99,714 13,994.0 7.13 228,680.0 31,913.0 7.2 5.93% 6.53% Single (wide) tire tractor single (wide) tire trailer Distance Fuel Fuel traveled cons. econ. (miles) (gal) (MPG) N/A 706.0 N/A 156 52.8 2.96 331 98.8 3.35 343 87.0 3.95 361 90.5 3.98 462 101.1 4.57 580 117.6 4.93 708 141.1 5.02 941 184.3 5.10 1,350 254.4 5.31 2,177 360.4 6.04 3,877 625.5 6.20 8,710 1,246.9 6.99 14,944 2,049.4 7.29 27,144 32,887 6,817 101,790 3,880.1 4,056.1 512.2 13,858.0 7.00 8.11 13.31 7.35 9.20% Note: These data were not adjusted to account for the effects of terrain. The increase in fuel economy for speeds above 70 mph is likely due to the vehicle achieving high speeds while traveling down slope. Therefore, this increase in fuel economy is not expected to be characteristic of all travel at these higher speeds. Source: Capps, Gary, Oscar Franzese, Bill Knee, M.B. Lascurain, and Pedro Otaduy. Class-8 Heavy Truck Duty Cycle Project Final Report, ORNL/TM-2008/122, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, December 2008. (Additional resources: cta.ornl.gov/cta/Publications/Reports/ORNL_TM_2008-122.pdf) a Total fuel consumed does not include fuel consumed while idling. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–18 The fuel economy information presented in Table 5.12 is on the upper limits of today’s large-truck fleets and is mostly a result of driver training and the extensive vehicle maintenance (including constant tire pressure) to which the fleet company participating in this project adheres. Nevertheless, the results of this extensive test indicate that there are substantial gains in terms of fuel economy for large trucks when single (wide) tires are used in combination with dual tires or alone (best case). Figure 5.4 shows the information from Table 5.12 in a graphical form (bars) and also displays for each speed bin the percentage of the total distance that is traveled at that speed (line). It is possible to observe that above 80% of the distance traveled by long-haul Class 8 trucks is done at speeds above 55 mph. Therefore, any gains in fuel economies at these speeds derived from a given tire combination would have a very large impact on the overall fuel economy of these types of trucks. Figure 5.4 shows that, except for the D-S combination within the 65+ to 70 mph, the combinations with all single (wide) tires perform better and, therefore, obtain the largest overall fuel economy. Figure 5.4. Class 8 Truck Fuel Economy as a Function of Speed and Tractor-Trailer Tire Combination and Percentage of Total Distance Traveled as a Function of Speed NOT ADJUSTED FOR TERRAIN: See note below. Note: D = Dual tire. S = Single (wide) tire. These data were not adjusted to account for the effects of terrain. The increase in fuel economy for speeds above 70 mph is likely due to the vehicle achieving high speeds while traveling down slope. Therefore, this increase in fuel economy is not expected to be characteristic of all travel at these higher speeds. Source: Capps, Gary, Oscar Franzese, Bill Knee, M.B. Lascurain, and Pedro Otaduy. Class-8 Heavy Truck Duty Cycle Project Final Report, ORNL/TM-2008/122, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, December 2008. (Additional resources: cta.ornl.gov/cta/Publications/Reports/ORNL_TM_2008-122.pdf) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–19 This graph presents for each one of the four tire-combination categories the percent of total fuel that is consumed when traveling at different speeds (bars) as well as the average percent of fuel consumed for each speed bin (line). As opposed to Table 5.12, the total fuel consumed on this graph includes the fuel consumed while idling. Figure 5.5. Class 8 Truck Percent of Total Fuel Consumed as a Function of Speed and Tractor-Trailer Tire Combination NOT ADJUSTED FOR TERRAIN: See note below Note: D = Dual tire. S = Single (wide) tire. These data were not adjusted to account for the effects of terrain. The increase in fuel economy for speeds above 70 mph is likely due to the vehicle achieving high speeds while traveling down slope. Therefore, this increase in fuel economy is not expected to be characteristic of all travel at these higher speeds. Source: Capps, Gary, Oscar Franzese, Bill Knee, M.B. Lascurain, and Pedro Otaduy. Class-8 Heavy Truck Duty Cycle Project Final Report, ORNL/TM-2008/122, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, December 2008. (Additional resources: cta.ornl.gov/cta/Publications/Reports/ORNL_TM_2008-122.pdf) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–20 A typical class 8 truck tractor weighs about 17,000 lb. The powertrain is nearly a quarter of the weight (24%) while the truck body structure is 19%. Table 5.13 Class 8 Truck Weight by Component Wheels and tires Chassis/frame Drivetrain and suspension Misc. accessories/systems Truck body structure Powertrain Total Pounds 1,700 2,040 2,890 3,060 3,230 4,080 17,000 Share of total 10% 12% 17% 18% 19% 24% 100% Notes: • Powertrain includes engine and cooling system, transmission and accessories. • Truck body structure includes cab-in-white, sleeper unit, hood and fairings, interior and glass. • Miscellaneous accessories/systems include batteries, fuel system, and exhaust hardware. • Drivetrain and suspension includes drive axles, steer axle, and suspension system. • Chassis/frame includes frame rails and crossmembers, fifth wheel and brackets. Wheels and tires include a set of 10 aluminum wheels, plus tires. Source: National Academy of Sciences, Technologies and Approaches to Reducing the Fuel Consumption of Medium and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, 2010, p. 117. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–21 The gross weight of a vehicle (GVW) is the weight of the empty vehicle plus the weight of the maximum payload that the vehicle was designed to carry. In cars and small light trucks, the difference between the empty weight of the vehicle and the GVW is not significantly different (1,000 to 1,500 lb). The largest trucks and tractor-trailers, however, have a payload capacity share of 200%, which means they can carry 200% of their empty weight. The medium-sized trucks (truck classes 3-6) have payload capacity shares between 50% and 100%. Table 5.14 Gross Vehicle Weight vs. Empty Vehicle Weight Vehicle description Cars Minivans, small SUVs, small pick-ups Large SUVs, standard pickups Large SUVs, standard pickups Utility van, multi- purpose, mini-bus, step van City delivery, parcel delivery, large walk-in, bucket, landscaping City delivery, parcel delivery, large walk-in, bucket City delivery, school bus, large walk-in, bucket City bus, furniture, refrigerated, refuse, fuel tanker, dump, tow, concrete, fire engine, tractor-trailer Refuse, concrete, furniture, city bus, tow, fire engine (straight trucks) Tractor-trailer: van, refrigerated, bulk tanker, flat bed (combination trucks) Gross vehicle weight range (pounds) 3,200-6,000 Empty vehicle weight range (pounds) 2,400-5,000 Maximum payload capacity (pounds) 1,000 Payload capacity share (percent of empty weight) 20% 1 4,000-2,400 3,200-4,500 1,500 33% 2a 6,001-8,500 4,500-6,000 2,500 40% 2b 8,501-10,000 5,000-6,300 3,700 60% 3 10,001-14,000 7,650-8,750 5,250 60% 4 14,001-16,000 7,650-8,750 7,250 80% 5 16,001-19,500 9,500-10,000 8,700 80% 6 19,501-26,000 11,500-14,500 11,500 80% 7 26,001-33,000 11,500-14,500 18,500 125% 8a 33,001-80,000 20,000-26,000 54,000 200% 8b 33,001-80,000 20,000-26,000 54,000 200% Truck class Source: National Academy of Sciences, Technologies and Approaches to Reducing the Fuel Consumption of Medium and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, 2010, pp. 18 and 116. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–22 According to weigh-in-motion data collected by fifteen states, the majority of 5-axle tractor-trailers on the road weigh between 33,000 and 73,000 lb. Eleven percent of the tractor-trailers had weight recorded around 72,800 lb and 10% around 68,300 lb. Another 10% of tractor-trailers were on the lighter end of the scale – around 37,500 lb. These data show that only a small percent of trucks on the road are near the maximum roadway gross vehicle weight of 80,000 lb. Thus, most trucks are filling the trailer space to capacity (cubing-out) before they reach the maximum weight limit (weighing-out). Figure 5.6. Distribution of Class 8 Trucks by On-Road Vehicle Weight, 2008a Note: Data are from these 15 States: California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, and Washington. Source: National Academy of Sciences, Technologies and Approaches to Reducing the Fuel Consumption of Medium and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, 2010, p. 118. Original source: Federal Highway Administration, Vehicle Travel Information System, 2008. Study reported data on 5-axle tractor-trailers which are class 8 trucks. Single-unit class 8 trucks were not considered in the study. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–23 Commodity Flow Survey The Commodity Flow Survey (CFS) designed to provide data on the flow of goods and materials by mode of transport. The survey was first conducted in various years from 1963 to 1977, and was again conducted in 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007, and 2012 with improvements in methodology, sample size, and scope. Data collection for the 2017 survey began in late 2016 and preliminary data are expected in December 2018. It is a shipper-based survey which covers business establishments from these industries: • • • • Mining Manufacturing Wholesale trade Select Retail and Services Industries not covered by CFS include transportation, construction, most retail and services industries, farms, fisheries, foreign establishments, and most government-owned establishments. Before 1993 data were collected only on the principal mode of travel, but after that time all modes of a shipment were captured in the data. The CFS is a joint effort of the Bureau of Transportation Statistics and the U.S. Census Bureau. Additional information on the survey can be found at: www.bts.gov/content/commodity-flow-survey-overview www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cfs.html TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–24 Industries covered by the 2012 Commodity Flow Survey (CFS) shipped goods worth over $13 trillion. Compared to the 1993 CFS, the value of shipments is up 1.7% per year and tons shipped are up 0.8% per year. By value, multiple mode shipments increased 2.8% per year from 1993 to 2012. Table 5.15 Value of Goods Shipped in the United States: Comparison of the 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007 and 2012 Commodity Flow Surveysa All modes Single modes Truckb For-hire truck Private truck Rail Water Inland water Great Lakes Deep sea Multiple waterways Air (includes truck and air) Pipelinee Multiple modes Parcel, U.S.P.S. or courier Truck and rail Truck and water Rail and water Other multiple modes Other and unknown modes 1997 (billion 2012 dollars) 9,933.3 8,181.8 7,126.0 4,150.4 2,913.2 457.2 108.5 77.1 2.2 29.2 2002 (billion 2012 dollars) 10,716.8 8,996.6 7,957.3 4,794.9 3,120.8 396.8 114.0 73.3 1.1 39.6 240.4 155.4 1,145.4 973.7 143.6 16.2 6.4 5.6 327.7 162.4 1,353.1 1,224.4 108.3 11.8 2.5 6.1 338.1 190.4 1,377.3 1,260.6 89.2 18.3 4.2 4.9 279.4 442.5 2,067.1 1,729.5 207.3 64.7 15.4 50.2 2012 (billion dollars) 13,852.1 11,900.4 10,132.2 6,504.6 3,627.6 473.1 301.6 218.9 0.4 59.9 22.3 450.6 542.9 1,950.8 1,688.2 224.8 29.0 8.0 0.7 418.8 398.5 342.8 309.1 1.0 1993 (billion 2012 dollars) 10,106.6 8,542.3 7,612.4 4,538.0 3,035.4 427.7 106.6 70.4 c 34.2 c d d 2007 (billion 2012 dollars) 12,938.9 10,562.8 9,230.4 5,487.5 3,742.8 483.3 127.2 100.8 c 25.5 d Average annual percent change (1993-2012) 1.7% 1.8% 1.5% 1.9% 0.9% 0.5% 5.6% 6.2% c 3.0% c 3.4% 6.8% 2.8% 2.9% 2.4% 3.1% 1.2% -10.3% -27.2% Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007, and 2012 Commodity Flow Surveys, Table 1a. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cfs.html) Detail may not add to total because of rounding. "Truck" as a single mode includes shipments which went by private truck only, for-hire truck only, or a combination of private truck and for-hire truck. c Denotes data do not meet publication standards because of high sampling variability or poor response quality. d Data are not available. e CFS data for pipeline exclude most shipments of crude oil. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–25 Industries covered by the 2012 Commodity Flow Survey (CFS) shipped over 11 billion tons of goods nationwide. Nearly three-quarters of the freight tonnage was shipped by truck. Table 5.16 Tons of Freight in the United States: Comparison of the 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007 and 2012 Commodity Flow Surveysa All modes Single modes Truckb For-hire truck Private truck Rail Water Inland water Great Lakes Deep sea Multiple waterways Air (includes truck and air) Pipelined Multiple modes Parcel, U.S.P.S. or courier Truck and rail Truck and water Rail and water Other multiple modes Other and unknown modes 1993 (millions) 9,688.50 8,922.30 6,385.9 2,808.3 3,543.5 1,544.10 505.4 362.5 33 109.9 c 3.1 483.6 225.7 18.9 40.6 68 79.2 18.9 540.5 1997 (millions) 11,089.7 10,436.5 7,700.7 3,402.6 4,137.3 1,549.8 563.4 414.8 38.4 110.2 2002 (millions) 11,667.9 11,086.7 7,842.8 3,657.3 4,149.7 1,873.9 681.2 458.6 38.0 184.6 2007 (millions) 12,543.4 11,698.1 8,778.7 4,075.1 4,703.6 1,861.3 403.6 343.3 17.8 42.5 4.5 618.2 216.7 23.7 54.2 33.2 79.3 26.2 436.5 3.8 685.0 216.7 25.5 43.0 23.3 105.1 19.8 364.6 3.6 650.9 573.7 33.9 225.6 145.5 54.9 113.8 271.6 c c c 2012 (millions) 11,299.4 10,905.5 8,060.2 4,298.7 3,761.3 1,628.5 576.0 424.5 31.4 73.0 47.1 4.8 636.0 357.0 28.5 213.8 56.7 55.6 2.5 36.8 Average annual percent change (1993-2012) 0.8% 1.1% 1.2% 2.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.7% 0.8% -0.3% -2.1% c 2.3% 1.5% 2.4% 2.2% 9.1% -1.0% -1.8% -10.1% -13.2% Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007, and 2012 Commodity Flow Survey, Table 1a. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cfs.html) Detail may not add to total because of rounding. "Truck" as a single mode includes shipments which went by private truck only, for-hire truck only, or a combination of private truck and for-hire truck. c Data are not available. d CFS data for pipeline exclude most shipments of crude oil. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–26 Industries covered by the 2012 Commodity Flow Survey (CFS) accounted for 2.9 trillion ton-miles on the nation’s highways, railways, waterways, pipelines, and aviation system. Ton-miles increased an average of 1.1% per year from 1993 to 2012. Table 5.17 Ton-Miles of Freight in the United States: Comparison of the 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007 and 2012 Commodity Flow Surveysa All modes Single modes Truckb For-hire truck Private truck Rail Water Inland water Great Lakes Deep sea Multiple waterways Air (includes truck and air) Pipelined Multiple modes Parcel, U.S.P.S. or courier Truck and rail Truck and water Rail and water Other multiple modes Other and unknown modes 1993 (billions) 2,420.90 2,136.90 869.5 629 235.9 942.6 272 164.4 12.4 95.2 c 1997 (billions) 2,661.4 2,383.5 1,023.5 741.1 268.6 1,022.5 261.7 189.3 13.4 59.0 c 2002 (billions) 3,137.9 2,867.9 1,255.9 959.6 291.1 1,261.6 282.7 211.5 13.8 57.4 c 2007 (billions) 3,344.7 2,894.3 1,342.1 1,055.6 286.5 1,344.0 157.3 117.5 6.9 33.0 c 4 6.2 5.8 4.5 191.5 13.2 37.7 40.6 70.2 204.5 18.0 55.6 34.8 77.6 18.6 73.4 225.7 19.0 45.5 32.4 115.0 13.8 44.2 416.6 28.0 196.8 98.4 47.1 46.4 33.8 c c 92.6 e e e 2012 (billions) 2,969.5 2,697.4 1,247.7 1,050.9 196.8 1,211.5 192.9 118.7 11.0 22.1 41.0 5.8 e 271.8 22.7 169.5 48.6 29.2 1.9 0.3 Average annual percent change (1993-2012) 1.1% 1.2% 1.9% 2.7% -0.9% 1.3% -1.8% -1.7% -0.6% -7.4% c 2.0% c 1.9% 2.9% 8.2% 1.0% -4.5% c -26.0% Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007 and 2012 Commodity Flow Surveys, Table 1a. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cfs.html) Detail may not add to total because of rounding. "Truck" as a single mode includes shipments which went by private truck only, for-hire truck only, or a combination of private truck and for-hire truck. c Data are not available. d CFS data for pipeline exclude most shipments of crude oil. e Denotes data do not meet publication standards because of high sampling variability or poor response quality. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–27 Industries covered by the 2012 Commodity Flow Survey (CFS) had an average shipment length of 630 miles, a 49% increase from the 1993 survey. For single mode shipments, air had the highest shipment length in 2012; for multiple modes, truck and water had the highest length. Table 5.18 Average Miles per Shipment in the United States: Comparison of the 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007 and 2012 Commodity Flow Surveysa All modes Single modes Truckb For-hire truck Private truck Rail Water Inland water Great Lakes Deep sea Multiple waterways Air (includes truck and air) Pipelined Multiple modes Parcel, U.S.P.S. or courier Truck and rail Truck and water Rail and water Other multiple modes Other and unknown modes 534 1,861 1997 (miles) 472 184 144 485 53 769 482 177 204 1,024 2002 (miles) 546 240 173 523 64 807 568 450 339 664 2007 (miles) 619 234 206 599 57 728 520 144 657 923 1,415 1,380 1,919 1,304 736 734 1,403 1,417 627 1,082 229 813 813 1,347 1,265 1,092 895 894 1,413 1,950 957 122 130 975 975 1,007 1,429 1,928 1,182 116 1993 (miles) 424 197 144 472 52 766 c c c c c e e c e e c e 2012 (miles) 630 262 227 508 58 805 908 275 347 1,157 1,034 1,295 e Average annual percent change (1997-2012) 2.1% 1.5% 2.4% 0.4% 0.6% 0.3% c c -2.2% -2.5% c -0.5% c 922 922 988 1,562 1,073 1.2% 1.2% -1.8% 0.5% 2.9% 2 -22.1% e c Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1993, 1997, 2002, 2007 and 2012 Commodity Flow Surveys, Table 1a. (Additional resources: www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cfs.html) Detail may not add to total because of rounding. "Truck" as a single mode includes shipments which went by private truck only, for-hire truck only, or a combination of private truck and for-hire truck. c Data are not available. d CFS data for pipeline exclude most shipments of crude oil. e Denotes data do not meet publication standards because of high sampling variability or poor response quality. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–28 Ranging from a speed limit of 55 miles per hour (mph) to 85 mph, the maximum speed limit for trucks varies from state to state and sometimes from year to year. Currently, California has the most conservative maximum speed limit for trucks – 55 mph. At the other end of the spectrum, Texas has some roads where the truck speed limit is 85 mph. Because of the varying limits, there is not one common highway speed at which trucks travel. This precludes truck manufacturers from engineering truck engines that peak in efficiency after reaching the speed at which the vehicles most commonly travel. Instead, manufacturers design the vehicle to perform well over the entire range of speeds. Figure 5.7. Maximum Daytime Truck Speed Limits by State, 2017 Source: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Highway Loss Data Institute, “Speed Limits,” September 2018. (Additional resources: www.iihs.org/iihs/topics/laws/speedlimits) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–29 Although all states allow the conventional combinations consisting of a 28-foot semi-trailer and a 28-foot trailer, only 14 states and six state turnpike authorities allow longer combination vehicles (LCVs) on at least some parts of their road networks. LCVs are tractors pulling a semi-trailer and trailer, with at least one of them – the semitrailer, the trailer, or both – longer than 28 feet. The routes that these LCVs can travel have not changed since 1991. Figure 5.8. Routes Where Longer Combination Vehicles Are Permitted, 2017 Note: Empty triples are allowed on I-80 in Nebraska. Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Freight Facts and Figures 2017, 2018. (Additional resources: www.bts.gov/product/freight-facts-and-figures). TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5–30 The U.S. Department of Transportation mandates that truckers rest for 10 hours after driving for 11 hours, during which time they often park at truck stops idling the engines to provide heating, cooling and use of electrical appliances. Electrification at truck stops allows truckers to “plug-in” vehicles to operate the necessary systems without idling the engine. There are currently 103 publicly accessible electrification sites across the nation. Some of these sites require special equipment to be installed on the truck and others do not. Table 5.19 Truck Stop Electrification Sites by State, 2018 State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Dist. of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total Number of Truck Stop Electrification Sites 1 0 1 3 6 2 10 2 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 1 0 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 2 2 4 3 0 4 0 5 6 0 2 0 7 12 4 0 3 4 0 0 2 103 Source: Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center, U.S. Truck Stop Electrification Locations (Data through 9/17/2018). (Additional resources: www.afdc.energy.gov/truckstop) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–1 Alternative Fuel and Advanced Technology Vehicles and Characteristics Summary Statistics from Tables in this Chapter Source Table 6.1 Alternative fuel vehicles made available, 2017 E85 1,150,097 LPG 2,837 CNG 5,939 Electric LNG Hydrogen Table 6.11 1,420,404 Number of alternative fuel refuel sites, 2018 Electric outlets 258,689 0 2,842 68,160 58,634 LPG 3,357 CNG 1,664 Biodiesel 704 Hydrogen 60 Fuel type abbreviations are used throughout this chapter. B20 = 20% biodiesel, 80% petroleum diesel CNG = compressed natural gas E85 = 85% ethanol, 15% gasoline E95 = 95% ethanol, 5% gasoline H2 = hydrogen LNG = liquefied natural gas LPG = liquefied petroleum gas TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–2 Alternative Fuels The Energy Policy Act of 1992 defines alternative fuels and allows the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) to add to the list of alternative fuels if the fuel is substantially nonpetroleum, yields substantial energy security benefits, and offers substantial environmental benefits. DOE currently recognizes the following as alternative fuels: • • • • • • • • • • methanol, ethanol, and other alcohols, blends of 85% or more of alcohol with gasoline, natural gas and liquid fuels domestically produced from natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (propane), coal-derived liquid fuels, hydrogen, electricity, biodiesel (B100), fuels (other than alcohol) derived from biological materials, P-series. Alternative Fuels Data Center DOE established the Alternative Fuels Data Center (AFDC) in 1991 to support its work aimed at fulfilling the Alternative Motor Fuels Act directives. Since then, the AFDC has expanded its focus to include all advanced transportation fuels, vehicles, and technologies. The AFDC is operated and managed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in Golden, Colorado. The purposes of the AFDC are: • to gather and analyze information on the fuel consumption, emissions, operation, and durability of alternative fuel vehicles, and • to provide unbiased, accurate information on alternative fuels and alternative fuel vehicles to government agencies, private industry, research institutions, and other interested organizations. Much of the AFDC data can be obtained through their website: www.afdc.energy.gov. Several tables and graphs in this chapter contain statistics which were generated by the AFDC. Below are some links to specific areas of the AFDC website. Alternative & Advanced Fuels – www.afdc.energy.gov Alternative Fueling Station Locator – www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/locator/stations Alternative & Advanced Vehicles – www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels State & Federal Incentives & Laws – www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/laws Data Analysis & Trends – www.afdc.energy.gov/data Tools – www.afdc.energy.gov/tools TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–3 The Energy Information Administration (EIA) is no longer publishing estimates of the number of alternative vehicles in use in the United States. EIA does publish the number of alternative fuel vehicles “made available” each year, beginning in 2004. The alternative fuel vehicles “made available” are estimates from vehicle manufacturer production and companies performing vehicle conversions. The data are more of a proxy for alternative fuel vehicle sales than for vehicle population, but EIA cautions that the data are not actual sales data. Table 6.1 Estimates of Alternative Fuel Highway Vehicles Made Available, 2004-2017 Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 CNG 7,752 3,304 3,128 2,487 4,440 3,770 4,973 5,674 7,672 9,454 6,662 8,744 7,840 5,939 Electricity 2,200 2,281 2,715 3,152 2,802 2,255 2,229 25,382 46,624 130,323 92,594 118,560 162,951 258,689 E85 674,678 743,948 1,011,399 1,115,069 1,175,345 805,777 1,484,945 2,116,273 2,446,966 2,665,470 2,433,113 1,881,500 1,272,091 1,150,097 Hydrogen 31 74 40 63 63 26 64 107 56 10 3 2 29 2,842 LNG 136 68 92 26 384 126 231 137 101 344 535 7 10 0 LPG 2,150 700 473 356 695 861 747 1,054 1,134 2,700 1,708 2,248 1,932 2,837 Note: “Made available” refers to the supply of warrantied alternative fuel vehicles by manufacturers and aftermarket conversion companies. These do not represent sales. Source: U. S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration website, “Alternative Fuel Vehicle Data,” www.eia.gov/renewable/afv, September 2018. (Additional resources: www.eia.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–4 The hybrid share of all light vehicles fell to 2.0% of all light vehicle sales in 2016 but rose slightly in 2017. Plugin vehicles certified for highway use began selling in 2010 and were 1.2% of the light vehicle market in 2017. Table 6.2 Hybrid and Plug-In Vehicle Sales, 1999-2017 Calendar year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Hybrid vehicle sales (thousands) 0.0 9.4 20.3 36.0 47.6 84.2 205.9 251.9 351.1 315.8 290.3 274.6 266.5 434.6 495.5 452.2 384.4 346.9 362.9 Plug-in hybrid vehicle sales (thousands) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 7.7 38.6 49.0 55.4 43.0 72.9 91.1 All-electric vehicle salesa (thousands) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.1 14.6 48.1 63.5 71.1 86.7 104.4 All light vehicle salesa (thousands) 16,711 17,164 16,950 16,675 16,494 16,737 16,774 16,336 15,867 13,015 10,236 11,394 12,542 14,220 15,279 16,192 17,095 17,169 16,818 Hybrid share of all light vehicles 0.0% 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.5% 1.2% 1.5% 2.2% 2.4% 2.8% 2.4% 2.1% 3.1% 3.2% 2.8% 2.2% 2.0% 2.2% Plug-in hybrid share of all light vehicles 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.4% 0.5% All-electric share of all light vehicles 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.1% 0.3% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.6% Note: Plug-in vehicle sales include only those vehicles certified for highway use. Small electric carts and neighborhood electric vehicles are excluded. Sources: Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Sales – Compiled by the Transportation Research Center at Argonne National Laboratory, 2018. (Additional resources: www.anl.gov/energy-systems/project/light-duty-electric-drivevehicles-monthly-sales-updates) All Light Vehicle Sales – Table 3.11. a b Includes plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles and all-electric vehicles. Includes cars and trucks up to 10,000 lb gross vehicle weight. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–5 Trolleybus, heavy rail, and light rail use nearly all alternative fuels. However, the 54.3% of buses using alternative fuels replace a lot of traditional fuel use. Ferry boats have the highest average age. Table 6.3 Alternative Fuel Transit Vehicles, 2016 Mode Busa Commuter rail locomotiveb Commuter rail self-propelled car Ferry Boat Heavy Raild Light Raile Demand Response Trolleybus Vanpool Average age 7.6 19.0 20.5 26.4 20.0 20.5 4.2 10.6 c Percent powered by alternative fuels 54.3% 4.4% 67.9% c 100.0% 100.0% 19.5% 100.0% 32.1% Number of vehicles 72,075 7,216 c 201 10,737 2,083 71,299 611 13,487 Note: See Glossary for definition of modes, such as paratransit and vanpool. The number of vehicles are 2015 data. Source: American Public Transportation Association, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, March 2018, Appendix A. (Additional resources: www.apta.com) Includes bus rapid transit and commuter bus vehicles. Electric car or diesel-propelled railway for urban passenger train service between a central city and adjacent suburbs. c Data are not available. d An electric railway with the capacity for a heavy volume of traffic. e Typically an electric railway with a light volume traffic capacity with power drawn from an overhead electric line. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–6 Table 6.4 E85 Flex-Fuel Vehicles Available by Manufacturer, Model Year 2018 Model Chevrolet Impala Chevrolet Silverado C15 2WD 4.3L, 6cyl Chevrolet Silverado C15 2WD 5.3L, 8cyl Chevrolet Silverado K15 4WD 4.3L, 6cyl Chevrolet Silverado K15 4WD 5.3L, 8cyl Chevrolet Suburban C1500 2WD Chevrolet Suburban K1500 4WD Chevrolet Tahoe C1500 2WD Chevrolet Tahoe K1500 4WD Chrysler 300 Chrysler 300 AWD Dodge Charger Dodge Charger AWD Dodge Grand Caravan Dodge Journey Ford Escape FWD FFV Ford Explorer 2WD FFV Ford Explorer AWD FFV Ford F150 2WD FFV Base Payload LT Tire Ford F150 2WD FFV Base Payload LT Tire Ford F150 4WD Base Payload LT Tire Ford F150 4WD FFV Base Payload LT Tire Ford F150 5.0L 2WD FFV GVWR>7599 lbs Ford F150 5.0L 4WD FFV GVWR>7599 lbs Ford F150 Pickup 2WD FFV 3.3L, 6cyl Ford F150 Pickup 2WD FFV 5.0L, 8cyl Ford F150 Pickup 4WD FFV 3.3L, 6cyl Ford F150 Pickup 4WD FFV 5.0L, 8cyl Ford Taurus AWD FFV Ford Taurus FWD FFV Ford Transit Connect Van FFV Ford Transit Connect Wagon FFV Ford Transit Connect Wagon LWB FFV Ford Transit T150 Wagon FFV GMC Sierra C15 2WD 4.3L, 6cyl GMC Sierra C15 2WD 5.3L, 8cyl GMC Sierra K15 4WD 4.3L, 6cyl GMC Sierra K15 4WD 5.3L, 8cyl GMC Yukon C1500 2WD GMC Yukon C1500 XL 2WD GMC Yukon K1500 4WD GMC Yukon K1500 XL 4WD Jeep Cherokee 4WD Jeep Cherokee FWD Jeep Renegade 2WD Mercedes-Benz CLA250 4matic Mercedes-Benz GLA250 4matic Mercedes-Benz GLE350 4matic Nissan Frontier 2WD FFV Nissan Frontier 4WD FFV Ram 1500 2WD Ram 1500 4WD Toyota Sequoia 4WD FFV Toyota Tundra 4WD FFV EPA Size Class Large Car Standard Pickup Truck 2WD Standard Pickup Truck 2WD Standard Pickup Truck 4WD Standard Pickup Truck 4WD Standard SUV 2WD Standard SUV 4WD Standard SUV 2WD Standard SUV 4WD Large Car Large Car Large Car Large Car Minivan 2WD Small SUV 2WD Small SUV 2WD Standard SUV 2WD Standard SUV 4WD Standard Pickup Truck 2WD Standard Pickup Truck 2WD Standard Pickup Truck 4WD Standard Pickup Truck 4WD Standard Pickup Truck 2WD Standard Pickup Truck 4WD Standard Pickup Truck 2WD Standard Pickup Truck 2WD Standard Pickup Truck 4WD Standard Pickup Truck 4WD Large Car Large Car Special Purpose Vehicle 2WD Special Purpose Vehicle 2WD Special Purpose Vehicle 2WD Passenger Van Standard Pickup Truck 2WD Standard Pickup Truck 2WD Standard Pickup Truck 4WD Standard Pickup Truck 4WD Standard SUV 2WD Standard SUV 2WD Standard SUV 4WD Standard SUV 4WD Small SUV 4WD Small SUV 2WD Small SUV 2WD Compact Car Small SUV 4WD Standard SUV 4WD Small Pickup Truck 2WD Small Pickup Truck 4WD Standard Pickup Truck 2WD Standard Pickup Truck 4WD Standard SUV 4WD Standard Pickup Truck 4WD Range E85 (Miles) 296 364 / 476 364 / 476 338 / 442 338 / 442 434 372 364 338 314 296 314 296 280 287 283 279 260 322 / 504 368 / 576 299 / 468 345 / 540 322 / 504 299 / 468 382 / 432 322 / 504 358 / 405 299 / 468 266 304 269 253 253 275 364 / 476 364 / 476 338 / 442 338 / 442 364 364 338 312 269 284 241 296 251 344 274 253 364 / 448 338 / 416 264 264 / 380 Note: Vehicles with two ranges listed have two fuel tank size options. Source: U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fuel Economy Website, Power Search www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/powerSearch.jsp. Data accessed May 9, 2018. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–7 Table 6.5 B20, CNG, and LPG Vehicles Available by Manufacturer, Model Year 2018 Make BMW BMW BMW BMW BMW Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford GMC GMC GMC GMC Jaguar Jaguar Jaguar Jaguar Jaguar Jeep Jeep Land Rover Land Rover Land Rover Land Rover Mazda Mazda RAM RAM Model Fuela EPA Size Class 328d B20 Compact Cars 328d xDrive B20 Compact Cars 540d xDrive B20 Midsize Cars 328d xDrive Sports Wagon B20 Small Station Wagons X5 xDrive 35d B20 Standard Sport Utility Vehicle 4WD Cruze B20 Compact Cars Cruze Hatchback B20 Midsize Cars Colorado 2WD B20 Small Pickup Trucks 2WD Colorado 4WD B20 Small Pickup Trucks 4WD Colorado ZR2 4WD B20 Small Pickup Trucks 4WD Equinox FWD B20 Small Sport Utility Vehicle 2WD Equinox AWD B20 Small Sport Utility Vehicle 4WD F150 2WD Base Payload LT Tire B20 Standard Pickup Trucks 2WD F150 Pickup 2WD B20 Standard Pickup Trucks 2WD F150 4WD Base Payload LT Tire B20 Standard Pickup Trucks 4WD F150 Pickup 4WD B20 Standard Pickup Trucks 4WD F150 Pickup 4WD XL/XLT B20 Standard Pickup Trucks 4WD Canyon 2WD B20 Small Pickup Trucks 2WD Canyon 4WD B20 Small Pickup Trucks 4WD Terrain FWD B20 Small Sport Utility Vehicle 2WD Terrain AWD B20 Small Sport Utility Vehicle 4WD XE B20 Compact Cars XE AWD B20 Compact Cars XF B20 Midsize Cars XF AWD B20 Midsize Cars F-Pace B20 Small Sport Utility Vehicle 4WD Grand Cherokee 4X2 B20 Standard Sport Utility Vehicle 2WD Grand Cherokee 4X4 B20 Standard Sport Utility Vehicle 4WD Range Rover Velar B20 Small Sport Utility Vehicle 4WD Discovery B20 Standard Sport Utility Vehicle 4WD Range Rover B20 Standard Sport Utility Vehicle 4WD Range Rover Sport B20 Standard Sport Utility Vehicle 4WD CX-5 2WD B20 Small Sport Utility Vehicle 2WD CX-5 4WD B20 Small Sport Utility Vehicle 4WD 1500 4X2 B20 Standard Pickup Trucks 2WD 1500 4X4 B20 Standard Pickup Trucks 4WD No light vehicles fueled with CNG are available in 2018. No light vehicles fueled with LPG are available in 2018. Range 540 510 522 510 560 500 472 525 483 483 477 499 b b b b b 525 483 477 499 533 503 609 592 461 b b b 518 545 Source: U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fuel Economy Website, Power Search www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/powerSearch.jsp. Data accessed May 8, 2018. a b All diesel vehicles are capable of using B20. Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 b b b b b 6–8 Table 6.6 Hybrid-Electric Vehicles Available by Manufacturer, Model Year 2018 Model Acura MDX Hybrid AWD Acura NSX Hybrid Acura RLX Hybrid Buick LaCrosse eAssist Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid Chevrolet Silverado 15 Hybrid 2WD Chevrolet Silverado 15 Hybrid 4WD Ford C-MAX Hybrid FWD Ford Fusion Hybrid FWD GMC Sierra 15 Hybrid 2WD GMC Sierra 15 Hybrid 4WD Honda Accord Hybrid Hyundai Ioniq Hyundai Ioniq Blue Hyundai Sonata Hybrid Hyundai Sonata Hybrid SE Infiniti Q50 Hybrid Infiniti Q50 Hybrid AWD Infiniti Q70 Hybrid Jeep Wrangler 4WD Jeep Wrangler Unlimited 4WD Kia Niro Kia Niro FE Kia Niro Touring Kia Optima Hybrid Lexus ES 300h Lexus GS 450h Lexus LC 500h Lexus LS 500h Lexus LS 500h AWD Lexus NX 300h AWD Lexus RX 450h AWD Lexus RX 450h L AWD Lincoln MKZ Hybrid FWD Nissan Rogue Hybrid AWD Nissan Rogue Hybrid FWD Toyota Avalon Hybrid Toyota Camry Hybrid LE Toyota Camry Hybrid XLE/SE Toyota Highlander Hybrid 4WD Toyota Highlander Hybrid 4WD LE Plus Toyota Prius Toyota Prius c Toyota Prius Eco Toyota RAV4 Hybrid AWD EPA Size Class Small SUV 4WD Two-Seater Midsize Car Midsize Car Midsize Car Standard Pickup 2WD Standard Pickup 4WD Large Car Midsize Car Standard Pickup 2WD Standard Pickup 4WD Large Car Large Car Large Car Midsize Car Midsize Car Compact Car Compact Car Midsize Car Small SUV 4WD Small SUV 4WD Small Station Wagon Small Station Wagon Small Station Wagon Midsize Car Midsize Car Midsize Car Subcompact Car Midsize Car Midsize Car Small SUV 4WD Standard SUV 4WD Standard SUV 4WD Midsize Car Small SUV 4WD Small SUV 2WD Midsize Car Midsize Car Midsize Car Standard SUV 4WD Standard SUV 4WD Midsize Car Compact Car Midsize Car Small SUV 4WD Range 526 328 423 458 598 520/680 468/612 540 588 520 468 602 654 690 a a 516 498 534 a a 583 595 512 668 688 539 666 622 577 459 516 499 560 478 493 680 576 598 a a 588 437 633 474 Note: Vehicles with two ranges listed have two fuel tank size options. Source: U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fuel Economy Website, Power Search www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/powerSearch.jsp. Data accessed: May 8, 2018. a Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–9 Table 6.7 Electric-Drive Vehicles Available by Manufacturer, Model Year 2018 Model BMW i3 (94Ah) BMW i3s (94Ah) BYD e6 Chevrolet Bolt EV Fiat 500e Ford Focus Electric Honda Clarity EV Hyundai Ioniq Electric Kia Soul Electric Nissan Leaf smart fortwo electric drive convertible smart fortwo electric drive coupe Tesla Model 3 Long Range Tesla Model S 100D Tesla Model S 75D Tesla Model S 75kWh Tesla Model S P100D Tesla Model X 100D Tesla Model X 75D Tesla Model X P100D Volkswagen e-Golf Audi A3 e-tron BMW 330e BMW 530e BMW 530e xDrive BMW 740e xDrive BMW i3 (94Ah) with Range Extender BMW i3s (94Ah) with Range Extender BMW X5 xDrive40e Cadillac CT6 Plug-In Chevrolet Volt Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid Ford Fusion Energi Plug-in Hybrid Honda Clarity Plug-in Hybrid Hyundai Ioniq Plug-in Hybrid Hyundai Sonata Plug-in Hybrid Karma Revero Kia Niro Plug-in Hybrid Kia Optima Plug-in Hybrid Mercedes-Benz C350e Mercedes-Benz GLC350e 4matic Mercedes-Benz GLE550e 4matic MINI Cooper SE Countryman All4 Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Porsche Cayenne S e-Hybrid Porsche Panamera 4 e-Hybrid ST Porsche Panamera Turbo S e-Hybrid Porsche Panamera Turbo S e-Hybrid Executive Porsche Panamera Turbo S e-Hybrid ST Toyota Prius Prime Volvo S90 AWD PHEV Volvo XC60 AWD PHEV Volvo XC90 AWD PHEV Honda Clarity Fuel Cell Hyundai Tucson Toyota Mirai Drive Type EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV EV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV PHEV FCEV FCEV FCEV EPA Size Class Subcompact Car Subcompact Car Small SUV 2WD Small Station Wagon Minicompact Car Compact Car Midsize Car Midsize Car Small Station Wagon Midsize Car Two Seater Two Seater Midsize Car Large Car Large Car Large Car Large Car Standard SUV 4WD Standard SUV 4WD Standard SUV 4WD Compact Car Compact Car Compact Car Compact Car Compact Car Large Car Subcompact Car Subcompact Car Standard SUV 4WD Midsize Car Compact Car Minivan 2WD Midsize Car Midsize Car Midsize Car Midsize Car Subcompact Car Small Station Wagon Midsize Car Compact Car Small SUV 4WD Standard SUV 4WD Midsize Car Small SUV 4WD Standard SUV 4WD Large Car Large Car Large Car Large Car Midsize Car Midsize Car Small SUV 4WD Standard SUV 4WD Midsize Car Small SUV Subcompact Car Range (Miles) 114 107 187 238 84 115 89 124 111 151 57 58 310 335 259 249 315 295 238 289 125 Elec 16 / Total 400 Elec 14 / Total 350 Elec 16 / Total 370 Elec 15 / Total 360 Elec 14 / Total 340 Elec 97 / Total 180 Elec 97 / Total 180 Elec 14 / Total 540 Elec 31 / Total 430 Elec 53 / Total 420 Elec 33 / Total 570 Elec 21 / Total 610 Elec 48 / Total 340 Elec 29 / Total 630 Elec 28 / Total 600 Elec 37 / Total 240 Elec 26 / Total 560 Elec 29 / Total 610 Elec 9 / Total 410 Elec 10 / Total 350 Elec 10 / Total 460 Elec 12 / Total 270 Elec 22 / Total 310 Elec 14 / Total 490 Elec 16 / Total 480 Elec 14 / Total 450 Elec 14 / Total 450 Elec 14 / Total 450 Elec 25 / Total 640 Elec 21 / Total 410 Elec 18 / Total 370 Elec 19 / Total 380 366 265 312 Note: EV = electric vehicle; PHEV = plug-in hybrid-electric vehicle; FCEV = hydrogen fuel cell vehicle. For PHEV Range, the term "Elec" refers to the charge depleting portion of operation where electricity is exclusively or primarily used. Source: U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fuel Economy Website, Power Search www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/powerSearch.jsp. Data accessed: May 9, 2018. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–10 In 1991 there were only two alternative fuel vehicle (AFV) models on the market which were fueled by M85. In 2018 there were 128 different models of AFV on the market, with 44% of those are electric vehicles which include plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles. Another 42% of the models available in 2018 were fueled by E85. Table 6.8 Number of Alternative Fuel Vehicle Models Available, 1991–2018 (number of models available) Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Propanea 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 5 2 5 5 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 6 14 10 5 9 7 CNGa 0 2 2 2 10 10 9 12 16 15 16 18 16 16 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 6 11 19 17 12 8 9 1991-2018 2008-2018 c c c 24.6% Ethanol Methanol (E85) (M85) 0 2 1 2 1 4 1 2 0 2 1 1 1 1 2 0 6 0 8 0 11 0 16 0 22 0 19 0 24 0 22 0 31 0 31 0 36 0 34 0 72 0 62 0 84 0 90 0 84 0 66 0 45 0 54 0 Average annual percentage change c -100.0% c 5.7% Electric vehicleb 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 8 16 12 10 6 5 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 6 15 16 27 29 46 56 Hydrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 3 3 3 2 Total 2 5 7 5 13 12 17 25 43 37 42 45 44 37 29 27 32 34 39 36 75 76 117 141 141 115 111 128 c c 49.6% c 16.7% 14.2% Note: Model count differs from data on Tables 6.4-6.7 because heavier vehicles, such as Ford F-250 or RAM 2500 are included. Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center website, “Light-Duty AFV, HEV, and Diesel Model Offerings, By Fuel Type,” www.afdc.energy.gov/data/10303, September 2016 and estimates for 2017 and 2018. (Additional resources: www.afdc.energy.gov) Dedicated and bi-fuel vehicles. Electric vehicles include plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles but do not include neighborhood electric vehicles, low-speed electric vehicles, or two-wheeled electric vehicles. c Average annual percentage change cannot be calculated from zero. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–11 Table 6.9 Hybrid-Electric Medium/Heavy Trucks and Buses Available by Manufacturer, 2018 Manufacturer - Model Ford E350, E450 Cutaway Ford E350, E450 Stripped Chassis Ford F-59 Stripped Chassis Ford Super Duty Chassis Cab F350, F450, F550 Ford Super Duty F250, F350, F450 Ford Transit 250/350 Van/Wagon Ford Transit CC-CA 250, 350 ENC AXESS ENC E-Z RIDER II Gillig BRT, BRTPlus, Commuter Gillig Trolley Global M4 Hybrid Hino 195h, 195h-DC Hybrid COE Hometown Trolley Streetcar MCI D4500 CT Hybrid Commuter Coach New Flyer Xcelsior Nova Bus LFS Artic HEV Nova Bus LFS Artic HEV Nova Bus LFS HEV Nova Bus LFS HEV US Hybrid HySweep sweeper US Hybrid H2Ride 32 US Hybrid H2Truck drayage Autocar ACMD-Xpert Autocar ACMD-Xpert Drive type Hybrid Electric Hybrid Electric Hybrid Electric Hybrid Electric Hybrid Electric Hybrid Electric Hybrid Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Hybrid - Diesel Electric Plug-in Hybrid Electric Plug-in Hybrid Electric Hybrid - LNG Hybrid - CNG Truck type Vocational/Cab Chassis Vocational/Cab Chassis Vocational/Cab Chassis Vocational/Cab Chassis Truck Van Vocational/Cab Chassis Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Street Sweeper Vocational/Cab Chassis Shuttle Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Street Sweeper Shuttle Bus Tractor Refuse Refuse Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center website, www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/search, August 2018. (Additional resources: www.afdc.energy.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–12 Table 6.10 Electric-Drive Medium/Heavy Trucks and Buses Available by Manufacturer, 2018 Manufacturer - Model Via Motors VTRUX AVM EV22 Shuttle Van AVM EV27 Shuttle Van AVM EV33 Shuttle Van Blue Bird All American Rear Engine BYD All-Electric Quantum Rear Loader BYD C10 45ft coach BYD C6 23ft coach BYD C9 40ft coach BYD K11 60ft transit BYD K7 30ft transit BYD K9 40ft transit BYD K9S 35ft transit BYD Q1M Yard Truck BYD Step Van BYD T5 BYD T7 BYD T9 Chanje V8100 Panel Van COBUS Industries LP 2500 COBUS Industries LP 3000 Ebus 40 Foot CompositeEbus Ebus Ebus22 First Priority GreenFleet Medium Duty Truck First Priority GreenFleet Walk-In Van Ford E350, E450 Cutaway Ford F-59 Stripped Chassis Ford Transit 350 Van/Wagon Ford Transit CC-CA 250, 350 GreenPower Bus EV250 GreenPower Bus EV300 GreenPower Bus EV350 GreenPower Bus EV400 GreenPower Bus EV550 GreenPower Bus EV Star GreenPower Bus Synapse 72 Suburban GreenPower Bus Synapse 72 Urban GreenPower Bus Synapse 90 Suburban GreenPower Bus Synapse 90 Urban GreenPower Bus Synapse Access Suburban GreenPower Bus Synapse Access Urban GreenPower Bus Synapse Shuttle Lion Electric eLion C New Flyer Xcelsior CHARGE Nova Bus LFSE Orange EV Multiple OEMs terminal Proterra Catalyst US Hybrid eCargo US Hybrid eTruck drayage Zenith Motors Cargo Van Zenith Motors Electric Bus Zenith Motors Shuttle Van Zenith Motors Step Van ZeroTruck ZeroTruck Drive type Plug-in Hybrid Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric Truck type Van Shuttle Bus Shuttle Bus Shuttle Bus School Bus Refuse Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Tractor Van Vocational/Cab Chassis Vocational/Cab Chassis Tractor Van Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Vocational/Cab Chassis Van Vocational/Cab Chassis Vocational/Cab Chassis Van Vocational/Cab Chassis Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Shuttle Bus School Bus School Bus School Bus School Bus School Bus School Bus Shuttle Bus School Bus Transit Bus Transit Bus Tractor Transit Bus Van Tractor Van Shuttle Bus Shuttle Bus Van Vocational/Cab Chassis TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–13 Table 6.10 (Continued) Electric-Drive Medium/Heavy Trucks and Buses Available by Manufacturer, 2018 Manufacturer - Model ENC AXESS US Hybrid H2Cargo US Hybrid H2Ride 30 US Hybrid H2Ride 32 US Hybrid H2Truck drayage Van Hool A300L Fuel Cell Drive type Hydrogen Fuel Cell Hydrogen Fuel Cell Hydrogen Fuel Cell Hydrogen Fuel Cell Hydrogen Fuel Cell Hydrogen Fuel Cell Truck type Transit Bus Van Shuttle Bus Shuttle Bus Tractor Transit Bus Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center website, www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/search, August 2018. (Additional resources: www.afdc.energy.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–14 This list includes public and private refuel sites; therefore, not all of these sites are available to the public. Table 6.11 Number of Alternative Refuel Sites by State and Fuel Type, 2018 State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Dist. of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Totals by Fuel B20 sites 10 0 77 4 37 15 2 1 7 14 23 7 2 23 5 9 2 4 6 3 13 12 8 7 4 3 7 2 4 4 5 5 34 115 3 14 5 64 7 6 24 2 24 17 1 3 10 40 2 4 4 704 CNG sites 33 1 29 15 324 41 21 1 2 57 48 1 11 46 34 10 23 11 24 2 18 16 21 25 6 21 1 11 6 4 27 11 74 41 1 60 126 16 81 4 13 1 23 119 79 3 24 25 3 56 14 1,664 E85 sites 43 0 22 43 147 93 4 1 3 87 59 2 6 283 210 263 26 74 12 1 37 7 253 390 5 98 2 88 22 0 5 12 76 85 44 165 41 10 126 0 66 81 83 217 1 0 44 19 33 203 12 3,604 Electric stations 152 8 453 65 5,150 659 370 44 116 1,209 743 276 80 574 202 116 195 103 89 137 614 611 590 302 58 393 35 69 215 108 290 67 1073 634 15 403 61 568 404 83 257 26 420 1,125 190 174 550 892 69 291 39 21,367 Electric charging outlets 373 13 1,094 120 19,070 1,675 794 116 306 2,700 2,090 528 165 1,381 409 260 764 199 196 248 1,564 1,602 1,293 770 122 1,628 86 170 612 220 635 169 2,317 1,428 20 853 163 1,320 843 222 552 47 1,003 2,930 549 480 1,377 2,345 206 511 96 58,634 Hydrogen sites 0 0 0 0 41 1 2 1 1 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 LNG sites 3 0 8 1 45 1 1 0 0 3 4 0 1 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 1 1 0 0 2 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 6 2 2 3 0 1 0 6 23 6 0 2 2 0 1 0 137 LPG sites 89 6 88 39 292 56 21 8 0 138 94 4 32 121 65 33 38 34 64 13 35 34 109 48 86 78 45 28 32 29 16 60 64 89 24 94 138 61 108 6 47 25 78 454 46 1 90 85 10 74 28 3,357 Totals by Statea 551 20 1,318 222 19,956 1,882 845 128 319 2,999 2,318 547 217 1,856 724 575 854 324 303 267 1,668 1,674 1,686 1,240 225 1,829 141 300 677 257 688 258 2,566 1,759 92 1,194 475 1,473 1168 238 704 156 1,217 3,761 682 487 1,547 2,516 254 849 154 68,160 Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center website, www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/stations counts.html, August 2018. (Additional resources: www.afdc.energy.gov) Totals by State is the total number of fuel types available at stations. Stations are counted once for each type of fuel available. For electric, the number of charging outlets was used. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–15 There were just over 3,000 propane stations in the United States in 1992 making up 89% of all alternative refueling stations. Electric vehicle stations, which after 2011 are counted by the number of plugs rather than by the geographic location, have the largest number of stations in 2018. Table 6.12 Number of Alternative Refuel Stations, 1992–2018 (number of stations) Year 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018c Propane 3,297 3,297 3,299 3,299 4,252 4,255 5,318 4,153 3,268 3,403 3,431 3,966 3,689 2,995 2,619 2,371 2,175 2,468 2,647 2,597 2,654 2,956 2,931 3,594 3,665 3,541 3,341 CNG 349 497 1,042 1,065 1,419 1,426 1,268 1,267 1,217 1,232 1,166 1,035 917 787 732 721 778 772 841 910 1,107 1,263 1,495 1,563 1,725 1,697 1,659 1992-2018 2008-2018 0.1% 4.4% 6.1% 7.9% LNG c c c c 72 71 66 46 44 44 36 62 58 40 37 35 38 36 39 45 59 81 103 111 140 131 137 d 13.7% Ethanol Methanol Biodiesela (E85) (M85) 0 2 43 0 7 50 0 32 82 0 37 88 0 68 95 0 71 106 0 40 91 0 49 51 2 113 3 16 154 0 79 149 0 142 188 0 176 200 0 304 436 0 459 762 0 742 1,208 0 645 1,644 0 679 1,928 0 644 2,142 0 627 2,442 0 675 2,553 0 757 2,639 0 783 2,840 0 721 2,990 0 697 3,091 0 702 3,322 0 681 3,617 0 Average annual percentage change d 33.4% -100.0% d 0.5% 8.2% Electric vehicleb Hydrogen c c c c 188 194 310 486 490 558 693 873 830 671 588 465 442 430 465 541 3,394 13,392 19,410 25,602 30,945 42,029 50,627 61,067 c c c c c c c c c 7 7 9 14 17 32 46 63 58 56 58 53 51 39 54 64 60 d d e 2.7% Total 3,691 3,851 4,455 4,677 6,100 6,239 7,269 6,056 5,205 5,542 5,741 6,230 5,720 5,164 5,091 5,551 5,756 6,411 6,912 10,071 20,498 27,159 33,805 39,963 51,398 60,053 70,562 12.0% 28.5% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center website, “U.S. Alternative Fueling Stations by Fuel Type,” www.afdc.energy.gov/data/10332. (Additional resources: www.afdc.energy.gov) Stations selling biodiesel blends less than B20 are included in the station count for years 2005-2007 only. Starting in 2011, electric stations are counted by the plug rather than by the geographical location. This is different from the other fuels, which count only the geographical location regardless of how many dispensers or nozzles are on site. c For each year, data for this table were gathered as close to September 30 as possible. Data for Table 6.11 were gathered in August and do not match these 2018 data. d Data are not available. e Because data are not comparable from 2008 to 2018, an average annual percentage change is not provided. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–16 Clean Cities is a locally-based government/industry partnership, coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy to expand the use of alternatives to gasoline and diesel fuel. By combining the decision-making with voluntary action by partners, the "grass-roots" approach of Clean Cities departs from traditional "top-down" Federal programs. Figure 6.1. Clean Cities Coalitions Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Clean Cities website, “Clean Cities Coalition Locations,” cleancities.energy.gov/coalitions/locations, August 2018. (Additional resources: cleancities.energy.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–17 Table 6.13 Properties of Conventional and Alternative Liquid Fuels Property formulaa Standard chemical Physical state Molecular weight Composition (weight %) Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Main fuel source(s) Gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE) (Fuel unit measured/GGE) Specific gravity (60˚ F/ 60˚ F) Density (lb./gal @ 60˚ F) Boiling temperature (F˚) Freezing point (F˚) Autoignition temperature (F˚) Reid vapor pressure (psi) Gasoline C4 to C12 Liquid Fuels Low-sulfur diesel Methanol C8 to C25 CH3OH Ethanol (E100) CH3CH2OH Liquid 100–105 Liquid ~200 Liquid 32.04 Liquid 46.07 85–88 12–15 0 87 13 0 37.5 12.6 49.9 52.2 13.1 34.7 Crude oil Crude oil Natural gas, coal, or woody biomass Corn, grains, or agricultural waste 1.0 (E0 gasoline) 0.889 (Diesel gal/GGE) 2.04 Methanol gal/GGE) 0.72–0.78 6.0–6.5 80–437 -40 495 0.85 7.079 356–644 -40–30 ~600 0.796 6.63 149 -143.5 897 1.20-1.37 (E85b gal/GGE) 1.03 (E10 gal/GGE) 0.794 6.61 172 -173.2 793 8–15 <0.2 4.6 2.3 Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center website, “Fuel Properties Comparison," www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/fuel_comparison_chart.pdf, July 2015, and communication with George Mitchell, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, July 2015. a Standard Chemical Formulas represent idealized fuels. Some table values are expressed in ranges to represent typical fuel variations that are encountered in the field. b 1 gallon of E85 has 73% to 83% of the energy of one gallon of gasoline (variation due to ethanol content in E85). TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 6–18 Table 6.14 Properties of Conventional and Alternative Gaseous Fuels Property Propane (LPG) Standard chemical formulaa Physical state Molecular weight Composition (weight %) Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Main fuel source(s) Gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE) (Fuel unit measured/GGE) Diesel gallon equivalent (DGE) (Fuel unit measured/DGE) Specific Gravity (60˚ F/60˚F) Density (lb./cu ft @ 60˚F) Freezing point (F˚) Boiling Point (˚F) Autoignition temperature (F˚) Reid vapor pressure (psi) Gaseous Fuels CNG Hydrogen C3H8 CH4 H2 Pressurized liquid Compressed gas Compressed gas or liquid 44.1 16.04 2.02 82 18 n/a 75 25 n/a Underground reserves Underground reserves and renewable Bio-gas 1.34-1.38 (LPG gal/GGE) 5.56-5.71 (lb. mass/GGE)b 0 100 0 Natural gas, methanol, electrolysis, and other energy sources 1.54 (LPG gal/DGE) 6.38 (lb. mass/DGE) n/a 1.55 0.124 -305.8 -44 850-950 0.60 0.0458 -296 -260 1,004 0.069 0.0056 -435 -423 1,050-1,080 208 n/a n/a 0.991-1.017 (kg mass/GGE) Note: n/a = not applicable. Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center website, “Fuel Properties Comparison," www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/fuel_comparison_chart.pdf, July 2015, and communication with George Mitchell, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, July 2015. Standard Chemical Formulas represent idealized fuels. CNG: 1 Gasoline Gallon Equivalent = 5.66 lb. (as referenced by NIST Special Publication 854; Report of the 78th NCWM (1993); p. 326; NG data derived from field sampling of pipeline natural gas by IGT/GRI). a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 7–1 Chapter 7 Fleet Vehicles and Characteristics Summary Statistics from Tables in this Chapter Source Figure 7.1 Fleet cars, 2017 3,836,000 Figure 7.1 Fleet trucks ≤ 19,500 lbs. GVW, 2017 4,726,000 Table 7.3 Average annual miles per commercial fleet vehicle, 2016 Figure 7.2 Table 7.4 SUVs 20,232 Intermediate cars 19,752 Pickup trucks 16,728 Average annual miles per Federal Government fleet vehicle, 2015 (latest available data) Sedans 9,855 SUVs 9,508 Buses 8,256 Heavy trucks 6,730 Medium trucks 6,600 Light trucks 6,245 Ambulances 5,403 Federal government vehicles, FY 2015 (latest available data) 640,304 Light trucks (<8,500 lbs. GVW) 281,993 Cars and other passenger vehicles 235,319 Medium trucks (8,500–26,000 lbs. GVW) 79,421 Heavy trucks (>26,000 lbs. GVW) 34,049 Buses and ambulances TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9,522 7–2 Vehicles in fleets of 15 or more are counted as fleet vehicles, as well as vehicles in fleets where five or more vehicles are purchased annually. There are more trucks in fleets than cars in 2017. Figure 7.1. Fleet Vehicles in Service as of January 1, 2017 Source: Bobit Publishing Company, Automotive Fleet Research Department, Automotive Fleet Factbook 2017, Redondo Beach, CA, 2018. Rental category includes vans and sports utility vehicles under cars, not trucks. Fleets of 15 or more in operation or 5 or more fleet vehicles purchased annually. Taxi and police fleet data are not available. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 7–3 Data for fleet vehicles (cars and trucks less than 19,501 pounds) show that rental fleets are the largest share of cars and commercial fleets are the largest share of trucks. Government fleets are the second largest share for both cars and trucks. Table 7.1 Fleet Vehicles in Service, 2006-2017 (thousands of vehicles) Year Commercial 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 896.9 911.8 879.1 791.0 741.2 803.9 834.7 727.7 688.5 659.2 685.0 628.2 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2,362.4 2,383.2 2,318.5 2,224.0 1,999.5 2,136.3 2,236.8 2,186.9 2,136.4 2,231.8 2,340.0 2,377.7 Rentala Cars c Government 1,623.0 1,195.9 1,650.0 1,215.8 1,465.1 1,255.8 1,289.0 1,299.0 1,175.0 1,352.0 1,553.2 1,330.0 1,745.0 1,240.0 1,850.0 1,290.0 1,920.0 1,245.2 2,040.0 1,325.0 2,156.0 1,340.0 1,930.0 1,278.0 Trucksc <19,501 lbs. 499.7 1,635.5 560.8 1,682.3 500.1 1,682.0 381.0 1,701.0 380.0 1,751.0 391.0 1,684.0 417.0 1,512.0 465.0 1,560.0 480.0 1,631.5 535.0 1,727.4 582.0 1,810.0 542.0 1,807.0 Police & Taxib Total 555.2 564.5 586.0 607.0 575.7 578.6 556.6 570.6 582.4 595.8 575.8 4,271.0 4,342.0 4,186.0 3,986.0 3,843.8 4,265.7 4,376.3 4,438.3 4,443.2 4,620.0 4,756.8 3,836.2 45.4 46.7 45.5 59.0 55.4 58.4 62.0 66.5 74.9 77.4 77.4 4,543.0 4,673.0 4,546.0 4,365.0 4,185.8 4,269.7 4,227.8 4,278.4 4,322.8 4,571.6 4,809.0 4,726.7 d d Source: Bobit Publishing Company, Automotive Fleet Research Department, Automotive Fleet Factbook 2017, and annual, Redondo Beach, CA, 2018. (Additional resources: www.fleet-central.com) Rental category includes vans and sports utility vehicles under cars, not trucks. Taxi category includes vans. c Fleets of 15 or more in operation or 5 or more fleet vehicles purchased annually. d Data are not available. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 7–4 In commercial fleets, full size vans stay in service the longest—an average of 60 months. Commercial fleet vehicles average about 19,000 miles in a year. Table 7.2 Average Length of Time Commercial Fleet Vehicles Are in Service, 2016 Vehicle type Compact cars Intermediate cars Pickup trucks Minivans Sport utility vehicles Full-size vans Average months in service 36 41 52 42 35 60 Note: Based on data collected from four leading Fleet Management companies. Source: Bobit Publishing Company, Automotive Fleet Factbook 2017, Redondo Beach, CA, 2018. (Additional resources: www.fleet-central.com) Table 7.3 Average Annual Vehicle-Miles of Travel for Commercial Fleet Vehicles, 2016 Business fleet vehicles Compact cars Intermediate cars Pickup trucks Minivans Sport utility vehicles Full-size vans Average annual miles of travel 15,792 19,752 16,728 20,700 20,232 20,184 Source: Bobit Publishing Company, Automotive Fleet Factbook 2017, Redondo Beach, CA, 2018. (Additional resources: www.fleet-central.com) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 7–5 These data, which apply to domestic Federal fleet vehicles, indicate that sedans now have the highest average annual miles per vehicle, followed closely by sport utility vehicles (SUVs). Figure 7.2. Average Miles per Domestic Federal Vehicle by Vehicle Type, 2015 Note: Light trucks = less than 8,500 pounds gross vehicle weight ratio (GVWR). Medium trucks = 8,501-23,999 pounds GVWR. Heavy trucks = 24,000 pounds GVWR or more. LSEVs = low-speed electric vehicles. Source: U.S. General Services Administration, Federal Vehicle Policy Division, FY 2015 Federal Fleet Report, Washington, DC, 2016, Table 4-2. (Additional resources: www.gsa.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 7–6 The Federal Government vehicle inventory includes 20% more light trucks than passenger vehicles. Table 7.4 Federal Government Vehicles, 2001-2015 Vehicle Type Passenger vehicles 2001 Low-speed electric vehicle 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 0 0 3,029 3,869 3,893 3,729 3,830 3,686 5,462 2,401 6,797 10,658 13,867 20,368 25,076 27,356 Compact 60,938 58,284 46,489 49,657 47,999 41,564 39,079 38,766 Midsize 36,921 36,656 48,242 38,057 33,321 30,659 28,271 24,775 Large 11,107 15,966 10,063 9,146 8,571 6,753 5,760 7,150 116 191 412 158 130 123 126 83 56,563 42,109 41,676 40,964 39,518 38,409 37,439 37,448 727 13,252 15,218 16,633 15,740 14,115 14,515 14,617 40,842 50,445 66,316 68,807 73,356 70,371 70,235 73,203 Subcompact Limousines Light duty passenger vans Medium duty passenger vans Light duty SUVs Medium duty SUVs 0 6,096 11,117 11,448 9,405 9,533 9,978 8,235 212,676 225,400 249,359 249,397 245,800 235,624 234,309 235,319 Light trucks 4x2 227,937 243,477 241,011 238,261 233,629 231,886 231,215 232,914 Light trucks 4x4 29,975 35,417 40,105 47,035 48,690 46,830 46,528 49,079 Medium trucks 88,993 83,747 89,253 81,791 78,630 77,325 78,372 79,421 Heavy trucks 27,988 35,230 32,760 33,951 33,642 34,624 33,996 34,049 Ambulances 1,819 1,580 1,480 1,445 1,401 1,363 1,231 1,349 Buses Total trucks and other vehicles GRAND TOTAL ALL VEHICLES 6,726 7,837 8,186 7,978 8,269 8,186 8,200 8,173 383,438 407,288 412,795 410,461 404,261 400,124 399,542 404,985 596,114 632,688 662,154 659,858 650,061 635,748 633,851 640,304 Total passenger vehicles Trucks and other vehicles Note: Light trucks = less than 8,500 pounds gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR). Medium trucks = 8,501-23,999 pounds GVWR. Heavy trucks = 24,000 pounds GVWR or more. Source: U.S. General Services Administration, Federal Supply Service, FY 2015 Federal Fleet Report, Washington, DC, 2016, Tables 2-5 and 2-6. (Additional resources: www.gsa.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 7–7 Table 7.5 Federal Fleet Vehicle Acquisitions by Fuel Type, FY 2002–2015 Fuel type Gasoline Gasoline hybrid Gasoline LGHGb Gasoline plug-in hybrid Diesel Diesel hybrid Diesel LGHGb CNG E-85 Electric LNG LPG M-85 Hydrogen Grand total 2002 44,850 a 0 0 8,107 c 0 1,267 8,054 7 3 59 25 0 62,372 2005 41,247 222 0 0 6,049 1 0 188 16,892 13 0 1 0 0 64,613 Acquisitions by year 2007 2010 2012 32,089 26,547 15,660 458 4,853 1,254 0 0 745 0 0 144 5,809 4,136 4,383 4 27 36 0 0 10 129 60 106 26,581 26,789 24,214 7 1,376 258 0 0 0 4 2 15 0 0 0 0 4 0 65,081 63,794 46,825 2013 15,994 1,364 369 258 4,625 51 0 123 21,644 284 0 23 0 2 44,737 2014 18,412 4,124 562 283 5,974 8 1 87 26,267 349 0 7 0 5 56,079 2015 17,080 2,500 224 263 6,215 7 0 241 24,651 231 0 6 0 0 51,418 Source: U.S. General Services Administration, Federal Vehicle Policy Division, FY 2015 Federal Fleet Report, Washington, DC, 2016, Table 5-4. (Additional resources: www.gsa.gov) Table 7.6 Fuel Consumed by Federal Government Fleets, FY 2000–2015 (thousand gasoline equivalent gallons) Gasoline Diesel CNG Electricity Biodiesel (B20) Biodiesel (B100)d Methanol/M-85 LPG Ethanol/E-85 LNG Hydrogen FY00 284,480 70,181 865 1 569 0 14 34 347 0 0 FY05 300,261 53,363 1,245 6 8,052 0 0 231 3,060 102 0 FY07 293,848 74,806 889 5 9,515 0 0 322 3,854 95 0 FY09 301,437 76,456 499 4 7,393 5 0 208 7,923 35 0 FY10 322,023 75,329 504 36 8,258 0 0 195 8,201 0 1 FY12 302,089 73,228 421 85 6,353 344 0 211 12,261 0 1 FY13 295,076 67,332 369 88 5,619 358 0 257 14,158 0 0 FY14 296,083 65,168 333 142 5,329 17 0 231 12,911 3 0 FY15 310,416 66,736 400 197 4,722 11 0 150 13,512 7 0 Total 356,491 366,320 383,334 393,961 414,548 394,994 383,257 380,217 396,152 Source: U.S. General Services Administration, Federal Vehicle Policy Division, FY 2015 Federal Fleet Report, Washington, DC, 2016, Table 5-1. (Additional resources: www.gsa.gov) Combined with gasoline. Low greenhouse gas emissions. c Combined with diesel. d B100 cannot be separated from B20 from 2000-2007. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 7–8 In FY 2005, the General Services Administration owned 143,948 vehicles which they leased to other agencies. In FY 2015, they owned 967 vehicles. The U.S. Postal Service owned 67.5% of all federal light trucks. Table 7.7 Federal Government Vehicles by Agency, FY 2015 Department or agency CIVILIAN American Battle Monuments Commission Broadcasting Board of Governors Consumer Product Safety Commission Court Services and Offender Supervision Agency Department of Agriculture Department of Commerce Department of Education Department of Energy Department of Health and Human Services Department of Homeland Security Department of Housing and Urban Development Department of Justice Department of Labor Department of State Department of the Interior Department of Transportation Department of the Treasury Department of Veterans Affairs Environmental Protection Agency Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Federal Communications Commission Federal Housing Finance Agency Federal Maritime Commission General Services Administration Government Printing Office Library of Congress National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Archives & Records Administration National Gallery of Art National Labor Relations Board National Science Foundation National Transportation Safety Board Nuclear Regulatory Commission Office of Personnel Management Peace Corps Pretrial Services Agency for the Dist of Columbia Small Business Administration Smithsonian Institution Social Security Administration Tennessee Valley Authority US International Trade Commission TOTAL CIVILIAN AGENCIES MILITARY Corps of Engineers, Civil Works Defense Agencies Department of Air Force Department of Army Department of Navy United States Marine Corps TOTAL MILITARY AGENCIES U. S. POSTAL SERVICE TOTAL ALL FLEETS Cars Light trucks Medium trucks Heavy trucks Other* Total 27 76 91 75 13,805 1,157 91 4,761 3,824 37,440 348 36,188 3,220 10,156 11,333 4,145 3,147 14,736 755 81 93 7 9 893 12 9 1,385 36 6 34 165 5 14 1,538 590 3 157 209 422 969 1 152,013 8 39 1 1 16,210 442 0 3,432 559 10,056 1 4,614 247 1,605 9,256 730 121 1,942 72 1 0 0 0 46 19 0 665 4 2 0 91 0 1 2 67 0 2 149 5 541 1 50,932 6 24 3 0 8,087 352 0 3,785 295 3,404 0 1,583 205 1,367 9,100 1,023 45 989 127 0 0 0 0 25 6 1 600 10 2 1 183 0 0 2 0 0 1 57 6 992 0 32,281 0 18 0 0 2,388 70 0 2,078 105 838 0 957 21 666 3,144 144 9 728 25 0 0 0 0 1 5 4 318 7 1 0 90 0 2 0 0 0 0 39 22 58 0 11,738 0 7 0 0 85 9 1 241 78 451 0 199 298 166 675 5 0 1,127 7 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 59 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 14 0 0 10 5 1 0 3,458 41 164 95 76 40,575 2,030 92 14,297 4,861 52,189 349 43,541 3,991 13,960 33,508 6,047 3,322 19,522 986 82 93 7 9 967 42 15 3,027 57 11 35 546 5 17 1,542 671 3 160 464 460 2,561 2 250,422 2,162 4,625 11,199 31,873 17,240 7,189 74,288 9,018 235,319 2,739 611 13,399 11,682 10,113 2,032 40,576 190,485 281,993 1,791 572 15,049 12,046 7,660 2,064 39,182 7,958 79,421 658 596 6,116 5,366 3,385 1,293 17,414 4,897 34,049 2 370 1,794 2,520 851 525 6,062 2 9,522 7,352 6,774 47,557 63,487 39,249 13,103 177,522 212,360 640,304 * Other = Buses and ambulances. Note: Light trucks – Less than 8,500 pounds gross vehicle weight ratio (GVWR) (Includes ambulances). Medium trucks – 8,501—23,999 pounds GVWR. Heavy trucks – 24,000 pounds GVWR or more. Does not include low-speed vehicles. Source: U.S. General Services Administration, Federal Supply Service, FY 2015 Federal Fleet Report, Washington, DC, 2016, Table 2-1. (Additional resources: www.gsa.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 7–9 Demand response vehicles (also called paratransit or dial-a-ride) are widely used by transit agencies. The vehicles do not operate over a fixed route or on a fixed schedule. The vehicle may be dispatched to pick up several passengers at different pick-up points before taking them to their respective destinations and may even be interrupted en route to these destinations to pick up other passengers. Demand response service is provided primarily by vans. In 2007, the data changed substantially due to improved estimation methodologies. Unfortunately, those data are no longer comparable to the rest of the historical series. Table 7.8 Summary Statistics on Demand Response Vehicles, 1994–2015 Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Number of agencies 5,214 5,214 5,214 5,214 5,214 5,252 5,252 5,251 5,251 5,346 5,960 5,960 5,960 7,300 7,200 6,700 6,741 6,600 6,511 6,270 6,370 6,340 Number of active vehicles 28,729 29,352 30,804 32,509 29,646 31,884 33,080 34,661 34,699 35,954 37,078 41,958 43,509 64,865 65,799 68,957 68,621 65,336 68,632 68,559 71,359 71,299 Vehicle-miles (millions) 463.7 506.5 548.3 585.3 670.9 718.4 758.9 789.3 802.6 864.0 889.5 978.3 1,013.0 1,471.4 1,495.2 1,529.2 1,693.6 1,611.8 1,618.1 1,565.1 1,595.1 1,617.0 Average miles per vehicle 16.14 17.26 17.80 18.00 22.63 22.53 22.94 22.77 23.13 24.03 23.99 23.32 23.28 22.68 22.72 22.18 24.68 24.67 23.58 22.83 22.35 22.68 Passengermiles (millions) 577 607 656 754 735 813 839 855 853 930 962 1,058 1,078 1,502 1,412 1,477 1,494 1,580 1,756 2,171 2,267 2,056 Average load factor a 1.41 1.21 1.36 1.21 1.34 1.30 1.28 1.24 1.27 1.25 1.25 1.24 1.18 1.09 1.12 1.03 1.13 1.24 1.59 1.65 1.48 Energy use (trillion Btu) 9.5 9.2 9.9 9.8 10.4 10.6 10.8 11.3 11.6 12.9 13.3 14.8 15.5 24.7 24.7 23.1 22.8 24.1 24.8 26.4 32.0 26.0 Note: See Glossary for a detailed definition of demand response. Source: American Public Transportation Association, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, March 2018. (Additional resources: www.apta.com) Data are not available. Data are not continuous between 2006 and 2007 due to changes in estimation methodology. See source document for details. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 b 7–10 In 2007, the data changed substantially due to improved estimation methodologies. Unfortunately, those data are no longer comparable to the rest of the historical series. Table 7.9 Summary Statistics on Transit Buses and Trolleybuses, 1994–2016 Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Number of active buses 68,766 67,802 72,353 73,425 72,788 74,885 75,665 76,675 76,806 78,000 81,630 82,642 83,689 65,808 67,096 65,363 66,810 69,654 70,757 71,699 71,603 72,686 70,184 Vehicle-miles (millions) 2,176 2,198 2,234 2,259 2,188 2,290 2,329 2,389 2,425 2,435 2,484 2,498 2,507 2,314 2,388 2,345 2,425 2,425 2,417 2,425 2,445 2,439 2,255 Passengermiles (millions) 19,019 19,005 19,280 19,793 20,542 21,391 21,433 22,209 22,029 21,438 21,550 21,998 22,985 21,132 21,918 21,645 21,172 21,574 21,251 22,306 22,614 21,822 20,565 Btu/passengermile 4,225 4,271 4,315 4,407 4,374 4,320 4,506 4,123 4,110 4,191 4,342 4,229 4,297 4,352 4,328 4,233 4,107 4,232 4,023 4,052 3,810 4,059 4,102 Energy use (trillion Btu) 80.4 81.2 83.2 87.2 89.9 92.4 96.6 91.6 90.5 89.8 93.6 93.0 93.0 92.0 94.9 91.6 86.9 91.3 89.5 90.4 86.2 88.6 84.4 Source: American Public Transportation Association, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, March 2018, Appendix A. Data for 2016 are from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, Federal Transit Database. (Additional resources: www.apta.com) Data are not continuous between 2006 and 2007 due to changes in estimation methodology. See source document for details. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 a 8–1 Household Vehicles and Characteristics Summary Statistics from Tables/Figures in this Chapter Source Table 8.2 Table 8.4 Figure 8.1 Vehicles per capita, 2016 0.837 Vehicles per licensed driver, 2016 1.22 Vehicles per household, 2016 2.13 Share of households owning 3 or more vehicles 1960 2.5% 1970 5.5% 1980 17.5% 1990 17.3% 2000 18.3% 2010 19.5% 2016 21.0% Average occupancy rates by vehicle type, 2017 Van 2.44 Sport Utility Vehicle 1.83 Car 1.54 Pickup 1.49 Table 8.9 Average annual miles per household vehicle, 2017 Table 8.19 Share of workers who car pooled, 2016 Table 8.20 Long-distance trips in the United States, 2001 (latest available data) 10,200 9.0% Person-trips 2,554 million Person-miles 1,138 billion TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–2 The number of vehicles in the United States is growing faster than the population. The growth in vehicle-miles has slowed to 0.5% per year from 2006-2016. See Table 8.2 for vehicles per capita and vehicle-miles per capita. Table 8.1 Population and Vehicle Profile, 1950–2016 Year 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 1950–2016 2006–2016 Resident populationa (thousands) 151,868 165,069 179,979 193,526 205,052 215,973 227,226 238,466 250,132 253,493 256,894 260,255 263,436 266,557 269,667 272,912 276,115 279,295 282,385 285,309 288,105 290,820 293,463 296,186 298,996 302,004 304,798 307,439 309,347 311,719 314,103 316,427 318,907 320,897 323,406 1.2% 0.8% Number of Total Total vehiclevehicles in households miles operation (thousands) (thousands) (millions) 43,554 43,501 458,246 47,874 56,540 605,646 52,799 67,906 718,762 57,436 82,066 887,812 63,401 98,136 1,109,724 71,120 120,054 1,327,664 80,776 139,831 1,527,295 86,789 157,048 1,774,826 93,347 179,299 2,144,362 94,312 181,438 2,172,050 95,669 181,519 2,247,151 96,391 186,315 2,296,378 97,107 188,714 2,357,588 98,990 193,441 2,422,696 99,627 198,294 2,485,848 101,018 201,071 2,561,695 102,528 205,043 2,631,522 103,874 209,509 2,691,056 104,705 213,300 2,746,925 108,209 216,683 2,797,287 109,297 221,027 2,855,508 111,278 225,882 2,890,450 112,000 232,167 2,964,788 113,343 238,384 2,989,430 114,384 244,643 3,014,371 116,011 248,701 3,031,124 116,783 249,813 2,976,528 117,181 248,972 2,956,764 117,538 248,231 2,967,266 118,682 248,932 2,950,402 121,084 251,497 2,969,433 122,459 252,715 2,988,280 123,027 258,027 3,025,656 125,819 264,194 3,095,373 126,819 270,566 3,174,408 Average annual percentage change 1.6% 2.8% 3.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.5% Number of licensed drivers (thousands) 62,194 74,686 87,253 98,502 111,543 129,791 145,295 156,868 167,015 168,995 173,125 173,149 175,403 176,628 179,539 182,709 184,980 187,170 190,625 191,276 194,296 196,166 198,889 200,549 202,810 205,742 208,321 209,618 210,115 211,875 211,815 212,160 214,092 218,084 221,712 Number of civilian employed persons (thousands) 58,920 62,171 65,778 71,088 78,628 85,846 99,303 107,150 118,793 117,718 118,492 120,259 123,060 124,900 126,708 129,558 131,463 133,488 136,891 136,933 136,485 137,736 139,252 141,730 144,427 146,047 145,362 139,877 139,064 139,869 142,469 143,929 146,305 148,834 151,436 1.9% 0.9% 1.4% 0.5% Sources: Resident population and civilian employed persons – U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Online Data Retrieval, Washington, DC, 2018. (Additional resources: www.census.gov) Vehicles in operation – IHS Automotive. Used with permission. FURTHER REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED. (Additional resources: https://www.ihs.com/industry/automotive.html) Licensed drivers and vehicle-miles – U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2016, Tables DL-20 and VM-1, and annual. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov) a Estimates as of July 1. Includes Armed Forces in the United States. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–3 In 2016, vehicles per capita reached a new high of 0.837. Vehicle-miles per capita were over 10,000 miles from 2004 to 2007 but were 9,916 miles in 2016. There were 1.787 vehicles for every employed civilian in the United States in 2016. Table 8.2 Vehicles and Vehicle-miles per Capita, 1950–2016a Year 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Vehicles per capita 0.286 0.343 0.377 0.424 0.479 0.556 0.614 0.659 0.717 0.716 0.707 0.716 0.716 0.726 0.735 0.737 0.743 0.750 0.755 0.759 0.767 0.777 0.791 0.805 0.818 0.824 0.820 0.810 0.802 0.799 0.801 0.799 0.810 0.823 0.837 Vehicles per household 0.999 1.181 1.286 1.429 1.548 1.688 1.731 1.810 1.921 1.925 1.897 1.933 1.943 1.954 1.990 1.990 2.000 2.017 2.037 2.002 2.022 2.030 2.073 2.103 2.139 2.144 2.139 2.125 2.112 2.097 2.077 2.064 2.094 2.100 2.133 1950–2016 2006–2016 1.6% 0.2% 1.2% 0.0% Vehicles per Vehicles civilian per licensed employed driver persons 0.699 0.738 0.757 0.909 0.778 1.032 0.833 1.154 0.880 1.247 0.925 1.398 0.962 1.408 1.001 1.466 1.074 1.509 1.074 1.542 1.048 1.532 1.076 1.549 1.076 1.534 1.095 1.549 1.104 1.565 1.100 1.552 1.108 1.560 1.119 1.569 1.119 1.558 1.133 1.582 1.138 1.619 1.151 1.640 1.167 1.667 1.189 1.682 1.206 1.694 1.209 1.703 1.199 1.719 1.188 1.780 1.181 1.785 1.175 1.780 1.187 1.765 1.191 1.756 1.205 1.764 1.211 1.775 1.220 1.787 Average annual percentage change 0.8% 1.3% 0.1% 0.5% Vehicle-miles per capita 3,017 3,669 3,994 4,588 5,412 6,147 6,707 7,443 8,573 8,568 8,747 8,824 8,949 9,089 9,218 9,387 9,531 9,635 9,728 9,804 9,911 9,939 10,103 10,093 10,082 10,037 9,766 9,617 9,592 9,467 9,457 9,450 9,498 9,646 9,816 Vehicle-miles per licensed driver 7,368 8,109 8,238 9,013 9,949 10,229 10,512 11,314 12,839 12,853 12,980 13,262 13,441 13,716 13,846 14,021 14,226 14,378 14,410 14,624 14,697 14,735 14,907 14,906 14,863 14,733 14,288 14,105 14,122 13,925 14,019 14,085 14,133 14,193 14,318 1.8% -0.3% 1.0% -0.4% Sources: Resident population and civilian employed persons – U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Online Data Retrieval, Washington, DC, 2017. (Additional resources: www.census.gov) Vehicles in operation – IHS Automotive. Used with permission. FURTHER REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED. (Additional resources: https://www.ihs.com/industry/automotive.html) Vehicle-miles – U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2016, Table VM-1 and annual. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov) a Includes all vehicles (light and heavy). TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–4 In 1985 there was about one licensed driver for every vehicle in the United States. Since that time, there are more vehicles than licensed drivers. The average number of licensed drivers per household in 2016 was 1.748. Table 8.3 Licensed Driver Statistics, 1950–2016a Year 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Licensed drivers per capita 0.410 0.452 0.485 0.509 0.544 0.601 0.638 0.658 0.668 0.667 0.674 0.665 0.666 0.663 0.666 0.669 0.670 0.670 0.675 0.670 0.674 0.675 0.678 0.677 0.678 0.681 0.683 0.682 0.679 0.680 0.675 0.671 0.672 0.680 0.686 1950–2016 2006–2016 0.8% 0.1% Licensed drivers per capita 16 years old and up Licensed drivers Licensed drivers per household per vehicle b 1.428 1.430 b 1.560 1.321 b 1.653 1.285 b 1.715 1.200 b 1.759 1.137 b 1.825 1.081 b 1.799 1.039 b 1.807 0.999 0.861 1.789 0.931 0.870 1.792 0.931 0.885 1.810 0.954 0.877 1.796 0.929 0.880 1.806 0.929 0.878 1.784 0.913 0.881 1.802 0.905 0.888 1.809 0.909 0.888 1.804 0.902 0.890 1.802 0.893 0.886 1.821 0.894 0.868 1.768 0.883 0.869 1.778 0.879 0.868 1.763 0.868 0.870 1.776 0.857 0.867 1.769 0.841 0.866 1.773 0.829 0.870 1.773 0.827 0.873 1.784 0.834 0.870 1.789 0.842 0.861 1.788 0.846 0.860 1.785 0.851 0.852 1.749 0.842 0.845 1.732 0.840 0.845 1.737 0.830 0.853 1.733 0.825 0.859 1.748 0.819 Average annual percentage change b 0.3% -0.8% -0.1% -0.1% -0.1% Licensed drivers per civilian employed persons 1.056 1.201 1.326 1.386 1.418 1.512 1.463 1.464 1.406 1.436 1.461 1.440 1.425 1.414 1.417 1.410 1.407 1.402 1.393 1.397 1.424 1.424 1.428 1.415 1.404 1.409 1.433 1.499 1.511 1.515 1.487 1.474 1.463 1.465 1.464 0.5% 0.4% Sources: Resident population, population 16 years and older, and civilian employed persons – U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Online Data Retrieval, Washington, DC, 2017. (Additional resources: www.census.gov) Vehicles in operation – IHS Automotive. Used with permission. FURTHER REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED. (Additional resources: https://www.ihs.com/industry/automotive.html) a b Includes all vehicles (light and heavy). Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–5 Household vehicle ownership shows a dramatic increase from 1960 to 1990. In 1960, nearly 79% of households owned less than two vehicles; by 1990, it declined to 45%. Census data prior to 1990 indicated that the majority of households owned one vehicle; in 1990 that changed to two vehicles. Since 2000, less than 10% of households had no vehicles. The share of households with three or more vehicles has risen each year since 2011. The American Community Survey now collects these data on an annual basis, thus annual data are available after 2010. Table 8.4 Household Vehicle Ownership, 1960–2016 (percentage) 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 No vehicles 21.5% 17.5% 12.9% 11.5% 9.4% 9.1% 9.3% 9.2% 9.1% 9.1% 8.9% 8.7% One vehicle 56.9% 47.7% 35.5% 33.7% 33.8% 33.8% 34.1% 34.1% 33.9% 33.7% 33.5% 33.2% Two vehicles 19.0% 29.3% 34.0% 37.4% 38.6% 37.6% 37.5% 37.3% 37.3% 37.3% 37.2% 37.1% Three or more vehicles 2.5% 5.5% 17.5% 17.3% 18.3% 19.5% 19.1% 19.3% 19.7% 19.9% 20.3% 21.0% Source: U. S. Department of Transportation, Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, Journey-to-Work Trends in the United States and its Major Metropolitan Area, 1960–1990, Cambridge, MA, 1994, p. 2-2. 2000 data – U.S. Bureau of the Census, American Fact Finder, factfinder.census.gov, Table QT-04, August 2001. (Additional resources: www.census.gov) 2010-2016 data – U.S. Bureau of the Census, American Community Survey, 1-year estimates, Table CP04, 2018. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–6 2017 National Household Travel Survey Daily Trip Data The Department of Transportation (DOT) collected data on daily trips in 1969, 1977, 1983, 1990 and 1995 via the Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS). For 2001, the DOT combined the collection of long trip and daily trip data into one survey – the 2001 National Household Travel Survey (NHTS). The long trip data were not included in the 2009 or 2017 NHTS. The NHTS is the nation’s inventory of daily travel. The survey includes demographic characteristics of households, people, vehicles, and detailed information on daily travel for all purposes by all modes. NHTS survey data are collected from a sample of U.S. households and expanded to provide national estimates of trips and miles by travel mode, trip purpose, and a host of household attributes. The NHTS was designed to continue the NPTS series, but as with all data surveys, caution should be used when comparing statistics from one survey to another due to changes in terminology, survey procedures, and target population. The NHTS surveys collected data on trips of children under 5 years of age, while the previous NPTS did not. Improved methodologies first used in the collection of trip information in the 1995 NPTS make it difficult to compare these data with past NPTS survey data. Thus, the 1990 NPTS trip data have been adjusted to make it comparable with the later surveys. In the 2017 survey, households were able to respond online as well as by phone. The online survey included a mapping feature that allowed more accurate trip distances to be collected. These derived trip distances appear to be about 10% shorter than self-reported trips. A vehicle trip in the NHTS is defined as a one-way trip by a single privately-operated vehicle regardless of the number of persons in the vehicle. A person trip is defined as a movement in the public space between two identifiable points. Two household members traveling together in one car would be counted as two person trips and one vehicle trip. Trips made in other highway vehicles, such as buses, streetcars, taxis (including Uber/Lyft), and school buses are collected in the NHTS, but these are shown as person trips by those modes because there is no way to trace movement of those vehicles throughout the day. Table 8.5 Demographic Statistics from the 1969, 1977, 1983, 1990, 1995 NPTS and 2001, 2009, 2017 NHTS Persons per household Vehicles per household Workers per household Licensed drivers per household Vehicles per worker Vehicles per licensed driver Average vehicle trip length (miles) 1969 3.16 1.16 1.21 1.65 0.96 0.70 8.89 1977 2.83 1.59 1.23 1.69 1.29 0.94 8.34 1983 2.69 1.68 1.21 1.72 1.39 0.98 7.90 1990 2.56 1.77 1.27 1.75 1.40 1.01 8.98 1995 2.63 1.78 1.33 1.78 1.34 1.00 9.06 2001 2.58 1.89 1.35 1.77 1.39 1.06 9.87 2009 2.50 1.87 1.34 1.88 1.40 1.00 9.72 2017 2.55 1.87 1.33 1.89 1.41 0.99 9.55 Percent change 1969–2017 -19% 61% 10% 14% 47% 42% 7% Note: Average vehicle trip length for 1990 and 1995 is calculated using only those records with trip mileage information present. The 1969 survey does not include pickups and other light trucks as household vehicles. Data on vehicles per household and licensed drivers per household will not match Table 8.2 and 8.3 because they come from a different source. Sources: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey: Summary of Travel Trends, FHWA-PL-92-027, Washington, DC, March 1992, Table 2. Data for 1995, 2001, 2009, and 2017 were generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–7 Due to methodology improvements in collecting trip information, the 2001 and 1995 data should be compared only to the 1990 adjusted data. The original 1990 data are comparable to all previous surveys; however, comparisons should always be made with caution because of differing survey methodologies. Table 8.6 Average Annual Vehicle-Miles, Vehicle Trips and Trip Length per Household 1969, 1977, 1983, 1990, 1995 NPTS and 2001, 2009, 2017 NHTS Journey-to-worka All trips Average annual vehicle-miles per household 1969 4,183 12,423 1977 3,815 12,036 1983 3,538 11,739 1990 original 4,853 15,100 1990 adjusted 4,853 18,161 1995 6,492 20,895 2001 5,724 21,171 2009 5,513 19,850 2017 5,379 20,629 Average annual vehicle trips per household 1969 445 1,396 1977 423 1,442 1983 414 1,486 1990 original 448 1,702 1990 adjusted 448 2,077 1995 553 2,321 2001 479 2,171 2009 457 2,068 2017 450 1,865 Average vehicle trip length (miles) 1969 9.4 8.9 1977 9.0 8.4 1983 8.5 7.9 1990 original 11.0 9.0 1990 adjusted 11.0 8.9 1995 11.8 9.1 2001 12.2 9.9 2009 12.2 9.7 2017 12.0 9.6 Note: A vehicle trip is defined as one start and end movement from location to location in a single privatelyoperated vehicle regardless of the number of persons in the vehicle. The 2017 survey featured some online trip mapping which collected more accurate trip distances. The derived distances appear to be about 10% shorter than self-reported trips. Sources: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey: Summary of Travel Trends, FHWA-PL-92-027, Washington, DC, March 1992, Table 7. 1990 adjusted data – Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, August 1998. 1995 NPTS, 2001, 2009, 2017 NHTS data were generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov, nhts.ornl.gov) It is believed that the methodology changes in the 1995 NPTS did not affect journey-to-work trips; therefore, no adjustment is necessary. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–8 The number of drivers in a household makes a difference in vehicle miles of travel (vmt), as does the presence of children in the household. Households with children have 64% more vmt than households without children in 2017. Rural households have more vehicles, on average, than urban households. Table 8.7 Average Number of Vehicles and Vehicle Travel per Household, 1990 NPTS and 2001, 2009, and 2017 NHTS Number of licensed drivers 1 2 3 4 or more Household size 1 person 2 persons 3 persons 4 persons 5 persons 6 or more persons Household urban status Urban Rural Household composition With children Without children All households Average number of vehicles per household 1990 2001 2009 2017 1.5 1.2 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.8 3.8 3.9 4.1 1990 15,200 22,900 29,400 40,500 Average vehicle-miles traveled per householda 2001 2009 9,700 8,800 25,800 23,500 37,900 37,700 47,200 55,200 2017 11,700 24,500 35,900 48,400 1.2 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.7 1.0 2.0 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.5 1.0 2.0 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 1.0 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 11,400 19,300 23,700 25,300 24,900 29,200 7,500 21,200 28,400 28,600 33,200 33,800 7,100 17,500 27,900 33,200 33,700 33,600 9,300 20,100 26,800 30,000 32,500 34,400 1.9 2.1 1.8 2.3 1.7 2.4 1.8 2.5 19,000 22,200 19,300 28,400 17,600 27,700 19,200 27,100 2.2 1.8 1.8 2.2 1.7 1.9 2.2 1.7 1.9 2.2 1.7 1.9 24,100 17,600 18,300 28,300 16,700 21,200 30,400 14,400 19,900 27,800 17,100 20,600 Note: The 2017 survey featured some online trip mapping which collected more accurate trip distances. The derived distances appear to be about 10% shorter than self-reported trips. Source: Generated from the Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey Public Use Files, Washington, DC, 2000 and the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. (Additional resources: nhts.ornl.gov) Average vehicle-miles traveled per household is the total movement in miles of all privately operated vehicles, regardless of the number of people in the vehicle, divided by the total number of households in the survey. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–9 In 2017, 24% of vehicle trips were traveling to and from work. Another 20% of trips were for shopping which is down slightly from 2001. Shopping is done close to home, as the average trip length for shopping was only seven miles. Table 8.8 Trip Statisticsa by Trip Purpose, 2001 and 2017 NHTS Trip purpose To/from work Work-related business Shopping Other family/personal business School/church Medical/dental Visit friends/relatives Other social/recreational Other All Share of trips 2001 2017 22.1% 24.1% 4.1% 2.0% 21.1% 19.9% 24.7% 20.9% 4.9% 5.2% 2.2% 2.4% 6.3% 5.7% 13.7% 15.8% 0.5% 3.8% 100.0% 100.0% Share of vehiclemiles traveled 2001 2017 27.0% 30.2% 8.4% 3.2% 14.5% 14.7% 18.7% 14.3% 3.7% 5.4% 2.2% 2.4% 9.4% 8.8% 13.2% 14.6% 1.0% 6.4% 100.0% 100.0% Trip length (miles) 2001 2017 12.1 12.0 20.3 15.2 6.7 7.0 7.5 6.6 7.5 9.9 9.9 9.5 14.9 14.6 9.6 8.8 18.1 16.0 9.9 9.6 Trip length (minutes) 2001 2017 22.3 25.0 30.9 28.1 14.4 16.1 15.2 16.1 15.8 20.2 20.7 23.1 24.4 26.8 18.2 19.4 31.4 31.1 18.7 20.6 Note: The "All" category for average trip length and duration includes records for which trip purpose was not identified. The 2017 survey featured some online trip mapping which collected more accurate trip distances. The derived distances appear to be about 10% shorter than self-reported trips. Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. a Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–10 Overall, household vehicle occupancy remained the same in 2017 as in 2009. Sport utility vehicle occupancy declined from 1.90 to 1.83 from 2009 to 2017, while pickup truck occupancy stayed the same. Car occupancy was nearly the same in those years as well. Figure 8.1. Average Household Vehicle Occupancy by Vehicle Type, 1995 NPTS and 2009, 2017 NHTS Note: Average vehicle occupancy is mileage-weighted and only includes privately operated household vehicles. Sources: Generated from the Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey Public Use Files, Washington, DC, 2000 and the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. (Additional resources: nhts.ornl.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–11 The average vehicle occupancy, calculated as person-miles per vehicle-mile, is highest for social and recreational purposes. The highest vehicle occupancy levels for all purposes were in 1977. The increase in number of vehicles per household and the decrease in average household size could have contributed to the decline since then. Figure 8.2. Average Household Vehicle Occupancy by Trip Purpose, 1977 NPTS and 2009, 2017 NHTS Note: Average vehicle occupancy is mileage-weighted and only includes privately operated household vehicles. The “All purposes” category includes other purposes not shown above, such as trips to school, church, doctor, dentist, and work-related business. Sources: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey: Summary of Travel Trends, FHWA-PL-92027, Washington, DC, March 1992, Figure 6. Data from 2009 and 2017 NHTS were generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov, nhts.ornl.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–12 The 1990 household survey reports the highest average annual miles per vehicle and the 2017 survey reports the lowest. These data show that younger vehicles are typically driven more miles than older vehicles. Table 8.9 Average Annual Miles per Household Vehicle by Vehicle Age, 1983, 1990, 1995 NPTS and 2001, 2009, 2017 NHTS Vehicle age (years) Under 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 and older All household vehicles 1983 self-reported 8,200 15,200 16,800 14,500 13,000 12,100 11,300 10,000 9,800 9,000 7,300 1990 self-reported 19,600 16,800 16,600 14,700 13,600 12,900 13,200 12,400 12,600 11,500 9,200 1995 self-reported 15,900 16,800 15,500 14,400 14,100 13,500 13,200 12,800 12,200 12,200 8,900 2001 self-reported 15,500 14,300 14,000 13,100 12,500 12,000 11,800 11,600 10,900 10,800 7,400 2009 self-reported 13,200 14,600 13,900 12,700 12,600 12,800 12,100 11,900 11,500 11,300 9,300 2017 self-reported 13,000 14,000 14,200 12,400 12,900 13,100 12,400 12,300 11,400 12,000 9,400 10,400 12,500 12,200 11,100 11,300 11,200 Note: Data include all household vehicles and have been rounded to the nearest hundred. The 2017 survey featured some online trip mapping which collected more accurate trip distances. The derived distances appear to be about 10% shorter than self-reported trips. Sources: Nationwide Personal Transportation Study—1983: D. Klinger and J. Richard Kuzmyak, COMSIS Corporation, Personal Travel in the United States, Volume 1: 1983–84 Nationwide Personal Travel Study, prepared for the U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, August 1986, Table 4-22, p. 4-21. 1990: Generated from the 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Study Public Use Tape, March 1992. 1995, 2001, 2009, and 2017: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. (Additional resources: nhts.ornl.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–13 Historically, the data from the Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS) are based on estimates reported by survey respondents. For the 1995 NPTS and the 2001 National Household Travel Survey (NHTS), odometer data were also collected. The 1995 data indicate that respondents overestimate the number of miles they drive in a year, but the 2001 data do not show that same trend. Table 8.10 Self-Reported vs. Odometer Average Annual Miles, 1995 NPTS and 2001 NHTS Vehicle age (years) Under 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 and older All household vehicles 1995 self-reported 15,900 16,800 15,500 14,400 14,100 13,500 13,200 12,800 12,200 12,200 8,900 12,200 1995 odometer 15,600 14,500 14,800 13,800 12,900 12,700 12,400 11,600 11,300 11,200 9,000 11,800 2001 self-reported 15,500 14,300 14,000 13,100 12,500 12,000 11,800 11,600 10,900 10,800 7,400 11,000 2001 odometer 14,500 14,200 13,700 14,100 13,400 12,900 12,400 12,100 11,300 10,500 8,100 11,800 Note: The 2009 NHTS did not collect similar data. Survey methodology on odometer reading data differs from 1995 to 2001 data. Source: Generated from the 2009 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov and 2001 NHTS public use file. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–14 Figure 8.3. Share of Vehicle Trips by Trip Distance, 2017 NHTS Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. Figure 8.4. Share of Vehicle Trips to Work by Trip Distance, 2017 NHTS Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–15 Fifteen percent of new vehicles (1-year-old and under) travel over 20,000 miles per year. Seventy-five percent of the vehicles over 20 years old travel less than 4,000 miles in a year. Table 8.11 Share of Vehicles by Annual Miles of Travel and Vehicle Age, 2017 NHTS Vehicle age (years) Annual vehicle miles of travel < 1,000 miles 1 - 2,000 miles 2 - 4,000 miles 4 - 6,000 miles 6 - 8,000 miles 8 - 10,000 miles 10 - 12,000 miles 12 - 15,000 miles 15 - 20,000 miles 20 - 30,000 miles >30,000 miles All 1 and under 2% 2% 7% 9% 10% 11% 11% 14% 15% 13% 6% 100% 2 2% 2% 8% 11% 10% 13% 11% 13% 15% 10% 5% 100% < 1,000 miles 1 - 2,000 miles 2 - 4,000 miles 4 - 6,000 miles 6 - 8,000 miles 8 - 10,000 miles 10 - 12,000 miles 12 - 15,000 miles 15 - 20,000 miles 20 - 30,000 miles >30,000 miles All 8 5% 3% 9% 10% 13% 12% 10% 13% 12% 9% 3% 100% 9 4% 3% 9% 12% 12% 11% 11% 13% 13% 9% 4% 100% 3 4 2% 3% 3% 3% 7% 6% 11% 8% 11% 10% 12% 12% 12% 11% 15% 15% 14% 17% 11% 11% 3% 4% 100% 100% Vehicle age (years) 10 11-15 4% 6% 4% 5% 8% 12% 11% 13% 12% 13% 12% 12% 10% 10% 13% 11% 12% 10% 10% 6% 3% 3% 100% 100% 5 3% 2% 7% 8% 11% 13% 12% 13% 16% 12% 4% 100% 6 3% 3% 7% 9% 11% 12% 12% 15% 13% 11% 4% 100% 16-20 9% 8% 15% 16% 13% 10% 8% 7% 7% 5% 2% 100% Over 20 16% 10% 17% 16% 11% 8% 6% 5% 5% 4% 1% 100% 7 3% 3% 7% 10% 11% 13% 12% 14% 14% 9% 4% 100% Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. (Additional resources: nhts.ornl.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–16 The average driver made 2.7 trips per day with an average of 9.6 miles for each trip in 2017. Table 8.12 Household Vehicle Trips, 1990, 1995 NPTS and 2001, 2009, 2017 NHTS 1990 1995 2001 2009 2017 Number of daily vehicle trips (per driver) 3.3 3.6 3.4 3.0 2.7 Average vehicle trip length (miles) 8.9 9.1 9.9 9.7 9.6 Daily vehicle miles of travel (per driver) 28.5 32.1 32.7 29.0 25.9 Note: The 2017 survey featured some online trip mapping which collected more accurate trip distances. The derived distances appear to be about 10% shorter than self-reported trips. Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. Figure 8.5. Average Daily Miles Driven (per Driver), 2017 NHTS Note: Center city = urban area; suburban = urban cluster and area surrounded by urban areas; rural = not in urban area. Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–17 Table 8.13 Daily Vehicle Miles of Travel (per Vehicle) by Number of Vehicles in the Household, 2001, 2009, and 2017 NHTS Number of household vehicles 1 2 3 4 5 More than 5 2001 25.6 27.5 24.2 23.0 21.1 18.4 Daily miles per vehicle 2009 29.1 32.7 31.3 30.2 27.6 27.2 All 25.2 31.1 2017 30.9 32.2 30.6 28.3 27.4 24.7 30.5 Note: The 2017 survey featured some online trip mapping which collected more accurate trip distances. The derived distances appear to be about 10% shorter than self-reported trips. Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. Table 8.14 Daily and Annual Vehicle Miles of Travel and Average Age for Each Vehicle in a Household, 2017 NHTS Vehicle number One-vehicle household 1 Two-vehicle household 1 2 Three-vehicle household 1 2 3 Four-vehicle household 1 2 3 4 Five-vehicle household 1 2 3 4 5 Six-vehicle household 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average daily miles Average annual miles Average age (years) 31.0 11,300 9.3 44.1 20.3 16,100 7,400 8.2 9.8 50.7 27.1 13.4 18,500 9,900 4,900 9.0 10.3 13.1 52.9 30.4 18.6 9.6 19,300 11,100 6,800 3,500 9.6 11.0 12.4 14.9 56.2 34.0 22.2 14.5 7.7 20,500 12,400 8,100 5,300 2,800 9.9 11.6 13.3 14.2 15.9 58.6 35.6 24.9 17.5 10.4 4.9 21,400 13,000 9,100 6,400 3,800 1,800 10.6 12.0 13.4 15.7 16.9 18.0 Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–18 Figure 8.6. Daily Vehicle Miles of Travel for Each Vehicle in a Household, 2017 NHTS Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. Figure 8.7. Annual Vehicle Miles of Travel for Each Vehicle in a Household, 2017 NHTS Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–19 Household vehicles fueled with gasoline were driven an average of 11,103 miles in 2017, while electric vehicles were driven an average of 10,582. Figure 8.8. Annual Vehicle Miles of Travel by Fuel Type, 2017 NHTS Note: HEV = hybrid-electric vehicle. PHEV = plug-in hybrid vehicle. Includes household vehicles only. Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–20 Table 8.15 Characteristics of U.S. Daily per Vehicle Driving by Housing Density, 2017 NHTS Share of vehicles in density type 21.5% 19.7% 14.1% 19.8% 16.3% 6.3% 1.8% 0.6% 100.0% Housing units per square milea 0–99 100–499 500–999 1,000–1,999 2,000–3,999 4,000–9,999 10,000–24,999 25,000–999,999 All Hours per vehicle per day 0.79 0.87 0.90 0.96 1.05 1.14 1.31 1.14 0.93 Average vehicle speed (miles/hour) 34.1 31.0 29.1 26.1 24.0 22.2 16.7 16.9 27.9 Miles per vehicle per day 26.8 27.1 26.0 25.0 25.3 25.2 21.8 19.2 25.9 Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. Table 8.16 Housing Unit Characteristics, 2017 Housing unit age New construction (< 2 years) New construction (2-5 years) Older construction (6+ years) Housing unit structure Single-unit dwelling Multi-unit dwelling Manufactured/mobile homes Other Housing unit geographic location (Census Region) Northeast Midwest South West Housing unit tenure Owner Renter All occupied units Share of occupied housing units Percent with garage or carport 0.7% 4.2% 95.1% 74.0% 71.8% 65.3% 70.6% 23.9% 5.5% 0.1% 80.3% 29.0% 37.2% 20.0% 18.0% 22.0% 37.5% 22.5% 52.1% 74.5% 59.2% 78.6% 63.8% 36.2% 121,200,000 units 80.6% 39.2% 65.6% Note: The American Housing Survey is updated every two years. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2017 American Housing Survey, Table Creator, accessed September 23, 2018. (Additional information: www.census.gov/programs-surveys/ahs) a Housing units per square mile in the census block group of the household’s home location. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–21 Trips to and from work by 21 different modes averaged 11.45 miles and 26.58 minutes in 2017. Sixty-three percent of workers traveled less than 30 minutes to work in 2016. Table 8.17 Average Length and Duration of Trips To and From Work by Mode, 2017 NHTS Mode Walk Bicycle Car SUV Van Pickup truck Golf cart / Segway Motorcycle / Moped RV (motor home, ATV, snowmobile) School bus Public or commuter bus Paratransit / Dial-a-ride Private / Charter / Tour / Shuttle bus City-to-city bus (Greyhound, Megabus) Amtrak / Commuter rail Subway / elevated / light rail / street car Taxi / limo (including Uber / Lyft) Rental car (including Zipcar / Car2Go) Airplane Boat / ferry / water taxi Something else All Trip Length (miles) Trip Duration (minutes) 1.19 2.72 12.21 10.76 10.73 12.60 0.39 10.12 5.37 5.78 10.35 8.63 19.32 58.97 25.57 9.90 5.91 15.68 718.69 11.64 37.79 11.45 15.26 21.79 25.47 23.79 23.33 25.97 5.00 22.53 16.19 36.03 56.97 41.51 50.94 117.86 78.13 53.41 22.54 26.22 134.83 55.34 52.99 26.58 Note: A trip is defined as a movement in the public space between two identifiable points. Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. Table 8.18 Workers by Commute Time, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2016 Commute time (one-way) Less than 15 minutes 15–29 minutes 30–39 minutes 40–59 minutes 60 minutes or more Average travel time (minutes) 1990 32.5% 37.0% 15.2% 9.2% 6.1% 22.4 2000 29.4% 36.1% 15.8% 10.7% 8.0% 25.5 2010 28.6% 36.2% 16.1% 11.1% 8.0% 25.2 2016 26.7% 36.3% 16.6% 11.8% 8.7% 26.1 Sources: 1990-2000 – U.S. Bureau of the Census, Journey to Work: 2000, Tables 1 and 2, 1990-2000, March 2004. 2010-2016 – U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2012-2016 American Community Survey, 5-Year Estimates, Tables S0802 and B08303. (Additional resources: www.census.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–22 According to the U.S. Census data, the share of workers who car pooled has dropped from 19.7% in 1980 to 9.0% in 2016. The share of workers using public transit declined from 6.2% to 5.4% in the same time period. Those driving alone and those working at home increased. The average travel time increased by 4.4 minutes from 1980 to 2016. The American Community Survey (ACS) now collects journey-to-work data on an annual basis. It shows the average commute time as 26.1 minutes in 2016. Table 8.19 Means of Transportation to Work, 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2016 Means of transportation Private vehicle Drove alone Car pooled Public transportation Bus or trolley busa Streetcar or trolley cara Subway or elevated Railroad Ferryboat Taxicab Motorcycle Bicycle Walked only Other means Worked at home Total workers Average travel time (minutes) 1980 Census Number of workers (thousands) Share 81,258 84.1% 62,193 64.4% 19,065 19.7% 6,008 6.2% 3,925 b 1,529 554 b 167 419 468 5,413 703 2,180 96,616 1990 Census Number of workers (thousands) Share 99,593 86.5% 84,215 73.2% 15,378 13.4% 5,889 5.1% 4.1% 3,445 3.0% 3,207 2.5% 78 1,755 574 0.1% 1.5% 0.5% 73 1,886 658 0.1% 1.5% 0.5% 37 179 237 467 4,489 809 3,406 115,069 0.0% 0.2% 0.2% 0.4% 3.9% 0.7% 3.0% 100.0% 44 200 142 488 3,759 901 4,184 128,279 0.0% 0.2% 0.1% 0.4% 2.9% 0.7% 3.3% 100.0% b 1.6% 0.6% b 0.2% 0.4% 0.5% 5.6% 0.7% 2.3% 100.0% 2000 Census Number of workers (thousands) Share 112,737 87.9% 97,102 75.7% 15,635 12.2% 5,868 4.6% 21.7 22.4 25.5 2016 ACS Number of workers (thousands) Share 125,037 85.6% 111,449 76.6% 13,589 9.0% 7,476 5.4% 3,774 2.6% 87 0.1% 2,725 839 53 1.9% 0.6% 0.0% 179 289 878 4,031 1,309 6,662 145,861 0.1% 0.2% 0.6% 2.8% 0.9% 4.6% 100.0% 26.1 Sources: 1980-1990 data – Provided by the Journey-to-Work and Migration Statistics Branch, Population Division, U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2000 data – U.S. Bureau of the Census, Journey to Work: 2000, Tables 1 and 2, 1990-2000, March 2004 (www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/journey.html). 2016 data – U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2012-2016 American Community Survey Five-Year Estimates, Tables B08301 and GCT0801. (Additional resources: www.census.gov) a b This category was "Bus or streetcar" in 1980. Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–23 In 2017, 6% of walk trips and 20% of bike trips were to/from work. Thirty-one percent of all bike trips were for social/recreational purposes. Fourteen percent of walk trips were shopping trips. Figure 8.9. Walk and Bike Trips by Trip Purpose, 2017 NHTS Note: Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. Source: Generated from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey website nhts.ornl.gov. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–24 After 2001, only data on daily trips were collected in the NHTS. The 2001 data are still the latest available on long-distance trips. Long Distance Trips – 2001 National Household Travel Survey The 2001 National Household Travel Survey (NHTS) collected data on long-distance trips as well as everyday travel. The everyday travel data is a continuation of the Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS), while the long-distance travel data is a continuation of the American Travel Survey (ATS) which was collected in 1977 and 1985. The survey collected trip-related data such as mode of transportation, duration, distance and purpose of trip. It also gathered demographic, geographic, and economic data for analysis purposes. A long-distance trip is defined as a trip of 50 miles or more, one-way. Long-trip data from the 2001 NHTS were released in the summer of 2004. For additional information about the 2001 NHTS data, go to the following website: nhts.ornl.gov. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–25 Table 8.20 Long-Distance Tripa Characteristics, 2001 NHTS Trip characteristic Total Principal means of transportation: Personal use vehicles Airplane Commercial airplane Busb Intercity bus Charter, tour, or school bus Train Round trip distance: 100 to 300 miles 300 to 499 miles 500 to 999 miles 1,000 to 1,999 miles 2,000 miles or more Mean (miles) Median (miles) Calendar quarter: 1st quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter 4th quarter Main purpose of trip: Commuting Other business Personal/leisure Personal business Other Nights away from home: None 1 to 3 nights 4 to 7 nights 8 or more nights Destination: Within Census division Across Census division, within Census Across Census region Person trips (thousands) (percent) 2,554,068 100.0 Person miles (thousands) (percent) 1,138,322,697 100.0 2,310,376 165,039 158,880 52,962 3,456 45,952 20,672 90.5 6.5 6.2 2.1 0.1 1.8 0.8 735,882,255 367,888,741 361,717,015 23,747,433 1,765,696 21,019,942 9,266,373 64.7 32.3 31.8 2.1 0.2 1.9 0.8 1,688,358 373,550 261,802 125,665 104,694 446 206 66.1 14.6 10.3 4.9 4.1 284,586,370 143,571,597 180,669,482 178,629,838 350,865,409 25.0 12.6 15.9 15.7 30.8 566,502 653,310 734,878 599,378 22.2 25.6 28.8 23.5 246,556,190 298,154,812 341,021,290 252,590,405 21.7 26.2 30.0 22.2 329,395 405,866 1,406,411 322,645 88,230 12.9 15.9 55.1 12.6 3.5 65,877,968 242,353,212 667,471,358 130,020,982 32,031,679 5.8 21.3 58.7 11.4 2.8 1,454,847 808,281 214,464 76,475 57.0 31.7 8.4 3.0 304,469,524 414,219,147 269,265,597 150,368,429 26.8 36.4 23.7 13.2 2,077,810 196,890 279,367 81.4 7.7 10.9 549,651,116 134,930,113 453,741,468 48.3 11.9 39.9 c c c c c c Note: Long-distance trips were not included in the 2009 or 2017 NHTS. Source: U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics and the U.S. Federal Highway Administration, 2001 National Household Transportation Survey. (Additional resources: nhts.ornl.gov) A long-distance trip is defined as a trip of 50 miles or more, one-way. Includes other types of buses. c Not applicable. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 8–26 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9–1 Nonhighway Modes Summary Statistics from Tables in this Chapter Source Passenger-miles (millions) Table 9.2 Domestic and international air carrier, 2017 Table 9.10 Amtrak, 2016 Table 9.11 Commuter rail, 2016 11,768 Table 9.12 Transit rail, 2016 20,923 Freight ton-miles Table 9.5 Domestic waterborne commerce, 2016 Table 9.8 Class I railroad, 2016 Passenger energy use 969,904 6,520 (millions) 478,000 1,585,440 (trillion Btu) Table 9.2 Domestic and international air carrier, 2017 Table 9.3 General aviation, 2016 217.8 Table 9.6 Recreational boats, 2016 246.8 Table 9.10 Amtrak, 2015 10.9 Table 9.11 Commuter rail, 2016 20.0 Table 9.12 Transit rail, 2016 15.9 Freight energy use Table 9.8 Class I railroad, 2016 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2,433.9 (trillion Btus) 474.2 9–2 Nonhighway transportation modes accounted for 17.5% of total transportation energy use in 2016. Table 9.1 Nonhighway Energy Use Shares, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Air 8.5% 7.2% 7.0% 7.1% 7.1% 7.6% 7.6% 7.8% 8.0% 7.9% 8.6% 8.8% 9.1% 9.2% 9.4% 9.2% 9.6% 9.1% 9.0% 9.0% 9.1% 9.2% 9.3% 9.5% 9.3% 9.6% 9.8% 9.3% 8.5% 8.5% 9.1% 9.2% 9.1% 8.6% 8.4% 7.9% 8.0% 8.2% 8.0% 7.9% 7.9% 8.1% 8.2% Water 5.5% 5.4% 5.9% 6.2% 6.9% 5.9% 7.4% 6.8% 5.9% 5.4% 5.1% 4.6% 6.6% 6.7% 6.7% 7.1% 6.7% 7.3% 7.4% 6.5% 6.1% 6.3% 5.9% 5.2% 5.0% 5.3% 5.6% 4.6% 4.7% 4.0% 4.8% 5.0% 5.3% 5.4% 5.1% 5.0% 5.5% 5.3% 4.5% 4.1% 3.5% 4.0% 4.4% Share of transportation energy use Nonhighway Pipeline Rail total 5.4% 3.5% 22.9% 4.0% 3.1% 19.7% 3.5% 3.1% 19.6% 3.3% 3.0% 19.7% 3.1% 2.9% 20.1% 3.6% 3.0% 20.2% 3.9% 3.0% 22.0% 4.0% 2.9% 21.6% 3.8% 2.5% 20.3% 3.2% 2.5% 19.0% 3.3% 2.7% 19.7% 3.1% 2.5% 19.0% 2.9% 2.3% 20.8% 3.0% 2.3% 21.2% 3.4% 2.3% 21.7% 3.4% 2.2% 21.9% 3.6% 2.2% 22.1% 3.3% 2.1% 21.8% 3.2% 2.1% 21.6% 3.3% 2.1% 20.9% 3.5% 2.2% 20.9% 3.5% 2.2% 21.2% 3.4% 2.3% 20.9% 3.5% 2.2% 20.5% 3.0% 2.2% 19.5% 2.9% 2.2% 20.0% 2.8% 2.1% 20.4% 2.8% 2.2% 18.9% 2.9% 2.1% 18.3% 2.6% 2.2% 17.3% 2.5% 2.3% 18.6% 2.5% 2.2% 19.0% 2.5% 2.3% 19.1% 2.5% 2.1% 18.6% 2.6% 2.1% 18.3% 2.9% 1.8% 17.6% 2.9% 2.0% 18.3% 3.0% 2.1% 18.6% 3.2% 2.1% 17.9% 3.6% 2.2% 17.7% 3.1% 2.2% 16.8% 3.0% 2.2% 17.2% 3.0% 2.0% 17.5% Transportation total (trillion Btu) a 15,192 17,204 18,266 18,951 19,922 19,473 18,760 18,558 18,055 18,188 18,773 19,017 20,086 20,578 21,131 21,487 21,383 20,985 21,646 22,125 22,729 23,263 23,773 24,126 24,461 25,758 26,069 25,741 26,331 26,512 26,970 27,377 27,554 29,013 28,381 26,895 26,974 26,388 26,001 25,905 25,992 26,125 26,526 Source: See Appendix A, Section 2.3. Nonhighway Energy Use. Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9–3 These data include ALL international and domestic certificated route air carrier statistics; therefore, the data are different than those in Chapter 2. Revenue aircraft-miles, passenger-miles, and seat-miles began to rise in 2010. Passenger load factor was 83.0% in 2017. Table 9.2 Summary Statistics for U.S. Domestic and International Certificated Route Air Carriers (Combined Totals), 1970–2017a Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1970–2017 2007–2017 Revenue aircraftmiles (millions) 2,542 2,241 2,924 3,462 4,724 5,627 5,855 6,025 6,220 6,558 6,946 6,814 6,834 7,367 7,479 7,716 8,220 8,415 8,142 7,534 7,666 7,783 7,727 7,725 7,740 7,877 8,077 8,223 2.5% -0.2% Revenue Available Available Passenger load passenger-miles seat-miles seats per factor (millions) (millions) aircraftb (percentage)c 148,137 264,904 104 55.9% 173,324 315,823 141 54.9% 267,722 448,479 153 59.7% 351,073 565,677 163 62.1% 472,236 753,211 159 62.7% 558,794 832,081 148 67.2% 596,164 859,721 147 69.3% 620,029 880,715 146 70.4% 634,933 899,029 145 70.6% 668,626 942,311 144 71.0% 708,926 981,080 141 72.3% 664,849 950,519 139 69.9% 655,215 913,898 134 71.7% 674,160 922,440 125 73.1% 752,341 1,000,193 134 75.2% 795,117 1,029,316 133 77.2% 810,086 1,027,526 125 78.8% 842,007 1,060,093 126 79.4% 823,783 1,040,840 128 79.1% 779,997 975,307 129 80.0% 809,051 991,934 129 81.6% 825,916 1,012,597 130 81.6% 832,733 1,012,261 131 82.3% 848,000 1,025,616 133 82.7% 869,688 1,048,107 135 83.0% 908,794 1,090,198 138 83.4% 939,240 1,131,970 140 83.0% 969,904 1,167,996 142 83.0% Average annual percentage change 4.1% 3.2% 0.7% 1.4% 1.0% 1.2% Revenue cargo ton-miles (millions) 3,755 5,062 7,885 9,048 16,403 23,375 24,892 27,610 28,015 25,147 30,221 27,882 30,507 32,446 37,958 39,286 38,251 38,433 35,227 30,317 35,209 35,713 34,937 33,561 34,471 35,011 35,920 39,867 Energy use (trillion Btu)d 1,363.4 1,283.4 1,386.0 1,701.4 2,180.2 2,338.6 2,409.1 2,513.6 2,459.5 2,665.0 2,750.4 2,592.5 2,430.1 2,470.6 2,657.2 2,693.3 2,661.1 2,684.6 2,547.8 2,303.2 2,335.3 2,370.3 2,287.7 2,271.3 2,265.3 2,342.1 2,385.2 2,433.9 5.2% 0.4% 1.2% -1.0% Sources: U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, www.transtats.bts.gov. (Additional resources: www.rita.dot.gov/bts) 1970–76 Energy Use – Department of Transportation, Civil Aeronautics Board, Fuel Cost and Consumption, Washington, DC, 1981, and annual. Data are for all U.S. air carriers reporting on Form 41. Available seats per aircraft is calculated as the ratio of available seat-miles to revenue aircraft-miles. c Passenger load factor is calculated as the ratio of revenue passenger-miles to available seat-miles for scheduled and nonscheduled services. d Energy use includes fuel purchased abroad for international flights. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9–4 General aviation includes: (1) aircraft operating under general operating and flight rules; (2) not-for-hire airplanes with a seating capacity of 20 or more or a maximum payload capacity of 6,000 lbs. or more; (3) rotorcraft external load operations; (4) on-demand and commuter operations not covered under Federal Aviation Regulations Part 121; and (5) agricultural aircraft operations. Table 9.3 Summary Statistics for General Aviation, 1970–2016 Calendar year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 1970–2016 2006–2016 Aircraft hours flown Total number of aircraft (thousands) 131,700a 26,030b 168,475 30,298 211,045 41,016 196,500 31,456 205,300 31,782 202,700 30,883 196,200 31,114 205,000 32,332 198,000 32,096 196,874 29,862 185,650 26,747 177,120 24,455 172,935 24,092 188,089 26,612 191,129 26,909 192,414 27,713 204,710 28,100 219,464 31,231 217,533 29,960 211,446 27,017 211,244 27,040 209,708 27,329 219,426 28,126 224,352 26,982 221,943 27,705 231,607 27,852 228,663 26,009 223,877 23,763 223,370 24,802 220,770 24,570 209,034 24,403 199,927 22,876 204,408 23,271 210,030 24,142 211,793 24,833 Average annual percentage change 1.0% -0.1% -0.5% -1.1% Energy use (trillion Btu) 94.3 110.7 165.9 143.9 147.9 139.1 148.5 134.1 131.8 120.0 103.7 93.6 95.3 106.6 111.0 121.1 147.4 172.1 175.2 165.1 141.5 141.4 175.9 242.4 256.3 243.6 265.7 210.3 221.2 227.1 228.8 203.6 221.0 208.9 217.8 1.8% -1.6% Sources: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, General Aviation and Part 135 Activity Surveys, CY 2016, Tables 1.1, 1.4, 5.1, and annual. 2011 Data: Aviation Forecasts, Tables 28 and 29, May 2013. (Additional resources: www.faa.gov/data-research/aviation_data_statistics/general_aviation) a b Active fixed-wing general aviation aircraft only. Includes rotorcraft. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9–5 In the early seventies, domestic waterborne commerce accounted for over 60% of total tonnage on United States waterways, but by 1994 foreign tonnage grew to more than half of all waterborne tonnage. Total foreign and domestic tons shipped were about 2.29 billion tons in 2016, down from a peak of 2.59 billion tons in 2006. Table 9.4 Tonnage Statistics for Domestic and International Waterborne Commerce, 1970–2016 (million tons shipped) Year Foreign and domestic total 1970–2016 2006–2016 0.9% -1.2% 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 1,532 1,695 1,999 1,788 1,874 1,967 2,088 2,140 2,164 2,092 2,132 2,128 2,215 2,240 2,284 2,333 2,340 2,323 2,425 2,393 2,340 2,394 2,552 2,527 2,588 2,564 2,477 2,211 2,335 2,368 2,307 2,274 2,346 2,279 2,292 Foreign totala Domestic totalb 581 951 749 946 921 1,077 774 1,014 837 1,037 891 1,076 976 1,112 1,038 1,103 1,042 1,122 1,014 1,079 1,037 1,095 1,060 1,068 1,116 1,099 1,147 1,093 1,183 1,101 1,221 1,113 1,245 1,094 1,261 1,062 1,355 1,070 1,351 1,042 1,319 1,021 1,378 1,016 1,505 1,050 1,499 1,029 1,565 1,028 1,543 1,022 1,521 956 1,354 858 1,441 894 1,480 892 1,422 890 1,383 891 1,409 937 1,374 905 1,415 877 Average annual percentage change 2.0% -0.2% -1.0% -1.6% Percent domestic of total 62.1% 55.8% 53.9% 56.7% 55.3% 54.7% 53.3% 51.5% 51.8% 51.6% 51.4% 50.2% 49.6% 48.8% 48.2% 47.7% 46.8% 45.7% 44.1% 43.5% 43.6% 42.4% 41.0% 40.7% 39.5% 39.9% 38.6% 38.8% 38.3% 37.5% 38.4% 39.2% 39.9% 39.7% 38.3% Source: U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Waterborne Commerce of the United States, Calendar Year 2016, Part 5—National Summaries, November 2017, Table 1-1. (Additional resources: www.navigationdatacenter.us/index.htm) a All movements between the United States and foreign countries and between Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and foreign countries are classified as foreign trade. b All movements between U.S. ports, continental and noncontiguous, and on the inland rivers, canals, and connecting channels of the United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, excluding the Panama Canal. Beginning in 1996, fish was excluded for internal and intra-port domestic traffic. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9–6 The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Navigation Data Center collects a wealth of waterborne commerce data. Energy use data, however, have never been collected as part of this effort. The energy use data collected by the Energy Information Administration (EIA) on vessel bunkering was formerly displayed on this table. The EIA data include different uses of fuel, not just fuel for domestic waterborne commerce; therefore, it was misleading to display those data together. Table 9.5 Summary Statistics for Domestic Waterborne Commerce, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Number of vesselsa 25,832 31,666 38,792 41,672 41,119 39,445 41,104 41,419 42,032 41,766 39,641 41,588 41,002 39,983 40,290 41,354 41,109 40,695 40,301 40,109 40,512 40,521 40,530 39,999 40,082 40,555 41,328 1970–2016 2006–2016 1.0% 0.1% Ton-miles (billions) Tons shippedb (millions) 596 949 566 944 922 1,074 893 1,011 834 1,118 808 1,086 765 1,093 707 1,106 673 1,087 656 1,056 646 1,064 622 1,037 612 1,016 606 1,010 621 1,045 591 1,025 563 1,022 553 1,016 521 952 477 853 502 889 500 888 475 888 465 890 505 936 491 903 478 875 Average annual percentage change -0.5% -0.2% -1.6% -1.5% Average length of haul (miles) 628.2 599.9 856.4 883.5 745.7 743.6 699.4 639.5 618.9 621.1 606.8 599.7 602.5 600.3 596.7 577.3 551.3 544.2 546.7 559.7 565.0 562.4 535.0 522.6 539.1 543.2 546.1 -0.3% -0.1% Sources: Number of vessels 1970–92, 1995–2016 – U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Waterborne Transportation Lines of the United States, 2016, New Orleans, LA, 2017, Table 2 and annual. 1993–94 – U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, The U.S. Waterway System-Facts, Navigation Data Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, January 1996. Ton-miles, tons shipped, average length of haul – U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Waterborne Commerce of the United States, Calendar Year 2017, Part 5: National Summaries, New Orleans, LA, 2017, Table 1-4 and annual. (Additional resources: www.navigationdatacenter.us/index.htm) Grand total for self-propelled and non-self-propelled. These figures are not consistent with the figures on Table 9.4 because intra-territory tons are not included in this table. Intra-territory traffic is traffic between ports in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9–7 The data displayed in this table come from the Environmental Protection Agency’s MOVES2014a model. Table 9.6 Recreational Boat Energy Use, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Number of boats (thousands) 10,087 10,337 10,387 10,437 10,487 10,537 10,587 10,637 10,687 10,737 10,787 10,837 10,887 10,937 11,030 11,122 11,215 11,327 11,440 11,553 11,770 11,988 12,206 12,244 12,283 12,321 12,359 12,464 12,568 12,673 12,777 12,882 12,984 13,086 13,189 13,291 13,393 13,497 13,602 13,707 13,811 13,916 14,019 1970–2016 2006–2016 0.7% 0.8% Diesel fuel Gasoline (trillion Btu) 5.5 151.7 10.7 156.4 11.8 157.4 12.8 158.3 13.9 159.3 14.9 160.2 16.0 161.2 17.0 162.1 18.0 163.1 19.1 164.0 20.1 165.0 21.2 165.9 22.2 166.9 23.3 167.8 24.3 170.4 25.4 172.9 26.4 175.4 27.5 178.7 28.5 182.0 29.5 185.3 30.6 192.5 31.6 199.7 32.7 206.8 33.7 207.2 34.8 207.4 35.8 207.1 36.8 206.6 37.9 206.9 39.0 206.7 40.2 206.0 41.3 205.0 42.4 203.7 43.5 202.5 44.6 201.2 45.7 200.0 46.8 198.8 47.9 197.3 49.0 195.9 50.1 194.7 51.2 193.8 52.3 193.1 53.4 192.6 54.5 192.2 Average annual percentage change 5.1% 0.5% 2.3% -0.5% Total energy use Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, MOVES2014a model, www3.epa.gov/otaq/models/moves. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 157.2 167.1 169.1 171.1 173.1 175.1 177.1 179.1 181.1 183.1 185.1 187.1 189.1 191.1 194.7 198.3 201.8 206.2 210.5 214.8 223.1 231.3 239.5 240.9 242.2 243.0 243.4 244.9 245.7 246.2 246.2 246.1 245.9 245.8 245.7 245.6 245.2 244.9 244.8 245.0 245.4 246.0 246.8 1.0% 0.0% 9–8 The Interstate Commerce Commission designates Class I railroads on the basis of annual gross revenues. In 2016, seven railroads were given this designation. The number of railroads designated as Class I has changed considerably in the last 30 years; in 1976 there were 52 railroads given Class I designation. Table 9.7 Class I Railroad Freight Systems in the United States Ranked by Revenue Ton-Miles, 2016 Railroad Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway Company Union Pacific Railroad Company CSX Transportation Norfolk Southern Railway Canadian National, Grand Trunk Corporation Canadian Pacific Soo Railway Kansas City Southern Railway Company Total Revenue ton-miles (billions) 629 440 208 190 56 31 30 1,584 Percent 39.7% 27.8% 13.1% 12.0% 3.5% 2.0% 1.9% 100.0% Source: Association of American Railroads, Railroad Facts, 2017 Edition, Washington, DC, September 2017, p. 64. (Additional resources: www.aar.org) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9–9 Revenue ton-miles for Class I freight railroads was nearly 1.6 trillion in 2016. Though there are many regional and local freight railroads, the Class I freight railroads accounted for 94% of the railroad industry’s freight revenue in 2016 and 69% of the industry’s mileage operated. The energy intensity of Class I railroads hit an alltime low of 289 Btu/ton-mile in 2010 and continued to be below 300 Btu/ton-mile in 2016. Table 9.8 Summary Statistics for Class I Freight Railroads, 1970–2016 Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 1970–2016 2006–2016 Number of locomotives in servicea 27,077d 27,846 28,094 22,548 20,790 19,647 19,364 19,015 18,835 18,344 18,004 18,161 18,505 18,812 19,269 19,684 20,261 20,256 20,028 19,745 20,506 20,774 22,015 22,779 23,732 24,143 24,003 24,045 23,893 24,250 24,707 25,033 25,916 26,574 26,716 Number of freight cars (thousands)b 1,424 1,359 1,168 867 799 749 725 682 659 633 605 587 591 583 571 568 576 579 560 500 478 467 474 475 475 460 450 416 398 381 381 374 372 331 315 0.0% 1.2% -3.2% -4.0% TrainTons miles originatedc Car-miles (millions) (millions) (millions) 427 29,890 1,485 403 27,656 1,395 428 29,277 1,492 347 24,920 1,320 347 24,414 1,306 361 25,627 1,372 379 26,339 1,430 383 26,196 1,403 380 26,159 1,425 375 25,628 1,383 390 26,128 1,399 405 26,883 1,397 441 28,485 1,470 458 30,383 1,550 469 31,715 1,611 475 31,660 1,585 475 32,657 1,649 490 33,851 1,717 504 34,590 1,738 500 34,243 1,742 500 34,680 1,767 516 35,555 1,799 535 37,071 1,844 548 37,712 1,899 563 38,995 1,957 543 38,186 1,940 524 37,226 1,934 436 32,115 1,668 476 35,541 1,851 493 36,649 1,885 500 36,525 1,760 504 35,253 1,758 518 37,193 1,840 495 35,853 1,704 453 32,572 1,554 Average annual percentage change 0.1% 0.2% 0.1% -2.2% -1.8% -2.3% Average length of haul (miles) 515 541 616 665 664 688 697 723 726 751 763 794 817 843 842 851 835 835 843 859 853 862 902 894 906 913 919 919 914 917 973 990 1,006 1,020 1,021 Revenue ton-miles (millions) 764,809 754,252 918,958 876,984 867,722 943,747 996,182 1,013,841 1,033,969 1,038,875 1,066,781 1,109,309 1,200,701 1,305,688 1,355,975 1,348,926 1,376,802 1,433,461 1,465,960 1,495,472 1,507,011 1,551,438 1,662,598 1,696,425 1,771,897 1,770,545 1,777,236 1,532,214 1,691,004 1,729,256 1,712,567 1,740,687 1,851,229 1,738,283 1,585,440 Energy intensity (Btu/tonmile) 691 687 597 497 486 456 443 437 420 391 393 389 388 372 368 370 365 363 352 346 345 344 341 337 330 320 305 291 289 298 294 296 292 297 299 Energy use (trillion Btu) 528.1 518.3 548.7 436.1 421.5 430.3 441.4 442.6 434.7 405.8 419.2 431.6 465.4 485.9 499.4 499.7 502.0 520.0 516.0 517.3 520.3 533.9 566.2 571.4 584.5 566.9 542.5 446.6 488.1 514.6 504.0 514.9 540.5 516.4 474.2 1.5% 1.2% 1.6% -1.1% -1.8% -1.0% -0.2% -2.1% Source: Association of American Railroads, Railroad Facts, 2017 Edition, Washington, DC, September 2017, pp. 30, 31, 36, 37, 39, 50, and 65. (Additional resources: www.aar.org) Does not include self-powered units. Does not include private or shipper-owned cars. Beginning in 2001, Canadian-owned U.S. railroads are excluded. c Tons originated is a more accurate representation of total tonnage than revenue tons. Revenue tons often produces double-counting of loads switched between rail companies. d Data represent total locomotives used in freight and passenger service. Separate estimates are not available. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9–10 According to the 2012 Commodity Flow Survey, 7% of all freight ton-miles are rail intermodal shipments (truck/rail or rail/water). See Table 5.16 for details. Containerization has increased in the last two decades, evidenced by the 436% increase in the number of containers from 1988 to 2016. The number of trailers moved by rail fell to an alltime low in 2016. Table 9.9 Intermodal Rail Traffic, 1965–2016a Year 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 1965–2016 2006–2016 Trailers & containers Trailers b 1,664,929 b 2,363,200 b 2,238,117 b 3,059,402 b 4,590,952 b 4,997,229 b 5,503,819 5,779,547 3,481,020 5,987,355 3,496,262 6,206,782 3,451,953 6,246,134 3,201,560 6,627,841 3,264,597 7,156,628 3,464,126 8,128,228 3,752,502 7,936,172 3,492,463 8,143,258 3,302,128 8,698,308 3,453,907 8,772,663 3,353,032 8,907,626 3,207,407 9,176,890 2,888,630 8,935,444 2,603,423 9,312,360 2,531,338 9,955,605 2,625,837 10,993,662 2,928,123 11,693,512 2,979,906 12,282,221 2,882,699 12,026,631 2,600,635 11,499,978 2,478,890 9,875,967 1,639,603 11,283,151 1,684,684 11,892,418 1,698,615 12,267,416 1,518,323 12,831,311 1,483,938 13,496,822 1,550,124 13,710,662 1,467,913 13,490,491 1,181,135 Average annual percentage change b 4.2% 0.9% -8.5% Containers b b b b b b b 2,298,527 2,491,093 2,754,829 3,044,574 3,363,244 3,692,502 4,375,726 4,443,709 4,841,130 5,244,401 5,419,631 5,700,219 6,288,260 6,332,021 6,781,022 7,329,768 8,065,539 8,713,606 9,399,522 9,425,996 9,021,088 8,236,364 9,598,467 10,193,803 10,749,093 11,347,373 11,946,698 12,232,749 12,309,356 b 2.7% Source: Association of American Railroads, Railroad Facts, 2017 Edition, Washington, DC, September 2017, p. 29. (Additional resources: www.aar.org) a Beginning in 1995, the Grand Trunk Western Railroad and the Soo Line Railroad Company are excluded. Beginning in 1999, the Illinois Central data are excluded. Beginning in 2002, the Wisconsin Central data are excluded. b Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9–11 The National Railroad Passenger Corporation, known as Amtrak, began operation in 1971. Amtrak revenue passenger-miles have grown at an average annual rate of 2.7% from 1971 to 2016. Table 9.10 Summary Statistics for the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak), 1971–2016 Year 1971 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 1971–2016 2006–2016 Number of locomotives in service b 355 448 382 318 316 336 360 411 422 348 292 362 385 385 401 372 442 276 258 319 270 278 274 282 287 485 418 428 423 434 b 3.1% Number of passenger cars 1,165 1,913 2,128 1,818 1,863 1,786 1,796 1,853 1,874 1,907 1,501 1,572 1,347 1,285 1,891 2,084 2,896 1,623 1,211 1,186 1,191 1,164 1,177 1,214 1,274 1,301 2,090 1,447 1,419 1,428 1,402 0.4% 1.6% Revenue passengermiles Train-miles Car-miles (thousands) (thousands) (millions) 16,537 140,147 1,993 30,166 253,898 3,753 29,487 235,235 4,503 30,038 250,642 4,785 33,000 300,996 6,057 34,000 312,484 6,273 34,000 307,282 6,091 34,936 302,739 6,199 34,940 305,600 5,869 31,579 282,579 5,401 30,542 277,750 5,066 32,000 287,760 5,166 32,926 315,823 5,325 34,080 349,337 5,289 35,404 371,215 5,574 36,512 377,705 5,571 37,624 378,542 5,314 37,459 331,864 5,680 37,159 308,437 5,511 36,199 264,796 5,381 36,083 263,908 5,410 37,484 266,545 5,784 37,736 271,762 6,179 38,300 282,764 5,914 37,453 294,820 6,420 37,090 296,315 6,568 37,640 319,088 6,804 38,410 324,949 6,810 38,013 324,683 6,675 37,798 319,464 6,536 37,808 316,384 6,520 Average annual percentage change 1.9% 1.8% 2.7% 0.5% 1.8% 1.9% Average trip length (miles) 188 224 217 238 273 285 286 280 276 266 257 255 251 245 243 238 228 231 219 215 220 218 215 217 220 213 218 218 218 218 208 0.2% -0.6% Energy intensity (Btu per revenue passenger-mile) Energy use (trillion Btu) a 3,311 2,859 2,237 2,052 2,011 2,117 2,142 1,917 2,071 2,194 2,289 2,246 2,362 2,651 2,690 2,537 2,145 2,068 2,025 1,948 1,824 1,745 1,773 1,668 1,628 1,561 1,608 1,629 1,589 1,551 12.4 12.9 10.7 12.4 12.6 12.9 13.3 11.3 11.2 11.1 11.8 12.0 12.5 14.8 15.0 13.5 12.2 11.4 10.9 10.5 10.5 10.8 10.5 10.7 10.7 10.6 11.0 10.9 10.4 10.1 b b b a -2.3% -0.4% Sources: 1971–83 – Association of American Railroads, Economics and Finance Department, Statistics of Class I Railroads, Washington, DC, and annual. 1984–88 – Association of American Railroads, Railroad Facts, 1988 Edition, Washington, DC, December 1989, p. 61, and annual. 1989–93 – Personal communication with the Corporate Accounting Office of Amtrak, Washington, DC. 1994–2016 – Number of locomotives in service, number of passenger cars, train-miles, car-miles, revenue passengermiles, and average trip length - Association of American Railroads, Railroad Facts, 2017 Edition, Washington, DC, 2017, p. 73. Energy use – Personal communication with the Amtrak, Washington, DC. (Additional resources: www.amtrak.com, www.aar.org) Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. b Data are not available. c Energy use for 1994 on is not directly comparable to earlier years. Some commuter rail energy use may have been inadvertently included in earlier years. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 c 9–12 Commuter rail, which is also known as regional rail or suburban rail, is long-haul rail passenger service operating between metropolitan and suburban areas, whether within or across state lines. Commuter rail lines usually have reduced fares for multiple rides and commutation tickets for regular, recurring riders. Table 9.11 Summary Statistics for Commuter Rail Operations, 1984–2016 Year 1984 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Number of passenger vehicles 4,075 4,035 4,982 5,126 5,164 4,982 5,126 5,164 5,240 5,426 5,536 5,550 5,498 5,572 5,724 5,959 6,228 6,392 6,403 6,391 6,617 6,941 6,927 7,193 7,059 7,310 7,337 7,216 7,190 Vehiclemiles (millions) 167.9 182.7 212.7 214.9 218.8 223.9 230.8 237.7 241.9 250.7 259.5 265.9 270.9 277.3 283.7 286.0 294.7 303.4 314.7 325.7 310.2 343.5 345.3 345.2 346.4 359.1 370.8 373.7 371.7 1984–2016 2006–2016 1.8% 1.2% 2.5% 1.7% Passenger PassengerAverage trips miles trip length (millions) (millions) (miles) 267 6,207 23.2 275 6,534 23.8 328 7,082 21.6 318 7,344 23.1 314 7,320 23.3 322 6,940 21.6 339 7,996 23.6 344 8,244 24.0 352 8,351 23.7 357 8,038 22.5 381 8,704 22.8 396 8,766 22.1 413 9,402 22.8 419 9,548 22.8 414 9,504 22.9 410 9,559 23.3 414 9,719 23.5 423 9,473 22.4 441 10,361 23.5 459 11,153 24.3 472 11,049 23.4 468 11,232 24.0 464 10,874 23.4 466 11,427 24.5 471 11,181 23.7 480 11,862 24.7 490 11,718 23.9 495 11,813 23.9 499 11,768 23.6 Average annual percentage change 2.0% 2.0% 0.1% 1.2% 1.3% 0.0% Energy intensity (Btu/passengermile) a 1,798 1,720 1,622 1,601 1,565 1,782 1,605 1,580 1,541 1,630 1,612 1,670 1,542 1,533 1,542 1,542 1,536 1,658 1,539 1,543 1,579 1,714 1,753 1,681 1,703 1,676 1,638 1,661 1,696 Energy use (trillion Btu) a 11.2 11.2 11.5 11.8 11.5 12.4 12.8 13.0 12.9 13.1 14.0 14.6 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.7 14.9 15.7 15.9 17.2 17.4 19.2 19.1 19.2 19.0 19.9 19.2 19.6 20.0 -0.2% 1.0% 1.8% 2.3% Sources: 1984-2015: American Public Transportation Association, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, March 2018, Appendix A. (Additional resources: www.apta.com) 2016: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, 2016 National Transit Database, accessed September 2018. (Additional resources: www.transit.gov/ntd) Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9–13 This table on transit rail operations includes data on light rail and heavy rail systems. Light rail vehicles are usually single vehicles driven electrically with power drawn from overhead wires. Heavy rail is characterized by high speed and rapid acceleration of rail cars operating on a separate right-of-way. Table 9.12 Summary Statistics for Rail Transit Operations, 1970–2016a Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Number of passenger vehicles 10,548 10,617 10,654 11,109 11,332 11,156 11,341 11,471 11,521 11,603 12,168 12,084 12,479 12,236 12,480 12,755 12,853 13,032 13,346 13,529 13,614 13,328 12,455 12,434 12,608 12,820 12,912 Vehiclemiles (millions) 440.8 446.9 402.2 467.8 560.9 571.8 580.7 598.9 609.5 626.4 648.0 662.4 681.9 694.2 709.7 715.4 726.4 741.2 762.8 775.3 759.6 744.1 749.5 774.3 780.9 803.2 810.2 1970–2016 2005–2016 0.4% 0.0% 1.3% 1.1% Passenger PassengerAverage trip trips miles length (millions)b (millions)c (miles)d f 2,116 12,273 f 1,797 10,423 2,241 10,939 4.9 2,422 10,777 4.4 2,521 12,046 4.8 2,284 11,419 5.0 2,418 12,487 5.2 2,692 13,091 4.9 2,669 13,412 5.0 2,813 14,108 5.0 2,952 15,200 5.1 3,064 15,615 5.1 3,025 15,095 5.0 3,005 15,082 5.0 3,098 15,930 5.1 3,189 16,118 5.1 3,334 16,587 5.0 3,879 18,070 4.7 4,001 18,941 4.7 3,955 19,004 4.8 4,007 18,580 4.6 4,083 19,520 4.8 4,192 19,835 4.7 4,275 20,381 4.8 4,411 20,829 4.7 4,339 20,710 4.8 4,346 20,923 4.8 Average annual percentage change -0.1%g 1.6% 1.2% 2.7% 2.3% -0.4% Energy intensity (Btu/passengermile)e 712 866 763 927 998 1,102 996 943 931 919 923 925 948 936 907 919 893 851 832 830 832 812 791 793 786 777 761 Energy use (trillion Btu) e 8.7 9.0 8.3 10.0 12.0 12.6 12.4 12.3 12.5 13.0 14.0 14.4 14.3 14.1 14.5 14.8 14.8 15.4 15.8 15.8 15.5 15.8 15.7 16.2 16.4 16.1 15.9 0.1% -1.6% 1.3% 0.7% Sources: 1970-2015: American Public Transportation Association, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, March 2018, Appendix A. (Additional resources: www.apta.com) 2016: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, 2016 National Transit Database, accessed September 2018. (Additional resources: www.transit.gov/ntd) Energy use – See Appendix A for Rail Transit Energy Use. Heavy rail and light rail. Series not continuous between 1983 and 1984 because of a change in data source by the American Public Transit Association (APTA). Beginning in 1984, data provided by APTA are taken from mandatory reports filed with the Urban Mass Transit Administration (UMTA). Data for prior years were provided on a voluntary basis by APTA members and expanded statistically. b 1970–79 data represents total passenger rides; after 1979, data represents unlinked passenger trips. c Estimated for years 1970–76 based on an average trip length of 5.8 miles. d Calculated as the ratio of passenger-miles to passenger trips. e Only end-use energy was counted for electricity. Previous editions included primary energy use for electricity which included generation and distribution losses. Large system-to-system variations exist for energy intensities. f Data are not available. g Average annual percentage change is calculated for years 1980–2015. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 9–14 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–1 Transportation and the Economy Summary Statistics from Tables/Figures in this Chapter Source Table 10.1 Average household transportation expenditures, 2016 Figure 10.2 Share of gasoline cost attributed to taxes, 2017 Table 10.13 Table 10.14 Table 10.15 Table 10.19 15.8% Canada 34% France 64% Germany 64% Japan 48% Korea 58% United Kingdom 65% United States 22% Average price of a new car, 2017 (current dollars) 25,367 Domestic 23,423 Import 31,473 Average price of a new light truck, 2017 (current dollars) 37,097 Domestic 38,135 Import 33,357 Car operating costs, 2017 Variable costs (constant 2017 dollars per 10,000 miles) 1,559 Fixed costs (constant 2017 dollars per 10,000 miles) 4,965 Transportation sector share of total employment 1990 10.7% 2000 9.9% 2017 8.6% TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–2 Adjusting Dollar Amounts for Inflation A dollar spent in 1970 does not have the purchasing power of a dollar spent in 2016 due to the inflation of prices for all goods and services. Thus, prices in a historical series must be adjusted in order to provide proper comparison. The term “current dollars” is used in this report for dollar amounts that were current as of the year listed – this can also be referred to as “nominal dollars.” The term “constant 2016 dollars” is used in this report for dollar amounts that have been adjusted to a constant purchasing power (2016, in this example) and thus the data are comparable historically – this can also be referred to as “real dollars.” Appendix B, Table B.17 contains the Consumer Price Inflation Index and Table B.18 contains the Gross National Product Implicit Price Deflator for years 1970 to 2016. Tables in the report with constant dollars have a footnote indicating which of these inflation adjustment indices were used. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–3 The Transportation Services Index (TSI) was created by the U.S. Department of Transportation Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS). It is an index that measures the movement of freight and passengers. The Freight TSI consists of: • • • • • for-hire trucking (parcel services are not included); freight railroad services (including rail-based intermodal shipments such as containers on flat cars); inland waterway traffic; pipeline movements (including principally petroleum and petroleum products and natural gas); and air freight. The index does not include international or coastal steamship movements, private trucking, courier services, or the United States Postal Services. The Passenger TSI consists of: • local mass transit; • intercity passenger rail; and • passenger air transportation. The index does not include intercity bus, sightseeing services, taxi service, private car usage, or bicycling and other nonmotorized means of transportation. Figure 10.1. Transportation Services Index, January 1990–January 2018 Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Transportation Services Index website, www.transtats.bts.gov/OSEA/TSI/. (Additional resources: www.bts.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–4 Table 10.1 Average Annual Expenditures of Households by Income, 2016a All households $57,311 Total expenditures Foodc Housing Apparel and services Transportation Vehicle purchases (net outlay) Gasoline and motor oil Other vehicle expenditures Public transportation Health care Entertainment Personal Insurance & pensions Othersd Householdse (thousands) Percentage of households Average number of vehicles in HH 13.4% 33.0% 3.1% 15.8% 6.3% 3.3% 5.0% 1.1% 8.0% 5.1% 11.9% 9.6% 129,549 100.0% 1.9 $50,000– $69,999 $52,088 Total expenditures Foodc Housing Apparel and services Transportation Vehicle purchases (net outlay) Gasoline and motor oil Other vehicle expenditures Public transportation Health care Entertainment Personal Insurance & pensions Othersd Householdse (thousands) Percentage of households Average number of vehicles in HH 13.7% 33.3% 3.1% 17.6% 7.1% 4.0% 5.6% 0.9% 8.6% 5.3% 10.2% 8.1% 16,846 13.0% 2.0 Income before taxes Less than $15,000– $30,000– $15,000 $29,999 $39,999 $23,657 $31,913 $40,144 Percentage of total expendituresb 16.5% 14.6% 13.7% 41.0% 38.4% 36.2% 3.6% 3.0% 3.3% 14.8% 15.5% 17.1% 5.3% 5.9% 7.6% 3.6% 3.7% 4.0% 5.1% 5.1% 4.8% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 7.8% 9.6% 10.3% 4.4% 4.8% 5.0% 2.6% 3.6% 5.5% 9.3% 10.5% 9.0% 17,368 22,935 13,332 13.4% 17.7% 10.3% 0.9 1.3 1.7 Income before taxes $70,000– $100,000– $150,000– $99,999 $149,999 $199,999 $65,086 $84,154 $109,516 Percentage of total expendituresb 13.9% 13.2% 13.5% 31.6% 30.9% 30.4% 3.1% 2.9% 3.4% 17.1% 16.2% 15.0% 6.8% 6.8% 5.7% 3.8% 3.3% 2.7% 5.6% 5.1% 5.2% 0.9% 1.0% 1.4% 8.4% 7.8% 7.1% 5.3% 5.2% 5.4% 12.7% 14.9% 16.1% 8.0% 9.0% 9.1% 18,201 16,131 6,338 14.0% 12.5% 4.9% 2.4 2.7 2.7 $40,000– $49,999 $44,150 14.4% 35.3% 3.2% 17.5% 7.0% 4.1% 5.6% 0.8% 8.9% 4.5% 7.7% 8.4% 11,116 8.6% 1.8 $200,000 and over $158,896 11.1% 29.0% 3.3% 12.0% 4.7% 1.8% 3.5% 1.9% 5.8% 5.2% 19.6% 13.9% 7,284 5.6% 2.8 Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, website: www.bls.gov/cex, 2018. (Additional resources: www.bls.gov) Public assistance monies are included in reported income. Data for those reporting incomes. Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding. c Includes alcoholic beverages. d Includes personal care, reading, education, tobacco and smoking supplies, cash contributions, and miscellaneous items. e The term household refers to a “consumer unit,” which is defined differently than households on Table 8.1. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–5 The average amount of money that a household spends in a year has grown about 7% between 1985 and 2016 in constant dollar terms. Expenditures on transportation were 19.4% of the total in 1985 but were only 15.8% in 2016. Vehicle purchases made up about 40% of transportation expenditures in 2016, while gas and oil were 21%. Table 10.2 Annual Household Expenditures for Transportation, 1985-2016 (constant 2016 dollarsa ) Year 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Vehicle purchases 4,602 5,120 4,259 4,845 4,545 3,987 3,796 3,707 3,843 4,377 4,214 4,470 4,271 4,481 4,908 4,831 5,120 5,040 5,049 4,316 4,355 4,073 3,755 3,071 2,972 2,849 2,848 3,356 3,370 3,347 4,047 3,634 Transportation expenditures Other Gas & vehicle Public Oil expensesb transportation 2,333 2,846 591 2,021 3,009 547 1,861 3,023 547 1,895 3,151 540 1,910 3,221 538 1,935 3,063 556 1,759 3,130 543 1,664 3,089 491 1,623 3,136 528 1,603 3,221 636 1,597 3,249 578 1,692 3,284 655 1,660 3,457 583 1,517 3,365 629 1,543 3,364 588 1,834 3,268 615 1,748 3,316 549 1,670 3,402 539 1,765 3,151 522 2,030 3,005 560 2,474 2,874 551 2,651 2,804 601 2,760 3,000 623 3,027 2,922 572 2,222 2,837 536 2,347 2,712 543 2,833 2,618 551 2,881 2,603 567 2,690 2,662 553 2,502 2,761 589 2,116 2,791 669 1,909 2,884 623 Total transportation 10,370 10,697 9,693 10,428 10,214 9,542 9,225 8,950 9,129 9,840 9,640 10,099 9,973 9,990 10,404 10,548 10,732 10,652 10,489 9,912 10,254 10,129 10,138 9,591 8,567 8,450 8,849 9,406 9,276 9,198 9,623 9,049 Average annual household expenditures 53,480 53,518 52,345 53,538 54,820 53,367 53,723 52,222 52,214 53,022 52,910 54,443 54,052 54,863 56,390 56,082 56,099 56,776 55,752 55,136 57,033 57,618 57,458 56,279 54,892 52,952 53,035 53,775 52,646 54,234 56,684 57,311 Transportation share of annual expenditures 19.4% 20.0% 18.5% 19.5% 18.6% 17.9% 17.2% 17.1% 17.5% 18.6% 18.2% 18.5% 18.5% 18.2% 18.5% 18.8% 19.1% 18.8% 18.8% 18.0% 18.0% 17.6% 17.6% 17.0% 15.6% 16.0% 16.7% 17.5% 17.6% 17.0% 17.0% 15.8% Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Expenditure Survey, www.bls.gov/cex, February 2018. (Additional resources: www.bls.gov) Adjusted using the U.S. Consumer Price Inflation Index. Can be converted to constant dollars using Table B.17. a Other vehicle expenses include vehicle finance charges, maintenance and repairs, insurance, licenses, and other vehicle charges. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–6 The United States prices are the lowest of these listed countries. Those in Korea, France, the United Kingdom, and Germany paid, on average, over $5 per gallon in 2017. Data for China and India have been discontinued by the International Energy Agency. Table 10.3 Gasoline Pricesa for Selected Countries, 1990–2017 1990 China Japan Current dollars per gallon 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2017 Average annual percentage change 1990–2017 b b b 4.30 4.50 1.3% b b 3.16 1.03 4.43 b 3.65 1.70 4.28 3.71 5.73 India b b b 3.71 4.29 b South Korea b b b b 5.28 5.60 5.05 6.11 b Francec 3.63 4.26 3.80 5.46 6.74 5.68 5.87 1.8% United Kingdomc Germanyc Canada 2.82 2.65 1.87 3.21 3.96 1.53 4.58 3.45 1.86 5.97 5.75 2.89 6.83 7.11 3.80 6.43 5.88 3.22 5.73 5.86 3.34 2.7% 3.0% 2.2% United Statesd 1.16 1.15 1.51 2.27 2.78 2.43 2.42 1990 Constant 2017 dollarse per gallon 1995 2000 2005 2010 b 1.03 2.14 4.17 2015 2017 2.8% Average annual percentage change 1990–2017 b b b b China Japan 5.93 7.13 5.20 India b b b South Korea b b 6.81 United Germanyc Canada United Statesd Francec Kingdomc 5.37 4.66 6.45 4.83 4.45 4.50 -1.0% b b b b 6.62 6.29 5.23 6.11 b 6.85 5.41 6.85 7.57 5.87 5.87 -0.5% 5.29 5.16 6.52 7.49 7.68 6.65 5.73 4.97 3.51 6.37 2.46 4.91 2.65 7.22 3.63 7.99 4.28 6.08 3.33 5.86 3.34 0.3% 0.6% -0.2% 2.18 1.85 2.15 2.85 3.13 2.51 2.42 0.4% Note: Comparisons between prices and price trends in different countries require care. They are of limited validity because of fluctuations in exchange rates; differences in product quality, marketing practices, and market structures; and the extent to which the standard categories of sales are representative of total national sales for a given period. Source: International Energy Agency, Energy Prices and Taxes, Fourth Quarter, 2017, Paris, France, 2018. (Additional resources: www.iea.org) Prices represent the retail prices (including taxes) for regular unleaded gasoline, except for Korea, France, Germany and the United Kingdom which are premium unleaded gasoline. b Data are not available. c Premium gasoline. d These estimates are international comparisons only and do not necessarily correspond to gasoline price estimates in other sections of the book. e Adjusted by the U.S. Consumer Price Inflation Index. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–7 Of these selected countries, the United Kingdom had the highest diesel fuel price average in 2017, while the United States had the lowest. All of the countries listed except the United States had diesel prices over $3 per gallon in 2017. Table 10.4 Diesel Fuel Pricesa for Selected Countries, 1990–2017 China Japan South Korea France United Kingdom Germany United Statesc China Japan South Korea France United Kingdom Germany United Statesc 1990 2000 1.75 2.85 2.05 2.95 4.66 2.79 1.50 b b 1.78 2.04 2.72 0.99 b 1990 2000 3.28 4.06 2.92 4.20 6.63 3.98 2.13 b b 3.34 3.83 5.10 1.86 b Current dollars per gallon 2005 2010 1.69 3.65 3.44 4.86 3.98 4.92 4.81 5.74 6.25 6.97 5.01 6.15 2.40 2.99 2015 2017 3.66 4.35 4.83 6.65 4.99 2.71 3.79 4.29 5.26 5.86 5.03 2.65 b Constant 2017 dollarsd per gallon 2005 2010 2015 b 2.12 4.11 4.32 5.47 3.79 5.00 5.54 4.50 6.04 6.45 5.00 7.85 7.84 6.87 6.29 6.91 5.16 3.01 3.37 2.80 b 2017 b 3.79 4.29 5.26 5.86 5.03 2.65 Average annual percentage change 1990–2017 b 2.9% b 4.1% 4.0% 2.3% 3.7% Average annual percentage change 1990–2017 b 0.5% b 1.7% 1.6% -0.1% 1.3% Note: Comparisons between prices and price trends in different countries require care. They are of limited validity because of fluctuations in exchange rates; differences in product quality, marketing practices, and market structures; and the extent to which the standard categories of sales are representative of total national sales for a given period. Source: International Energy Agency, Energy Prices and Taxes, Fourth Quarter, 2017, Paris, France, 2018. (Additional resources: www.iea.org) Prices represent the retail prices (including taxes) for car diesel fuel for non-commercial (household) use. Data are not available. c These estimates are for international comparisons only and do not necessarily correspond to gasoline price estimates in other sections of the book. d Adjusted by the U.S. Consumer Price Inflation Index. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–8 In 2017 over sixty percent of the cost of gasoline in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom went for taxes. Of the listed countries, the United States has the lowest percentage of taxes. Figure 10.2. Gasoline Prices for Selected Countries, 1990 and 2017 Source: Table 10.3 and International Energy Agency, Energy Prices & Taxes, Fourth Quarter, 2017, Paris, France, 2018. (Additional resources: www.iea.org) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–9 Diesel fuel is taxed heavily in the European countries shown here. The U.S. diesel fuel tax share is the lowest of the listed countries. Figure 10.3. Diesel Prices for Selected Countries, 1990 and 2017 Note: Data for Canada are not available. Source: Table 10.4 and International Energy Agency, Energy Prices & Taxes, Fourth Quarter, 2017, Paris, France, 2018. (Additional resources: www.iea.org) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–10 The cost of crude oil influences the price of gasoline, but it is not the only factor which determines the price at the pump. Refining cost, transportation cost, marketing cost, and taxes also play a part of the cost of a gallon of gasoline. The average price of a barrel of crude oil (in constant 2017 dollars) increased by 26% from 2000 to 2017, while the average price of a gallon of gasoline increased 11% in this same time period. Table 10.5 Prices for a Barrel of Crude Oil and a Gallon of Gasoline, 1978–2017 Year 1978 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1978–2017 2007–2017 Crude oila Gasolineb (dollars per barrel) (dollars per gallon) Current Constant 2017c Current Constant 2017c 12.5 46.8 0.65 2.45 28.1 83.5 1.22 3.63 26.8 60.9 1.20 2.72 22.2 41.7 1.22 2.28 19.1 34.3 1.20 2.15 18.4 32.2 1.19 2.08 16.4 27.8 1.17 1.99 15.6 25.8 1.17 1.94 17.2 27.7 1.21 1.94 20.7 32.4 1.29 2.01 19.0 29.1 1.29 1.97 12.5 18.8 1.12 1.68 17.5 25.8 1.22 1.80 28.3 40.2 1.56 2.22 23.0 31.8 1.53 2.12 24.1 32.8 1.44 1.96 28.5 38.0 1.64 2.18 37.0 48.0 1.92 2.50 50.2 63.1 2.34 2.93 60.2 73.2 2.64 3.20 67.9 80.3 2.85 3.37 94.7 107.9 3.32 3.78 59.3 67.7 2.40 2.74 76.7 86.2 2.84 3.19 101.9 111.0 3.58 3.90 100.9 107.8 3.70 3.94 100.5 105.7 3.58 3.77 92.0 95.3 3.43 3.55 48.4 50.0 2.51 2.60 40.7 41.5 2.20 2.25 50.7 50.7 2.47 2.47 Average annual percentage change 3.7% 0.2% 3.5% 0.0% -2.9% -4.5% -1.4% -3.1% Ratio of gasoline price to crude oil price 2.2 1.8 1.9 2.3 2.6 2.7 3.0 3.2 2.9 2.6 2.8 3.7 2.9 2.3 2.8 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 2.2 2.3 2.0 Sources: Crude oil – U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, March 2018, Washington, DC, Table 9.1. Gasoline – U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, March 2018, Washington, DC, Table 9.4. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) Refiner acquisition cost of composite (domestic and imported) crude oil. Average for all types. These prices were collected from a sample of service stations in 85 urban areas selected to represent all urban consumers. Urban consumers make up about 80% of the total U.S. population. c Adjusted by the Consumer Price Inflation Index. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–11 Because crude oil is the main cost component for gasoline, the prices of a barrel of crude oil and a gallon of gasoline show similar trends. Figure 10.4. Prices for a Barrel of Crude Oil and a Gallon of Gasoline, 1978–2017 (constant 2017 dollars) Source: Table 10.5. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–12 The price of a gallon of gasoline changes depending on different price components, including taxes, distribution and marketing, refining, and crude oil. The largest component of gasoline price is crude oil. The cost of refining and the cost of crude oil are the most variable over the series. Figure 10.5. Gasoline Price Components, 2000–2017 Note: Based on regular motor gasoline in all areas. Annual averages were created from monthly component price data. Source: Energy Information Administration, Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Update, Gasoline Pump Components History, https://www.eia.gov/petroleum/gasdiesel/gaspump_hist.php. (Additional resources: www.eia.gov/petroleum/gasdiesel) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–13 The price of diesel fuel has been consistently higher than regular gasoline (in constant dollars) since 2005. Premium gasoline in 2017 averaged 50 cents higher than regular gasoline. Prices for diesel and gasoline declined substantially in 2016 but rose again in 2017. Table 10.6 Retail Prices for Motor Fuel, 1978–2017 (dollars per gallon, including tax) Diesel fuela Year 1978 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1978–2017 2007–2017 Current c Constant 2017b c Unleaded regular gasoline Constant Current 2017b 0.67 2.52 1.25 3.70 1.20 2.74 1.16 2.18 1.14 2.05 1.13 1.97 1.11 1.88 1.11 1.84 1.15 1.84 1.23 1.92 1.23 1.88 1.06 1.59 1.17 1.71 1.51 2.15 1.46 2.02 1.36 1.85 1.59 2.12 1.88 2.44 2.30 2.88 2.59 3.15 2.80 3.31 3.27 3.72 2.35 2.69 2.79 3.13 3.53 3.84 3.64 3.89 3.53 3.71 3.37 3.49 2.45 2.53 2.14 2.19 2.41 2.41 1.01 3.00 1.22 2.78 1.07 2.01 0.91 1.64 1.06 1.85 0.98 1.66 1.11 1.84 1.11 1.78 1.24 1.93 1.20 1.83 1.04 1.57 1.12 1.65 1.49 2.12 1.40 1.94 1.32 1.80 1.51 2.01 1.81 2.35 2.40 3.01 2.71 3.29 2.89 3.41 3.80 4.33 2.47 2.82 2.99 3.36 3.84 4.18 3.97 4.24 3.92 4.13 3.83 3.96 2.71 2.80 2.30 2.35 2.65 2.65 Average annual percentage change d 2.6% -0.3%d 3.3% -0.9% -2.5% -1.5% -0.1% -3.1% Unleaded premium gasoline Constant Current 2017b c c c c 1.34 1.35 1.32 1.32 1.30 1.31 1.34 1.41 1.42 1.25 1.36 1.69 1.66 1.56 1.78 2.07 2.49 2.81 3.03 3.52 2.61 3.05 3.79 3.92 3.84 3.71 2.87 2.61 2.91 3.05 2.53 2.38 2.30 2.21 2.16 2.15 2.21 2.16 1.88 2.00 2.41 2.29 2.12 2.37 2.68 3.13 3.41 3.59 4.01 2.98 3.43 4.13 4.19 4.04 3.84 2.96 2.67 2.91 2.5% d -0.4% -0.1% d -2.1% Sources: Gasoline – U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, March 2018, Washington, DC, Table 9.4. Diesel – 1980-1994 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual 2004, Washington, DC, June 2004, Table 7.2. 1995–2017 from Monthly Energy Review, March 2018, Table 9.4. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) 1980-1993: Collected from a survey of prices on January 1 of the current year. 1994-on: Annual average. Adjusted by the Consumer Price Inflation Index. c Data are not available. d Average annual percentage change is from the earliest year possible to 2017. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–14 Major oil price shocks have disrupted world energy markets five times in the past 30 years (1973-74, 1979-80, 1990-91, 1999-2000, 2008). Most of the oil price shocks were followed by an economic recession in the United States. Figure 10.6. Oil Price and Economic Growth, 1970–2017 Source: Greene, D.L. and N. I. Tishchishyna, Costs of Oil Dependence: A 2000 Update, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ORNL/TM-2000/152, Oak Ridge, TN, 2000, and data updates, 2018. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–15 The United States has long recognized the problem of oil dependence and the economic problems that arise from it. Greene, Lee and Hopson define oil dependence as a combination of four factors: (1) a noncompetitive world oil market strongly influenced by the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) cartel, (2) high levels of U.S. imports, (3) the importance of oil to the U.S. economy, and (4) the lack of economical and readily available substitutes for oil. The most recent study shows that the U.S. economy suffered the greatest losses in 2008 when wealth transfer and gross domestic product (GDP) losses (combined) amounted to nearly half a trillion dollars. However, when comparing oil dependence to the size of the economy, the year 1980 is the highest. Low oil prices in 2009-2010 and 2013-2014 caused total dependence cost to drop; in 2016, the total cost was about $242 billion (in 2017 dollars). Figure 10.7. Costs of Oil Dependence to the U.S. Economy, 1970–2016 Notes: Wealth Transfer is the product of total U.S. oil imports and the difference between the actual market price of oil (influenced by market power) and what the price would have been in a competitive market. Dislocation Losses are temporary reductions in GDP as a result of oil price shocks. Loss of Potential Gross Domestic Product (GDP) results because a basic resource used by the economy to produce output has become more expensive. As a consequence, with the same endowment of labor, capital, and other resources, our economy cannot produce quite as much as it could have at a lower oil price. Source: Greene, David L., Roderick Lee, and Janet L. Hopson, “OPEC and the Costs to the U.S. Economy of Oil Dependence: 1970-2010,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory Memorandum, 2011, and updates from the ORNL Transportation Energy Evolution Modeling Team. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–16 The fuel prices shown here are refiner sales prices of transportation fuels to end users, excluding tax. Sales to end users are those made directly to the ultimate consumer, including bulk consumers. Bulk sales to utility, industrial, and commercial accounts previously included in the wholesale category are now counted as sales to end users. Both propane and diesel prices fell drastically in 2015. Although both fuels experienced price increases from 2016 to 2017, they continue to be lower than 2014 prices. Table 10.7 Refiner Sales Prices for Propane and No. 2 Diesel, 1978–2017 (dollars per gallon, excluding tax) Propanea Year 1978 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1978–2017 2007–2017 No 2. diesel fuel Constant Constant Current 2017b Current 2017b 0.34 1.26 0.38 1.42 0.48 1.43 0.82 2.43 0.72 1.63 0.79 1.80 0.75 1.67 0.48 1.07 0.70 1.51 0.55 1.19 0.71 1.48 0.50 1.04 0.62 1.22 0.59 1.16 0.75 1.40 0.73 1.36 0.73 1.31 0.65 1.17 0.64 1.12 0.62 1.08 0.67 1.14 0.60 1.02 0.53 0.88 0.55 0.92 0.49 0.79 0.56 0.90 0.61 0.95 0.68 1.06 0.55 0.84 0.64 0.98 0.41 0.61 0.49 0.74 0.46 0.67 0.58 0.86 0.60 0.86 0.94 1.33 0.51 0.70 0.84 1.17 0.42 0.57 0.76 1.04 0.58 0.77 0.94 1.26 0.84 1.09 1.24 1.61 1.09 1.37 1.79 2.24 1.36 1.65 2.10 2.55 1.49 1.76 2.27 2.68 1.89 2.15 3.15 3.59 1.22 1.39 1.83 2.10 1.48 1.66 2.13 2.40 1.71 1.86 3.12 3.40 1.14 1.22 3.20 3.42 1.03 1.08 3.12 3.29 1.10 1.14 2.92 3.03 0.48 0.50 1.82 1.88 0.50 0.51 1.51 1.54 0.77 0.77 1.81 1.81 Average annual percentage change 2.2% -1.2% 4.1% 0.6% -6.1% -7.7% -2.2% -3.8% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Washington, DC, March 2018, Table 9.7. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) a b Consumer grade. Adjusted by the Consumer Price Inflation Index. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–17 Prices of finished aviation gasoline (current dollars) dropped in 2009 but then began to climb. In 2012 kerosenetype jet fuel reached its all-time high. Table 10.8 Refiner Sales Prices for Aviation Gasoline and Jet Fuel, 1978–2017 (dollars per gallon, excluding tax) Year 1978 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1978–2017 2007–2017 Finished aviation gasoline Current Constant 2017a 0.52 1.94 1.08 3.22 1.20 2.74 1.01 2.26 0.91 1.96 0.89 1.85 1.00 1.97 1.12 2.10 1.05 1.88 1.03 1.79 0.99 1.68 0.96 1.58 1.01 1.62 1.12 1.74 1.13 1.72 0.96 1.44 1.06 1.56 1.31 1.86 1.32 1.83 1.29 1.75 1.49 1.99 1.82 2.36 2.23 2.80 2.68 3.26 2.85 3.37 3.27 3.73 2.44 2.79 3.03 3.40 3.80 4.14 3.97 4.24 3.93 4.14 3.99 4.13 b b b 5.8%c 4.9%c Kerosene-type jet fuel Current Constant 2017a 0.39 1.45 0.87 2.58 0.80 1.81 0.53 1.18 0.54 1.17 0.51 1.06 0.59 1.17 0.77 1.44 0.65 1.17 0.61 1.07 0.58 0.98 0.53 0.88 0.54 0.87 0.65 1.02 0.61 0.94 0.45 0.68 0.54 0.80 0.90 1.28 0.78 1.07 0.72 0.98 0.87 1.16 1.21 1.57 1.74 2.18 2.00 2.43 2.17 2.56 3.05 3.47 1.70 1.95 2.20 2.47 3.05 3.33 3.10 3.31 2.98 3.13 2.77 2.87 b 1.63 1.68 b 1.32 1.35 b 1.63 1.63 Average annual percentage change 2.1%c 3.7% 0.3% 2.9%c -2.8% -4.4% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Data Analysis Tools, Refiner Petroleum Product Prices by Sales Type, April 2018, Washington, DC. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) Adjusted by the Consumer Price Inflation Index. EIA withheld value to avoid disclosure of individual company data. c Data through 2014. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–18 The federal government taxes highway motor fuel and uses the money to pay for roadway upkeep and improvement, as well as other related expenditures. Compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) taxes are calculated per energy equivalent of a gallon of gasoline, while liquified natural gas tax is calculated per energy equivalent of diesel. Table 10.9 Federal Excise Taxes on Motor Fuels, 2015 Fuel Gasoline Diesel and kerosene Gasohola CNG LNG LPG Other alternative fuelsb Cents per gallon 18.4 24.4 18.4 18.3c 24.3d 18.3c 18.4 Effective Date October 1, 1997 October 1, 1997 January 1, 2005 October 1, 2006 January 1, 2016 January 1, 2016 October 1, 1997 Sources: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2015, Washington, DC, 2016, Table FE-21B. (Additional resources: www.fhwa.dot.gov) Public Law 114-41, July 31, 2015. (Additional resources: www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/3236) All gasohol blends are taxed at the same rate. Includes benzol, benzene, naphtha, and other liquids used as a motor fuel. c Compressed natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas are 18.3 cents per energy equivalent of a gallon of gasoline. d Liquefied natural gas is 24.3 cents per energy equivalent of a gallon of diesel. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–19 In addition to the 18.4 cents per gallon federal gasoline tax, the states also tax gasoline at varying rates. Some states have sales and/or use taxes added to gasoline excise taxes while others have inspection fees, environmental fees, leaking underground storage tank taxes, etc. The Energy Information Administration has compiled gasoline excise taxes, along with other state taxes and fees, to arrive at an estimate of the amount of state taxes consumers are paying per gallon. Table 10.10 State Gasoline Tax Rates, August 2018 (cents per gallon) State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Tax Rate 19.0 9.0 19.0 21.8 49.9 23.3 25.0 23.0 23.5 33.5 27.3 18.5 33.0 35.1 46.7 30.7 25.0 26.0 20.9 31.4 35.5 26.7 42.7 28.6 18.4 17.3 State Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Tax Rate 32.3 28.9 23.8 23.8 37.2 18.9 33.3 35.4 23.0 28.0 20.0 34.0 58.7 34.1 20.8 30.0 26.4 20.0 30.1 31.2 16.8 49.5 35.7 32.9 24.0 Note: Includes gasoline tax plus other per gallon fees, such as leaking underground storage tank fees. See source for additional specifics on individual state rates. Source: Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Monthly, Federal and state motor fuels taxes, accessed September 21, 2018. (Additional resources: https://www.eia.gov/petroleum/marketing/monthly/xls/fueltaxes.xls) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–20 Federal, state, and local jurisdictions have laws and incentives for alternative fuels production use. Table 10.11 Federal, State, and Local Alternative Fuel Incentives, 2018 (number of incentives) State (including jurisdictions in the State) Federal Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Dist. of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Totals Biodiesel 28 2 1 4 4 17 11 3 2 2 7 4 8 3 11 12 7 7 8 5 5 2 5 2 7 2 7 6 2 6 4 3 8 3 10 11 6 8 10 3 4 8 5 5 5 2 4 14 10 4 10 3 330 Ethanol 24 2 2 4 3 15 8 4 2 3 6 4 8 1 8 11 10 11 8 4 4 2 4 1 9 2 6 5 4 4 1 2 4 3 9 9 6 10 9 3 3 6 7 6 6 1 3 11 7 4 7 4 300 Natural Gas 27 5 1 15 6 31 19 5 4 4 6 4 4 2 7 12 5 6 5 6 4 4 5 7 5 6 9 3 6 7 3 5 5 8 8 3 10 15 10 3 5 5 2 7 15 15 5 16 7 6 7 6 396 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 26 4 1 14 5 19 14 4 5 4 5 3 4 2 6 9 4 3 4 6 4 4 4 5 2 5 9 3 3 7 3 4 4 2 6 2 8 8 8 3 3 5 2 3 8 8 4 10 4 5 7 4 299 Electric vehicles (EVs) 25 3 1 18 3 66 21 16 7 4 13 7 8 5 13 7 7 1 1 2 5 12 16 7 13 1 7 2 2 11 6 9 5 17 12 1 7 6 19 8 11 5 0 2 10 14 12 13 18 5 8 5 497 Neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs) 3 0 1 1 0 3 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 0 4 0 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 57 Hydrogen fuel cells 22 1 1 12 2 32 9 6 1 4 2 3 7 1 4 5 2 0 2 0 2 2 5 5 1 1 5 1 1 6 1 2 5 5 5 2 4 6 7 4 5 7 0 1 6 7 5 11 3 5 5 1 242 Aftermarket conversions 6 2 1 0 2 6 2 4 1 1 1 1 0 0 3 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 0 0 2 0 1 1 1 2 1 0 2 1 0 2 7 1 3 2 2 0 1 4 2 2 3 1 0 0 0 85 Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center. Data downloaded August 2018. (Additional resources: www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/laws/matrix/tech) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–21 Table 10.12 Federal, State, and Local Advanced Technology Incentives, 2018 (number of incentives) State (including jurisdictions in the State) Federal Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Dist. of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Totals Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) 11 1 0 2 0 15 6 2 1 1 1 2 3 2 2 3 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 3 0 4 2 5 3 0 1 1 2 1 3 5 0 2 3 2 2 4 1 0 2 0 107 Plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) 25 3 1 16 3 62 19 15 6 4 13 7 8 5 10 6 7 0 1 2 5 10 13 6 12 1 5 2 2 8 5 6 4 14 10 0 4 6 17 6 8 6 0 1 10 11 9 11 15 5 8 5 438 Fuel economy or efficiency 12 1 1 0 0 7 2 1 2 3 1 0 1 0 3 3 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 2 4 2 3 1 0 0 0 1 4 3 0 0 1 1 3 2 2 2 0 0 0 76 Idle reduction 7 4 1 2 1 5 3 2 2 1 1 2 1 0 5 4 1 1 0 0 3 3 3 0 3 1 1 0 1 1 5 1 1 3 3 0 2 1 3 4 4 2 0 1 3 3 5 2 1 2 1 1 107 Othera 6 0 0 0 1 11 3 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 2 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 5 1 4 1 0 0 3 2 2 7 0 1 1 2 4 1 2 1 1 1 0 79 Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center. Data downloaded August 2018. (Additional resources: www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/laws/matrix/tech) a Includes Clean Fuel Initiatives and Pollution Prevention. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–22 In current dollars, import cars, on average, were less expensive than domestic cars until 1982. Since then, import prices have more than tripled, while domestic prices have more than doubled (current dollars). Table 10.13 Average Price of a New Car (Domestic and Import), 1970–2017 Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1970–2017 2007–2017 Domestica Import Current Constant 2017 Current Constant 2017 dollars dollarsb dollars dollarsb 3,706 23,410 2,649 16,737 5,096 23,217 4,367 19,895 7,591 22,583 7,468 22,216 11,576 26,372 12,843 29,256 12,316 27,544 13,710 30,663 12,906 27,848 14,459 31,199 13,415 27,797 15,227 31,551 13,927 27,531 15,491 30,621 14,483 27,163 16,615 31,161 15,188 27,334 16,343 29,413 15,635 27,317 18,589 32,476 15,936 27,033 20,230 34,316 16,817 27,815 21,885 36,198 16,797 27,016 23,069 37,104 17,180 26,839 26,049 40,696 17,532 26,776 27,682 42,277 18,488 27,802 28,708 43,171 19,006 27,963 27,485 40,440 19,559 27,841 26,008 37,021 19,995 27,674 25,854 35,784 20,438 27,848 25,605 34,888 19,959 26,589 26,126 34,804 20,503 26,605 25,949 33,672 21,566 27,068 26,633 33,427 22,130 26,907 27,027 32,861 22,260 26,315 27,488 32,496 22,194 25,268 25,869 29,452 22,051 25,194 25,175 28,764 23,777 26,728 27,257 30,640 24,167 26,335 28,274 30,811 24,124 25,755 28,979 30,938 23,914 25,163 29,754 31,307 23,699 24,539 30,490 31,570 23,666 24,475 30,660 31,708 23,969 24,480 29,443 30,070 23,423 23,423 31,473 31,473 Average annual percentage change 4.0% 0.0% 5.4% 1.3% 0.5% -1.2% 1.4% -0.3% Current dollars 3,543 4,961 7,557 11,835 12,655 13,385 13,930 14,357 15,033 15,476 16,331 16,833 17,798 17,894 18,505 19,207 20,234 20,691 21,037 21,468 21,865 21,659 22,068 23,011 23,616 23,893 23,438 23,118 24,915 25,478 25,543 25,570 25,545 25,458 25,339 25,367 4.4% 0.6% Total Constant 2017 dollarsb 22,382 22,604 22,481 26,960 28,302 28,881 28,863 28,381 28,193 27,852 28,531 28,555 29,437 28,781 28,910 29,333 30,428 30,443 29,946 29,714 29,791 28,853 28,636 28,881 28,714 28,246 26,684 26,414 28,007 27,763 27,270 26,906 26,450 26,329 25,879 25,367 0.3% -1.1% Note: These data are based on an average car and do not include prices for pickups, vans, or sport utility vehicles. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Average Transaction Price per New Car, Washington, DC, 2018. (Additional resources: www.bea.gov) a b Includes all vehicles produced in the United States regardless of manufacturer. Adjusted by the Consumer Price Inflation Index. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–23 The average price of a new light truck grew 46% from 1990-2017 in constant dollars terms, and by 173% when not adjusted for inflation. From the earliest available estimates in 2002, average prices for import light trucks were slightly higher than domestic prices until 2009. By 2017, domestic light truck prices averaged nearly $5,000 higher than import prices. Table 10.14 Average Price of a New Light Trucka (Domestic and Import), 1990-2017 Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1990-2017 2007-2017 Domesticb Current Constant dollars 2017 dollarsc Current dollars d Import Constant 2017 dollarsc d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d 26,066 26,420 26,950 27,296 27,999 29,158 28,267 29,447 32,327 33,373 34,040 34,773 35,793 36,817 37,514 38,135 35,516 35,196 34,971 34,259 34,044 34,470 32,181 33,644 36,340 36,367 36,342 36,588 37,061 38,076 38,313 38,135 d d 2.7% 1.0% 26,753 36,452 28,604 38,105 28,760 37,320 29,543 37,079 29,611 36,004 29,817 35,250 29,958 34,107 29,072 33,217 32,305 36,315 33,317 36,306 34,136 36,445 33,766 35,529 34,204 35,415 33,675 34,826 33,408 34,120 33,357 33,357 Average Annual Percentage Change d d 1.1% -0.6% Current dollars 13,592 14,124 15,032 15,611 16,821 17,725 19,574 21,777 22,787 23,626 23,363 24,391 26,149 26,715 27,190 27,590 28,248 29,265 28,555 29,381 32,324 33,365 34,054 34,616 35,546 36,251 36,678 37,097 3.8% 2.4% Total Constant 2017 dollarsc 25,492 25,419 26,263 26,482 27,822 28,509 30,581 33,259 34,267 34,762 33,256 33,759 35,629 35,589 35,283 34,628 34,346 34,597 32,510 33,569 36,336 36,358 36,357 36,423 36,805 37,490 37,460 37,097 1.4% 0.7% Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Underlying Detail, Motor Vehicle Output, August 2018 and Ward’s Communications, www.wardsauto.com. Light trucks in this table are 14,000 lb and less. Includes all vehicles produced in the United States regardless of manufacturer. c Adjusted by the Consumer Price Inflation Index. d Data are not available. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–24 The total cost of operating a car is the sum of the fixed cost (depreciation, insurance, finance charge, and license fee) and the variable cost (gas and oil, tires, and maintenance), which is related to the amount of travel. The gas and oil share of total cost was 12.6% in 2017 which is down from 18.4% in 2012. Table 10.15 Car Operating Cost per Mile, 1985–2017 Model year 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1985–2017 2007–2017 Total cost per Constant 2017 dollars per 10,000 milesa mileb (constant Variable cost Fixed cost Total cost 2017 centsa) 1,690 4,695 6,385 63.85 1,458 5,160 6,618 66.18 1,446 5,023 6,469 64.69 1,637 6,278 7,915 79.15 1,581 5,772 7,354 73.54 1,575 6,106 7,682 76.82 1,746 6,418 8,163 81.63 1,572 6,611 8,183 81.83 1,561 6,314 7,874 78.74 1,505 6,345 7,850 78.50 1,544 6,442 7,986 79.86 1,500 6,551 8,050 80.50 1,649 6,640 8,290 82.90 1,609 6,809 8,418 84.18 1,560 6,856 8,416 84.16 1,737 6,724 8,461 84.61 1,882 6,396 8,278 82.78 1,608 6,641 8,249 82.49 1,745 6,506 8,251 82.51 1,635 7,309 8,944 89.44 1,770 6,793 8,562 85.62 1,836 5,698 7,534 75.34 1,714 5,633 7,347 73.47 1,931 6,147 8,078 80.78 1,762 6,314 8,076 80.76 1,881 6,429 8,309 83.09 1,933 6,382 8,316 83.16 2,097 6,135 8,231 82.31 2,149 6,094 8,243 82.43 1,970 5,980 7,950 79.50 1,789 6,051 7,840 78.40 1,504 6,201 7,706 77.06 1,559 4,965 6,524 65.24 Average annual percentage change -0.3% 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% -0.9% -1.3% -1.2% -1.2% Percentage gas and oil of total cost 19.9% 15.1% 14.7% 13.6% 14.2% 13.2% 14.6% 12.6% 12.7% 11.8% 11.7% 10.9% 12.2% 11.1% 9.8% 11.6% 13.2% 9.7% 11.6% 9.4% 12.0% 15.3% 14.3% 16.4% 14.3% 15.4% 16.2% 18.4% 18.4% 16.9% 14.8% 11.2% 12.6% Source: Ward’s Communications, Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures 2017, Southfield, Michigan, 2017, and annual. Original data from AAA “Your Driving Costs.” (Additional resources: newsroom.aaa.com) a Adjusted by the U.S. Consumer Price Inflation Index. Can be converted to constant dollars using Table B.17. b Based on 10,000 miles per year. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–25 While the previous table shows costs per mile, this table presents costs per year for fixed costs associated with car operation. For 2017 model year cars, the fixed cost is down to $13.60 per day. Table 10.16 Fixed Car Operating Costs per Year, 1975–2017 (constant 2017 dollars)a Model year 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Insuranceb 1,745 1,486 1,396 1,149 1,162 1,200 1,065 1,142 1,161 1,195 1,285 1,273 1,282 1,382 1,268 1,277 1,265 1,327 1,298 1,357 1,432 1,389 1,378 1,385 1,474 2,080 1,617 1,126 1,164 1,074 1,115 1,159 1,055 1,069 1,083 1,059 1,153 1,248 1,246 1975–2017 2007–2017 -0.8% 0.7% License, registration & taxes Depreciation 137 3,522 244 3,088 237 3,471 137 3,444 239 3,194 250 2,848 251 2,875 291 2,952 276 3,224 288 3,696 285 3,989 309 4,420 302 4,506 304 4,747 302 4,801 321 4,863 327 4,943 336 4,952 330 4,997 340 5,059 333 5,055 317 4,971 288 4,911 274 5,070 273 4,980 539 4,908 488 4,869 650 4,124 636 4,010 631 3,781 648 3,954 658 3,995 648 4,062 651 3,784 643 3,757 664 3,634 688 3,779 702 3,839 550 2,669 Average annual percentage change 3.4% -0.7% -1.4% -4.0% Finance charge c c c c c c 1,216 1,425 1,135 1,171 1,162 1,275 479 1,391 1,137 1,072 1,103 1,122 1,173 1,223 1,218 1,209 1,199 1,128 991 962 928 871 867 863 890 906 897 903 892 877 692 698 500 c -5.4% Total 5,404 6,048 6,404 6,091 5,892 5,535 5,401 5,806 5,789 6,342 6,711 7,267 6,562 7,817 7,501 7,527 7,632 7,730 7,793 7,975 8,033 7,877 7,769 7,854 7,712 8,488 7,901 6,771 6,677 6,348 6,607 6,718 6,663 6,407 6,375 6,234 6,312 6,486 4,965 Average fixed cost per day 14.81 16.57 17.55 16.69 16.14 15.17 14.81 15.90 15.86 17.38 18.38 19.92 17.98 21.42 20.56 20.63 20.91 21.18 21.35 21.85 22.01 21.58 21.29 21.51 21.13 23.25 21.65 18.55 18.29 17.40 18.10 18.40 18.25 17.55 17.47 17.08 17.29 17.77 13.60 -0.2% -2.9% -0.2% -2.9% Source: Ward’s Communications, Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures 2017, Southfield, Michigan, 2017, and annual. Original data from AAA “Your Driving Costs.” (Additional resources: newsroom.aaa.com) Adjusted by the U.S. Consumer Price Inflation Index. Can be converted to constant dollars using Table B.17. Fire & Theft: $50 deductible 1975 through 1977; $100 deductible 1978 through 1992; $250 deductible for 1993 – 2003; $100 deductible 2004-2015. Collision: $100 deductible through 1979; $250 deductible 1980-1992; $500 deductible for 1993 – on. Property Damage & Liability: coverage = $100,000/$300,000. c Data are not available. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–26 Table 10.17 Personal Consumption Expenditures, 1970–2017 (billion dollars) Year 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Personal consumption expenditures Constant Current 2017a 647.7 3,232.5 1,032.8 3,744.3 1,150.2 3,952.3 1,276.7 4,130.5 1,426.2 4,311.2 1,589.5 4,438.3 1,754.6 4,494.4 1,937.5 4,538.6 2,073.9 4,574.5 2,286.5 4,851.4 2,498.2 5,118.9 2,722.7 5,406.0 2,898.4 5,640.5 3,092.1 5,866.1 3,346.9 6,134.4 3,592.8 6,338.0 3,825.6 6,506.7 3,960.2 6,517.5 4,215.7 6,783.5 4,471.0 7,027.3 4,741.0 7,296.6 4,984.2 7,513.5 5,268.1 7,798.8 5,560.7 8,093.4 5,903.0 8,499.1 6,307.0 8,943.4 6,792.4 9,417.5 7,103.1 9,628.8 7,384.1 9,858.3 7,765.5 10,164.6 8,260.0 10,522.6 8,794.1 10,853.4 9,304.0 11,140.3 9,750.5 11,371.8 10,013.6 11,452.6 9,847.0 11,176.3 10,202.2 11,427.2 10,689.3 11,729.4 11,050.6 11,906.8 11,361.2 12,047.1 11,863.7 12,359.4 12,332.3 12,712.1 12,820.7 13,049.6 13,395.5 13,395.5 Transportation personal consumption expenditures Constant Current 2017a 80.8 403.3 132.6 480.7 157.4 540.9 179.0 579.1 195.9 592.2 221.3 617.9 241.7 619.1 266.2 623.6 270.1 595.8 298.3 632.9 335.4 687.2 370.7 736.0 373.7 727.2 387.7 735.5 416.3 763.0 440.0 776.2 455.7 775.1 430.5 708.5 463.4 745.7 497.7 782.3 540.9 832.5 567.0 854.7 613.2 907.8 655.1 953.5 680.2 979.3 741.3 1,051.2 811.2 1,124.7 826.0 1,119.7 827.4 1,104.6 863.4 1,130.1 918.6 1,170.2 983.2 1,213.4 1,016.8 1,217.5 1,058.3 1,234.3 1,040.4 1,189.9 891.3 1,011.6 968.3 1,084.6 1,081.2 1,186.4 1,132.2 1,219.9 1,162.8 1,233.0 1,197.2 1,247.2 1,151.5 1,187.0 1,147.0 1,167.5 1,208.9 1,208.9 Transportation PCE as a percent of PCE 12.5% 12.8% 13.7% 14.0% 13.7% 13.9% 13.8% 13.7% 13.0% 13.0% 13.4% 13.6% 12.9% 12.5% 12.4% 12.2% 11.9% 10.9% 11.0% 11.1% 11.4% 11.4% 11.6% 11.8% 11.5% 11.8% 11.9% 11.6% 11.2% 11.1% 11.1% 11.2% 10.9% 10.9% 10.4% 9.1% 9.5% 10.1% 10.2% 10.2% 10.1% 9.3% 8.9% 9.0% Note: Transportation PCE includes the following categories: transportation, motor vehicles and parts, and gasoline and oil. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, National Income and Product Accounts, Table 2.3.5, www.bea.gov a Adjusted by the GNP price deflator. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–27 Table 10.18 Consumer Price Indices, 1970–2017 (1970 = 1.000) Year 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Consumer price index 1.000 1.387 1.466 1.562 1.680 1.871 2.124 2.343 2.487 2.567 2.678 2.773 2.825 2.928 3.049 3.196 3.369 3.510 3.616 3.724 3.820 3.928 4.044 4.137 4.201 4.294 4.438 4.564 4.637 4.742 4.869 5.034 5.170 5.344 5.549 5.529 5.620 5.797 5.917 6.004 6.101 6.109 6.186 6.318 Transportation consumer price indexa 1.000 1.336 1.469 1.573 1.645 1.880 2.216 2.485 2.587 2.648 2.765 2.837 2.728 2.811 2.899 3.043 3.213 3.301 3.373 3.477 3.581 3.709 3.813 3.848 3.776 3.851 4.088 4.115 4.077 4.203 4.349 4.637 4.824 4.925 5.215 4.780 5.157 5.663 5.796 5.798 5.758 5.308 5.197 5.375 New car consumer price index 1.000 1.186 1.262 1.328 1.429 1.542 1.667 1.768 1.836 1.881 1.932 1.998 2.083 2.154 2.194 2.245 2.286 2.373 2.433 2.499 2.591 2.655 2.706 2.718 2.701 2.691 2.689 2.676 2.637 2.597 2.582 2.597 2.591 2.566 2.527 2.554 2.599 2.672 2.716 2.745 2.755 2.771 2.775 2.768 Used car consumer price index 1.000 1.404 1.612 1.753 1.788 1.929 1.997 2.465 2.846 3.163 3.606 3.644 3.487 3.625 3.782 3.859 3.769 3.785 3.949 4.292 4.542 5.016 5.032 4.843 4.827 4.872 4.994 5.087 4.872 4.580 4.272 4.468 4.487 4.351 4.293 4.070 4.587 4.776 4.818 4.804 4.779 4.715 4.599 4.431 Gross national product index 1.000 1.570 1.745 1.940 2.191 2.448 2.662 2.988 3.115 3.386 3.762 4.043 4.267 4.524 4.879 5.256 5.556 5.738 6.075 6.390 6.790 7.118 7.522 7.992 8.444 8.973 9.552 9.859 10.190 10.676 11.380 12.146 12.871 13.465 13.708 13.462 13.968 14.481 15.091 15.639 16.325 16.975 17.430 18.155 Sources: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Price Index Table 1A for 2017, and annual. (Additional resources: www.bls.gov) GNP – U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, National Income and Product Accounts, Table 1.7.5. (Additional resources: www.bea.gov) a Transportation Consumer Price Index includes new and used cars, gasoline, car insurance rates, intracity mass transit, intracity bus fare, and airline fares. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–28 The data below were summarized from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Current Employment Statistics Survey data using the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). Transportation-related employment was 8.6% of total employment in 2017. Table 10.19 Transportation-Related Employment, 1990, 2000, and 2017a (thousands) Truck transportation (includes drivers) Transit and ground transportation Air transportation Rail transportation Water transportation Pipeline transportation Motor vehicle and parts - retail Motor vehicles and parts - wholesale Gasoline stations - retail Automotive repair and maintenance Automotive equipment rental and leasing Manufacturing (subtotal) Cars and light trucks Heavy-duty trucks Motor vehicle bodies and trailers Motor vehicle parts Aerospace products and parts Railroad rolling stock Ship & boat building Tires Oil and gas pipeline construction Highway street and bridge construction Scenic & sightseeing Support activities for transportation Couriers and messengers Travel arrangement and reservation services Total transportation-related employment Total nonfarm employment Transportation-related to total employment 1990 1,122.4 274.2 529.2 271.8 56.8 59.8 1,494.4 309.4 910.2 659.4 163.2 2,224.9 238.8 32.7 129.8 653.0 90.3 840.7 65.9 173.7 86.0 288.5 15.7 364.1 375.0 250.0 11,679.9 109,527.0 10.7% 2000 1,405.8 372.1 614.4 231.7 56.0 46.0 1,846.9 355.7 935.7 888.1 208.3 2,143.9 237.4 54.0 182.7 839.5 86.8 516.7 72.7 154.1 72.2 340.1 27.5 537.4 605.0 298.6 13,129.3 132,024.0 9.9% 2017 1,453.5 491.5 492.7 215.0 65.2 48.3 2,008.3 337.5 931.5 923.4 214.4 1,687.8 182.9 29.1 154.2 586.3 56.1 484.6 57.9 136.7 137.3 324.7 35.6 690.1 682.8 217.6 12,645.0 146,627.0 8.6% Percent change 1990-2017 29.5% 79.2% -6.9% -20.9% 14.8% -19.2% 34.4% 9.1% 2.3% 40.0% 31.4% -24.1% -23.4% -11.0% 18.8% -10.2% -37.9% -42.4% -12.1% -21.3% 59.7% 12.5% 126.8% 89.5% 82.1% -13.0% 8.3% 33.9% Source: Tabulated from the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics, www.bls.gov/ces/data.htm, April 2018. (Additional resources: www.bls.gov) a Not seasonally adjusted. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–29 The total number of employees involved in the manufacture of motor vehicles decreased by 22% from 1990 to 2017 and by 10% for those involved in the manufacture of motor vehicle parts. Beginning in 2008, the share of production workers fell below 80% for manufacturers of both vehicles and parts and remained below 80% for motor vehicle parts. Table 10.20 U.S. Employment for Motor Vehicles and Motor Vehicle Parts Manufacturing, 1990–2017a Year All employees (thousands) 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 271.4 294.7 291.4 278.7 265.4 264.6 255.9 247.6 236.5 220.0 191.6 146.4 152.6 157.9 167.6 181.5 194.0 200.8 211.8 212.0 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 653.0 786.9 839.5 774.7 733.6 707.8 692.1 678.1 654.7 607.9 543.7 413.7 418.9 445.5 482.8 508.7 537.0 564.9 581.2 586.3 Production workers (thousands) Motor vehicles 243.4 273.7 251.0 236.4 220.8 217.1 208.0 198.6 191.8 177.3 151.1 114.2 120.7 124.7 134.7 150.1 160.8 161.6 168.9 168.4 Motor vehicle parts 527.4 647.7 676.7 624.9 590.9 567.6 561.6 553.9 533.7 488.9 430.6 317.8 323.3 345.0 365.3 385.2 415.9 436.7 448.6 451.0 Share of production workers to total employees 89.7% 92.9% 86.1% 84.8% 83.2% 82.0% 81.3% 80.2% 81.1% 80.6% 78.9% 78.0% 79.1% 79.0% 80.4% 82.7% 82.9% 80.5% 79.7% 79.4% 80.8% 82.3% 80.6% 80.7% 80.5% 80.2% 81.1% 81.7% 81.5% 80.4% 79.2% 76.8% 77.2% 77.4% 75.7% 75.7% 77.4% 77.3% 77.2% 76.9% Source: Tabulated from the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics, www.bls.gov/ces/data.htm, April 2018. (Additional resources: www.bls.gov) a Not seasonally adjusted. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 10–30 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Summary Statistics from Tables/Figures in this Chapter Source Table 11.1 Carbon dioxide emissions (million metric tons) 1990 2017 United States 4,989 5,171 OECD Europe 4,149 3,963 China 2,293 10,157 Russia 2,393 1,633 Japan 1,054 1,133 Non-OECD Europe and Eurasia 4,246 2,665 573 2,161 India Table 11.5 Transportation share of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel consumption 1990 31.2% 2006 33.1% 2016 36.3% Table 11.7 Motor gasoline share of transportation carbon dioxide emissions, 2016 Table 11.11 Average annual carbon footprint, 2017 (metric tons of CO2) 61.4% New cars 5.8 New light trucks 8.0 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–2 The U.S. accounted for 23% of the World’s carbon dioxide emissions in 1990, 21% in 2005, and only 15% in 2017. About 45% of the U.S. carbon emissions are from oil use. Table 11.1 World Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1990, 2005, and 2017 Country/Region OECDa Americas United States Canada Mexico/Chile Total OECDa Europe OECDa Asia Japan Australia/New Zealand Other Total Non-OECD Europe & Eurasia Russia Other Total Non-OECD Asia China India Other Total Other Non-OECD Middle East Africa Central & South America Total Total World Million metric tons 1990 Percent of emissions from oil use Million metric tons 2005 Percent of emissions from oil use Million metric tons 2017 Percent of emissions from oil use 4,989 471 302 5,762 4,149 44% 48% 77% 46% 45% 5,985 620 461 7,066 4,488 44% 49% 66% 46% 49% 5,171 604 496 6,271 3,963 45% 48% 57% 46% 48% 1,054 298 243 1,595 65% 38% 59% 59% 1,241 438 494 2,173 52% 55% 30% 47% 1,133 412 683 2,228 42% 41% 44% 42% 2,393 1,853 4,246 33% 32% 32% 1,548 1,120 2,668 25% 26% 25% 1,633 1,032 2,665 31% 28% 30% 2,293 573 811 3,677 15% 28% 57% 26% 5,490 1,182 1,665 8,337 16% 27% 53% 25% 10,157 2,161 2,501 14,819 16% 27% 50% 23% 704 659 695 2,058 21,487 70% 46% 76% 64% 42% 1,333 978 1,011 3,322 28,054 59% 43% 72% 58% 40% 2,020 1,320 1,232 4,572 34,519 56% 47% 69% 57% 37% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics Databases, and International Energy Outlook 2017, Washington, DC, September 2017. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) OECD is the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. See Glossary for included countries. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–3 Since 1990, China shows the greatest increase of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The Americas have increased CO2 emissions by only 10% from 1990 to 2017. Europe and Eurasia have fewer CO2 emissions in 2017 than 1990. Figure 11.1. World Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1990–2017 Source: 1990–2012: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics, Total Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Consumption of Energy, www.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm, September 2016. 2013–2017: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, International Energy Outlook 2017, www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/index.cfm, accessed June 2018. (Additional resources: www.eia.doe.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–4 Global Warming Potentials (GWP) were developed to allow comparison of the ability of each greenhouse gas to trap heat in the atmosphere relative to carbon dioxide. Extensive research has been performed and it has been discovered that the effects of various gases on global warming are too complex to be precisely summarized by a single number. Further understanding of the subject also causes frequent changes to estimates. Despite that, the scientific community has developed approximations, the latest of which are shown below. Most analysts use the 100-year time horizon. Table 11.2 Numerical Estimates of Global Warming Potentials Compared with Carbon Dioxide (kilogram of gas per kilogram of carbon dioxide) Gas Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Methane (CH4)b Tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a) Trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11) Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Perfluoromethane (CF4) Lifetime (years) 5-200a 12.4 13.4 45 121 50,000 Global warming potential direct effect for time horizons of 20 years 100 years 1 1 86 34 3,790 1,550 7,020 5,350 268 298 4,950 7,350 Note: Includes climate-carbon feedbacks. Source: Myhre, G., D. Shindell, F.-M. Breon, W. Collins, J. Fuglestvedt, J. Huang, D. Koch, J.-F. Lamarque, D. Lee, B. Mendoza, T. Nakajima, A. Robock, G. Stephens, T. Takemura and H. Zhang, 2013: Anthropogenic and Natural Radiative Forcing. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, R.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Zia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. No single lifetime can be defined for carbon dioxide due to different rates of uptake by different removal processes. b These values do not include carbon dioxide from methane oxidation. Perturbation lifetime is used in the calculation of metrics. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–5 Carbon dioxide emissions in 2016 were 3% higher than in 1990, but down from the highest annual emissions of this data series in 2007. Carbon dioxide accounts for the majority (81%) of greenhouse gases. Table 11.3 U.S. Emissions of Greenhouse Gases, Based on Global Warming Potential, 1990–2016 (million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalenta) Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Carbon dioxide 5,088.1 5,031.9 5,136.9 5,245.7 5,336.7 5,398.9 5,586.1 5,662.1 5,710.2 5,782.4 5,955.0 5,849.5 5,891.9 5,933.4 6,047.2 6,074.0 5,993.5 6,079.2 5,883.3 5,448.2 5,654.5 5,525.0 5,318.4 5,471.6 5,522.3 5,374.3 5,264.3 Methane 779.8 784.3 783.5 769.9 774.5 767.1 758.7 743.3 728.6 717.6 709.1 702.9 693.8 693.6 684.4 688.7 688.6 689.7 697.8 691.8 693.6 672.4 662.5 662.6 664.0 665.3 657.3 Nitrous oxide 354.5 353.5 356.8 369.0 359.9 372.0 378.8 369.8 384.3 359.6 358.4 360.3 358.6 362.5 382.4 357.5 366.4 374.8 357.3 358.3 366.6 359.6 335.6 363.2 360.9 379.4 369.3 High GWP gasesb 99.6 90.6 95.2 95.0 98.2 117.1 127.7 134.8 150.4 147.3 148.3 134.8 142.9 132.8 140.2 141.9 144.4 155.5 157.0 152.4 161.6 168.2 163.9 163.6 169.3 172.2 173.3 Total 6,322.0 6,260.3 6,372.4 6,479.6 6,569.3 6,655.1 6,851.3 6,910.0 6,973.5 7,006.9 7,170.8 7,047.5 7,087.2 7,122.3 7,254.2 7,262.1 7,192.9 7,299.2 7,095.4 6,650.7 6,876.3 6,725.2 6,480.4 6,661.0 6,716.5 6,591.2 6,464.2 Note: This greenhouse gas emissions inventory includes fossil fuel combustion, use of fluorinated gases and other transportation categories. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U. S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2016, April 12, 2018, EPA 430-R-18-003. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gasemissions-and-sinks-1990-2016) Carbon dioxide equivalents are computed by multiplying the weight of the gas being measured by its estimated Global Warming Potential (See Table 11.2). b GWP = Global warming potential. Includes HFC-hydrofluorocarbons; PFC-perfluorocarbons; and SF6-sulfur hexaflouride. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–6 The transportation sector accounts for 34.1% of carbon dioxide emissions and 28.7% of all greenhouse gas emissions. The industrial sector is the only sector that accounts for more greenhouse gas emissions than the transportation sector. Table 11.4 Total U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions by End-Use Sector, 2016 (million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalenta) Residential Commercial Agricultural Industrial Transportation Total greenhouse gas emissions Transportation share of total Carbon dioxide 952.6 870.8 95.7 1,549.7 1,795.5 5,264.3 34.1% Methane 3.8 126.2 251.9 273.8 1.6 657.3 0.2% Nitrous oxide 6.2 12.5 302.8 32.3 15.5 369.3 4.2% Hydroflurocarbons, perflurocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride 37.1 52.4 0.1 38.9 44.8 173.3 25.9% Total greenhouse gas emissions 999.7 1,061.9 650.5 1,894.7 1,857.4 6,464.2 28.7% Note: Does not include U.S. territories. Totals may not sum due to rounding. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U. S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2016, April 12, 2018, EPA 430-R-18-003. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gasemissions-and-sinks-1990-2016) a Carbon dioxide equivalents are computed by multiplying the weight of the gas being measured by its estimated Global Warming Potential (See Table 11.2). TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–7 The transportation sector accounts for approximately one-third of carbon dioxide emissions. The commercial sector accounts for the lowest share of carbon dioxide emissions. Table 11.5 U.S. Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuel Consumption by End-Use Sector, 1990–2016a (million metric tons of carbon dioxide) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Residential 931.4 949.1 945.2 998.0 989.0 994.7 1,055.4 1,045.2 1,049.7 1,070.5 1,133.2 1,124.9 1,151.7 1,181.7 1,179.6 1,214.1 1,151.8 1,204.5 1,190.4 1,122.7 1,174.6 1,116.3 1,007.8 1,064.6 1,080.0 1,001.1 946.7 1990–2016 2006–2016 0.0% -1.9% End use sector Commercial Industrial Transportation 765.2 1,545.6 1,470.6 770.2 1,515.5 1,423.9 764.0 1,571.5 1,479.3 785.4 1,584.2 1,513.2 797.2 1,607.2 1,558.8 814.7 1,612.4 1,584.9 846.4 1,668.0 1,630.4 887.3 1,683.9 1,647.3 905.6 1,661.9 1,683.2 915.0 1,630.7 1,750.6 977.8 1,662.9 1,784.2 984.0 1,604.8 1,763.8 982.6 1,579.5 1,804.2 994.2 1,598.1 1,796.2 1,011.0 1,625.6 1,840.8 1,030.3 1,592.3 1,860.5 1,010.9 1,592.5 1,855.2 1,052.7 1,590.1 1,858.7 1,044.3 1,527.5 1,763.7 982.4 1,356.8 1,688.2 998.7 1,444.6 1,699.0 963.5 1,429.1 1,677.6 901.6 1,405.7 1,665.8 930.2 1,438.0 1,681.6 939.6 1,418.1 1,721.2 908.6 1,359.0 1,739.2 865.2 1,326.7 1,786.1 Average annual percentage change 0.3% -0.3% 0.4% -1.5% -1.8% -0.4% Transportation percentage 31.2% 30.6% 31.1% 31.0% 31.5% 31.7% 31.4% 31.3% 31.8% 32.6% 32.1% 32.2% 32.7% 32.2% 32.5% 32.7% 33.1% 32.6% 31.9% 32.8% 32.0% 32.3% 33.4% 32.9% 33.4% 34.7% 36.3% CO2 from all sectors 4,712.8 4,658.7 4,760.0 4,880.8 4,952.2 5,006.7 5,200.2 5,263.7 5,300.4 5,366.8 5,558.1 5,477.5 5,518.0 5,570.2 5,657.0 5,697.2 5,610.4 5,706.0 5,525.9 5,150.1 5,316.9 5,186.5 4,980.9 5,114.4 5,158.9 5,007.9 4,924.7 0.1% -1.3% Note: The CO2 from all sectors does not match Table 11.3 since it is only from fossil fuel consumption and does not include the use of fluorinated gases and other transportation categories. U.S. territories are not included. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U. S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2016, April 12, 2018, EPA 430-R-18-003. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gasemissions-and-sinks-1990-2016) Includes energy from petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Electric utility emissions are distributed across consumption sectors. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–8 This report has typically displayed carbon and carbon dioxide data from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). However, the Energy Information Administration’s (EIA’s) Monthly Energy Review also includes carbon dioxide emission data. The differences in the two-data series have been about 5-7%, but as high as 8.5% in 1991. Reasons for the differences include the treatment of international bunker fuel, nonfuel use of fossil fuels, and the agencies’ use of different fuel consumption control totals. Table 11.6 Transportation Sector Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Consumption, 1973-2017 (million metric tons of carbon dioxide) Year 1973 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Energy Information Administration’s Monthly Energy Review 1,315.2 1,291.6 1,400.2 1,421.2 1,587.7 1,567.9 1,591.6 1,607.2 1,647.4 1,681.3 1,725.2 1,744.2 1,782.0 1,828.0 1,872.5 1,852.0 1,892.5 1,892.1 1,958.6 1,985.6 2,013.7 2,021.0 1,897.9 1,831.6 1,848.2 1,816.5 1,779.0 1,805.3 1,823.2 1,848.3 1,886.2 1,902.0 Environmental Protection Agency’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report Percentage difference a a a a a a 1,482.5 1,434.5 1,490.1 1,524.3 1,570.4 1,596.3 1,641.4 1,658.8 1,695.3 1,762.9 1,796.3 1,774.9 1,815.2 1,806.3 1,851.1 1,870.7 1,865.2 1,869.0 1,773.3 1,696.8 1,708.5 1,686.7 1,674.1 1,690.4 1,730.4 1,749.2 1,795.5 6.6% 8.5% 6.4% 5.2% 4.7% 5.1% 4.9% 4.9% 4.9% 3.6% 4.1% 4.2% 4.1% 4.5% 5.5% 5.8% 7.4% 7.5% 6.6% 7.4% 7.6% 7.1% 5.9% 6.4% 5.1% 5.4% 4.8% a a a a Sources: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, June 2018, Washington, DC, Table 12.5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U. S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2016, April 12, 2018, EPA 430-R-18-003. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-usgreenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sinks-1990-2016) a Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–9 Most U.S. transportation sector carbon dioxide emissions come from petroleum fuels. Motor gasoline has been responsible for 60%-65% of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions over the last 26 years. Table 11.7 U.S. Carbon Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion in the Transportation End-Use Sector, 1990–2016 (million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent) Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Motor gasoline 957.3 943.0 972.3 988.7 1,001.6 1,014.5 1,036.7 1,049.6 1,080.8 1,114.4 1,111.5 1,120.1 1,144.7 1,146.9 1,163.2 1,152.4 1,139.9 1,133.6 1,076.4 1,068.3 1,058.8 1,034.5 1,029.8 1,030.2 1,072.0 1,070.5 1,096.3 LPGa 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.2 2.1 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.7 1.7 1.4 2.5 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.7 2.9 2.5 2.5 Jet fuel 184.2 168.8 166.6 168.2 175.5 172.2 184.6 184.4 188.4 192.5 195.0 189.7 185.3 179.3 186.7 189.3 182.3 179.5 173.0 154.1 151.5 146.6 143.4 147.1 148.4 157.6 166.0 1990-2016 2006-2016 0.5% -0.4% 2.3% 3.9% -0.4% -0.9% Distillate Residual Aviation fuel fuel gas 262.9 22.6 3.1 255.1 16.9 2.9 271.1 30.0 2.8 287.6 27.6 2.7 309.4 26.9 2.6 323.9 29.1 2.7 339.8 23.6 2.6 354.8 10.3 2.7 366.1 5.9 2.5 388.0 13.2 2.7 402.1 33.3 2.5 400.2 12.0 2.4 413.4 17.1 2.3 421.9 7.4 2.1 437.1 14.0 2.2 457.5 19.3 2.4 468.5 23.0 2.3 472.9 29.0 2.2 448.1 20.4 2.0 405.9 13.9 1.8 422.0 20.4 1.9 430.0 19.4 1.9 427.5 15.8 1.7 433.9 15.1 1.5 446.3 5.8 1.5 459.8 4.2 1.5 462.8 12.9 1.4 Average annual percentage change 2.2% -2.1% -3.0% -0.1% -5.6% -4.8% Natural gas 36.0 32.9 32.2 34.2 37.6 38.4 39.1 41.4 35.3 35.8 35.6 34.9 37.0 33.2 31.9 33.1 33.1 35.2 36.7 37.9 38.1 38.9 41.3 47.0 40.3 39.5 40.6 0.5% 2.1% Electricityb 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.5 4.3 4.5 4.7 4.5 5.1 4.7 4.5 4.5 4.3 3.9 4.0 4.1 3.7 3.5 Total 1,470.5 1,423.9 1,479.2 1,513.2 1,558.8 1,585.0 1,630.5 1,647.2 1,683.3 1,750.7 1,784.1 1,763.7 1,804.2 1,796.2 1,840.8 1,860.4 1,855.3 1,858.9 1,763.8 1,688.1 1,699.0 1,677.7 1,665.7 1,681.5 1,721.3 1,739.3 1,786.0 0.6% -2.5% 0.8% -0.4% Note: Emissions from U.S. Territories are not included. Emissions from International Bunker Fuels are not included. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U. S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2016, April 12, 2018, EPA 430-R-18-003. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gasemissions-and-sinks-1990-2016) a b Liquefied petroleum gas. Share of total electric utility carbon dioxide emissions weighted by sales to the transportation sector. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–10 Highway vehicles are responsible for the majority of greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sector. Table 11.8 Transportation Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Mode, 1990–2016 (Million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent) Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Passenger Vehicles 926.6 911.4 942.8 962.0 975.6 988.7 1,011.1 1,024.5 1,055.3 1,088.7 1,085.6 1,096.0 1,121.1 1,134.2 1,152.2 1,134.6 1,122.6 1,092.6 1,034.0 1,029.4 1,021.1 1,001.3 996.5 996.2 1,037.8 1,037.0 1,062.1 1990-2016 2006-2016 0.5% -0.6% Heavy Highway Trucks Total Water 237.7 1,164.3 44.4 232.2 1,143.6 39.4 242.8 1,185.6 54.7 255.9 1,217.9 51.7 272.9 1,248.5 53.5 283.2 1,271.9 57.1 295.5 1,306.6 54.3 309.6 1,334.1 41.2 323.0 1,378.3 34.8 341.7 1,430.4 43.9 355.7 1,441.3 64.4 353.6 1,449.6 41.8 366.8 1,487.9 46.5 364.2 1,498.4 36.5 379.5 1,531.7 39.3 407.1 1,541.7 44.3 416.1 1,538.7 47.4 444.7 1,537.3 53.9 426.6 1,460.6 44.7 387.2 1,416.6 38.0 400.1 1,421.2 43.9 399.5 1,400.8 45.5 400.9 1,397.4 39.3 407.8 1,404.0 38.5 420.2 1,458.0 27.9 428.9 1,465.9 32.3 437.5 1,499.6 38.9 Average annual percentage change 2.4% 1.0% -0.5% 0.5% -0.3% -2.0% Air 187.4 171.7 169.4 170.9 178.1 174.9 187.1 187.2 190.9 195.1 197.4 192.0 187.6 181.4 188.8 191.8 184.6 181.7 175.1 155.9 153.4 148.5 145.1 148.6 149.9 159.1 167.5 Rail 38.5 36.4 37.4 38.3 41.2 42.7 43.4 43.5 43.9 45.4 45.5 45.8 45.4 47.1 49.6 50.2 52.2 51.3 47.6 40.4 43.1 44.7 43.4 44.1 45.6 43.5 40.2 Pipeline 36.0 32.9 32.2 34.2 37.6 38.4 39.1 41.4 35.2 35.7 35.4 34.6 36.6 32.7 31.3 32.4 32.4 34.4 35.9 37.1 37.3 38.1 40.5 46.2 39.4 38.5 39.6 Total 1,470.6 1,424.0 1,479.3 1,513.0 1,558.9 1,585.0 1,630.5 1,647.4 1,683.1 1,750.5 1,784.0 1,763.8 1,804.0 1,796.1 1,840.7 1,860.4 1,855.3 1,858.6 1,763.9 1,688.0 1,698.9 1,677.6 1,665.7 1,681.4 1,720.8 1,739.3 1,785.8 -0.4% -1.0% 0.2% -2.6% 0.4% 2.0% 0.7% -0.4% Note: Emissions from U.S. Territories are not included. Emissions from International Bunker Fuels are not included. Passenger vehicles include cars, light trucks and motorcycles. Heavy trucks include medium and heavy trucks and buses. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U. S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2016, April 12, 2018, EPA 430-R-18-003. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gasemissions-and-sinks-1990-2016) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–11 The Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) Model greet.es.anl.gov Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Argonne has developed a full life-cycle model called GREET® (Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation). It allows researchers and analysts to evaluate energy and environmental impacts of various vehicle and fuel combinations on a life-cycle basis. The first version of GREET was released in 1996. Since then, Argonne has continued to update and expand the model. The most recent GREET versions are GREET 1 2018 version for fuel-cycle analysis and GREET 2 2018 version for vehicle-cycle analysis. Figure 11.2. GREET Model For a given vehicle and fuel system, GREET separately calculates the following: • Consumption of total resources (energy in non-renewable and renewable sources), fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, and coal together), petroleum, coal, natural gas, and water. • Emissions of CO2-equivalent greenhouse gases - primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–12 • Emissions of seven criteria pollutants: volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx), particulate matter with size smaller than 10 micron (PM10), particulate matter with size smaller than 2.5 micron (PM2.5), black carbon (BC) and sulfur oxides (SOx). GREET includes more than 100 fuel production pathways and more than 80 vehicle/fuel systems. These vehicle/fuel systems cover current and advanced vehicle technologies such as conventional sparkignition engine vehicles, compression-ignition engine vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, battery-powered electric vehicles and fuel-cell electric vehicles. GREET also evaluates transportation modes other than light-duty vehicles, such as heavy-duty vehicles, aviation, rail and marine. Figure 11.3. GREET Model Feedstocks and Fuels To address technology improvements over time, GREET 2018 simulates current and future vehicle/fuel systems up to year 2050. For additional information about the GREET model and associated documentation, please visit the GREET website www.greet.es.anl.gov, or contact greet@anl.gov. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–13 Results from the GREET 1 2018 model on emissions of carbon dioxide equivalents per mile are shown for various fuels and vehicle technologies. A full description of the model is on the preceding pages. Figure 11.4. Well-to-Wheel Emissions for Various Fuels and Vehicle Technologies Note: BEV = Battery electric vehicle. PHEV40 = Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with 40-mile electric range. Source: Argonne National Laboratory, GREET WTW Calculator and Sample Results from GREET 1 2018, greet.es.anl.gov/results. (Additional resources: greet.es.anl.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–14 Greenhouse gas emissions associated with vehicle manufacturing (current technology) were estimated using the GREET model. Emissions from manufacturing the vehicle body are just over two million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent for each of the vehicle types. Emissions from the manufacture of the hydrogen on-board storage and fuel cell auxiliary cause the total emissions associated with the manufacture of a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle to be higher than the other vehicle types. Figure 11.5. Vehicle Manufacturing Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Vehicle Component Note: GHG = greenhouse gases. ICEV = internal combustion engine vehicle. CNG = compressed natural gas. E-85 = fuel with approximately 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline. HEV = hybrid-electric vehicle. PHEV10 = Plug-in electric vehicle with 10-mile electric range. PHEV35 = Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with 35-mile electric range. H2FCEV = Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle. BEV90 = Battery electric vehicle with a 90-mile range. BEV210 = Battery electric vehicle with a 210-mile range. Source: Argonne National Laboratory, Cradle-to-Grave Lifecycle Analysis of U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle-Fuel Pathways: A Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economic Assessment of Current (2015) and Future (2025-2030) Technologies, June 01, 2016, p. 143. (Additional resources: greet.es.anl.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–15 Carbon Footprint The carbon footprint measures a vehicle’s impact on climate change in tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted annually. The following three tables show the carbon footprint for various vehicle classes. The sales-weighted average fuel economy rating for each vehicle class, based on 45% highway and 55% city driving, is used to determine the average annual carbon footprint for vehicles in the class. An estimate of 15,000 annual miles is used for each vehicle class and for each year in the series. CarbonFootprint AnnualMiles = CO 2 × LHV × + (CH 4 + N 2 O ) × AnnualMiles CombinedMPG where: CO2 = (Tailpipe CO2 + Upstream Greenhouse Gases) in grams per million Btu LHV = Lower (or net) Heating Value in million Btu per gallon CH4 = Tailpipe CO2 equivalent methane in grams per mile N2O = Tailpipe CO2 equivalent nitrous oxide in grams per mile Note: The Environmental Protection Agency publishes tailpipe emissions in terms of grams of CO2 per mile in the Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 through 2017, www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/trends-report. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–16 The production-weighted average annual carbon footprint for cars and car SUVs declined by an average of 1.9% annually between 1975 and 2017. Table 11.9 Production-Weighted Annual Carbon Footprint of New Domestic and Import Cars Model Years 1975–2017a (metric tons of CO2) Model Year 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1975–2017 2007–2017 Car Car SUVb 12.6 15.2 8.5 11.6 7.4 8.4 7.1 8.9 7.1 8.7 7.0 8.8 7.2 8.9 7.3 9.0 7.2 9.3 7.3 9.5 7.2 9.9 7.3 9.4 7.2 9.5 7.3 9.2 7.3 8.8 7.3 9.3 7.4 9.1 7.4 9.5 7.4 9.0 7.3 8.8 7.3 8.5 7.3 8.5 7.2 8.4 7.3 8.3 7.0 8.2 7.0 8.0 6.7 7.7 6.5 7.4 6.6 7.2 6.2 7.2 6.0 7.0 6.0 6.9 5.9 6.7 5.8 6.5 5.7 6.5 Average annual percentage change -1.9% -2.0% -2.1% -2.3% Source: Calculated using fuel economy from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. See page 11-15 for details. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/otaq/fetrends.htm) a b Annual carbon footprint is based on 15,000 miles of annual driving. Includes tailpipe plus upstream emissions. Car SUV category is defined in Table 4.9. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–17 The production-weighted average annual footprint of pickups, vans, and truck SUVs decreased from 1975 to 2017. Truck SUVs experienced the greatest decline from 2007 to 2017. Table 11.10 Production-Weighted Annual Carbon Footprint of New Domestic and Import Trucks Model Years 1975–2017a (metric tons of CO2) Model Year 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1975–2017 2007–2017 Pickup Van 14.2 15.2 10.2 12.0 9.3 10.2 9.7 9.5 9.3 9.4 9.7 9.4 9.6 9.3 9.7 9.5 10.0 9.4 9.9 9.2 10.0 9.3 10.0 9.1 10.4 9.3 10.2 9.1 10.6 9.4 10.7 9.1 10.5 8.9 10.7 8.8 10.7 8.8 10.5 8.7 10.5 8.7 10.3 8.5 10.0 8.4 10.0 8.4 9.8 8.1 9.9 8.0 9.7 8.0 9.4 8.0 9.0 7.8 8.9 7.8 8.9 7.4 Average annual percentage change -1.1% -1.7% -1.6% -1.6% Truck SUVb 15.3 12.8 10.2 10.3 10.1 10.4 10.4 10.6 10.6 10.4 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.6 10.3 10.4 10.3 10.3 10.1 9.9 9.6 9.3 8.8 8.6 8.5 8.5 8.1 7.8 7.7 7.6 7.6 -1.7% -2.3% Note: Light truck data include pickups, vans, and truck SUVs less than 8,500 lb. Beginning with 2011, SUV and passenger vans up to 10,000 lb were also included. Source: Calculated using fuel economy from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. See page 11-15 for details. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/otaq/fetrends.htm) a b Annual carbon footprint is based on 15,000 miles of annual driving. Includes tailpipe plus upstream emissions. Truck SUV category includes all SUV not in the Car SUV category. Car SUV category is defined in Table 4.9. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–18 Between 1975 and 2017, the production-weighted average annual carbon footprint for new light vehicles dropped dramatically. Total new cars experienced a decrease of 53.6% while the carbon footprint for light trucks decreased by 44.9%. Table 11.11 Average Annual Carbon Footprint of New Vehicles by Vehicle Classification, Model Years 1975 and 2017a (metric tons of CO2) Vehicle class Car Car SUVb Total cars Van Truck SUVb Pickup Total light trucks Production share Carbon footprint Model year Model year Model year Model year 1975 2017 1975 2017 Cars 80.6% 47.2% 12.6 5.7 0.1% 11.0% 15.2 6.5 80.7% 58.1% 12.6 5.8 Light trucks 4.5% 3.2% 15.2 7.4 1.7% 26.8% 15.3 7.6 13.1% 11.9% 14.2 8.9 19.3% 41.9% 14.5 8.0 Percent change 1975 - 2017 -54.9% -57.0% -53.6% -51.1% -50.1% -36.9% -44.9% Note: Light truck data include pickups, vans, and truck SUVs less than 8,500 lb. Beginning with 2011, SUV and passenger vans up to 10,000 lb were also included. Source: Calculated using fuel economy from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2017, January 2018. See page 11-15 for details. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/otaq/fetrends.htm) Annual carbon footprint is based on 15,000 miles of annual driving. Includes tailpipe and upstream emissions. b Car SUV category is defined in Table 4.9. Truck SUV category includes all SUVs not in the Car SUV category. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 11–19 The average carbon content of 11 different transportation fuels comes from the GREET Model. Residual oil (used in ships) has the highest carbon content of those listed. Ethanol has the lowest carbon content per gallon. Table 11.12 Carbon Content of Transportation Fuels Fuel Type Gasoline blendstock Ethanol Gasoline (E10) U.S. conventional diesel Low-sulfur diesel Conventional jet fuel Ultra low-sulfur jet fuel Residual oil Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Methyl ester (biodiesel, BD) Density (grams/gallon) 2,819 2,988 2,836 3,167 3,206 3,036 2,998 3,752 1,923 3,361 Carbon ratio (grams of carbon per grams of fuel) 0.863 0.522 0.828 0.865 0.871 0.862 0.860 0.868 0.820 0.776 Carbon content (grams/gallon) 2,433 1,560 2,347 2,739 2,792 2,617 2,578 3,257 1,577 2,608 Source: Argonne National Laboratory, GREET 1 2015 Model. a Based on higher (gross) heating values. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 Carbon contenta (grams per Btu) 0.0196 0.0185 0.0195 0.0199 0.0202 0.0197 0.0196 0.0217 0.0173 0.0204 11–20 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–1 Criteria Air Pollutants Summary Statistics from Tables in this Chapter Source Table 12.1 Transportation’s share of U.S. emissions, 2017 CO 53.5% NOX 59.0% VOC 21.3% PM-2.5 5.4% PM-10 2.5% SO2 3.4% TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–2 Transportation accounts for the majority of carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide emissions. Highway vehicles are responsible for the largest share of transportation emissions. Table 12.1 Total National Emissions of the Criteria Air Pollutants by Sector, 2017 (millions of short tons/percentage) Sector Highway vehicles Other off-highway Transportation total Stationary source fuel combustion Industrial processes Waste disposal and recycling total Miscellaneous Total of all sources CO 18.89 31.4% 13.27 22.1% 32.16 53.5% 4.06 6.8% 2.03 3.4% 1.97 3.3% 19.88 33.1% 60.11 100.0% NOx 3.69 34.3% 2.66 24.7% 6.35 59.0% 2.84 26.3% 1.17 10.9% 0.11 1.0% 0.30 2.8% 10.78 100.0% VOC 1.80 11.1% 1.66 10.2% 3.46 21.3% 0.52 3.2% 7.32 45.1% 0.23 1.4% 4.70 28.9% 16.23 100.0% PM-10 0.26 1.4% 0.18 1.0% 0.45 2.5% 0.87 4.8% 0.83 4.6% 0.28 1.5% 15.73 86.6% 18.15 100.0% PM-2.5 0.12 2.2% 0.17 3.3% 0.29 5.4% 0.75 14.0% 0.37 7.0% 0.23 4.3% 3.70 69.3% 5.34 100.0% SO2 0.03 1.0% 0.07 2.4% 0.10 3.4% 2.03 72.3% 0.50 17.8% 0.03 1.1% 0.15 5.3% 2.82 100.0% Note: CO = Carbon monoxide. NOx = Nitrogen oxides. VOC = Volatile organic compounds. PM-10 = Particulate matter less than 10 microns. PM-2.5 = Particulate matter less than 2.5 microns. SO2 = Sulfur dioxide. Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/air-pollutant-emissions-trends-data. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–3 The transportation sector accounted for more than 53% of the nation’s carbon monoxide (CO) emissions in 2017. Highway vehicles are by far the source of the greatest amount of CO. For details on the highway emissions of CO, see Table 12.3. Table 12.2 Total National Emissions of Carbon Monoxide, 1970–2017a (million short tons) Source category Highway vehicles Other off-highway Transportation total Stationary fuel combustion total Industrial processes total Waste disposal and recycling total Miscellaneous total Total of all sources 1970 163.23 11.37 174.60 4.63 9.84 7.06 7.91 204.04 1980 143.83 16.69 160.52 7.30 6.95 2.30 8.34 185.41 1990 110.26 21.45 131.71 5.51 4.77 1.08 11.12 154.19 2000 68.06 24.18 92.24 4.78 2.63 1.85 12.96 114.46 2010 28.24 15.35 43.59 4.52 1.90 1.20 22.56 73.77 2017 18.89 13.27 32.16 4.06 2.03 1.97 19.88 60.11 Percent of total, 2017 31.4% 22.1% 53.5% 6.8% 3.4% 3.3% 33.1% 100.0% Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/air-pollutant-emissions-trends-data. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) a The sums of subcategories may not equal total due to rounding. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–4 Though gasoline-powered light vehicles continue to be responsible for the majority of carbon monoxide emissions from highway vehicles, the total pollution from light vehicles in 2005 is less than a fifth of what it was in 1970. This is despite the fact that there were many more light vehicles on the road in 2005. Between 2005 and 2011 the Environmental Protection Agency updated their source from the MOBILE 6.2 emissions model to the MOVES emission model. MOVES results typically show higher emissions, especially for heavy trucks. The 2014 data are the latest available. Table 12.3 Emissions of Carbon Monoxide from Highway Vehicles, 1970–2014a (million short tons) Source category 1970 1980 Light vehicles & motorcycles 1990 2000 2005 Gasoline powered 119.14 98.21 67.24 Light trucksd Subtotal light vehicles Heavy vehicles Subtotal gasoline vehicles 22.27 141.41 21.27 162.68 28.83 127.04 15.35 142.39 Light vehicles 0.01 0.03 Light trucksd Subtotal light vehicles Heavy vehicles Subtotal diesel vehicles 0.06 0.07 0.49 0.56 0.05 0.08 1.36 1.43 0.03 0.07 1.81 1.87 163.23 143.83 0.3% 1.0% Highway vehicle total Percent diesel 36.40 32.23 27.04 99.47 63.44 8.92 3.42 108.39 66.86 Diesel powered 0.04 0.01 2011b 2014b Percent of total, 2014 24.19 c c c 21.19 45.38 1.97 47.35 c c c 25.34 0.86 26.20 20.03 0.90 20.93 91.7% 4.1% 95.8% 0.01 c c c c 0.01 0.02 0.85 0.87 c c 0.38 0.77 1.15 0.24 0.67 0.91 1.1% 3.1% 4.2% 110.26 0.01 0.02 1.19 1.20 Total 68.06 48.22 27.36 21.84 100.0% 1.7% 1.8% 1.8% 4.2% 4.2% Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory-nei. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) The sums of subcategories may not equal total due to rounding. These data are not directly comparable to the older data due to the change in source from the MOBILE emissions model to the MOVES emissions model. c Data are not available. d Less than 8,500 pounds. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–5 The transportation sector accounted for almost 60% of the nation’s nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions in 2017, with the majority coming from highway vehicles. For details on the highway emissions of NOx, see Table 12.5. Table 12.4 Total National Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides, 1970–2017a (million short tons) Source category Highway vehicles Other off-highway Transportation total Stationary fuel combustion total Industrial processes total Waste disposal and recycling total Miscellaneous total Total of all sources 1970 12.62 2.65 15.27 10.06 0.78 0.44 0.33 26.88 1980 11.49 3.35 14.84 11.32 0.56 0.11 0.25 27.08 1990 9.59 3.78 13.37 10.89 0.80 0.09 0.37 25.52 2000 8.39 4.17 12.56 8.82 0.81 0.13 0.28 22.60 2010 5.70 3.32 9.02 4.33 1.12 0.09 0.29 14.85 2017 3.69 2.66 6.35 2.84 1.17 0.11 0.30 10.78 Percent of total, 2017 34.3% 24.7% 59.0% 26.3% 10.9% 1.0% 2.8% 100.0% Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/air-pollutant-emissions-trends-data. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) a The sums of subcategories may not equal total due to rounding. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–6 Diesel-powered vehicles were responsible for nearly one-half (49%) of highway vehicle nitrogen oxide emissions in 2014, while light gasoline vehicles were responsible for the rest. Between 2005 and 2011 the Environmental Protection Agency updated their source from the MOBILE 6.2 emissions model to the MOVES emission model. MOVES results typically show higher emissions, especially for heavy trucks. The 2014 data are the latest available. Table 12.5 Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides from Highway Vehicles, 1970–2014a (million short tons) Source category 1970 1980 Light vehicles & motorcycles 1990 2000 2005 Gasoline powered 8.54 6.63 4.26 Light trucksd Subtotal light vehicles Heavy vehicles Subtotal gasoline vehicles 1.54 10.08 0.72 10.81 1.58 8.21 0.62 8.83 1.50 5.76 0.57 6.33 Light vehicles 0.00 0.03 2.31 1.44 3.75 0.45 4.20 Diesel powered 0.04 0.01 Light trucksd Subtotal light vehicles Heavy vehicles Subtotal diesel vehicles 0.07 0.07 1.76 1.83 0.05 0.08 2.59 2.66 0.02 0.06 3.19 3.26 Highway vehicle total Percent diesel 12.64 14.5% 11.49 23.1% 9.59 34.0% 0.01 0.02 4.18 4.19 Total 8.39 49.9% 2011b 2014b Percent of total, 2014 1.63 c c c 1.56 3.19 0.38 3.57 c c c 3.09 0.09 3.18 2.29 0.09 2.38 49.1% 1.9% 51.0% c c c c 0.00 0.01 0.01 2.81 2.82 c c 0.13 2.56 2.69 0.11 2.17 2.28 2.4% 46.6% 49.0% 6.39 44.1% 5.87 45.8% 4.67 49.0% 100.0% Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory-nei. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) The sums of subcategories may not equal total due to rounding. These data are not directly comparable to the older data due to the change in source from the MOBILE emissions model to the MOVES emissions model. c Data are not available. d Less than 8,500 pounds. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–7 The transportation sector accounted for about 21% of the nation’s volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions in 2017, with the majority coming from highway vehicles. For details on the highway emissions of VOC, see Table 12.7. Table 12.6 Total National Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds, 1970–2017a (million short tons) Source category Highway vehicles Off-highway Transportation total Stationary fuel combustion total Industrial processes total Waste disposal and recycling total Miscellaneous total Total of all sources 1970 16.91 1.62 18.53 0.72 12.33 1.98 1.10 34.66 1980 13.87 2.19 16.06 1.05 12.10 0.76 1.13 31.10 1990 9.39 2.66 12.05 1.01 9.01 0.99 1.06 24.12 2000 5.33 2.64 7.97 1.18 7.21 0.42 0.73 17.51 2010 2.77 2.30 5.06 0.60 6.96 0.15 5.06 17.84 2017 1.80 1.66 3.46 0.52 7.32 0.23 4.70 16.23 Percent of total, 2017 11.1% 10.2% 21.3% 3.2% 45.1% 1.4% 28.9% 100.0% Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/air-pollutant-emissions-trends-data. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) The sum of subcategories may not equal total due to rounding. The EPA's definition of volatile organic compounds excludes methane, ethane, and certain other nonphotochemically reactive organic compounds. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–8 Gasoline-powered vehicles are responsible for over 90% of highway vehicle emissions of volatile organic compounds. VOC emissions from highway vehicles in 2014 were less than one-quarter of the 1990 level. Between 2005 and 2011 the Environmental Protection Agency updated their source from the MOBILE 6.2 emissions model to the MOVES emission model. MOVES results typically show higher emissions, especially for heavy trucks. The 2014 data are the latest available. Table 12.7 Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Highway Vehicles, 1970–2014a (thousand short tons) Source category 1970 1980 Light vehicles & motorcycles 11,996 9,304 Light trucksd Subtotal light vehicles Heavy vehicles Subtotal gasoline vehicles 2,776 14,772 1,679 16,451 2,864 12,168 1,198 13,366 8 16 41 49 411 460 28 44 459 503 Light vehicles Light trucksd Subtotal light vehicles Heavy vehicles Subtotal diesel vehicles Highway vehicle total Percent diesel 16,911 2.7% 13,869 3.6% 1990 2000 Gasoline powered 5,690 2,903 2,617 1,929 8,307 4,832 633 256 8,940 5,088 Diesel powered 18 3 15 33 415 448 4 7 230 238 Total 9,388 5,326 4.8% 4.5% 2005 2011b 2014b Percent of total, 2014 2,111 c c c 1,629 3,740 171 3,911 c c c 1,811 41 1,853 88.2% 2.0% 90.3% 2,345 40 2,386 2 c c c 6 8 159 167 c c c 4,078 4.1% 43 213 256 2,642 9.7% 26 174 200 1.3% 8.4% 9.7% 2,053 9.7% 100.0% Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory-nei. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) The sums of subcategories may not equal total due to rounding. These data are not directly comparable to the older data due to the change in source from the MOBILE emissions model to the MOVES emissions model. c Data are not available. d Less than 8,500 pounds. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–9 The transportation sector accounted for less than 2% of the nation’s particulate matter (PM-10) emissions in 2017. For details on the highway emissions of PM-10, see Table 12.9. Table 12.8 Total National Emissions of Particulate Matter (PM-10), 1970–2017a (million short tons) Source category Highway vehicles Off-highway Transportation total Stationary fuel combustion total Industrial processes total Waste disposal and recycling total Miscellaneous total 1970 0.48 0.16 0.64 2.87 7.67 1.00 0.84 1980 0.43 0.26 0.69 2.45 2.75 0.27 0.85 1990 0.39 0.33 0.72 1.20 1.04 0.27 24.54 2000 0.23 0.32 0.55 1.47 0.71 0.36 20.65 2010 0.28 0.23 0.51 0.98 1.05 0.21 18.08 2017 0.26 0.18 0.45 0.87 0.83 0.28 15.73 Percent of total, 2017 1.4% 1.0% 2.5% 4.8% 4.6% 1.5% 86.6% Total of all sources 13.02 7.01 27.75 23.75 20.82 18.15 100.0% Note: Because PM-10 is fine particle matter less than 10 microns, it also includes PM-2.5. Specific data for PM-2.5 are shown on Tables 12.10 and 12.11. Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/air-pollutant-emissions-trends-data. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) a Fine particle matter less than 10 microns. The sums of subcategories may not equal total due to rounding. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–10 In 2014, diesel-powered vehicles were responsible for 45% of highway vehicle emissions of particulate matter (PM10); in 1990 diesels were responsible for 73.4%. Between 2005 and 2011 the Environmental Protection Agency updated their source from the MOBILE 6.2 emissions model to the MOVES emission model. MOVES results typically show higher emissions, especially for heavy trucks. The 2014 data are the latest available. Table 12.9 Emissions of Particulate Matter (PM-10) from Highway Vehicles, 1970–2014a (thousand short tons) 1970 1980 1990 Light vehicles & motorcycles 249 141 56 51 46 c c c 74 49 31 31 35 c c c 323 44 367 190 30 220 87 17 104 82 10 92 81 8 89 199 3 203 166 5 171 53.5% 1.5% 55.0% 2 9 11 c c c 19 21 92 113 12 21 191 212 5 16 268 284 480 23.5% 432 49.1% 387 73.4% Light trucksd Subtotal light vehicles Heavy vehicles Subtotal gasoline vehicles Light vehicles Light trucksd Subtotal light vehicles Heavy vehicles Subtotal diesel vehicles Highway vehicle total Percent diesel 2000 2005 Gasoline powered Diesel powered 1 1 1 2 135 137 Total 230 59.6% 2011b Percent of total, 2014 Source category 2014b 1 2 92 94 c c c 10 159 168 7 133 140 2.2% 42.8% 45.0% 183 51.4% 371 45.3% 311 45.0% 100.0% Note: Because PM-10 is fine particle matter less than 10 microns, it also includes PM-2.5. Specific data for PM-2.5 are shown on Tables 12.10 and 12.11. Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory-nei. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) The sums of subcategories may not equal total due to rounding. These data are not directly comparable to the older data due to the change in source from the MOBILE emissions model to the MOVES emissions model. c Data are not available. d Less than 8,500 pounds. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–11 The transportation sector accounted for about 5% of the nation’s particulate matter (PM-2.5) emissions in 2017. For details on the highway emissions of PM-2.5, see Table 12.11. Table 12.10 Total National Emissions of Particulate Matter (PM-2.5), 1990–2017a (million short tons) Source category Highway vehicles Off-highway Transportation total Stationary fuel combustion total Industrial processes total Waste disposal and recycling total Miscellaneous total Total of all sources 1990 0.32 0.30 0.62 0.91 0.56 0.23 5.23 7.56 1995 0.25 0.31 0.56 0.90 0.50 0.25 4.73 6.93 2000 0.17 0.30 0.47 1.29 0.50 0.33 4.69 7.29 2005 0.31 0.29 0.60 1.13 0.53 0.27 3.07 5.59 2010 0.20 0.21 0.41 0.84 0.40 0.18 4.11 5.96 2017 0.12 0.17 0.29 0.75 0.37 0.23 3.70 5.34 Percent of total, 2017 2.2% 3.3% 5.4% 14.0% 7.0% 4.3% 69.3% 100.0% Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/air-pollutant-emissions-trends-data. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) a The sums of subcategories may not equal total due to rounding. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–12 Diesel vehicles are responsible for the majority of highway vehicle PM-2.5 emissions. Nearly two-thirds of the highway vehicles’ PM-2.5 emissions are from heavy diesel trucks. Between 2005 and 2011 the Environmental Protection Agency updated their source from the MOBILE 6.2 emissions model to the MOVES emission model. MOVES results typically show higher emissions, especially for heavy trucks. The 2014 data are the latest available. Table 12.11 Emissions of Particulate Matter (PM-2.5) from Highway Vehicles, 1990–2014a (thousand short tons) Source category Light vehicles & motorcycles Light trucksd Subtotal light vehicles Heavy vehicles Subtotal gasoline vehicles Light vehicles Light trucksd Subtotal light vehicles Heavy vehicles Subtotal diesel vehicles Highway vehicle total Percent diesel 1990 1995 35 21 56 11 67 30 20 50 9 59 9 4 13 243 256 4 2 6 179 185 323 79.3% 244 75.8% 2000 2005 2011b Gasoline powered c 27 23 c 18 18 45 41 68 7 6 2 52 47 70 Diesel powered c 1 1 c 1 1 2 2 6 119 79 120 121 81 126 Total 173 128 196 69.9% 63.3% 64.6% 2014b Percent of total, 2014 c c c c 59 2 61 37.2% 1.1% 38.3% c c c c 4 93 97 2.8% 58.9% 61.7% 159 61.7% 100.0% Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory-nei. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) The sums of subcategories may not equal total due to rounding. These data are not directly comparable to the older data due to the change in source from the MOBILE emissions model to the MOVES emissions model. The 2011 data include condensable plus filterable PM-2.5. c Data are not available. d Less than 8,500 pounds. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–13 The transportation sector accounted for about 3% of the nation’s sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions in 2017, with offhighway vehicles responsible for most of the emissions. Stationary fuel combustion (e.g. electricity generation) was responsible for about 72% of all SO2 emissions in 2017. Table 12.12 Total National Emissions of Sulfur Dioxide, 1970–2017a (million short tons) Source category Highway vehicles Other off-highway Transportation total Stationary fuel combustion total Industrial processes total Waste disposal and recycling total Miscellaneous total Total of all sources 1970 0.27 0.28 0.55 23.46 7.10 0.01 0.11 31.22 1980 0.39 0.32 0.72 21.39 3.81 0.03 0.01 25.93 1990 0.50 0.37 0.87 20.21 1.90 0.04 0.01 23.08 2000 0.26 0.44 0.70 14.16 1.42 0.03 0.07 16.35 2010 0.04 0.12 0.16 6.75 0.68 0.02 0.16 7.73 2017 0.03 0.07 0.10 2.03 0.50 0.03 0.15 2.82 Percent of total, 2017 1.0% 2.4% 3.4% 72.3% 17.8% 1.1% 5.3% 100.0% Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Emission Inventory Air Pollutant Emission Trends website www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/air-pollutant-emissions-trends-data. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory) a The sums of subcategories may not equal total due to rounding. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–14 EMISSION STANDARDS The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates emissions from mobile sources including vehicles, engines, and motorized equipment that produce exhaust and evaporative emissions. Mobile sources contribute to four main air pollutants: carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter. The EPA not only sets standards for the vehicles, engines, and equipment, but also the fuels that they use. Tables 12.13 through Table 12.30 contain summaries of the current standards. Acronyms Used on Tables 12.13 through Table 12.30 ABT ATV bhp CFR CI CO DE EPA FEL FTP g g/kN g/kW-hr g/mi GPA GVW HC HCHO HLDT Hp-hr ICAO kN kW kW-hr LDT LDV LEV Averaging, banking, and credit trading program All-terrain vehicle Brake horsepower-hour Code of Federal Regulations Compression-ignition Carbon Monoxide Diesel engine Environmental Protection Agency Family emission limit Federal test procedure Gram Grams per kilonewton Grams per kilowatt-hour Grams per mile Geographic Phase-in Area Gross vehicle weight Hydrocarbons Formaldehyde Heavy light-duty truck Horsepower-hour International Civil Aviation Organization Kilonewton Kilowatt Kilowatt-hour Light-duty truck Light-duty vehicle Low-emission vehicle LLDT LPG LVW MDPV MDV MY NMHC NMOG NR NRLM NOx NTE OEM PM ppm PWC rO rPR SI SULEV THC THCE ULEV ULSD ZEV Light light-duty truck Liquefied petroleum gas Loaded vehicle weight Medium-duty passenger vehicle (8,500-10,000 lbs. GVWR) Medium-duty vehicle Model year Non-methane hydrocarbon Non-methane organic gases Nonroad Nonroad, locomotive and marine Nitrogen oxides Not-to-exceed Original equipment manufacturer Particulate matter Parts per million Personal watercraft Rated output Rated pressure ratio Spark-ignition Super-ultra-low-emission vehicle Total hydrocarbons Total hydrocarbon equivalent Ultra-low-emission vehicle Ultra-low sulfur diesel Zero-emission vehicle TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–15 The Environmental Protection Agency issued final Tier 3 emission standards in 2014. The combined emissions of non-methane organic gases (NMOG) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) that new gasoline engines are allowed to produce from model years 2017 to 2025 are regulated in these new standards. These standards apply to a corporate average, meaning that some vehicles produced in those model years will emit more than the standard, while others will emit less, so long as the average for each Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) product offerings meets the standard. Table 12.13 Tier 3 Non-Methane Organic Gases and Nitrogen Oxide Standards (milligrams per mile) Light-duty vehicles and LDT1 Model Year 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 and later LDT2, 3, 4, and medium-duty passenger vehicles a 86 79 72 65 58 51 44 37 30 a 101 92 83 74 65 56 47 38 30 Class 2b trucks 333b 310b 278 253 228 203 178 178 178 178 Class 3 trucks 548b 508b 451 400 349 298 247 247 247 247 Notes: Standards are for the Federal Test Procedure. Different standards apply for the Supplemental Federal Test Procedure. For vehicles over 6,000 lbs. gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR), the standards apply beginning in MY 2018. LDT1 = Light trucks less than 6,000 lbs. GVWR and less than 3,750 lbs. loaded vehicle weight (LVW). LDT2, 3, 4 = Light trucks less than 8,500 lbs. GVWR and more than 3,750 lbs. LVW. Class 2b trucks = trucks 8,501-10,000 lbs. GVWR. Class 3 trucks = trucks 10,001-14,000 lbs. GVWR. Source: Federal Register Vol. 79, No. 81, Monday, April 28, 2014. a b Not applicable. Voluntary standard. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–16 Table 12.14 Tier 3 Particulate Matter Emission Standards for Light Gasoline Vehicles, MY 2017 and Beyond (milligrams per mile) Model Year 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022-on Certification standard (milligrams per mile) 3 3 3 3 3 3 In-use standard (milligrams per mile) 6 6 6 6 6 3 Phase-in (percent of U.S. sales) 20a 20 40 70 100 100 Note: Standards are for the Federal Test Procedure. The standards apply to all light-duty vehicles, light-duty trucks, and medium-duty passenger vehicles. For vehicles over 6,000 lbs. gross vehicle weight rating, the standards apply beginning in MY 2018. Source: Federal Register Vol. 79, No. 81, Monday, April 28, 2014. Table 12.15 Tier 3 Evaporative Emission Standards (grams per test) Vehicle class Light-duty vehicles and LDT1 LDT2 LDT3, LT4, and medium-duty passenger vehicles Heavy-duty gasoline vehicles Highest hot soak + diurnal level (over both 2-day and 3-day diurnal tests) 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Note: LDT1 = Light trucks less than 6,000 lbs. gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) and less than 3,750 lbs. loaded vehicle weight (LVW). LDT2 = Light trucks less than 6,000 lbs. GVWR and less than 3,750 lbs. LVW. LDT3, 4 = Light trucks less than 8,500 lbs. GVWR and more than 3,750 lbs. LVW. Heavy-duty gasoline vehicles = trucks over 10,000 lbs. GVWR. Source: Federal Register Vol. 79, No. 81, Monday, April 28, 2014. Manufacturers comply with 20% of their light-duty truck fleet under 6,000 lbs. gross vehicle weight, alternatively with 10% of their total light-duty vehicle, light-duty trucks and medium-duty passenger vehicle fleet. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–17 These exhaust emission standards were phased-in from 2004 to 2010. Table 12.16 Light-Duty Vehicle, Light-Duty Truck, and Medium-Duty Passenger Vehicle – Tier 2 Exhaust Emission Standards Standard Federal Emission limits at 50,000 miles NOx NMOG CO PM HCHO (g/mi) (g/mi) (g/mi) (g/mi) (g/mi) Emission limits at full useful life (120,000 miles)a NOx NMOG CO PM HCHO (g/mi) (g/mi) (g/mi) (g/mi) (g/mi) Bin 1 - - - - - 0 0 0 0 0 Bin 2 - - - - - 0.02 0.01 2.1 0.01 0.004 Bin 3 - - - - - 0.03 0.055 2.1 0.01 0.011 Bin 4 - - - - - 0.04 0.07 2.1 0.01 0.011 Bin 5 0.05 0.075 3.4 - 0.015 0.07 0.09 4.2 0.01 0.018 Bin 6 0.08 0.075 3.4 - 0.015 0.1 0.09 4.2 0.01 0.018 Bin 7 0.11 0.075 3.4 - 0.015 0.15 0.09 4.2 0.02 0.018 Bin 8 0.14 0.100 / 0.125c 3.4 - 0.015 0.2 0.125 / 0.156 4.2 0.02 0.018 Bin 9b 0.2 0.075 / 0.140 3.4 - 0.015 0.3 0.090 / 0.180 4.2 0.06 0.018 Bin 10b 0.4 0.125 / 0.160 3.4 / 4.4 - 0.015 / 0.018 0.6 0.156 / 0.230 4.2 / 6.4 0.08 0.018 / 0.027 Bin 11b 0.6 0.195 5 - 0.022 0.9 0.28 7.3 0.12 0.032 Note: Tests Covered: Federal Test Procedure (FTP), cold carbon monoxide, highway, and idle. Definitions of acronyms are on page 12-14. Source: 40 CR 86 Subpart S. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide/light-duty-vehiclesand-trucks-emission-standards) a In lieu of intermediate useful life standards (50,000 miles) or to gain additional nitrogen oxides credit, manufacturers may optionally certify to the Tier 2 exhaust emission standards with a useful life of 150,000 miles. b Bins 9-11 expired in 2006 for light-duty vehicles and light light-duty trucks and 2008 for heavy light-duty trucks and medium-duty passenger vehicles. c Pollutants with two numbers have a separate certification standard (1st number) and in-use standard (2nd number). TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–18 Table 12.17 Light-Duty Vehicle, Light-Duty Truck, and Medium-Duty Passenger Vehicle – Tier 2 Evaporative Emission Standards Federal Vehicle type LDV/LLDTsa HLDTsb MDPVsa, b LDVa LLDTa HLDTb MDPVa, b Model year 2004 2004 2004 2009 2009 2010 2010 3 Day diurnal + hot soak (g/test) 0.95 1.20 1.40 0.50 0.65 0.90 1.00 Supplemental 2 day diurnal + hot soak (g/test) 1.20 1.50 1.75 0.65 0.85 1.15 1.25 Running loss (g/mi) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Note: Multi-fuel vehicle phase-in applies. Definitions of acronyms are on page 12-14. Source: 40 CR 86 Subpart S. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide/light-duty-vehiclesand-trucks-emission-standards) For liquefied petroleum gas-fueled light-duty vehicles (LDV), light-duty trucks (LDT), and medium-duty passenger vehicles (MDPV): 0.15 grams hydrocarbon per gallon (0.04 grams per liter) of fuel dispensed. b Refueling standards for heavy light-duty trucks (HLDT) are subject to phase-in requirements. MDPVs must also comply with the phase-in requirement and must be grouped with HLDTs to determine phase-in compliance. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–19 Table 12.18 Heavy-Duty Highway Compression-Ignition Engines and Urban Buses – Exhaust Emission Standards HC (g/bhphr) NMHC (g/bhphr) NMHC + NOx (g/bhphr) NOx (g/bhphr) PM (g/bhphr) CO (g/bhphr) Idle CO (percent Exhaust gas flow) Smokea (percentage) Useful life (hours/years/miles) 1974-78 - - 16 - - 40 - 20 / 15 / 50 - 1979-84 1.5 - 10 - - 25 - 20 / 15 / 50 - 1985-87 1.3 - - 10.7 - 15.5 - 20 / 15 / 50 MHDDE: - / 8 / 185,000 1988-89 1.3d - - 10.7 0.6 15.5 0.5c 20 / 15 / 50 1990 1.3d - - 6.0 0.6 15.5 0.5c 20 / 15 / 50 1991-93 1.3 - - 5.0 [ABT] 15.5 0.5c 20 / 15 / 50 MHDDE: - / 8 / 185,000 15.5 c 20 / 15 / 50 1994+ urban buses for PM only: Year LHDDE: - / 8 / 110,000 HHDDE: - / 8 / 290,000 1994-97 1.3 - - 5.0 [ABT] 0.25 [ABT] 0.10e 0.1 [ABT] 0.07f,0.05g 0.5 1990-97 and 1998+ for HC, CO, and PM: LHDDE: - / 8 / 110,000 HHDDE: - / 8 / 290,000 LHDDE: - / 10 / 110,000 Federalb 1998+ for NOx: 1998-2003 1.3 - - 4.0 [ABT] 2004-2006h - - 2.4 (or 2.5 with a limit of 0.5 on NMHC)o [ABTi,j] - 2.4 (or 2.5 with a limit of 0.5 on NMHC) [ABT] 0.2o 2007+h,k,l,m,n - 0.14o 0.1 [ABT] 0.05g 0.1 0.05g LHDDE: - / 10 / 110,000 15.5 0.5c 20 / 15 / 50 15.5 0.5 20 / 15 / 50 MHDDE: - / 10 / 185,000 HHDDE: - / 10 / 290,000 For all pollutants:p LHDDE: - / 10 / 110,000 MHDDE: - / 10 / 185,000 0.01 15.5 0.5 20 / 15 / 50 HHDDE: 22,000 / 10 / 435,000 Note: The test procedures are the EPA Transient Test Procedure and the EPA Smoke Test Procedure. Definitions of acronyms are on page 12-14. Sources: 40 CFR 86.099-11 Emission standards for 1999 and later model year diesel heavy-duty engines and vehicles. 40 CFR 86.004-11 Emission standards for 2004 and later model year diesel heavy-duty engines and vehicles. 40 CFR 86.007-11 Emission standards and supplemental requirements for 2007 and later model year diesel heavyduty engines and vehicles. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide/lightduty-vehicles-and-trucks-emission-standards) Percentages apply to smoke opacity at acceleration/lug/peak modes. Standards for 1990 apply only to diesel-fueled heavy-duty engines (HDE). Standards for 1991+ apply to both diesel- and methanol-fueled HDEs. Standards that apply to urban buses specifically are footnoted. c This standard applies to the following fueled engines for the following model years: methanol - 1990+, natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) - 1994+. d For petroleum-fueled engines, the standard is for hydrocarbons (HC). For methanol-fueled engines, the standard is for total hydrocarbon equivalent (THCE). e Certification standard for urban buses for 1993. f Certification standard for urban buses from 1994-95. g Certification standard for urban buses from 1996 and later. The in-use standard is 0.07. h Load Response Test certification data submittal requirements take effect for heavy-duty diesel engines beginning in model year 2004. The following requirements take effect with the 2007 model year: steady-state test requirement and Not-to-Exceed (NTE) test procedures for testing of in-use engines. On-board diagnostic requirements applicable to heavy-duty diesel vehicles and engines up to 14,000 pounds gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) phase in from the 2005 through 2007 model years. a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–20 Table 12.18 (continued) Heavy-Duty Highway Compression-Ignition Engines and Urban Buses – Exhaust Emission Standards The modified averaging, banking, and trading program for 1998 and later model year engines applies only to diesel cycle engines. Credits generated under the modified program may be used only in 2004 and later model years. j For heavy-duty diesel engines, there are three options to the measurement procedures currently in place for alternative fueled engines: (1) use a THC measurement in place of an non-methane hydrocarbon (NMHC) measurement; (2) use a measurement procedure specified by the manufacturer with prior approval of the Administrator; or (3) subtract two percent from the measured THC value to obtain an NMHC value. The methodology must be specified at time of certification and will remain the same for the engine family throughout the engines' useful life. For natural gas vehicles, EPA allows the option of measuring NMHC through direct quantification of individual species by gas chromatography. k Starting in 2006, refiners must begin producing highway diesel fuel that meets a maximum sulfur standard of 15 parts per million (ppm). l Subject to a Supplemental Emission Test (1.0 x Federal Test Procedure [FTP] standard (or Family Emission Limit [FEL]) for nitrogen oxides [NOx], NMHC, and particulate matter [PM]) and a NTE test (1.5 x FTP standard [or FEL] for NOx, NMHC, and PM). m EPA adopted the lab-testing and field-testing specifications in 40 CFR Part 1065 for heavy-duty highway engines, including both diesel and Otto-cycle engines. These procedures replace those previously published in 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 86, Subpart N. Any new testing for 2010 and later model years must be done using the 40 CFR Part 1065 procedures. n Two-phase in-use NTE testing program for heavy-duty diesel vehicles. The program begins with the 2007 model year for gaseous pollutants and 2008 for PM. The requirements apply to diesel engines certified for use in heavy-duty vehicles (including buses) with GVWRs greater than 8,500 pounds. However, the requirements do not apply to any heavy-duty diesel vehicle that was certified using a chassis dynamometer, including medium-duty passenger vehicles with GVWRs of between 8,500 and 10,000 pounds. o NOx and NMHC standards will be phased in together between 2007 and 2010. The phase-in will be on a percent-of-sales basis: 50 percent from 2007 to 2009 and 100 percent in 2010. p Note that for an individual engine, if the useful life hours interval is reached before the engine reaches 10 years or 100,000 miles, the useful life shall become 10 years or 100,000 miles, whichever occurs first, as required under Clean Air Act section 202(d). i TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–21 Table 12.19 Heavy-Duty Highway Spark-Ignition Engines – Exhaust Emission Standards Engine or vehicle Gross vehicle weight (lbs) HCa (g/bhp-hr) NMHCb (g/bhphr) NOx (g/bhp-hr) NOx + NMHCc (g/bhp-hr) PM (g/bhphr) CO (g/bhp-hr) Idle CO (% exhaust gas flow) Formaldehyde (g/mile) Prior to Control - 12.7 - - 6.86 - 155 - - 1970-73 - 275 ppm - - - - 1.50% - - 1974-78 - - - 16 - - 40 - - 1979-84 - 1.5 - 10 - - 25 - - 1985-86 - 1.9 - - 10.6 - 37.1 - - ≤ 14,000 1.1 - - 10.6 - 14.4 > 14,000 1.9 - - 10.6 - 37.1 ≤ 14,000 1.1 - - 6.0 - 14.4 - - > 14,000 1.9 - - 6.0 - 37.1 - - ≤ 14,000 1.1 - - 6.0 - 14.4 - > 14,000 1.9 - - 6.0 - 37.1 - ≤ 14,000 g 1.1 - - 5.0 - 14.4 - > 14,000 1.9h - - 5.0 - 37.1 - ≤ 14,000 1.1g - - - 14.4 - > 14,000 1.9 - - - 37.1 - ≤ 14,000 1.1 g - - - 14.4 > 14,000 1.9h - - - 37.1 All - 0.14 0.2 - 0.01 14.4 8,500 10,000 - 0.280m - 0.9 - 7.3 - 10,000 14,000 - 0.330m - 1.0 - 8.1 - 8,500 10,000 - 0.195o - 0.2 0.02 7.3 0.032 10,000 14,000 - 0.230o - 0.4 0.02 8.1 0.04 Year 1987 Heavy duty enginesd 1988-90 1990e Federal 1991-97f 19982004f 20052007f 2008+ 20052007 Complete heavy-duty vehiclesn, q 2008+p h 1.0l 4.0i 0.5 Useful life (years / miles) 5 / 50,000 - 8 / 110,000k 0.5j - 10 / 110,000 11 / 110,000 Note: Definitions of acronyms are on page 12-14. Sources: 40 CFR 86.1816-05, 86.1816-08 Emission standards for complete heavy-duty vehicles 40 CFR 86.1806-01, 86.1806-04, 86.1806-05 Onboard diagnostics requirements 40 CFR 86.1817-05, 86.1817-08 Complete heavy-duty vehicle averaging, banking, and trading program 40 CFR 86.091-10 Heavy-duty engine averaging, banking, and trading program for 1991 and later - Not available in the e-CFR 40 CFR Part 86 Subpart B Vehicle test procedures (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standardsreference-guide/light-duty-vehicles-and-trucks-emission-standards) For methanol-fueled engines, the standard is for total hydrocarbon equivalent (THCE). For methanol and alcohol fueled vehicles the standard is for non-methane hydrocarbon equivalent (NMHCE). c For methanol fueled engines the standard is for nitrogen oxides (NOx) plus NMHCE. d Standards for heavy-duty engines are expressed in grams per brake horsepower-hour (g/bhp-hr). Starting with the 1998 model year, crankcase emissions are not allowed. e Standards for 1990 apply to gasoline and methanol-fueled engines. f Standards for 1991 and later apply to gasoline and methanol engines and are optional for natural gas and Liquefied Petroleum Gas-fueled engines through the 1996 model year. g For natural gas fueled engines the standard is 0.9 g/bhp-hr non-methane hydrocarbon (NMHC). a b TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–22 Table 12.19 (continued) Heavy-Duty Highway Spark-Ignition Engines – Exhaust Emission Standards For natural gas fueled engines the standard is 1.7 g/bhp-hr NMHC. The NOx standard is 5.0 for all natural gas-fueled engines. j This standard applies to the following engines utilizing aftertreatment technology (except for methanol) for the following model years: gasoline/1990+; natural gas and LPG/1991+; methanol/1990+. Starting in 2005, engines certified to on-board diagnostics requirements are not required to meet the idle carbon monoxide (CO) standard. k Useful life is expressed in years or miles, whichever comes first. Useful life for the 1998 and later NOx standard and for all 2004 standards is 10 years or 110,000 miles, whichever comes first. l Manufacturers can choose this standard or one of the following options: (1) a standard of 1.5 g/bhp-hr NMHC+NOX that applies to the 2004 through 2007 model years, with complete heavy-duty vehicle standards taking effect in 2005; or (2) a standard of 1.5 g/bhp-hr NMHC + NOX that would apply to the 2003 through 2007 heavyduty engines and optionally to 2003 through 2006 complete heavy-duty vehicles. m Standard is expressed as non-methane organic gas, but compliance can optionally be shown using measurement of NMHC or total hydrocarbon (THC). n Complete heavy-duty vehicles have the primary load-carrying container or device attached. Incomplete heavyduty vehicles are certified to heavy-duty engine standards. Standards for complete heavy-duty vehicles are expressed in grams per mile (g/mi). Starting in 2005 (or 2003 or 2004 depending on the selected phase in option; see footnote l), complete heavy-duty vehicles under 14,000 lbs gross vehicle weight are tested on chassis-based rather than enginebased procedures and must meet these complete heavy-duty vehicle standards. o Although expressed as NMHC, compliance can optionally be shown using measurement of NMOG or THC. p At least 50 percent of a manufacturer's sales must meet these standards in 2008, with 100 percent required in 2009. q Gross vehicle weight ranges are more accurately specified as follows: 8,500 ≤ GVW ≤ 10,000 and 10,000 < GVW < 14,000. h i TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–23 Table 12.20 Heavy-Duty Highway Compression-Ignition and Spark-Ignition Engines – Evaporative Emission Standards Engine type Year 1991-95 SI 1996-2007 (Enhanced)f 2008+ (Enhanced) Federal 1996-97 CI 1998+ (Enhanced)g Gross vehicle weight (lbs) Conventional diurnal + hot soak (g/test)a Three-diurnal test sequence (g/test)b Supplemental two-diurnal test sequence (g/test)c Running loss (g/mi)c Spitback (g/test)c ≤ 14,000 3.0 - - - - > 14,000e 4.0 - - - - ≤ 14,000 - 3.0 3.5 1.0 > 14,000e - 4.0 4.5 - 8500-14,000 - 1.4 1.75 > 14,000e - 1.9 2.3 ≤ 14,000 - 3.0 - - - > 14,000e - 4.0 - - - ≤ 14,000 - 3.0 3.5 > 14,000e - 4.0 4.5 0.05 1.0 - 0.05 1.0 Useful lifed 8 / 110,000 10 / 120,000 11 / 110,000 MHDDE: 8 / 185,000 HHDDE: 8 / 290,000 MHDDE: 8 / 185,000 HHDDE: 8 / 290,000 - Note: Definitions of acronyms are on page 12-14. Sources: 40 CFR 86.099-11 Emission standards for 1999 and later model year diesel heavy-duty engines and vehicles. 40 CFR 86.004-11 Emission standards for 2004 and later model year diesel heavy-duty engines and vehicles. CFR 86.007-11 Emission standards and supplemental requirements for 2007 and later model year diesel heavy-duty engines and vehicles. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide/light-dutyvehicles-and-trucks-emission-standards) Applies to gasoline and methanol engines. Standard is hydrocarbon (HC) for gasoline engines, total hydrocarbon equivalent (THCE) for methanol engines. b For spark-ignition (SI) engines, standard applies to gasoline, methanol, natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gas engines. For compression-ignition (CI) engines, standard applies to methanol, natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gas engines. Standard is THCE for methanol engines, HC for others. c For SI engines, standard applies to gasoline and methanol engines. For CI engines, standard applies to methanol engines. Standard is THCE for methanol engines, HC for others. d Useful life is expressed in years or miles, whichever comes first. e Vehicles over 26,000 pounds gross vehicle weight may demonstrate compliance with an engineering design evaluation in lieu of testing. f A new enhanced evaporative test procedure applies, which is considerably more stringent than the previous test procedure despite the fact that the standard values do not change from prior years. Gasoline and methanol engines are phased in at the following rates of a manufacturer's sales for the specified model year: 1996: 20 percent; 1997: 40 percent; 1998: 90 percent; 1999: 100 percent. g A new enhanced evaporative test procedure applies, which is considerably more stringent than the previous test procedure despite the fact that the standard values do not change from prior years. Methanol-fueled vehicles are phased in at a rate of 90 percent of a manufacturer's production in 1998 and 100 percent in 1999. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–24 The LEV III exhaust standards apply to new cars, light trucks, and medium vehicles, including fuel-flexible, bi-fuel, and dual-fuel vehicles from model year 2015-on. Table 12.21 California New Car, Light Truck and Medium Truck Emission Certification Standards, Model Year 2015-On Vehicle emission category Vehicle type Non-methane organic gases + nitrogen oxides (g/mi) Carbon monoxide (g/mi) Formaldehyde (mg/mi) Particulates (g/mi) All passenger cars; LDTs 8,500 lbs. GVW or less LEV160 0.16 4.2 4 0.01 ULEV125 0.125 2.1 4 0.01 ULEV70 0.07 1.7 4 0.01 All MDPVs ULEV50 0.05 1.7 4 0.01 SULEV30 0.03 1.0 4 0.01 SULEV20 0.02 1.0 4 0.01 LEV395 0.395 6.4 6 0.12 ULEV340 0.34 6.4 6 0.06 ULEV250 0.25 6.4 6 0.06 ULEV200 0.2 4.2 6 0.06 SULEV170 0.17 4.2 6 0.06 SULEV150 0.15 3.2 6 0.06 LEV630 0.63 7.3 6 0.12 ULEV570 0.57 7.3 6 0.06 ULEV400 0.4 7.3 6 0.06 ULEV270 0.27 4.2 6 0.06 SULEV230 0.23 4.2 6 0.06 SULEV200 0.2 3.7 6 0.06 Vehicles in this category are tested at their loaded vehicle weight MDVs 8,501-10,000 lbs. GVW Vehicles in this category are tested at their adjusted loaded vehicle weight MDVs 10,000-14,000 lbs. GVW Vehicles in this category are tested at their adjusted loaded vehicle weight Note: Definitions of acronyms are on page 12-14. These standards would also apply to states that adopted California emissions regulations. Source: California LEV III Regulations with amendments effective January 1, 2016, www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/levprog/cleandoc/cleancomplete%201ev-ghg%20regs%201-16.pdf. (Additional resources: www.arb.ca.gov) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–25 These exhaust emission standards apply to commercial aircraft engines. Table 12.22 Aircraft – Exhaust Emission Standards Applicabilitya HC (g/kN) NOx 1974+ 1976+ 1978+ Pressure ratio (PR) - T8 TF with rOc ≥ 129 kN T3d - - CO (g/kN) - 1983+ - TF with rO < 26.7 kN - - - - T3, T8, TF with rO ≥ 26.7 kN 19.6 - - - TSS 140(.92)rPR - - - TSS with rO ≥ 26.7 kN 140(.92)rPR - - - TP with rO ≥ 1,000 kW T3, T8, TF with rO > 26.7 kN T3, T8, TF newly certified with rO > 26.7 kN T3, T8, TF newly manufactured with rO > 26.7 kN T3, T8, TF newly certified with rO > 89 kN T3, T8, TF newly certified with 26.7 kN < rO ≤ 89 kN T3, T8, TF newly certified with rO>89 kN T3, T8, TF newly certified with 26.7kN < r0 ≤ 89kN T3, T8, TF - - - 19.6 40+2(rPR) 118 19.6 32+1.6(rPR) 118 83.6(rO)-0.274 NTE max of SN=50 19.6 32+1.6(rPR) 118 83.6(rO)-0.274 NTE max of SN=50 - 19+1.6(rPR) - - - 37.572+1.6(rPR)0.2087(rO) - - - 7+2.0(rPR) - - - - - - Year 1984+ Federalb 1997+ 2000+ - PR ≤ 30 2005+ 30 < PR < 62.5 PR ≤ 62.5 - 42.71+1.4286(rPR)0.4013(rO)+0.00642(rP R)(rO) 32+1.6(rPR) Smoke 30 83.6(rO)-0.274 25 83.6(rO)-0.274 NTE max of SN=50 83.6(rO)-0.274 NTE max of SN=50 83.6(rO)-0.274 NTE max of SN=50 83.6(rO)-0.274 NTE max of SN=50 187(rO)-0.168 83.6(rO)-0.274 NTE max of SN=50 Note: The test procedures are the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Smoke Emission Test Procedure and the ICAO Gaseous Emissions Test Procedure. There is no useful life or warranty period for purposes of compliance with aircraft emissions standards. Definitions of acronyms are on page 12-14. Source: 40 CFR Part 87, Aircraft emission standards, test procedures, certification requirements (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide/nonroad-engines-and-vehicles-emission-standards) a T8=all aircraft gas turbine engines of the JT8D model family TF=all turbofan and turbojet aircraft engines except engines of Class T3, T8, and TSS T3=all aircraft gas turbine engines of the JT3D model family TSS=all aircraft gas turbine engines for aircraft operations at supersonic flight speeds TP=all aircraft turboprop engines b Federal standards apply to planes operating in the United States, regardless of where they were manufactured. c Rated output (rO) is the maximum power/thrust available for takeoff. d T3 engines are no longer manufactured but are in the existing fleet. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–26 These standards apply to construction and agricultural equipment, such as excavators, paving equipment, tractors, combines, bulldozers, and skidders. Table 12.23 Nonroad Compression-Ignition Engines – Exhaust Emission Standards Rated power (kW) kW < 8 8 ≤ kW < 19 19 ≤ kW < 37 Tier 1 2 4 1 2 4 1 2 4 37 ≤ kW < 56 56 ≤ kW < 75 1 2 3e 4 (Option 1)f 4 (Option 2)f 4 1 2 3 4 Federal 75 ≤ kW < 130 1 2 3 4 130 ≤ kW < 225 1 2 3 4 225 ≤ kW < 450 1 2 3 4 450 ≤ kW < 560 1 2 3 4 560 ≤ kW < 900 1 2 4 Model year 2000-2004 2005-2007 2008+ 2000-2004 2005-2007 2008+ 1999-2003 2004-2007 2008-2012 2013+ 1998-2003 2004-2007 2008-2011 2008-2012 2012 2013+ 1998-2003 2004-2007 2008-2011 2012-2103g 2014+h 1997-2002 2003-2006 2007-2011 2012-2013g 2014+ 1996-2002 2003-2005 2006-2010 2011-2013g 2014+h 1996-2000 2001-2005 2006-2010 2011-2013g 2014+h 1996-2001 2002-2005 2006-2010 2011-2013g 2014+h 2000-2005 2006-2010 2011-2014 2015+h NMHC (g/kW -hr) --------------------0.19 ----0.19 1.3i ---0.19 1.3i ---0.19 1.3i ---0.19 1.3i -0.4 0.19 NMHC + NOx (g/kW -hr) 10.5 7.5 7.5 9.5 7.5 7.5 9.5 7.5 7.5 4.7 -7.5 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 -7.5 4.7 4.7 --6.6 4.0 4.0 --6.6 4.0 4.0 --6.4 4.0 4.0 --6.4 4.0 4.0 --6.4 --- NOx (g/kW -hr) ----------9.2 -----9.2 ---0.4 9.2 ---0.4 9.2 ---0.4 9.2 ---0.4 9.2 ---0.4 9.2 -3.5 3.5j PM (g/kW -hr) 1.0 0.80 0.40c 0.80 0.80 0.40 0.80 0.60 0.30 0.03 -0.40 0.40 0.30 0.03 0.03 -0.40 0.40 0.02 0.02 -0.3 0.3 0.02 0.02 0.54 0.20 0.20 0.02 0.02 0.54 0.20 0.20 0.02 0.02 0.54 0.20 0.20 0.02 0.02 0.54 0.20 0.10 0.04k CO (g/kW -hr) 8.0 8.0 8.0 6.6 6.6 6.6 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 -5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 -5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 -5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 11.4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 11.4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 11.4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 11.4 3.5 3.5 3.5 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 Smokea percentage Useful life (hours/years)b 3,000 / 5 3,000 / 5 5,000 / 7d 20 / 15 / 50 8,000 / 10 12–27 Table 12.23 (continued) Nonroad Compression-Ignition Engines – Exhaust Emission Standards Rated power (kW) Federal kW > 900 Tier Model year NMHC (g/kW -hr) 1 2000-2005 1.3i NMHC + NOx (g/kW -hr) -- 2 2006-2010 -- 2011-2014 0.4 2015+h 0.19 4 NOx (g/kW -hr) PM (g/kW -hr) CO (g/kW -hr) 9.2 0.54 11.4 6.4 -- 0.20 3.5 -- 3.5j 0.10 3.5 -- 3.5j 0.04k 3.5 Smokea percentage Useful life (hours/years)b 20 / 15 / 50 8,000 / 10 Note: Definitions of acronyms are on page 12-14. Sources: 40 CFR 98.112 = Exhaust emission standards 40 CFR 1039.101 = Exhaust emission standards for after 2014 model year 40 CFR 1039.102 = Exhaust emission standards for model year 2014 and earlier 40 CFR 1039 Subpart F = Exhaust emissions transient and steady state test procedures 40 CFR 86 Subpart I = Smoke emission test procedures 40 CFR 1065 = Test equipment and emissions measurement procedures (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide/nonroad-engines-and-vehicles-emission-standards) Smoke emissions may not exceed 20 percent during the acceleration mode, 15 percent during the lugging mode, and 50 percent during the peaks in either mode. Smoke emission standards do not apply to single-cylinder engines, constant-speed engines, or engines certified to a PM emission standard of 0.07 grams per kilowatt-hour (g/kW-hr) or lower. Smoke emissions are measured using procedures in 40 CFR Part 86 Subpart I. b Useful life and warranty period are expressed hours and years, whichever comes first. c Hand-startable air-cooled direct injection engines may optionally meet a PM standard of 0.60 g/kWhr. These engines may optionally meet Tier 2 standards through the 2009 model years. In 2010 these engines are required to meet a PM standard of 0.60 g/kW-hr. d Useful life for constant speed engines with rated speed 3,000 revolutions per minute (rpm) or higher is 5 years or 3,000 hours, whichever comes first. e These Tier 3 standards apply only to manufacturers selecting Tier 4 Option 2. Manufacturers selecting Tier 4 Option 1 will be meeting those standards in lieu of Tier 3 standards. f A manufacturer may certify all their engines to either Option 1 or Option 2 sets of standards starting in the indicated model year. Manufacturers selecting Option 2 must meet Tier 3 standards in the 2008-2011 model years. g These standards are phase-out standards. Not more than 50 percent of a manufacturer's engine production is allowed to meet these standards in each model year of the phase out period. Engines not meeting these standards must meet the final Tier 4 standards. h These standards are phased in during the indicated years. At least 50 percent of a manufacturer's engine production must meet these standards during each year of the phase in. Engines not meeting these standards must meet the applicable phase-out standards. i For Tier 1 engines the standard is for total hydrocarbons. j The NOx standard for generator sets is 0.67 g/kW-hr. k The PM standard for generator sets is 0.03 g/kW-hr. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–28 These standards apply to gasoline and propane industrial equipment such as forklifts, generators, airport service equipment, compressors and ice-grooming machines. Table 12.24 Nonroad Large Spark-Ignition Engines – Exhaust and Evaporative Emission Standards Tier 1c Year 20042006 General duty-cycle standards HC+NOxa CO (g/kW-hr) (g/kW-hr) Alternative standards for severe-duty engines CO HC+NOxa (g/kW-hr) (g/kW-hr) Field testing standards HC+NOxa CO (g/kW-hr) (g/kW-hr) Useful life (years/hours) 4.0d 50.0 4.0d 130.0 - - 7 / 5,000e 2.7f 4.4f 2.7 130.0 3.8f 6.5f 7 / 5,000e Evaporative emission standards (for engines fueled by a volatile liquid fuel) Federal b 2f 2007+ Fuel line permeation Nonmetallic fuel lines must meet the permeation specifications of SAE J2260 (November 1996) Diurnal emissions Evaporative HC emissions may not exceed 0.2 grams per gallon of fuel tank capacity Running loss Liquid fuel in the fuel tank may not reach boiling during continuous engine operation in the final installation at an ambient temperature of 30°C 5/- Sources: 40 CFR 1048.101 = Exhaust emission standards 40 CFR 1048.105 = Evaporative emission standards 40 CFR 1048.110 = Engine diagnostic requirements (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standardsreference-guide/nonroad-engines-and-vehicles-emission-standards) The numerical emission standards for hydrocarbons (HC) must be met based on the following types of hydrocarbon emissions for engines powered by the following fuels: (1) non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) for natural gas; (2) total hydrocarbon equivalent (THCE) for alcohol; and (3) total hydrocarbons (THC) for other fuels. b Voluntary Blue Sky standards for large spark-ignition (SI) engines are available. Engines with displacement at or below 1,000 cubic centimeters (cc) and maximum power at or below 30 kilowatts (kW) may be certified under the program for small SI engines. c Emission standards are based on testing over a steady-state duty-cycle. d The Tier 1 HC plus nitrogen oxides (NOx) emission standard for in-use testing is 5.4 grams per kW-hour (g/kW-hr). e Useful life is expressed in years and hours, whichever comes first. These are the minimum useful life requirements. For severe-duty engines, the minimum useful life is seven years or 1,500 hours of operation, whichever comes first. A longer useful life in hours is required if: (a) the engine is designed to operate longer than the minimum useful life based on the recommended rebuild interval; or (b) the basic mechanical warranty is longer than the minimum useful life. f Optional engine certification is allowed according to the following formula: (HC+NOx) × CO0.784 ≤ 8.57. The HC+NOx and carbon monoxide (CO) emission levels selected to satisfy this formula, rounded to the nearest 0.1 g/kWhr, become the emission standards that apply for those engines. One may not select an HC+NOx emission standard higher than 2.7 g/kW-hr or a CO emission standard higher than 20.6 g/kW-hr. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–29 Table 12.25 Locomotives – Exhaust Emission Standards Dutycycleb Tier Tier 0 Tier 1 Linehaul Tier 2 Tier 3 Federal Tier 4 a Tier 0 Tier 1 Switch Tier 2 Tier 3 Tier 4 Yearc 19731992d,e 19932004d,e 20052011d 20122014f 2015+g 19732001 20022004h 20052010h 20112014 2015+ HCi (g/hp-hr) NOx (g/bhp-hr) PM (g/bhp-hr) CO (g/bhp-hr) Smoke (percentage)m 1.0 9.5 [ABT] 0.22 [ABT] 5.0 30 / 40 / 50 0.55 7.4 [ABT] 0.22 [ABT] 2.2 25 / 40 / 50 0.30 5.5 [ABT] 0.10k [ABT] 1.5 20 / 40 / 50 (7.5 x hp) / 10 / - 0.30 5.5 [ABT] 0.10 [ABT] 1.5 20 / 40 / 50 (7.5 x hp) / 10 / - 0.14 1.3 [ABT] 0.03 [ABT] 1.5 - 2.10 11.8 [ABT] 0.26 [ABT] 8.0 30 / 40 / 50 (7.5 x hp) / 10 / (7.5 x hp) / 10 / 750,000o 1.20 11.0 [ABT] 0.26 [ABT] 2.5 25 / 40 / 50 (7.5 x hp) / 10 / - 0.60 8.1 [ABT] 0.13l [ABT] 2.4 20 / 40 / 50 (7.5 x hp) / 10 / - 0.60 5.0 [ABT] 0.10 [ABT] 2.4 20 / 40 / 50 (7.5 x hp) / 10 / - 0.14 1.3 [ABT] 0.03 [ABT] 2.4 - (7.5 x hp) / 10 / - j j Minimum useful life (hours / years / miles)n (7.5 x hp) / 10 / 750,000o (7.5 x hp) / 10 / 750,000o (7.5 x hp) / 10 / - Source: 40 CFR 1033.101 = Emission Standards and Useful Life. (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standardsreference-guide/nonroad-engines-and-vehicles-emission-standards) a These standards apply to locomotives that are propelled by engines with total rated horsepower (hp) of 750 kilowatts (kW) (1006 hp) or more, unless the owner chooses to have the equipment certified to meet the requirements of locomotives. This does not include vehicles propelled by engines with total rated horsepower of less than 750 kW (1006 hp); see the requirements in 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Parts 86, 89 and 1039. The test procedures specify chassis-based testing of locomotives. These test procedures include certification testing, production line testing, and in-use testing using the Federal Test Procedure (FTP) when the locomotive has reached between 50-70 percent of its useful life. b Line-haul locomotives are powered by an engine with a maximum rated power (or a combination of engines having a total rated power) greater than 2300 hp. Switch locomotives are powered by an engine with a maximum rated power (or a combination of engines having a total rated power) of 2300 hp or less. c The Tier 0 standards apply to locomotives manufactured after 1972 when they are manufactured or remanufactured. Note that interim standards may apply for Tier 0 or Tier 1 locomotives remanufactured in 2008 or 2009, or for Tier 2 locomotives manufactured or remanufactured in 2008-2012. d Line-haul locomotives subject to the Tier 0 through Tier 2 emission standards must also meet switch standards of the same tier. e The Tier 0 standards apply for 1993-2001 locomotives not originally manufactured with a separate loop intake air cooling system. f Tier 3 line-haul locomotives must also meet Tier 2 switch standards. g Manufacturers using credits may elect to meet a combined nitrogen oxides (NOx) plus hydrocarbon (HC) standard of 1.4 grams per brakehorsepower-hour (g/bhp-hr) instead of the otherwise applicable Tier 4 NOx and HC standards. h Tier 1 and Tier 2 switch locomotives must also meet line-haul standards of the same tier. i The numerical emission standards for HC must be met based on the following types of hydrocarbon emissions for locomotives powered by the following fuels: (1) alcohol: total hydrocarbon equivalent (THCE) emissions for Tier 3 and earlier locomotives, and non-methane hydrocarbon equivalent (NMHCE) for Tier 4; (2) natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas: non-methane hydrocarbon (NMHC) emissions; and (3) diesel: total hydrocarbon (THC) emissions for Tier 3 and earlier locomotives, and NMHC for Tier 4. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–30 Table 12.25 (continued) Locomotives – Exhaust Emission Standards Manufacturers may elect to meet a combined NOx+HC standard of 1.4 g/bhp-hr instead of the otherwise applicable Tier 4 NOx and HC standards. k The line-haul particulate matter (PM) standard for newly remanufactured Tier 2 locomotives is 0.20 g/bhp-hr until January 1, 2013, except as specified in 40 CFR Part 1033.150(a). l The switch PM standard for new Tier 2 locomotives is 0.24 g/bhp-hr until January 1, 2013, except as specified in 40 CFR Part 1033.150(a). m The smoke opacity standards apply only for locomotives certified to one or more PM standards or Family Emission Limits (FEL) greater than 0.05 g/bhp-hr. Percentages apply to smoke opacity at steady state/30-second peak/3-second peak, as measured continuously during testing. n Useful life and warranty period are expressed in megawatt-hours (MW-hr), years, or miles, whichever comes first. Manufacturers are required to certify to longer useful lives if their locomotives are designed to last longer between overhauls than the minimum useful life value. o For locomotives originally manufactured before January 1, 2000, and not equipped with MW-hr meters. j TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–31 These standards apply to auxiliary and propulsion engines used by all types of recreational and commercial vessels, from small fishing boats to ocean-going ships. Table 12.26 Marine Compression-Ignition (CI) Engines – Exhaust Emission Standards Category a, b Tier Displacem ent (L/cylinder) 1 ≥ 2.5 Pow er (kW) c Speed (rpm ) Model Year rpm < 130 Federalg C1 Commercial Engines w ith ≤ 35 kW/L pow er density k h - - - - - - 7.5 (ABT) 0.40 (ABT) 5.0 - 2004 h - - 7.2 (ABT) 0.30 (ABT) 5.0 - 2004 h - - 7.2 (ABT) 0.20 (ABT) 5.0 2.5 ≤ disp < 5.0 - 2007 h - - 7.2 (ABT) 0.20 (ABT) 5.0 - - - - ≥ 2.5 130 ≤ rpm < 2000 all ≥ 37 ≥ 37 all 17.0 -0.20 i 45.0 x N - - - - rpm ≥ 2000 2004 9.8 - - - - - 2007 - - 7.5 (ABT) 0.40 (ABT) 5.0 - 2006 - - 7.2 (ABT) 0.30 (ABT) 5.0 - 2006 - - 7.2 (ABT) 0.20 (ABT) 5.0 - 2009 - - 7.2 (ABT) 0.20 (ABT) 5.0 <8 - 2009+ - - 7.5 (ABT) 0.40 (ABT) 8.0 8 ≤ kW < 19 - 2009+ - - 7.5 (ABT) 0.40 (ABT) 6.6 - 7.5 (ABT) 0.30 (ABT) - 2014+ - - 4.7 (ABT) 37 ≤ kW < 75 - 2009-2013 - - 7.5 j (ABT) - 2014+ - - 4.7 j (ABT) < 0.9 - - 2012+ - - 5.4 (ABT) 0.9 ≤ disp < 1.2 All - 2013+ - - 5.4 (ABT) - 2014-2017 - - 5.6 (ABT) - 2018+ - - 2014+ - - 5.6 (ABT) - 2013-2017 - - 2018+ - - 5.6 (ABT) - 2013+ - - 5.6 (ABT) - 2012-2017 - - 2018+ - - 5.8 (ABT) ≥ 600 - 2012+ - - 5.8 (ABT) 0.11 (ABT) ≥ 75 - 2012+ - - 5.8 (ABT) 0.15 (ABT) - 2013+ - - 5.8 (ABT) - 2014+ - - 5.8 (ABT) 2.5 ≤ disp < 3.5 - 2013+ - - 5.8 (ABT) 3.5 ≤ disp < 7.0 - 2012+ - - 5.8 (ABT) 3l ≥ 600 2.5 ≤ disp < 3.5 < 600 3.5 ≤ disp < 7.0 < 0.9 < 600 0.9 ≤ disp < 1.2 1.2 ≤ disp < 2.5 All - j - < 600 2009-2013 j 19 ≤ kW < 37 < 0.9 1.2 ≤ disp < 2.5 3 - - 1.2 ≤ disp < 2.5 l 45.0 x N - ≥ 600 C1 Commercial engines w ith > 35 kW/L pow er density & All Recreational Engines k - - disp < 0.9 3 - 9.8 2.5 ≤ disp < 5.0 C1 Commercial & Recreational < 75 kW - 2005h 0.9 ≤ disp < 1.2 2 - -0.20 i rpm < 130 C1 Commercial & Recreational 17.0 PM (g/kW- CO (g/kWhr) hr) 2004 1.2 ≤ disp < 2.5 1 HC+NOx d (g/kW-hr) - ≥ 37 0.9 ≤ disp < 1.2 2 130 ≤rpm < 2000 HC (g/kWhr) rpm ≥2000 disp. < 0.9 C1 Commercial ≥ 37 NOx (g/kWhr) j 0.20 (ABT) j 0.30 (ABT) Useful Life e (years/hours) 10 / 10,000 10 / 10,000 10/ 1,000 10 / 1,000 5 / 3,000 5.5 5.0 7 / 5,000 10 / 1,000 for CI Recreational 5.0 5.0 8.0 for < 8 kW 6.6 for 8 ≤ 0.12 (ABT) kW < 19 5.5 for 19 ≤ 0.11 (ABT) kW < 37 5.0 for ≤ 37 0.10 (ABT) kW 0.14 (ABT) 10 / 10,000 5 / 3,000 for commercial engines < 19 kW 7 / 5,000 for commercial engines 19 ≤ kW < 37 10 / 10,000 for C1 Commercial ≤ 37 kW 0.11 (ABT) 0.11 (ABT) 0.10 (ABT) 0.11 (ABT) 0.11 (ABT) 0.10 (ABT) 8.0 for < 8 kW 6.6 for 8 ≤ 0.14 (ABT) kW < 19 5.5 for 19 ≤ 0.14 (ABT) kW < 37 5.0 for ≥ 37 0.12 (ABT) kW 0.11 (ABT) (Continued on next page) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 5 / 3,000 for commercial engines < 19 kW 7 / 5,000 for commercial engines 19 ≤ kW < 37 10 / 10,000 for C1 Commercial ≥ 37 kW 10 / 1,000 for CI Recreational 12–32 Table 12.26 (continued) Marine Compression-Ignition (CI) Engines – Exhaust Emission Standards Category a, b Tier Displacem ent (L/cylinder) All C1 Commercial > 600 kW All 4m All < 7.0 Pow er (kW) c 600 ≤ kW < 1,400 1,400 ≤ kW < 2,000 2,000 ≤ kW < 3,700 ≥ 3,700 Speed (rpm ) Model Year NOx (g/kWhr) HC (g/kWhr) HC+NOx d (g/kW-hr) - 2017+ 1.8 (ABT) - 0.19 HCn 0.04 (ABT) n - 2016+ 1.8 (ABT) - 0.19 HC 0.04 (ABT) - 2014+ 1.8 (ABT) - 0.19 HCn 0.04 (ABT) - 2014-2015 1.8 (ABT) - 0.19 HCn 0.12 (ABT) - 2016+ 1.8 (ABT) - 0.19 HCn 0.06 (ABT) 17.0 - - - - 45.0 x N-0.20 i - - - - rpm ≥ 2,000 9.8 - - - - rpm < 130 1 2 5.0 ≤ disp < 15.0 15.0 ≤ disp < 20.0 15.0 ≤ disp < 20.0 20.0 ≤ disp < 25.0 25.0 ≤ disp < 30.0 7.0 ≤ disp < 15.0 C2 3o,p Federalg ≥ 2.5 15.0 ≤ disp < 20.0 20.0 ≤ disp < 25.0 25.0 ≤ disp < 30.0 All All m,p 4 All ≥ 37 130 ≤ rpm < 2,000 2004 all - - - 7.8 (ABT) 0.27 (ABT) 5.0 - - - 8.7 (ABT) 0.50 (ABT) 5.0 ≥ 3,300 - - - 9.8 (ABT) 0.50 (ABT) 5.0 all - - - 9.8 (ABT) 0.50 (ABT) 5.0 2007 all - - - 11.0 (ABT) 0.50 (ABT) 5.0 < 2,000 - - - 6.2 (ABT) 0.14 (ABT) 5.0 2,000 ≤ kW < 3,700 - - - 7.8 (ABT) 0.14 (ABT) 5.0 < 2,000 - - - 7.0 (ABT) 0.34 (ABT) 5.0 < 2,000 - - - 9.8 (ABT) 0.27 (ABT) 5.0 < 2,000 - - - 11.0 (ABT) 0.27 (ABT) 5.0 600 ≤ kW < 1,400 1400 ≤ kW < 2,000 2,000 ≤ kW < 3,700q ≥ 3,700 All - 2013+ 2014+ 2017+ ≥30.0 All ≥30.0 All - 0.19 HC 0.04 (ABT) 1.8 (ABT) - 0.19 HCn 0.04 (ABT) - 2014-2015 1.8 (ABT) - 0.19 HCn 0.12 (ABT) - 2014-2015 1.8 (ABT) - 0.19 HCn 0.25 (ABT) - 2016+ 1.8 (ABT) - 0.19 HCn 0.06 (ABT) 5.0 17.0 - - - - 45.0 × N-0.20 i - - - - 9.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 130 ≤ rpm < 2,000 2004 130 ≤ rpm < 2,000 14.4 2011 All 130 ≤ rpm < 2,000 rpm ≥ 2,000 44.0 × N-0.23 i 2.0 7.7 3.4 2016 9.0 × N-0.20 i 2.0 2.0 Useful Life e (years/hours) 10 / 10,000 10 / 20,000 10 / 20,000 10 / 20,000 0.04 (ABT) 1.8 (ABT) rpm < 130 ≥ 30.0 n 2014+ rpm ≥ 2,000 3 0.19 HC 2016+ rpm < 130 2 - - rpm ≥ 2,000 C3 1.8 (ABT) n - rpm < 130 1 5.0 < 3,300 < 15.0 15.0 ≤ disp < 30.0 PM (g/kW- CO (g/kWhr) hr) 10 / 20,000 3 / 10,000 5.0 3 / 10,000 5.0 3 / 10,000 Sources: 40 CFR 89.104 = Tiers 1 and 2 useful life & warranty period for marine CI engines less than 37 kW 40 CFR 89.112 = Tiers 1 and 2 emission standards for marine CI engines less than 37 kW 40 CFR 89 Subpart E = Tiers 1 and 2 test procedures for marine CI engines less than 37 kW 40 CFR 94.8 = Tiers 1 and 2 emission standards for C1 (both commercial & recreational), C2 and C3 engines 40 CFR 94.9 = Tiers 1 and 2 useful life for C1 (both commercial & recreational), C2 and C3 engines 40 CFR 94 Subpart B = Tiers 1 and 2 test procedures for C1 (both commercial & recreational), C2 and C3 engines 40 CFR 1042.101 = Tiers 3 and 4 exhaust emission standards and useful life TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–33 Table 12.26 (continued) Marine Compression-Ignition (CI) Engines – Exhaust Emission Standards Sources (continued): 40 CFR 1042.107 = Tiers 3 and 4 evaporative emission standards engines using a volatile liquid fuel (e.g., methanol) 40 CFR 1042.120 = Tiers 3 and 4 warranty period 40 CFR 1042 Subpart F = Tiers 3 and 4 test procedures (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standardsreference-guide/nonroad-engines-and-vehicles-emission-standards) For Tiers 1 and 2, Category 1 marine engines are greater than or equal to 37 kilowatts (kW) and have a displacement less than 5.0 liters per cylinder (L/cylinder); Category 2 marine engines have a displacement greater than or equal to 5.0 L/cylinder and less than 30 L/cylinder; and Category 3 marine engines have a displacement greater than or equal to 30.0 L/cylinder. For Tiers 3 and 4, Category 1 represents engines up to 7 L/cylinder displacement; and Category 2 includes engines from 7 to 30 L/cylinder. The definition of Category 3 marine engines remains the same. b Tiers 1 and 2 for marine engines less than 37 kW are subject to the same emission standards as for land-based engines. See Table 1 in 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 89.112 and 40 CFR Part 89.104. c For Tiers 1 and 2, this refers to the rated power; for Tiers 3 and 4, this refers to the maximum engine power. d Total hydrocarbon (THC) plus nitrogen oxides (NOx) for Tier 2 standards. e Useful life is expressed in hours or years, whichever comes first. For Tiers 3 and 4, a longer useful life in hours for an engine family must be specified if either:1) the engine is designed, advertised, or marketed to operate longer than the minimum useful life; or 2) the basic mechanical warranty is longer than the minimum useful life. f Warranty period is expressed in years and hours, whichever comes first. g For Tiers 3 and 4, there are no evaporative emission standards for diesel-fueled engines, or engines using other nonvolatile or nonliquid fuels (e.g., natural gas). If an engine uses a volatile liquid fuel, such as methanol, the engine's fuel system and the vessel in which the engine is installed must meet the evaporative emission requirements of 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 1045 that apply with respect to spark-ignition engines. Manufacturers subject to evaporative emission standards must meet the requirements of 40 CFR 1045.112 as described in 40 CFR 1060.1(a)(2). h Indicates the model years for which the specified standards start. i N is the maximum test speed of the engine in revolutions per minute (rpm). j Manufacturers of Tier 3 engines greater than or equal to 19 kW and less than 75 kW with displacement below 0.9 L/cylinder may alternatively certify some or all of their engine families to a particulate matter (PM) emission standard of 0.20 grams per kilowatt-hour (g/kW-hr) and a NOx+HC emission standard fo 5.8 g/kW-hr for 2014 and later model years. k The applicable Tier 2 NOx+HC standards continue to apply instead of the Tier 3 values for engines at or above 2000 kW. l These Tier 3 standards apply to Category 1 engines below 3700 kW except for recreational marine engines at or above 3700 kW (with any displacement), which must meet the Tier 3 standards specified for recreational marine engines with a displacement of 3.5 to 7.0 L/cylinder. m The following provisions are optional: 1) Manufacturers may use NOx credits to certify Tier 4 engines to a NOX+HC emission standard of 1.9 g/kW-hr instead of the NOX and HC standards. See 40 CFR 1042.101(a)(8)(i) for more details. 2) For engines below 1000 kW, manufacturers may delay complying with the Tier 4 standards until October 1, 2017. 3) For engines at or above 3700 kW, manufacturers may delay complying with the Tier 4 standards until December 31, 2016. n The Tier 4 standard is for HC (not HC+NOx) in g/kW-hr. o These Tier 3 standards apply to Category 2 engines below 3700 kW; no Tier 3 standards apply for Category 2 engines at or above 3700 kW, although there are Tier 4 standards that apply. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–34 Table 12.26 (continued) Marine Compression-Ignition (CI) Engines – Exhaust Emission Standards An alternative set of Tier 3 and Tier 4 standards for PM, NOx, and HC are available for Category 2 engines at or above 1400 kW, but must be applied to all of a manufacturer's engines in a given displacement category in model years 2012 through 2015. p Tier 3 4 Maximum engine power kW ≥ 1400 1400 ≤ kW < 3700 kW ≥ 3700 Model year 2012-2014 2015 2015 PM (g/kW-hr) 0.14 0.04 0.06 NOx HC (g/kW-hr) (g/kW-hr) 7.8 NOx+HC 1.8 0.19 1.8 0.19 q Interim Tier 4 PM standards apply for 2014 and 2015 model year Category 2 engines with per-cylinder displacement at or above 15.0 liters: 0.34 g/kW-hr for engines 2000 = kW < 3000, and 0.27 g/kW-hr for engines 3300 = kW < 3700. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–35 These standards apply to gasoline boats and personal watercraft, such as pleasure boats, jet-skis, outboard engines and sterndrive/inboard engines. Table 12.27 Marine Spark-Ignition Engines and Vessels – Exhaust Emission Standards Engine type Model year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Personal watercraft & outboard marine engines Federale 2003 2004 2005 20062009 2010 +g HC + NOxa (g/KW-hr) P ≤ 4.3 kWb 278 ABT 253 ABT 228 ABT 204 ABT 179 ABT 155 ABT 130 ABT 105 ABT 81 ABT 30 ABT P > 4.3 kWb (0.917 x (151 + 557/P0.9 + 2.44) [ABT] (0.833 x (151 + 557/P0.9 + 2.89) [ABT] (0.750 x (151 + 557/P0.9) + 3.33 [ABT] (0.667 x (151 + 557/P0.9) + 3.78 [ABT] (0.583 x (151 + 557/P0.9) + 4.22 [ABT] (0.500 x (151 + 557/P0.9) + 4.67 [ABT] (0.417 x (151 + 557/P0.9) + 5.11 [ABT] (0.333 x (151 + 557/P0.9) + 5.56 [ABT] (0.250 x (151 + 557/P0.9) + 6.00 [ABT] 2.1 + 0.09 x (151 + 557/P0.9) [ABT] Sterndrive/ inboard engines Conventional enginesg Highperformance engines 5.0 [ABT] 2010 + -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 500 - 5.0 xP 75 [ABT] P ≤ kW P > 485 kW 2010 20.0 25.0 2011+ 16.0 22.0 b COc (g/KW-hr) P ≤ 4.3 P > 4.3 kWb kWb b 350 300 Useful life (hours/years)d 350 / 5 Personal Watercraft: 350 / 5h Outboard: 350 / 10h 480 / 10i P ≤ 485 kW: 150 / 3 P > 485 kW: 50 / 1 Sources: 40 CFR 91.104 = Outboard and personal watercraft (PWC) exhaust emission standards (1998-2009) 40 CFR 91.105 = Outboard and PWC useful life (1998-2009) 40 CFR 1045.103 = Outboard and PWC exhaust emission standards (2010+) 40 CFR 1045.105 = Sterndrive/Inboard exhaust emission standards 40 CFR 1045.107 = Not-to-exceed exhaust emission standards (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emissionstandards-reference-guide/nonroad-engines-and-vehicles-emission-standards) The numerical emission standards for hydrocarbons (HC) must be met based on the following types of HC emissions for engines powered by the following fuels: (1) total hydrocarbon equivalent for alcohol; (2) non-methane hydrocarbon for natural gas; and (3) total hydrocarbons for other fuels. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–36 Table 12.27 (continued) Marine Spark-Ignition Engines and Vessels – Exhaust Emission Standards P stands for the maximum engine power in kilowatts. Manufacturers may generate or use emission credits for averaging, but not for banking or trading. d Useful life and warranty period are expressed hours or years of operation (unless otherwise indicated), whichever comes first. e The test procedure for federal standards uses the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 8178 E4 5-Mode Steady-State Test Cycle. f Also applies to model year (MY) 1997 engine families certified pursuant to 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 91.205. g Not-to-exceed emission standards specified in 40 CFR 1045.107 also apply. h A longer useful life in terms of hours must be specified for the engine family if the average service life is longer than the minimum value as described in 40 CFR 1045.103(e)(3). i The useful life may not be shorter than: (1) 150 hours of operation; (2) the recommended overhaul interval; or (3) the engine's mechanical warranty. A longer useful life must be specified in terms of hours if the average service life is longer than the minimum value as described in 40 CFR 1045.105(e)(3). b c TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–37 These standards apply to land-based recreational vehicles, such as snowmobiles, dirt bikes, all-terrain vehicles and go-karts. Table 12.28 Nonroad Recreational Engines and Vehicles – Exhaust Emission Standards Vehicle Snowmobilesc Federal Phase Year 1d 2006+ 2 20102011 3e 2012+ HCa g/kW-hr 100 [ABT] 75 [ABT] 150 f [ABT] HC + NOx g/km - g/kW-hr 275 [ABT] 275 [ABT] 400 f [ABT] CO g/km Minimum useful life (hours/years/km)b - 400 / 5 / 8,000 - Off-highway motorcyclesg 1d 2006+ - 2.0h, i [ABT] - 25h, i [ABT] ATVsg 1d 2006+ - 1.5j, k [ABT] - 35k [ABT] > 70 cc Displacement: - / 5 / 10,000 ≤ 70 cc Displacement: - / 5 / 5,000 ≥ 100 cc Displacement: 1000 / 5 / 10,000 < 100 cc Displacement: 500 / 5 / 5,000 Source: 40 CFR 1051.101-115 = Emission standards (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standards-referenceguide/nonroad-engines-and-vehicles-emission-standards) The numerical emission standards for hydrocarbons (HC) must be met based on the following types of hydrocarbon emissions for recreational engines and vehicles powered by the following fuels: (1) non-methane hydrocarbons for natural gas; (2) total hydrocarbon equivalent for alcohol; and (3) total hydrocarbons for other fuels. b Useful life is expressed in hours, years, or kilometers, whichever comes first; warranty period is expressed in hours, months, or kilometers (km), whichever comes first. Nonroad recreational engines and vehicles must meet emission standards over their full useful life. A longer useful life in terms of km and hours must be specified for the engine family if the average service life is longer than the minimum value as described in 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1051 Subpart B. c Test procedures for snowmobiles use the equipment and procedures for spark-ignition engines in 40 CFR Part 1065. d Phase 1 standards will be phased in: 50 percent by 2006, 100 percent by 2007. e Litigation on the November 2002 final rule resulted in a court decision that requires EPA to clarify the evidence and analysis upon which the Phase 3 carbon monoxide (CO) and HC standards were based. EPA will address this in a future rulemaking. f These are the maximum allowable family emission limits (FEL). The HC and CO standards are defined by a functional relationship as described in 40 CFR 1051.103(a)(2). g For off-highway motorcycles and ATVs, chassis dynamometer emissions test procedures are specified in 40 CFR Part 86, Subpart F and engine dynamometer emissions test procedures are specified in 40 CFR Part 1065. h Maximum allowable FEL: 20.0 grams per kilometer (g/km) for HC plus nitrogen oxides (NOx) and 50 g/km for CO. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–38 Table 12.28 (continued) Nonroad Recreational Engines and Vehicles – Exhaust Emission Standards Manufacturers may certify off-highway motorcycles with engines that have total displacement of 70 cubic centimeters (cc) or less to an HC+NOx standard of 16.1 grams per kilowatt-hour (g/kW-hr) (with an FEL cap of 32.2 g/kW-hr) and a CO standard of 519 g/kW-hr. j Maximum allowable FEL for HC+NOx is 20.0 g/km. k Manufacturers may certify all-terrain vehicles with engines that have total displacement of less than 100 cc to an HC+NOx standard of 25.0 g/kW-hr (with an FEL cap of 40.0 g/kW-hr) and a CO standard of 500 g/kW-hr. i TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–39 The latest standards were established by the Environmental Protection Agency in conjunction with the Tier 3 emission standards. Table 12.29 Gasoline Sulfur Standards Federal Regulated entity Large refiners / importersa GPA refiners d, e Small refiners f, g, h Downstream standards i, j Refinery average and per-gallon cap by year (ppm) 2005 2006 2007 2008-2016 2017-2019 2004 120b / 300c 30 / 90b / 300 2020 30 / 80 30 / 80 30 / 80 10 / 80 10 / 80 150 / 300c 150 / 300 150 / 300 30 / 80 30 / 80 30 / 80 10 / 80 k k k k 30 / 80 30 / 80 10 / 80 378 326 95 95 95 95 95 Source: 40 CFR 80 Subpart H (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide/fuel-sulfurstandards) Standards effective January 1 at the refinery gate. No Refinery Average Standard applies in 2004; Corporate Average Standard applies in 2004 (120 ppm) and 2005 (90 ppm). c Cap exceedances up to 50 ppm in 2004 must be made up in 2005. d Geographic Phase-in Area (GPA) refiners must also comply with the corporate average standards in 2004 and 2005 if less than 50% of the refiner's gasoline is designated as GPA gasoline in a given compliance period. e GPA refiners may receive an additional two years (i.e., through 2008) to comply with the 30 / 80 ppm gasoline sulfur standards in exchange for producing 95% of their highway diesel fuel at the 15 ppm sulfur standard by June 1, 2006. f Small refiners may receive an additional two years (i.e., through 2009) to comply with the 30 / 80 ppm gasoline sulfur standards via a hardship demonstration. g Small refiners may receive an additional three years (i.e., through 2010) to comply with the 30 / 80 ppm gasoline sulfur standards in exchange for producing 95% of their highway diesel fuel at the 15 ppm sulfur standard by June 1, 2006. h Small refiners may receive a 20% increase in their annual average and per-gallon cap standards in exchange for producing 95% of their highway, nonroad, locomotive, and marine diesel fuel at the 15 ppm sulfur standard by June 1, 2006. i Downstream standards are effective February 1 at any downstream location other than at a retail outlet or wholesale purchaser-consumer (e.g., pipelines and terminals) and March 1 at any downstream location. j Downstream standards for gasoline that is not blended with small refiner gasoline are shown. Refer to the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) for the downstream standards that apply when a gasoline blend includes small refiner gasoline. a b k 1997-98 Refinery baseline sulfur level (ppm) 0 to 30 31 to 200 201 to 400 401 to 600 601 and above Small refiner interim gasoline sulfur standards (ppm) 2004 - 2007 Average Cap 30 300 baseline level 300 200 300 50% of baseline 1.5 x avg. standard 300 450 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 12–40 Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel is necessary for new advanced emission control technologies. It also reduces particulate matter in the existing fleet of nonroad engines and equipment. Table 12.30 Highway, Nonroad, Locomotive, and Marine (NRLM) Diesel Fuel Sulfur Standards Regulated entity Large refiners & importers Small refiners Federal Large refiners & importers Small refiners Transmix processor & in-use Covered fuel 2006a Highway Highway NR LM NRLM with creditse NRLMf NRe LMe - Per-gallon maximum sulfur level by year (ppm) 2007b 2008 2009 2010c,d 2011 2012 80% 15 20% 500 15 500 500 500 500 15 15 15 500 500 500 500 500 15 2013 2014 15 15 15 15 - HS HS HS 500 500 500 500 15 - HS HS HS HS HS HS HS HS HS 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 15 15 500 Source: 40 CFR 80 Subpart I (Additional resources: www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide/fuel-sulfurstandards) For highway diesel fuel, standards are effective June 1 for refiners/importers, September 1 for pipelines and terminals, and October 15 for retailers and wholesale purchaser-consumers. Anti-downgrading provisions effective October 16, 2006. b For Nonroad, Locomotive, and Marine (NRLM) diesel fuel, standards are effective June 1 for refiners; downstream requirements apply for Northeast/Mid-Atlantic area only (August 1 for terminals, October 1 for retailers and wholesale purchaser-consumers, and December 1 for in-use). c For highway diesel fuel, standards are effective June 1 for refiners/importers, October 1 for pipelines and terminals, and December 1 for retailers and wholesale purchaser-consumers. d For NRLM diesel fuel, standards are effective June 1 for refiners, August 1 for terminals, October 1 for retailers and wholesale purchaser-consumers, and December 1 for in-use. e Excluding the Northeast and Alaska. f Excluding the Northeast, with approval in Alaska. a TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–1 SOURCES & METHODOLOGIES TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–2 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–3 SOURCES & METHODOLOGIES This appendix contains documentation of the estimation procedures used by ORNL. The reader can examine the methodology behind the estimates and form an opinion as to their utility. The appendix is arranged by subject heading. Only tables which contain ORNL estimations are documented in Appendix A; all other tables have sources listed at the bottom of the table. Since abbreviations are used throughout the appendix, a list of abbreviations is also included. Contents of Appendix A 1. List of Abbreviations Used in Appendix A .......................................................................... A–4 2. Energy Use Sources .............................................................................................................. A–5 2.1 Highway energy use .....................................................................................................A–5 2.2 Off-highway energy use ............................................................................................. A–14 2.3 Nonhighway energy use ............................................................................................. A–14 2.4 Calculation of Million Barrels per Day Crude Oil Equivalent .................................. A–23 3. Passenger Travel and Energy Use.......................................................................................A–24 4. Highway Passenger Mode Energy Intensities.....................................................................A–28 5. Nonhighway Mode Energy Intensities................................................................................ A–32 6. Freight Mode Energy Intensities .........................................................................................A–34 7. Car/Light Truck Shares .......................................................................................................A–35 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–4 1. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED IN APPENDIX A AAR Association of American Railroads APTA American Public Transportation Association Amtrak National Railroad Passenger Corporation BTS Bureau of Transportation Statistics Btu British thermal unit CD Compact Disc CNG Compressed Natural Gas CO2 Carbon Dioxide CPI Consumer Price Index CY Calendar Year DOE Department of Energy DOT Department of Transportation EIA Energy Information Administration EPA Environmental Protection Agency FAA Federal Aviation Administration FHWA Federal Highway Administration IRS Internal Revenue Service gal Gallons kWhr Kilowatt hour L Liter lb Pound lng Liquefied Natural Gas lpg Liquefied Petroleum Gas mpg Miles per Gallon NHTS National Household Travel Survey NPTS Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey NVPP National Vehicle Population Profile ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory RTECS Residential Transportation Energy Consumption Survey SCF Standard Cubic Feet TIUS Truck Inventory and Use Survey VIUS Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey vmt vehicle-miles traveled TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–5 2. ENERGY USE SOURCES 2.1 HIGHWAY ENERGY USE 2.1.1 Cars Fuel use in gallons (1970-2008) – DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2008, Table VM-1 and annual editions back to 1996; DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics Summary to 1995. Fuel use in gallons (2009 – 2016) – See Section 7. Appendix A Car and Light Truck Shares. Fuel type distribution for gallons – Fuel use was distributed among fuel types using the percentages shown in Table A.1. The FHWA discontinued gasohol data in 2005. Therefore, data from EIA, Alternatives to Traditional Transportation Fuels, 2006-2011, Table C1 were used through 2013. From 2014-on, author estimates were used, with knowledge of how the Renewable Fuels Standard affects the gasoline/gasohol mix. Electricity use (2010-2016) – Estimates derived using cumulative electric vehicle (EV) and plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) sales as a proxy for vehicle population; sales-weighted vehicle efficiencies from the U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s vehicle database on www.fueleconomy.gov; and annual miles traveled from varying PHEV utility factors and EV usage assumptions. Methodology documented in an Argonne National Laboratory report Impacts of Electrification of Light-Duty Vehicles in the United States, 20102017, January 2018, www.ipd.anl.gov/anlpubs/2018/01/141595.pdf. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–6 Table A.1 Car Fuel Use and Fuel Type Shares for Calculation of Energy Use Year 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Fuel use (million gallons) 67,820 71,346 75,937 78,233 74,229 74,140 78,297 79,060 80,652 76,588 69,981 69,112 69,116 70,322 70,663 71,518 73,174 73,308 73,345 73,913 69,568 64,318 65,436 67,047 67,874 68,072 69,221 69,892 71,695 73,283 73,065 73,559 75,471 74,590 75,402 77,418 75,009 74,377 a 71,497 66,587 62,245 59,646 57,899 57,290 56,420 55,212 54,248 Source for gasohol shares FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 Author estimates Author estimates Author estimates Heat content used for conversion to btu: a b Source for gasoline/diesel shares 1984 NVPP interpolated interpolated interpolated interpolated interpolated interpolated interpolated interpolated 1979 RTECS interpolated 1981 RTECS interpolated 1983 RTECS interpolated 1985 RTECS interpolated interpolated 1988 RTECS interpolated interpolated 1991 RTECS interpolated interpolated 1994 RTECS interpolated interpolated interpolated interpolated interpolated 2000 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP 2001 NVPP Gasoline 99.8% 99.2% 98.7% 98.1% 97.5% 97.0% 96.4% 95.8% 95.3% 94.7% 93.9% 93.4% 93.5% 93.2% 92.7% 90.8% 91.0% 92.4% 91.4% 92.6% 92.0% 90.8% 90.8% 89.7% 89.1% 87.6% 88.8% 86.9% 88.0% 88.3% 86.9% 86.5% 83.9% 75.3% 67.2% 66.9% 78.2% 72.9% 61.8% 55.8% 49.5% 48.7% 48.7% 49.0% 24.5% 14.5% 4.5% 125,000 btu/gallon Shares by fuel typeb Gasohol Diesel 0.0% 0.2% 0.0% 0.8% 0.0% 1.3% 0.0% 1.9% 0.0% 2.5% 0.0% 3.0% 0.0% 3.6% 0.0% 4.2% 0.0% 4.7% 0.0% 5.3% 0.5% 5.6% 0.7% 5.9% 2.3% 4.2% 4.3% 2.5% 5.3% 2.0% 7.7% 1.5% 7.6% 1.4% 6.3% 1.3% 7.4% 1.2% 6.2% 1.2% 6.8% 1.2% 8.0% 1.2% 7.9% 1.2% 9.1% 1.3% 9.6% 1.3% 11.2% 1.2% 10.1% 1.0% 12.2% 0.9% 11.2% 0.8% 11.0% 0.6% 12.6% 0.5% 13.0% 0.5% 15.6% 0.5% 24.2% 0.5% 32.3% 0.5% 32.6% 0.5% 21.3% 0.5% 26.6% 0.5% 37.7% 0.5% 43.7% 0.5% 50.0% 0.5% 50.8% 0.5% 50.8% 0.5% 50.5% 0.5% 75.0% 0.5% 85.0% 0.5% 95.0% 0.5% 120,900 138,700 btu/gallon btu/gallon Data are not continuous between 2008 and 2009 due to changes in source. Percentages may not sum due to rounding. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–7 2.1.2 Motorcycles DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, Table VM-1, and annual editions. The FHWA made methodology changes for Highway Statistics 2009-10. At that time, they published historical data back to 2007 which do not match the previous data. Table A.2 Motorcycle Fuel Use Fuel use Year (thousand gallons) Year 1970 59,580 1994 1971 72,140 1995 1972 86,620 1996 1973 103,880 1997 1974 108,900 1998 1975 112,580 1999 1976 120,060 2000 1977 126,980 2001 1978 143,160 2002 1979 172,740 2003 1980 204,280 2004 1981 213,800 2005 1982 198,200 2006 1983 175,200 2007 1984 175,680 2008 1985 181,720 2009 1986 187,940 2010 1987 190,120 2011 1988 200,480 2012 1989 207,420 2013 1990 191,140 2014 1991 183,560 2015 1992 191,140 2016 1993 198,120 Heat content used for conversion to btu: Fuel use (thousand gallons) 204,800 198,262 195,940 201,620 205,660 211,680 209,380 192,780 191,040 190,780 202,447 189,495 221,030 474,923 489,417 482,290 426,732 426,378 491,130 467,716 458,628 447,879 465,802 a 125,000 btu/gallon a Data are not continuous between 2006 and 2007 due to changes in estimation methodology. See source document for details. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–8 2.1.3 Buses Transit APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2018. Includes motorbus and trolley bus data. Data for 2016 were generated from the National Transit Database. Table A.3 Transit Bus Fuel Use Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Heat content used for conversion to btu: 6.3 6.2 7.6 6.4 CNG (million gallons) 3.1 10.0 11.5 20.0 32.6 39.9 50.4 60.9 77.8 94.9 106.7 117.2 138.8 129.1 135.5 141.6 126.2 131.1 127.3 134.9 146.0 158.9 161.3 Gasoline (million gallons) 2.1 2.3 1.8 2.7 2.0 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.8 1.0 2.3 2.5 3.8 6.7 8.1 8.9 12.5 12.9 11.7 11.1 8.3 Diesel fuel (million gallons) 565.1 563.8 577.7 597.6 606.6 618.0 635.2 587.2 559.0 536.0 550.5 533.8 536.7 494.1 493.3 455.5 435.4 455.1 439.0 427.5 413.6 415.0 390.0 Electricity (thousand kilowatt hours) 102.9 100.0 69.0 78.0 74.0 75.0 77.0 74.0 73.0 69.0 68.0 67.0 62.0 61.0 62.2 69.5 66.0 61.0 61.0 63.0 64.0 62.0 79.5 91,300 btu/gallon 138,700 btu/gallon 125,000 btu/gallon 138,700 btu/gallon 3,412 btu/kWhr LNG (million gallons) 1.1 1.7 2.3 3.3 3.1 5.3 10.5 11.7 16.8 14.2 16.5 18.3 19.6 18.3 17.9 25.5 23.0 21.6 19.6 17.6 15.4 11.3 10.7 LPG (million gallons) 0.2 0.3 0.6 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 1.2 1.8 1.8 1.7 2.0 1.6 84,800 btu/gallon a a a a a a Note: CNG is reported in diesel-gallon equivalents. a Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 Biodiesel (million gallons) 20.5 25.8 41.8 40.6 43.5 51.1 56.6 66.2 38.1 34.9 39.8 Methanol (million gallons) 12.5 12.0 11.6 8.7 5.0 2.7 0.8 0.8 1.8 1.9 4.7 8.1 0.9 1.3 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.9 0.0 126,200 btu/gallon 64,600 btu/gallon a a a a a a a a a a a a A–9 Intercity and School Eno Transportation Foundation, Transportation in America, 2001, Nineteenth Edition, 2003, Washington, DC, pp. 20–23. School bus fuel was assumed to be 90% diesel fuel and 10% gasoline based on estimates from the National Association of State Directors of Pupil Transportation Services. Intercity bus fuel was assumed to be 100% diesel. Table A.4 Intercity and School Bus Fuel Use Year 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Fuel type shares Heat content used for conversion to btu: Intercity (million gallons) 305.34 181.02 213.78 205.38 227.22 237.30 169.26 165.48 148.68 155.82 160.44 166.74 159.60 160.44 157.08 171.36 195.30 195.30 199.92 212.52 220.08 241.08 233.10 217.35* 210.22* 208.32* 208.87* 214.37* 208.32* 214.37* 218.48* 224.58* 214.95* 215.53* 230.42* 236.76* 249.75* 253.35* 255.23* 100% diesel 138,700 btu/gallon School (million gallons) 299.88 341.88 379.68 386.82 398.58 400.68 375.06 425.04 462.42 487.20 511.14 498.12 472.08 533.40 546.00 533.40 546.00 545.16 545.16 544.74 550.20 555.66 577.08 538.08* 520.44* 515.72* 517.09* 530.70* 515.72* 530.70* 540.89* 556.00* 532.15* 533.58* 570.45* 586.14* 618.29* 627.22* 631.86* 90% diesel 10% gasoline 138,700 btu/gallon 125,000 btu/gallon *Estimated using the rate of change of bus vehicle-miles traveled from FHWA Highway Statistics, Table VM-1. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–10 2.1.4 Trucks Light Trucks Fuel use in gallons (1970-2007) – DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2008, Table VM-1 and annual editions back to 1996 and DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics Summary to 1995. Fuel use in gallons (2008 – 2016) – See Section 7. Appendix A Car and Light Truck Shares. Fuel type distribution for gallons – Fuel use was distributed among fuel types using the percentages shown in Table A.1. The FHWA discontinued gasohol data in 2005. Therefore, data from EIA, Alternatives to Traditional Transportation Fuels, 2006-2011, Table C1 were used through 2013. From 2014-on, author estimates were used, with knowledge of how the Renewable Fuels Standard affects the gasoline/gasohol mix. Electricity use (2010-2016) – Estimates derived using cumulative electric vehicle (EV) and plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) sales as a proxy for vehicle population; sales-weighted vehicle efficiencies from the U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s vehicle database on www.fueleconomy.gov; and annual miles traveled from varying PHEV utility factors and EV usage assumptions. Methodology documented in an Argonne National Laboratory report Impacts of Electrification of Light-Duty Vehicles in the United States, 20102017, January 2018, www.ipd.anl.gov/anlpubs/2018/01/141595.pdf. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–11 Table A.5 Light Truck Fuel Use and Fuel Type Shares for Calculation of Energy Use Year 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Fuel use (million gallons) 12,313 19,081 20,828 22,383 24,162 24,445 23,796 23,697 22,702 23,945 25,604 27,363 29,074 30,598 32,653 33,271 35,611 38,217 40,929 42,851 44,112 45,605 47,354 49,388 50,462 52,859 52,939 53,522 55,220 60,758 63,417 58,869 60,685 61,836 61,199 61,824 64,687 65,786 66,395 65,555 69,012 70,933 73,107 Source for gasohol shares a FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e FHWA, MF-33e EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 EIA, C1 Author estimates Author estimates Author estimates Source for gasoline/diesel /lpg shares 1977 TIUS 1977 TIUS 1977 TIUS 1977 TIUS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1982 TIUS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1987 TIUS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1992 TIUS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1997 VIUS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS Heat content used for conversion to btu: a Shares by fuel type Gasoline 97.6% 97.6% 97.6% 97.6% 97.1% 96.7% 95.7% 95.1% 93.0% 91.0% 90.0% 87.6% 87.7% 89.0% 88.2% 89.5% 89.2% 88.1% 88.5% 87.3% 86.8% 85.1% 86.2% 84.2% 85.0% 84.9% 83.1% 82.4% 79.6% 71.0% 62.9% 62.6% 73.9% 68.6% 57.5% 51.5% 45.2% 44.4% 44.4% 44.7% 25.2% 15.2% 5.2% 125,000 btu/gallon Gasohol 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.5% 0.7% 2.3% 4.3% 5.3% 7.7% 7.6% 6.3% 7.4% 6.2% 6.8% 8.0% 7.9% 9.1% 9.6% 11.2% 10.1% 12.2% 11.2% 11.0% 12.6% 13.0% 15.6% 24.2% 32.3% 32.6% 21.3% 26.6% 37.7% 43.7% 50.0% 50.8% 50.8% 50.5% 70.0% 80.0% 90.0% 120,900 btu/gallon Data are not continuous between 2008 and 2009 due to changes in source. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 Diesel 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 2.0% 2.4% 2.7% 3.1% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.4% 3.4% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.5% 3.6% 3.8% 3.9% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 138,700 btu/gallon Lpg 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% 1.0% 1.0% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.0% 0.8% 0.7% 0.5% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4% 0.6% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 90,800 btu/gallon A–12 Medium/Heavy Trucks DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, Table VM-1 and annual editions back to 1996 and DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics Summary to 1995. The FHWA made methodology changes for Highway Statistics 2009. At that time, they published historical data back to 2007 which do not match the previous data. Total gallons for medium/heavy trucks are the sum of single-unit trucks and combination trucks. Table A.6 Medium/Heavy Truck Fuel Use and Fuel Type Shares for Calculation of Energy Use Year 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Fuel use (million gallons) 11,316 14,598 19,960 20,376 20,386 20,761 21,428 21,405 21,861 22,513 22,925 23,512 24,490 24,981 25,453 26,236 27,685 28,828 29,601 29,878 30,841 33,909 35,229 35,179 36,800 35,775 33,150 37,190 37,959 47,218 47,705 44,303 45,024 42,396 42,351 43,297 44,012 43,734 44,893 a Heat content used for conversion to btu: a Source for fuel type shares 1977 TIUS 1977 TIUS Interpolated Interpolated 1982 TIUS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1987 TIUS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1992 TIUS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1997 VIUS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS 2002 VIUS Gasoline 10.4% 10.4% 27.9% 33.8% 39.6% 35.6% 31.5% 27.5% 23.4% 19.4% 18.8% 18.1% 17.5% 16.8% 16.2% 15.4% 14.7% 13.9% 13.2% 12.4% 12.1% 11.8% 11.6% 11.3% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0% 125,000 btu/gallon Shares by fuel type Diesel 89.5% 89.5% 71.4% 65.4% 59.4% 63.6% 67.8% 72.0% 76.2% 80.4% 81.0% 81.6% 82.1% 82.7% 83.3% 84.1% 84.8% 85.6% 86.3% 87.1% 87.4% 87.6% 87.9% 88.1% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 88.4% 138,700 btu/gallon Lpg 0.1% 0.1% 0.6% 0.8% 1.0% 0.8% 0.7% 0.5% 0.4% 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 90,800 btu/gallon Data are not continuous between 2006 and 2007 due to changes in methodology. See source for details. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–13 Shares of Class 3-6 and 7-8 energy use by fuel type were calculated from the 2002 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey (VIUS) and applied to all years 1970-2016. Table A.7 Share of Medium and Heavy Truck Energy Use Fuel type Gasoline Diesel LPG Share of energy use Class 3-6 Class 7-8 92% 8% 14% 86% 99% 1% Total 100% 100% 100% TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–14 2.2 OFF-HIGHWAY ENERGY USE U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, MOVES2014a model, results generated September 2018. Gallons of fuel by fuel type were produced for agricultural equipment, airport equipment, construction and mining equipment, industrial equipment, lawn and garden equipment, logging equipment, railroad maintenance equipment, and recreational equipment. Some nontransportation-related equipment, such as generators, chain saws, compressors, and pumps, were excluded from the data. 2.3 NONHIGHWAY ENERGY USE 2.3.1 Air General Aviation DOT, FAA, General Aviation and Part 135 Activity Surveys - CY 2016, Table 5.1, and annual. 2011 Data: Aviation Forecasts, Tables 28 and 29, May 2013. Table A.8 General Aviation Fuel Use Year 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Heat content used for conversion to btu: Jet fuel (million gallons) 208.0 226.0 245.0 304.0 357.0 453.0 495.0 536.0 763.0 736.0 766.0 759.0 887.0 613.0 738.9 691.0 732.1 672.7 746.0 688.0 662.0 579.0 496.0 454.1 135,000 btu/gallon Aviation gasoline (million gallons) 551.0 508.0 584.0 411.0 443.0 412.0 432.0 456.0 518.0 570.0 520.0 489.0 448.0 428.0 462.4 421.0 408.6 401.8 398.0 342.8 353.0 348.0 306.0 268.4 120,200 btu/gallon Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Jet fuel (million gallons) 470.8 544.0 567.5 639.4 814.6 967.2 998.1 938.7 815.5 820.0 1,075.2 1,507.4 1,636.3 1,516.3 1,688.6 1,350.6 1,451.5 1,490.7 1,492.1 1,353.6 1,454.1 1,384.4 1,445.7 Aviation gasoline (million gallons) 264.1 276.0 286.5 289.7 311.4 345.4 336.3 319.3 261.4 255.5 256.1 323.6 294.7 314.8 306.3 226.6 210.3 215.5 227.7 173.3 205.8 183.2 187.8 135,000 btu/gallon 120,200 btu/gallon TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–15 Domestic and International Air Carrier DOT, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, "Fuel Cost and Consumption Tables," www.transtats.bts.gov/fuel. The table below shows all international fuel use. Because the data for international include fuel purchased abroad, for the tables in Chapter 2, the international total was divided in half to estimate domestic fuel use for international flights. Table A.9 Air Carrier Fuel Use Year 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Heat content used for conversion to btu: Domestic International (thousand gallons) (thousand gallons) Separate estimates for domestic and international are not available from 1970-1976. 8,202,051 1,708,376 8,446,117 1,741,918 8,865,885 1,828,435 8,519,233 1,747,306 8,555,249 2,032,520 8,432,465 1,967,733 8,672,574 1,998,289 9,625,958 2,286,407 10,115,007 2,487,929 11,137,331 2,544,996 11,586,838 2,893,617 11,917,904 3,262,824 11,905,144 3,557,294 12,429,305 3,963,081 11,506,477 3,939,666 11,762,852 4,120,132 11,958,663 4,113,321 12,475,549 4,310,879 12,811,717 4,511,418 13,187,305 4,658,093 13,659,581 4,964,181 13,876,971 5,185,562 14,402,127 5,250,492 14,844,592 5,474,685 14,017,461 5,237,487 12,848,329 4,990,798 12,958,581 4,836,356 13,622,603 4,931,546 13,778,869 5,520,889 13,694,437 6,017,638 13,681,664 6,204,502 12,666,911 6,186,747 11,339,220 5,721,298 11,256,900 6,041,500 11,035,400 6,522,600 10,439,700 6,506,300 10,337,000 6,487,300 10,458,600 6,321,400 10,928,600 6,420,600 11,373,600 6,294,800 135,000 135,000 btu/gallon btu/gallon Total (thousand gallons) 10,085,000 10,412,640 10,400,040 9,910,427 10,188,035 10,694,320 10,266,539 10,587,769 10,400,198 10,670,863 11,912,365 12,602,936 13,682,327 14,480,455 15,180,728 15,462,438 16,392,386 15,446,144 15,882,983 16,071,984 16,786,428 17,323,135 17,845,398 18,623,762 19,062,533 19,652,619 20,319,277 19,254,948 17,839,127 17,794,936 18,554,149 19,309,758 19,712,075 19,886,165 18,853,658 17,060,517 17,288,400 17,558,000 16,946,000 16,824,300 16,780,000 17,349,200 17,668,400 135,000 btu/gallon TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–16 2.3.2 Water Freight Total – DOE, EIA, Petroleum and Other Liquids Database, September 2018. Adjusted sales of distillate and residual fuel oil for vessel bunkering. (This may include some amounts of bunker fuels used for recreational purposes.) Table A.10 Diesel and Residual Fuel Oil for Vessel Bunkering Year 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Heat content used for conversion to btu: Domestic share of total fuel use Distillate fuel oil (thousand gallons) 819,000 1,097,880 717,376 1,723,143 1,423,216 1,418,890 1,692,045 1,894,265 2,034,215 2,223,258 2,310,367 2,356,444 2,197,004 2,167,640 2,240,170 2,043,745 2,026,899 1,978,105 2,177,608 2,107,561 2,125,568 2,064,590 2,041,433 2,099,011 2,056,465 1,863,150 2,313,448 2,115,381 2,206,690 2,158,930 1,980,729 2,138,690 2,427,051 2,651,859 1,842,107 1,655,258 1,626,527 2,415,253 2,014,796 138,700 btu/gallon Residual fuel oil (thousand gallons) 3,774,120 4,060,140 7,454,242 7,922,512 6,408,818 5,724,115 5,688,931 5,269,733 5,690,250 5,869,154 6,025,511 6,621,100 6,248,095 6,786,055 7,199,078 6,269,882 5,944,383 6,431,238 5,804,977 4,789,861 4,640,153 5,598,630 6,192,294 4,345,284 4,783,956 3,801,425 4,886,978 5,533,552 6,000,434 6,773,950 6,274,047 5,331,657 6,032,367 5,207,886 4,560,546 3,876,795 2,987,363 3,103,402 4,192,719 149,700 btu/gallon 77.5% 9.3% TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–17 Recreational Boating Fuel use by recreational boating comes from the EPA’s MOVES2014a model. Table A.11 Recreational Boating Fuel Use Year 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Heat content used for conversion to btu: Diesel use (gallons) 39,589,953 77,294,680 84,835,632 92,376,573 99,917,523 107,458,470 114,999,421 122,540,357 130,081,302 137,622,248 145,163,202 152,704,140 160,245,074 167,786,030 175,326,970 182,867,916 190,408,869 197,949,808 205,490,749 213,031,707 220,572,649 228,113,596 235,654,521 243,195,481 250,736,414 258,159,525 265,582,657 273,547,835 281,512,965 289,478,093 297,443,197 305,408,463 313,420,594 321,432,801 329,445,068 337,457,287 345,469,668 353,434,754 361,399,927 369,365,038 377,330,139 385,295,170 393,283,994 138,700 btu/gallon Gasoline use (gallons) 1,213,397,311 1,251,387,972 1,258,986,070 1,266,584,111 1,274,182,341 1,281,780,460 1,289,378,532 1,296,976,672 1,304,574,832 1,312,172,890 1,319,771,007 1,327,369,146 1,334,967,322 1,342,565,455 1,362,856,034 1,383,146,636 1,403,437,194 1,429,688,292 1,455,939,504 1,482,190,597 1,539,794,180 1,597,269,921 1,654,446,069 1,657,737,628 1,659,056,085 1,657,198,161 1,652,906,973 1,655,303,922 1,653,583,696 1,648,070,959 1,639,713,127 1,629,873,278 1,619,603,593 1,609,567,873 1,599,830,522 1,590,749,216 1,578,405,558 1,566,937,275 1,557,381,573 1,550,075,141 1,544,411,821 1,540,441,668 1,537,808,210 125,000 btu/gallon TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–18 2.3.3 Pipeline The sum of natural gas, crude petroleum and petroleum product, and coal slurry and water. Natural Gas The amount of natural gas used to transport natural gas was defined as "pipeline fuel" as reported in DOE, EIA, Natural Gas Annual 2016, Table 1. Cubic feet were converted to Btu using 1,031 Btu/ft3. Electricity use was estimated using the following procedure as reported on p. 5-110 of J. N. Hooker et al., End Use Energy Consumption DataBase: Transportation Sector. The energy consumption of a natural gas pipeline was taken to be the energy content of the fuel used to drive the pumps. Some 94% of the installed pumping horsepower was supplied by natural gas. The remaining 6% of the horsepower was generated more efficiently, mostly by electric motors. The energy consumed by natural gas pipeline pumps that were electrically powered was not known. In order to estimate the electricity consumed, the Btu of natural gas pipeline fuel consumed was multiplied by a factor of 0.015. Crude Petroleum and Petroleum Product J. N. Hooker, Oil Pipeline Energy Consumption and Efficiency, ORNL-5697, ORNL, Oak Ridge, TN, 1981. (Data held constant; Latest available data.) Coal Slurry and Water W. F. Banks, Systems, Science and Software, Energy Consumption in the Pipeline Industry, LaJolla, CA, October 1977. (Data held constant; Latest available data.) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–19 Table A.12 Pipeline Fuel Use Year 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Heat content used for conversion to btu: Natural gas (million cubic feet) 722,166 582,963 548,323 532,669 530,451 600,964 634,622 642,325 596,411 490,042 528,754 503,766 485,041 519,170 613,912 629,308 659,816 601,305 587,710 624,308 685,362 700,335 711,446 751,470 635,477 645,319 642,210 624,964 666,920 591,492 566,187 584,026 584,213 621,364 647,956 670,174 674,124 687,784 730,790 833,061 700,150 678,183 697,432 1,031 btu/cubic foot Estimated natural gas pipeline electricity use (million kWhr) 3,272.9 2,642.0 2,485.0 2,414.1 2,404.0 2,723.6 2,876.1 2,911.0 2,703.0 2,220.9 2,396.3 2,283.1 2,198.2 2,352.9 2,782.3 2,852.0 2,990.3 2,725.1 2,663.5 2,829.4 3,106.1 3,173.9 3,224.3 3,405.7 2,880.0 2,924.6 2,910.5 2,832.3 3,022.5 2,680.7 2,566.0 2,646.8 2,647.7 2,816.0 2,936.6 3,037.2 3,055.1 3,117.0 3,312.0 3,775.4 3,173.1 3,073.5 3,160.8 3,412 Btu/kWhr Electricity constant (trillion btu) 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 Note: Formula for estimating electricity use for natural gas pipelines is: Natural gas use (in million cubic ft) × 1,031 btu/cubic ft × 0.015 × 29.305 ×10-5 kWhr/btu. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–20 2.3.4 Rail Freight AAR, Railroad Facts, 2017 Edition, Washington, DC, 2017. Table A.13 Class I Freight Railroad Fuel Use Year 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Heat content used for conversion to btu: Diesel fuel (thousand gallons) 3,807,663 3,822,907 3,996,985 4,160,730 4,175,375 3,736,484 3,895,542 3,985,069 3,968,007 4,072,187 3,955,996 3,756,439 3,178,116 3,137,295 3,388,173 3,144,190 3,039,069 3,102,227 3,182,267 3,190,815 3,134,446 2,925,970 3,022,108 3,111,981 3,355,802 3,503,096 3,600,649 3,602,793 3,619,341 3,749,428 3,720,107 3,729,985 3,751,413 3,849,229 4,082,236 4,119,879 4,214,459 4,087,405 3,911,178 3,220,059 3,519,021 3,710,485 3,634,025 3,712,582 3,897,113 3,723,491 3,418,577 138,700 Btu/gallon TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–21 Passenger Commuter - APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2018. Data for 2016 are directly from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, National Transit Database. Table A.14 Commuter Rail Fuel Use Year 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Heat content used for conversion to btu: Diesel (thousand gallons) 58,320 55,372 54,608 51,594 53,054 52,516 52,681 54,315 54,951 59,766 61,900 63,064 61,888 63,195 69,200 73,005 70,818 72,204 72,847 72,264 71,999 76,714 78,600 80,700 83,500 95,000 93,200 93,900 92,800 98,700 93,900 97,400 100,532 138,700 Btu/gallon Electricity (million kWhr) 901 1,043 1,170 1,155 1,195 1,293 1,226 1,239 1,124 1,196 1,244 1,253 1,255 1,270 1,299 1,322 1,370 1,354 1,334 1,383 1,449 1,484 1,478 1,763 1,718 1,780 1,797 1,813 1,808 1,816 1,809 1,792 1,764 3,412 Btu/kWhr TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–22 Transit – APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2018. Includes light rail and heavy rail. Data for 2016 are directly from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, National Transit Database. Table A.15 Transit Rail Fuel Use Year 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Heat content used for conversion to btu: Electricity (million kWhr) Heavy rail Total 2,561 2,646 Light rail and heavy rail data are 2,576 not available separately from 2,303 1970 to 1985. 2,223 2,473 2,446 2,655 2,722 2,930 3,092 2,928 173 3,066 3,239 191 3,219 3,410 243 3,256 3,499 242 3,286 3,528 239 3,284 3,523 274 3,248 3,522 297 3,193 3,490 281 3,287 3,568 282 3,431 3,713 288 3,401 3,689 321 3,322 3,643 363 3,253 3,616 382 3,280 3,662 416 3,385 3,801 563 3,549 4,112 587 3,646 4,233 510 3,683 4,193 507 3,632 4,138 553 3,684 4,237 571 3,769 4,339 634 3,709 4,343 687 3,817 4,505 721 3,898 4,619 738 3,866 4,624 749 3,780 4,529 789 3,854 4,643 806 3,795 4,601 882 3,856 4,738 985 3,812 4,797 898 3,816 4,713 907 3,760 4,667 3,412 3,412 3,412 Btu/kWhr Btu/kWhr Btu/kWhr Light rail TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–23 Intercity – Personal communication with Amtrak, Washington, DC, 2018. Table A.16 Intercity Rail Fuel Use Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Heat content used for conversion to Btu Diesel fuel (thousand gallons) 73,516 72,371 71,226 75,656 75,999 79,173 94,968 96,846 84,432 74,621 68,605 65,477 62,463 61,824 63,428 61,704 63,474 63,450 63,058 66,036 65,711 62,468 60,212 138,700 Btu/gallon Electricity (thousand kWhr) 308,948 335,818 362,689 389,559 416,429 443,300 470,170 455,703 518,306 536,950 550,695 531,377 548,856 577,864 582,022 564,968 558,662 555,425 549,201 525,127 515,332 504,017 515,711 3,412 Btu/kWhr 2.4 CALCULATION OF MILLION BARRELS PER DAY CRUDE OIL EQUIVALENT One gallon of gasoline, diesel fuel, or lpg is estimated to be the equivalent of one gallon of crude oil. Petroleum used for electricity was calculated using the following formula: ({[(BTU*S)/G ]/P }/365)/1000 BTU S = = G P = = Btus of electricity Share of petroleum used in making primary electricity (Calculated from Table 2.6 from the EIA, Monthly Energy Review) Electricity generation and distribution (assumed 29%) Btus per barrel of petroleum product (Table A3 from the EIA, Monthly Energy Review). TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–24 3. PASSENGER TRAVEL AND ENERGY USE 3.1 CARS Number of vehicles – DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, Table MV-1 and annual editions back to 2009. From 1970-2008, Table VM-1 was used. Vehicle-miles – See Appendix A, Section 7. Car and Light Truck Shares. Passenger-miles – Vehicle-miles multiplied by an average load factor. Load factor – 2017 NHTS shows car load factor as 1.54 persons per vehicle. Energy intensities – Btu per vehicle-mile – Car energy use divided by vehicle-miles. Btu per passenger-mile – Car energy use divided by passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 2.9. 3.2 LIGHT TRUCKS Number of vehicles – DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, Table MV-9 and annual editions back to 2009. From 1970-2008, Table VM-1 was used. Columns for pickups, vans, sport utility vehicles, and other light trucks. Data were multiplied by the shares of light trucks which are for personal use (Table A.17) which were derived by ORNL from the 2002 VIUS Micro Data File on CD. Vehicle-miles – See Appendix A, Section 7. Car and Light Truck Shares. Data were multiplied by the shares of vehicle miles which are for personal use (Table A.17) which were derived by ORNL from the 2002 VIUS Micro Data File on CD. Passenger-miles – Vehicle-miles multiplied by an average load factor. Load factor – 2017 NHTS shows personal light truck load factor as 1.82 persons per vehicle. Energy intensities Btu per vehicle-mile – Personal light truck energy use divided by personal light truck vehicle-miles. Btu per passenger-mile – Personal light truck energy use divided by personal light truck passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources (light trucks, medium/heavy trucks). Data by truck type were multiplied by the shares of truck fuel use which are for personal use (Table A.17) which were derived by ORNL from the 2002 VIUS Micro Data File on CD. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–25 Table A.17 Share of Trucks, Truck Travel, and Fuel Use for Personal Travel Personal trucks 85.6% 26.9% Personal truck travel 80.9% 13.1% Personal truck fuel use 78.0% 6.0% 2-axle, 4-tire trucks Other single-unit and combination trucks 2-axle, 4-tire trucks Other single-unit and combination trucks 2-axle, 4-tire trucks Other single-unit and combination trucks Note: Since these shares come from the 2002 VIUS, they may underestimate the amount of personal trucks, truck travel, and energy use for 2016. 3.3 MOTORCYCLES Number of vehicles, vehicle-miles – DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, Table VM-1. Passenger-miles – Vehicle-miles multiplied by an average load factor. Load factor – 2017 NHTS shows motorcycle load factor as 1.20 persons per vehicle. Energy intensities – Btu per vehicle-mile – Motorcycle energy use divided by vehicle-miles. Btu per passenger-mile – Motorcycle energy use divided by passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 2.9. 3.4 DEMAND RESPONSE Number of vehicles, vehicle-miles, passenger-miles – APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2018. Load factor – Passenger-miles divided by vehicle-miles. Energy intensities – Btu per vehicle-mile – Energy use divided by vehicle-miles. Btu per passenger-mile – Energy use divided by passenger-miles. Energy use – APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2018. Note that all Demand Response data are for 2015. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–26 3.5 BUSES 3.5.1 Transit Number of vehicles, vehicle-miles, passenger-miles – APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2016. Data series shown on Table 7.9. Data for 2016 are directly from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, National Transit Database. Load factor – Passenger-miles divided by vehicle-miles. Energy intensities – Btu per vehicle-mile – Transit bus energy use divided by transit bus vehicle-miles. Btu per passenger-mile – Transit bus energy use divided by transit bus passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 7.9. 3.5.2 Intercity Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Because the data past 2000 are not available, the rate of change in bus VMT from FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, was used to estimate the change in energy use. 3.5.3 School Number of vehicles – DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, Table MV-10. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Because the data past 2000 are not available, the rate of change in bus VMT from FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, was used to estimate the change in energy use. 3.6 AIR 3.6.1 Certificated Air Carriers Aircraft-miles, passenger-miles – DOT, BTS, U.S. Air Traffic Statistics Through December 2017, www.transtats.bts.gov, Washington, DC. Load factor – Passenger-miles divided by aircraft-miles. Energy intensities – Btu per passenger-mile – Certificated air carrier energy use divided by passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. All of domestic fuel use and half of international fuel use was considered to be domestic use. Note: These data differ from the data in Table 9.2 because that table contains data on ALL domestic AND international air carrier energy use and passenger-miles. 3.6.2 General Aviation Number of vehicles – DOT, FAA, General Aviation and Air Taxi Activity Surveys - CY 2016. 2011 Data: Aviation Forecasts, Tables 28 and 29, May 2013. Data series shown in Table 9.3. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–27 Energy intensities – Btu per passenger-mile – General aviation energy use divided by passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 9.3. 3.7 RECREATIONAL BOATING Number of vehicles and energy use – U.S. EPA’s MOVES2014a model. 3.8 RAIL 3.8.1 Intercity Number of vehicles, vehicle-miles, passenger-miles – AAR, Railroad Facts, 2017 Edition, Washington, DC, 2017. Load factor – Passenger-miles divided by vehicle-miles. Energy Intensities – Btu per vehicle-mile – Intercity rail energy use divided by vehicle-miles. Btu per passenger-mile – Intercity rail energy use divided by passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 9.10. 3.8.2 Transit Number of vehicles, vehicle-miles, passenger-miles – APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2017. Sum of light and heavy rail transit. Data series shown on Table 9.12. Data for 2016 are directly from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, National Transit Database. Load factor – Passenger-miles divided by vehicle-miles. Energy intensities – Btu per vehicle-mile – Light and heavy transit rail energy use divided by vehicle-miles. Btu per passenger-mile – Light and heavy transit rail energy use divided by passengermiles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 9.12. 3.8.3 Commuter Number of vehicles, vehicle-miles, passenger-miles – APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2017. Data series shown on Table 9.11. Data for 2016 are directly from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, National Transit Database. Load factor – Passenger-miles divided by vehicle-miles. Energy intensities – Btu per vehicle-mile – Commuter rail energy use divided by vehicle-miles. Btu per passenger-mile – Commuter rail energy use divided by passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 9.11. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–28 4. HIGHWAY PASSENGER MODE ENERGY INTENSITIES 4.1 CARS Btu per vehicle-mile – Car energy use divided by car vehicle miles of travel. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 2.9. Vehicle-miles – 1970-2008: DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2009, Table VM-1 and annual editions back to 1996 and DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics Summary to 1995. Data series shown in Table 4.1. 2009-2016: See Appendix A, Section 7. Car and Light Truck Shares. Btu per passenger-mile – Car energy use divided by car passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 2.9. Passenger miles – Vehicle miles multiplied by an average load factor. Vehicle-miles – 1970-2008: DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2009, Table VM-1 and annual editions back to 1996 and DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics Summary to 1995. Data series shown in Table 4.1. 2009-2015: See Appendix A, Section 7. Car and Light Truck Shares. Load factor – NPTS 1969, 1977, 1983/84, 1990, and 1995; NHTS 2001, 2009, and 2017. Data series shown in Table A.18. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–29 Table A.18 Car Load Factor used to Calculate Passenger-Miles Year 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Source 1969 NPTS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1977 NPTS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1983/84 NPTS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1990 NPTS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1995 NPTS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2017 NHTS Load Factor 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.88 1.87 1.85 1.83 1.82 1.80 1.77 1.74 1.71 1.69 1.66 1.63 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.59 1.59 1.58 1.58 1.57 1.57 1.57 1.57 1.57 1.57 1.57 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.54 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–30 4.2 LIGHT TRUCKS Btu per vehicle-mile – Light truck energy use divided by light truck vehicle miles of travel. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 2.9. Vehicle-miles – 1970-2008: DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2008, Table VM-1 and annual editions back to 1996 and DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics Summary to 1995. Data series shown in Table 4.2. 2009-2016: See Appendix A, Section 7. Car and Light Truck Shares. Table A.19 Light Truck Load Factor used to Calculate Passenger-Miles Year 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Source 1969 NPTS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1977 NPTS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1983/84 NPTS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1990 NPTS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 1995 NPTS Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated Interpolated 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2001 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2009 NHTS 2017 NHTS Load Factor 1.90 1.89 1.87 1.86 1.84 1.83 1.81 1.80 1.81 1.83 1.84 1.86 1.87 1.90 1.87 1.84 1.81 1.79 1.76 1.73 1.70 1.68 1.66 1.64 1.62 1.60 1.62 1.64 1.66 1.68 1.70 1.72 1.72 1.72 1.72 1.72 1.72 1.72 1.84 1.84 1.84 1.84 1.84 1.84 1.84 1.84 1.82 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–31 Btu per passenger-mile – Light truck energy use divided by light trucks passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 2.9. Passenger miles – Vehicle miles multiplied by an average load factor. Vehicle-miles – 1970-2008: DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2009, Table VM-1 and annual editions back to 1996 and DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics Summary to 1995. Data series shown in Table 4.2. 2009-2015: See Appendix A, Section 7. Car and Light Truck Shares. Load factor – NPTS 1969, 1977, 1983/84, 1990, and 1995; NHTS 2001, 2009, and 2017. Data series shown in Table A.19. 4.3 Buses 4.3.1 Transit Btu per vehicle-mile – Transit bus energy use divided by transit bus vehicle-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 7.9. Vehicle-miles – APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2018. Data series shown on Table 7.9. Data for 2016 are directly from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, National Transit Database. Btu per passenger-mile – Transit bus energy use divided by transit bus passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 7.9. Passenger-miles – APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2016. Data series shown on Table 7.9. Data for 2016 are directly from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, National Transit Database. 4.3.2 Intercity Btu per passenger-mile – Data are not available. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Because the data past 2000 are not available, the rate of change in bus VMT from FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, was used to estimate the change in energy use. Passenger-miles – Data are not available. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–32 5. NONHIGHWAY MODE ENERGY INTENSITIES 5.1 AIR 5.1.1 Certificated Air Carriers Btu per passenger-mile – Certificated air carrier energy use divided by passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. All of domestic fuel use and half of international fuel use was considered to be domestic use. Passenger-miles – DOT, BTS, Air Carrier Traffic Statistics, Washington, DC, www.transtats.bts.gov. Pre-1994 data are from various editions of the FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation (no longer published). Scheduled service passenger-miles of domestic air carriers and half of international air carriers were used to coincide with fuel use. Note: These data differ from the data in Table 9.2 because that table contains data on ALL domestic AND international air carrier energy use and passenger-miles. 5.1.2 General Aviation Btu per passenger-mile – Data are not available. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 9.3. Passenger-miles – Data are not available. 5.2 RAIL 5.2.1 Intercity Btu per passenger-mile – Intercity rail energy use divided by passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 9.10. Passenger-miles – AAR, Railroad Facts, 2017 Edition, and previous annual editions. 5.2.2 Transit Btu per passenger-mile – Transit rail energy use divided by passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 9.12. Passenger-miles – APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2017. Data series shown on Table 9.12. Data for 2016 are directly from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, National Transit Database. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–33 5.2.3 Commuter Btu per passenger-mile – Commuter rail energy use divided by passenger-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 9.11. Passenger-miles – APTA, 2017 Public Transportation Fact Book, Washington, DC, 2018. Data series shown on Table 9.11. Data for 2016 are directly from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, National Transit Database. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–34 6. FREIGHT MODE ENERGY INTENSITIES 6.1 TRUCK Btu per vehicle-mile – Heavy single-unit and combination truck energy use divided by vehicle miles Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources (medium/heavy trucks). Vehicle-miles – DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, Table VM-1 and annual editions back to 1996 and DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics Summary to 1995. Data series is the total of vehicle travel data on Tables 5.1 and 5.2. 6.2 RAIL Btu per freight car-mile – Class I rail energy use divided by freight car-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 9.8. Freight car miles – AAR, Railroad Facts, 2017 Edition, Washington, DC, 2017. Data series shown in Table 9.8. Btu per ton-mile – Class I rail energy use divided by ton-miles. Energy use – See Section 2. Energy Use Sources. Data series shown in Table 9.8. Ton-miles – AAR, Railroad Facts, 2017 Edition, Washington, DC, 2017. Data series shown in Table 9.8. 6.3 WATER Btu per ton-mile – Domestic waterborne commerce energy use on taxable waterways divided by ton-miles on taxable waterways. Energy use – Modeled by Chrisman A. Dager, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, using Waterborne Commerce Statistics Center detail records and annual IRS reports on the Inland Waterway Trust Fund tax on diesel fuel used on the inland waterway. Note: These data are not available for 2015 or 2016. Ton-miles – Based on detailed records from the U.S. Department of the Army, Army Corps of Engineers, Waterborne Commerce Statistics Center. Includes only ton-miles on taxable waterways. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–35 7. CAR AND LIGHT TRUCK SHARES In 2011, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) changed the methodology for producing the data on the VM-1 Table in the annual Highway Statistics publication. Historically, VM-1 included individual categories for passenger cars and 2-axle, 4-tire trucks. VM-1 included the vehicle miles of travel (VMT), registrations, fuel use, and fuel economy of passenger cars and 2axle, 4-tire trucks. After the methodology change, the categories of light vehicles on VM-1 changed to Light-Duty Vehicles with Short wheelbase (less than or equal to 121 inches) and Light-Duty Vehicles with Long Wheelbase (over 121 inches). As some passenger cars have long wheelbases and some 2-axle, 4-tire trucks have short wheelbases, the categories of cars and 2axle, 4-tire trucks are no longer available. Despite these changes, there are many transportation analysts who require information on cars and 2-axle, 4-tire trucks. Thus, a new methodology to estimate the data in these categories was developed for years 2009 through 2016. 7.1 CARS Registrations – DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, Table MV-1 and annual editions back to 2009. Vehicle travel – Total for all light vehicles – DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, Table VM-1 and annual editions back to 2009; sum of light-duty short wheelbase and light-duty long wheelbase VMT. Cars – Using historical shares of passenger cars/2-axle, 4-tire trucks from the Highway Statistics, the percent of light vehicle travel attributable to cars was estimated for 20092016, keeping in mind the economic conditions present in those years and the general trend in total light vehicle VMT. The estimated share was applied to total VMT as shown in Table A.20. Table A.20 Estimated Car VMT Year 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Total Light Vehicle VMT (billions) 2,633.3 2,648.5 2,650.5 2,664.1 2,677.8 2,710.6 2,779.7 2,849.7 Share Attributable to Cars 59.5% 56.5% 55.0% 54.0% 54.0% 53.0% 52.0% 51.0% Total Car VMT (billions) 1,566.8 1,496.4 1,457.8 1,438.6 1,446.0 1,436.6 1,445.4 1,453.4 Miles per Vehicle – Vehicle travel divided by registrations. Fuel Use – Vehicle travel divided by fuel economy. Fuel Economy – DOE, EIA, Annual Energy Outlook 2018, January 2018 and annual editions back to 2012. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 A–36 7.2 2-AXLE, 4-TIRE TRUCKS Registrations – DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, Table MV-1 and annual editions back to 2009. Vehicle travel – Total for all light vehicles – DOT, FHWA, Highway Statistics 2016, Table VM-1 and annual editions back to 2009; sum of light-duty short wheelbase and light-duty long wheelbase VMT. 2-axle, 4-tire truck VMT – Using historical shares of passenger cars/2-axle, 4-tire trucks from the Highway Statistics, the percent of light vehicle travel attributable to cars was estimated for 2009-2016, keeping in mind the economic conditions present in those years and the general trend in total light vehicle VMT. The estimated share was applied to total VMT as shown in Table A.21. Table A.21 Estimated 2-axle, 4-tire Truck VMT Year 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Total Light Vehicle VMT (billions) 2,633.2 2,648.5 2,650.5 2,664.1 2,677.8 2,710.6 2,779.7 2,849.7 Share Attributable to 2-axle, 4-tire Trucks 40.5% 43.5% 45.0% 46.0% 46.0% 47.0% 48.0% 49.0% Total 2-axle, 4-tire Truck VMT (billions) 1,066.5 1,152.1 1,192.7 1,225.5 1,231.8 1,274.0 1,334.3 1,396.4 Miles per Vehicle – Vehicle travel divided by registrations. Fuel Use – Vehicle travel divided by fuel economy. Fuel Economy – DOE, EIA, Annual Energy Outlook 2018, January 2018 and annual editions back to 2012. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–1 CONVERSIONS TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–2 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–3 CONVERSIONS A Note about Heating Values The heat content of a fuel is the quantity of energy released by burning a unit amount of that fuel. However, this value is not absolute and can vary according to several factors. For example, empirical formulae for determining the heating value of liquid fuels depend on the fuels' American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity. The API gravity varies depending on the percent by weight of the chemical constituents and impurities in the fuel, both of which are affected by the combination of raw materials used to produce the fuel and by the type of manufacturing process. Temperature and climatic conditions are also factors. Because of these variations, the heating values in Table B.4 may differ from values in other publications. The figures in this report are representative or average values, not absolute ones. The gross (higher) heating values used here agree with those used by the Energy Information Administration (EIA). Heating values fall into two categories, usually referred to as “higher” (or gross) and “lower” (or net). If the products of fuel combustion are cooled back to the initial fuel-air or fueloxidizer mixture temperature and the water formed during combustion is condensed, the energy released by the process is the higher (gross) heating value. If the products of combustion are cooled to the initial fuel-air temperature, but the water is considered to remain as a vapor, the energy released by the process is the lower (net) heating value. Usually the difference between the gross and net heating values for fuels used in transportation is around 5 to 8 percent; however, it is important to be consistent in their use. The Transportation Energy Data Book has always used gross heating values for fuel conversion. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–4 Table B.1 Hydrogen Heat Content 1 kilogram hydrogen = Higher heating value Lower heating value 134,200 Btu 113,400 Btu 39.3 kWhr 33.2 kWhr 141,600 kJ 119,600 kJ 33,800 kCal 28,560 kCal Table B.2 Hydrogen Conversions Weight 1 lb 1 kg 1 SCF gas 1 Nm3 gas 1 gal liquid 1 L liquid Pounds (lb) 1.0 2.205 0.005209 0.19815 0.5906 0.15604 Gas Standard cubic feet (SCF) 192.00 423.3 1.0 38.04 113.41 29.99 Kilograms (kg) 0.4536 1.0 0.002363 0.08988 0.2679 0.07078 Normal cubic meter (Nm3) 5.047 11.126 0.02628 1.0 2.981 0.77881 Liquid Gallons (gal) 1.6928 3.733 0.00882 0.3355 1.0 0.2642 Liters (L) 6.408 14.128 0.0339 1.2699 3.785 1.0 Table B.3 Pressure Conversions Bar Atmosphere lb/in2 (or psi) Bar 1.0 1.013 0.0689 Atmosphere 0.987 1.0 0.0680 lb/in2 (or psi) 14.5 14.696 1.0 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–5 Table B.4 Heat Content for Various Fuels Conventional gasoline 125,000 Btu/gal (gross) = 115,400 Btu/gal (net) E10 120,900 Btu/gal (gross) = 112,400 Btu/gal (net) E15 119,000 Btu/gal (gross) = 109,400 Btu/gal (net) Hydrogen 134,200 Btu/kg (gross) = 113,400 Btu/kg (net) Low-sulfur diesel 138,700 Btu/gal (gross) = 128,700 Btu/gal (net) Biodiesel 126,200 Btu/gal (gross) = 117,100 Btu/gal (net) Methanol 64,600 Btu/gal (gross) = 56,600 Btu/gal (net) Ethanol 84,600 Btu/gal (gross) = 75,700 Btu/gal (net) E85 90,700 Btu/gal (gross) = 81,600 Btu/gal (net) Aviation gasoline 120,200 Btu/gal (gross) = 112,000 Btu/gal (net) Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 91,300 Btu/gal (gross) = 83,500 Btu/gal (net) Butane 103,000 Btu/gal (gross) = 93,000 Btu/gal (net) Jet fuel (naphtha) 127,500 Btu/gal (gross) = 118,700 Btu/gal (net) Jet fuel (kerosene) 135,000 Btu/gal (gross) = 128,100 Btu/gal (net) Lubricants 144,400 Btu/gal (gross) = 130,900 Btu/gal (net) Waxes 131,800 Btu/gal (gross) = 120,200 Btu/gal (net) Asphalt and road oil 158,000 Btu/gal (gross) = 157,700 Btu/gal (net) Liquefied natural gas (LNG) 23,700 Btu/lb (gross) = 20,900 Btu/lb (net) Compressed natural gas (CNG) 22,500 Btu/lb (gross) = 20,200 Btu/lb (net) Crude petroleum 138,100 Btu/gal (gross) = 131,800 Btu/gal (net) Fuel Oils Residual 149,700 Btu/gal (gross) = 138,400 Btu/gal (net) Distillate 138,700 Btu/gal (gross) = 131,800 Btu/gal (net) Production average 19.880 x 106 Btu/short ton Consumption average 19.499 x 106 Btu/short ton Coal Note: Heat content values are approximate. Data are rounded to the nearest hundred. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–6 Table B.5 Fuel Equivalents 1 million bbl crude oil/day = = = = = = 0.365 billion bbl crude oil/year 2.089 quadrillion Btu/year 107.110 million short tons coal/year 97.170 million metric tons coal/year 2.016 trillion ft3 natural gas/year 2,203 petajoules/year 1 billion bbl crude oil/year = = = = = = 2.740 million bbl crude oil/day 5.722 quadrillion Btu/year 293.451 million short tons coal/year 266.219 million metric tons coal/year 5.523 trillion ft3 natural gas/year 6,037 petajoules/year 1 quadrillion Btu/year = = = = = = = 8.000 billion gasoline gallon equivalents/year 0.479 million bbl crude oil/day 174.764 million bbl crude oil/year 51.285 million short tons coal/year 46.525 million metric tons coal/year 965.251 billion ft3 natural gas/year 1,055 petajoules/year 1 billion short tons coal/year = = = = = = 0.907 billion metric tons coal/year 9.336 million bbl crude oil/day 3.408 billion bbl crude oil/year 19.499 quadrillion Btu/year 18.821 trillion ft3 natural gas/year 20,572 petajoules/year 1 billion metric tons coal/year = = = = = = 1.102 billion short tons coal/year 8.470 million bbl crude oil/day 3.091 billion bbl crude oil/year 17.689 quadrillion btu/year 17.075 trillion ft3 natural gas/year 18,662 petajoules/year 1 trillion ft3 natural gas/year = = = = = = 0.496 million bbl crude oil/day 0.181 billion bbl crude oil/year 1.036 quadrillion Btu/year 53.131 million short tons coal/year 48.200 million metric tons coal/year 1,093 petajoules/year 1 petajoule/year = = = = = = 453.844 bbl crude oil/day 165.653 thousand bbl crude oil/year 0.948 trillion Btu/year 48.661 thousand short tons coal/year 44.100 thousand metric tons coal/year 0.915 billion ft3 natural gas/year TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–7 Table B.6 Energy Unit Conversions 1 Btu = = = = = = 778.2 ft-lb 107.6 kg-m 1055 J 39.30 x 10-5 hp-h 39.85 x 10-5 metric hp-h 29.31 x 10-5 kWhr 1 kWhr = = = = = = 3412 Btua 2.655 x 106 ft-lb 3.671 x 105 kg-m 3.600 x 106 J 1.341 hp-h 1.360 metric hp-h 1 kg-m = 92.95 x 10-4 Btu = 7.233 ft-lb = 9.806 J = 36.53 x 10-7 hp-h = 37.04 x 10-7 metric hp-h = 27.24 x 10-7 kWhr 1 Joule = = = = = = 94.78 x 10-5 Btu 0.7376 ft-lb 0.1020 kg-m 37.25 x 10-8 hp-h 37.77 x 10-8 metric hp-h 27.78 x 10-8 kWhr 1 hp-h = = = = = = 1 metric hp-h = = = = = = 2544 Btu 1.98 x 106 ft-lb 2.738 x 106 kgm 2.685 x 106 J 1.014 metric hp-h 0.7475 kWhr 2510 Btu 1.953 x 106 ft-lb 27.00 x 104 kg-m 2.648 x 106 J 0.9863 hp-h 0.7355 kWhr This figure does not take into account the fact that electricity generation and distribution efficiency is approximately 33%. If generation and distribution efficiency are taken into account, 1 kWhr = 10,339 Btu. a Table B.7 International Energy Conversions To: From: Petajoules Gigacalories Million metric tons of oil equivalent Million Btu Gigawatthours Gigacalories Million metric tons of oil equivalent Million Btu Gigawatthours 1 238.8 x 103 2.388 x 10-2 947.8 x 103 277.8 4.1868 x 10-6 1 10-7 3.968 1.163 x 10-3 41.868 107 1 3.968 x 107 11,630 1.0551 x 10-6 0.252 2.52 X 10-8 1 2.931 x 10-4 3.6 x 10-3 860 8.6 x 10-5 3412 1 Petajoules multiply by: TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–8 Table B.8 Distance and Velocity Conversions 1 in = 83.33 x 10-3 ft 1 ft = 12.0 in = 27.78 x 10 yd = 0.33 yd = 15.78 x 10-6 mile = 189.4 x 10-3 mile = 25.40 x 10-3 m = 0.3048 m = 0.2540 x 10 km = 0.3048 x 10-3 km -3 -6 1 mile = 63360 in 1 km = 39370 in = 5280 ft = 3281 ft = 1760 yd = 1093.6 yd = 1609 m = 0.6214 mile = 1.609 km = 1000 m 1 ft/sec = 0.3048 m/s = 0.6818 mph = 1.0972 km/h 1 m/sec = 3.281 ft/s = 2.237 mph = 3.600 km/h 1 km/h = 0.9114 ft/s = 0.2778 m/s = 0.6214 mph 1 mph = 1.467 ft/s = 0.4469 m/s = 1.609 km/h Table B.9 Alternative Measures of Greenhouse Gases 1 pound methane, measured in carbon units (CH4) = 1.333 pounds methane, measured at full molecular weight (CH4) 1 pound carbon dioxide, measured in carbon units (CO2-C) = 3.6667 pounds carbon dioxide, measured at full molecular weight (CO2) 1 pound carbon monoxide, measured in carbon units (CO-C) = 2.333 pounds carbon monoxide, measured at full molecular weight (CO) 1 pound nitrous oxide, measured in nitrogen units (N2O-N) = 1.571 pounds nitrous oxide, measured at full molecular weight (N2O) TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–9 Table B.10 Volume and Flow Rate Conversionsa A U.S. gallon of gasoline weighs 6.2 pounds 1 U.S. gal 1 imperial gal 1 U.S. gal/hr 1 liter/hr 1 bbl/hr a = 231 in3 1 liter = 61.02 in3 = 0.1337 ft3 = 3.531 x 10-2 ft3 = 3.785 liters = 0.2642 U.S. gal = 0.8327 imperial gal = 0.2200 imperial gal = 0.0238 bbl = 6.29 x 10-3 bbl = 0.003785 m3 = 0.001 m3 = 277.4 in3 1 bbl = 9702 in3 = 0.1605 ft3 = 5.615 ft3 = 4.546 liters = 158.97 liters = 1.201 U.S. gal = 42 U.S. gal = 0.0286 bbl = 34.97 imperial gal = 0.004546 m3 = 0.15898 m3 = 3.208 ft3/day = 1171 ft3/year = 90.85 liter/day = 33160 liter/year = 19.78 imperial gal/day = 7220 imperial gal/year = 0.5714 bbl/day = 208.57 bbl/year = 0.8476 ft3/day = 309.3 ft3/year = 6.340 U.S. gal/day = 2308 U.S. gal/year = 5.28 imperial gal/day = 1927 imperial gal/year = 0.1510 bbl/day = 55.10 bbl/year = 134.7 ft3/day = 49184 ft3/year = 1008 U.S. gal/day = 3.679 x 105 U.S. gal/year = 839.3 imperial gal/day = 3.063 x 105 imperial gal/year = 3816 liter/day = 1.393 x 106 liter/day The conversions for flow rates are identical to those for volume measures, if the time units are identical. Conversions to/from barrels (bbl) are based on barrels of petroleum. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–10 Table B.11 Power Conversions TO FROM Horsepower Kilowatts Metric horsepower Ft-lb per sec Kilocalories per sec Btu per sec Horsepower 1 0.7457 1.014 550 0.1781 0.7068 Kilowatts 1.341 1 1.360 737.6 0.239 0.9478 Metric horsepower 0.9863 0.7355 1 542.5 0.1757 0.6971 Ft-lb per sec 1.36 x 10-3 1.356 x 10-3 1.84 x 10-3 1 0.3238 x 10-3 1.285 x 10-3 Kilocalories per sec 5.615 4.184 5.692 3088 1 3.968 Btu per sec 1.415 1.055 1.434 778.2 0.2520 1 Table B.12 Mass Conversions TO FROM Pound Kilogram Short ton Long ton Metric ton Pound 1 0.4536 5.0 x 10-4 4.4643 x 10-4 4.5362 x 10-4 Kilogram 2.205 1 1.1023 x 10-3 9.8425 x 10-4 1.0 x 10-3 Short ton 2,000 907.2 1 0.8929 0.9072 Long ton 2,240 1,106 1.12 1 1.016 Metric ton 2,205 1,000 1.102 0.9842 1 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–11 Table B.13 Fuel Efficiency Conversions MPG Miles/liter Kilometers/L L/100 kilometers Grams of CO2 per milea Pounds of CO2 per milea 10 2.64 4.25 23.52 877.80 1.94 15 3.96 6.38 15.68 585.20 1.29 20 5.28 8.50 11.76 438.90 0.97 25 30 6.60 7.92 10.63 12.75 9.41 7.84 351.12 292.60 0.78 0.65 35 9.25 14.88 6.72 250.80 0.55 40 10.57 17.00 5.88 219.45 0.49 45 50 11.89 13.21 19.13 21.25 5.23 4.70 195.07 175.56 0.43 0.39 55 14.53 23.38 4.28 159.60 0.35 60 15.85 25.51 3.92 146.30 0.32 65 70 17.17 18.49 27.63 29.76 3.62 3.36 135.05 125.40 0.30 0.28 75 19.81 31.88 3.14 117.04 0.26 80 21.13 34.01 2.94 109.73 0.24 85 90 22.45 23.77 36.13 38.26 2.77 2.61 103.27 97.53 0.23 0.22 95 25.09 40.38 2.48 92.40 0.20 100 26.42 42.51 2.35 87.78 0.19 105 110 27.74 29.06 44.64 46.76 2.24 2.14 83.60 79.80 0.18 0.18 115 30.38 48.89 2.05 76.33 0.17 120 31.70 51.01 1.96 73.15 0.16 125 33.02 53.14 1.88 70.22 0.16 130 34.34 55.26 1.81 67.52 0.15 135 35.66 57.39 1.74 65.02 0.14 140 145 36.98 38.30 59.51 61.64 1.68 1.62 62.70 60.54 0.14 0.13 150 39.62 63.76 1.57 58.52 0.13 8,778/MPG 19.4/MPG Formula a MPG/3.785 MPG/[3.785/1.609] 235.24/MPG For gasoline-fueled vehicles. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–12 Table B.14 SI Prefixes and Their Values One million million millionth One thousand million millionth One million millionth One thousand millionth One millionth One thousandth One hundredth One tenth One Ten One hundred One thousand One million One billiona One trilliona One quadrilliona One quintilliona Value 10-18 10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 Prefix atto femto pico nano micro milli centi deci Symbol a f p n μ m c deca hecto kilo mega giga tera peta exa k M G T P E Care should be exercised in the use of this nomenclature, especially in foreign correspondence, as it is either unknown or carries a different value in other countries. A "billion," for example, signifies a value of 1012 in most other countries. a Table B.15 Metric Units and Abbreviations Quantity Energy Specific energy Specific energy consumption Energy consumption Energy economy Power Specific power Power density Speed Acceleration Range (distance) Weight Torque Volume Mass; payload Length; width Brake specific fuel consumption Fuel economy (heat engine) Unit name Joule Joule/kilogram Joule/kilogram•kilometer Joule/kilometer kilometer/kilojoule kilowatt Watt/kilogram Watt/meter3 kilometer/hour meter/second2 kilometer kilogram Newton•meter meter3 kilogram meter kilogram/Joule Liters/100 km Symbol J J/kg J/(kg•km) J/km km/kJ kW W/kg W/m3 km/h m/s2 km kg N•m m3 kg m kg/J L/100 km TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–13 Table B.16 Carbon Coefficients (Million metric tons carbon per quadrillion Btu) Energy Source Coal Natural gas Petroleum Fuel Type Carbon Coefficients Anthracite Bituminous Subbituminous Lignite Coke Coal (All types) 28.28 25.45 26.51 26.65 31.12 26.00 Natural Gas Flared natural gas Propane Butane Butane/Propane Mix 14.47 14.92 17.20 17.71 17.46 Gasoline Diesel fuel Jet Fuel Aviation Gas Kerosene Residual Heating Fuel Petroleum coke Asphalt and Road Oil Lubricants Petrochemical Feedstocks Special Naphthas (solvents) Waxes Other petroleum & miscellaneous 19.45 19.95 19.34 18.87 19.72 21.49 27.85 20.62 20.24 19.37 19.85 19.81 19.81 Note: Additional information: www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/co2_vol_mass.cfm TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–14 Conversion of Constant Dollar Values Many types of information in this data book are expressed in dollars. Generally, constant dollars are used–that is, dollars of a fixed value for a specific year, such as 2010 dollars. Converting current dollars to constant dollars, or converting constant dollars for one year to constant dollars for another year, requires conversion factors (Table B.17 and Table B.18). Table B.17 shows conversion factors for the Consumer Price Index inflation factors. Table B.18 shows conversion factors using the Gross National Product Implicit Price Deflator. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 B–15 Table B.17 Consumer Price Inflation (CPI) Index From: 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1970 1.000 0.958 0.928 0.874 0.787 0.721 0.682 0.640 0.595 0.534 0.471 0.427 0.402 0.390 0.373 0.361 0.354 0.342 0.328 0.313 0.297 0.285 0.277 0.269 0.262 0.255 0.247 0.242 0.238 0.233 0.225 0.219 0.216 0.211 0.205 0.199 0.192 0.187 0.180 0.181 0.178 0.172 0.169 0.167 0.164 0.164 0.162 0.158 1971 1.044 1.000 0.969 0.912 0.822 0.753 0.712 0.668 0.621 0.558 0.492 0.446 0.420 0.407 0.390 0.376 0.370 0.357 0.342 0.327 0.310 0.297 0.289 0.280 0.273 0.266 0.258 0.252 0.248 0.243 0.235 0.229 0.225 0.220 0.214 0.207 0.201 0.195 0.188 0.189 0.186 0.180 0.176 0.174 0.171 0.171 0.169 0.165 1972 1.077 1.032 1.000 0.941 0.848 0.777 0.735 0.690 0.641 0.576 0.507 0.460 0.433 0.420 0.402 0.388 0.381 0.368 0.353 0.337 0.320 0.307 0.298 0.289 0.282 0.274 0.266 0.260 0.256 0.251 0.243 0.236 0.232 0.227 0.221 0.214 0.207 0.202 0.194 0.195 0.192 0.186 0.182 0.179 0.177 0.176 0.174 0.171 1973 1.144 1.096 1.062 1.000 0.901 0.825 0.780 0.733 0.681 0.612 0.539 0.488 0.460 0.446 0.427 0.413 0.405 0.391 0.375 0.358 0.340 0.326 0.316 0.307 0.300 0.291 0.283 0.277 0.272 0.267 0.258 0.251 0.247 0.241 0.235 0.227 0.220 0.214 0.206 0.207 0.204 0.197 0.193 0.191 0.188 0.187 0.185 0.181 To: 1974 1.271 1.217 1.179 1.110 1.000 0.916 0.866 0.814 0.756 0.679 0.598 0.542 0.511 0.495 0.474 0.458 0.450 0.434 0.417 0.398 0.377 0.362 0.351 0.341 0.333 0.323 0.314 0.307 0.302 0.296 0.286 0.278 0.274 0.268 0.261 0.252 0.245 0.238 0.229 0.230 0.226 0.219 0.215 0.212 0.208 0.208 0.205 0.201 1975 1.387 1.328 1.287 1.212 1.091 1.000 0.946 0.888 0.825 0.741 0.653 0.592 0.558 0.540 0.518 0.500 0.491 0.474 0.455 0.434 0.412 0.395 0.383 0.372 0.363 0.353 0.343 0.335 0.330 0.323 0.312 0.304 0.299 0.292 0.285 0.275 0.267 0.259 0.250 0.251 0.247 0.239 0.234 0.231 0.227 0.227 0.224 0.219 1976 1.466 1.405 1.361 1.282 1.154 1.058 1.000 0.939 0.873 0.784 0.691 0.626 0.590 0.571 0.548 0.529 0.519 0.501 0.481 0.459 0.435 0.418 0.406 0.394 0.384 0.373 0.363 0.355 0.349 0.342 0.330 0.321 0.316 0.309 0.301 0.291 0.282 0.274 0.264 0.265 0.261 0.253 0.248 0.244 0.240 0.240 0.237 0.232 1977 1.562 1.496 1.450 1.365 1.229 1.126 1.065 1.000 0.929 0.835 0.735 0.667 0.628 0.608 0.583 0.563 0.553 0.533 0.512 0.489 0.464 0.445 0.432 0.419 0.409 0.398 0.386 0.378 0.372 0.364 0.352 0.342 0.337 0.329 0.321 0.310 0.301 0.292 0.281 0.282 0.278 0.269 0.264 0.260 0.256 0.256 0.252 0.247 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1978 1.680 1.610 1.560 1.468 1.323 1.212 1.146 1.076 1.000 0.898 0.791 0.717 0.676 0.655 0.628 0.606 0.595 0.574 0.551 0.526 0.499 0.479 0.465 0.451 0.440 0.428 0.416 0.406 0.400 0.391 0.379 0.368 0.362 0.354 0.345 0.334 0.323 0.314 0.303 0.304 0.299 0.290 0.284 0.280 0.275 0.275 0.272 0.266 1979 1.871 1.793 1.737 1.635 1.473 1.349 1.276 1.198 1.113 1.000 0.881 0.799 0.752 0.729 0.699 0.675 0.662 0.639 0.614 0.585 0.555 0.533 0.517 0.502 0.490 0.476 0.463 0.452 0.445 0.436 0.422 0.410 0.404 0.395 0.384 0.372 0.360 0.350 0.337 0.338 0.333 0.323 0.316 0.312 0.307 0.306 0.302 0.296 B–16 Table B.17 Consumer Price Inflation (CPI) Index (Continued) From: 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1980 2.124 2.035 1.971 1.856 1.671 1.532 1.448 1.360 1.264 1.135 1.000 0.906 0.854 0.827 0.793 0.766 0.752 0.725 0.697 0.665 0.630 0.605 0.587 0.570 0.556 0.541 0.525 0.513 0.506 0.495 0.479 0.465 0.458 0.448 0.436 0.422 0.409 0.397 0.383 0.384 0.378 0.366 0.359 0.354 0.348 0.348 0.343 0.336 1981 2.343 2.244 2.175 2.047 1.844 1.690 1.598 1.500 1.394 1.252 1.103 1.000 0.942 0.913 0.875 0.845 0.829 0.800 0.768 0.733 0.695 0.667 0.648 0.629 0.613 0.596 0.579 0.566 0.558 0.546 0.528 0.513 0.505 0.494 0.481 0.465 0.451 0.438 0.422 0.424 0.417 0.404 0.396 0.390 0.384 0.384 0.379 0.371 1982 2.487 2.383 2.309 2.173 1.957 1.794 1.696 1.592 1.480 1.329 1.171 1.062 1.000 0.969 0.929 0.897 0.880 0.849 0.816 0.778 0.738 0.709 0.688 0.668 0.651 0.633 0.615 0.601 0.592 0.579 0.560 0.545 0.536 0.524 0.511 0.494 0.479 0.465 0.448 0.450 0.443 0.429 0.420 0.414 0.408 0.407 0.402 0.394 1983 2.567 2.459 2.383 2.243 2.020 1.851 1.750 1.644 1.528 1.372 1.209 1.096 1.032 1.000 0.959 0.926 0.909 0.877 0.842 0.803 0.762 0.731 0.710 0.689 0.672 0.654 0.635 0.621 0.611 0.598 0.578 0.562 0.554 0.541 0.527 0.510 0.494 0.480 0.463 0.464 0.457 0.443 0.434 0.428 0.421 0.420 0.415 0.406 To: 1984 2.678 2.565 2.486 2.340 2.108 1.931 1.826 1.715 1.594 1.431 1.261 1.143 1.077 1.043 1.000 0.966 0.948 0.915 0.878 0.838 0.795 0.763 0.741 0.719 0.701 0.682 0.662 0.647 0.637 0.624 0.603 0.587 0.578 0.565 0.550 0.532 0.515 0.501 0.483 0.484 0.476 0.462 0.453 0.446 0.439 0.438 0.433 0.424 1985 2.773 2.657 2.574 2.423 2.183 2.000 1.891 1.776 1.650 1.482 1.306 1.184 1.115 1.080 1.036 1.000 0.982 0.947 0.910 0.868 0.823 0.790 0.767 0.745 0.726 0.706 0.686 0.670 0.660 0.646 0.625 0.608 0.598 0.585 0.570 0.551 0.534 0.519 0.500 0.502 0.493 0.478 0.469 0.462 0.455 0.454 0.448 0.439 1986 2.825 2.706 2.622 2.468 2.223 2.037 1.926 1.809 1.681 1.510 1.330 1.206 1.136 1.100 1.055 1.019 1.000 0.965 0.926 0.884 0.839 0.805 0.781 0.758 0.740 0.719 0.699 0.683 0.672 0.658 0.636 0.619 0.609 0.596 0.580 0.561 0.544 0.529 0.509 0.511 0.503 0.487 0.477 0.470 0.463 0.462 0.457 0.447 1987 2.928 2.805 2.718 2.559 2.304 2.112 1.996 1.875 1.742 1.565 1.379 1.250 1.177 1.141 1.093 1.056 1.036 1.000 0.960 0.916 0.869 0.834 0.810 0.786 0.767 0.745 0.724 0.708 0.697 0.682 0.660 0.641 0.631 0.617 0.601 0.582 0.563 0.548 0.528 0.530 0.521 0.505 0.495 0.488 0.480 0.479 0.473 0.463 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1988 3.049 2.921 2.830 2.664 2.400 2.199 2.079 1.952 1.814 1.629 1.436 1.301 1.226 1.188 1.139 1.099 1.079 1.041 1.000 0.954 0.905 0.869 0.843 0.819 0.798 0.776 0.754 0.737 0.726 0.710 0.687 0.668 0.658 0.643 0.626 0.606 0.587 0.571 0.549 0.551 0.543 0.526 0.515 0.508 0.500 0.499 0.493 0.483 1989 3.196 3.062 2.967 2.793 2.515 2.305 2.179 2.046 1.902 1.708 1.505 1.364 1.285 1.245 1.193 1.152 1.131 1.092 1.048 1.000 0.949 0.910 0.884 0.858 0.837 0.814 0.790 0.773 0.761 0.744 0.720 0.700 0.689 0.674 0.656 0.635 0.615 0.598 0.576 0.578 0.569 0.551 0.540 0.532 0.524 0.523 0.517 0.506 B–17 Table B.17 Consumer Price Inflation (CPI) Index (Continued) From: 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1990 3.369 3.227 3.127 2.944 2.651 2.429 2.297 2.157 2.005 1.800 1.586 1.438 1.354 1.312 1.258 1.215 1.193 1.151 1.105 1.054 1.000 0.960 0.932 0.904 0.882 0.858 0.833 0.814 0.802 0.785 0.759 0.738 0.727 0.710 0.692 0.669 0.648 0.630 0.607 0.609 0.599 0.581 0.569 0.561 0.552 0.551 0.545 0.533 1991 3.510 3.363 3.258 3.068 2.763 2.532 2.394 2.248 2.089 1.876 1.653 1.498 1.411 1.367 1.311 1.266 1.243 1.199 1.151 1.098 1.042 1.000 0.971 0.943 0.919 0.894 0.868 0.849 0.836 0.818 0.791 0.769 0.757 0.740 0.721 0.697 0.676 0.657 0.633 0.635 0.625 0.605 0.593 0.585 0.575 0.575 0.567 0.556 1992 3.616 3.464 3.356 3.160 2.846 2.608 2.466 2.315 2.152 1.933 1.703 1.543 1.454 1.409 1.350 1.304 1.280 1.235 1.186 1.131 1.073 1.030 1.000 0.971 0.947 0.921 0.894 0.874 0.861 0.842 0.815 0.792 0.780 0.763 0.743 0.718 0.696 0.677 0.652 0.654 0.643 0.624 0.611 0.602 0.593 0.592 0.585 0.572 1993 3.724 3.568 3.457 3.255 2.931 2.686 2.540 2.384 2.216 1.990 1.754 1.590 1.497 1.451 1.391 1.343 1.318 1.272 1.221 1.165 1.106 1.061 1.030 1.000 0.975 0.948 0.921 0.900 0.887 0.867 0.839 0.816 0.803 0.785 0.765 0.740 0.717 0.697 0.671 0.674 0.663 0.642 0.629 0.620 0.610 0.610 0.602 0.590 To: 1994 3.820 3.659 3.545 3.338 3.006 2.755 2.605 2.446 2.273 2.041 1.799 1.630 1.536 1.488 1.426 1.377 1.352 1.305 1.253 1.195 1.134 1.088 1.056 1.026 1.000 0.972 0.945 0.923 0.909 0.890 0.861 0.837 0.824 0.805 0.785 0.759 0.735 0.715 0.688 0.691 0.680 0.659 0.645 0.636 0.626 0.625 0.617 0.605 1995 3.928 3.763 3.646 3.432 3.091 2.833 2.678 2.515 2.337 2.099 1.850 1.677 1.579 1.530 1.467 1.416 1.391 1.342 1.288 1.229 1.166 1.119 1.086 1.055 1.028 1.000 0.971 0.950 0.935 0.915 0.885 0.861 0.847 0.828 0.807 0.780 0.756 0.735 0.708 0.710 0.699 0.678 0.664 0.654 0.644 0.643 0.635 0.622 1996 4.044 3.874 3.754 3.534 3.183 2.916 2.757 2.589 2.406 2.161 1.904 1.726 1.626 1.575 1.510 1.458 1.432 1.381 1.326 1.265 1.200 1.152 1.118 1.086 1.059 1.030 1.000 0.978 0.963 0.942 0.911 0.886 0.872 0.853 0.831 0.803 0.778 0.757 0.729 0.731 0.720 0.698 0.683 0.674 0.663 0.662 0.654 0.640 1997 4.137 3.963 3.840 3.615 3.256 2.983 2.821 2.649 2.462 2.211 1.948 1.766 1.663 1.611 1.545 1.492 1.464 1.413 1.357 1.294 1.228 1.178 1.144 1.111 1.083 1.053 1.023 1.000 0.985 0.963 0.932 0.906 0.892 0.872 0.850 0.822 0.796 0.774 0.745 0.748 0.736 0.714 0.699 0.689 0.678 0.677 0.669 0.655 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1998 4.201 4.025 3.900 3.671 3.306 3.030 2.865 2.690 2.500 2.245 1.978 1.793 1.689 1.637 1.569 1.515 1.487 1.435 1.378 1.315 1.247 1.197 1.162 1.128 1.100 1.070 1.039 1.016 1.000 0.978 0.947 0.920 0.906 0.886 0.863 0.835 0.809 0.786 0.757 0.760 0.748 0.725 0.710 0.700 0.689 0.688 0.679 0.665 1999 4.294 4.114 3.986 3.752 3.379 3.097 2.928 2.749 2.555 2.295 2.022 1.833 1.726 1.673 1.603 1.548 1.520 1.467 1.408 1.344 1.275 1.223 1.187 1.153 1.124 1.093 1.062 1.038 1.022 1.000 0.967 0.941 0.926 0.905 0.882 0.853 0.826 0.804 0.774 0.777 0.764 0.741 0.726 0.715 0.704 0.703 0.694 0.680 B–18 Table B.17 Consumer Price Inflation (CPI) Index (Continued) From: 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2000 4.438 4.252 4.120 3.878 3.493 3.201 3.026 2.842 2.641 2.372 2.090 1.894 1.784 1.729 1.657 1.600 1.571 1.516 1.456 1.389 1.318 1.264 1.227 1.192 1.162 1.130 1.098 1.073 1.056 1.034 1.000 0.972 0.957 0.936 0.912 0.882 0.854 0.831 0.800 0.803 0.790 0.766 0.750 0.739 0.727 0.727 0.717 0.703 2001 4.564 4.373 4.237 3.989 3.592 3.292 3.112 2.922 2.716 2.439 2.149 1.948 1.835 1.778 1.705 1.646 1.616 1.559 1.497 1.428 1.355 1.300 1.262 1.226 1.195 1.162 1.129 1.103 1.087 1.063 1.028 1.000 0.984 0.963 0.938 0.907 0.878 0.854 0.823 0.825 0.812 0.787 0.771 0.760 0.748 0.747 0.738 0.723 2002 4.637 4.442 4.304 4.052 3.649 3.344 3.162 2.969 2.759 2.478 2.183 1.979 1.864 1.806 1.731 1.672 1.641 1.584 1.521 1.451 1.376 1.321 1.282 1.245 1.214 1.180 1.147 1.121 1.104 1.080 1.045 1.016 1.000 0.978 0.952 0.921 0.892 0.868 0.836 0.839 0.825 0.800 0.784 0.772 0.760 0.759 0.750 0.734 2003 4.742 4.543 4.402 4.144 3.732 3.420 3.234 3.036 2.822 2.534 2.233 2.024 1.907 1.847 1.771 1.710 1.679 1.620 1.555 1.484 1.408 1.351 1.311 1.273 1.242 1.207 1.173 1.146 1.129 1.104 1.069 1.039 1.023 1.000 0.974 0.942 0.913 0.887 0.855 0.858 0.844 0.818 0.801 0.790 0.777 0.776 0.767 0.751 2004 4.869 4.664 4.519 4.255 3.832 3.511 3.320 3.117 2.897 2.602 2.292 2.078 1.958 1.897 1.818 1.756 1.724 1.663 1.597 1.523 1.445 1.387 1.346 1.307 1.275 1.240 1.204 1.177 1.159 1.134 1.097 1.067 1.050 1.027 1.000 0.967 0.937 0.911 0.877 0.881 0.866 0.840 0.823 0.811 0.798 0.797 0.787 0.771 To: 2005 5.034 4.822 4.672 4.399 3.961 3.630 3.432 3.223 2.995 2.690 2.370 2.149 2.024 1.961 1.880 1.815 1.782 1.719 1.651 1.575 1.494 1.434 1.392 1.352 1.318 1.281 1.245 1.217 1.198 1.172 1.134 1.103 1.086 1.061 1.034 1.000 0.969 0.942 0.907 0.910 0.896 0.868 0.851 0.838 0.825 0.824 0.814 0.797 2006 5.196 4.978 4.823 4.541 4.089 3.747 3.543 3.327 3.092 2.777 2.447 2.218 2.089 2.024 1.940 1.874 1.839 1.775 1.704 1.626 1.542 1.480 1.437 1.395 1.360 1.323 1.285 1.256 1.237 1.210 1.171 1.138 1.121 1.096 1.067 1.032 1.000 0.972 0.936 0.940 0.925 0.896 0.878 0.865 0.852 0.851 0.840 0.822 2007 5.344 5.120 4.960 4.670 4.206 3.854 3.644 3.421 3.180 2.856 2.516 2.281 2.149 2.082 1.996 1.927 1.892 1.825 1.753 1.672 1.586 1.522 1.478 1.435 1.399 1.360 1.321 1.292 1.272 1.245 1.204 1.171 1.153 1.127 1.098 1.062 1.028 1.000 0.963 0.966 0.951 0.922 0.903 0.890 0.876 0.875 0.864 0.846 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2008 5.549 5.316 5.151 4.849 4.367 4.002 3.784 3.553 3.302 2.966 2.613 2.369 2.231 2.162 2.072 2.001 1.964 1.895 1.820 1.736 1.647 1.581 1.535 1.490 1.453 1.413 1.372 1.341 1.321 1.292 1.250 1.216 1.197 1.170 1.140 1.102 1.068 1.038 1.000 1.004 0.987 0.957 0.938 0.924 0.909 0.908 0.897 0.878 2009 5.529 5.297 5.132 4.832 4.352 3.988 3.770 3.540 3.290 2.955 2.604 2.360 2.223 2.154 2.065 1.994 1.957 1.889 1.813 1.730 1.641 1.575 1.529 1.485 1.448 1.408 1.367 1.337 1.316 1.288 1.246 1.211 1.193 1.166 1.136 1.098 1.064 1.035 0.996 1.000 0.984 0.954 0.934 0.921 0.906 0.905 0.894 0.875 B–19 Table B.17 Consumer Price Inflation (CPI) Index (Continued) From: 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2010 5.620 5.384 5.217 4.911 4.423 4.053 3.832 3.598 3.344 3.004 2.646 2.399 2.260 2.189 2.099 2.027 1.990 1.920 1.843 1.759 1.668 1.601 1.554 1.509 1.471 1.431 1.390 1.359 1.338 1.309 1.266 1.231 1.212 1.185 1.154 1.117 1.082 1.052 1.013 1.016 1.000 0.969 0.950 0.936 0.921 0.920 0.909 0.890 2011 5.797 5.554 5.381 5.066 4.563 4.181 3.953 3.712 3.450 3.098 2.730 2.475 2.331 2.258 2.165 2.091 2.052 1.980 1.901 1.814 1.721 1.652 1.603 1.557 1.518 1.476 1.434 1.401 1.380 1.350 1.306 1.270 1.250 1.222 1.191 1.152 1.116 1.085 1.045 1.048 1.032 1.000 0.980 0.966 0.950 0.949 0.937 0.918 2012 5.917 5.669 5.493 5.171 4.657 4.268 4.035 3.789 3.521 3.162 2.786 2.526 2.379 2.305 2.210 2.134 2.095 2.021 1.941 1.852 1.757 1.686 1.636 1.589 1.549 1.507 1.463 1.430 1.409 1.378 1.333 1.296 1.276 1.248 1.215 1.176 1.139 1.107 1.066 1.070 1.053 1.021 1.000 0.986 0.970 0.969 0.957 0.937 2013 6.004 5.752 5.573 5.247 4.725 4.330 4.094 3.844 3.573 3.209 2.827 2.563 2.414 2.339 2.242 2.165 2.126 2.051 1.969 1.879 1.782 1.710 1.660 1.612 1.572 1.529 1.485 1.451 1.429 1.398 1.353 1.315 1.295 1.266 1.233 1.193 1.156 1.124 1.082 1.086 1.068 1.036 1.015 1.000 0.984 0.983 0.971 0.950 To: 2014 6.101 5.845 5.664 5.332 4.802 4.400 4.161 3.907 3.631 3.261 2.873 2.604 2.453 2.377 2.278 2.200 2.160 2.084 2.001 1.909 1.811 1.738 1.687 1.638 1.597 1.553 1.509 1.475 1.452 1.421 1.375 1.337 1.316 1.287 1.253 1.212 1.174 1.142 1.100 1.103 1.086 1.052 1.031 1.016 1.000 0.999 0.986 0.966 2015 6.109 5.852 5.670 5.338 4.808 4.406 4.166 3.911 3.635 3.265 2.876 2.607 2.456 2.380 2.281 2.203 2.163 2.086 2.004 1.911 1.813 1.740 1.689 1.640 1.599 1.555 1.511 1.477 1.454 1.423 1.376 1.338 1.317 1.288 1.255 1.214 1.176 1.143 1.101 1.105 1.087 1.054 1.032 1.017 1.001 1.000 0.988 0.967 2016 6.186 5.926 5.742 5.406 4.868 4.461 4.218 3.961 3.681 3.306 2.913 2.640 2.487 2.410 2.310 2.231 2.190 2.113 2.029 1.936 1.836 1.762 1.711 1.661 1.619 1.575 1.530 1.495 1.472 1.441 1.394 1.355 1.334 1.304 1.271 1.229 1.191 1.158 1.115 1.119 1.101 1.067 1.045 1.030 1.014 1.013 1.000 0.979 Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2017 6.318 6.052 5.864 5.521 4.972 4.556 4.308 4.045 3.760 3.376 2.975 2.697 2.540 2.461 2.359 2.278 2.236 2.158 2.072 1.977 1.875 1.800 1.747 1.696 1.654 1.608 1.562 1.527 1.504 1.471 1.423 1.384 1.363 1.332 1.298 1.255 1.216 1.182 1.138 1.143 1.124 1.090 1.068 1.052 1.035 1.034 1.021 1.000 B–20 Table B.18 Gross National Product Implicit Price Deflator From: 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1970 1.000 0.952 0.912 0.865 0.794 0.726 0.688 0.648 0.606 0.559 0.513 0.469 0.442 0.425 0.411 0.398 0.390 0.380 0.367 0.353 0.341 0.330 0.322 0.315 0.308 0.302 0.297 0.292 0.288 0.284 0.278 0.272 0.268 0.262 0.255 0.248 0.240 0.234 0.229 0.228 0.225 0.220 0.217 0.213 0.210 0.207 0.204 0.200 1971 1.051 1.000 0.958 0.909 0.834 0.763 0.723 0.681 0.636 0.588 0.539 0.493 0.464 0.447 0.431 0.418 0.410 0.399 0.386 0.371 0.358 0.346 0.339 0.331 0.324 0.317 0.312 0.306 0.303 0.299 0.292 0.286 0.281 0.276 0.268 0.260 0.252 0.246 0.241 0.239 0.236 0.232 0.228 0.224 0.220 0.217 0.214 0.211 1972 1.097 1.043 1.000 0.948 0.870 0.796 0.755 0.711 0.664 0.613 0.563 0.515 0.485 0.466 0.450 0.436 0.428 0.417 0.403 0.388 0.374 0.362 0.353 0.345 0.338 0.331 0.325 0.320 0.316 0.312 0.305 0.298 0.294 0.288 0.280 0.271 0.263 0.256 0.252 0.250 0.246 0.242 0.237 0.234 0.230 0.226 0.224 0.220 1973 1.156 1.100 1.055 1.000 0.918 0.840 0.796 0.749 0.700 0.647 0.593 0.543 0.511 0.492 0.475 0.460 0.451 0.440 0.425 0.409 0.394 0.381 0.373 0.364 0.357 0.349 0.343 0.337 0.334 0.329 0.322 0.314 0.310 0.303 0.295 0.286 0.278 0.270 0.265 0.263 0.260 0.255 0.250 0.247 0.243 0.239 0.236 0.232 1974 1.260 1.199 1.149 1.090 1.000 0.915 0.867 0.817 0.763 0.705 0.647 0.591 0.557 0.536 0.517 0.501 0.491 0.479 0.463 0.445 0.429 0.415 0.406 0.397 0.389 0.381 0.374 0.367 0.363 0.358 0.350 0.343 0.337 0.331 0.322 0.312 0.303 0.295 0.289 0.287 0.283 0.278 0.273 0.269 0.264 0.260 0.257 0.252 To: 1975 1.377 1.310 1.256 1.191 1.093 1.000 0.948 0.892 0.834 0.770 0.707 0.646 0.608 0.585 0.565 0.548 0.537 0.523 0.506 0.487 0.469 0.454 0.444 0.434 0.425 0.416 0.408 0.401 0.397 0.392 0.383 0.374 0.369 0.361 0.352 0.341 0.331 0.322 0.316 0.313 0.309 0.303 0.298 0.294 0.289 0.284 0.281 0.276 1976 1.453 1.382 1.325 1.256 1.153 1.055 1.000 0.942 0.880 0.813 0.745 0.682 0.642 0.617 0.596 0.578 0.566 0.552 0.533 0.513 0.495 0.479 0.468 0.457 0.448 0.439 0.431 0.424 0.419 0.413 0.404 0.395 0.389 0.381 0.371 0.360 0.349 0.340 0.333 0.331 0.326 0.320 0.315 0.310 0.305 0.300 0.296 0.291 1977 1.543 1.468 1.407 1.334 1.224 1.121 1.062 1.000 0.934 0.863 0.792 0.724 0.682 0.656 0.633 0.614 0.602 0.586 0.567 0.545 0.526 0.509 0.497 0.486 0.476 0.466 0.458 0.450 0.445 0.439 0.429 0.419 0.413 0.405 0.394 0.382 0.370 0.361 0.354 0.351 0.347 0.340 0.334 0.329 0.324 0.319 0.315 0.309 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1978 1.651 1.571 1.506 1.428 1.311 1.199 1.137 1.070 1.000 0.924 0.847 0.775 0.730 0.702 0.678 0.657 0.644 0.628 0.606 0.584 0.563 0.544 0.532 0.520 0.509 0.499 0.490 0.481 0.476 0.470 0.459 0.449 0.442 0.433 0.422 0.409 0.397 0.386 0.379 0.376 0.371 0.364 0.358 0.352 0.346 0.341 0.337 0.331 1979 1.788 1.701 1.630 1.546 1.419 1.298 1.231 1.159 1.083 1.000 0.917 0.839 0.790 0.760 0.734 0.711 0.697 0.679 0.656 0.632 0.609 0.589 0.576 0.563 0.551 0.540 0.530 0.521 0.516 0.508 0.497 0.486 0.479 0.469 0.457 0.442 0.429 0.418 0.410 0.407 0.402 0.394 0.387 0.381 0.375 0.369 0.365 0.358 B–21 Table B.18 Gross National Product Implicit Price Deflator (Continued) From: 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1980 1.949 1.854 1.777 1.685 1.547 1.415 1.341 1.263 1.180 1.090 1.000 0.915 0.861 0.828 0.800 0.775 0.760 0.741 0.716 0.689 0.664 0.643 0.628 0.614 0.601 0.588 0.578 0.568 0.562 0.554 0.542 0.530 0.522 0.511 0.498 0.482 0.468 0.456 0.447 0.444 0.438 0.429 0.422 0.416 0.409 0.402 0.397 0.390 1981 2.131 2.028 1.943 1.843 1.691 1.548 1.467 1.381 1.290 1.192 1.093 1.000 0.942 0.906 0.875 0.848 0.831 0.810 0.782 0.753 0.726 0.703 0.687 0.671 0.657 0.644 0.632 0.621 0.615 0.606 0.592 0.579 0.570 0.559 0.544 0.527 0.512 0.498 0.489 0.485 0.479 0.469 0.461 0.455 0.447 0.440 0.435 0.427 1982 2.263 2.153 2.064 1.957 1.796 1.644 1.558 1.467 1.370 1.266 1.161 1.062 1.000 0.962 0.929 0.900 0.882 0.860 0.831 0.800 0.771 0.746 0.730 0.713 0.698 0.683 0.671 0.660 0.653 0.644 0.629 0.615 0.606 0.594 0.578 0.560 0.543 0.529 0.519 0.515 0.508 0.499 0.490 0.483 0.475 0.467 0.461 0.453 1983 2.353 2.239 2.145 2.034 1.867 1.709 1.619 1.525 1.425 1.316 1.207 1.104 1.040 1.000 0.966 0.936 0.917 0.894 0.864 0.831 0.802 0.776 0.758 0.741 0.725 0.710 0.698 0.686 0.679 0.669 0.654 0.639 0.630 0.617 0.601 0.582 0.565 0.550 0.540 0.536 0.529 0.518 0.509 0.502 0.493 0.486 0.480 0.471 1984 2.436 2.318 2.222 2.107 1.933 1.769 1.677 1.579 1.475 1.363 1.250 1.143 1.076 1.035 1.000 0.969 0.950 0.926 0.895 0.861 0.830 0.803 0.785 0.767 0.751 0.736 0.722 0.710 0.703 0.693 0.677 0.662 0.652 0.639 0.622 0.603 0.585 0.570 0.559 0.555 0.547 0.537 0.527 0.520 0.511 0.503 0.497 0.488 To: 1985 2.514 2.392 2.293 2.174 1.995 1.826 1.731 1.629 1.522 1.406 1.290 1.180 1.111 1.069 1.032 1.000 0.980 0.956 0.923 0.888 0.857 0.829 0.810 0.792 0.775 0.759 0.746 0.733 0.725 0.715 0.699 0.683 0.673 0.660 0.642 0.622 0.604 0.588 0.577 0.572 0.565 0.554 0.544 0.536 0.527 0.519 0.513 0.504 1986 2.565 2.441 2.339 2.218 2.036 1.863 1.766 1.662 1.553 1.435 1.316 1.204 1.133 1.090 1.053 1.020 1.000 0.975 0.942 0.906 0.874 0.846 0.827 0.808 0.791 0.775 0.761 0.748 0.740 0.729 0.713 0.697 0.687 0.673 0.655 0.635 0.616 0.600 0.588 0.584 0.576 0.565 0.555 0.547 0.538 0.530 0.523 0.514 1987 2.631 2.504 2.399 2.275 2.088 1.911 1.811 1.705 1.593 1.472 1.350 1.235 1.163 1.118 1.080 1.047 1.026 1.000 0.966 0.930 0.897 0.867 0.848 0.828 0.811 0.795 0.780 0.767 0.759 0.748 0.732 0.715 0.704 0.691 0.672 0.651 0.632 0.615 0.604 0.599 0.591 0.580 0.570 0.561 0.552 0.543 0.537 0.527 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1988 2.723 2.591 2.484 2.355 2.161 1.978 1.875 1.765 1.649 1.523 1.398 1.278 1.203 1.158 1.118 1.083 1.062 1.035 1.000 0.962 0.928 0.898 0.878 0.858 0.840 0.822 0.808 0.794 0.786 0.774 0.757 0.740 0.729 0.715 0.696 0.674 0.654 0.637 0.625 0.620 0.612 0.600 0.590 0.581 0.571 0.562 0.555 0.546 1989 2.830 2.693 2.580 2.447 2.246 2.055 1.948 1.834 1.714 1.583 1.452 1.328 1.250 1.203 1.162 1.126 1.103 1.075 1.039 1.000 0.964 0.933 0.912 0.891 0.872 0.855 0.839 0.825 0.816 0.805 0.787 0.769 0.757 0.743 0.723 0.700 0.679 0.662 0.649 0.644 0.636 0.623 0.613 0.604 0.593 0.584 0.577 0.567 B–22 Table B.18 Gross National Product Implicit Price Deflator (Continued) From: 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 1990 2.935 2.793 2.676 2.538 2.329 2.131 2.020 1.902 1.777 1.642 1.506 1.377 1.297 1.247 1.205 1.167 1.144 1.115 1.078 1.037 1.000 0.968 0.946 0.924 0.905 0.886 0.870 0.856 0.847 0.835 0.816 0.798 0.786 0.770 0.750 0.726 0.705 0.686 0.673 0.668 0.659 0.647 0.635 0.626 0.616 0.606 0.598 0.588 1991 3.033 2.886 2.766 2.623 2.407 2.203 2.088 1.966 1.837 1.697 1.556 1.423 1.340 1.289 1.245 1.206 1.182 1.153 1.114 1.072 1.033 1.000 0.978 0.955 0.935 0.916 0.899 0.884 0.875 0.862 0.843 0.824 0.812 0.796 0.775 0.751 0.728 0.709 0.696 0.690 0.681 0.668 0.657 0.647 0.636 0.626 0.618 0.608 1992 3.102 2.952 2.829 2.683 2.462 2.253 2.135 2.011 1.879 1.735 1.592 1.456 1.371 1.319 1.273 1.234 1.209 1.179 1.139 1.096 1.057 1.023 1.000 0.977 0.956 0.937 0.920 0.905 0.895 0.882 0.863 0.843 0.830 0.814 0.792 0.768 0.745 0.726 0.712 0.706 0.697 0.683 0.672 0.662 0.651 0.641 0.633 0.621 1993 3.176 3.022 2.896 2.746 2.520 2.307 2.186 2.058 1.923 1.776 1.630 1.490 1.403 1.350 1.304 1.263 1.238 1.207 1.166 1.122 1.082 1.047 1.024 1.000 0.979 0.959 0.942 0.926 0.916 0.903 0.883 0.863 0.850 0.834 0.811 0.786 0.763 0.743 0.729 0.723 0.713 0.700 0.688 0.677 0.666 0.656 0.648 0.636 1994 3.243 3.086 2.958 2.805 2.574 2.356 2.233 2.102 1.964 1.814 1.664 1.522 1.433 1.379 1.331 1.290 1.264 1.233 1.191 1.146 1.105 1.069 1.046 1.021 1.000 0.979 0.962 0.946 0.936 0.922 0.902 0.882 0.868 0.851 0.829 0.803 0.779 0.759 0.744 0.738 0.729 0.715 0.702 0.692 0.680 0.670 0.661 0.650 To: 1995 3.311 3.151 3.020 2.863 2.628 2.405 2.279 2.146 2.005 1.852 1.699 1.554 1.463 1.408 1.359 1.317 1.291 1.259 1.216 1.170 1.128 1.092 1.067 1.043 1.021 1.000 0.982 0.966 0.955 0.942 0.921 0.900 0.886 0.869 0.846 0.820 0.795 0.775 0.760 0.754 0.744 0.729 0.717 0.706 0.695 0.684 0.675 0.663 1996 3.372 3.209 3.075 2.916 2.676 2.449 2.321 2.185 2.042 1.886 1.730 1.582 1.490 1.433 1.384 1.341 1.315 1.282 1.238 1.192 1.149 1.112 1.087 1.062 1.040 1.018 1.000 0.983 0.973 0.959 0.938 0.917 0.903 0.885 0.861 0.835 0.810 0.789 0.773 0.768 0.758 0.743 0.730 0.719 0.707 0.696 0.688 0.675 1997 3.429 3.263 3.128 2.966 2.722 2.491 2.361 2.223 2.077 1.918 1.760 1.609 1.516 1.458 1.408 1.364 1.337 1.303 1.259 1.212 1.169 1.131 1.106 1.080 1.057 1.036 1.017 1.000 0.989 0.975 0.954 0.932 0.918 0.900 0.876 0.849 0.824 0.802 0.787 0.781 0.770 0.756 0.743 0.732 0.719 0.708 0.699 0.687 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 1998 3.467 3.299 3.162 2.998 2.751 2.518 2.387 2.247 2.099 1.939 1.779 1.627 1.532 1.474 1.423 1.379 1.352 1.318 1.273 1.225 1.181 1.143 1.118 1.092 1.069 1.047 1.028 1.011 1.000 0.986 0.964 0.942 0.928 0.910 0.886 0.858 0.832 0.811 0.795 0.789 0.779 0.764 0.751 0.740 0.727 0.716 0.707 0.695 1999 3.517 3.346 3.207 3.041 2.791 2.554 2.421 2.279 2.130 1.967 1.805 1.650 1.554 1.495 1.444 1.399 1.371 1.337 1.291 1.243 1.198 1.159 1.134 1.107 1.084 1.062 1.043 1.025 1.014 1.000 0.978 0.956 0.941 0.923 0.898 0.870 0.844 0.823 0.807 0.800 0.790 0.775 0.761 0.750 0.738 0.727 0.718 0.705 B–23 Table B.18 Gross National Product Implicit Price Deflator (Continued) From: 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2000 3.596 3.422 3.280 3.110 2.854 2.612 2.476 2.331 2.178 2.012 1.846 1.688 1.589 1.529 1.476 1.431 1.402 1.367 1.321 1.271 1.225 1.186 1.159 1.132 1.109 1.086 1.067 1.049 1.037 1.023 1.000 0.978 0.963 0.944 0.919 0.890 0.864 0.841 0.825 0.819 0.808 0.792 0.779 0.767 0.755 0.744 0.734 0.721 2001 3.679 3.501 3.355 3.181 2.920 2.672 2.532 2.384 2.228 2.058 1.888 1.726 1.626 1.564 1.510 1.463 1.434 1.398 1.351 1.300 1.254 1.213 1.186 1.158 1.134 1.111 1.091 1.073 1.061 1.046 1.023 1.000 0.985 0.966 0.940 0.911 0.883 0.861 0.844 0.837 0.826 0.810 0.797 0.785 0.772 0.761 0.751 0.738 2002 3.735 3.555 3.407 3.230 2.965 2.713 2.571 2.421 2.262 2.090 1.917 1.753 1.651 1.588 1.533 1.486 1.456 1.420 1.372 1.320 1.273 1.232 1.204 1.176 1.152 1.128 1.108 1.089 1.077 1.062 1.039 1.015 1.000 0.980 0.954 0.925 0.897 0.874 0.857 0.850 0.839 0.823 0.809 0.797 0.784 0.772 0.762 0.749 2003 3.810 3.626 3.475 3.295 3.024 2.767 2.623 2.470 2.307 2.131 1.955 1.788 1.684 1.620 1.564 1.516 1.485 1.448 1.399 1.347 1.298 1.256 1.228 1.200 1.175 1.151 1.130 1.111 1.099 1.083 1.059 1.036 1.020 1.000 0.973 0.943 0.915 0.891 0.874 0.867 0.856 0.839 0.825 0.813 0.800 0.788 0.778 0.764 2004 3.915 3.725 3.570 3.385 3.107 2.843 2.695 2.537 2.371 2.190 2.009 1.837 1.730 1.664 1.607 1.557 1.526 1.488 1.437 1.383 1.334 1.291 1.262 1.233 1.207 1.182 1.161 1.141 1.129 1.113 1.088 1.064 1.048 1.027 1.000 0.969 0.940 0.916 0.898 0.891 0.879 0.862 0.848 0.835 0.822 0.809 0.799 0.785 To: 2005 4.040 3.845 3.685 3.494 3.206 2.934 2.781 2.619 2.447 2.260 2.073 1.896 1.785 1.717 1.659 1.607 1.575 1.536 1.484 1.428 1.377 1.332 1.302 1.272 1.246 1.220 1.198 1.178 1.165 1.149 1.123 1.098 1.082 1.060 1.032 1.000 0.970 0.945 0.927 0.920 0.908 0.890 0.875 0.862 0.848 0.835 0.825 0.810 2006 4.164 3.963 3.798 3.601 3.305 3.025 2.867 2.699 2.522 2.330 2.137 1.954 1.840 1.770 1.710 1.657 1.624 1.583 1.529 1.472 1.419 1.373 1.343 1.311 1.284 1.258 1.235 1.214 1.201 1.184 1.158 1.132 1.115 1.093 1.064 1.031 1.000 0.974 0.955 0.948 0.936 0.917 0.902 0.888 0.874 0.861 0.850 0.835 2007 4.275 4.068 3.899 3.697 3.393 3.105 2.943 2.771 2.589 2.392 2.194 2.006 1.889 1.817 1.755 1.701 1.667 1.625 1.570 1.511 1.457 1.410 1.378 1.346 1.318 1.291 1.268 1.247 1.233 1.216 1.189 1.162 1.145 1.122 1.092 1.058 1.027 1.000 0.981 0.973 0.960 0.942 0.926 0.912 0.898 0.884 0.873 0.857 TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 2008 4.359 4.148 3.976 3.770 3.460 3.166 3.001 2.825 2.640 2.439 2.237 2.046 1.926 1.853 1.789 1.734 1.700 1.657 1.601 1.541 1.485 1.437 1.405 1.373 1.344 1.317 1.293 1.271 1.257 1.240 1.212 1.185 1.167 1.144 1.114 1.079 1.047 1.020 1.000 0.992 0.979 0.960 0.944 0.930 0.915 0.901 0.890 0.874 2009 4.393 4.180 4.006 3.799 3.487 3.191 3.024 2.847 2.660 2.457 2.254 2.062 1.941 1.867 1.803 1.747 1.713 1.670 1.613 1.553 1.497 1.448 1.416 1.383 1.355 1.327 1.303 1.281 1.267 1.249 1.222 1.194 1.176 1.153 1.122 1.087 1.055 1.028 1.008 1.000 0.987 0.968 0.951 0.937 0.922 0.908 0.897 0.881 B–24 Table B.18 Gross National Product Implicit Price Deflator (Continued) From: 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2010 4.451 4.236 4.059 3.849 3.533 3.233 3.064 2.885 2.696 2.490 2.284 2.089 1.967 1.892 1.827 1.771 1.735 1.692 1.634 1.573 1.517 1.468 1.435 1.402 1.372 1.344 1.320 1.298 1.284 1.266 1.238 1.210 1.192 1.168 1.137 1.102 1.069 1.041 1.021 1.013 1.000 0.981 0.964 0.949 0.935 0.920 0.909 0.893 2011 4.539 4.319 4.140 3.925 3.602 3.297 3.125 2.942 2.749 2.539 2.329 2.130 2.006 1.929 1.863 1.806 1.770 1.725 1.667 1.604 1.547 1.497 1.463 1.429 1.400 1.371 1.346 1.324 1.309 1.291 1.262 1.234 1.215 1.191 1.160 1.123 1.090 1.062 1.041 1.033 1.020 1.000 0.983 0.968 0.954 0.940 0.928 0.911 2012 4.618 4.395 4.212 3.994 3.665 3.354 3.179 2.993 2.797 2.583 2.370 2.167 2.041 1.963 1.896 1.837 1.801 1.755 1.696 1.632 1.574 1.523 1.489 1.454 1.424 1.395 1.370 1.347 1.332 1.313 1.284 1.255 1.236 1.212 1.180 1.143 1.109 1.080 1.059 1.051 1.038 1.017 1.000 0.985 0.971 0.957 0.945 0.928 2013 4.688 4.461 4.275 4.054 3.720 3.405 3.227 3.038 2.839 2.622 2.406 2.200 2.072 1.993 1.924 1.865 1.828 1.782 1.721 1.657 1.597 1.546 1.511 1.476 1.445 1.416 1.390 1.367 1.352 1.333 1.303 1.274 1.255 1.230 1.198 1.160 1.126 1.097 1.075 1.067 1.053 1.033 1.015 1.000 0.986 0.972 0.960 0.943 To: 2014 4.767 4.536 4.348 4.123 3.784 3.463 3.282 3.090 2.887 2.667 2.447 2.237 2.107 2.027 1.957 1.896 1.859 1.812 1.751 1.685 1.625 1.572 1.537 1.501 1.470 1.440 1.414 1.390 1.375 1.354 1.324 1.295 1.275 1.250 1.217 1.179 1.144 1.114 1.092 1.084 1.070 1.048 1.030 1.015 1.000 0.990 0.977 0.960 2015 4.841 4.607 4.415 4.187 3.842 3.516 3.333 3.138 2.932 2.708 2.485 2.272 2.139 2.058 1.987 1.926 1.888 1.840 1.778 1.711 1.650 1.596 1.561 1.525 1.493 1.462 1.436 1.412 1.397 1.375 1.345 1.315 1.295 1.270 1.236 1.197 1.161 1.131 1.109 1.101 1.086 1.064 1.045 1.029 1.010 1.000 0.987 0.970 2016 4.903 4.666 4.472 4.241 3.892 3.562 3.376 3.179 2.970 2.743 2.517 2.301 2.167 2.085 2.013 1.951 1.912 1.864 1.801 1.733 1.671 1.617 1.581 1.544 1.512 1.481 1.454 1.430 1.415 1.393 1.362 1.332 1.312 1.286 1.252 1.213 1.176 1.146 1.124 1.115 1.100 1.078 1.059 1.042 1.024 1.013 1.000 0.982 2017 4.991 4.749 4.552 4.317 3.961 3.625 3.436 3.235 3.023 2.792 2.561 2.343 2.206 2.122 2.049 1.986 1.946 1.897 1.833 1.764 1.701 1.646 1.609 1.572 1.539 1.507 1.480 1.455 1.440 1.418 1.386 1.356 1.335 1.309 1.274 1.234 1.197 1.166 1.144 1.135 1.120 1.097 1.077 1.060 1.042 1.031 1.018 1.000 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Survey of Current Business, Washington, DC, monthly. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–1 GLOSSARY Acceleration power – Often measured in kilowatts. Pulse power obtainable from a battery used to accelerate a vehicle. This is based on a constant current pulse for 30 seconds at no less than 2/3 of the maximum open-circuit-voltage, at 80% depth-of-discharge relative to the battery's rated capacity and at 20○ C ambient temperature. Age – The amount of time a person or thing has existed. Air Carrier – The commercial system of air transportation consisting of certificated air carriers, air taxis (including commuters), supplemental air carriers, commercial operators of large aircraft, and air travel clubs. Certificated route air carrier: An air carrier holding a Certificate of Public Convenience and Necessity issued by the Department of Transportation to conduct scheduled interstate services. Nonscheduled or charter operations may also be conducted by these carriers. These carriers operate large aircraft (30 seats or more, or a maximum payload capacity of 7,500 pounds or more) in accordance with Federal Aviation Regulation part 121. Domestic air operator: Commercial air transportation within and between the 50 States and the District of Columbia. Includes operations of certificated route air carriers, Pan American, local service, helicopter, intra-Alaska, intra-Hawaii, all-cargo carriers and other carriers. Also included are transborder operations conducted on the domestic route segments of U.S. air carriers. Domestic operators are classified based on their operating revenue as follows: Majors - over $1 billion Nationals - $100 million to $1 billion Large Regionals - $20 million to $99 million Medium Regionals – Less than $20 million International air operator: Commercial air transportation outside the territory of the United States, including operations between the U.S. and foreign countries and between the U.S. and its territories and possessions. Supplemental air carrier: A class of air carriers which hold certificates authorizing them to perform passenger and cargo charter services supplementing the scheduled service of the certificated route air carriers. Supplemental air carriers are often referred to as nonscheduled air carriers or "nonskeds." Alcohol – The family name of a group of organic chemical compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The molecules in the series vary in chain length and are composed of a hydrocarbon plus a hydroxyl group. Alcohol includes methanol and ethanol. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–2 Alternative fuel – For transportation applications, includes the following: methanol; denatured ethanol, and other alcohols; fuel mixtures containing 85 percent or more by volume of methanol, denatured ethanol, and other alcohols with gasoline or other fuels; natural gas; liquefied petroleum gas (propane); hydrogen; coal-derived liquid fuels; fuels (other than alcohol) derived from biological materials (biofuels such as soy diesel fuel); and electricity (including electricity from solar energy). The term "alternative fuel" does not include alcohol or other blended portions of primarily petroleum-based fuels used as oxygenates or extenders, i.e. MTBE, ETBE, other ethers, and the 10-percent ethanol portion of gasohol. Amtrak – See Rail. Anthropogenic – Human made. Usually used in the context of emissions that are produced as the result of human activities. Aviation – See General aviation. Aviation gasoline – All special grades of gasoline for use in aviation reciprocating engines, as given in the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Specification D 910. Includes all refinery products within the gasoline range that are to be marketed straight or in blends as aviation gasoline without further processing (any refinery operation except mechanical blending). Also included are finished components in the gasoline range which will be used for blending or compounding into aviation gasoline. Barges – Shallow, non-self-propelled vessels used to carry bulk commodities on the rivers and the Great Lakes. Battery efficiency – Measured in percentage. Net DC energy delivered on discharge, as a percentage of the total DC energy required to restore the initial state-of-charge. The efficiency value must include energy losses resulting from self-discharge, cell equalization, thermal loss compensation, and all battery-specific auxiliary equipment. Btu – British thermal unit. The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit at or near 39.2 degrees Fahrenheit. An average Btu content of fuel is the heat value per quantity of fuel as determined from tests of fuel samples. Bunker – A storage tank. Bunker fuels – Fuel supplied to ships and aircraft, both domestic and foreign, consisting primarily of residual and distillate fuel oil for ships and kerosene-based jet fuel for aircraft. Bus –A mode of transit service characterized by roadway vehicles powered by diesel, gasoline, battery, or alternative fuel engines contained within the vehicle. Intercity bus: A standard size bus equipped with front doors only, high backed seats, luggage compartments separate from the passenger compartment and usually with restroom facilities, for high-speed long distance service. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–3 Motor bus: Rubber-tired, self-propelled, manually-steered bus with fuel supply on board the vehicle. Motor bus types include intercity, school, and transit. School and other nonrevenue bus: Bus services for which passengers are not directly charged for transportation, either on a per passenger or per vehicle basis. Transit bus: A bus designed for frequent stop service with front and center doors, normally with a rear-mounted diesel engine, low-back seating, and without luggage storage compartments or restroom facilities. Trolley coach: Rubber-tired electric transit vehicle, manually-steered, propelled by a motor drawing current, normally through overhead wires, from a central power source not on board the vehicle. Calendar year – The period of time between January 1 and December 31 of any given year. Captive imports – Products produced overseas specifically for domestic manufacturers. Car size classifications – Size classifications of cars are established by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as follows: Minicompact – less than 85 cubic feet of passenger and luggage volume. Subcompact – between 85 to 99 cubic feet of passenger and luggage volume. Compact – between 100 to 109 cubic feet of passenger and luggage volume. Midsize – between 110 to 119 cubic feet of passenger and luggage volume. Large – 120 cubic feet or more of passenger and luggage volume. Two seater – cars designed primarily to seat only two adults. Small station wagon – less than 130 cubic feet of passenger and luggage volume. Mid-size station wagon – between 130 to 159 cubic feet of passenger and luggage volume. Large station wagon – 160 or more cubic feet of passenger and luggage volume. Carbon dioxide (CO2) – A colorless, odorless, non-poisonous gas that is a normal part of the ambient air. Carbon dioxide is a product of fossil fuel combustion. Carbon monoxide (CO) – A colorless, odorless, highly toxic gas that is a by-product of incomplete fossil fuel combustion. Carbon monoxide, one of the major air pollutants, can be harmful in small amounts if breathed over a certain period of time. Car-mile (railroad) – A single railroad car moved a distance of one mile. Cargo ton-mile – See Ton-mile. Certificated route air carriers – See Air carriers. Class I freight railroad – See Rail. Coal slurry – Finely crushed coal mixed with sufficient water to form a fluid. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–4 Combination trucks – Consist of a power unit (a truck tractor) and one or more trailing units (a semi-trailer or trailer). The most frequently used combination is popularly referred to as a "tractor-semitrailer" or "tractor trailer." Commercial sector – An energy-consuming sector that consists of service-providing facilities of: businesses; Federal, State, and local governments; and other private and public organizations, such as religious, social or fraternal groups. Includes institutional living quarters. Commuter rail – A mode of transit service (also called metropolitan rail, regional rail, or suburban rail) characterized by an electric or diesel propelled railway for urban passenger train service consisting of local short distance travel operating between a central city and adjacent suburbs. Compact car – See car size classifications. Compression ignition – The form of ignition that initiates combustion in a diesel engine. The rapid compression of air within the cylinders generates the heat required to ignite the fuel as it is injected. Constant dollars – A time series of monetary figures is expressed in constant dollars when the effect of change over time in the purchasing power of the dollar has been removed. Usually the data are expressed in terms of dollars of a selected year or the average of a set of years. Consumer Price Index (CPI) – A measure of the average change over time in the prices paid by urban consumers for a market basket of consumer goods and services. Continuous discharge capacity – Measured as percent of rated energy capacity. Energy delivered in a constant power discharge required by an electric vehicle for hill climbing and/or high-speed cruise, specified as the percent of its rated energy capacity delivered in a one hour constant-power discharge. Conventional Refueling Station – An establishment for refueling motor vehicles with traditional transportation fuels, such as gasoline and diesel fuel. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards – CAFE standards were originally established by Congress for new cars, and later for light-duty trucks, in Title V of the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Act (15 U.S.C.1901, et seq.) with subsequent amendments. Under CAFE, car manufacturers are required by law to produce vehicle fleets with a composite sales-weighted fuel economy which cannot be lower than the CAFE standards in a given year, or for every vehicle which does not meet the standard, a fine of $5.00 is paid for every one-tenth of a mpg below the standard. Criteria pollutant – A pollutant determined to be hazardous to human health and regulated under EPA's National Ambient Air Quality Standards. The 1970 amendments to the Clean Air Act require EPA to describe the health and welfare impacts of a pollutant as the "criteria" for inclusion in the regulatory regime. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–5 Crude oil – A mixture of hydrocarbons that exists in the liquid phase in natural underground reservoirs and remains liquid at atmospheric pressure after passing through surface separating facilities. Crude oil production is measured at the wellhead and includes lease condensate. Crude oil imports – The volume of crude oil imported into the 50 States and the District of Columbia, including imports from U.S. territories, but excluding imports of crude oil into the Hawaiian Foreign Trade Zone. Curb weight – The weight of a vehicle including all standard equipment, spare tire and wheel, all fluids and lubricants to capacity, full tank of fuel, and the weight of major optional accessories normally found on the vehicle. Current dollars – Represents dollars current at the time designated or at the time of the transaction. In most contexts, the same meaning would be conveyed by the use of the term "dollars." See also constant dollars. Demand Response – A transit mode that includes passenger cars, vans, and small buses operating in response to calls from passengers to the transit operator who dispatches the vehicles. The vehicles do not operate over a fixed route on a fixed schedule. Can also be known as paratransit or dial-a-ride. Diesel fuel – See Distillate fuel oil. Disposable personal income – See Income. Distillate fuel oil – The lighter fuel oils distilled off during the refining process. Included are products known as ASTM grades numbers 1 and 2 heating oils, diesel fuels, and number 4 fuel oil. The major uses of distillate fuel oils include heating, fuel for on-and off-highway diesel engines, and railroad diesel fuel. Domestic air operator – See Air carrier. Domestic water transportation – See Internal water transportation. E85 – 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline. E95 – 95% ethanol and 5% gasoline. Electric utilities sector – Consists of privately and publicly owned establishments which generate electricity primarily for resale. Emission standards – Limits or ranges established for pollution levels emitted by vehicles as well as stationary sources. The first standards were established under the 1963 Clean Air Act. End-use sector – See Sector. Energy capacity – Often measured in kilowatt hours. The energy delivered by the battery up to termination of discharge specified by the battery manufacturer. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–6 Energy efficiency – In reference to transportation, the inverse of energy intensiveness: the ratio of outputs from a process to the energy inputs; for example, miles traveled per gallon of fuel (mpg). Energy intensity – In reference to transportation, the ratio of energy inputs to a process to the useful outputs from that process; for example, gallons of fuel per passenger-mile or Btu per ton-mile. Ethanol (C2H5OH) – Otherwise known as ethyl alcohol, alcohol, or grain-spirit. A clear, colorless, flammable oxygenated hydrocarbon with a boiling point of 78.5 degrees Celsius in the anhydrous state. In transportation, ethanol is used as a vehicle fuel by itself (E100 – 100% ethanol by volume), blended with gasoline (E85 – 85% ethanol by volume), or as a gasoline octane enhancer and oxygenate (10% by volume). Excise tax – Paid when purchases are made on a specific good, such as gasoline. Excise taxes are often included in the price of the product. There are also excise taxes on activities, such as highway usage by trucks. Ferry boat – A transit mode comprising vessels carrying passengers and in some cases vehicles over a body of water, and that are generally steam or diesel-powered. Fixed operating cost – See Operating cost. Fleet vehicles – Private fleet vehicles: Ideally, a vehicle could be classified as a member of a fleet if it is: a) operated in mass by a corporation or institution, b) operated under unified control, or c) used for non-personal activities. However, the definition of a fleet is not consistent throughout the fleet industry. Some companies make a distinction between cars that were bought in bulk rather than singularly, or whether they are operated in bulk, as well as the minimum number of vehicles that constitute a fleet (i.e. 4 or 10). Government fleet vehicles: Includes vehicles owned by all Federal, state, county, city, and metro units of government, including toll road operations. Foreign freight – Movements between the United States and foreign countries and between Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and foreign countries. Trade between U.S. territories and possessions (e.g. American Samoa, Guam, North Mariana Islands and U.S. Outlying Islands) and foreign countries is excluded. Traffic to or from the Panama Canal Zone is included, but traffic with U.S. origin and U.S. destination traveling through the Panama Canal is not. Gas Guzzler Tax – Originates from the 1978 Energy Tax Act (Public Law 95-618). A new car purchaser is required to pay the tax if the car purchased has a combined city/highway fuel economy rating that is below the standard for that year. For model years 1986 and later, the standard is 22.5 mpg. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–7 Gasohol – A mixture of 10% anhydrous ethanol and 90% gasoline by volume; 7.5% anhydrous ethanol and 92.5% gasoline by volume; or 5.5% anhydrous ethanol and 94.5% gasoline by volume. There are other fuels that contain methanol and gasoline, but these fuels are not referred to as gasohol. Gasoline – See Motor gasoline. General aviation – That portion of civil aviation which encompasses all facets of aviation except air carriers. It includes any air taxis, commuter air carriers, and air travel clubs which do not hold Certificates of Public Convenience and Necessity. Global warming potential (GWP) – An index used to compare the relative radiative forcing of different gases without directly calculating the changes in atmospheric concentrations. GWPs are calculated as the ratio of the radiative forcing that would result from the emission of one kilogram of a greenhouse gas to that from the emission of one kilogram of carbon dioxide over a fixed period of time, such as 100 years. Greenhouse gases – Those gases, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulfur hexafluoride, that are transparent to solar (short-wave) radiation but opaque to long-wave (infrared) radiation, thus preventing long-wave radiant energy from leaving Earth's atmosphere. The net effect is a trapping of absorbed radiation and a tendency to warm the planet's surface. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – The market value of goods and services produced by labor and property in the United States, regardless of nationality; gross domestic product replaced gross national product as the primary measure of U.S. production in 1991. Gross National Product (GNP) – A measure of monetary value of the goods and services becoming available to the nation from economic activity. The market value of goods and services produced by labor and property supplied by U.S. residents, regardless of where they are located. Calculated quarterly by the Department of Commerce, the gross national product is the broadest available measure of the level of economic activity. Gross vehicle weight (gvw) – The weight of the empty truck plus the maximum anticipated load weight, including passengers, fluids, and cargo. Gross vehicle weight rating (gvwr) – The gross vehicle weight which is assigned to each new truck by the manufacturer. This rating may be different for trucks of the same model because of certain features, such as heavy-duty suspension. Passenger cars are not assigned gross vehicle weight ratings. Heavy-heavy truck – See Truck size classifications. Heavy rail – A mode of transit service (also called metro, subway, rapid transit, or rapid rail) operating on an electric railway with the capacity for a heavy volume of traffic. Characterized by high speed and rapid acceleration of passenger rail cars. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–8 Household – Consists of all persons who occupy a housing unit, including the related family members and all unrelated persons, if any, who share the housing unit. Housing unit – A house, apartment, a group of rooms, or a single room occupied or intended for occupancy as separate living quarters. Separate living quarters are those in which the occupants do not live and eat with any other persons in the structure and which have either (1) direct access from the outside of the building or through a common hallway intended to be used by the occupants of another unit or by the general public, or (2) complete kitchen facilities for the exclusive use of the occupants. The occupants may be a single family, one person living alone, two or more families living together, or any other group of related or unrelated persons who share living arrangements. Hybrid-electric vehicles – Combines the benefits of gasoline engines and electric motors and can be configured to obtain different objectives, such as improved fuel economy, increased power, or additional auxiliary power for electronic devices and power tools. Hydrocarbon (HC) – A compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon. The simplest and lightest forms of hydrocarbon are gaseous. With greater molecular weights they are liquid, while the heaviest are solids. Income – Disposable personal income: Personal income less personal tax and non-tax payments. National income: The aggregate earnings of labor and property which arise in the current production of goods and services by the nation's economy. Personal income: The current income received by persons from all sources, net of contributions for social insurance. Industrial sector – Construction, manufacturing, agricultural and mining establishments. Inertia weight – The curb weight of a vehicle plus 300 pounds. Intercity bus – See Bus. Intermodal – Transportation activities involving more than one mode of transportation, including transportation connections and coordination of various modes. Internal water transportation – Includes all local (intraport) traffic and traffic between ports or landings wherein the entire movement takes place on inland waterways. Also termed internal are movements involving carriage on both inland waterways and the water of the Great Lakes, and inland movements that cross short stretches of open water that link inland systems. International air operator – See Air carrier. International freight – See Foreign freight. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–9 Jet fuel – Includes both naphtha-type and kerosene-type fuels meeting standards for use in aircraft turbine engines. Although most jet fuel is used in aircraft, some is used for other purposes such as generating electricity in gas turbines. Kerosene-type jet fuel: A quality kerosene product with an average gravity of 40.7 degrees API and 10% to 90% distillation temperatures of 217 to 261 degrees Celsius. Used primarily as fuel for commercial turbojet and turboprop aircraft engines. It is a relatively low freezing point distillate of the kerosene type. Naphtha-type jet fuel: A fuel in the heavy naphtha boiling range with an average gravity of 52.8 degrees API and 10% to 90% distillation temperatures of 117 to 233 degrees Celsius used for turbojet and turboprop aircraft engines, primarily by the military. Excludes ramjet and petroleum. Kerosene – A petroleum distillate in the 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit boiling range and generally having a flash point higher than 100 degrees Fahrenheit by the American Society of Testing and Material (ASTM) Method D56, a gravity range from 40 to 46 degrees API, and a burning point in the range of 150 to 175 degrees Fahrenheit. It is a clean-burning product suitable for use as an illuminant when burned in wick lamps. Includes grades of kerosene called range oil having properties similar to Number 1 fuel oil, but with a gravity of about 43 degrees API and an end point of 625 degrees Fahrenheit. Used in space heaters, cooking stoves, and water heaters. Kerosene-type jet fuel – See Jet fuel. Large car – See Car size classifications. Lease Condensate – A liquid recovered from natural gas at the well or at small gas/oil separators in the field. Consists primarily of pentanes and heavier hydrocarbons (also called field condensate). Light-duty vehicles – Cars and light-duty trucks combined. Light-duty truck – Light-duty trucks are defined differently by different agencies/companies. Therefore, this document does not have one single definition of light-duty trucks. The Environmental Protection Agency defines light-duty trucks size classes as follows: Class Pickup Trucks Small Standard Vans Passenger Cargo Minivans SUVs All Small Standard Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR) Through 2007 As of 2008 < 4,500 lbs < 6,000 lbs 4,500 to 8,500 lbs 6,000 to 8,500 lbs Through 2010 As of 2011 < 8,500 lbs < 10,000 lbs < 8,500 lbs < 8,500 lbs Through 2010 2011–12 < 8,500 lbs < 10,000 lbs As of 2013 < 6,000 lbs 6,000 to 9,999 lbs TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–10 Through 2010 Special Purpose Vehicles < 8,500 lbs As of 2011 < 8,500 lbs or < 10,000 lbs depending on configuration Light-heavy truck – See Truck size classifications. Light rail – Mode of transit service (also called streetcar, tramway or trolley) operating passenger rail cars singly (or in short, usually two-car or three-car trains) on fixed rails in right-ofway that is often separated from other traffic for part or much of the way. Liquefied petroleum gas (lpg) – Consists of propane and butane and is usually derived from natural gas. In locations where there is no natural gas and the gasoline consumption is low, naphtha is converted to lpg by catalytic reforming. Load factor – Total passenger miles divided by total vehicle miles. Low emission vehicle – Any vehicle certified to the low emission standards which are set by the Federal government and/or the state of California. M85 – 85% methanol and 15% gasoline. M100 – 100% methanol. Medium truck – See Truck size classifications. Methanol (CH3OH) – A colorless highly toxic liquid with essentially no odor and very little taste. It is the simplest alcohol and boils at 64.7 degrees Celsius. In transportation, methanol is used as a vehicle fuel by itself (M100), or blended with gasoline (M85). Midsize car – See Car size classifications. Minicompact car – See Car size classifications. Model year – In this publication, model year is referring to the "sales" model year, the period from October 1 to the next September 31. Motor bus – See Bus. Motor gasoline – A mixture of volatile hydrocarbons suitable for operation of an internal combustion engine whose major components are hydrocarbons with boiling points ranging from 78 to 217 degrees Celsius and whose source is distillation of petroleum and cracking, polymerization, and other chemical reactions by which the naturally occurring petroleum hydrocarbons are converted into those that have superior fuel properties. Regular gasoline: Gasoline having an antiknock index, i.e., octane rating, greater than or equal to 85 and less than 88. Note: Octane requirements may vary by altitude. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–11 Midgrade gasoline: Gasoline having an antiknock index, i.e., octane rating, greater than or equal to 88 and less than or equal to 90. Note: Octane requirements may vary by altitude. Premium gasoline: Gasoline having an antiknock index, i.e., octane rating, greater than 90. Note: Octane requirements may vary by altitude. Reformulated gasoline: Finished motor gasoline formulated for use in motor vehicles, the composition and properties of which meet the requirements of the reformulated gasoline regulations promulgated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under Section 211(k) of the Clean Air Act. For more details on this clean fuel program see http://www.epa.gov/otaq/fuels/gasolinefuels/rfg/index.htm. Note: This category includes oxygenated fuels program reformulated gasoline (OPRG) but excludes reformulated gasoline blendstock for oxygenate blending (RBOB). MTBE – Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether–a colorless, flammable, liquid oxygenated hydrocarbon containing 18.15 percent oxygen. Naphtha-type jet fuel – See Jet fuel. National income – See Income. Nationwide Household Travel Survey (NHTS) – A nationwide survey of households that provides information on the characteristics and personal travel patterns of the U.S. population. Surveys were conducted in 2001, 2009, and 2017 by the U.S. Bureau of Census for the U.S. Department of Transportation. This is a follow-on to the NPTS. Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS) – A nationwide survey of households that provides information on the characteristics and personal travel patterns of the U.S. population. Surveys were conducted in 1969, 1977, 1983, 1990, and 1995 by the U.S. Bureau of Census for the U.S. Department of Transportation. Natural gas – A mixture of hydrocarbon compounds and small quantities of various nonhydrocarbons existing in the gaseous phase or in solution with crude oil in natural underground reservoirs at reservoir conditions. Natural gas, dry: Natural gas which remains after: 1) the liquefiable hydrocarbon portion has been removed from the gas stream; and 2) any volumes of nonhydrocarbon gases have been removed where they occur in sufficient quantity to render the gas unmarketable. Dry natural gas is also known as consumer-grade natural gas. The parameters for measurement are cubic feet at 60 degrees Fahrenheit and 14.73 pounds per square inch absolute. Natural gas, wet: The volume of natural gas remaining after removal of lease condensate in lease and/or field separation facilities, if any, and after exclusion of nonhydrocarbon gases where they occur in sufficient quantity to render the gas unmarketable. Natural gas liquids may be recovered from volumes of natural gas, wet after lease separation, at natural gas processing plants. Natural gas plant liquids: Natural gas liquids recovered from natural gas in processing plants and from natural gas field facilities and fractionators. Products obtained include TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–12 ethane, propane, normal butane, isobutane, pentanes plus, and other products from natural gas processing plants. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) – A product of combustion of fossil fuels whose production increases with the temperature of the process. It can become an air pollutant if concentrations are excessive. Nonattainment area – Any area that does not meet the national primary or secondary ambient air quality standard established by the Environmental Protection Agency for designated pollutants, such as carbon monoxide and ozone. Oil Stocks – Oil stocks include crude oil (including strategic reserves), unfinished oils, natural gas plant liquids, and refined petroleum products. Operating cost – Fixed operating cost: In reference to passenger car operating cost, refers to those expenditures that are independent of the amount of use of the car, such as insurance costs, fees for license and registration, depreciation and finance charges. Variable operating cost: In reference to passenger car operating cost, expenditures which are dependent on the amount of use of the car, such as the cost of gas and oil, tires, and other maintenance. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) – Consists of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, and United States. Total OECD includes the United States Territories (Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands). OECD Europe: Consists of Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and United Kingdom. OECD Pacific: Consists of Australia, Japan, South Korea, and New Zealand. Organization for Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – Includes Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. Arab OPEC – Consists of Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates. Other single-unit truck – See Single-unit truck. Oxygenate – A substance which, when added to gasoline, increases the amount of oxygen in that gasoline blend. Includes fuel ethanol, methanol, and methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE). TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–13 Paratransit – Mode of transit service (also called demand response or dial-a-ride) characterized by the use of passenger cars, vans or small buses operating in response to calls from passengers or their agents to the transit operator, who then dispatches a vehicle to pick up the passengers and transport them to their destinations. Particulates – Carbon particles formed by partial oxidation and reduction of the hydrocarbon fuel. Also included are trace quantities of metal oxides and nitrides, originating from engine wear, component degradation, and inorganic fuel additives. In the transportation sector, particulates are emitted mainly from diesel engines. Passenger-miles traveled (PMT) – One person traveling the distance of one mile. passenger-miles traveled, thus, give the total mileage traveled by all persons. Total Passenger rail – See Rail, "Amtrak" and "Transit Railroad". Persian Gulf countries – Consists of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. Personal Consumption Expenditures (PCE) – As used in the national accounts, the market value of purchases of goods and services by individuals and nonprofit institutions and the value of food, clothing, housing, and financial services received by them as income in kind. It includes the rental value of owner-occupied houses but excludes purchases of dwellings, which are classified as capital goods (investment). Personal income – See Income. Petroleum – A generic term applied to oil and oil products in all forms, such as crude oil, lease condensate, unfinished oil, refined petroleum products, natural gas plant liquids, and nonhydrocarbon compounds blended into finished petroleum products. Petroleum consumption: A calculated demand for petroleum products obtained by summing domestic production, imports of crude petroleum and natural gas liquids, imports of petroleum products, and the primary stocks at the beginning of the period and then subtracting the exports and the primary stocks at the end of the period. Petroleum exports: Shipments of petroleum products from the 50 States and the District of Columbia to foreign countries, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U.S. possessions and territories. Petroleum imports: All imports of crude petroleum, natural gas liquids, and petroleum products from foreign countries and receipts from Guam, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and the Hawaiian Trade Zone. The commodities included are crude oil, unfinished oils, plant condensate, and refined petroleum products. Petroleum inventories: The amounts of crude oil, unfinished oil, petroleum products, and natural gas liquids held at refineries, at natural gas processing plants, in pipelines, at bulk terminals operated by refining and pipeline companies, and at independent bulk terminals. Crude oil held in storage on leases is also included; these stocks are known as primary stocks. Secondary stocks–those held by jobbers dealers, service station operators, and TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–14 consumers–are excluded. Prior to 1975, stock held at independent bulk terminals were classified as secondary stocks. Petroleum products supplied: For each petroleum product, the amount supplied is calculated by summing production, crude oil burned directly, imports, and net withdrawals from primary stocks and subtracting exports. Plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles (PHEVs) — Hybrid-electric vehicles with high capacity batteries that can be charged by plugging them into an electrical outlet or charging station. There are two basic PHEV configurations: Parallel or Blended PHEV: Both the engine and electric motor are mechanically connected to the wheels, and both propel the vehicle under most driving conditions. Electric-only operation usually occurs only at low speeds. Series PHEVs, also called Extended Range Electric Vehicles (EREVs): Only the electric motor turns the wheels; the gasoline engine is only used to generate electricity. Series PHEVs can run solely on electricity until the battery needs to be recharged. The gasoline engine will then generate the electricity needed to power the electric motor. For shorter trips, these vehicles might use no gasoline at all. Processing Gain – The amount by which the total volume of refinery output is greater than the volume of input for given period of time. The processing gain arises when crude oil and other hydrocarbons are processed into products that are, on average, less dense than the input. Processing Loss – The amount by which the total volume of refinery output is less than the volume of input for given period of time. The processing loss arises when crude oil and other hydrocarbons are processed into products that are, on average, denser than the input. Proved Reserves of Crude Oil – The estimated quantities of all liquids defined as crude oil, which geological and engineering data demonstrate with reasonable certainty to be recoverable in future years from known reservoirs under existing economic and operating conditions. Quad – Quadrillion, 1015. In this publication, a Quad refers to Quadrillion Btu. Rail – Amtrak (American Railroad Tracks): Operated by the National Railroad Passenger Corporation of Washington, DC. This rail system was created by President Nixon in 1970, and was given the responsibility for the operation of intercity, as distinct from suburban, passenger trains between points designated by the Secretary of Transportation. Class I freight railroad: Defined by the Interstate Commerce Commission each year based on annual operating revenue. A railroad is dropped from the Class I list if it fails to meet the annual earnings threshold for three consecutive years. Commuter railroad: Those portions of mainline railroad (not electric railway) transportation operations which encompass urban passenger train service for local travel TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–15 between a central city and adjacent suburbs. Commuter railroad service–using both locomotive-hauled and self-propelled railroad passenger cars–is characterized by multitrip tickets, specific station-to-station fares, and usually only one or two stations in the central business district. Also known as suburban railroad. Transit railroad: Includes "heavy" and "light" transit rail. Heavy transit rail is characterized by exclusive rights-of-way, multi-car trains, high speed rapid acceleration, sophisticated signaling, and high platform loading. Also known as subway, elevated railway, or metropolitan railway (metro). Light transit rail may be on exclusive or shared rights-of-way, high or low platform loading, multi-car trains or single cars, automated or manually operated. In generic usage, light rail includes streetcars, trolley cars, and tramways. Refiner sales price – Sales from the refinery made directly to ultimate consumers, including bulk consumers (such as agriculture, industry, and electric utilities) and residential and commercial consumers. Reformulated gasoline (RFG) – See Motor gasoline. RFG area – An ozone nonattainment area designated by the Environmental Protection Agency which requires the use of reformulated gasoline. Residential sector – An energy consuming sector that consists of living quarters for private households. Excludes institutional living quarters. Residential Transportation Energy Consumption Survey (RTECS) – This survey was designed by the Energy Information Administration of the Department of Energy to provide information on how energy is used by households for personal vehicles. It has been conducted five times since 1979, the most recent being 1991. Residual fuel oil – The heavier oils that remain after the distillate fuel oils and lighter hydrocarbons are boiled off in refinery operations. Included are products know as ASTM grade numbers 5 and 6 oil, heavy diesel oil, Navy Special Fuel Oil, Bunker C oil, and acid sludge and pitch used as refinery fuels. Residual fuel oil is used for the production of electric power, for heating, and for various industrial purposes. Rural – Usually refers to areas with population less than 5,000. Sales period – October 1 of the previous year to September 30 of the given year. Approximately the same as a model year. Sales-weighted miles per gallon (mpg) – Calculation of a composite vehicle fuel economy based on the distribution of vehicle sales. Scrappage rate – As applied to motor vehicles, it is usually expressed as the percentage of vehicles of a certain type in a given age class that are retired from use (lacking registration) in a given year. School and other nonrevenue bus – See Bus. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–16 Sector – A group of major energy-consuming components of U.S. society developed to measure and analyze energy use. The sectors most commonly referred to are: residential, commercial, industrial, transportation, and electric power. Single-unit truck – Includes two-axle, four-tire trucks and other single-unit trucks. Two-axle, four-tire truck: A motor vehicle consisting primarily of a single motorized device with two axles and four tires. Other single-unit truck: A motor vehicle consisting primarily of a single motorized device with more than two axles or more than four tires. Spark ignition engine – An internal combustion engine in which the charge is ignited electrically (e.g., with a spark plug). Special fuels – Consist primarily of diesel fuel with small amount of liquefied petroleum gas, as defined by the Federal Highway Administration. Specific acceleration power – Measured in watts per kilogram. Acceleration power divided by the battery system weight. Weight must include the total battery system. Specific energy – Measured in watt hours per kilogram. The rated energy capacity of the battery divided by the total battery system weight. Subcompact car – See Car size classifications. Supplemental air carrier – See Air carrier. Survival rate – As applied to motor vehicles, it is usually expressed as the percentage of vehicles of a certain type in a given age class that will be in use at the end of a given year. Tax incentives – In general, a means of employing the tax code to stimulate investment in or development of a socially desirable economic objective without direct expenditure from the budget of a given unit of government. Such incentives can take the form of tax exemptions or credits. Test weight – The weight setting at which a vehicle is tested on a dynamometer by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This weight is determined by the EPA using the inertia weight of the vehicle. Ton-mile – The movement of one ton of freight the distance of one mile. Ton-miles are computed by multiplying the weight in tons of each shipment transported by the distance hauled. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–17 Transmission types – A3 – Automatic three speed A4 – Automatic four speed A5 – Automatic five speed L4 – Automatic lockup four speed M5 – Manual five speed Transit bus – See Bus. Transit railroad – See Rail. Transportation sector – Consists of both private and public passenger and freight transportation, as well as government transportation, including military operations. Truck Inventory and Use Survey (TIUS) – Survey designed to collect data on the characteristics and operational use of the nation's truck population. It is conducted every five years by the U.S. Bureau of the Census. Surveys were conducted in 1963, 1967, 1972, 1977, 1982, 1987, and 1992. For the 1997 survey, it was renamed the Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey in anticipation of including additional vehicle types. However, no additional vehicle types were added to the 1997 survey. Trolleybus – Mode of transit service (also called transit coach) using vehicles propelled by a motor drawing current from overhead wires via connecting poles called a trolley pole, from a central power source not onboard the vehicle. Truck size classifications – U.S. Bureau of the Census has categorized trucks by gross vehicle weight (gvw) as follows: Light – Less than 10,000 pounds gvw (Also see Light-duty truck.) Medium – 10,001 to 20,000 pounds gvw Light-heavy – 20,001 to 26,000 pounds gvw Heavy-heavy – 26,001 pounds gvw or more. Two-axle, four-tire truck – See Single-unit truck. Two-seater car – See Car size classifications. Ultra-low emission vehicle – Any vehicle certified to the ultra-low emission standards which are set by the Federal government and/or the state of California. Urban – Usually refers to areas with population of 5,000 or greater. Vanpool: A ridesharing prearrangement using vans or small buses providing round-trip transportation between the participant’s prearranged boarding points and a common and regular destination. Variable operating cost – See Operating cost. Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey – Last conducted in 2002. See Truck Inventory and Use Survey. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018 G–18 Vehicle-miles traveled (vmt) – One vehicle traveling the distance of one mile. Total vehicle miles, thus, is the total mileage traveled by all vehicles. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) – Organic compounds that participate in atmospheric photochemical reactions. Waterborne Commerce – Coastwise: Domestic traffic receiving a carriage over the ocean, or the Gulf of Mexico. Traffic between Great Lakes ports and seacoast ports, when having a carriage over the ocean, is also termed Coastwise. Domestic: Includes coastwise, lakewise, and internal waterborne movements. Foreign: Waterborne import, export, and in-transit traffic between the United States, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and any foreign country. Internal: Vessel movements (origin and destination) which take place solely on inland waterways. An inland waterway is one geographically located within the boundaries of the contiguous 48 states or within the boundaries of the State of Alaska. Lakewise: Waterborne traffic between the United States ports on the Great Lakes System. The Great Lakes System is treated as a separate waterway system rather than as a part of the inland waterway system. In comparing historical data for the Great Lakes System, one should note that prior to calendar year 1990, marine products, sand and gravel being moved from the Great Lakes to Great Lake destinations were classified as local traffic. From 1990on, these activities are classified as lakewise traffic. Well-to-wheel – A life cycle analysis used in transportation to consider the entire energy cycle for a given mode, rather than just tailpipe emissions. The analysis starts at the primary energy source and ends with the turning wheels of the vehicle. Zero-emission vehicle – Any vehicle certified to the zero emission standards which are set by the Federal government and/or the state of California. These standards apply to the vehicle emissions only. TRANSPORTATION ENERGY DATA BOOK: EDITION 37—2018