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Technological Change and Productivity BITUMINOUS COAL INDUSTRY 1920-60 Bulletin No. 1305 November 1961 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR Arthur J. Goldberg, Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Ewan Clague, Commissioner For sale b y the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C. Price 65 cents Contents Introduction . . . . . • . • • • • . . • . • • Highlights of recent developments and outlook . . • • • • 1 2 The industry • 6 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • The importance of bituminous coal mining • • • • . . . 6 Location of the industry . . • • • • • • • . • • 8 Structure of the industry ...................................... 10 Technological developments . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Increased mechanization* 12 Mechanization of underground mining............................ 14 Greater use of continuous mining machines. * . . * • . 16 Growth of strip mining ......................... 18 Technological trends in surface mining. . 20 Mechanization of coal processing. • • • • • • • . . 22 Trends in output per man-hour and per man-day ................ Rising output per man-hour. . . . . . . . . Increase relative to other industries . . . . . Increase relative to other countries . • • • . Trends in bituminous coal minings United States and Changes in production and consumption. . . . . . 24 . . . . . . • • • U.S.S.R. 24 26 28 30 . 32 . . Declining production. . . . « • • ...................... 32 Growth in idle capacity. • • • . • • • • • . • • 3 4 Changing industry structure . . . . . . 3 6 Rise of competitive fuels . • • . . . • • • . • • 38 Technology and the changing pattern of coal consumption . . 40 Expanded foreign trade • • • • • • • 4 2 Increased efficiency in coal utilization • ................ 44 i Contents— Continued Employment* unemployment* and earnings • • • • • • • • 4 6 Declining employment opportunities • • • 46 Serious unemployment...................... .48 Impact on areas • • • • • • • • • • • . . • • 5 0 Shorter worktime • • • • • ................... ... . . 52 Changing occupational structure ............................ 54 Progress in safety ............................. . . . . 56 Rising earnings • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 58 Greater welfare benefits ................ • • • • • • 5 0 Costs* prices* and profits • • • • • • • • • • • • 62 Hourly compensation and unit employment cost* • • • . • 62 Reduced importance of employment costs. • • • • • • . 6 4 Price trends ............................................... . 6 6 Profit t r e n d s .............. • ................ . . . 68 Outlook......................... 70 Coal research and development. • • • • • * . . • • 7 Labor* management* and government policies • « • • • • Outlook for the 1960*s .................. Appendix tables • • • • ............. Selected bibliography • • • • li • • • • • ................ • • 0 72 74 76*132 133*137 Introduction Hie object of this report is to increase public understanding of some of the benefits and problems arising from technological change. The technology of bituminous coal mining has changed dramatically in the United States* particularly in the years since World War II. Large-scale mechanization* the industry's principal response to Increased competition from other fuels and rising production costs* was accompanied by a substantial increase in productivity. The increase in coal output per man-hour provided the basis for higher wages and greater benefits for workers in the industry* a succession of profitable years for many mine operators* and relatively stable prices for consumers. At the same time* the rapid reduction of labor requirements led to the displacement of thousands of mine workers* with resulting economic hardship for their families and communities. This bulletin reviews recent developments in the Bituminous Coal Mining Industry* presenting the salient points in text and charts* and basic statistical data with technical notes in appendix tables. The term* "productivity*" used in this bulletin includes several measures commonly used in the bituminous coal mining industry (e.g. output per man-hour* tons per man-day* tons per manmonth). Although these measures relate output to labor input, they do not measure the specific contribution of labor* capital* or any other factor to production. Rather* they reflect the joint effect of a number of interrelated influences* such as changes in technology* capital Investment per worker* utilization of capacity* managerial ability* skill of the work force* and labor-management relations. The study is based primarily on data published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics* the Bureau of Mines* and other Government sources. The study relates* for the most part* to changes through 1959* the latest year for which final figures were available at the time the bulletin was being prepared. Preliminary data for I960* where available* are shown in the tables and charts. The generous assistance given by officials of various coal associations, the United Mine Workers, government agencies* and experts in the industry is appreciated. This bulletin was prepared in the Bureau's Division of Productivity and Technological Developments by Edgar Weinberg* Chief* Branch of Analysis and Technological Studies* Robert E. Malakoff* and Robert T. Adams. 1 Highlights of Recent Developments and Outlook Increased Mechanization Greater mechanization and mine modernization, undertaken by coal operators with union support to meet competition from other fuels, underlay an impressive increase in productivity after World War II. The expansion of mechanization in underground mining (the widespread adoption of the mechan ical loader, the introduction of the continuous mining machine, and conveyorization, in particular) was the most important postwar development. The growth of mechanical coal processing, and the con tinued shift to surface mining also contributed to the industry's advance. Increasing Output per Man-Hour Output per man-hour in bituminous coal mining increased faster in the 1949-59 period than in the preceding 30 years. The gain in output per man-hour exceeded output gains in many other major industries as well as in the total private economy. Output per man-day in U.S. mining, which was already substantially greater than in most other coal-producing nations, also increased faster in the period after World War II. Falling Production and Idle Capacity The output of coal declined, continuing a long-term trend that began after World War I. Sales fell off as markets underwent substantial changes. Petroleum and natural gas moved ahead as sources of energy in the United States. Unused production capacity, long a problem in coal mining, increased as the industry adjusted to declining demand slowly. Changing Markets Three major developments— dieselization of railroads, construction of cross-country pipelines, and reduced use of small steam power generators at factories— were instrumental in displacing coal from its principal markets: railroads, residential and commercial heating, and industry. Advances in techniques of fuel combustion and energy application also served to reduce unit coal requirements in the economy. The expanded use of electric power, on the other hand, increased consumption of coal "by wire" and made electric power utilities the largest and fastest growing consumers of coal. Falling Employment, Climbing Unemployment Employment declined drastically, as production and unit-labor requirements were reduced. Many coal areas had substantial and persisting unemployment even during periods of high economic activity in the Nation. Entire communities, dependent on mine employment, were adversely affected. 2 Changes In Mlnework Increased mechanisation affected the job structure and the work involved in coal mining. An increasing proportion of mineworkers were employed in nonproduction rather than production occupations, in jobs above ground rather than under ground, and in maintenance work rather than in direct production. Accident frequency continued to decline. Improved Earnings and Welfare Benefits Hourly earnings of employed mineworkers rose steadily despite widespread unemployment of miners. The hourly pay of miners was substantially higjher than the average in United States manu facturing industry. Short workweeks, however, offset high hourly pay. The average annual earnings of miners are estimated to have been only slightly higher than the average in manufacturing. Supplements to wages and salaries (covering payments to the Miners Welfare and Pension Fund based on tonnage produced, as well as social security and other related contributions) increased sharply between 1947 and 1951 and remained relatively stable thereafter. Supplementary payments constituted a larger percentage of total employee compensation in mining than in other major industries. Declining Importance of Labor Costs Labor costs per ton of mined coal fell after 1953, despite the steady rise of total employee compensation per man-hour. Increased output per man-hour offset rising hourly wage costs. Over the entire postwar period, the increase in unit labor cost was less than the increase in mate rial and other nonlabor costs. The relative importance of labor payments in the cost structure of bituminous coal mining has declined since 1939. Stable Prices. Low Profits The price of coal was relatively stable in the postwar period when compared to prices of other fuels at production sites. Transport costs, a large share of coal*s delivered price, however, continued to rise steadily. In its most Important market, electric power generation, coal's competitive position improved. The Industry as a whole continued to report net profits, although half of all corporation returns over the postwar period showed net losses. Compared to other industries, profit rates continued to be low. 3 Outlook Increased research is being sponsored by both industry and Government to develop new ways to mine and use coal more economically, and so expand sales* Remote control continuous mining, hydraulic mining, low-temperature carbonization, and hydrogenation are among the potential developments* The coal pipeline may reduce transport costs* Cooperative efforts to expand coal sales and production and to continue productivity growth are being Increased by the mineworkers and operators, the National Coal Association, and other groups interested in the coal industry* The National Coal Policy Conference, Inc., composed of coal companies, the United Mine Workers, coal carrying railroads, electric utility companies, and coal equipment manufacturers, was organized to advance the interests of the industry. Output per man-hour is expected to continue upward although at a slower rate than in the 1947-59 period* Substantial Increases in coal production are widely predicted as a result of greater demands for electric power* Employment in coal mining, however, is not expected to return to past levels* 4 The Industry The Importance of Bituminous Coal Mining Bituminous coal plays a major role in the U*S* industrial economy* One-half of the elec tricity and one-fourth of all energy produced in the Nation are generated from bituminous coal* It provides coke required in steelmaking, carbon for the production of chemicals, and heat for the manufacture of cement and numerous other commodities* Almost 200,000 workers are employed in extracting and processing some $2 billion worth of coal each year* More coal is mined, and more coal energy is produced per person in the United States than in any other nation* More than 95 percent of all coals mined in the United States are classed as bituminous and lignite* (Only small amounts of Pennsylvania anthracite and Texas lignite, the other major types, are currently produced*) These coals vary greatly in characteristics* In heating value, the characteristic most important for coal consumers, soft coals range from 7,000 to 14,000 B*t.u**s per pound, with 1 ton of high quality bituminous the equivalent of 2 tons of lignite* Bituminous coal remains the most abundant and the most accessible conventional fuel resource in the United States, despite the rapid development and utilization of other energy sources in the past two decades. Proved bituminous reserves of approximately 5,400 quadrillion B*t*u*vs constitute almost 90 percent of the known energy resources of the United States* At present rates of consumption, authorities estimate that total reserves, which are more than six times as large as the combined known reserves of petroleum and natural gas, could last more than 2,000 years* 6 Proved Mineral-Fuel Reserves of the United States, January 1, 1960 Bitumen N a tu ra l g a s O il sh a le RESERVES Quadrillion Percent B.T.U.S. COAL 5,400 87.1 O il shale 290 4.7 N atu ral g a s 285 4.6 Petroleum 215 3.5 10 0.1 6,200 100.0 Bitumen TOTAL Source: U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines Based on appendix table 1 Location off the Industry Although bituminous coal mines are found in more than half of the States* virtually all of the industry's employment and production is concentrated in six States east of the Mississippi River. In 1959* the leading coal-producing States (West Virginia* Pennsylvania* Kentucky* Illinois* Ohio* and Virginia) accounted for 87 percent of total output and 85 percent of all employment. In recent decades* the geographical center of coal production has shifted vest and south of West Virginia and Pennsylvania (where half of all United States coal to date has been produced) to Ohio and Kentucky. Coal consumption also is concentrated in the states east of the Mississippi. Fifty-nine percent of all bituminous coal mined was shipped to six industrial States (Ohio* Pennsylvania* Illinois* Indiana* Michigan* and New York* in rank order) and an additional 24 percent to the rapidly expanding industrial southeast in 1959. TWo-thirds of the Nation's coal reserves are in the West. Over 50 percent of these western coals are subbituminous* concentrated chiefly in Montana and Wyoming* and lignite* located almost entirely in North Dakota. Reserves of high-rank bituminous* which constitute less than onethird of the total U.S. reserve* are located primarily in the major coal-producing States of Illinois* Kentucky* and West Virginia. The concentration of coal mining in a few areas is an important aspect of the industry. A decline in the demand for coal can affect all business in the few States Where mining employment is concentrated. In mining towns* which are generally isolated and without alternative employment opportunities* a decline in coal production or the exhaustion of a local seam can result in communitywide unemployment. 8 Bituminous Coal Production, Distribution, and Reserves, 1959 Production in M illio n s of Tons O ther States Reserves in Billions of Tons O th e r W estern States Source: U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines. Based on appendix table 2A. Structure of the Industry The bituminous coal industry is composed of about 5*000 companies and almost 8*000 mines* In 1959* 5*800 were underground mines* and these produced 69 percent of total coal output; 1*600 were strip mining operations producing 29 percent of the total; some 300 were auger mines which accounted for 2 percent of total tonnage* There were* in addition, an undetermined number of small "wagon mines" not accounted for in the official statistics. Production of coal is concentrated in a small proportion of mines* In 1959* the 50 largest* each of iriiich produced more than 1 million tons annually* accounted for 22 percent of the industry*s total output* The 212 largest (3 percent of all mines) produced 50 percent of the total* In con* trast* the almost 4*700 small mines (60 percent of the total number) together produced only 5 percent of annual output* Employment in the industry was more widely distributed* Fewer than 400 of the almost 8*000 mines employed as many as 100 workers* and fewer than 50 had more than 500 workers* More than 6*000 mines* on the other hand* employed fewer than a hundred workers* Those mines that employed more than 500 workers each accounted for 16 percent of total employment. On the other hand* the 7*000 mines that employed fewer than 100 workers each* accounted for more than one-third of total Industry employment. In 1957* 90 percent of the assets of the industry were owned by 206 corporations* The seven largest corporations owned 41 percent of the total. In contrast* the seven largest corporations of the competitive petroleum industry held almost two-thirds. Only one coal mining corporation held gross assets of $250 million or more, as compared with 20 in the petroleum industry* In the coal industry* small corporations* which constituted 87 percent of all corporations* together accounted for less than 10 percent of all assets. Approximately 20 percent of the industry's annual output is produced in "captive" mines* i*e** those in which 40 percent or more of the output is billed to an owning* controlling* or affili ated corporation. The percentage of coal produced by captive operations has changed little over the past 25 years. Coking (and steel) companies* which own the bulk of captive operations* and electric utilities have increased their coal mining activities* while railroads and other consuming groups have reduced such activities. 10 Structure of the Bituminous Coal Mining Industry Production to 1959 Assets to 1957 B y m ine to n n a ge class Employment to 1958 B y c o rp o ra tio n size class B y e m p lo y e e size class Percent of mines Percent of total employment 500 em ployees or more _ Percent of mines Percent of total ton n age 500,000 tons or more 16 Percent of com panies Percent ot industry assets $50,000,000 or more 50 42 1 """ 100 to 499 em ployees 100,000 to 490,000 tons ,000,000 to $49,000,000 46 10 to 99 em ployees 10,000 to 99,000 tons 26 $100,000 to $999,000 i Under 10,000 tons Under 10 em ployees Under $100,000 12 Sources: U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines; U.S. Department of the Treasury, Internal Revenue Service Based on appendix table 3A. Technological Developments Increased Mechanization One of the most important post-World War II developments in the bituminous coal industry has been the increased mechanization of production* Faced with greater competition from other fuels and increased production costs, many coal operators, with the support of the United Mine Workers, introduced labor-saving machinery and modernized their mines to increase output per man-hour. A useful indicator of the overall rate of mechanization is the rise in the physical volume of fixed capital per production worker. According to estimates derived from National Bureau of Economic Research data, the net value of plant and equipment per worker (expressed in 1929 dollars) increased by 10 percent a year between 1948 and 1958. This rate was unprecedented in the industry's history. The total stock of fixed capital increased by less than 1 percent per year, and actually declined between 1953 and 1958. The number of production workers, on the other hand, fell sharply throughout the period. Technological changes in the postwar period apparently involved innovations with a substantial laborsaving potential. The estimated gross book value of plant, equipment, and resources (before depreciation) per production worker amounted to more than $13,000 in 1958* The rapid expansion of plant and equipment per worker after World War II differed markedly from the industry's experience after World War I. Between 1919 and 1939, the total volume of plant and equipment was reduced sharply, particularly during the depression, while employment fell slowly. Fixed capital per worker declined by 2 percent a year. Between 1939 and 1948, fixed capital per worker rose slowly as both the stock of capital and employment expanded. The growth of plant and equipment per worker between 1948 and 1959 also differed from the industry's experience in its early period of expansion. Between 1880 and 1919, fixed capital per worker rose by almost 4 percent a year. Unlike the period 1948-58, employment in this early growth phase expanded together with increased stock of capital. The relatively rapid pace of mechanization in recent years is also shown by the more than threefold increase in the amount of horsepower installed per production worker between the census years, 1939 and 1954. The increase in horsepower per worker in these 15 years was greater than the increase recorded in the previous 30 years. Similarly, electric energy consumption per production worker rose substantially— almost 175 percent— between 1939 and 1954, after a period of slow growth between 1929 and 1939. 12 Capital Invested in Plant and Equipment Per Worker, Bituminous Coal Mining, Selected Years, 1870-1958 IN D E X (1929=100) 225 214.8 A N N U A L RATE O F C H A N G E 200 Grow th 1880-1919 Decline 1919-1939 150 .2 4 m m 1939-1948 1948-1958 Defense +2 R apid M e ch an ization M J i M l I i M i W i l i l +10 100 50 m 1870 1880 1889 1909 1919 1929 1939 1948 1958 Sources: National Bureau of Economic Research; U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Based on appendix table 4A. 621946 0 - 6 1 - 2 Mechanization of Underground Mining In underground mining where the bulk of coal is still mined* mechanization of loading and hauling operations* introduced earlier* advanced rapidly* The mechanical loading machine almost completely eliminated the hand shovel in the years following World War II* Since almost 60 percent of the labor employed under ground was engaged in loading and hauling coal* the adoption of mechanical loading had an enormous impact on productivity* First introduced in the early 1920's* mechanical loading equipment (which includes mobile loading machines* duckbills* and scrapers) accounted for about 60 percent of all underground coal mined in 1947* Although the extension of mechanical loading was slowed between 1954 and 1959* over 90 percent of all underground coal was mechanically loaded by 1960. The growth of mechanical loading carried forward the process of mechanizing coal mining which began in the 1870's when the coal-cutting machine first replaced the miner's pickaxe. By 1913* half of all underground coal was machine cut; and by 1953,virtually 100 percent* Introduction of mechanical loading devices followed the mechanization of drilling and blasting operations. Underground transportation also became more mechanized in the postwar period* Mechanical conveyors and shuttle cars were used in greater numbers to remove the coal from the working face fast enough to enable the loading machines to operate at near capacity* In less than 15 years* 1945-59, the number and the total miles of gathering and haulage conveyors in use quadrupled* Use of larger coal hauling cars and faster* more powerful locomotives running on heavier* more durable tracks grew rapidly. 14 Mechanization of Underground Mining, 1920-60 P E R C EN T O F U N D E R G R O U N D T O N N A G E ' I I 1920 I I ■ 1925 I I I I 1930 I I .......................................................................... I 1935 1940 I 1945 ! I I ...... ............................................................ 1950 1955 1960 Source: U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines. Based on appendix tables 5A and 5B. Greater Use of Continuous Mining Machines The most far-reaching postwar development in underground mining technology is the contin uous mining machine* This machine integrates cutting and loading into continuous sequence* with a minimum of human intervention. It eliminates drilling and blasting* The steel claws of the continuous miner tear the coal from the seam* scoop it up* and load it* eliminating the time lost in performing these steps separately* The use of continuous mining machines has grown rapidly* In 1959* the 776 machines in use accounted for 23 percent of all coal produced from underground mines; in 1952* the first year of record* only 152 were in operation* and these mined only 2 percent of the total* Fifty-nine mines in 1959 employed continuous mining machines exclusively— more than eight times as many as in 1952. Because of their substantially lower labor requirements and their ability to increase the quantity of coal recovered* it is expected that use of continuous mining machines will continue to expand rapidly and will be an important factor in further raising productivity in the bituminous coal industry during the next decade* Output per man-day in mines using continuous mining machines exclusively was* in 1959* 24 percent greater than that in highly mechanized mines employing mobile loading machines and shuttle cars; and 144 percent greater than that in the outdated hand-loaded pit. More widespread use of the continuous mining machine awaits its successful adaptation to thin and pitching seams and to other unfavorable natural resource conditions which have delayed its use* Another factor which has limited the adoption of continuous mining machines is their relatively high cost* approximately $70*000 a machine. Several types of thin-seam mining machines are currently being tested in the United States. 16 Percent of Underground Coal Mined by Continuous Mining Machines, 1950-59 PERCENT O F U N D E R G R O U N D P R O D U C T IO N 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 Source: U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines. Based on appendix tables 6A and 6B. Growth of Strip Mining In strip or open cut surface mining, some of the world's largest land-based machines rip away the crust of the earth to expose coal seams. Smaller machines then load the coal into specialpurpose vehicles for transportation to processing plants. Only a small crew of men is required to operate such earth-moving equipment. Surface mining has expanded rapidly in the United States in recent years. In 1959, almost 121 million tons, or 29 percent of all coal produced, originated in strip mines. In 1920, less than 2 percent was mined in this way. Most of the expansion occurred during World War II, when emergency needs for coal hastened the opening of surface deposits. Since 1947, the total output of strip mines has declined along with the rest of the industry. The proportion of total output mined by stripping, however, has continued to rise. Output per man-day in strip mines increased by 42 percent between 1947 and 1959, but this was only about one-half as great as the increase in underground mines. The growth of surface mining has been the result of its high output per man-day, its- low development and investment costs, the high percentage of coal recovered from deposits, and the rising demand for utility as distinct from high-grade lump coals. Since output per man-day in strip mining has been two to three times greater than in underground mining, its relative growth has had a measurable effect on the industry's overall change in output per man-hour. If strip mining had remained at its 1920 proportion, output in the industry in 1959 would have risen only to 10.2 tons per man-day, or almost 20 percent less than the level actually achieved. 18 Trends in Bituminous Coal Mining in Underground and Surface Mines, 1920-60 PERCENT > l~ ^ r 1920 1 1 1 ....................i 1925 i 1930 i i i i .... ........................ ..... 1935 1940 i i i 1945 i i i i i 1950 i, u j « r - r T - r r r 1955 i 1960 Source: U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines. Based on appendix tables 5A, 6A, 7A and 7B. Technological Trends in Surface Mining Recent technological developments in surface mining have consisted primarily of increases in the capacity and changes in the motive power of the earth-moving equipment used (such as draglines, shovels, and trucks). The size of working crews required to operate the larger, more power ful equipment has not changed significantly. The postwar period saw the introduction of shovels with earth-moving capacities up to 180 yards each; by comparison, the largest earth mover in the 1930*s had a capacity of only 30 yards. In addition to shovels with enlarged capacity, machinery was specially designed to move large quan tities of coal-bearing earth over longer distances. The wheel excavator, a series of whirling buckets capable of moving 3,000 cubic yards an hour over a distance of more than 300 feet, is one impressive example. Another specially designed mining machine is the coal auger which is used to drill coal in hill country where the thickness of overburden makes conventional strip mining unecomonical. In 1959, the average output per man-day of all auger mines was 28.8 tons, or about one-fourth more than the average for strip mines. A recently introduced auger, costing $1.5 million, is able to bore up to 1,000 feet into embankment. This unusual machine, run by a single man seated at an electric panel outside the mine, has a potential capacity to mine 3,000 tons of coal daily under favorable mining conditions. The coal industry itself has been caught up in the technological shift from coal to diesel fuels as a source of power. Prior to World War II, most earth-moving equipment was steam or gasoline driven. In the decade after World War II, these were replaced by diesel and electric powered shovels. The steam shovel has virtually disappeared from open pits--only 7 steam shovels were reported among the 3,417 pits operating in 1959. 20 Number of Draglines and Shovels in Use, by Type, in Bituminous Coal Mining, 1932-59 NUMBER Source: U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines. Based on appendix table 8B. Mechanization of Coal Processing Mechanical mining increased the amount of refuse mined with coal, and correspondingly increased the need for processing— cleaning, crushing, dust treating, and drying— the product. A ton of coal mined in 1959 contained 28 percent more refuse than it did a decade earlier. At the same time, coal consumers demanded higher quality and greater purity of product. As a result of these pressures, the processing of coal formerly performed manually underground was expanded and mechanized rapidly in the years following World War II. The rapid increase in mechanical processing is indicated both by the sharp rise in the number of coal processing plants and by the increase in the percentage of coal processed. In 1959, 555 plants processed coal mechanically. This was 100 more than were operating 12 years earlier, ffd over twice the number in use in 1928. These plants cleaned almost two-thirds and crushed ft more than one-third of all coal produced in the United States in 1959. They also steadily in creased the percentage of coal dust treated and thermally dried. Over the post-war period, 1947-59, the proportion cleaned and crushed more than doubled, while the percentage dust treated increased by almost two-thirds. Although coal preparation was once a hand operation involving little capital investment, it has become a highly mechanized, continuous flow operation involving large capital outlays. The modern processing plant employs such devices as closed circuit television to monitor the flow of coal, nuclear density controls to insure uniform quality, and electropneumatic carstoppers and automatic car loaders and haulers to speed loading of the processed coal. One of the newest plants is designed to process up to 5,000 tons per shift— or about as much coal as 500 miners produced per shift, on the average in U.S. mines in 1959— with only 3 panel-control operators and 12 main tenance men. 22 Percent of Bituminous Coal Tonnage Mechanically Processed, 1920-59 PERCENT 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 Source: 1945 1950 1955 1960 U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines. Based on appendix table 9. Trends in Output per Man-Hour and per Man-Day Rising Output per Man-Hour Greater mechanisation and related technological improvements were the main factors under lying the impressive rise in coal mining productivity after World War II. Changes in output per man-hour or tons per man-day, however, reflect not only the increased use of machinery in cutting, loading, hauling, and other operations, but also interrelated changes in the proportion of coal output coming from surface rather than from underground mines and from mines at different levels of mechanization, with seams of varying depths, thickness, slopes, and faults. The precise effect of each factor cannot be readily measured. The net result of these changes was an increase of 85.2 percent in output per production worker man-hour between 1949 and 1959 and of 77.3 percent in output per all employee man-hour. In tons per man-day, a measure that does not take account of changes in the length of the workday, the industry’s advance was equally impressive: production jumped from 6.4 tons to 12.2 tons per man-day. Output per man-hour in U.S. coal mining Increased at a more rapid rate in the 10 years 1949-59 than in the three previous decades combined. The average annual increase of 6.4 percent in output per production worker man-hour was more than double the annual gain in any previous 10-year period. In the decade after World War I, when coal production began to decline, productivity ad vanced 2.0 percent yearly. In the depression decade, output per production worker man-hour rose at a slow pace. During the wartime emergency, productivity growth slowed to 1.4 percent yearly. The average annual rate of increase between 1947 and 1959 (6.1 percent) was more than three times greater than the industry’s long-term rate of 1.9 percent, recorded between 1919 and 1947. Increases in output per man-hour may have reached their highest yearly rate during the early 1950*s. Output per production worker man-hour rose by an average of 6.5 percent yearly be tween 1949 and 1954; in the following 5 years (1954-59), increases were reduced to an average of 4.8 percent yearly. The sharpest gains were recorded between 1952 and 1954, when output per production worker man-hour climbed by about 11.5 percent per year. A second rapid increase was recorded late in the decade (1957-59) but at a reduced rate. In both underground and strip mining, tonnage per man-day rose faster in the first half of the decade (1949-54) than in the last half (1954-59). Among the factors slowing the rate of increase late in the decade were the virtual completion of mechanical loading installations and the slowing down of the rate of productivity gains in strip mines. Figures on changes in output per man-hour for the industry as a whole represent averages covering mines of varying sizes and levels of mechanization. Small mines did not improve their output per man-hour as much as the larger, more mechanized mines. 24 Indexes of Output Per Production-Worker Man-Hour in Bituminous Coal-Mining, 1919-60 IN D EX (1947=100) Sources: U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics; U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines Based on appendix tables 8A and 10A. Increase Relative to Other Industries The dramatic increase in the rate of change in output per man-hour in bituminous coal mining is seen clearly when compared with the changes which occurred in the rest of the economy. Between 1949 and 1959* output per man-hour (of all employees) in bituminous coal mining advanced about twice as fast as in the total private economy* and almost three times as fast as in the nonfarm sector. The industry took an even greater stride forward in productivity than did agriculture* when compared to the gains recorded between 1939 and 1949. The growth in output per man-hour between 1949 and 1959 in bituminous coal was about 6 times greater than the increase between 1939 and 1949; in the agricultural sector* the 1949-59 increase was only 3 times greater. The 1949-59 farm increase in output per man-hour was only slightly higher than in coal. were less ductivity contrasts railroads Increases in output per man-hour (of production workers) in the basic steel industry* than half as great as in coal mining during the period 1949-59. In railroads* pro gains* though substantial* were only three-fourths as great. The 1949-59 record sharply with that of the previous decade when productivity gains in both steel and were more than 70 percent greater than in bituminous coal mining. Percent Changes in Output per Man-Hour Output per production worker man-hour Output per all employee man-hour Period 1949-59.. 1939-49.. Bituminous coal Total private economy JL/ 77 13 38 33 Agriculture y Nonagriculture 82 26 29 25 1/ Man-hours relate to man-hours of all persons engaged. 26 y Bituminous coal Basic steel Railroads 85 17 38 30 70 30 Indexes of Output Per Man-Hour in Bituminous Coal Mining and Selected Major Sectors of the Economy, 1939-60 IN D EX (1947=100) Based on appendix table 11. Increase Relative to Other Coontries Output per nan-day in U.S. coal mining, already substantially greater than in other parts of the world, also increased faster during the post-World War II period* U.S. underground mines produced, on the average, over 10 tons of coal per man-day in 1959, or about five times as much as the highest average shown by any European nation. Output per man-day in underground U.S. mines between 1947 and 1959 increased by 84 percent as compared with 80 percent in France, about 50 per cent in Belgium and West Germany, the traditional centers of European coal mining, and 18 percent in the United Kingdom. (These differences may not result in correspondingly lower unit labor costs since differences in wage rates must be taken into account.) Output per man-day rose slowly in European countries (excepting France) through most of the postwar period as coal mines were being reconstructed. Only after 1957 did increased mechanization, the closing of inefficient mines, and greater efforts result in sizeable improvements in output per man-day, particularly in the mines of West Germany. Higher levels of output per man-day in the United States are, to a considerable degree, the result of geological advantages, as well as technological advances and social and economic factors. U.S. coal deposits lie closer to the earth's surface, are generally thicker and less sloped than those in Europe. The average depth of about 200 feet in U.S. underground workings compares with an average of 1,100 feet in British mines; the deepest shaft in the United States (under 900 feet) is less than 1/3 the deepest British shaft. Average thickness of U.S. seams worked is over 5 feet, considerably wider than in most European diggings. Faults and dislocations are fewer, and water drainage is less of a problem in the United States. These geological advantages have combined to make U.S. coal mining both less difficult in terms of physical effort required and more adaptable to mechanization. 28 Output Per M an-Day in Bituminous Coal Mining, United States and Selected Foreign Countries, 1947 and 1959 TO NS Percent C h a n g e , 194 7 -5 9 83.6 U N IT E D STATES 80.0 France 53.8 W e st G e rm an y 46.3 B e lgiu m 18.0 United Kingdom 2.7 P o la n d -1.7 N e th e r la n d s 1947 W EST POLAND G ERM AN Y 1947 ’59 1959 U. K. NETHER. LANDS BELGIUM '47 '59 Source: U. S. D epartm ent o f Interior, Bureau of M ines. U.N. Economic Commission for Europe. B a se d on a p p e n d ix table 12. A? 104.A n _ A1 _ 7 . Trends In Bituminous Coal Mining: United States and the U.S.S.R. Soviet coal miners produced 1*95 Cons per man-day in 1958, less than one-fifth the U.S. miners' daily output of 11.3 tons. Despite impressive postwar advances, the level of productivity in Soviet coal mining was only one-half as high as that achieved in the United States in 1920. Data available are not exactly comparable but are believed to present valid approximate differences. Since World War II, the U.S. coal mining industry raised output per man-day at a higher rate than the U.S.S.R. Soviet progress, in part, reflects the lower level from which their advance is measured. U.S. tonnage per man-day rose by 96 percent between 1945 and 1958, higher than the U.S.S.R. increase of 82 percent. Soviet gains were greater in the reconstruction period 1945-50, whereas U.S. gains were greater in the years 1950-58. The rapid development of strip mining in eastern Russia resulted in greater Soviet productivity advances in surface mines throughout the postwar period. In underground mining, the Soviet advance, 1945-50, was greater than in the United States; after 1950, however, underground productivity in the United States grew more than twice as fast as in the Soviet Union. The coal mining industry of the U.S.S.R. was expanded and mechanized rapidly after World War II. The U.S.S.R. supplanted the United States as the world's leading coal producer in 1958; by 1959, it was producing 29 percent more coal per year than the United States. In terms of heat value, however, industry output was about equal in the two countries, primarily because lignite constituted 29 percent of Soviet output, but less than 1 percent of the U.S. total. Per capita production in the United States, consequently, exceeded that in the U.S.S.R. both in gross tons and in heat value. Rapid development of the estimated 8.7 trillion tons of U.S.S.R. coal reserves was under taken after World War II to supply the growing demands for energy in the Soviet Union. Almost 1 million workers (five times the number in the United States) were employed in the industry in 1957, and intensive research was being conducted on coal uses and methods of mining. Coal is providing the basis for Soviet industrial development as it did for U.S. development nearly a century ago. 30 Output Per M an-Day in Bituminous Coal Mining, United States and U.S.S.R.; Selected Years IN D E X (1945=100) T O N S PER M A N - D A Y ALL M IN ES, 1958 777777777; -.1 1 .3 3 * U.S. V/ssssss/sA U.S.S.R. Underground Mines, 1955 777773*! U.S. ~8.28^ U.S.S.R. Strip M ines, 1955 U.S. U.S.S.R. Source: U.S. Departm ent o f Interior, Bureau of Mines. B a se d on a p p e n d ix table 13. Changes in Production and Consumption Declining Production The drive to introduce labor-saving machinery and improve output per man-day after World War II constituted a major step in the industry*s efforts to arrest a long-term decline in coal production and sales arising from increased competition of other fuels* Despite these efforts, output continued to decline in the postwar period. In 1947 (the historic peak), the industry pro duced more than 600 million tons* During the subsequent period, output topped 500 million tons in only 4 years— 1948, 1950, 1951, and 1956* In 1954, production actually fell below 400 million tons, and in 1958-59, it hovered just above 410 million tons* Short-term fluctuations in activity were relatively sharp, as they have been for many years in coal mining* Output fell by 30 percent between 1947 and 1949, by 27 percent between 1951 and 1954, and by 18 percent between 1956 and 1959* The downtrend of the 1950*s resumed the long-term decline of coal output that began in the 1920*s, and was interrupted only during the 1940*s* Commercial coal mining in the United States was begun about 1750 in Virginia* Production expanded gradually up to 1860; with the growth of steam railroads and heavy industry after the Civil War, coal mining entered a 60-year period of vigorous growth* The close of World War I brought to an end the industry's period of rapid, steady growth. Thereafter, except for temporary gains during World War II, the industry declined* The decline in bituminous coal production contrasted sharply with the rise in United States industrial production and gross national product* Between 1947 and 1959, industrial pro duction rose 61 percent and the index of private output (GNP) 52 percent; the index of bituminous coal production, on the other hand, declined by 35 percent. While the rest of the economy climbed to higher levels after World War II, with only temporary setbacks during recessions, coal output fell sharply during recessions and failed to recover during periods of economic upturn* Coal*s failure to share in the Nation's growth after World War II was similar to its experience during the prosperous years after World War 1. Total output in the United States rose by almost 50 percent between 1920 and 1929 at the same time that the bituminous industry was struggling, unsuccessfully, to maintain levels of production reached at the close of World War I* Fluctuations in coal production in the 1920's tended to occur at the same time as those in the national economy. After World War II, declines in coal tended to precede declines in the national economy, reflecting a shift in coal demand which has tended to make production in the industry more sensitive to changes in business activity in the national economy* 32 Indexes of Change in Bituminous Coal Production, Industrial Production,and Total Private GNP, 1920-60 IN D E X (1947=100) Sources: U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of M ines; Board of G overn o rs o f the Federal Reserve System; U. S. Departm ent o f Labor, Bureau o f Labor Statistics. Based on a p p e n d ix table 14. Growth in Idle Capacity Idle productive capacity, a problem of the coal industry since early in the century, con tinued to trouble the industry in the period following World War II* According to the Bureau of Mines, in 1959 the bituminous coal industry was capable of producing 614 million tons (assuming that mines operated a full 280-day year at existing levels of productivity) or 49 percent more coal than was actually mined. Although coal production began to fall after 1947, the industry's capac ity continued to expand until 1950* Reduction of capacity after 1950 little more than kept pace with falling demand. There was, as a result, about two-thirds more unused capacity in 1959 than in 1947. Total capacity in 1959 was almost equal to the Nation's coal requirements in 1947, the greatest in the industry's history. Except for a brief period during World War II, the bituminous coal industry has operated over the past 40 years with excess capacity. In 1920, after the wartime expansion of capacity and the beginnings of the decline in coal consumption, a U.S. Bituminous Coal Commission reported: "At the present time, America requires less than 500 million tons of bituminous coal a year, while the capacity of the mines in operation is over 700 million tons." Thirty-nine years later, the industry, with almost as many mines in operation as in 1920, still had the capacity to produce 200 million tons more per year than could be consumed. In only one year between 1920 and 1959— 1944..did the industry produce at near capacity. The slow process by which the industry adjusts capacity to declines in demand is a con sequence of conditions which have made entry into the industry easy, and exit difficult. Increases in the demand for coal have been rapidly followed by increases in capacity because coal-bearing lands and transportation facilities are widespread, and because State laws generally permit bankrupt mines to reopen at greatly reduced valuation. But declines in coal demand have hot resulted in corresponding reductions in capacity because development and specialized equipment costs can only be recovered by mining coal. In addition, there is a strong incentive to keep mines in operation because of the relatively heavy maintenance and other overhead costs that exist even during periods of shutdown. Since coal has been important in defense emergencies, some capacity in excess of normal requirements is often considered to be essential for national security. 34 Production and Capacity of Bituminous Coal Mines and Percent of Capacity Utilized, 1900-60 PERCENT 100 UTILIZATION OF CAPACITY CAPACITY : PO TEN T IAL OUTPUT IF A L L M IN E S OPERATED 280 d a y s ____________ PER YEAR AT THE EX IS T IN G AVERAGE OUTPUT PER DAY. Source: U.S. Departm ent of Interior, Bureau of M in e s. Based on a p p e n d ix ta b le s 14 and 15. Changing Industry Structure With greater mechanization and investment, the largest mining corporations increased their share of the industry's assets. In 1947, corporations with assets of more than $50 million con trolled 16 percent of the industry's assets; by 1957 they held over 42 percent. The smallest corporations lost ground: corporations with assets of less than $1 million held less than 10 percent of the industry's assets in 1957 compared with more than 16 percent in 1947. But the greatest decline took place among middle-size corporations whose share of total assets fell from 68 to 49 percent. The largest bituminous coal mines (as shown by production data for establishments) in creased their portion of the industry's output after World War II. In 1945, the 50 largest mines produced only 5 percent, of total tonnage; in 1958, their output climbed to 22 percent of the total. The largest size class of mines, those producing more than 500,000 tons per year, raised their share of the industry's production from 42 percent in 1947 to 50 percent in 1959, the greatest increase made by any size class. The small marginal mines, operating with a minimum of capital investment, expanded as a group during the postwar period as moderate-size mines were abandoned. The growth of the small mine, however, is related to its ability to produce for the local market, generally without effective union contract or Federal safety regulation. Mines producing fewer than 10,000 tons annually in creased their share of total production from 2.5 percent in 1947 to 4.9 percent in 1959, as they raided their annual output by almost 5 million tons. The number of such mines increased by 755, although the number in all other classes fell. In 1947, they comprised fewer than half of all mines in operation; in 1959, they constituted 61 percent. Employment in mines with fewer than 10 workers increased, although it fell sharply through out the rest of the industry. The proportion of employees working in the smallest size mine more than doubled, rising from 5 percent in 1948 to 12 percent in 1958. Fewer than half of all mines employed less than 10 workers in 1948; by 1958, slightly more than two-thirds did. 36 Structure of Bituminous Coal Mining Industry, Three Postwar-Periods PERCENT Employment ^ Production em ployee size class mine tonnage class 100 Assets ^ corporation size class y,:\ v . '. j 500 Employees^ X \ or M ore X*** 90 80 ' |v!- |X\ $50,000,066 ‘ !• or M o re ********* 500,000 ons or M ore 70 60 100 to 499 50 = $1,000,000 z= 40 to $49,000,000 100,000 to 499,000 30 w *r*VM*r»' 20 5 * l>" ^ 10 to :iv < 10,000 to 99,000 10 >< - -A rr/< * * < »< >iv<r<'Cvv1 » » t r b ^ *^>y; X ’X I $100,000 to $ 9 9 9 ,0 0 0 * JT X JLJeLJLJrXIUI 1 to ^ess^than 10^00^ 1947 7.tE:£-+-■ v:v ’ 1948 1959 Sources: liitak.T.. jr.fr % fr *v ^ U n d e r $100^00 -* * 1958 1947 1957 U.S. Departm ent of Interior, Bureau o f M ines; U.S. Departm ent of Treasury, Internal Revenue Service. B a se d on a p p e n d ix table 16. Rise of Competitive Fuels The postwar decline of bituminous coal production reflected a continuing long-term shift from coal to alternative sources of energy* At the close of the 19th century, coal supplanted wood as the Nation's principal fuel, and by 1920, supplied almost two-thirds of all energy consumed in the United States (in terms of B.t.u's)* After 1920, however, coal consumption declined relative to other fuels largely as a result of the expanding use of the internal combustion engine* In 1950, only 35 percent of the Nation's energy supply came from bituminous coal, while 37 percent was de rived from petroleum, which succeeded coal as the Nation's leading energy source. By 1959, bitumi nous coal supplied 22 percent of the Nation's energy; natural gas, which expanded phenomenally dur ing World War II, accounted for 31 percent; and petroleum, continuing to rank first among the Nation's fuels, provided 42 percent of the total consumed. In energy markets in which it directly competes with petroleum and natural gas— excluding such uses as gasoline, lubricating oils, and the manufacture of carbon black--bituminous coal supplied almost one-third of the total B.t.u.'s used in the United States in 1959, but this was a decline from more than 50 percent in 1945-49 and more than 70 percent in the early 1920's. The shift from bituminous coal to other fuels resulted in part from its competitors' natural advantages, as well as from cost considerations* Both petroleum and natural gas are re garded as cleaner and more conveniently consumed fuels than coal* Uncertainties about a constant supply of coal arising from the frequent labor-management disputes of the 1940's, also contributed to the continuing shift away from bituminous coal* Petroleum and natural gas, moreover, were aided by well-financed research programs which helped develop more efficient and more automatic equipment for utilizing these fuels. 38 Proportions of the Nation's Energy Supply Furnished by Mineral Fuels and Waterpower, 1920-60 PERCENT O F TOTAL B.T.U.S 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 Source: U.S. D epartm ent of Interior, Bureau of Mines. B a se d on a p p e n d ix table 17 B. Technology and the Changing Pattern of Coal Consumption Technological changes were instrumental in displacing coal from three of its principal markets--railroads, industry, and homes and businesses (retail deliveries). At the same time, they were creating a new market for coal— electric power— which has rapidly become the industry's largest market. The adoption of the diesel locomotive led to the virtual elimination of coal from the railroad market. For many years, railroads ranked with industry and retail deliveries as a major market for coal. Between 1933 and 1947, steam locomotives used 20 percent of the coal consumed in the United States. With conversion from steam to diesel power in the decade after World War II, railroad consumption shrank from more than 109 million tons in 1947 to fewer than 3 million tons, or less than 1 percent of all coal consumed in 1959. The introduction of the welded steel pipeline was a primary factor in the substitution of natural gas and petroleum products for coal in residential and commercial spaceheating. Although home and commercial use of coal declined less drastically than did railroad consumption, retail deliveries fell by 70 percent (68 million tons) between 1947 and 1959. The development of transcontinental oil and gas pipelines also partially explains the 33-percent decline in coal buying by U.S. mining and manufacturing industries between 1947 and 1959. Increased imports of low-cost residual fuel oil are said to have further reduced industrial demand for bituminous coal. All industry groups, except cement manufacture, reduced consumption of coal during the period. The decline in industrial coal consumption also reflected the rise of the electrical power industry. Improvements in the generation of electricity and in the manufacture of electrical machinery enabled industry to substitute purchased electrical power for factory generated steampower. This substitution in large part amounted to a shift from direct coal use to the use of coal "by wire," since approximately half of all the electric power used in the past 40 years was generated from coal. Consumption of coal *by wire" has increased spectacularly in recent years. The amount of coal purchased by electric power utilities doubled between 1937 and 1947 and again between 1947 and 1959. In 1948, alectric utilities surpassed railroads as a consumer of coal; and by 1954, they used more than any other consumer group. In 1959, 166 million tons, more than 45 percent of all coal consumed in the United States, were delivered to electric power plants. 40 Relative Consumption of Bituminous Coal, by Major Consumption Classes, 1933-60 PERCEN T 1933 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 Source: U.S. Departm ent o f Interior, Bureau of Mines. B a se d on a p p e n d ix table 18 B Expanded Foreign Trade Export markets for coalf although unstable, became more important to the industry in the period following World War II* In contrast, imports of coal continued to be very small, amounting to less than 1 percent of the total consumed in the United States annually. Between 1947 and 1959, U.S. producers supplied over 620 million tons of coal, or almost 10 percent of their total production to foreign consumers. Exports exceeded 25 million tons every year, and reached peaks of 69 million tons in 1947, and 76 millions in 1957. This was a substantial increase over the export trade dtiring the 1920*47 period when less than 5 percent of total coal production was exported, an'd foreign sales exceeded 25 million tons in only 2 years. Canada and Western Europe consumed almost 90 percent of postwar U.S. coal exports. For many years, Canada was a stable, growing market for U.S. coal: in the period 1935*40, its imports of U.S. coal amounted to about 10 million tons annually, and during World War II purchases averaged about 20 million tons a year. In the postwar period, however, Canadian demand declined from almost 26 million tons annually in 1947*48 to just over 12 millions in 1958-59. Exports of U.S. coal to European countries--chiefly West Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands— began in quantity only after World War II, and fluctuated greatly from year to year, ranging from a low of 800,000 tons in 1950 to a high of almost 50 million tons in 1957. In 1959, exports to Europe fell to 19 million tons. Only small amounts of U.S. coal were shipped to other parts of the world, most of it to Japan where a small but expanding market developed after 1950. Wide fluctuations in U.S. coal exports in recent years reflect wartime destruction of £urope*s coal mines and postwar political crises on the one hand and increased production from re constructed mines and growing competition abroad from petroleum and natural gas, on the other. The growth of iron and steel production in Canada, Europe, and Japan appears to have permanently raised the level of international demand for U.S. metallurgical (coking) coal, since this type of coal is generally in short supply throughout the world. On the other hand, the increased protectionist policies of the coal producing nations of Europe and the reestablishment of coal trade with Eastern Europe cut into U.S. coal exports in the late 1950*s. Future expansion of U.S. coal exports will depend in large measure upon the import quotas, government subsidies, and common market arrangements** adopted by coal-using nations. 42 U.S. Bituminous Coal Exports to Major Markets, 1935-60 T H O U S A N D S O F SH O R T T O N S -39 -46 Avg. A vg. Source: N a tio n a l C o a l A ssociation. Based on a p p e n d ix table 19. Increased Efficiency In Coal Utilization Increased efficiency in coal utilization affected the level of coal consumption in the post-World War II period. Improvements in combustion techniques, obtained through increasing the energy captured from a given amount of the fuel, reduced the demand for coal per unit of final prod uct* At the time, greater economies realized in the use of coal helped to keep it competitive in important energy markets. In the electric power industry, the amount of coal required to generate 1 kilowatt-hour was reduced by nearly 31 percent, from 1.3 pounds to 0.9 pounds per kilowatt-hour, between 1947 and 1959. Despite declining unit fuel requirements, the industry's total consumption of coal con tinued to rise as the demand for electric power climbed. Similar savings were recorded in manufacturing industries using coal for process heat. The steel industry reduced coal consumption per ton of pig iron by 17 percent between 1947 and 1959. In the cement industry, coal requirements were reduced by 15 percent per barrel between 1947 and 1959. The increases in the efficiency of coal utilization are part of a long-term trend in the U.S. economy toward lower fuel and energy requirements per unit of output. Between 1920 and 1959, total energy consumed per dollar of gross national product (in constant prices)— one indicator of this long-term movement— fell by approximately 30 percent. In part, this reduction resulted from the electrification of industry and related advances in electrical technology. Where steam engines were used to generate power for industrial machinery, energy was lost in transmission by shafts and belts. The introduction of the electric motor, which brought power directly to the point of application, made possible greater efficiencies in the use of energy. In addition, the substitution of large electrical power generators by public utilities for small steam power generators operated by individual plants made possible greater efficiencies in the utilization of energy fuels. 44 Bituminous Coal Requirements Per Unit of Production, Th ree Selected Industries and Periods Electric Power Generation Blast Furnace Operation (lbs p er KW H) (lbs per Ton) 3.00 132 3,055 1920 Sources: N a tio n a l Cement Production 1947 (lbs per BBI) 1959 C o a l A ssociation; A m erican Iron an d Steel Institute; U.S. Departm ent of Interior, Bureau of Mines. B a se d on a p p e n d ix table 20. 621946 0 - 6 1 - 4 Employment, Unemployment, and Earnings Declining Employment Opportunities As production declined and unit labor requirements were reduced after World War II, employ ment fell sharply. The average number of production workers employed in the industry fell from about 411,000 in 1948 to less than 150,000 in 1959. This decline of 64 percent, or about 24,000 jobs each year, was almost twice the rate of decline which occurred in the years 1923-34 following World War I. With drastic cutbacks in employment following both world wars, and little recovery in the years between, the trend of production worker employment in bituminous mining has been downward for almost 40 years. In 1923, the alltime high of bituminous coal employment, more than 643,000 miners were employed in the industry; by 1959, only one-fourth as many miners were at work. The contraction of coal mining employment was greater than the decline in agriculture and contrasted markedly with the growth of employment elsewhere in the economy. While the total number of bituminous coal employees (nonproduction as well as production workers) fell by almost two-thirds between 1948 and 1959, the number in manufacturing climbed by 6 percent, and in private nonagricultural establishments, by 13 percent. The divergence of employment trends in bituminous coal and other industries is even more striking over a longer period. Between 1939 and 1959, the average work force in bituminous coal mines was reduced by more than one-half; over the same period there was a 60percent increase in manufacturing employment, and a 67-percent expansion of employment in all private nonfarm establishments. Older mine workers increased markedly in importance in the industry's contracting work force. In 1938, according to Social Security data, 30 percent of all coal miners were 45 years of age and over; by 1957, the proportion had risen to 41 percent. Compared with U.S. workers as a whole, the labor force of the coal industry was older and the average age was rising faster; between 1938 and 1957, the median age of coal miners increased by 5% years to 42 years; in industry as a whole, the increase was only 3 years and the median age was 37 years. 46 Trends in Bituminous Coal Mining Employment: Production Workers, 1920 -60; and A ll Employees, 1939-60 TH O U SA N D S O F P R O D U C T IO N W O R K E R S Sourses: U.S. Departm ent of Labor, Bureau of L abo r Statistics; U.S. D epartm ent o f A gricu ltu re, A gricu ltu ral Reasearch Service. Based on a p p e n d ix table 21A and 21B. Serious Unemployment The decline of bituminous coal mining employment after World War II created severe hardship for displaced mineworkers and their families. Although 88,000 employees are estimated to have retired under pension provisions of the Miners' Welfare and Retirement Fund, and some, particularly younger workers, found jobs in other communities, moving their families or commuting long distances to work, many displaced mineworkers were unable to secure steady jobs. Serious and persisting unemployment plagued coal communities through much of the postwar period. Scattered information on unemployment by industry attachment shows that unemployment has been heavier in recent years among coal miners than among other industrial workers. In March 1957, the Bureau of Employment Security estimated that 6.4 percent of all bituminous coal mineworkers were unemployed compared with 3.8 percent of the workers in all United States industry. Although the period was marked by relatively high coal mining activity, the bituminous coal mining unemployment rate was 50 percent greater than in manufacturing, and 30 percent greater than in all mining. In West Virginia, the Nation's leading coal-producing State, unemployment in bituminous coal mining is estimated to have exceeded 20 percent in both 1958 and 1959, with the average term of unemployment lasting more than 20 weeks. In both years, the unemployment rate in bituminous coal mining is calculated to have been more than twice as great as the average for all other industries in the State. The chronic nature of unemployment in coal mining is clearly indicated in Bureau of Employment Security surveys of local labor market conditions. In March 1960, 1 out of every 5 areas of substantial unemployment in the Nation was a coal mining center. Of the 32 coal communities with heavy unemployment, 27 were specially designated as "areas of substantial and persistent unemploy ment.'' Bituminous coal mining centers were among the hardest hit chronic areas of substantial un employment. In March 1959, the unemployment rate in major areas with bituminous coal mining averaged 12 percent as against 9 percent in nonmining areas. Among the samller chronically depressed areas surveyed, unemployment rates were greater than 10 percent in more than three-fourths of the bituminous coal mining areas, but in only one-third of the nonbituminous coal mining areas. 48 Bituminous Coal Mining Areas With Substantia I Unemployment, 1959-60 Survey A re In a ll a r e a s e x c e p t O k m u lg e e - H e n r y e + t a ^ k la ; a n d R ic h la n d s - B lu e f i e ld , W. V a., u n e m p lo y m e n t w a s b o th s u b s t a n t ia l a n d p e r s is t e n t . PERCEN T U N E M P L O Y E D IN SU R V E Y M O N T H 11.4 15.0 12.0 18.3 9.2 -W E S T V IR G IN IA ___________ Charleston 9.1 | Beckley 25.8 _ 4flBluefield 17.9 D ^ C la rk s burg Y 9.2 Fairm ont 17.8 'fc Logan 16.0 M o rga n to w n 18.9 Ronceverte-W hite Su lp h u r S p rin gs 14.9 W elch 25.4 W h e e lin g-Ste u b e n villeW eirton, O h io 11.2 IN D IA N A Terre H aute Vincennes IL L IN O IS H arrisb u rg 10.0 H e r ri n -M u rp h y s bo rofoRTSl1 W e st Frankfo OKLAHOM A M c A le ste r O k m u lge e -H e n ry e tta V IR G IN IA Big Stone G a p A p p a la c h ia Richlands-Bluefield 11.4 9.2 TEN NESSEE La Follette-Jellico Tazew ell K E N T U C K Y _______________ C o rb in 6.8 H a z a rd 13.7 M a d iso n v ille 7.9 M id d le sb o r o -H a rla n 21.0 P a in tsv ille -P re sto n sb u rg 13.0 P in e v ille -W illiam so n 20.9 P E N N S Y L V A N IA Johnstow n C le arfie ld -D u b o is Kittanning-Ford City U niontow n~Connellsville Indiana ^ 14.1 ALABAM A Jasper Source: 6.7 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Employment Security Impact on Areas The employment problems of coal miners have been complicated by the depletion of local coal deposits, as well as by the contraction of coal markets and the mechanization of production. Abandon ment of exhausted mines in some areas, and the opening of new mines in others, with consequent local unemployment, has long been a feature of coal mining. In Illinois, for example, 162 mines were abandoned between 1955 and 1959, while at the same time 116 new mines were opened, many of them in new locations. Unemployed mineworkers had special difficulties in finding new jobs. The general rise of unemployment in the United States in recent years limited their opportunities for employment in other industries. Because coal towns are frequently one-industry towns, located miles from industrial and trade centers, local opportunities for securing alternative employment were severely limited. The high average age of displaced mineworkers, their inability to secure retraining, and the widespread assumption that mining skills are not easily transferred also emerged as important barriers to their reemployment. The type of demographic and economic decline that some coal areas have undergone is illus trated by the record for the five-county area of Southeastern Kentucky where coal mining had been the principal industry for decades. Production of coal fell by one-third and mine employment by two-thirds between 1950 and 1959. Population (rural and urban), the number of households, and the number of young people fell sharply, while increasing in the rest of the State. The proportion of older persons rose sharply as young people left the area. Personal income and the volume of retail trade declined, whereas they increased elsewhere in the State. These changes further complicated the problem of developing new jobs in distressed coal areas. 50 Demographic and Economic Changes in Five Counties in Kentucky and Rest of State,Selected Years 1950 1959 1950 1959 RETAIL TRADE Percent C h a n g e +60 / ✓ +40 / / *f / / +20 / / 0 -2 0 1948 1954 1958 Sources: U.S. D e p artm e n t o f Interior, Bureau of M ines; U.S. D ep artm ent o f Com m erce, Bureau o f the C en su s; University o f Kentucky, Bureau of Business Research. Based on A p p e n d ix Table 23. Shorter Uorktime Short workweeks, long characteristic of coal mining because of slack demand, continued to be a serious problem in the postwar period. In 1959, coal miners averaged 36,4 hours a week compared with the average of 40.3 hours for factory workers. Average weekly hours in coal mining declined after the 1947-48 boom and fluctuated between a low of 32.6 hours in 1949 to a high of 37.8 hours in 1956. A relatively short workweek has prevailed in the industry since 1923. Although factory workers have averaged above or close to 40 hours for most of the past 36 years, other than the depression years of the 1930*s, workers in the bituminous coal industry have averaged as many as 40 hours a week in only 4 years of this period. Ihe workweek in the coal industry was longer than in manufacturing in only 2 years--1946 and 1947. The reduced demand for labor in the postwar period is also measured by the postwar reduc tions in the number of days worked each year. In 1959, bituminous coal mines operated an average of 188 days or only about two-thirds of the industry's standard workyear. This was well below the average during the peak years of coal demand, 1940-48. Over the entire postwar period, 1947-59, mines operated only slightly more than the average during the decade of the 1930's. Reductions in scheduled worktime also occurred over the period as a result of collective bargaining between the United Mine Workers of America (UMW) and the major coal operators (and the United States Government during World War II). In 1933, miners worked a scheduled 8 hours a day, 40 hours weekly in production. A year later, this was reduced to 7 hours daily and 35 hours a week. During World War II, the 35-hour week was abandoned, but both travel and lunchtime were included in the longer scheduled paid workday of 8 3/4 hours. On July 1, 1947, the scheduled workday was reduced to 8 hours, including portal-to-portal travel and lunchtime. In 1959, miners were working a scheduled 8 hours daily, but with the inclusion of travel and lunchtime, they were working signifi cantly less time in actual production than they were 25 years earlier. 52 A verage W eekly Hours and Days W orked Per Year in Bituminous Coal Mining, 1920-60 Sources: U.S. Departm ent o f Interior, Bureau of M ines; U.S. Departm ent o f Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. B ased on a p p e n d ix table 24A. Changing Occupational Structure The mechanization of bituminous coal mining significantly changed the job structure and the work involved in mining, as well as reduced the number of jobs in the industry. Increasing proportions of bituminous coal workers were employed, particularly after vtorld War II, in non* production rather than production occupations; in jobs above ground rather than under ground; in maintenance work rather than in direct production at the face of the coal seam. Although total employment in bituminous coal mining declined drastically after 1947, almost all of the decline was in production worker jobs. The decline in the number of administrative, pro fessional, supervisory, and clerical workers in the industry was considerably less drastic. As a result, the ratio of nonproduction to production workers was more than twice aa high. This shift toward nonproduction work was more marked in bituminous coal mining than in many other major industries. However, the proportion of nonproduction workers, which tends to reflect the degree of mechanization, continued to be lower than in many other major industries. Only one worker in nine in coal mining was in the administrative, professional, supervisory and clerical category in 1959, compared with one in five in steel, and one in three in petroleum refining. A second important change in bituminous coal mining was the growth in the proportion of workers employed in surface operations. The expansion of strip mining, the growing importance of coal preparation, and the mechanization of underground mining, contributed to raise the proportion of U.S. mine employees working at surface jobs from 15 percent in 1923 to 25 percent in 1948; of these, approximately one-fourth were employed at strip mines while the remainder were employed at other surface work, primarily coal cleaning. Although comparable data are not available, it is estimated that almost 30 percent of all U.S. bituminous coal employees in 1959 worked above ground. The continued relative decline of underground operations and the growth of coal processing point to a further rise in the importance of surface jobs. A third important change in the occupational structure was the shift from direct (largely manual) production to machine maintenance, transportation, and supervision jobs in underground mines. In Illinois, for example, the proportion of electricians, motormen, and managers increased steadily, whereas the proportion of men employed in direct production fell sharply. In 1923, twothirds of all underground workers were miners, loaders, and other direct production workers. In 1947, the proportion fell to one-fourth and by 1956, only one underground employee in six worked at the face of the coal seam. 54 Occupational Structure in Bituminous Coal Mining, Selected Years 1923 1933 1947 1956 PERCEN T Surface / , Em ployees '/ A dm inistrative, Clerical, and Professional, U nited States PER C EN T M a n a g e m e n t, M a in te n an ce , Transportation, Etc. ^ D i r e c t Production ^ W o rk e rs SH ‘ 1939 1947 I9 6 0 Illu s t r a t iv e data-. I L L I N O I S . P ro p o rtion s m ay vary for other states. Sources: U.S. D epartm ent of Labor, Bureau o f L ab o r Statistics; Illin o is D epartm ent of M in es an d M inerals. B ase d in p art on a p p e n d ix ta b le 2 5 A a n d 25B. Progress in Safety Technological developments, mine safety legislation,and intensified education contributed to the substantial reduction in the hazards of mining coal and to the improvement of miners working conditions. In 1947, there were 1.3 fatal and 57.3 nonfatal injuries per million man-hours worked in mining bituminous coal. By 1959, these rates had been lowered by approximately one-fourth— fatalities to 0.9 and nonfatal injuries to 41.4 per million man-hours worked. Over the longer period 1930-59, accident frequency rates were reduced by one-half. Injuries per ton of coal produced fell even more sharply. Marked reductions were recorded in fatalities attributable to ground falls and to explosions of gas and dust; and major disasters (those in triiich five or more lives were lost) were less frequent in the 1950's than in any previous decade. Increased mechanization, one of the most important changes affecting accident frequency, reduced both the number of hazards and the amount of human exposure to them. Widespread use of technical developments such as the electric cap lamp, safer explosives, roof bolting, and improved ventilation and electrical systems eliminated some of the traditional hazards. The shift to surface mining, where accidents are less frequent and less severe, reduced mining risks. Establishment of a Federal Mine Safety Code in 1946, application of State laws, and U.S. Bureau of Mines safety activities also served to improve mining safety. The Federal Safety Code, although not enforceable by statute, has promoted good practices through safety training, better inspection, and through setting standards which have voluntarily been adopted— in national wage agreements— by a large segment of the industry. Despite marked improvement in safety, coal mining continues to be a hazardous occupation. Disabling work injuries occurred more than three times as often in coal mining as in manufacturing in 1959. Although the frequency of accidents declined in recent years, severity rates (the average loss in days per injury) did not. Mechanization reduced some hazards, but intensified others. The continuous mining machine, for example, reduced exposure of personnel and eliminated drilling and blasting hazards, but at the same time made adequate ventilation to protect against the danger of dust and gas explosion a more serious problem. 56 Injury Rates, 1930-60, and Major Disasters, 1910-59 in Bituminous Coal Mining INJURIES PER MILLION M AN-HOURS M A JO R DISASTERS Num ber of disasters 150 Num ber of men killed 13,000 125 100 -2,500 0 No. of disasters □ 2,000 No. of men killed 75 - -1,500 50- 25 1930 1940 1950 1960 1,000 500 1910 1 9 2 0 1930 1940 1950 -19 -29 -39 -49 -59 Source: U.S. D epartm ent o f Interior, Bureau of M ines. B ase d on table 26A. Rising Earning# The earning* of coal miners rose steadily after World War II* Average hourly earnings almost doubled between 1947 and 1959, rising from $1*64 to $3*25 an hour. The daily wage rate of a mechanical loading machine operator under union agreements advanced from $15*48 to $26*68, over the same period* These increases continued the upward trend of wages that began in 1933 with the signing of the Appalachian wage agreement between the UMW and the associations representing bituminous coal operators* The steady rise in coal miners' earnings in the period after World War II (1947-59) con trasts sharply with the decline following World War I (1923-33)* Mineworker earnings fell almost three times as fast as manufacturing earnings between 1923-33, whereas they increased by one-fifth more in the period 1947-59* After adjustment for changes in consumer prices, mineworkers earned 52 percent more an hour in 1959 than they did 12 years earlier* The average hourly earnings of miners were among the highest paid to United States workers* However, they were offset by short workweeks* Although hourly earnings were almost 50 percent greater than the average for all manufacturing in 1959, weekly earnings were only one-third greater* The 1959 average annual earnings of mine workers covered by State unemployment insurance laws were less than 10 percent greater than the earnings of all covered workers in manufacturing* Annual earnings in bituminous coal mining were, on the average, lower than the average in petroleum refin ing and primary metals, despite higher average hourly earnings in coal mining* Increases in yearly earnings between 1947 and 1959, moreover, were lower than in most other major industries* The expanding mechanization of mining not only provided a basis for increased earnings, but also was a major reason for turning the industry from a predominantly incentive pay basis to a predominantly daily pay system* The widespread introduction of machine loading made payment for individual production difficult* As a result of this and continued union demands for uniform wage rates, a daily pay scale, and a job structure with few grades and narrow pay differentials were adopted by most of the industry by the mid-1950's* 58 Earnings in Bituminous Coal Mining and Manufacturing Industries, Selected Years Cents A V E R A G E H O U RLY E A R N IN G S , (Production Workers.) 1959 I Bitum inous C o a ll $3.25 Product's'1of* Petroleunn 2.87 Hi Prim ary M e ta ls j H l I l l S I l f l S l 2.79 /\,A II M a n u fac tu rin g O ' a. fn * ■< r t r * fa -/ 4 ’ 2.22 A V E R A G E W E EK LY E A R N IN G S , 1959 (Production Workers) $118.30 117.38 mm$mm V/////////////X. n * A V E R A G E A N N U A L E A R N IN G S , 1959 (A ll Male W orkers) $ 6952 5,348 1929 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 Sources: y / / / / / / / / / / / / / zz^ 5 .23 , U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Employment Security and Bureau of Labor Statistics, Based in part on appendix table 27A and B. Greater Welfare Benefits In addition to increased wages, bituminous coal miners have benefited from greatly increased expenditures for pensions and related welfare programs since the end of World War II. In 1959* expenditures for such payments (supplementary to wages and salaries) paid by mine operators, amounted to $187 million (which included Federal, State, social security and other legally required contri butions as well as contractual payments for pensions and welfare) according to the U.S. Department of Commerce's national income statistics. Although total wage and salary payments fell by one-third between 1947 and 1959, supplementary payments doubled. Most of this increase occurred between 1947 and 1951, when the industry's pension program was getting under way; thereafter, the total of supple mentary payments remained fairly constant. In 1947, such expenditures comprised about 6 percent of total wages and salaries; by 1959, they amounted to over 16 percent. In no other major industry group did supplementary payments constitute as high a proportion. Industry contributions to the Miners' Welfare and Retirement Fund constituted the major factor in the growth of supplementary payments* Established in 1946, the fund provided, for the first time in the industry's history, retirement pensions for miners at age 60; full medical care and hospitalization for miners and their families; rehabilitation care for the disabled; death benefits and disaster assistance for widows and survivors. Construction of 10 Miners Memorial Hospitals in West Virginia, Virginia, and Kentucky enabled miners to receive care in coal mining areas which traditionally have been short of hospital facilities. A unique feature in financing these benefits is the basing of employer contributions on tonnage produced rather than on wages paid. The 1946 agreement which established the welfare and retirement fund, set royalty payments at 5 cents a ton. Since then they have been increased 4 times— in 1947, 1948, 1950, and 1952— reaching a level of 40 cents for every ton produced* Thus, because production has declined more slowly than employment, the average supplementary payment per employed worker has steadily increased. 60 Compensation of Employees in Bituminous Coal Mining, 1939-60, and Indexes of Change, 1947-60 M IL L IO N S $1,800 IN D E X E S 11947=100 ) 1,600 1,400 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 1939 41 *43 45 47 49 51 53 55 *57 59 1960 1947 Source: 49 51 53 55 57 ’591960 U.S. Departm ent o f Com m erce, O ffice of Business Economics Based on a p p e n d ix table 28 Costs, Prices, and Profits Hourly Compensation and Unit Employment Cost Although employee compensation per man-hour (including wages and salaries and supplementary payments for all employees) rose sharply throughout the post-World War II period, the increase in the employment cost per ton of coal was relatively small* Large postwar gains in productivity permitted hourly compensation to rise without a corresponding increase in unit employment cost* By 1959, employment cost per ton was only 17 percent higher than in 1947 despite the fact that total compen sation per hour had more than doubled* These trends reflected the record of the industry as a whole; the experience of individual mines may have varied greatly* Changes in unit employment cost In the postwar period were marked by three phases* Between 1947 and 1949, they increased as hourly compensation increased* This continued the upward trends in unit employment cost and hourly compensation which occurred between 1939 and 1947* Out put per man-hour grew slowly throughout the decade* Between 1949 and 1953, unit employment cost continued to climb, but more slowly than com pensation per hour* The index of employment cost per ton advanced only 5 percent compared with an increase of 31 percent in total hourly compensation. Output per man-hour began to rise more sharply* The employment cost per ton of coal mined reached its peak in 1953* Hourly employee compensation continued to climb, but employment costs per ton actually declined* Between 1953 and 1959, unit employment cost fell by 12 percent although compensation per hour rose by 26 percent* 62 Indexes of Compensation Per Man-Hour, Employment Cost Per Ton, and Output Per Man-Hour, 1939-60 IN D E X ( 1947=100 ) Sources: U. S. Departm ent o f Com m erce, O ffice o f Business Economics; U. S. Departm ent o f Interior, Bureau of M ines; U. S. D epartm ent of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Based on a p p e n d ix tab le s 29 and 11. Reduced Importance of Employment Costs The trend of unit employment cost between Census yeers 1954 end 1958 differed sharply from the trend of material and other costs per unit. Figures derived from the Census of Minerals (the only detailed industry dsta available) show that employment cost per ton fell by 2 percent between these years, while unit material cost increased by 11 percent and other costs (including depreciation, interest, advertising, insurance, and other overhead and profits) rose by 47 percent per ton. The average value of a ton of coal shipped rose by 10 percent. Unit employment cost also lagged behind other costs and prices between 1939 and 1954, a period of war and postwar price and wage increases. Employment cost per ton doubled over this period, but both unit material and other costs increased substantially more. The pattern of change after 1939 differed markedly from that of the depression decade. Unit employment cost was 5 percent higher in 1939 than in 1929, and the average value per ton was 2 percent higher. Material and other costs per unit, however, declined sharply between these years. One consequence of the changes after 1939 was a significant decline in the importance of employment costs in the cost structure of the industry. In 1939, payments to employees amounted to two-thirds the total value of coal shipped; by 1958 they had fallen to one-half the total value. Only fragmentary data are available for the items comprising costs other than material. Information on two overhead items— interest and depreciation— show that these fixed costs per unit of output increased by more than 200 percent between 1947 and 1957, reflecting not only increased outlays for plant and equipment, but also the decline in sales. A third item, corporate profits per unit of output, on the other hand, fell sharply from the 1947 peak and fluctuated downward as pro duction declined. 64 Employment, Materials, and Other Costs as a Percent of Total Cost Per Ton of Bituminous Coal, Census Years 100% O t h e r C o sts >15% £ l67% ] M a t e r i a l s C o sts 69% Em ploym e nt C o s t s <<<<<<< <<<<<<< '.V .V .V .V .V .V .V , 1929 1939 1954 1958 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Based on appendix table 30. Price Trends The price of coal at the mine (average value per ton, f.o.b.) was relatively stable through most of the postwar period. Following a 20-percent increase between 1947 and 1948. with the general relaxation of wartime controls, average price fluctuated within a narrow range: from a low of $4.50 per ton in 1955 to a high of $5.08 in 1957. In 1959. the average price was $4.77 per ton. or only 15 percent higher than in 1947. and 4 percent below that in 1948. Postwar price stability was in marked contrast with the instability of the previous 30 years. The average price of coal tripled during World War I. fell by two-thirds in the following years of decline and depression, and doubled again in recovery and World War II. Although the post war average price of coal at the mine was stable, competitive fuel prices rose sharply at sites of production. Between 1948 and 1959. the average price of petroleum (average value per barrel at well) rose by 12 percent, and natural gas by 98 percent, compared with coal's 4 percent decline. In con trast, between 1935 and 1945, the price of coal rose relative to both oil and gas. No single comparison accurately measures relative fuel prices at points of consumption. Market fuel prices, as distinct from prices at sites of production, vary according to the significance of transportation costs, the type of fuel, the kind of market, and the efficiency of combustion. For example, three-fourths of all coal is shipped by rail, and rail charges in 1959 added almost 75 per cent to the price of coal at the mine. Although mine prices fell by 3 percent between 1948 and 1959, delivered prices rose by almost 10 percent because of the steady increase in transportation charges. In its most important market, electric power generation, coal's competitive position im proved during the period. Between 1948 and 1959, the average price of coal at power generating plants declined by 6 percent, while the price of its chief competitor, natural gas, more than doubled. Fuel oil for power generation (almost entirely residual oil) fell more than coal in price as the result of a precipitous price decline in 1948-49. The steady rise in the price of gas raised its average price per B.t.u. in electric power generation closer to the level of coal. Despite its relative price fall, oil continued to be the high cost fuel in all markets. The price of coking coal used in the manufacture of steel, coal's second largest industrial market, in contrast, increased by 20 percent between 1948 and 1959. The price of high grade steam coal used by railroads (and other industries) rose by more than 30 percent. In the retail or space heating market, the price of bituminous coal increased by an average of 28 percent, natural gas rose by 35 percent, and fuel oil by only 20 percent. Price variations, however, were substantial from city to city and the cost of coal was only one of the elements leading to a reduction in use. 66 Indexes of Prices for Bituminous Coal, Petroleum, and Natural Gas, 1920-60 Sources: U. S. Departm ent of Interior, Bureau o f M in es, N a tio n a l C o a l A sso cia tio n ; Edison Electric Institute. Based on a p p e n d ix ta b le s 31A, 31D, a n d 31E. Profit Trends The bituminous coal industry reported net income after taxes in each of the 18 years, 1940*58 (except 1954) after an almost equally long period of losses. According to Internal Revenue Service data, the industry showed a net loss in every recorded year between 1921 and 1939. With World War II, coal mining entered a period of relative prosperity which reached its peak in the postwar years 1947*48. Net profit for these 2 years amounted to more than the total for the proceeding 7 years. It also equaled the total for the following 7 years when industry earnings declined. Profits fell from 7.5 percent of sales in 1948 to only l.i percent in 1958. The average rate for the period 1949*58 was 2.1 percent. While the industry as a whole recorded net earnings after World War II, there were about as many firms reporting losses annually as recording profits. In only 5 years after 1947 (when a record 75 percent reported net earnings) did a majority of bituminous coal corporations earn profits. Over the entire period, 1948*57, 50 percent of all corporation returns actually showed net losses. Most of the profits have been earned by the relatively small percentage of large (and highly mechanized) corporations. In 1957, 3 percent of all coal mining corporations (those with assets of more than $10 million) accounted for 92 percent of the industry*s total net profits after taxes. In contrast, firms with assets of less than $500,000, 78 percent of all bituminous mining corporations, recorded net losses after taxes of more than $6 million. Compared with other industries, the profit rate in bituminous coal mining has been low. The ratio of net profit to net worth was less than in manufacturing in all of the past 20 years. From the 1948 peak of 13.1 percent, the ratio of coal earnings to net worth fell sharply, reaching 1.4 percent after taxes in 1958. Between 1949 and 1958, the profit rate in bituminous coal mining averaged only 3.0 percent of net worth, compared with 8.7 percent in manufacturing. Among bituminous coal companies, profit rates varied, with some exceeding the average for the coal industry and other industries. 68 Corporate Profits in Bituminous Coal Mining, 1928-58 T H O U SA N D S O F DOLLARS Source: U.S. Treasury Department,internal Revenue Service. Based on appendix tables 3 2 A and 32B. Outlook Coal Research and Development One of the most important steps towards increasing the coal industry's share of the grow ing energy market is widely held to be expanded scientific research. Interest in developing new ways of producing, transporting, and using coal has grown significantly since World War II. The bulk of coal research is financed by groups outside the industry— chiefly as a result of the large number of relatively small coal producers. Of the $17.4 million spent on research in 1955, the most recent data available show only about 21 percent came from coal producers, both captive and independent. Federal and State Governments furnished 31 percent; coal-using industries, 29 percent; and coal equipment manufacturers, 19 percent. The total amount spent was only a small fraction of the research expenditures by the competitive petroleum industry. With the establishment of an Office of Coal Research in the U.S. Department of the Interior in 1960, government research expenditures will be significantly enlarged, particularly for projects that have possibilities for expanding markets in the near future. The industry also is increasing its financial support of Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., the cooperative research organization of producers and users. Research to improve and expand the utilization of coal accounted for about 60 percent of total expenditures in 1955. One important area of study is the low-temperature carbonization of coal— a process which would lower the cost of coal as a boiler fuel by producing chemicals and syn thetic fuels from ordinary steam coal. Research to reduce capital costs and increase the yields from hydrogenation, a process in which chemicals are produced from coal as a primary rather than a byproduct, constitutes a second major area. A third major area of research in coal use is the development of an economical coal-fired gas turbine suitable for stationary and locomotive use. Investigations into new methods of mining, preparation, storage, and transportation accounted for about 20 percent of research expenditures in 1955. Equipment manufacturers are experi menting with remote controlled continuous mining machines. Research on hydraulic mining, in which water under high pressure is used to mine the coal and transport it to surface preparation plants, so transforming the entire sequence of mining steps into a continuous operation, also is receiving greater attention. Because transportation costs are important to the industry, engineers ere seeking to improve coal pipelines through which pulverized coal suspended in water can be pumped as "slurry" a distance of more than 100 miles. Also under study, in order to reduce transportation costs, is the possibility of locating electric power plants close to coal deposits. As technology of electric power transmission is improved, this development becomes more feasible. 70 Distribution of Research and Development Expenditures in Bituminous Coal Mining# by Source and Use, 1955 (IN MILLIONS) R /D Use Source of R/D Funds U N IV E R S IT IE S A N D U N ID E N T IF IE D C A PT IV E C O A L C O M P A N IE S C O M M E R C IA L C O A L C O M P A N IE S P H Y SIC A L A N D * C H E M IC A L PROPERTIES Source: U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines. Based on Appendix Table 33. Labor, Management, and Government Policies The progress of the industry in the 1960*s will be influenced by the increased activities of mine operators and mineworkers to promote the interests of the industry as a whole* Pressure to increase productivity will continue to originate from both mine operators and mineworkers* The UMW, which represents the great majority of workers in the industry, has long held the view that mechanization and efficient organization of the industry are necessary to raise wage rates, improve working conditions, and provide adequate benefits for disabled and retired miners* John L* Lewis, union leader for almost 40 years, has asserted that high wages and high productivity would help solve the industry's basic problem of "too many mines and too many miners*” The union's policy of increases in wages and welfare benefits is widely acknowledged to have been a major stimulus for introducing laborsaving machinery* With almost one-fifth of all U.S. coal currently produced by nonunion mines which have lower wage and welfare benefits, wage cost differ entials are expected to continue to influence management decisions to mechanize. Joint union-management efforts to expand coal markets are expected to receive greater attention in the 1960's* In 1957, the union in a unique step established a Research and Marketing Department to conduct, with the National Coal Association and other interested groups, promotional activities for coal, such as the campaign to show consumers the advantages of ”electrie living.” Interruptions of coal shipments because of strikes, have been reduced, The last industrywide work stoppage occurred in 1952* Cooperative efforts to secure legislation and public policies favorable to the coal indus try are now being intensified. The National Coal Policy Conference, composed of coal operators, the UMW, railroads, coal equipment manufacturers, and leading electric power customers, was organ ized in 1959 to publicize the industry's needs. The conference seeks adoption by the Federal Government of a National Fuel Policy that would eliminate the "unfair competition of other fuels,” particularly the importation of residual fuel oil for Eastern seaboard consumers and of natural gas from Canada* Government measures to relieve hardships and unemployment among displaced coal miners also are advocated by the miners. The UMW strongly supported the Area Redevelopment Act of 1961, legis lation to bring new industry to depressed mining areas, and urges the payment of unemployment insurance benefits for the full period of joblessness* 72 M an-Days of Idleness From Work Stoppages in Bituminous Coal Mining, 1927-59 1927-29 1930-34 1935-39 1940-44 1945-49 1950-54 1955-59 Based on a p p e n d ix table 34 B. Outlook for the 1960's Output per man-hour is expected by many authorities to continue to rise, although prob ably at a slower rate than in the 1947-59 period* In underground mining, substantial gains are expected as continuous mining machines are adapted to thin seams; haulage is further mechanized; and new mines designed for mechanical mining are opened. The virtual completion of mechanical load ing installations, on the other hand, eliminates an important source for gains in output per man hour. In surface mining, moderate advances are likely as larger and more specialized equipment is utilized; the shift from underground to surface operations, significant in raising industry produc tivity in the past, is likely to be slow. Future technological improvements depend on operators' investment decisions and therefore will be influenced by the outlook for sales, costs, interest, taxes, and profits. Coal production is expected to rise substantially above 1959 output during the 1960's according to a number of industry experts. Underlying the anticipated growth are forecasts of a rising demand for coal and a relatively stable coal price. Increased consumption of coal will result primarily from the increasing demand for electricity and the increasing importance of coal in gener ating electric power. Lesser increases are forecast for other industrial uses, largely iron and steel. Major reductions in coal consumption are not foreseen because railroads and residential heating have almost completely converted to other fuels, and atomic energy is not yet fully com petitive for generating electric power. Stable prices are predicted on the basis of a continuing stability of unit labor costs arising from increases in output per man-hour; reduced costs of trans porting coal to places of consumption; from increased competition among shipping services; and relatively greater pressure for price increases by the oil and natural gas industries. Employment is expected (on the basis of the forecasts for productivity and production discussed above) to stabilize or increase only slowly, after further decline. Prospects for ex pansion are limited: continued gains in productivity will probably hold employment well below past levels. If coal production increases at the rate that gross national product is expected to in crease, while productivity slows to its long-term rate of growth, the number of mineworkers employed in 1975 will be no higher than in 1959. Unemp 1oyment is likely to continue to be a serious problem in coal mining areas until new jobs in other industries are provided for miners now displaced, and for those who will be displaced as older mines are abandoned. 74 Outlook tor Employment in Bituminous Coal Mining, 1960-1975 Estimated S . 1960 + 1947 — 1959 D E C L IN E D SH ARPLY as productivity increased rapidly and production declined. Employment -1975 Appendix Tables Table !• Estimated Recoverable Mineral-Fuel Reserves of the United States, Including Alaska, January 1, 1960 Reserves (quadrillion B*t*u*fs) Percent of total fuel reserves Kind of fuel Proved Total potential Proved Total potential Total *••••••••••*••*•••••**•••*•••*••••••**••*•••• 6,200 28,515 100.0 100.0 Coal •*••••••**••......... ••••••••••••••••*....... Petroleum, including natural gas liquids •••••••••• Natural gas ••••••...... ••••••••••••••••••.... ••• Bitumen from bituminous sandstone •••••••••*•••••*• Oil from oil shale •••••••••..... *••••»•••••**•••• 5,400 215 285 10 290 22,000 2,355 1,100 60 3,000 87.1 3*5 4.6 .1 4.7 77.2 8.3 3.9 .1 10.5 Note: The exact magnitude of fuel reserves is indeterminate because of the necessity of making assumptions regard ing geological deposits and future economic and technological trends* For an extensive discussion of the problem of estimating reserves, see Schurr and Netschert, Energy in the American Economy* 1850-1975* pp. 295-346* John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, I960* Source: Mineral Facts* I960, U*S* Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines* 76 Table 2A* Bituminous Coal Mining: State Production Thousands Rank of tons Per cent 412,028 Total •*••*•••••*•••••• West Virginia ....... Pennsylvania •••••••••• Kentucky •••••«*••••••• Illinois ............ O h i o............... Virginia ............ Indiana ••••••*•••••••• Alabama •*•*•••••*•*•*• Tennessee *****...... Michigan ••*••••••**••• New York.... *....... North Dakota ••••*••••• Montana •••••*•*•*•*••• Wyoming ••••••••••*•••• Colorado ••••••***.... Utah ******.......... Washington •••••**••••• New Mexico •••••••••••• Missouri ............ Volume of Production, Employment, Proved Reserves, and Distribution of Coal Shipments by Major Producing State, 1959 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100.0 119,692 65,347 62,810 45,466 35,112 29,769 14,804 11,947 5,913 mm mm 29*1 15.9 15.3 11.1 8.5 7.2 3.6 2.9 1.4 •— mm mm mm mm mm mm mm Employment Number of Rank workers •• • Per cent 179,636 1 2 3 5 6 4 9 7 8 100.0 53,847 36,323 27,428 10,548 9,275 15,652 3,672 6,694 5,238 •• 30.0 20.2 15.3 5.9 5.2 8.7 2.0 3.7 2.9 — 6 mm 5 3 10 mm 15 12 mm Per cent 1,899.739 Rank Reserves Billions of tons 100*0 105,762 72,376 118,973 137,009 82,972 10,833 35,215 65,848 24,985 5.6 3.8 6.3 7.2 4.4 .6 1.9 3.5 1.3 mm mm mm mm mm a»«» mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm 350,756 221,719 120,788 99,440 92,904 63,588 61,509 78.828 18.5 11.7 6.4 5.2 4.9 3.3 3.2 4.1 mm Distribution Millions Rank of tons 369.988 100*0 46,021 .. 39,720 50,071 •• 31,000 12.5 mm 2 mm 3 1 mm 4 mm mm mm 5 6 27,231 22,974 mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm Other western States •• mm mm mm mm — mm mm 154,632 8.1 mm mm Other States ••••*••••• mm 21,168 5.0 mm mm 1,602 <l/> mm 152,971 1/ mm 8.4 mm mm 6.0 mm 10.7 13.5 mm 1 2 4 7 8 13 14 11 10,959 Per cent 7.4 6.2 mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm — mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm 41.4 Less than 0*1 percent* Note: Production is in net (marketable) tons produced by mines with annual output of 1,000 net tons or more* Employment is the average number of men working daily* Reserves are estimates of original gross reserves less production to January 1, 1959* Distribution is the quantity of coal transported into a State or produced for consumption there dur ing a calendar year* Because of rounding, the components may not add to totals shown* Source: U*S* Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines* 77 621946 0 - 6 1 - 6 Table 2B. Bituminous Coal Mining: Year Total Value of Production, 1920-60 Total Year Total 1940 ........................ 1 9 4 1 ........................ 1942 ........................ 1943 ........................ 1944 ........................ $879,327,227 1,125,362,836 1,373,990,608 1,584,644,477 1,810,900,542 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ....................... . ........................ ........................ ........................ ........................ 1,768,204,320 1,835,539,476 2,622,634,946 2,993,267,021 2,136,870,571 795,483,000 588,895,000 406,677,000 445,788,000 628,383,000 1950 ....... ................. 1 9 5 1 ........................ 1952 ........................ 1953 ........................ 1954 ........................ 2,500,373,779 2,626,030,137 2,289,180,401 2,247,828,694 1,769,619,723 658,063,000 770,955,000 864,042,000 678,653,000 728,348,366 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 2,092,382,737 2,412,004,151 2,504,406,042 1,996,281,274 1,965,606,901 1,953,490,000 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 $2,129,933,000 1,199,983,600 1,274,820,000 1,514,621,000 1,062,626,000 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1,060,402,000 1,183,412,000 1,029,657,000 933,774,000 952,781,000 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 ........................ ........................ ........................ ........................ ........................ ........................ Note: Total value represents the value of total production based on the average selling price per ton (f.o.b. mine). Coal not sold is valued at average selling price. Data for 1960 are preliminary. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 78 Table 3A. Bituminous Coal Mining: Size of mine All mines 500 employees and over •••••••••••••• 100 to 499 employees 10 to 99 employees ••#••••••••••••••• 1 to 9 employees ••••••••••••••••.••• Concentration of Employment, Production and Assets by Size Class, Selected Years Employment, 1958 Percent Number of of mines workers Number of mines 7,381 165,697 41 340 26,236 75,363 43,667 20,431 2 ,0 2 0 4.980 500,000 tons or more 100,000 to 499,000 tons ............ 1 0 , 0 0 0 to 9 9 , 0 0 0 tons Less than 10,000 t o n s ............ . 0 .6 4.6 27.4 67.4 Production, 1959 Percent Millions of mines of tons Number of mines All mines •••••••••••••••••••••••••«• 1 0 0 .0 412.0 7,719 205.4 116.3 70.1 212 509 2,331 4,667 2 0 .2 Total assets (thousands of dollars) 1 0 0 .0 2.7 6 .6 30.2 60.5 Assets , 1957 Percent Number or of all A m n ilJ l s i v v R ip ofln 4 6 9 companies All corporate returns •••••...... . 2,359,733 1,549 $50,000,000 and above .............. $1,000,000 to $49,000,000 .......... $100,000 to $999,000 ............... Under $100,000 ...... .............. 982,384 1,161,622 193,198 22,529 7 199 564 779 100.0 .5 1 2 .8 Percent of employment 1 0 0 .0 15.8 45.5 26.4 12.3 Percent of total tonnage 1 0 0 .0 49.9 28.2 17.0 4.9 Percent of industry assets 1 0 0 .0 41.7 49.1 36.4 50.3 Source: Employment and production data are from U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. Assets data are from U.S. Treasury Department, Internal Revenue Service. 79 8 .2 1.0 Table 3B. Bituminous Coal Production in Captive Mines, by Industry Ownership, 1936 and 1950*60 /In thousands of tons? Total Percent of total U.S. production Steel Railroads Electric utilities ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. 81,880 86,881 94,506 81,062 90,931 74,057 86,545 84,568 88,612 68,728 64,622 19.7 17.0 17.7 17.4 19.9 18.9 18.6 16.9 18.0 16.7 15.7 ... 63,305 53,818 66,363 54,726 65,282 62,953 68,245 52,581 48,142 ••• 11,755 8,719 7,187 3,836 2,949 2,239 1,317 500 184 ... 10,037 10,163 10,207 10,198 11,129 11,697 11,733 9,547 9,554 -— 9,409 8,362 7,174 5,297 7,185 7,679 7,317 6,100 6,742 I960 ....... .......... 68,044 16.5 52,515 171 9,314 6,044 Year 1936 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 Other mmm Notes A captive mine is one in which 40 percent or more of total production is billed to an owning, controlling, or affiliated corporation. Dashes indicate data not available. Data for 1960 are preliminary. Sources: Data for 1950*60 are from Bituminous Coal Facts, published by National Coal Association. from National Bureau of Economic Research, Minimum Price Fixing in the Bituminous Coal Industry. 80 Data for 1936, Table 4A. Bituminous Coal Mining! Fixed Capital (Plant and Equipment) per Worker, Selected Years, 1870-1958 (Based on estimates of the National Bureau of Economic Research*) Year 1870 .......... 1880 ......... 1889 ......... 1909 ......... 1 9 1 9 ...... . 1929 .......... 1939 ......... 1948 .......... 1953 ....... . 1958 ..... . Fixed capital— (plant and equipment) (1929 dollars, millions) Workers (wage earners~NBfiR) (thousands) 23,3 40,2 42 109 169 488 546 459 371 412 268 174 100,6 605.9 882.8 700.0 394.9 521,8 596.2 570.7 Fixed capital per worker Value 1 Index (1929 dollars) 555 367 595 1,242 1,617 1,525 1,064 1,267 2,223 3,276 36,4 24.1 39.0 81,4 106.0 100,0 69.8 83.1 145.8 214.8 Average annual percent change in value per period -4.0 5.5 3.7 2.7 - ,6 -3.5 2 .0 11.9 8.1 Average annual rates of change for selected periods Period Fixed capital Workers Fixed capital per worker 1880-1919— Growth period 1919-39— Post-World War I 1948-58— Post-World War II ..,...... ....... . 8.3 -3.9 .9 4.2 -1.9 •8«2 3.9 - 2.1 10.0 Sources! Data on fixed capital (plant and equipment) per worker (wage earner) for 1870-1948 from Capital and Output Trends in Mining Industries, 1870-1948, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1954, Estimate for 1953, from NBER, 1$5&, estimated by the Bureau of Labor Statistics on basis of National Bureau of Economic Research methods and sources. Data for workers, 1953 and 1958, represent Bureau of Labor Statistics production worker employment figures raised to levels implicit in National Bureau of Economic Research estimates. Bureau of Labor Statistics data as published in Employment and Earnings are: 410,8 (1948), 267,5 (1953), and 173,8 (1958), Average annual rates of change derived by compound interest method. 81 Table 4B, Bituminous Coal Mining! Installed Horsepower and Electrical Energy Consumed, Selected Years, 1909-54 Installed Horsepower Electrical energy consumed Per worker Per worker Year Total Amount 1909 1919 1929 1939 1954 ............. ••••*........ ............. .......... . ............. Note! 1,230,635 2,157,946 3,125,103 3,364,731 6,167,484 Percent change from previous census year 3 4 7 9 31 Total (millions of kw* hrs.) Amount (millions of kw* hrs*) Percent change from previous census year mm 25*0 75.0 28*6 244*4 mm 2,509 2,574 3,760 •• 5*8 6.9 18*8 mm mm 18*9 172*5 Dashes indicate data not available* Source! Census of Minerals Industries, 1954 (table 1, page 12A-4), U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census* 82 Table 5A. Year Bituminous Coal Mining! Percent of Underground Coal Mechanically Cut and Loaded, 1920*60 Coal mined underground 1 Coal mined underground 1 Percent Percent 1--------------------Percent Percent 1 Year machine cut machine loaded machine loaded machine cut mm 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 60.7 66.4 64.8 68.3 71.5 0.3 .7 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 72.9 73.8 74.9 76.9 78.4 1.9 3.3 4.5 7.4 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 81.0 83.2 84.1 84.7 84.1 10.5 13.1 12.3 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 84.2 84.8 13.5 16.3 1940 ............ 1 9 4 1 ............ 1942 ............ 1943 ............ 1944 ............ mm 1.2 mm 35.4 40.7 45.2 48.9 52.9 ............ ....... . ............ ............ ............ 90.8 90.8 90.0 90.7 91.4 56.1 58.4 60.7 64.3 67.0 92.6 94.9 95.1 95.7 94.5 69.4 73.1 75.6 79.6 84.0 96.1 95.5 95.8 94.9 95.3 84.6 84.0 84.8 84.9 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 12.0 12.2 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 20.2 87.5 87.9 88.4 89.0 89.7 90.3 90.5 1950 ............ 1 9 5 1 ............ 1952 ............ 1953 ............ 1954 ............ mm 26.7 31.0 ............ ............. ............ ............. ..... ....... ............ mm 86.0 91.3 Note: The percent mined by continuous mining machines is included in both the percent machine cut and percent machine loaded. Dashes indicate data not available. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 83 Table 5B. Bituminous Coal Mining: Year 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 Conveyors in Underground Mines and Percent of Coal Hauled Percent of total underground coal produced in mines with conveyors ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... Number (units) 8.6 by Conveyors, 1945*59 Conveyors in use [Gathering and haulage) Average length (feet) Total length (miles) 21.1 359 457 594 755 860 1,438 1,484 1,470 1,460 1,514 97.6 128.5 165.3 208.8 246.7 1950 ................... 1 9 5 1 ................... 1952 ................... 1953 ................... 1954 ................... 23.5 23.9 25.9 28.7 28.8 1,013 1,094 1,066 1,042 1,081 1,538 1,568 1,526 1,541 1,626 294.9 325.0 308.2 303.9 332.9 ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... 28.4 34.6 38.0 40.2 44.7 1,002 1,682 1,656 1,672 1,711 1,723 319.6 349.4 390.6 400.3 462.1 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 Note: 10.9 14.4 17.8 1,114 1,233 1,235 1,416 Conveyors include only gathering and haulage conveyors of 500 feet or more in length. Data for earlier years are not available. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 84 Table 6A. Bituminous Coal Mining: Number of continuous mining machines in use Year Extent of Use of Continuous Mining Machines, 1950-59 Number of mines using continuous mining machines exclusively 1950 ............. 1 9 5 1 ............. 1952 ............. 1953 ............. 1954 ............. 152 219 325 7 13 17 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 385 510 614 679 776 •• 21 ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .... ......... Note: Source: mm mm mm 24 33 45 59 -- Dashes indicate data not available. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 85 Mined by continuous mining machines Thousands of tons Percent of total underground production 0.8 3,143 6,241 8,215 11,830 16,336 1.5 2.3 3.4 5.7 27,460 39,907 53,783 56,373 65,792 77,928 10.9 14.9 19.7 23.2 31.7 8.0 Table 6B. Bituminous Coal Mining: Tons Per Man-Day, by Method of Mining and Loading, 1959 Average tons per man-day Percent continuous mining exceeds other methods Percent of underground production All underground mining ..••••........ ••••••••••• 10.08 38.6 100.0 Continuous mining 13.97 mm 5.8 Mixed continuous and conventional mining •••••••• 11.33 23.3 38.4 Conventional mining: With mechanical loading With hand loading only •••••••••••••••••••.•••• 11.26 5.73 24.1 143.8 42.3 13.5 Method Note: Source: Conventional mining with mechanical loading excludes production by continuous mining machines. "I960 Sales: Coal-Mining and Cleaning Equipment," Coal Age, February 1961, table II, p. 84. 86 Table 7A. Bituminous Coal Mining: Jin Under* ground 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 568,667 415,922 422,268 564,565 483,687 559,807 410,865 412,059 552,625 470,080 8,860 5,057 10,209 11,940 13,607 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 520,053 573,367 517,763 500,745 534,989 503,182 556,444 499,385 480,956 514,721 16,871 16,923 18,378 19,789 20,268 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 467,526 382,089 309,710 333,630 359,368 447,684 363,157 290,069 315,360 338,578 19,842 18,932 19,641 18,270 20,790 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 372,373 439,088 445,531 348,545 394,855 348,726 410,962 413,780 318,138 357,133 23,647 28,126 31,751 30,407 37,722 Note: Source: thousands of net tons7 Surface Strip Auger Total Year Distribution of Production,by Method of Mining, 1920*60 Total Under* ground 1940 ....... 1941....... 1942 ....... 1943 ....... 1944 ....... 460,771 514,149 582,693 590,177 619,576 417,604 459,078 515,490 510,492 518,678 43,167 55,071 67,203 79,685 100,898 mm 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ....... ....... ....... ......... ....... 577,617 533,922 630,624 599,518 437,868 467,630 420,958 491,229 460,012 331,823 109,987 112,964 139,395 139,506 106,045 mm 1950 ....... 1951....... 1952 ....... 1953 ....... 1954 ........ 516,311 533,665 466,841 457,290 391,706 392,844 416,047 356,425 349,551 289,112 123,467 117,618 108,910 105,448 98,134 1,506 2,291 4,460 ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... 464,633 500,874 492,704 410,446 412,028 413,000 343,465 365,774 360,649 286,884 283,434 285,000 115,093 127,055 124,109 116,242 120,953 120,000 6,075 8,045 7,946 7,320 7,641 8,000 Y e a r Its B I T mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 mm mm mm mm mm Data for 1960 are preliminary. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 87 Surface Auger Strip - • mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm Table 7B. Percent Distribution of Production,by Method of Mining, 1920-60 Under ground .......... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 90.6 89.3 88.5 86.5 83.7 9.4 10.7 11.5 13.5 16.3 1945 ........ . 1946 .............. 1947 ........ 1948 ..... . 1949 ........ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 81.0 78.9 77.9 76.7 75.8 19.0 21.1 22.1 23.3 24.2 1950 ..... 1951........ 1952 ......... 1953 ......... 1954 .......... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 76.1 78.0 76.4 76.4 73.8 23.9 22.0 23.3 23.1 25.1 #5 1.1 ..... ........ ........ ......... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 73.9 73.0 73.2 69.9 68.8 69.0 24.8 25.4 25.2 28.3 29.3 29.1 1.3 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.9 1.9 Underground ____ ........ ........ ......... ........ 100*0 100*0 100*0 100.0 100*0 98.5 98.8 97.6 97.9 97.2 1.5 1.2 2.4 2.1 2.8 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 ........ 96.8 97.0 96.4 96.0 96.2 3.2 3.0 3.6 4.0 3.8 ..... . Surface Strip Auger 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 ........ ........ ........ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100*0 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 ........ ........ ..••••••.. ...... . ........ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 95.7 95.0 93.7 94.5 94.2 4.3 5.0 6.3 5.5 5.8 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 ........ ........ .... . . ........ ....... . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 93.6 93.6 92.9 91.3 90.4 6.4 6.4 7.1 8.7 9.6 . .............. Note: Source: Year mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 mm mm mm mm mm Data for 1960 are preliminary* U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines* Surface Auger Strip Total Total Year 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 Bituminous Coal Mining: 88 ..... ........ . ......... ........ ........ mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm .3 Table 8A. Year Bituminous Coal Minings Total 1920 1921 .. ......... 1922 . . . . . . . . . . 1923 .......... 1924 4*00 1925 . a s . . . . . . . 1926 1927 1928 .... a . . . . 1929 .. ......... Underground Average Tons Produced per Man-Day, by Type o£ Mining* 1920-60 Strip 3*97 4*18 4*24 4*50 7.20 8.28 8.09 9*32 9.91 4# 52 4# 50 4*55 4*73 4*85 4*45 4*42 4*47 4*61 4*73 11.18 11.13 11.06 13.02 14.08 1930 1931 e a a a a . a a a a 1932 1933 .......... 1934 5*06 5*30 5#22 4* 78 4*40 4*93 5*12 4*99 4*60 4* 23 16.21 17.68 16.95 13.59 13.28 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 4*50 4*62 4*69 4*89 5# 25 4* 32 4.42 12.01 mm 13.91 mm a* as mm mm 4*60 4.92 15*00 14*68 mm . a f a a a a a .a .. ....... ... t f .a a a a a a a .a a .a a a a a a 4# 20 4*28 4«47 4*56 4*43 Year Auger msas mm mm mm mm eees mm mm mm mm mm mm Total Underground Strip Auger asas 1940 . . . . . . . . . . 1941 ......... 1942 .......... 1943 .......... 1944 . ......... 5*19 5*20 5*12 5*38 5.67 4.86 4.83 4.74 4.89 5.04 15.63 15.59 15.52 15.15 15.89 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 .......... .... .... ......... .......... ........ * 5.78 6.30 6.42 6.26 6*43 5.04 5.43 5.49 5.31 5.42 15.46 15.73 15.93 15.28 15.33 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... 6.77 7.04 7.47 8.17 9.47 5.75 6.08 6.37 7.01 7.99 15.66 16.02 16.77 17.62 19.64 20.07 25.30 24.12 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 . . . . . . . . . a 9.84 10.28 10.59 11*33 21.12 22.22 12.22 8.28 8.62 8.91 9.38 10.08 21.18 21.64 21.54 22.65 24.85 26.19 28.15 28.77 13.30 mm mm as * .......... .......... .......... .......... ...... .... asas asas asas asas rnm mm asas asas esas Note: Average tons produced per man-day represent the net marketable tons for the year divided by the total number of man-days worked by mineworkers* Bureau of Mines employment data do not cover some store and office workers* but include certain supervisory and technical workers excluded from BLS data on production workers* Dashes indicate data not available. Sources The figure for 1960 is an estimate for 11 months. U*S* Department of the Interior* Bureau of Mines* 89 Table 8B, Bituminous Coal Mining: Year Number of Draglines and Shovels in Use, by Type, 1932-59 Diesel and gasoline Electric and diesel electric 1932 ..................... . 1933 .......................... 1934 ............ ............. 61 103 149 121 ....... ................. ......... ....... ....... ......................... .......................... .......... ............... 194 223 139 151 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 105 117 mm mm Steam-powered 166 169 188 174 188 .. 142 206 440 524 155 184 697 911 194 180 210 200 1940 .......................... 1 9 4 1 ......................... 1942 ......... ................ 1943 ......................... 1944 ...... ................. 1,020 1,433 1,902 219 234 244 199 172 166 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ......................... ......................... ......................... ...... ................... ....... .................. 2,042 2,372 2,870 3,321 3,173 256 261 301 337 352 141 1950 ......................... 1 9 5 1 ......... ...... ......... 1952 ........................ . 1953 ......................... 1954 ................. ........ 3,487 3,438 3,184 3,075 2,991 348 346 321 317 381 42 26 19 17 18 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 2,940 3,279 3,228 2,922 315 421 489 588 524 10 .......................... .......................... ............ ............. .......................... ......... ......... ...... Note: Source: 2,886 Dashes indicate data not available* U*S* Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines* 90 111 83 54 51 5 6 5 7 Table 9. Year 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 •••••••• •••••••• •••••••• •••••••• •••••••• 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 •••••••• •••+•••• ..... «• •••••••• •••••••• 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 Number o£ processing plants onb mm mm Bituminous Coal Mining) Percent of coal mechanically cleaned 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.8 Trends in Coal Processing* 1920-59 Percent of refuse removed Percent of coal mechanically crushed Percent of coal dust treated Percent of coal thermally dried mm •• mm mm -— mm — mm m m mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm .. 236 280 5.3 5.7 6.9 mm mm mm -- mm mm mm « .• 8.6 mm #••••••• •••••••• •••••«•• •••••••• •••••••• 297 312 309 290 293 8.3 9.5 9.8 10.4 11.1 9.0 8.5 8.0 8.3 8.6 •••••••• »••••••• •••••••• •••••••♦ •••••••• 320 342 12.2 13.9 14.6 18.2 20.1 8.3 9.0 mm 374 366 — — — — mm mm mm mm mm mm mm — — -•• mm mm mm mm mm 10.9 10.6 mm mm 91 mm — See note and source at end of table. - — — Table 9* Bituminous Coal Minings Trends in Coal Processing, 1920-59— Continued Percent of coal mechanically crushed Number of processing plants Percent of coal mechanically cleaned Percent of refuse removed 1940 ...... 1941...... 1942 ...... 1943 ...... 1944 ...... 387 417 438 432 439 22*2 22,9 24.4 24*7 25.6 11.6 11.9 12.6 13.0 12.8 10.8 7.7 7.7 6.0 4.5 5.0 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... 439 445 461 502 571 25*6 26.0 27.7 30.2 35.1 14.5 15.3 15.6 16.0 16.8 12.3 12.5 14.1 15.3 17.7 5.8 6.9 8.2 8.4 9.5 1950 ...... 1951...... 1952 ...... 1953 ...... 1954 ...... 612 631 625 611 613 38.5 45.0 48.7 52.9 59.4 16.7 17.2 17.1 18.2 18.9 19.7 22.2 23.2 25.5 31.2 10.5 11.0 11.0 10.7 14.4 ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... 575 583 593 573 555 58.7 58.4 61.7 63.1 65.5 18.7 18.6 19.3 19.3 20.0 34.8 34.4 35.0 35.8 36.7 13.5 12.9 12.5 13.0 13.3 Year 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 Notes Sources 7.7 .. «. .. Dashes indicate data not available* U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines* 92 Percent of coal dust treated Percent of coal thermally dried mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm — m m mm mm mm — mm mm mm 12.2 13.3 Table 10A. Bituminous Coal Mining: Indexes of Output per Man-Hour and per Worker, 1920-60 /T947«10gy Output per— Year 1920 ........ 1921........ 1922 .... .,,, 1923 1924 ........ Production worker man-hour 59.2 62.1 63.2 6 6 .0 67.0 Production worker 63.5 44.6 42.9 56.0 54.6 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 ........ ........ ,,,,,.... ........ ...... . 6 6 .6 6 6 .1 67.1 69.5 71.5 61.8 67.5 61.0 67.0 74.3 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 ......... ......... ........ ...... . ........ 74.4 77.9 76.5 72.7 74.1 67.5 59.7 56.4 58.1 54.2 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 ........ ........ ......k... ..... . ........ 76.1 79.7 81.6 85.9 89.1 54.4 62.3 61.7 54.7 67.7 Output per— Year Employee 1940 ........ 1941........ 1942 ........ 1943 .......... 1944 ........ m m m m m m m m m m -—— m m Production worker man-hour Production worker Employee 91.4 70.5 79.4 81.7 90.0 98.4 71.4 80.4 82.7 91.1 99.7 94.2 97.8 100.4 95.8 101.4 96.6 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 93.0 75.7 92.7 75.0 94.8 96.8 95.8 106.6 115.5 143.2 147.7 144.2 141.4 165.1 174.9 92.6 93.0 91.6 8 8 .1 1945 1946 1947 I 1948 I 1I 1949 ..... ........ ........ .......... ....... . 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 ..... ......... ....... . ........ .....•••• 114.5 113.8 129.0 149.2 95.9 97.8 97.8 108.9 119.2 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 ........ ........ ........ ...... . ........ ........ 159.9 164.3 166.9 179.2 193.3 212.5 147.8 152.5 150.3 150.2 175.7 189.0 11 1 •• mm 68 .6 104.4 12 0 .1 Note: Indexes for 1920 to 1934, inclusive, have not been previously published. Indexes for 1960 are preliminary. Index of output per production worker man-hour are derived from an index of coal production based on Bureau of Mines data and from an index of man-hours based on BLS data on production worker employment and average weekly hours. The data on average weekly hours cover payroll hours, which include hours at the mine plus company paid sick leave, holidays, vacations* etc,, adjusted to exclude travel time for underground employees. Production worker employment covers production and related workers through the working foreman level, BLS data for all employees cover production and related workers and adminis trative, supervisory, professional, and clerical employees. Dashes indicate data not available. 93 621946 0 -6 1 - 7 Table 10B. Bituminous Coal Minings Indexes of Unit Labor Requirements, 1920-60 /I947-100? Labor requirements per unit Production All Production worker workers employees man-hours Year Year Labor requirements per unit Production Production All worker workers employees man-hours 1920 ........ 1921... ...*. 1922 ........ 1923 •*....... 1924 *....... 169.0 161*2 158*3 151.5 149*0 157.5 224.1 232.8 178.7 183.3 1940 ........ 1941....... 1942 ....... 1943 ........ 1944 ........ 140.1 124.4 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ 149*9 151.3 149*0 144.0 140*0 161.8 148.1 164.1 149.2 134.6 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ....... ....... ....... ........ ....... 98.6 103.5 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 ........ ........ ........ ....... . ........ 134.4 128.8 130.5 137*4 134*9 148.0 167.5 177.2 172.0 184.6 1950 ......... 1951..... 1952 ....... 1953 ....... 1954 ........ 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 ........ ........ ........ ........ ..... .*. 131.4 125.4 122.5 116.5 183.7 160.6 162.1 183.0 147.6 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 Note: table 10A. 145*7 1 1 2 .1 ....... ....... ....... ........ ....... ....... 12 0 .9 109.8 100.3 107.9 107.4 109.2 113.5 109.4 141.8 125.9 122.4 106.1 99.6 104.4 10 0 .0 10 2 .2 100.0 107.9 133.3 99.9 95.8 107.6 132.0 105.5 103.3 104.3 93.8 104.3 86.6 87.3 87.8 83.2 77.5 67.1 69.8 67.7 69.4 70.7 60.6 57.2 62.5 60.9 59.9 55.8 51.7 46.9 67.7 65.6 66.5 Indexes of unit labor requirements are the reciprocals of the indexes of output per man-hour, shown in Footnotes to table 10A applicable* Dashes indicate data not available* Data for 1960 are preliminary* 94 1 1 1 .1 10 1 .6 100.0 10 2 .2 102.3 91.9 83.9 66.6 56.9 52.9 Table IOC. Bituminous Coal Mining: Average Annual Rates of Change in Output per Man-Hour* Selected Periods* 1919-59 Average annual percent increase Average annual percent increase Postwar and preceding periods: 1919-47 ................ . 1 9 4 7 - 5 9 ............ a. me...me Note: Decade changes: 1919-29 .................... 1929-39 ..... ............... 1939-49 .................... 1949-59 .................... 1.9 6.1 2.0 1.8 1.4 6.4 Average annual increases calculated by least squares of the logarithms. Table 10D. Bituminous Coal Mining: Average Annual Rates of Change in Output per Man-Hour and Tons per Man-Day* 1949-59 Period Output per man-hour Production All workers employees Tons per man-day All mines Underground Strip Average annual percent increase 1949-54 ................. 1949-52 ............. 1952-54 ............. 6.0 4.3 10.7 6.5 4.2 11.5 7.6 5.0 12.6 7.7 5.6 12.0 4.8 3.0 8.2 1954-59 ................. 1954-57 .............. 1957-59 ............. 4.1 3.8 6.3 4.8 3.7 7.6 5.1 3.9 7.4 4.6 3.7 6.4 2.3 3.0 2.3 Note: Because of changes in the proportion of coal mined in underground and strip mines* the average annual rates of change in tons per man-day of all mines may lie outside the range of average changes shorn for the components. Average annual increases calculated by least squares of the logarithms. The indexes of output per all employee man-hour* underlying these calculations* are described in table 10A. Proportions mined in underground and strip mines are shown in table 7B. Sources: Output per man-hour from U.S. Department of Labor* Bureau of Labor Statistics. man-day from U.S. Department of the Interior* Bureau of Mines. 95 Tons per Table 11 • Indexes of Output per Man-Hour: Bituminous Coal Mining and Selected Major Sectors of the Economy, 1939-60 /1947-1007 Year Total private economy | Agriculture (Man-hours of all persons) Bituminous coal mining (Man-hours of all employees) | Nonagriculture 89.0 92.6 93.6 92.5 89.4 93.0 80.2 84.1 88.8 89.7 91.0 97.2 89.5 88.7 97.1 101.4 94.6 97.3 84.7 88.3 91.2 91.2 92.5 99.2 ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. 95.6 98.5 100.0 99.3 100.7 101.9 99.3 100.0 103.6 106.6 98.6 103.6 100.0 118.3 112.9 103.9 100.0 100.0 101.9 105.9 1950 .............. 1951..... ......... 1952 .............. 1953 .............. 1954 .............. 111.6 111.3 115.8 124.6 141.0 114.2 117.1 119.6 124.5 126.8 128.4 126.5 137.6 153.1 163.9 111.6 113.4 114.9 118.1 119.9 153.3 157.4 158.1 164.7 178.5 192.5 132.4 132.7 137.5 141.1 146.9 150.7 169.6 172.8 184.2 200.7 200.9 212.5 125.0 124.6 128.4 130.9 136.5 139.3 1939 .............. 1940.............. 1941.............. 1942 .............. 1943 .............. 1944 .............. 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. Note: Index of output per man-hour of all employees in bituminous coal has not been previously published. This index is based on an index of coal output and an index of man-hours for all employees derived from BLS published data on average weekly hours and employment of production workers and from BLS data on employment of nonproduction workers and an assumed constant 40-hour week* Proprietors and unpaid family workers are excluded from these estimates* The indexes of output per man-hour for the total private economy, agriculture and nonagriculture, are based on indexes of real product and indexes of man-hours of all persons engaged* Indexes of real product are based on a measure of value added in constant dollars and differ in concept from the physical output index used in the bituminous coal index* The man-hours indexes cover estimated hours of all persons engaged, including proprietors and unpaid family workers, and are based primarily on BLS establishment data* Indexes for 1960 are preliminary* 96 Table 12* Bituminous Coal Mining: Output per Man-Shift in Underground Coal Mines, United States and Europe, 1947 and 1959 Country 1947 1959 Percent increase, 1947-59 United States ..................... ............ . F r a n c e .... ....................... United K i n g d o m ...... ................... •••••••• West Germany ......................... . Belgium ................ ................. . The Netherlands ........................... ...... Poland ........................... . 5.49 1.05 1.61 1.32 .95 1.81 1.86 10.08 1.89 1.90 2.03 1.39 1.78 1.91 83.6 80.0 18.0 53.8 46.3 -1.7 2.7 Note: Data for the United States and other countries are not strictly comparable and may be used only as broad indicators of long-term trends. U.S. data are on a man-day basis and include all production and develop ment workers engaged in bituminous coal and lignite production. European data are on an undefined man-shift basis, include only underground workers, and exclude the production of lignite. Source: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe; U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 97 Table 13* Bituminous Coal Mining: Output Per Man-Day in the United States and U.S.S.R., Selected Years Levels of output per man-day (short tons) U eSeSeRe United States Total 1940 1945 1950 1955 1957 1958 1959 ................... ................... ................... ................... .......... ........ ................... ................... Underground Strip Total 5.19 5.78 6.77 9.84 10.59 11.33 12.22 4.86 5.04 5.75 8.28 8.91 9.38 10.08 15.63 15.46 15.66 21.12 21.64 21.54 22.65 1.46 1.07 1.43 1.84 1.91 1.95 Underground 1.42 .96 1.32 1.58 mm Strip 3.19 3.92 4.61 8.41 mm mm mm — mm Indexes of output per man-day (1945*100) 1940 1945 1950 1955 1957 1958 1959 .................... ................... ................... .................. . ................... ................... ................... 89.8 100.0 117.1 170.2 183.2 196.0 209.7 101.1 100.0 101.3 136.6 140.0 139.3 96.4 100.0 114.1 164.3 176.8 186.1 mm 136.4 100.0 133.6 178.5 178.5 182.2 mm 147.9 100.0 137.5 164.6 81.4 100.0 117.6 214.5 mm « •« » mm mm mm mm Note: U.S.S.R. data include anthracite production and are for mines under the Ministry of Coal Indus* tries only* Dashes indicate data not available* Sources: Some Aspects of the Coal Industry of the U*S*S«R** Information Circular No* 7876 and published materials* U.S. Department of the Interior* Bureau of Mines* 98 Table 14* Year Production (thousands of net tons) Bituminous Coal Mining: Production Trends, 1920-60 Indexes of production (1947-100) Bitumi nous coal Year Production (thousands of net tons) Indexes of production (1947-100) Indus trial Produc tion Indus trial Produc tion Total private GNP 45.0 41.0 48.1 54.3 54.1 1940 ..... 1941.... 1942 ..... 1943 .... 1944 ..... 460,772 514,149 582,693 590,177 619,576 73.1 81.5 92.4 93.6 98.2 105.7 126.3 124.3 100.1 .... ..... ..... ..... ..... 577,617 533,922 630,623 599,518 437,868 91.6 84.7 107.3 90.1 99.0 97.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 95.0 69.3 104.3 98.5 104.1 103.5 Bitumi nous coal Total private GNP 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 568,667 416,922 422,268 564,565 483,687 90.2 67.0 89.6 76.7 39.9 30.7 38.9 46.5 43.5 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 520,053 573,367 517,763 500,745 534,989 82.5 91.0 82.1 79.4 84.9 48.0 50.8 50.7 52.9 58.5 58.8 62.2 61.9 62.4 6 6 .1 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 467,526 382,089 309,710 333,631 359,368 74.2 60.6 49.1 52.9 57.0 48.7 40.3 31.6 37.2 40.4 59.2 54.7 46.1 44.3 48.2 1950 .... 1951.... 1952 ..... 1953 ..... 1954 ..... 516,311 533,665 466,841 457,290 391,706 81.9 84.6 73.9 72.4 62.0 114.1 123.7 128.5 139.2 130.8 113.0 119.9 123.5 130.2 127.5 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 372,373 439,088 445,581 348,545 394,855 59.1 69.6 70.7 55.3 62.6 4 6 .8 53.4 60.3 64.6 60.9 66.4 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 464,633 500,874 492,704 410,446 412,428 413,000 73.6 79.3 78.0 64.9 65.2 65.5 147.1 152.2 153.3 142.4 160.6 165.7 138.9 141.8 144.6 141.6 151.9 156.0 66.0 55.4 60.6 47.9 58.4 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 66.9 8 6 .1 72.5 83.2 90.5 95.0 Note: The index of bituminous coal production is based on the total net production in tons. The index of industrial production (from the Federal Reserve Board) combines indexes for bituminous coal and other industries with value added weights; the index of private GNP is based on the value added in constant dollars for industries in the private sector. Data for 1960 are preliminary. Sources: Data on bituminous coal production are from the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines; index of industrial production are from the Federal Reserve Board; and index of private GNP, from the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 99 Table IS. Bituminous Coal Mining: Trends in Capacity and Capacity Utilization. 1920-60 Capaci ty (millions of tons) Idle capacity (millions of tons) Percent of capacity utilized Year 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 725 781 832 885 792 156 365 410 320 308 78.2 53.3 50.8 63.8 61,1 1940 ........ 1941........ 1942 ........ 1943 ........ 1944 ........ 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 748 747 759 691 679 228 174 241 190 144 69.5 76.8 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 700 669 594 559 565 232 287 284 225 206 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 582 618 646 602 621 210 Year 179 200 253 226 66.8 57.1 52.1 59.7 63.6 64.0 71.0 69.0 57.9 Percent of capacity utilized 663 626 624 178 152 80 36 4 72.1 77.1 87.9 94.3 99.3 ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ 620 699 755 774 781 42 165 124 174 343 93.2 76.4 83.6 77.5 56.1 1950 ........ 1951........ 1952 ........ 1953 ........ 1954 ........ 6 8 .2 72.5 78.8 Idle capacity (millions of tons) 790 736 703 670 603 274 65.2 72.5 66.4 68.3 65.0 ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ 620 655 680 625 614 591 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 6 3 .6 Capacity (millions of tons) 639 666 202 236 203 2 11 155 154 187 215 202 178 74.9 76.5 72.5 65.7 67.1 69.9 Note: The Bureau of Mines defines capacity as the industry's potential output if all mines operated 280 days per year at that year's average output per day* The 280-day standard was suggested by the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers. Idle capacity represents capacity less actual production. Percent of capacity utilized represents production divided by capacity. Data for I960 are estimated. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 100 Table 16* Bituminous Coal Minings Changing Structure of Employment Production, and Assets, Selected Years Employment 1948 Percent change, 1948*58 Size class Number of employees Number of mines Percent of employment Percent of mines Number of employees Number of mines All mines ••••••••••••••••••• 386,263 7.633 100.0 -57.1 - 3.3 500 employees and over ••«... 100 to 499 employees 10 to 99 employees •••••••••. 1 to 9 employees 81,694 200,396 83,950 20,223 10 0.0 2 1 .1 1.5 927 2,864 3,731 -67.9 -62.4 -48.0 -63.1 -63.3 -29.5 33.5 111 51.9 2 1 .8 5.2 1 2 .1 37.5 48.9 Production 1 .0 Share of employment mm -25.2 -12.3 2 1 .1 136.5 Percent change, 1947*59 1947 Percent Millions of tons Number of mines All mines 630.5 8.700 100.0 500,000 tons and over ••••••• 100,000 to 499,000 tons ..... 10,000 to 99,000 tons...... Less than 10,000 tons .••••«. 261.7 243.4 109.8 15.6 303 1,116 3,369 3,912 41.5 38.6 17.4 2.5 or to t a l tonnage Percent of mines Millions of tons Number of mines 10 0 .0 -34.7 -11.3 3.5 -21.5 -52.2 -36.2 29.5 -30.0 -54.4 -30.8 19.3 1 2 .8 38.7 45.0 Share of production mm 20.2 -26.9 - 2.3 96.0 Assets 1947 Percent change, 1947-57 Number of corporate returns Total assets (thousands) Percent of industry assets Percent of all corporate returns All corporate returns ••••... 1.598 1.785,310 100.0 10 0.0 - 3.1 32.2 $50,000,000 and above .*••••• $1,000,000 to $49,000,000 ... $100,000 to $999,000 ...... Under $100,000 2 283,215 1,213,992 265,179 22,924 15.9 67.9 14.9 1.3 0 .1 260 730 606 16.3 45.7 37.9 250.0 -23.4 -22.7 28.5 246.9 - 4.3 -27.1 - 1.7 Note: Number of corporate returns Total assets (thousands) Share of assets 162.3 -27.7 -45.0 -23.1 See table 3A for comparison data* Source: Employment data are from Accident Analysis Reports, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines; production data, Minerals Yearbook, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines; assets data, Statistics of Income, Corporations, U.S. Treasury Department, Internal Revenue Service. 101 Table 17A. Bituminous Coal Mining: Consumption of Mineral Fuels and Waterpower in the United States, 1920*60 /in trillion B.t.u.*si7 Year Total Bitu minous coal and lignite Petro leum prod ucts Natural gas Other Year Total Bitu minous coal and lignite Petro leum prod ucts Natural gas Other 1,273 2,954 2,738 2,118 2,935 2,735 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 .... .... .... .... .... 23,908 26,625 27*897 30,442 31,821 11,290 12,893 14,149 15,557 15,447 7,487 8,204 7,667 8,228 9,261 2,969 3,215 3,469 3,860 4,217 2,162 2,313 2,612 2,797 2,896 4,156 4,331 4,377 4,763 5,294 1,336 1,484 1,644 1,788 2,188 2,328 2,726 2,712 2,761 2,662 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 .... .... .... .... .... 31,541 30,494 32,870 33,994 31,604 14,661 13,110 14,302 13,622 11,673 9,619 9,987 10,803 11,938 11,459 4,464 4,582 5,082 5,652 5,949 2,797 2,815 2,683 2,782 2,523 11,921 9,743 8,041 8,323 9,008 5,652 4,965 4,590 4,844 4,818 2 ,2 1 2 2,503 2,176 2,009 1,989 2,131 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 .... .... .... .... .... 34,153 36,913 36,576 37,697 36,360 11,900 12,285 10,971 11,182 9,512 12*706 13,974 14,380 15,092 15,090 6,933 1,915 1,752 1,744 1,980 8,714 9,162 9,596 2,614 2,532 2,511 2,261 2,162 9,336 10,697 11,286 8,811 9,854 5,499 6,124 6,604 6,465 6,841 2,143 2,405 2,676 2,557 2,760 2,129 2,192 2,185 2,047 2,134 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 .... .... .... .... .... .... 39,956 42,007 41,920 41,483 43,411 44,864 11,104 11,338 10,838 9,607 9,596 9,928 16,328 17,418 17,328 17,418 18,307 18,616 10,428 11,043 11,658 12,235 13,339 14,125 2,096 2,208 2,096 2,223 2,169 2,195 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 .... .... .... .... .... 19,782 16,410 17,215 21,685 20,453 13,325 10,266 11,185 13,598 12,681 2,634 2,674 3,071 4,030 3,764 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 .... .... .... .... .... 20,899 22,495 21,828 22,381 23,756 13,079 13,954 13,095 13,069 13,612 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 .... .... .... .... .... 22,288 18,799 16,392 16,900 17,937 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 .... .... .... .... .... 19,107 21,418 22,751 19,880 21,589 869 732 841 1 ,1 2 2 8 ,1 2 2 Note: Data through 1959 are on a 48-State basis, except bituminous coal and lignite, which Include Alaska for all years* Data for 1960 are on a 50-State basis* Other includes sum of waterpower and anthracite* In I960, waterpower equaled 1,766 trillion B.t.u.'s and anthracite, 429 trillion B.t.u.'s. Data for 1960 are preliminary. Source: U*S* Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 102 Table 17B. Year Bituminous Coal Mining: Total Bitu minous coal end lignite Petro leum prod ucts Percent Distribution o£ Consumption of Mineral Fuels and Waterpower in the United States, 1920-60 Natural gas Other Year Total Bitu minous coal and lignite Petro leum prod ucts Natural gas Other 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 67.4 62.6 65.0 62.7 62.0 13.3 16.3 17.8 18.6 18.4 4.4 4.4 4.9 5.2 6.2 14.9 16.7 12.3 13.5 13.4 1940 .... 1941.... 1942 .... 1943 .... 1944 .... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 47.2 48.4 50.7 51.1 48.5 31.4 30.8 27.5 27.1 29.1 12.4 12.1 12.4 12.6 13.3 9.0 8.7 9.4 9.2 9.1 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 62.6 62.0 60.0 58.4 57.3 19.9 19.3 20.0 21.3 22.3 6.4 6.6 7.5 8.0 9.2 11.1 12.1 12.5 12.3 11.2 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 .... .... .... .... .... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 46.5 43.0 43.5 40.1 36.9 30.5 32.8 32.9 35.1 36.3 14.1 15.0 15.5 16.6 18.8 8.9 9.2 8.1 8.2 8.0 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 53.5 51.8 49.1 49.2 50.2 25.4 26.4 28.0 28.6 26.8 9.9 10.2 10.7 10.4 11.1 11.2 11.6 12.2 11.8 11.9 1950 ..... 1951.... 1952 .... 1953 .... 1954 .... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 34.8 33.3 30.0 29.7 26.2 37.2 37.9 39.4 40.0 41.5 20.3 22.0 23.8 24.3 26.3 7.7 7.8 6.8 6.0 6.0 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 48.9 49.9 49.6 44.3 45.6 28.8 28.6 29.1 32.5 31.7 11.2 11.3 11.7 12.9 12.8 11.1 10.2 9.6 10.3 9.9 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 27.8 27.0 25.8 23.1 22.1 22.1 40.8 41.5 41.4 42.0 42.2 41.5 26.1 26.3 27.8 29.5 30.7 31.5 5.3 5.2 5.0 5.4 5.0 4.9 Note: Based on table 17A. end anthracite, 1*0 percent* Other includes sum of waterpower and anthracite* Data for 1960 are preliminary* Source: .... .... .... ..... .... .... U.S* Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 103 In 1960, waterpower equaled 3.9 percent Table 18A* Consumption of Bituminous Coal, by Major Consumption Classes, 1933-60 j£ln thousands of tons7 Retai1 deliveries Industrial use, except coke Coke ovens glectric utilities Exports 72,548 76,037 77,396 83,507 100,564 108,585 40,089 45,978 27,088 29,707 9,037 10,869 366,068 418,948 443,922 346,711 387,688 77,109 86,391 88,080 73,921 79,072 80*444 80,044 76,331 66,498 68,770 117,322 137,812 150,819 112,796 122,438 50,515 65,942 74,502 46,626 63,514 30,936 38,104 41,045 36,440 42,304 9,742 10,655 13,145 10,430 11,590 1940 ..... 1941..... 1942 ..... 1943 ...... 1944 ..... 447,376 512,855 562,993 619,633 615,631 85,130 97,384 115,410 130,283 132,049 84,687 94,402 102,141 1 2 0 ,1 2 1 1 2 2 ,1 1 2 130,581 147,303 158,177 166,897 153,486 81,386 93,138 100,850 102,460 105,296 49,126 59.888 63,472 74,036 76,656 16,466 20,740 22,943 25,836 26,032 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 587,523 541,595 614,558 565,839 473,380 125,120 110,166 109,296 94,838 68,123 119,297 98,684 96,657 86,794 88,389 148,198 139,505 149,129 135,351 117,180 95,349 83,288 104,800 107,306 91,236 71,603 68,743 86,009 95,620 80,610 27,956 41,209 68,667 45,930 27,842 1950 ..... 1951..... 1952 ..... 1953 ..... 1934 ..... 479,670 525,630 466,400 460,558 394,101 60,969 54,005 37,962 27,735 17,370 84,422 74,378 66,861 59,976 51,798 116,704 125,175 113,011 113,930 93,266 103,845 113,448 97,614 112,874 85,391 88,262 101,898 103,309 112,283 115,235 25,468 56,726 47,643 33,760 31,041 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 474,689 501,411 490,114 416,983 403,483 416,861 15,473 12,308 8,401 3,725 2,600 2,113 53,020 48,667 35,712 35,619 29,138 30,405 106,992 110,987 104,137 97,851 89,549 93,037 107,377 105,913 108,020 76,580 79,181 81,000 140,550 154,983 157,398 152,928 165,788 173,811 51,277 68,553 76,446 50,280 37,227 36,495 Year Total domestic con sumption and exports 1933 ..... 1934 ..... 326,722 354,683 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... Railroads See note and source in table 1 SB, p« 104* 104 Table 18B* Year 1933 ..... 1934 ..... 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... 1940 ...... 1941...... 1942 ...... 1943 ...... 1944 ...... 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ...... ....... ...... ...... ...... 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 ....... ...... ...... ....... ...... ...... Percent Distribution of Consumption of Bituminous Coal* by Major Consumption Classes* 1933*60 Total domestic con* sumption and exports 10 0 .0 100*0 10 0.0 10 0 .0 100*0 100*0 10 0 .0 10 0.0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0.0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 10 0 .0 Retai1 deliveries Industrial use* except coke Coke ovens Electric utilities Exports 23.7 23.5 30.7 30.6 12.3 13.0 8.3 8.4 2 .8 21.4 13.8 15.7 16.8 13.4 16.4 8.5 9.1 9.2 10.5 10.9 2.7 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 1 1 .0 3.7 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.2 Railroads 22*2 3.1 2 1 .1 2 2 .0 20.7 19.8 21.3 20.4 19.2 17.2 19.2 17.7 31.9 32.8 34.0 32.6 31.6 19.0 19.0 20.5 21.4 18.9 18.4 18.1 19.4 19.8 29.2 28.7 28.1 27.0 25.0 18.2 18.2 17.9 16.5 17.1 11.7 11.3 11.9 12.5 21.3 20.3 17.8 16.8 14.4 20.3 18.2 15.7 15.3 18.7 25.2 25.8 24.2 23.9 24.7 16.2 15.4 17.1 19.0 19.3 12.7 14.0 16.9 17.0 12.7 10.3 17.6 14.2 14.3 13.0 13.1 24.4 23.7 24.3 24.8 23.7 2 1 .6 2 1 .6 18.4 19.4 20.9 24.5 21.7 2 2 .2 10 .8 10 .2 24.4 29.2 7.3 7.9 1 1 .2 22.5 21.3 23.4 22.3 22.3 2 2 .6 2 1 .1 2 2 .0 29.6 30.9 32.1 36.7 41.1 41.7 10 .8 9.7 7.3 8.5 7.2 7.3 2 1 .0 8 .1 6 .0 4.4 3.3 2.5 1.7 0.9 0 .6 0.5 2 2 .1 18.4 19.6 19.4 1 2 .2 4.8 7.6 1 1 .2 8 .1 5.9 5.3 13.7 15.6 1 2 .1 9.2 8 .8 Notes Consumption cannot be precisely reconciled to production because data for calculating changes in inventories* the major difference between production and consumption* are incomplete* Sources U*S* Department of the Interior* Bureau of Mines* 105 Table 19. Bituminous Coal Mining: United States Exports to Major Markets, 1947-60 Exports (thousands of short tons) Year Exports as percent of total U.S. production Imports Total Canada Europe All other areas 1935-39 average 11,125 10,105 49 971 2.8 266 1940-46 average *•»,.. ................. 25,883 20,693 3,127 2,063 4.7 508 1947 .................. ............... 1948 ................................. 1949 .......................... ...... 68,667 45,930 27,842 25,848 25,843 15,982 36,703 16,093 8,862 6,116 3,994 2,998 10.9 7.6 6.4 290 291 315 1950 ................................. 1 9 5 1 ................................. 1952 ......... ...................... . 1953 ................................. 1954 ................................. 25,468 56,722 47,643 33,760 31,041 23,009 22,823 20,957 19,584 15,911 794 27,926 20,672 8,312 10,471 1,665 5,973 6,014 5,864 4,659 4.9 10.6 10.2 7.4 7.9 347 292 262 227 199 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 51,277 68,546 76,445 50,293 37,227 36,495 17,185 20,654 18,445 12,238 12,400 28,677 41,156 49,701 32,889 19,109 5,415 6,736 8,299 5,166 5,718 mm mm mm 11.0 13.7 15.5 12.3 9.0 8.7 337 336 367 307 375 260 ................ ................. ................................. ............................ . ................................. ................................. .... ............................. Note: Dashes indicate data not available. Sources! Data for the years 1935-39 are from the Bituminous Coal Annual. 1950: and data for 1940-60, from Bituminous Coal Data, 1960, National Coal Association. Figures on total exports differ slightly from Bureau of Mines data. 106 Table 20* Bituminous Coal Mining: Coal Requirements per Unit of Production, Selected Industries and Years Industry 1920 1947 1959 Electric power generation: Pounds of coal per kilowatt-hour ....... *..... ...... ........... Index (1920-100) ................................................. 3.00 100.0 1.31 43.7 0.89 29.7 Blast furnaces: Pounds of coal per ton of pig iron and ferroalloys ............... Index (1920-100) ..................... ........................... 3,055 100.0 2,755 90.2 2,297 75.2 1927 1947 1959 132 100.0 123 93.2 105 79.5 Cement production: Pounds of coal per barrel of cement .......... *...... Index (1927-100) ............................................. . Sources: Data on pounds of coal per kilowatt-hour are from Federal Power Commission; on pounds of coal per ton of pig iron and ferroalloys, for 1920 and 1947, from National Coal Association, for 1959, from American Iron and Steel Institute; and on pounds of coal per barrel of cement, from U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines* 107 Table 21A. Bituminous Coal Minings Employment Trends— Production Workersf 1920-60 /in thousands/ Year Production workers (Bureau of Labor Statistics data) Number of men working daily (Bureau of Mines data) Year Production workers (Bureau of Labor Statistics data) Number of men working daily (Bureau of Mines data) 439 .I 704.8 619.6 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 ........ ......... ..... ...... . ....... 416.4 413.0 454.4 418.5 401.3 457.0 462.0 416.0 393.3 537.0 541.7 542.0 476.5 459.0 588.5 593.6 593.9 522.2 503.0 1945 ........ 1946 1947 ........ 1948 ........ 1949 366.5 355.1 402.1 410.8 367.8 383.1 396.4 419.2 441.6 433.7 1930 ..... . 1931 ...... 1932 1933 ......... 1934 .... . 441.0 408.0 350.0 366.0 423.0 493.2 450.2 406.4 418.7 458.0 1950 ....... 1951...... . 1952 ......... 1953 ...•••••. 1954 343.7 348.0 304.4 267.5 209.0 415.6 372.9 335.2 293.1 227.4 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 436.0 450.0 461.0 406.0 371.7 462.4 477.2 491.9 441.3 421.8 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 200.5 208.8 208.4 173.8 149.2 139.4 225.1 228.2 228.6 197.4 179.6 164.2 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 ......... 639.5 663.8 ........ ........ ......... 566.3 594.3 621.8 643.2 565.4 ........ ..... . ..... ....... . ......... __...... ......... ....... ......... 688.0 ....... ........ ••••.... ........ ....... Note: Bureau of Labor Statistics annual data on employment are the average of 12 monthly employment estimates* They refer to persons on establishment payrolls who received pay for any part of the pay period ending nearest the 15th of the month. Production and related workers include all nonsupervisory workers and working foremen engaged in produc tion operations; excluded are salaried officers, supervisory, professional, technical and, generally, clerical employees. Bureau of Mines data represent the average number of men working daily during the year; included are workers in produc tion, maintenance* and repair and some supervisory and technical personnel. 108 Table 21B, Bituminous Coal Mining: Employment Trends— All Employees, 1939-60 /Indexes, 1947-1007 Bituminous coal Manufacturing Year Thousands Index Thousands Index 91.2 10,078 10,780 12,974 15,051 17,381 17,111 Total nonagricultural (private) 10 0 .0 10 0 .2 Farm Thousands Index 11,338 10,979 10,669 10,504 10,446 10,219 109.2 105.8 Thousands Index 65.9 70.5 84.9 98.4 113.7 111.9 26,316 27,856 31,560 34,296 36,026 35,491 69.3 73.3 83.1 90.3 94.8 93.4 10 0 .1 89.7 94.0 10 0 .0 10 2 .1 92.7 34,093 35,692 37,988 38,798 37,459 98.6 10,295 10,382 10,363 9,964 1939 ................. 1940 ................. 1941...... .......... 1942 ................. 1943 ................. 1944 ................. 388.3 434.9 431.4 474.6 437.2 419.2 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ................. .................. ................. ................. ................. 383.7 372.7 425.6 436.1 393.3 102.5 92.4 15,302 14,461 15,290 15,321 14,178 1950 ................. 1951.......... *...... 1952 ................. 1953 ................. 1954 ................. 367.9 372.0 327.8 288.9 228.5 86.4 87.4 77.0 67.9 53.7 14,967 16,104 16,334 17,238 15,995 97.9 105.3 106.8 112.7 104.6 38,712 40,958 41,694 43,036 41,680 101.9 107.8 109.8 113.3 109.7 9,926 9,546 9,149 8,864 8,639 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 218.7 228.6 230.0 195.2 168.1 158.9 51.4 53.7 54.0 45.9 39.5 37.3 16,563 16,903 16,782 15,468 16,168 16,337 108.3 110.5 109.8 43,142 44,489 44,536 42,650 43,848 44,440 113.6 117.1 117.2 112.3 115.4 117.0 8,364 7,820 7,577 7,525 7,384 7,118 ................. ................. ................. ................. .................. ................. Notes 10 2 .2 101.4 111.5 102,7 98.5 90.2 87.6 100.0 1 0 1 .2 105.7 106.8 Farm employment data include proprietors and unpaid family workers* Source: U*S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics; U*S. Department of Agriculture, 109 621946 0 94.6 - 61 - 8 10,000 10 2.8 1 0 1 .2 100.6 98.4 96.3 99.2 100.0 99.8 96.0 95.6 91.9 88.1 85.4 83.2 80.6 75.3 73.0 72.5 71.1 6 8.6 Table 22A. Bituminous Coal Mining: Unemployment Rates in Selected Major Areas of Substantial Unemployment, Selected Months Unemployed as percent >f labor force May 1950 March 1959 Area Number in labor force May 1950 March 1959 Areas with bituminous coal m i n i n g ..... ••••• 10.2 12.1 527,952 493,900 Nonbituminous coal mining areas ••••••••••••• 7.1 9.2 2,253,347 2,409,800 Note: Data for 1950 include 5 bituminous coal mining areas and 11 nonbituminous coal mining areas. Data for 1959 include 5 bituminous coal mining areas and 12 nonbituminous coal mining areas. Table 22B. Distribution of Unemployment Rates in Selected Small Areas of Substantial Unemployment, Spring 1959 Unemployed as percent of labor force Total ..................... Bituminous coal mining areas Nonbituminous coal mining areas Percent 100 100 17 percent and over ••••••«• 32 11-16 percent 10 percent or les.s »••««»••» Bituminous coal mining areas Number Nonbituminous coal mining areas 25 28 11 8 3 52 25 13 7 16 64 4 18 Note: An area where substantial unemployment is "chronic" is one that has had an unemployment rate 50 percent above the national average during 4 of the previous 5 years. Major areas are those which have a central city with a 1950 population of at least 50,000. Smaller areas have a labor force of 15,000 or more. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Employment Security. 110 Table 23. Changes in Bituminous Coal Production and Employment, and Population, Households, Personal Income, and Retail Trade Receipts, Five Counties in Kentucky and Rest of State, Selected-Years Item Five counties in Kentucky Percent 1959 change Rest of State 1950 1950 1959 Percent change Bituminous coal $ Production (thousands of tons) •••••••••.. 38,447 23,755 -38 40,049 39,055 - 2 Employment, total 42,186 13,408 -68 29,074 13,948 1950 1960 Percent change 1950 I960 -52 Percent change -23 -25 -25 37 2,652 921 1,507 225 2,812 1,037 1,497 278 6 12 - 1 -15 Percent change 715,828 797,511 11 1947 1955 - 5 Percent change $2,383,000 $3,728,000 1948 1958 - 2 $1,555,905 $2,455,737 Population, total (thousands) ...... ...... . Under 18 years...... ............... . 18*64 years ....... •••••••••••••«••.••••• 65 years and over 292 137 144 11 226 103 108 15 Households ....... .......... ...... •••• 63,841 54,356 1947 1955 $208,582 $207,444 1948 1958 $126,902 $124,780 Personal income (thousands) •••••••••••••••.. Retail trade receipts (thousands) Note: 23 Percent change 56 Percent change Five county area includes Floyd, Harlan, Letcher, Perry and Pike counties. Sources: Data on production and employment are from the Minerals Yearbook, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines; population, households, and retail trade, from U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census; personal income, from estimates by Bureau of Business Research, University of Kentucky. Ill 58 Table 24A. Year 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 Bituminous Coal Mining: Average Weekly Hours of Production Workers in Bituminous Coal Mining and Manufactur ing and Average Number of Days Worked per Year in All Bituminous Coal Mines* 1920-60 Average weekly hours (production workers) Bituminous Manufac coal turing Average number of days worked (all bituminous coal mines) 220 Year Average w ekly hours e< (oroductio a workers) Bituminous Manufac coal turing Average number of days worked (all bituminous coal mines) 202 37.3 30.0 47.4 43.1 44*2 45.6 43.7 149 142 179 171 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... 28.1 31.1 32.9 36.6 43.4 38.1 40.6 42.9 44.9 45.2 216 246 264 278 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 34,2 37.7 33.5 35.6 38.4 44*5 45.0 45.0 44.4 44.2 195 215 191 203 219 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 42.3 41.6 40.7 38.0 32.6 43.4 40.4 40.4 40.1 39.2 261 214 234 217 157 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 33.5 28.3 27.2 29.5 27.0 42.1 40.5 38.3 38.1 34.6 187 160 146 167 178 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 35.0 35.2 34.1 34.4 32.6 40.5 40.7 40.7 40.5 39.7 183 203 186 191 182 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 26.4 28.8 27.9 23.5 27.1 36.6 39.2 38.6 35.6 37.7 179 199 193 162 178 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 37.6 37.8 36.6 33.9 36.4 36.0 40.7 40.4 39.8 39.2 40.3 3^.7 214 203 184 188 190 mm mm — 210 Note: Data on average weekly hours of production workers in bituminous coal and manufacturing are from the U.S. Department of Labor* Bureau of Labor Statistics and cover the average hours for which pay is received. They differ from standard or scheduled hours. Data on average number of days worked are from the U.S. Department of the Interior* Bureau of Mines and cover men employed in all bituminous coal mines. Dashes indicate data not available. Data for 1960 are preliminary. 112 Table 24B. Bituminous Coal Mining: Inside (mobile loading machine operator) Effective date of agreement Oct. 2, Apr. 1, Oct. 1, Apr. 1, Apr. 1, Jan. 1, Nov. 3, Apr. 1* May 22, July 1, Daily Wage Rates and Normal Work Schedules o£ Mine Workers, by Date of Contract Agreement, Selected Years 1933 .... 1934 .... 1935 .... 1937 .... 1 9 4 1 .... 1943 .... 1943 .... 1945 .... 1946 .... 1947 .... Outside (car repairmen) $5.80 6.20 6.90 7.60 9.00 9.00 10.93 12.43 14.28 15.48 $3.84 4.24 4.74 5.24 6.24 6.24 7.91 8.98 10.83 12.03 Effective date of agreement Inside (mobile loading machine operator) July 1, 1948 .... Mar. 5, 1950 .... Feb. 1, 1951 .... Oct. 1, 1952 .... Sept. 1, 1955 .... Apr. 1, 1956 .... Oct. 1, 1956 .... Apr. 1, 1957 .... Jan. 1, 1959 .... Apr. 1, 1959 .... $16.48 17.18 18.78 20.68 21.88 22.68 23.88 24.68 25.88 26.68 Outside (car repairmen) $13.03 13.73 15.33 17.23 18.43 19.23 20.43 21.23 22.43 23.23 Normal Schedule of Work Effective date of agreement Oct. Apr. Jan. Nov. Apr. July 2, 1, 1, 3, 1, 1, 1933— 1934— 1943— 1943— 1945— 1947— Mar. 31, 1934 ........... Dec. 31, 1942 ........... Nov. 2, 1943 ............ Mar. 31, 1945 ........... June 30, 1947 ........... ........................ Days per week Inside worker Iday and piece rate; ._ DailIv hours paid for— Total Work Travel Lunch Outside worker Days Dsilv hours per ____ paid forweek Lunch Total Work 5 5 5-6 5-6 5-6 5-6 8 7 7 8 3/4 9 8 5 5 5-6 5-6 5-6 5-6 8 7 7 8 0 0 0 3/4 8 3 /4 7 1n _____ ! ______ 1 113 0 0 0 0 1/4 1/2 8 7 7 8 1/4 8 1/4 7 1/4 8 7 7 8 1/4 8 6 3/4 0 0 0 0 1/4 1/2 Table-25A« Employment Structure in Bituminous Coal Mining and Selected Industries, 1947, 1959 and 1960 1947 All employees (thousands) .................. Production w o r k e r s .......... .................... Nonproduction workers ............................... Nonproduction workers as percent of all employees ..... 1959 1960 425.6 402.1 23.5 5.5 Type of worker 168.1 149.2 18.9 11.2 158.9 139.4 19.5 12.3 Percent of nonproduction workers to all workers, by industry, 1947 and 1959 1947 Bituminous coal mining t.*.********.*.**.».**.»* Steal Petroleum refining Autocnobiles All msnufActurine .............................. 1959 1947-59 5.5 12*1 23.0 16.4 16.3 Industry 11.2 20.2 33.4 21.5 24.3 103.6 66.9 45.2 31.1 49.1 Note: For definitions of production and nonproduction workers, see table 21A. preliminary. 114 Data for 1960 are Table 25B. Bituminous Coal Mining: Occupation Occupational Structure in Underground Mines, Illinois, Selected Years Number 1923 Percent Number 1933 Percent Number 1947 Percent Number 1956 Percent All workers ............. .........•••• 98,640 10 0.0 38,812 10 0 .0 25,790 100.0 8,819 All surface workers •••»»•#«•..... . 9,691 9.8 5,219 13.4 5,779 22.4 2,014 100.0 2 2 .8 All underground workers ••••••••••••••• 88,949 90.2 33,593 8 6 .6 2 0 ,0 11 77.6 6,805 77.2 Direct production workers •••••••••*••••» Miners Mechanical loading machine operators and helpers ................ Machine runners and helpers ••«»••••••* Shot firers and runners ••»••»••••••••• Shooters and drillers •••....••*«••••« 65,362 59,311 6 6 .2 20,585 17,208 53.0 44.3 6,005 2,277 23.3 1,540 183 17.5 839 2,054 484 2 .2 1 ,1 1 2 5.3 1,502 1,114 --- 4.3 5.9 4.3 505 473 142 237 5.7 5.4 Other underground workers ••••••••••••••» Mine managers and assistants ....... . Mine examiners ................... Electricians and helpers ••••«»••«••••* Timbermen and roofbolters ••••*•••••••• Stablemen ................... ...... Motormen and assistants ••••••••••••••• Shuttlecar operators and drivers •••••• Cagers and spraggers «#•.*•••••##••#*•# Trackmen and bratticemen ...... •»•••«« Beltmen Unclassified............... ....... 23,587 683 642 1,014 2,165 190 3,008 4,361 1,299 3,657 5,265 417 140 694 597 59.7 4.7 Note: Source: mmm 60.1 m mm 5,243 808 5.3 m mm mmm mmm 6,568 .8 mmm 24.0 .7 .7 1 .0 2 .2 .2 3.1 4.4 1.3 3.7 ... 6.7 1 .2 mmm 13,008 33.6 626 1 .6 .8 2 .0 291 764 1,188 52 2,224 1,041 434 1,854 mmm 4,534 54.3 3.2 1 ,2 1 2 4.7 6.4 1,648 .1 20 5.7 2.7 2,653 371 287 2,109 4.8 ... 11.7 mmm 14,006 839 305 3.1 1 .1 8 .8 m mm 4,562 1 .2 .1 10.3 1.4 1 .1 8 .2 mmm 17.7 . . . 713 255 53 361 76 1,959 Dashes indicate group not reported. Derived from Coal Report of Illinois. Illinois Department of Mines and Minerals, Springfield. 115 2 .1 1 .6 2.7 1 .6 7.9 6 .8 . . . 8 .0 2.9 .6 4.1 .9 2 2 .2 Table 26A. Year Bituminous Coal Minings Per million man-hours Fatal Nonfatal Injury Rates, 1930-59, and Major Disasters, 1910-59 Per million tons Fatal Year Per million man-hours Fatal Nonfatal Nonfatal Per million tons Fatal Nonfatal „ ++ ..... t.... ,,.... 1*9 1*6 1*8 1*3 1*4 83.8 80.0 72.6 68.9 69.4 3.5 2.8 3.1 2.5 2.7 152.3 141.3 127.1 131.7 130.7 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ...... ..... ...... ..... ..... 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.2 .9 56.5 58.8 57.3 56.3 51.7 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.1 80.1 80.3 73.3 71.0 63.2 1935 1936 t.... 1937 ..... 1 9 3 8 ..... 1939 ..... 1*5 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.4 71.5 65.6 68.1 63.5 60.5 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.2 127.6 115.7 118.2 105.3 97.2 1950 ..... 1 9 5 1 ..... 1952 ..... 1953 ..... 1954 ..... •9 1.2 .9 .9 1.0 47.7 46.6 47.6 45.3 43.7 1.1 1.3 1.0 .9 .9 54.8 52.7 50.5 44.1 37.6 1940 ..... 1 9 4 1 ..... 1942 •.... 1943 ...... 1944 ..... 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.2 61.3 58.9 60.2 57.8 56.0 2.6 2.1 2.1 2.1 1.8 95.4 90.4 91.4 86.1 82.5 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2 .9 1.2 42.8 43.0 43.7 43.9 41.4 42.2 .8 .8 .9 .8 .6 .7 34.5 33.2 32.5 29.8 26.9 25.3 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 ..... ..... .... . ..... ..... ..... Major Disasters Years 1910-19............ ....... ...... 1920-29 .... ..... 1930-39 ......... ................ . 1940-49 ....... ...... ............. 1950-59 ......... ................. Sources Number of disasters Number of men killed 116 110 49 52 19 2,932 2,409 740 1,072 316 Accident Analysis Reports* U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines* Data for 1960 are preliminary* 116 Table 26B. Bituminous Coal Mining: Year Average Number of Days Lost per Injury, 1945-58 All injuries Permanent-partial injuries Temporary-total injuries 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ........................ ........... ............ ....................... .................................... .................................... ......... .......................... 161 152 172 167 167 704 622 729 638 756 27 29 29 28 36 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 ........ ........................... .................................... ..................................... .................................... .................................... 173 206 173 174 190 701 739 674 708 679 34 35 37 36 35 1955 1956 1957 1958 .................................... .................................... .................................... .................................... 187 189 206 224 624 663 584 663 33 31 32 41 Note: Data on average number of days lost due to permanent-partial injuries cover days lost from work due to permanent impairment or loss of some body functions. Temporary-total injuries cover work injuries, other than death or permanent impairment, which completely incapacitates the worker from work for 1 or more days following the injury. The data on days lost due to all injuries cover, in addition to the above types of injuries, days lost due to permanent total injuries and fatal injuries. Source: Accident Analysis Reports. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 117 Table 27A. Average Hourly Earnings of Production and Related Workers in Bituminous Coal and Manufacturing Industries, 1923-60 Bitu minous coal All manufacturing $0.84 .81 $0.52 .55 ....... ....... ....... ....___ ....... .80 .79 .75 .72 .55 .55 .55 .56 .57 1930 ....... 1 9 3 1 ...... 1932 ....... 1933 ...... 1934 ..... . .6 8 Year _ 1 9 2 3 ___ t_ 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 .6 8 .65 .52 .50 .67 Sources Table 27B. .55 .52 .45 •44 .53 Year Bitu minous coal All manufac turing $0.55 .56 .62 .63 .63 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... $0.74 .79 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 .... . ...... ...... ...... __ .... .8 8 .6 6 •99 1.06 1.14 1.19 .73 .85 .96 1945 ...... 1 9 4 6 ...... .8 6 .8 8 •89 1 .0 2 1 .0 2 1.24 1.40 1.09 Year 1947 ...... 1948 ...... 1949 ....... Bi tu r !nous n coal All manufac turing $1.64 1.90 1.94 $1.24 1.35 1.40 2 .0 1 2 .2 1 1.47 1.59 1.67 1.77 1.81 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... 2.29 2.48 2.48 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... 2.56 2.81 3.02 3.02 3.25 3.27 1 .8 8 1.98 2.07 2.13 2 .2 2 2.29 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Estimated Average Annual Wage of Wage and Salaried Workers in Bituminous Coal and Selected Industries Year 1947 ................. 1 9 5 1................. 1954 ................. 1955 ................. 1959 ................. Bituminous coal $3,223 3,857 4,090 4,602 5,348 Petroleum and Primary coal products metals (Current dollars) $3,607 4,639 5,351 5,591 6,952 $3,128 4,165 4,628 5,156 6,329 All manufacturing $2,802 3,625 4,135 4,371 5,231 Note: Average annual wages are derived from data on average annual employment and total annual wages of workers covered by State unemployment insurance laws. Average annual wages shown tend to be overstated because the number of different workers actually employed during the year is substantially larger than average annual employment. Relative wage levels however are about the same as those indicated by wage records of the Bureau of Old-Age and Survivors Insurance. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Employment Security. 118 Table 28* Year Compensation of Employees in Bituminous Coal Mining and Indexes of Change, 1939-60 Wages and salaries Index Amount (1947-100) /Dollars in millions? Suppleminti to wages and salaries Index Amount (1947-100) Compensation of employees Supplements as percent of employees1 compensation 1939 ......... $456 33.1 $24 28.2 $480 5.0 1940 ......... 1941......... 1942 ......... 1943 ......... 1944 ...... . 542 678 823 918 1,052 39.3 49.2 59.7 28 34 35 39 39 32.9 40.0 41.2 45.9 45.9 570 712 858 957 1,091 4.9 4.8 4.1 4.1 3.5 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... 1,0 20 74.0 77.3 42.4 54.1 100.0 1 1 1 .0 36 46 85 123 1,056 1,065 1,378 1,529 1,166 100.0 84.6 111 1,463 1,652 1,277 3.4 4.1 5.8 7.4 8.7 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... 1,291 1,425 1,256 93.7 103.4 91.1 1,2 1 2 88.0 204.7 228.2 209.4 231.8 922 66.9 174 194 178 197 170 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... 1,0 0 1 72.6 83.6 85.8 68.4 67.2 64.4 203 238.8 260.0 256.5 215.3 1,152 1,182 942 926 887 6 6 .6 76.3 144.7 1 *0 .6 200.0 221 218 183 187 189 220.0 222.4 1 ,1 1 1 1,465 1,619 1,434 1,409 1,092 1,204 1,373 1,400 1,125 1,113 1,076 11.9 12 .0 12.4 14.0 15.6 16.9 16.1 15.6 16.3 16.8 17.5 Note: Data on wages and salaries cover total payrolls of establishments in the industry and cover all employees* Supplements to wages and salaries include payments covering total employer contributions for social insurance, employer contributions to private pension and welfare funds, and compensation for injuries, military reservist pay, and similar payments* Compensation of employees is the sum of wages and salaries and supplements* Sources: Survey of Current Business, July 1961; and National Income Supplements, 1959 and 1954 editions, U*S* Department of Commerce* 119 Table 29. Bituminous Coal Mining: Indexes of Hourly Compensation and Unit Employment Cost, 1939-60 (1947-100) Year Employee compensation per man-hour Employment cost per ton Employment cost per ton as a percent of average mine value 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 ....................... ....................... ....................... ....................... ....................... .............. ......... 46.7 49.5 56.0 58.7 62.5 70.7 52.6 53.4 59.9 63.4 69.8 75.9 66.3 64.9 63.5 62.3 60.2 60.3 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ....................... ....................... ....................... ....................... ....................... 75.4 88.6 100.0 118.0 126.7 78.9 89.7 100.0 118.5 125.9 59.8 60.5 55.3 55.1 59.8 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 ....................... ....................... ....................... ....................... ....................... 136.4 145.8 153.0 165.7 169.5 122.4 130.6 132.3 132.8 120.3 59.8 61.6 62.6 62.6 61.7 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 ....................... ....................... ....................... ....................... ....................... ....................... 171.8 186.1 193.9 194.7 208.5 216.8 111.2 118.1 122.4 118.5 116.7 112.2 57.3 56.8 55.9 56.4 56.6 55.7 Note: Indexes of employee compensation per man-hour are derived from an index of compensation of employees as described in footnote, table 28 and an index of man-hours of all employees as described in footnote, table JUL. Indexes of employment cost per ton are derived from data on compensation of employees and tons of coal produced as described in footnote, table 11. Employment cost per ton as a percent of average mine value represents the proportion that employment cost per ton is to the Bureau of Mines average value received or charged for a ton of coal f.o.b. 120 Table 30. Bituminous Coal Mining: Trends in Unit Costs, 1929-58 Percent change— 19: >9-54 1929-39 Item Total Employment cost per ton ................ . Material and other cost per ton .................. Material cost per ton ............ . Other cost per ton ............. ........... . Average value per ton shipped (Census of Minerals) Average annual rate 0.5 - .3 1.0 -1.7 .2 5.0 -3.3 7.1 -15.7 1.6 Total 106.3 230.5 273.3 196.4 147.0 19: >4-58 Average annual rate 4.9 8.3 8.9 7.5 6.2 Total -2.3 26.2 10.7 47.0 9.8 Average annual rate -0.6 6.0 2.6 10.1 2.4 Unit Costs as Percent of Unit Value 1929 Employment cost per ton ....... ..................... Material and other cost per ton ....... . Material cost per ton ................ ....... . Other cost per ton ................ . 1954 1958 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 66.5 33.5 15.4 18.2 Average value per ton shipped (Census of Minerals) ... 1939 68.6 31.4 16.2 15.1 57.3 42.7 24.5 18.2 51.0 49.0 24.7 24.3 Note: These estimates have been computed primarily from data shown in the Census of Mineral Industries. 1954 and 1958, U.S. Department of Comnerce, Bureau of the Census. In deriving employment cost per ton, Census data on wages and salaries have been adjusted to include estimated supplementary payments. Data on "other costs per ton" have been computed as a residual, after deducting employment and material cost per ton from average value per ton shipped. Data on employment cost per ton and average value per ton shipped from the Census of Mineral Industries are not strictly comparable with other data on these subjects, based on National Income (U.S. Department of Commerce) and Bureau of Mines data, because of differences in coverage and definitions. Average value represents value received or charged for coal, f.o.b. mines. Because of rounding, sums of percentages may not equal totals. 121 Table 31A# Year Bituminous Coal Mining: Bituminous coal (ton) Crude petroleum (bbl.) Average Values of Selected Fuels at Production Sites, 1920*60 Natural gas (M c.f.) Indexes (1947-100) Value 159.1 89.6 83.4 69.4 74.1 150.5 255.8 283.7 245.9 234.1 1.78 49.0 49.5 47.8 44.7 42.8 87.0 97.4 67.4 60.6 65.8 ... ... ... ... ... 1.70 1.54 1.31 1.34 1.75 40.9 37.0 31.5 32.2 42.1 ... ... ... ... ... 1.77 1.76 1.94 1.95 1.84 42.5 42.3 46.6 46.9 44.2 ... ... ... ... ... $3.75 2*89 3.02 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 ... ... ... ... ... 2.04 2.06 1.99 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 2 .6 8 2.20 1.8 6 Bituminous coal (ton) Value 90.1 69.5 72.6 64.4 52.9 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 Year I Crude petroleum (bbl.) Natural gas (M c •f•) Indexes (1947-100) 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 ... ... ... ... ... $1.91 2.19 2.36 2.69 2.92 45.9 52.6 56.7 64.7 70.2 52.8 59.1 61.7 62.2 62.7 75.0 81.7 85.0 86.7 85.0 224.5 234.9 228.1 227.2 212.9 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 ... ... ... ... ... 3.06 3.44 4.16 4.99 4.88 73.6 82.7 63.2 73.1 81.7 88.3 100.0 12 0 .0 61.7 33.7 45.1 34.7 51.8 217.7 237.2 244.2 232.7 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 ... ... ... ... ... 50.3 56.5 61.1 58.5 52.8 96.7 91.7 85.0 81.7 81.7 1955 ... 1956 ... 1957 ... 1958 ... 1959... 1960 ... 1 100.0 100.0 100.0 117.3 134.7 131.6 108.3 105.0 4.84 4.92 4.90 4.92 4.52 116.3 118.3 117.8 118.3 108.7 130.1 131.1 131.1 138.9 144.0 108.3 121.7 130.0 153.3 168.3 4.50 4.82 5.08 4.86 4.77 4.73 108.2 115.9 143.5 144.6 160.1 156.0 150.3 149.2 173.3 180.0 188.3 198.3 215.0 226.6 1 2 2 .1 116.8 114.7 113.7 Note: Average value per ton represents the value received or charged for coal, f.o.b* mines. Average value of crude petroleum per barrel and average value of natural gas per thousand cubic feet represent value received or charged, f.o.b., at wells. Data for 1960 are preliminary. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 122 Table 31B* Year Bituminous Coal Mining: Average value of coal per ton f*o*b* mines Effect of Transportation Costs on Average Coal Value, 1948*60 Average rail revenue per ton of coal Percent of average value of coal Amount per ton f*o*b* mines Indexes (1948-100) Average value plus average rail revenue per ton of coal Average value of coal per ton f»o*b* mines Average rail revenue per ton of coal Average value plus average rail revenue per ton of coal 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 *•** .... .... .... .... .... $4.99 4.88 4.84 4.92 4.90 4.92 $2.74 3.00 3.09 3.16 3.35 3.33 54.9 61.5 63.8 64.2 68.4 67.7 $7.73 7.88 7.93 8.08 8.25 8.25 10 0 .0 100.0 100.0 97.8 97.0 98.6 98.2 98.6 109.5 101.9 1 1 2 .8 10 2 .6 115.3 122.3 121.5 104.5 106.7 106.7 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 .... .... .... .... .... .... .... 4.52 4.50 4.82 5.08 4.86 4.77 4.73 3.23 3.24 3.45 3.57 3.58 3.57 3.42 71.6 72.0 71.6 70.3 73.7 73.5 72.3 7.74 7.74 8.27 8.65 8.44 8.43 8.15 90.4 90.2 96.6 117.9 118.2 125.9 130.3 130.7 130.3 124.8 10 0 .1 10 0 .1 1 0 1 .8 97.4 97.4 94.7 107.0 111.9 109.2 109.1 105.4 Note: Average rail revenue is based on gross freight revenues from transporting coal and tons of coal originating on railroads* Source: U*S* Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines* 123 Table 31C* Bituminous Coal Minings Average Fuel Price in Selected United States Industrial Markets, 1948*59 Electric power utilities f*o*b* plant Year Coal (ton) 1948 ........ 1949 ........ 1950 ........ 1951........ 1952 ........ 1953 ........ 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ Oil (bbl.) $6.69 6.50 6.38 6.42 6.54 6.52 $2.79 2.15 6.25 Steel f*o«b* merchant ovens Coal (ton) Coal (ton) $0 ,1 1 0 .123 .118 .136 .147 .167 $8.74 9.33 9.39 9.50 9.85 1 0 .0 1 $4.34 4.36 4.49 4.54 4.59 4.77 .183 .188 .189 9.57 9.16 9.85 10.76 10.74 10.49 4.60 4.65 5.03 5.53 5.67 5.69 Gas (m c.f*) 2 .1 1 2 .1 2 6 .0 1 6.29 6.62 6.55 6.28 2.00 2 .1 1 2.14 2.05 Rai1roads f*o*b* mine 2.42 2.79 2.47 .2 0 1 .219 .236 2 .2 2 Sources: Data on prices of fuels for electric power utilities are from Annual Statistical Bulletin, Edison Electric Institute, New York* Data on prices of coal for steel and railroads, from U*S* Department o£ the Interior, Bureau of Mines* 124 Table 31D. Bituminous Coal Mining: Year Coal (ton) 1948 ........ 1949 ........ 1950 ......... 1951........ 1952 ........ 1953 ........ 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ Source: Indexes of Average Fuel Prices in Selected United States Industrial Markets, 1948*39 (1948-100) Electric power utilities f.o.b. plant Gas (m c.f.) Oil (bbl.) Rai1roads f.o.b. mine Coal (ton) 100.0 97.2 95.4 96.0 97.8 97.5 100.0 77.1 71.7 75.6 76.7 73.5 100.0 111.8 107.3 123.6 133.6 151.8 100.0 106.8 108.7 108.7 112.7 114.5 100.0 100.5 103.5 104.6 105.8 109.9 93.4 89.8 94.0 99.0 97.9 93.8 75.6 76.0 86.7 100.0 88.5 79.6 166.4 170.9 171.8 182.7 199.1 214.5 109.5 104.8 112.7 123.1 122.9 120.0 106.0 107.1 115.9 127.4 130.6 131.1 See table 31C for underlying data* 125 621946 0 - 6 1 - 9 Steel f.o.b. merchant ovens Coal (ton) Table 31E, Bituminous Coal Mining: Area Bituminous coal Prices of Selected Fuels in the United States, 1959 Fuel oil Natural 8“ per million B,t .u. *a Other fuel prices as percent, of coal Percent of total B,t,u.»fs consumed Fuel oil Gas Coal Oil Gas Electric utilities (wholesale) United States total ,••,,,••, $0.27 $0.35 $0.22 129.6 81,5 66 8 26 New England ••••••,,,•«• Middle Atlantic ................. East North Central ,,,,,,,,,,,,.... West North Central South Atlantic •«•••,«••• East South Central ,,,,«••••,•••••,, West South Central ..... •••,,«••••• Mountain .........,,,,........,,,, Pacific...................... $0,38 .31 .26 .28 .27 .19 .16 .21 $0.36 .36 .73 .47 .36 .47 .43 .24 .35 $0.35 .33 .24 .22 .30 .23 .15 .26 .32 94.7 116.1 280.8 167.8 133.3 247.4 268.8 114.3 92.1 106.4 92.3 78.6 111.1 121.1 93.7 123.8 — 56 76 95 48 77 91 39 14 5 10 5 52 13 9 100 64 68 $1.83 2.07 2.26 $1.59 1.28 1.46 155,1 128,5 104,1 mm mm mm mm 10 mm mm 27 mm 9 32 Space heating (retail) Baltimore «•„••....,,,,,, Chicago Seattle....•••,,,••...... Note: $1.18 1.61 2.17 134.7 79.5 67.3 Dashes indicate insignificant use. Sources: Data for electric utilities are from Steam Electric Plant Factors, July 1960, National Coal Association# Data for space heating, from 1960 Gas Facts, American 6as Association, 126 Table 31F, Bituminous Coal Mining: Retail Price Indexes of Energy Fuels., 1948-60 /T948-100/ Year Bituminous coal Fuel oil No. 2 Gas for space heating 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 100.0 103.6 107.5 109.9 112.0 114.3 100.0 94.8 95.8 101.3 103.6 109.0 100.0 101.3 101.7 102.7 105.9 111.6 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 114.2 115.4 120.0 124.4 126.3 128.5 129.5 109.8 113.4 119.0 125.1 117.9 119.5 117.4 114.7 120.1 121.6 122.9 130.0 134.6 147.2 127 Table 32A* Bituminous Coal Minings Selected Data on Corporate Income, 1928-58 Number of returns Number with net income Number with no net income 1928 ............. 1929 ............. 1930 ............. 1931............. 1932 ............. 1933 ............. 2,705 2,469 2,239 2,095 1,864 1,851 863 934 781 582 289 396 1,842 1,535 1,458 1,513 1,575 1,455 .$24,508 - 11,822 - 42,071 - 47,745 - 51,167 - 47,549 -$27,950 . 15,822 . 44,708 . 48,784 - 51,944 - 48,578 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 ............. ........... . ............. ............. ............. 2,017 1,975 1,945 1,815 1,887 660 591 590 539 363 1,357 1,384 1,355 1,276 1,524 - 7,584 - 15,576 . 3,310 777 - 26,667 - 10,892 - 18,326 . 6,524 - 3,985 - 29,328 1939 ............. 1940 ............. 1941............. 1942 ............. 1943 ............. 1,820 1,756 1,722 1,737 1,623 505 676 859 906 975 1,315 1,080 863 831 648 - - 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. 1,584 1,544 1,640 1,837 2,163 932 915 1,013 1,371 1,434 652 629 627 466 729 92,737 71,293 80,537 258,658 309,626 43,811 35,680 50,562 168,434 196,588 1949 .....*....... 1950 ............. 1951............. 1952 ............. 1953 ............. 2,070 1,988 1,813 1,665 1,572 1,033 1,104 912 789 632 1,037 884 901 876 940 97,323 163,188 113,695 69,194 41,555 54,285 93,765 56,599 33,481 12,730 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1,424 1,592 1,800 1,750 1,481 462 823 900 816 761 962 769 900 934 720 15,247 67,417 119,275 89,488 46,792 701 36,999 70,473 44,689 21,190 Fiscal year ............. ............. ............ ............ ............. Note: Data on number o£ returns are for all bituminous coal corporations* Net income or loss After taxes Before taxes 6,168 14,396 42,651 67,915 96,157- 9,012 7,803 23,586 34,125 46,913 Data for 1958 are preliminary* Source: National Coal Association, Statistics of Income, Corporations; based on data from U*S* Treasury Department, Internal Revenue Service* 128 Table 32B* Year Bituminous Coal Mining: Net Income as a Percent of Net Worth and Business Receipts, 1939-58 Before taxes ~ Net Income as percent of— Net woi■k ti Business receipts Bituminous Manufac Bituminous Manufaccoal mining turing coal mining turing M After taxes H Net Income as percent of— I I Net worth Business receipts 1 Bituminous I Manufac Bituminous Manufac coal mining turing coal mining turing 1939 ...... 1940 ..... 1941..... 1942 ...... 1943 ..... -0.4 1.5 4.2 7.0 9.7 8.4 12.0 21.3 24.6 27.1 -0.6 1.7 3.8 5.6 6.9 0.6 8.2 1.2 11.6 11.5 -0.7 .8 2.4 3.6 4.8 6.9 8.5 11.2 9.8 9.9 -1.0 1.0 2.2 2.9 3.4 5.2 5.8 6.3 4.6 4.2 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... 8.9 7.2 8.0 19.6 20.6 23.4 15.9 17.0 21.5 21.4 6.1 4.9 5.2 11.5 11.8 9.8 7.4 8.5 9.4 9.2 4.3 3.7 5.0 12.8 13.1 8.6 6.4 10.3 13.3 13.3 2.9 2.5 3.2 7.5 7.5 3.6 3.0 5.2 5.8 5.7 1949 ..... 1950 ...... 1951..... 1952 ..... 1953 ..... 7.1 10.9 7.6 4.6 3.1 15.9 24.3 23.6 18.5 18.7 5.3 7.0 4.6 3.1 2.3 7.8 11.0 9.9 7.9 7.8 4.0 6.3 3.8 2.2 1.1 9.8 13.4 10.2 8.1 8.1 3.0 4.0 2.3 1.5 .9 4.8 6.1 4.3 3.5 3.4 1.2 4.2 9.5 5.4 3.0 15.3 19.7 19.1 15.5 11.9 1.0 3.3 6.9 3.6 2.4 7.0 8.6 8; 7 7.0 5.7 .1 2.2 6.1 2.8 1.4 7.4 9.9 10.0 7.7 5.7 .1 1.8 4.4 1.8 1.1 3.4 4.3 4.5 3.4 2.8 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 ...... ..... ..... ...... ..... Note: Net worth (sometimes called stockholders equity, net assets, or net investment) is the sum of common and preferred stock, surplus reserves, paid in surplus, earned surplus, and undivided profits. Business receipts represent receipts from sales and services. Data for 1958 are preliminary. Source: Statistics of Income, Corporations, U.S. Treasury Department, Internal Revenue Service. 129 Table 33. Bituminous Coal Minings Source Tot$l Government ••••••••»••••••«#•»•• Commercial coal companies.... . Captive coal companies ........ Equipment manufacturers.... . Other industrial •••••••#•«••••» Universities and unidentified .. Distribution of Research Expenditures by Source and Purpose,1955 Expenditures (in thousands) Percent of total $17,382 100.0 $5,443 2,452 1,207 3,221 4,955 104 31.4 14.1 6.9 18.5 28.5 0.6 Expenditures (in thousands) Purpose Total .............. . $17,382 Coal resources ............. . Coal production ••#••#•••••«•»«••• Coal utilization............ . Physical and chemical properties • Notes: Coal production includes mining, preparation, storage, and transportation. combusftion, chemicals, gasification, hydrogenation. Percent of total 100.0 $1,479 3,743 11,154 1,006 8.5 21.5 64.2 5.8 Coal utilization includes Sources: Outlook and Research Possibilities for Bituminous Coal. Information Circular No. 7754, May 1956, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. 130 Table 34A* Bituminous Coal Mining: generic Year of Major Changes in Wages and Related Benefits in Union Agreements Underground workers Day Piece rate Outside workers Audiwions Expanded into National Wage Agreement* the basic collective bargaining agreement in-the industry* First Appalachian agreement ••••••••.... 1933 1933 1933 7-hour day established •••••••••••.... . 1934 1934 1934 Premium pay provided for— Overtime ••••••••••••.... ••••••••* Late shift.................. . Hoiidays •••••••*•••••••••••••*••••• 1937 1945 1943 1943 1945 1943 1937 1945 1943 Changed in 1943* 1945* 1946* 1947* and 1955* Payment for lunchtime •••••*••**••••••••• 1945 1945 1945 1945— 15 minutes; 1947— 30 minutes* Travel pay included (portal to portal) •• 1943 1943 Allowance for reporting to work *•***•••• 1933 ”■ m»e» Minimum of 2 hours9 pay for entering mine in morning* Paid vacations ••**•*•••••••••••*••••*••• 1941 1941 1941 Increased from $20 and 10 days in 1941* to $200 and 14 days in 1959 (changes in 1943* 1945* 1946* 1955* and 1956)* Geographic differentials eliminated ••••• 1941 •• 1941 1941 agreement eliminated North-South differential; 1934 contract eliminated the northern West Virginia-northern Appalachia] differential* Tools and equipment provided •••••**•••*• Health and welfare funds created •*••*••• 1943 1946 1943 1946 1943 1946 Welfare 1946— Medical Fund* Note: 1943— time and a half; 1956— double time* 1943**maximum of 45 minutes (paid at two-thirds time); 1945— considered as regular working time* and Retirement Fund: Financed by contributions based on coal produced for use or sale: $0*05 per ton; 1947— $0* 10 per ton; 1948— $0*20 per ton; 1950— $0*30 per ton; 1952— $0*40 per ton* and Hospital Ftmd: 1946— financed by wage deductions; 1947— combined with Welfare and Retirement financed by operators9 contributions* Dashes indicate data not applicable* 131 Table 34B. Stoppages beginning in year Workers Number involved Bituminous Coal Mining! Man-days idle I I during year | | (all stoppages) y 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 22 30 58 52 57 43 176,000 63,300 18,100 26,800 52,400 63,600 23,000,000 5,940,000 182,000 883,000 1,540,000 5,910,000 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 102 78 42 38 54 27 142f000 110,000 421,000 19,600 99,300 9,510 2,210,000 1,560,000 2,970,000 533,000 1,920,000 133,000 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 25 34 75 96 400 792 355,000 24,400 593,000 43,800 487,000 230,000 7,300,000 153,000 6,750,000 264,000 7,510,000 1,060,000 Work Stoppages, 1927-60 Year 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 .... . ..... ..... ....... ..... 1950 ..... 1951..... 1952 ..... 1953 ..... 1954 ..... 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 ..... ..... ..... ....... ..... ..... _______________ 132 Stoppages beginning in year Workers Number involved Man-days idle during year (all stoppages) 598 485 415 561 421 581,000 834,000 490,000 582,000 1,130,000 5,010,000 19,500,000 2,190,000 9,560,000 16,700,000 430 549 560 392 208 165,000 213,000 472,000 130,000 81,900 9,320,000 887,000 2,760,000 418,000 344,000 292 266 161 136 146 120 77,500 84,800 46,400 29,700 64,000 37,200 273,000 377,000 136,000 102,000 1,560,000 137,000 Selected Bibliography I. Government Documents A. U.S. Department of Labor Publications "Wage and Price Structure of the Bituminous Coal Industry," Witt Bowden, Monthly Labor Review. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, August 1941, pp. 293-313. The Changing Status of Bituminous-Coal Miners. 1937-46, Bull. 882, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, 1946. The Wage Chronology Series— Bituminous Coal Mines. 1933-48. No. 4, and Supplements, bureau o i Labor Statistics, Washington. Supplements* No. 1 (1950-51), No. 2 (1952), No. 3 (1952-56), No. 4 (1956-57), No. 5 (1959). Characteristics of the Insured Unemployed, Bureau of Employment Security, Washington, June 1957. Chronic Labor Surplus Areas. Bureau of Employment Security, Washington, July 1959. Coal and Nonferrous Metals Mining. A Guide to Labor-Management Relations in the United States. Pts. 3:63 and 3*13, Bull. 1225, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, March 1958. Work Stoppages. Bituminous-Coal Mining Industry. 1927-^4. Report 95, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, August 1955. "The 43d Convention of the United Mine Workers of America," Harry P. Cohany, Monthly Labor Review. January 1961, pp. 27-31. B. U.S. Department of the Interior Publications Administration of the Federal Coal Mine Safety Act. 1952-59. Information Circular No. 74'74, Bureau of Mines, Washington, I960. Indexes of Output per Man-Hour for Selected Industries. 1939 and 1947-59. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, July I960. Table 2. Bituminous Coal and Lignite Distribution, Mineral Market Report, MMS No. 3035, Bureau of Mines, Washington, March 1960. Productivity in the Bituminous-Coal “"“ Mining Industry. 1.93$-5l. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, June 1952. 133 Coal Reserves of the United States% January 1, I960, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 400-B, Washington, I960. C. The Congress of the United States Coal Hearings. House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs (84th Cong. 2d sess.), June 4 and 6; July 19, 1956. Injury Experience in Coal Mining. Information Circular No. 7^87, Bureau of Mines, Washington, October 19, I960. Coal Hearings. House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs (85th Cong. 1st sess.), February 13, 15 and 22; March 9-26, 1957. International Coal Trade, Bureau of Mines, Washington. (Monthly.) Coal Research. Findings of the Special Subcommittee on Interior and Insular Affairs (85th Cong. 1st sess.), 1957. Mechanical Mining in Some Bituminous Mines. Information Circular No. 7696, Bureau of Mines, Washington, September 1954. Coal Research, Hearings. Senate Commit tee on Interior and Insular Affairs (86th Cong. 1st sess.), June 10, 1959. Mechanization. Employment and Output per Man in Bituminous Coal Mining. Vols. I and II, Bureau of Mines jointly with Works Projects Admin istration, Washington, 1939. Energy Resources and Technology. Hearings. Joint Economic Committee (86th Cong. 1st sess.), October 12-16, 1959. Resources for Freedom. A Report to the President, by the President's Materials Policy Commission Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union (82d Cong. 2d sess.), June 1952. The Minerals Yearbook, Bureau of Mines, Washi ngton• (Annual•) Outlook and Research Possibilities for Bituminous Coal, Information Circular No. 7754, Bureau of Mines, Washington, 1956. Unemployment Problems. Hearings, Senate Special' Committee on Unemployment Problems (86th Cong. 1st sess.), Pt. 1, October 5-7, 1959. Some Aspects of the Coal Industry of the U.S.S.R.. Information Circular No. itiS* Bureau of Mines, Washington, 1956. See testimony of Michael F. Widman, Jr., Assistant to President and Director of Marketing Department, United Mine Workers of America; and Joseph E. Moody, Presi dent, National Coal Policy Conference, Inc. 134 D. Other Government Publications Bituminous Coal Wages. Profits and Productivity. Jules Backman, Southern Coal Producers Association, February 1950 The 1954 Census of Minerals Industries. ti.S. Bureau oi the Census, Washington, 1958. Capital and Output Trends in Mining Indus tries. 1.870-1948. Israel Borenstein. Occasional ^aper No. 45, National Bureau of Economic Research, New York, 1954. Industry and Product Reports. Bituminous Coal and Lignite (MIC (P)-12A-1 and 2). U.S. Bureau of the Census. Washington. May 1960. Coal. Productivity Team Report, AngloAmerican Council on Productivity, London, 1951. Consumption of Fuel for the Production « of Electric Energy. Federal Power Commission, Washington, 1952. Impact of Electric Power Production on the Coal Industry, Francis Adams, Chief, Bureau of Power, Federal Power Commission, Address Before the Annual Meeting of Northern West Virginia Coal Association, November 14, 1958. The Economics of the Coal Industry. Hubert E. Risser, University of Kansas, Lawrence, 1958. The Economics of Strip Coal Mining. Herman D.' Graham, Bull. 66, University of Illinois, Bureau of Business Research, Urbana, 1948. II. Books and Reports Coal Wages. Productivity and Prices. Talk by Edward G. Fox, Cheat Lake, W. Va., April 17, 1959, W. Va. Coal Mining Institute and The American Institute of Mining Engineers. The Age of Coal Chemicals, pamphlet, U.S. Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa., 1958. The Efficiency of the Coal Industry. James M. Henderson, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1958. Anti-trust Policies. Vol. I, S. N • Whitney, The Twentieth Century Fund, New York, 1958. Energy in the American Economy. 1850-1975. Sam H. Schurr, Bruce C. Netschert, el. al Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, I960. "The Bituminous Coal Industry," Jacob Schmuckler, (in The Structure of American Industry. Walter Adams) The Macmillan do., New York, 1954. 135 The United Mine Workers: A Study on How Trade Union Policy Relates to Technological Change. Stanley Miller, Doctoral Dissertation Series No. 24,312, University of Wisconsin, 1957. Energy Sources? The Wealth of the World, Eugene Ayers and Charles A. Scarlott, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952. Measuring Productivity in Coal Mining. Charles M. James, Wharton School of Finance, Industrial Research Depart ment, Report No. 13, Philadelphia, 1952. Wages and Inflation. An Appraisal. Waldo E. Fisher, Paper delivered before the Personnel and Industrial Relations Association of Los Angeles, Calif. June 25, 1959. The Miners* Fight for American Standards. John L. Lewis, Bell Publishing Co., Indianapolis, 1925. Periodicals The Mining Industries. 1899-1939. Harold Barger and Sam H. Schurr, National Bureau of Economic Research, New York, 1954. "Automation Today— Mining and Processing Coal, Staff Report," Automation, Cleveland, Ohio, February 1961, p. 62. Minimum Price Fixing in the Bituminous Coal Industry. Waldo E. Fisher and C. M. James, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1955. "Bureau of Mines Research in Hydraulic Mining," J. J. Wallace, Mining Congress Journal, Washington, June 1961, p. 52. "Coal by Remote Control," Mining Englneering, New York, January 1953, p. 49. More Capital Equipment. 0001*8 Foremost Economic Need. D. R. G. Cowan, National Coal Association, Washington, July 1948. "Coal: Our Number One National Resource," Fortune, New York, March 1947, p. 49. Are Safety Regulations Adequate for Small Mines?— What the Record Shows. Talk by W. A. Edwards, Mine Inspectors Institute of America, Pittsburgh, Pa. June 19, 1961. "Coal: The 'Pitt-Consol* Adventure," Fortune, July 1947, p. 101. "Changing Fortunes of Bituminous Coal," Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, Monthly Business Review, February, April, July-August, November 1956. The Union and the Coal Industry, Morton §. Karats, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1955. 136 "Continuous Coal Mining," Fortune June 1950, p. 127* — — "T.C.I. Coal Mines Training Program," Whiter Fleming, Coal A g e . October 1960, p. 108. "Continuous Mining Productivity," R. L. Anderson, Mining Congress Journal, May 1958, p. 54* "Continuous Transportation in Special Mine Layout Paces High Productivity, Staff Report," Coal A g e , New York, April 1960, p, 72. "Developing the Wheel for American Coal Stripping," Frank F. Kolbe, Coal A g e , March 1955, p. 58. "John L, Lewis, Labor Leader and Man: A n Interpretation," J. B. S* Hardman, Labor History, New York, N.Y., Winter 1961, pp, 3*29, "Thin Seam Continuous Mining Pays Off At T.C.I.," Coal Mines Staff, Tennessee Coal and Iron Division, U.S. Steel Corp., Coal A g e , February 1960, p. 98. "Underground Planning and Control Using Electronic Computers," W. L. Zeller, Mining Congress Journal, January 1961, p. 43. Bituminous Coal Facts and Figures (and its predecessors), National Coal Association, Washington, D. C. (Biennial.) Coal Age— Mining Guide Book. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York. (Annual.) "The Lovebridge Story, Staff Report," Coal A g e . December 1959, p. 78. Keystone Coal Buyers Manual. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York. (Annual.) "More Machines, Fewer Men--A Union That's Happy About It," U.S, News and World Report. Washington, November 9, 195$, United Mine Workers Journal, United Mine Workers of America,' Washington. (Semimonthly.) "Radioisotopes in the Coal Industry, Staff Report," Mining Congress Journal, February 1961, p. 58. "Soft Coal, How Strong a Comeback," H. Solow, Fortune, October 1957, p 136. U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1961 0 — 621946
