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WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION
Harry L. Hoplclns, Ad•lnlrtrotor
Conlnston GIii, Aalrfont Ad•lnldrotor
DIVISION OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
Howard B. Myers, Oi,ector
RURAL YOUTH:
THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
By
Bruce
L. Melvin
and
Elna N. Smith
RESEARCH MONOGRAPH XV
1938
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON
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Letter of Transmittal
WoRKS PROGRESS Am,UNISTRATION,
Waahington, D. 0., July 15, 1938.
Sm: I have the honor to transmit an analysis of the present situation and future prospects of rural youth. The report is based on a
comprehensive survey of the field studies and general literature dealing
with rural youth.
Although there is already a "surplus" of rural youth, their numbers
will increase steadily until some time between 1940 and 1945. Even
assuming a considerable urbanward migration of farm youth, it appears that there will be over 1,000,000 more youth in rural territory
in 1940 than there were in 1930. With economic opportunities in
rural areas already far from adequate to meet the demands of youth,
the gravity of the situation is evident. Moreover, young people in
rural areas are definitely handicapped with respect to educational and
recreational facilities.
Many agencies, both governmental and nongovernmental, are providing services and opportunities for rural youth, but their largely
uncoordinated efforts reach only part of the rural young people who
need assistance. Fundamental amelioration of the situation calls for
united efforts in behalf of equalizing opportunities.
This study was made in the Division of Social Research under the
direction of Howard B. Myers, Director of the Division. The data
on which the report is based were collected and analyzed under the
supervision of T. J. Woofter, Jr., Coordinator of Rural Research.
The report was written by Bruce L. Melvin and Elna N. Smith.
It was edited by Ellen Winston. Special acknowledgment is due the
perso:nnel of the National Youth Administration and of the Office
of Emergency Conservation Work both for data and for constructive
criticism.
Respectfully submitted.
CORRINGTON GILL,
Assistant Adminuitrator.
HoN. HARRY
L.
HoPKINs,
Works Progress Admini~trator.
Ill
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Contents
Page
Introduction
XI
xm
Summary _
Chapter I. Distribution of youth _
1
Effect of fertility rates on the distribution of youth _ _ _
1
Effect of migration from 1920 to 1930 on the distribution
of youth _ _ .: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
7
Distribution of you.th, 1930 _ _ _ _ _ _
10
Replacement rates of rural-farm males _
Rural youth in 1935 _____ ~ ___ _
12
14
Trends in the number of youth after 1930 __
16
Chapter II. The economic situation
of rural youth
21
Employment and income _
Youth on relief _____ _
22
Employment opportunities _ _
Within agriculture _ _
Outside of agriculture _
30
29
31
_ _ _ _
36
Chapter Ill. Educational status and opportunities of rural youth- - -
41
Availability of school facilities in rural are88 _
School attendance of rural youth _ _ _ _ _ _
Illiteracy among rural youth _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
41
45
47
49
51
Educational attainments of out-of-school rural youth _
High school attendance since 1930 __
Vocational training in rural schools _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
52
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VI • CONTENTS
Page
57
Chapter IV. Marriage of rural youth
Proportion of youth married _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
58
Rural and urban youth compared _ _ _ _ _ _ _
58
Rural-farm and rural-nonfarm youth compared _
White and Negro youth compared _ _ _ _ _ _
60
63
Marriage during the depression of the early thirties _
64
of leisure time - - - - - - - -· - - - -
71
Chapter V. The
UH
Rural change and the use of leisure time _ _ _ _
71
Participation of youth in rural organizations _ _ _
74
Informal leisure-time activities of rural youth _ _ _ _ _
80
Crime and delinquency in rural areas _ _ _ _
83
87
Chapter VI. Meeting the problems of rural youth
Governmental agencies _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
87
Cooperative Extension Service _ _ _ _
88
Office of Education and the federally-aided high
schools _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - _ _
93
National Youth Administration _ _ _ _
94
Civilian Conservation Corps _ _
101
Works Progress Administration _
106
Farm Credit Administration _ _
108
Agricultural Adjustment Administration _
109
Resettlement Administration ___ _
109
United States Employment Service _
Nongovernmental agencies __________ _
Farm Bureau _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
110
110
110
Farmers Educationul and Co-operative Union __
National Grange _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
111
Wisconsin Fann Short Course _
112
Cooperative youth clubs _
113
Douglas County, Wis. _ _
113
Breathitt County, Ky. _
113
Rockland County, N. Y.
114
· Private institutions serving rurnl areus _
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Page
Chapter VII. Conclusions _ _ _ _ _ •- _ _ _ _ _ _
117
The need for education and guidance _
The baffling economic situation ___ _
123
The social and recreational situation __
Governmental responsibilities _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
127
131
Local responsibilities _ _ _ _
133
118
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
Appendix A. Supplementary tables
Appendix
Appendix
B. Method of estimating the
C. List of tables _
137
number of youth
149
_ _ _ _
151
Index - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _
153
ILLUSTRATIONS
Fi9ura
Figure
1. Trend in number of youth in the United States, 1920-1952 _
2. Rural youth as percent of all youth, by State, 1930 _ _ _
3. Children under 5 years of age per 1,000 women 20 through
44 years of age, white rural-farm population, 1930 _ _ _
4. Children under 5 years of age per 1,000 women 20 through
44 years of age, white rural-nonfarm population, 1930 _ _
5. Farm youth as percent of all rural youth, by State, 1930 _
6. Replacement rates of males 18 through 64 years of age in
the rural-farm population, by State, 1920 and 1930 _ _
7. Number of male workers in agriculture, by type of employment and age, 1930 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
8. Percent of rural-farm youth 16 and 17 years of age attending school, 1929-30 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
9. Percent of rural-nonfnrm youth 16 and 17 years of age
attending school, 1929-30 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
10. Illiteracy among rural-farm youth 15 through 24 years
of age, by State, 1930 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
11. Illiteracy among rural-nonfarm youth 15 through 24 years
of age, by State, 1930 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
12. Percent married of totul youth population, by age, residence, and sex, 1930 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
13. Percent married of rural youth populntion, by age, residence, and sex, 1930 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
2
3
4
5
11
14
24
46
46
48
48
59
61
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VIII • CONTENTS
Photosraph,
Page
What does the future hold?_ _
_ _ Facing
Surplus youth must migrate _ _
_ Facing
Map of district No. 28 _ _ _
_ Facing
Learning to farm _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ Facing
Topping sugar beets _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ Facing
One type of seasonal employment _
_ _ _ _ _ Facing
Young loafers in a mountain town _ _
_ Facing
Turners Creek school district _ _ _
_ Facing
One of the 132,000 one-room schools _
_ _ Facing
A modern rural school ______________ Facing
An FFA boy's test plot of hybrid corn _
_ _ Facing
What is their chance for security? _ _ _
_ Facing
Perplexed young parents _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ Facing
When urban amusements come to rural communities _ Facing
_ Facing
A village "joint" _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Bringing books to rural youth _ .., _
_ Facing
A typical 4-H Club project _ _ _
_ _ Facing
NYA trains prospective farmers _ _
_ _ _ Facing
NY A gardening project _ _ _ _ _
_ Facing
CCC boys going to school _ _ _ _ _
_ Facing
Study hour in a. South Dakota high school dormitory _ Facing
At the employment office _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Facing
The rural community must plan for its youth ____ Facing
Facing the future _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Facing
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110
122
132
Rural Youth:
Their Situation and Prospects
IX
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INTRODUCTION
YOUTH IS a period of economic and social adjustments. As the
transition period from childhood· to maturity it has tended progressively to expand as civilization has advanced. It is here defined as
including all young people 16 through 24 years of age. In a democracy it is society's obligation to make certain provisions for this transition period. Schools have been made available on the secondary
and college levels to prepare youth for making their adjustments, since
it has been assumed that economic opportunity is open to the youth
who are prepared through education to take advantage of it. Despite
the expansion of educational facilities, however, present economic
opportunities are so limited that large numbers of young men and
women are unable to establish themselves in a field that may be expected to lead to economic security. As a result the problems of
youth have become serious and far-reaching in their implications and
effects.
Lack of economic opportunity with the resultant social consequences
of unemployment, underemployment, or employment at work which
is unsuited to individual temperament or capacity has, of course, not
been limited to youth in recent years. But the demoralizing psychological effects of idleness, discouragement, and frustration during
periods of economic stress are particularly far-reaching and lasting
for youth.
In recent years unemployment has been widespread among rural as
well as urban youth, although more notice has been taken of the latter.
Too often the rural youth situation has been dismissed with the statement that at least the young people on farms need not starve. Such
summary disposition of the matter fails to take account of the other
necessities of human living or of the fact that there are thousands of
rural young people in small towns who are just as desperate as their
city cousins for a chance to develop their capacities and to banish the
spectre of insecurity.
Many individuals and organizations are interested in the welfare of
rural youth. Numerous programs are being planned in an attempt
to meet their problems. To guide this planning there has been a
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XII • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
distinct need for a comprehensive statement of the general situation
faced by youth in rural areaa as well as a digest of what is known about
the condition of youth in specific areas. Before new studies and programs are undertaken, it is important to know what information past
surveys, other studies, and census data have yielded.
A great deal of miscellaneous material of varying quality is available, including some studies made on a State basis. The usable data
on many topics are exceedingly scanty, however, and point to th~ need
for further research. An effort has been made in this report to summarize such data as are available and to supplement them with an
evaluation of the situation and prospects of rural youth.
Chapter I discusses the distribution of youth; chapter II deals with
their economic situation; chapter III treats of their educational status
and opportunities; chapter IV takes up the marital condition of youth;
while chapter V summarizes their recreational opportunities. Chapter
VI discusses what governmental agencies and some nongovernmental
agencies with programs for rural youth are doing in attempting to
meet the situation faced by youth. The final chapter attempts to
interpret the general situation and to point out the implications of the
data presented in the preceding chapters for future programs and
policies.
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SUMMARY
DURING THE early thirties, when economic opportunity was at a
minimum, more youth were maturing in the United States than ever
before. In 1935 there were in this country-approximately 20,800,000
youth, 16-24 years of age, almost 10,000,000 of whom were in rural
areas-a record figure in each case. Moreover, it is estimated that by
1940 the total will have increased to more than 21,500,000 with well
over 10,000,000 youth in rural areas.
DISTRIBUTION OF YOUTH
Youth is the principal age of migration just as it is the period of
occupational and marital adjustment. In the past migration to the
cities has tended to take care of the surplus population of rural areas.
The checking of this migration during the depression, as economic
opportunities in urban areas were sharply curtailed, resulted in the
"piling up" of youth in rural areas and the emergence of a major rural
youth problem.
During the decade from 1920 to 1930 the net migration from farms
totaled 6,300,000 persons of whom about 2,000,000 were youth 16-24
years of age. Girls left at an earlier age than boys, and more young
people left the poor agricultural areas than the better farm lands.
Southern Negroes moved in large numbers from farms to the cities in
their own section as well as to the cities of the North. At the same
time there was a steady migration from cities to farm areas close at
hand, causing the largest population increases for the period to occur
in the territory close to industrial and commercial centers.
Of the rural youth reported by the 1930 Census, over 40 percent lived
in nonfarm areas. In the largely nonagricultural New England,
Middle Atlantic, and Pacific Divisions nonfarm youth constituted over
one-half of the rural total. In the dominantly agricultural areas the
problems of farm and nonfarm youth are similar, but in primarily
industrial areas the problems of rural-nonfarm youth may have little
relation to agriculture. In the South race questions complicate the
situation since Negro youth form an important proportion of the rural
population, larger in the farm than in the nonfarm group.
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XIV • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Even at the beginning of the depression the pressure of farm youth
on employment opportunities was more acute than that of rura.1nonfarm youth. Pressure on the land as measured by replacement rates
of rural-farm males was particularly heavy in the Southam States.
The excess of country youth was accentuated between 1930 and 1935
as rural-farm youth increased much more rapidly than rural-nonfarm
youth. While all rural youth increased approximately 13 percent,
farm youth increased almost 19 percent to a record total of 6,107,000.
The checking of the cityward flow after 1930 contributed greatly to
the increase by 1935 of 1,150,000 in the number of rural youth, while
the youth population in the cities was declining. The net migration
varied from State to State. Apparently more youth migrated to than
from farms in the New England, Middle Atlantic, and East North
Central States, reflecting the shutdown in industry in those regions.
In other regions youth left the farms in spite of the limitations of industrial and commercial opportunities. Where fa.rm income has normally been very low and where drought and dust storms have been
severe. youth have migrated in large numbers.
The extent of migration to cities within the next few years will have
an important effect on the rural youth problem through its effect on
the pressure on employment opportunities in rural areas. Without
such migration there would be almost 2,000,000 more rural youth in
1940 than in 1930. Even with the expected migration there will be
between 500,000 and 600,000 more rural-farm youth and 500,000
more rural-nonfarm youth in 1940 than in 1930.
ECONOMIC SITUATION OF RURAL YOUTH
In the past, economic security in rural society has been measured
chiefly by property ownership. The farm youth expected to acquire
a good farm free of debt and the village youth ultimately to own a
business or to attain a secure position in some profession or skilled
trade. The large-sea.le development of lumbering, mining, and textile industries introduced a wage-ea.ming class into this system, and
there has been an increasing trend toward dependence on wages for
part or all of the income. Meanwhile, youth have been "piling up"
on the home farm where they receive little or no return other than
subsistence for their labor.
With more and more youth accumulating on the home farms, and as
the possibility of finding economic security through migration to urban
areas decreases, their situation becomes of course less tolerable. In
poor land areas, like the Lake States Cut-Over, the trouble is acute
on account of the extremely small return for their work and the large
proportion of youth who have no work at all. Even on good land the
incrense<l number of youth of employable a~e who cannot find a living away from the home form is affecting the economic balance.
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SUMMARY• XV
The situation of yoUDJit women forced to remain on the home farm is
probably more precarious than that of the young men since little but
housework and farm labor are available to them. In general, it appears that young women working at home are less likely to receive
wages from parents than are young men, and in the poorer areas their
role is regularly that of unpaid servants.
Probably not less than 2,000,000 rural youth have been members of
relief households at some time since 1930. The peak in the number
of households was reached in February 1935 when approximately
1,370,000 rural youth were receiving aid. By October the number of
youth on relief had declined to 625,000. Most of those removed from
the relief rolls had been transferred to the Civilian Conservation Corps
or with their families to the Resettlement Administration so that the
decline in the number receiving some form of Government aid was
probably not great. Young men left the general relief rolls more
rapidly than young women, and older youth found more opportunities
for going off relief than did those under 20 years of age.
Developments of recent years have greatly reduced the opportunities of rural youth for attaining economic security. Progress toward
farm ownership is hindered and frequently prevented by the growing burden of debt, the increase in tenancy, the decreased demand for
farm laborers, the trend toward large-scale ownership of land, mechanization of agriculture, and the development of large areas of agricultural maladjustment. The children of owner-operators therefore
start as laborers, like their parents, but unlike their parents they often
remain permanently in that or the tenant class.
The alternatives presented to underprivileged farm youth appear
to be three-to remain in the country at a low level of living, to go to
the cities to compete for jobs at very low wages, or, if their need is
sufficiently great, to obtain jobs provided by one of the governmental
agencies. There is no longer new acreage to be opened up, and much
hitherto cultivated land is no longer profitable.
Nonagricultural employment, instead of offering possibilities for
the greatly increased number of maturing rural youth, has reduced
its labor requirements, and the supply of local labor already trained is
usually sufficient for its needs. Untrained rural youth going to
industrial or urban areas ordinarily find opportunities only in the
hardest and most menial work, which is also the most poorly paid.
EDUCATIONAL STA TUS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF RURAL YOUTH
Rural youth are definitely handicapped in comparison with urban
youth by the lack of educational facilities. Because of comparative
lack of taxpaying ability rural States have the most meager provisions
for public education. Hence the areas with the largest proportions
of children have the poorest schools.
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XVI • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Largely because of the differences in educational facilities rural
youth do not attend school to the same extent as do urban youth.
Rural-farm youth attend school in smaller numbers proportionately
and leave school earlier than do rural-nonfarm youth, also primarily
because of variat.ions in educational opportunity. School attendance
alone does not measure the educational situation, however, and many
rural youth, particularly in the South, are greatly retarded with respect
to grade attainment. Moreover, although marked progress has been
made, illiteracy is still prevalent in States with large reservoirs of
surplus youth and with large numbers of Negro or Mexican youth.
As late as 1930 about 1 out of every 20 rural-farm youth in the United
States was still unable to read and write.
High school attendance increased during the period when employment was hard to find, the gain occurring in both town and country.
The National Youth Administration and other relief agencies have
contributed to this development in recent years by assisting youth in
the lowest income groups to continue in school. In rural areas where
the educational handicap has been severe even in normal times, similar aid over a long period appears advisable.
Where facilities are available, a large proportion of all rural youth
attend school, from which it may be assumed that with adequate
opportunity a substantial increase in rural attendance can be expected.
Much Federal and local effort has been expended in extending rural
high school facilities and especially vocational training in agricultural
and homemaking courses. One of the most significant phases of the
vocational agricultural work has been the development of the organization known as Future Farmers of America with its emphasis on practical farming experience.
The desirability of nonagricultural training for farm youth is made
apparent by the shortage of farm work and by the usual unfitness of
such youth to compete for urban employment.
MARRIAGE OF RURAL YOUTH
In farm life especially, marriage represents an economic as well as a
social adjustment since the farm home and the farm business are one.
It does not necessarily involve a comparable economic adjustment for
rural-nonfarm youth since the young man may have become established in some occupation long before his marriage.
The proportion of youth married is greater for both sexes and for all
years among rural than urban youth. At each year of age more young
women than young men are married in both urban and rural territory.
Early marriage of girls is particularly frequent in rural areas.
More rural-nonfarm than rural-form youth of both sexes were married in 1930. The higher rate among the rural-nonfarm group seems
to be associated with large rural-industrial populations. Moreover,
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SUMMARY • XVII
most of the States with particularly high rural-nonfarm marriage
rates are Southern States in which marriage rates among youth in
general are high. Color also influences the proportion of youth who
are married, relatively more Negro than white youth being married
in all residence groups.
Between 1910 and 1920 there was an upward trend in the percent
married among both rural and urban youth. In the twenties there
was little change in the proportion of youth married, but during the
early years of the depression (1929-1932) the marriage rate for the
entire country fell, the decline appearing to be greater in urban than
in rural areas. As the rural depression had begun in the twenties, and
the reduction in the marriage rate was then negligible, it seems doubtful whether depression conditions have any marked effect in causing
farm youth to postpone marriage. In 1933 the marriage rate began
increasing and continued through 1934, returning practically to the
1929 level. This recovery was general among both rural and urban
States.
USE OF LEISURE TIME
The social adjustments of youth largely determine the patterns of
their adult lives. Hence it is particularly important for a wide variety
of wholesome recreational activities to be available for them. Within
recent years there have been many changes in the kinds of recreation
in which rural youth indulge, as automobiles, motion pictures, and the
radio have become generally available. The rural community has
frequently become disorganized and as a result has less and less control
over the behavior of individual members.
So far rural communities have been slow to realize the social and recreational needs of youth and have made few attempts to meet them.
On the other hand, a large proportion of rural youth do not participate
in such institutions and organizations as have been developed. Except
for the church and Sunday school, organizations in rural areas have
attracted a relatively small percentage of those eligible for membership and have often failed to meet the needs of those who did become
members. The extent to which youth participate in social organizations apparently depends largely on their economic status and educational attainments.
In addition to the church and other organizations there are many
informal activities which absorb the leisure time of rural young people.
The extent to which youth attend motion pictures and dances, belong
to athletic groups, play games, read, etc., varies widely from one
section to another. The amount and type of reading is largely determined by the availability of library facilities. Recreation within the
home is still of major importance and has received new stimulation and
development as a result of the depression. The lack of recreational
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XVIII • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
activities is particularly acute in poor land areas. The various Federal
emergency agencies established during the depression of the early
thirties have made an important contribution through making available to rural areas some of the facilities for wholesome recreation, such
as playgrounds, swimming pools, and community centers, which a.re
taken for granted by city dwellers.
PROGRAMS TO AID RURAL YOUTH
Many organizations, both governmental and nongovernmental,
have developed definite and constructive programs for aiding rural
youth. The Cooperative Extension Service of the United States
Department of Agriculture, operating through the State colleges of
agriculture, promotes its work for youth through the 4-H Club program and through organizations for young adults. The 4-H Club
membership is composed primarily of young people below the youth
group and includes chiefly young people in school from farm homes.
The program for older groups, which is still largely in the experimental
s~e, emphasizes the promotion of better farming and the development of leadership in educational and cultural guidance and in recreational activities.
The federally-aided high schools with courses in vocational agriculture have expanded their part-time and evening classes in agricultural
education since the depression of the early thirties. Unemployed and
out-of-school youth have been given training to equip them for work
when the opportunity comes. The Office of Education has pioneered
in many programs of value to rural areas, such as conservation, radio,
and public forums.
The National Youth Administration has a varied program which
covers a far more extensive group than the relief group for which it was
organized primarily. Its present services to youth include aid to those
who cannot attend school without help, special courses at agricultural
colleges for farm boys and girls, work projects for out-of-school youth,
and vocational guidance and job placement. Through these various
programs hundreds of thousands of youth are being aided.
The Civilian Conservation Corps has the threefold purpose of conserving natural resources, providing employment for needy young
men, and giving vocational training. By January 1, 1938, approximately 900,000 rural youth from low-income or relief families had
spent one enrollment term or more in camp.
The Works ProgreRs Administration, while it has no program especially designed for youth, hns reached a considerable number of rural
youth through its educational projects, work projects, and provision of
recreational facilities. The Fnrm Credit Administration through it.a
production credit associations to finance crop and livestock production and, more recently, through its program for giving youth oppor-
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SUMMARY • XIX
tunities to rent farms is helping young men get a start in farming.
The Agricultural Adjustment Administration and, more recently, the
Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act through assisting rural
families have aided the youth in those families. Similarly the Resettlement Administration, now the Farm Security Administration, has
aided rural youth through helping their families. However, direct
assistance to youth in making their own economic adjustments has not
been rendered by these agencies.
The United States Employment Service helps young people as well
as older workers to secure jobs. So far, data on the extent to which the
USES functions with respect to rural youth are not available.
Nongovernmental agencies serving youth are numerous and varied.
Those which have been developed in rural areas with definite programs for out-of-school youth include the junior programs of the
Farm Bureau and the Farmers Educational and Co-operative Union,
the National Grange which embraces the entire family in its membership, the Wisconsin Farm Short Course for farm boys, and cooperative youth clubs. In addition there are many localized projects with
varying characteristics scattered throughout the country. Often experimental in nature, they are performing important functions in
widening the opportunities and outlook of rural youth.
In spite of excellent work on the part of various agencies, governmental and nongovernmental, the problems of rural youth as a whole
are still far from being solved. Although much has been accomplished
to ameliorate conditions resulting from the depression, probably the
majority of rural youth have not had the advantages of any specialized
program.
THE LONG-TIME PROBLEM
The long-time rural youth problem is that of an excess in numbers
in relation to a dearth of rural opportunities, a situation which becomes greatly aggravated during "hard times." Yet rural youth
need not necessarily face constricted opportunities if society assumes
its full responsibility for this great human resource.
While equality of educational opportunity is generally accepted as
a fundamental democratic principle, the fact must be clearly faced
that there is not equality of educat.ional facilities in rural America.
Because of such inequalities, there are thousands of out-of-school rural
youth inadequately prepared to cope with the problems of modern
life. In view of the limited financial resources available in many
rural areas, it seems clear that the Federal Government must extend
greatly increased support if the dPmocratic ideal of equality in education for rural youth is to be realiZPd.
No amount of education will be of much benefit to rural youth,
however, if adequate opportunities for gainful employment are lack-
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XX• RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
ing. Agriculture cannot begin to absorb the increasing number of
rural youth. Migration to urban centers will not meet the situation
unless it is carefully directed. Even with guided migration cities are
unlikely to be able to absorb the vast numbers of rural youth who
ought, under present conditions, to leave rural territory. While
agricultural developments point toward even further restrictions in
opportunities for youth on farms, the expansion of the field of service
occupations holds possibilities for large numbers of young people.
This development, however, is contingent on rural areas being able to
support the social services they so badly need.
The consequences of inequality are nowhere more apparent than in
the social and recreational life of young people. Dull and uneventful
communities do not necessarily breed antisocial behavior, but they
may yield lethargic and restricted personalities. Society must accept
the responsibility of providing not only educational and economic
opportunities for rural youth but also adequate recreational and social
facilities if well-rounded personalities are to be developed.
Society must recognize the exploitation and waste of its young
manhood and womanhood which now exist. A concerted frontal
attack has yet to be made on the long-time factors responsible for
the widespread destitution and restricted social opportunities of rural
youth.
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Chapter I
DISTRIBUTION OF YOUTH
THE INTENSITY of the difficulties that rural youth encounter in
making their adjustments into adult society at any particular time
and place largely depends on the rate at which youth reach maturity
and the extent to which they move into or out of the community.
A population of one hundred may create pressure on a given number
of acres of poor land but be well adjusted if on good land. In rural
areas of ample opportunities the concentration of numbers-particularly of youth-does not create serious difficulties except in times of
widespread unemployment. On the other hand, concentration in
areas of limited economic opportunities and of restricted health,
recreational, and educational facilities creates continuous maladjustment which becomes greatly aggravated in times of general economic
depression.
Manifold problems confront the youth of rural America today.
The problems of rural youth are, moreover, closely related to those
of youth in cities, and the maladjusted situations in which the youth
of the two groups have found themselves in recent years have been
due both to long-time trends and to the depression.
In the Nation as a whole, in spite of slackening birth rates and
restricted immigration, there were more youth in 1935 than ever
before. In that year some 20,800,000 persons, or one-sixth of the
population, were in the youth group (16-24 years of age). The number had steadily increased from 1930 to 1935, the period during which
opportunities were at a minimum. Almost half of these youtll were
living in rural districts, and the growth in numbers had been greatest
in rural territory.
EFFECT OF FERTILITY RATES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF YOUTH
The number of youth at any given time depends primarily on the
number of births 16 to 24 years previously. The trend of births in
the United States rose until 1921 when the peuk was reached, with
a second lower peak coming in 1924 (appendix table 1). Barring the
1
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2 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
25r---....---~---,---
.-------.------,-----,--
-
-
F10. I-TREND IN NUMBER OF YOUTH IN
THE UNITED STATES
1920-1952
Source: Append ix t able 2 .
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-~
DISTRIBUTION •
3
possible effects of change in immigration policy and assuming a constant death rate, there will be more youth in the United States about
the period 1942 to 1944 than at any other period prior to that time
(appendix table 2). The total number of youth will begin to decrease
shortly thereafter because the number of births per year in the United
States has declined almost steadily since 1924 (fig. 1). 1
Tobie 1.-Percent of Total Population and of Total Youth Population in Urban and Rural
Areas, by Geographic Division, 1930
Total youth
population
Total population
Geographic dlvblon
uruOd•-
..
. . . ...... ···i ":,
•:,
New England ___ ............ . ....... . ... . ......... . ......... . .. '.~ Middle Atlantic_........... . . .. . . ............. . ................
77. 7
East North Central....
... . .. .. . ... ... .. ... .. . .. . .... . ... . .
M. 4
WestNorthCentraL...
. ................... 1
41.8
South Atlantlc. __ ··-····.. . . . . ...... .. . . . ...... ............
36.1
East South CentraL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. . .. . . . ..... . ... . ,
28. I
West South Central... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. ..... .. ... ... . .. . ... .
36. 4
Mountain _______ ·-'···...... .
..... . .
. .. . .............. ,
39. 4
Paci1lc __________ ···································-··········· 1
67.5
u,:,
1 •:,
~~
22. 3
79. 6
33. 6
68. 6
68.2
42.1
63.11
36. 9
71.11
28. 3
63. 6
36. 4
60. 6
311. 3
32.6
67.11
21.3
21. 4
31. 4
67.11
64.1
71. 7
63. 6
eo. 7
32.1
Source: Bureau of the Cenrus, Fifteefltll Cen8m of the Unittd Statu: 1930, Population Vol. II, U. B.
Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1933, pp. 611,671,674, and 694.
Although more children have been born and reared in the country
than in the cities, migration to the cities has balanced the deficit of
births in urban territory so that in 1930 the percent distribution of
FIG. 2- RURAL YOUTH AS PERCENT OF ALL YOUTH
1930
Per ce nl
D
a
Less lhon
20
IITIIl] 30
[ml 40
~ 50
i8!l!ll 60
-
20
29
39
49
59
69
Source· F tfreenrh Census
-
70 - 7 9
of Ille United Stales: 19.30.
-
80 or more
1 There will be a slight ups'\\;ng again in the number of youth from about 1960
through 1965. At that time the children of women born during the high birth
rate years of 1921-1924 will be entering the youth group. National Resources
Committee, Population Statistic&, 1. National Data, Washington, D. C., October
1937, p. 9.
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FIG.3-CH ILDREN UNDER 5 YEARS OF AGE PER
.s,,..
r.ooo WOMEN
•
;I!:,
20 THROUGH 44 YEARS OF AGE
C
;I!:,
WHITE RURAL-FARM POPULATION
)>
r
1930
-<
0
~
.....
I
!!!
;I!:,
V,
::::j
C
)>
.....
5
z
)>
·•z
0
a
<g
Children per
1,0 00 women
"
<1)
a.
O"
~ Less than 440
CJ
6J] 440 -
~
0
11
~,.....
n
549
~ 550- 659
660-769
•
770-879
•
880ormore
Note. Counlies having fewer than 100 women
(20 through 44 years of age) ore left blank.
Source : Fifteenth Census of the United States : 1930
AF -258i , WPf\
~
j
@
FIG4· CHILDREN UND ER 5 YEARS OF AGE PER 1,000 WOMEN
20 THROUGH 44 YEARS OF AGE
WHITE RURAL-NONFARM POPULATION
1930
Children per
1,00 0 wome n
D
Less lhon 44 0
Ci] 440 - 549
~ 550 - 659
a
'§
.,
11111111
660 - 769
•
770 - 879
11l
•
88 0 or more
cr
0
a-n
~
iii
C
~
'<
()
0
6
Note Countie s hov, ng fewer !hon 100 women
(20 through 4 4 years of age) ore left blank
Source: Fdteenth Census of lhe United Slales : 1930
z
AF- ~58 4, W P A
•
VI
6 •. RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPE.CTS
rural and urban youth corresponded closely to the percent distribution of the rural and urban population (table 1, fig. 2, and appendix
table 3). It was the decline in migration that caused the emergence
of the problems of rural youth after 1930. Some knowledge of fertility rates 2 in urban and rural territory is essential to an understanding of the distributive process which operated prior to the
depression of the early thirties and was checked during the depression.
The fertility rate of the large cities is now generally below that
necessary to maintain their population. Even to maintain a stationary population it was necessary, with 1930 death rates, to have 444
white children under 5 yea.rs of age for each 1,000 white women 2()-44
yea.rs of age and 499 Negro children per 1,000 Negro women 20-44
years of age. 3 According to this standard the ratio of children to
women in the native white population of the United States in all places
with a population above 10,000 in 1930 was on the average below that
necessary for replacement.' Only 1 city with a population of more
than 100,000 in 1930 had a fertility rate sufficiently high to maintain
its population. The large cities had on the average a deficit of more
than 20 percent in the number of children. At the same time there
was a 50 percent surplus of children in rural territory (figs. 3 and 4).
Deaths already exceeded births in 1935 in 6 cities in the United
States with more than 100,000 population 6 as well as in a considerable
number of smaller cities. The same situation existed in 130 counties
located chiefly in the Northeast and the far West.
It follows that in order to maintain the urban population at its
present level there must be a movement of rural people to the cities. 8
Unfortunately or fortunately, depending on the point of view, under
the present system there are not enough economic possibilities in the
cities to absorb the entire rural population surplus. Hbnce in one
respect a major youth problem is the maintenance of a rural-urban
balance of population.
'Whelpton, P. K., "Geographic and Economic Differentials in Fertility,''
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 188, November 1936, pp. 37-55.
• Data for fertility of white women from National Resources Committee,
Population Statistics, 1. National Data, op. cit., table 14; data for fertility of Negro
women computed by Dorn, Harold F., based on life tables prepared by the U. S.
Bureau of the Census.
'Whelpton, P. K., op. cit., p. 46.
6 San Francisco and Oakland, Calif.; Portland, Oreg.; Seattle, Wash.; and Utica
and Albany, N. Y. This was also true of 12 cities with populations between
50,000 and 100,000; 20 cities with populations between 25,000 and 50,000; and
74 cities with populations between 10,000 and 25,000. Data compiled by Dorn,
Harold F., from special reports of the U. S. Bureau of the Census, Division of
Vital Statistics.
e Baker, 0. E., "Rural-Urban Migration and the National V,'e]fare," Anna/.., of
the Association of American Geographt>rs, Vol. XXIII, ,June 1933, p. 73.
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DISTRIBUTION • 7
EFFECT OF MIGRATION FROM 19t0 TO 1930 ON THE DISTRIBUTION
OF YOUTH
Between 1920 and 1930 the total rural-farm population declined
from 31,358,600 to 30,157,500, a decrease of almost4 percent. During
this decade, however, the number of persons 15-24 years of age in the
rural-farm population rose from 5,750,400 to 5,855,200, an increase of
about 2 percent.7 This accretion occurred in spite of the heavy migration of youth from farms during the decade.
Limited data suggest that in the decade 1920-1930 migration was
relatively heavier from the poorest land than from the good land. 8
During the depression, however, the flow of population from submarginal land was reversed, the population returning to these poor lands
from the cities:' This necessarily caused a "piling up" of youth in
submarginal areas. Moreover, during the 5-year period 1930 to 1935
there was an actual migration from regions of commercial crop
production. 10
The total net migration from farms between 1920 and 1930 was
6,300,000, of which approximately one-third, or, conservatively estimated, about 2,000,000, were youth 15 to 25 years of age. 11 In total
numbers this group exceeded the age group under 15 years, the group
between 25 and 35 years of age, and the group 35 years of age and over.
These data establish youth as the principal age of migration.
Just as it is the period of occupational adjustment and marital adjustment so it is the period of adjustment to new communities.
The estimate that one-third of all the migrants from farms between
1920 and 1930 were youth is conservative since 25 percent of all
persons who left the farms between 1920 and 1930 were 10-14 years
of age in 1920 and 23 percent were 15-19 years of age in 1920 (table 2).
The figures also indicate that many migrants are children who move
with their families. On the other hand, the large majority of youth
probably migrate independently of their families as is shown by a
7 Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, Population
Vol. II, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1933, table 16, pp.
588-589. Fifteen-year-olds are included in this tabulation because the 1920
Census did not give the farm population by single years.
1 Analysis of the migration of n1ral population made in the Division of Social
Research, Works Progress Administration, Wasl:>in~ton, D. C.
1 Goodrich, Carter, Allin, Bm1hrod W., and Ha.yes, Marion, Migration and
Planes of Living, 1920-1934, Philadelphia.: University of Pennsylvania. Press,
1935, p. 71. See also Woofter, T. J., Jr., "Rural Relief and the Ba.ck-to-the-Farm
Movement," Social Forces, Vol. 14, 1936, p. 382 If.
1 Folsom, Josiah C. and Baker, 0. E., A Graphic Summary of Farm Labor and
Population, Miscellaneous Publication No. 265, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. 0., November 1937, p. 31. See also National Resources Committee, Population Statistics, 1. National Data, op. cit., p. 65.
11 Baker, O. E., The Outlook for Rural Youth, Extension Service Circular 223,
U.S. Department of A~riculture, Washington, D. C., 1935, p. 4.
°
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8 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
comparison of the age distribution of the rural-farm and urban
populations (table 3). If the population under 15 years of age is
classed as children, those 15 to 24, inclusive, as youth, those 25 to 64
as the mature productive group, and those 65 and over as aged, and
if comparisons are made of the percentages of the total population
belonging to these age groups on the fanns and in the cities in 1930,
the years of migration become even more obvious. In the farm
population 36 percent are children as against 26 percent in the city.
Tal:,/e !.-Estimated Percent Distribution of Migrants From Farms, by Age and S.x,
1920-1930
.\ge
Male
1920
Female
1930
Total :
Under 5 years ........... ..• . ... ..... ••..
&-9 YllBrs ... ... ................ . . .. . ... . .
10-14 years..········· .................. .
l&-19 YllBrs ..•. . ... .. ....... .. .. . ...... . .
2o-24 years ....... .•............ ... .... ••
~29 years .. ..... ... ............ . .. . ... .
30-3'1 Yll8rs . ...... .............. .. ...... .
:la-39 years ........................•.....
41H4 years . •• . : .• • • . .•. ..• ... .. . . . .••...
4~9 years ..... . . .. . . ... . .... .. . . . .. . .
!iCJ-54 years ............. . .. . ........ .. .. .
M-59 years ............................. .
lilHl4YeRrs ....... .. .. ........ . ...... . .. .
~years .•.••••.... . ....•.. . . . , ••.••••
Number. . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • •
___ ____
10-14 Ye&rs . .. . . . . . . . .• .. . . . . . . . . . . . .•.
l&-19 years...... . ..... . ...... . ...... .
20-2-4 years............ ..... ... ........
~29years.......... . ..... . . ... . ......
30-34ye&rs..... ... .. . .... .. . . . . . .....
3&-39years.......... .... . . ............
41H4 years............................
4~9 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50-54 years........... ... . ..... ........
~59 years.......... .... . .. ... .. . ... . .
60-G4 years............ ... . .... . . . ... ..
M-ffl!years. . ........ .......... .. . . ....
70-i4 years........ .. .. . . . . . ........ .
i&-79 years..................... . .. . ...
3, 388, 600
2, 805, 000
Percent.. . ................... . . ..... .. ,_
JOO
,
JOO
5
7
25
G
13
25
2fl
20
13
9
4
3
ff
4
3
I
3
3
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
3
2
2
Sources: Bureau of the Census, Fift_unth Ctmiuoftlle Unilrd Slatu: J9JO, Population Vol. IT, U. ll . Department of Commerce, Washington, D . C., 1933, pp, 588-589; and Dorn, Harold F. and Lorimer, Frank
"!\lilrration, Reproduction, and Population Adjustment," Annal• of tht Amtrican Aca<ttm, of PolUkal a;;i
Social &itnce, Vol. 188, November 1936, p. 287,
There is a close correspondence in the youth group, but the city population has 51 percent in the productive ages as against 40 percent in this
age group in the fann areas. Thus the 15-24 year age group is the
period when an excess of children on the farms is being converted into
an excess of persons in the productive ages in the city.
Certain generalizations may be made about the youth contingent of
migrants. In the first place girls left the farms at a younger age than
boys, and in the second place more young people migrated from the
Tal,fe 3.-Population of the United States, by Age and Residence, 1930
l'rblln
Rural
Xonfnrm
Farm
Numhrr
N umber
Total........... .... .... .... .. 30. 158. 000
Under 15 years.... . . ............ .. . . IU, 81i2, 000
100.0
23, f,63, 000
100.0
3/i.O
7.~.(0)
~~H::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::·
i!:i.::~
years ... ..... ..... . .. . . • .•.... . ll. S,.0. 000
II.~
8.1
30. 5
5. I
2, 11 6,lOl
2, 016, (100
J, .S.'>8.Ul KI
31. 3
8.9
8.5
44. 6
6.fl
19,000
0.1
~
115 yenrs and O\'rr....... . . . . . . •. .. . .
1·nknown ..... .... .. ...... .... .. . . . . . .
I, 552,000
~. OUll
Percent
P r rrt'nt
Pl'I'('('Dt
10,54R,0()()
61l, 954,000
17,787,000
f , 01~. 000
6, 4~. 000
35. 142,000
3,524. 000
66,000
100. 0
25. 8
8. 7
9. 8
51 . 0
5. l
0. 1
•u-s.• than 0.05 perC<'nt.
Source : Bureau of the Census. FiflunJh r,n,,,,, nfth, l'n iltd SlaJe,: t .9,o, Populnflon Vol. IT, U. 8 . Depart•
mPnt o( Cowmeree . \\."osh ington, D. C., 193-J. J)p. ,'>R7-.5,S!J.
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Fur,n St>curity A. ,ll11i11 i.s lrut iu11 (Rotlu lt' ill).
Surplus Youth Must Migrate.
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DISTRIBUTION • 9
poorer agricultural areas than from the better farm lands. Of the
farm girls 10-14 years of age in 1920, 43 percent had migrated by
1930 while of the farm boys of the same age group 33 percent had
migrated. For the next older age class, 15-19 years in 1920, 43 percent of both sexes had migrated by 1930. 12 In some States the migration was much more extensive. In Michigan, for example, 37.4
percent of the males on farms 10-14 years of age in 1920 and 58.8
percent of the females in this category had migrated by 1930. 13
Migration was especially toward the larger cities. H According to a
study in New York State for the period from 1917 to 1930, 16 the
factors determining the migration from the farms in addition to ~e
were opportunity, size of farm, education, distance, and capital.
Not all of the young migrants were white. The movement of
Negroes from the farms of the South included many young people.
It is estimated that almost 1,000,000 more Negroes left farms than
moved to farms between 1920 and 1930. This number was equal to
about three-fourths of the natural increase of Negroes in the United
States during the same period. 16 The Negro as well as the white
12 Dorn, Harold F. and Lorimer, Frank, "Migration, Reproduction, and
Population Adjustment," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science, Vol. 188, November 1936, p. 280.
For discussions of migration see Anderson, W. A., Mobility of Rural Families. I,
Bulletin 607, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.,
June 1934, and Mobility of Rural Families. II, Bulletin 623, Cornell University
Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y., March 1935; Smick, A. A. and
Yoder, F. R., A Study of Farm Migration in Selected Communities in the State of
Washington, Bulletin 233, Washington Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman,
Wash., June 1929; Hamilton, C. Horace, Rural-Urban Migration in North Carolina, 191!0 lo 1930, Bulletin No. 295, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment
Station, Raleigh, N. C., February 1934, and "The Annual Rate of Departure of
Rural Youths from Their Parental Homes," Rural Sociology, Vol. I, 1936, pp.
164-179; Goodrich, Carter, Allin, Bushrod W., and Hayes, Marion, op. cit.;
Zimmerman, Carle C., "The Migration to Towns and Cities," Nos. I and II,
American Journal of Sociology, Vol. XXXII, 1926, pp. 450--455, and Vol. XXXIII,
1927, pp. 105-109, No. III with Duncan, 0. D. and Frey, Fred C., American
Journal of Sociology, Vol. XXXIII, 1927, pp. 237-241, No. IV with Duncan, 0.
D., Journal of Farm Economics, Vol. X, 1928, pp. 506-515; Gee, Wilson, "A
Qualitative Study of Rural Depopulation in a Single Township: 1900-1930,"
American Journal of Sociology, Vol. XXXIX, 1933, pp. 210--221; Gee, Wilson and
Runk, Dewees, "Qualitative Selection in Cityward Migration," American Journal
of Sociology, Vol. XXXVII, 1931, pp. 254-265; and Reuss, Carl F., "A Qualitative Study of Depopulation in a Remote Rural District: 1900--1930," Rural
Sociology, Vol. 2, 1937, pp. 66-75.
n Thomthwaite, C. Warren, Internal Migration in the United States, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1934, p. 33.
H Zimmerman, Carle C., Duncan, 0. D., and Frey, Fred C., op. cit.
u Young, E. C., The Movement of Farm Population, Bulletin 426, Cornell
University Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y., March 1924, p. 88.
11 Dom, Harold F. and Lorimer, Frank, op. cit., p. 283.
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10 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
youth in the Southeast went not only to the cities in their own section but also to cities in other sections. Moreover, even with the
migration of Negroes from rural territory as heavy as it was during
the decade prior to 1930, it was not sufficient to reduce the proportion
of total youth that was rural below the figure for the proportion of the
total population that was rural.
So far the discussion of rural migration during the twenties has
been in terms of the net movement to urban areas, but the return flow
from cities during these years was likewise of considerable significance.
The destination of this counter movement was principally farms 17 and
the area. immediately surrounding the large cities. This flow to the
peripheries of the cities is shown by the fact that the counties that had
the largest population increases through immigration between 1920
and 1930 were in the neighborhood of large cities. 18 The increase in
the number of rural-nonfarm youth amounted to 21 percent between
1920 and 1930. 19
DISTRIBUTION OF YOUTH, 1930
The migratory trends left the youth population of the United States
in 1930 divided between urban and rural territory about as the total
population was divided (table 1 and appendix table 3), 44 percent
rural and 56 percent urban. Of the 11,300,000 urban youth 62 percent
were in the New England, Middle Atlantic, and East North Central
Divisions. Of the 8,800,000 rural youth, 65 percent were in the
Southern and West North Central Divisions (appendix table 4).
Before 1930 when the numbers of city youth were not being replenished
by maturities to the age 16 in the city, there was a constant flow from
rural to urban areas and from the farm sections of the Nation to the
industrial sections. This rearing of a substantial part of the urban
ToMe 4.-Residence of Rural Youth in the United States, by Geo9raphic Division, 1930
Total rum!
Orographic division
Sumber
Unitt•d Stat,•s ________ __. _______ ____ . _______ . ____ _
Sew En~!Rnd _______________________ . ___________________ __
Middlu Atlantic ___________________________________________ _
East North Cl'lltral. ___________ __________ ______________ ___ _ _
W,•st North C,•nlmJ... _________ ... _. ___________ __________ __
South Atlantic. __ . ___ . _______ . ___ . _____ . _____________ . ___ _
F.nstSouth Central.____________
____________________ _
West ~outh Cmtml.,. _ ___ ___________________ _________ _
'.\louutnln. __________ _
Pacific. _________ .
Percent
R,844, 1143
2f\1, ;4.;
100.0
ltM). 0
X5(\ 346
ltXJ.O
I, 2-10 !!.>2
I. 232, ~14
!,SH, l,h
1, 2i'l, :t;\f
I, 412. 70.5
3f1!'), 4~3
387.~41
100. 0
100.0
ltMl.0
Source: Bureau o! the Census, Ftflrrnlh c,,,_,.,, of th, Unittd Slot,,:
Department of Commerce, \\'ashington, D. C., IY33, p, 6i4.
100.0
IOII. 0
llXl.O
100.0
/9.IO,
Ruralfarm
Ruralnonfarm
-----58.1
'Il. 7
29. 1
54. 2
67. 7
58. 7
71. 7
611. 7
61.l
42.1
41.11
72.3
70.11
45. 8
32. 3
41.3
28 3
30. 3
48. 9
~i.11
Population Vol. II, U. S.
17 Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the C.:nited States: 1930, Agriculture Vol. IV, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1932, p. 12.
1s Thornthwaite, C. Warren, op. cit., p. 28.
11 From 3,409,100 in 1920 to 4,131,600 in 1930, Bureau of the Census, Fifteen.th Census of the United Sta!es: 1980, Population Vol. II, op. cit., p. 589.
Fifteen-year-olds were included in this tabulation bt>cause the 1920 Census did
not give the rural-nonfarm population by t-i11glc ycari;.
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DISTRIBUTION •
11
population on the farms represents a notable financial contribution
by rural areas to the urban labor market.
The location of rural youth is further shown by comparing the
concentration of rural-nonfarm youth with that of rural-farm youth.
Over 40 percent of all rural youth in the United States in 1930 were
classed as rural-nonfarm (table 4). In three of the nine geographic
divisions-New England, Middle Atlantic, and Pacific-nonfarm
youth made up more than 50 percent of the rural youth population.
These regions are for the most part comprised of dominantly nonagricultural States, such as Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and
California (fig. 5).
FIG. 5 - FARM YOUTH AS PERCENT OF ALL RURAL YOUTH
1930
Percent
Less than 20
E3 20 - 29
[Il]]J 3 0 - 39
m;l 4 0 - 49
D
i::@50 - 59
l!l!llll 60 - 6 9
Source: Fifteenth
Census
of the United Stoles: 19.30.
-
70 - 79
80 or more
In the dominantly agricultural States the problems of rural-nonfarm
youth are closely related to the problems of farm youth. In the States
that are primarily industrial, however, such as West Virginia., in which
a large proportion of the rural population is engaged in mining, or
Pennsylvania, which has both mining and manufacturing, the conditions confronting the rural-nonfarm youth may have little relation
to agriculture. 20
In the South race further complicates youth's situation. In 13
States Negro youth formed a considerable segment of both the farm
and nonfarm rural youth population in 1930, although their residential distribution differed widely among the various States. On the
whole, Negroes made up a larger percentage of the farm youth than
of the nonfarm youth (table 5). In three States-Arkansas, Mississippi, and South Carolina-Negro youth comprised more than 50
percent of all farm youth. In two additional States-Georgia and
so For a discussion of industrial villages see Brunner, Edmund deS., /ndiutrial
Village Churchu, New York: Institute of Social and Religious Research, 1930.
01g 11,ed by
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12 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Louisiana-more than 40 percent of all farm youth were Negroes.
Negro youth constituted as much as 40 percent of all rural-nonfarm
youth in only one State, which signifies that the problem of the young
Negro in rural territory is more likely to be localized on farms than in
the villages.
To&le 5.-Color of Rural Youth in 13 Southern States, by Residence, 1930
Rural-farm
Rural-nonfann
Total
State
Total
White
Negro
Number Percent
Alabama. __________ .........•
Arkansas ............. ----- ...
Florida•.••.•......•..........
Georgia•••.•.... ____________ ..
Louisiana.....................
Maryland •................•..
~~liss&J~iina:::
::: :: :: :: :: :
Oklahoma....................
South Carollna ...............
T.ennessee ••..................
Texas .•••.•..................
Virginia ...••.................
White
Negro
Number Percent
- - --- --- --- - - --- - - - 246, 797
206,027
47,972
267,889
152,863
38,015
2.55,916
292,768
187,114
172, 764
215,544
438. &r7
162,200
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
62.1
47.8
70.2
68.5
M.2
79.4
42.6
65.4
85.5
43. 2
84. 7
69. 7
71.9
37. 9
52. 2
29.8
41. 5
45. 8
20.6
67. 4
34.6
H.5
56.8
15.3
30.3
28.1
107,057
61,866
74,866
115,H0
78,849
65,465
57,926
Hl,656
95,855
91.1166
00, 743
191,624
118,171
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
65.4
80.0
61.1
63.0
65.0
80.0
69. 2
74. 5
89. 7
62.5
85.9
75.0
73. l
34. 6
:no
38.U
37.0
35.0
20.0
40.8
25. 5
10.3
37. 5
14. I
25.0
26.11
Sources: Bureau of the Cen.sus, Flflunlh. Cemua of the UnUed l!luJu: 1930, Population Vol. II, U. B. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1933, pp. 681-686; and special tabulation by U. B. Bureau of
the Census.
The proportion youth form of the total rural, rural-farm, and ruralnonfarm population, respectively, affords an additional basis for interpreting the rural youth situation. The more intense youth problems
are likely to be found in areas where economic opportunities are limited, whatever may be the reason for such limitation. In 1930 persons
16-24 years of age made up 16.4 percent of the total rural population. 21
In the farm population the corresponding percentage was 17.1, while
for the nonfarm population it was 15.6. Thus, even at the beginning
of tho depression the nature of the population structure was such that
the pressure of farm youth for employment opportunites was more
acute than that of the nonfarm group within their respective areas.
REPLACEMENT RATES OF RURAL-FARM MALES
The replacement rate of males in 11. specified segment of the population provides an objective measure of the pressure of youth on the
older age groups. This replacement rate is a percentage relationship
between the number of males 18 years old and 18 to 64 years of age,
inclusive. It is obtained by subtracting from the total number of
males becoming 18 years of age in any given year the number of males
becoming 65 years of age and the number of deaths during that
year of males 19 through 64 years of age. The result is then computed
11 Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, Population Vol. II, op. cit., pp. 599-600.
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DISTRIBUTION • 13
as a percentage of the number 18 through 64 years of age to secure
the annual replacement rate (table 6). 22
To&le 6.-Replacement Rates of Males 18 Through 64 Years of Age in the Rural-Farm
Population, 1920 and 1930
.
Jtem
1930
1920
Number 18 years or age __________________ ----------------------------- ______ _
Number 6S years of age plus deaths llH\4_. _________________________________ _
Excess maturities•••• -·---·-··-----·--·-·-·-------·---·--·----·-·-- _________ _
Age group, UHl4 __ • _____ ----·---·-------------------------·-·---·------ _____ _
Annual replacement rate_.··-·-·---·- ___ -· ____________ --· __________________ _
336,827
160,165
li6, 662
8,363,674
2_ 1
363,793
162,390
201,403
8,263,405
2. 4
Source: Woolte! T. J., Jr., "Replacement Rates In the Productive Ages," The Milbank Memorial Fund
"""1krlf, Vol.Xv,1 1937, p. 300.
The replacement rate is also a measure of pressure on opportunity,
which in farming areas means pressure on the land. In the country
as a whole the replacement rate for rural-farm males was higher in
1930 than in 1920, indicating that competition for opportunity between
those becoming 18 years of age and those who were older was growing
increasingly severe. This competition was particularly acute in three
geographic divisions-South Atlantic, East South Central, and West
South Central-in which replacement rates were considerably above
the United States average in 1930 and in which a substantial increase
in the rate occurred between 1920 and 1930 (table 7 and fig. 6).
To&le 7.--Replacement Rates of Males 18 Through 64 Years of Age in the Rural-Farm
Population, by Geographic Division, 1920 and 1930
Geographic division
1920
1030
United States_-·_------------------------·-----------------·----------- -- .
2_ 1
New England ______ ·------------------·----··-------·-------------------·------Middle Atlantic ______________ ·_·------------------ .. -- _----·-- ---------- ________
East North C<intral_._ ·------------------------- ----------------- --------------West North C<lntral_ •• ______________________ --------. --------·-------- ---- ______
South Atlantic __ . _____________________ ----------------------- --- ------ ---·-----East South Central •• --------------------------------------·--------------------_
West South CentraJ __ -· ----- -------------------- _---· ------------- --- __ --- ____ __
Mountaln.---·-·------·-·---------------------·--•--· -----------------------·--Paaltlc. ·········-· -·- - -- --- --------- -·- ·---·-. --·- --- - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ---- -- --- - - -
-0.1
0. 3
1. 4
2. o
2. 6
2. 4
2. 8
I. 5
0. 5
2. 4
1---0. 4
0. 8
1. 4
2. o
3. 2
2. 8
3.1
1. 7
0. 7
Sour~: Bureau of the Census, Fourlunt/1 Ce-mw of the UnUtd Stal.ea: J9to and Fi(lunJ/1 Cemu, of
tAe UnUed Stal.t,: 19~. U. 8. Department or Commerce, Wa.shlngton, D. C. Special tabulation from the
Buresu of the Census for Bl(e 65 for 1920. The number of deaths 19 through 64 y"81's of age was obtained
by applying rates from Dublin, Louis l. and Lotka, Alfred J., Length of Life, New York: The Ronald Press
Company, 1936.
Tho replacement rate varied widely among the different geographic
divisions and States, the rates generally being much higher in those
divisions and States that are agricultural than in those that are industrial (appendix table 6). Even in the Dakotas, prior to the visitation
of the droughts, there were more than twice as many young men
becoming 18 years old as could possibly be absorbed by the economic
opportunities being opened through death and senescence.
n Woofter, T. J., Jr., "Replacement Rates in the Productive Ages," The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, Vol. XV, 1937, pp. 348-354.
840lu 0 -38--3
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14 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
FIG. 6-REPLACEM"ENT RATES OF MALES 18 THROUGH 64 YEARS
OF AGE IN THE RURAL-FARM POPULATION
0
Percent
- 2 to 1
E3
IIlIIIl
to 0
O to I
-I
~I
IRR!!l
•
-
to 2
2 to 3
3 to 4
4 lo 5
Source: Appendix table 5.
RURAL YOUTH IN 1935
The number of rural youth increased about 13 percent during the
5-year period ending in 1935, reaching an estimated total of 9,991,600
(table 8). The increase was greatest in the industrial States of New
England and in the Middle Atlantic and East North Central Divisions. The variation among the States ranged from a 1 percent
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DISTRIBUTION • 1 5
decrease in South Dakota. to a. 30 percent increase in Nevada. 23 (appendix table 6).
There were an estimated 6,107,000 rural-farm youth in 1935, which
represented an increase since 1930 of 18.8 percent. This increase
likewise was greatest in the three industrial regions, the New England,
Middle Atlantic, and East North Central Divisions, and undoubtedly
may be accounted for largely by the fact that numbers of families
in industrial areas turned to the land during the depression.
Tcrf»/e 8.-Number of Rural Youth in 1930 1 and Estimated Number in 1935,1 by Geographic Division and Residence
Total rural
Oeosraphlc division
1930
1935
Rural-farm
Percent
ln•
crease
1930
1935
Rural-nonrarm
Per.
cent
In•
1930
1935
crease
Per•
cent
In•
crease
--- - - - - - - - -- --- --- -13.0 5,140,910 6,107,000 18.8 3,703,733 3,884,600
4.9
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - -261,745
- - -304,700
4.6
16.4
72. 388 106,600 47.3 189,357 198, JOO
United States..•.•.... 8,SH,643 9,991,600
~~:d!"f\!~tlc~:::::::::::
East North Central •••••.•.•
West North Central. •••..••
South Atlantic ..•....•......
East South Central .........
West South Central. •..•...
Mountain .•.....•....•.•...
Pacific ••••••••.•.•.•••..••..
856.346
1,240,852
I, 232,814
I, 814,478
1,272,379
1,412, 70b
365,483
387,841
1,002, JOO
1,479,500
1. 329,600
2,085,500
1,433,500
I, 530. 900
393,100
432,700
17.0 249,071 365,000
19. 2 672,382 885,200
7. g 834,861 910, 100
14. 9 1,065,628 1,300,800
12. 7 912,120 1,056,700
8.4 984,511 1,080,300
7. 6 186,701 206,60()
11.6 163,248 195,700
t Bureau or the Census, Fi/leefllh C,nau, of the UnUed
or Commerce, Washington, D. c., 1933, p. 674.
46.5
81. 7
9.0
22.1
16. 9
9. 7
10. 7
19.9
607,275
568,470
397,953
748,850
360,259
428,194
178,782
224,593
637, JOO
694,300
419,500
784,700
376,800
450,600
186,500
237,000
4.9
4.6
5.4
4.8
4.6
6.2
4.3
6.5
Stat«: 19YJ, Population Vol. II, U. S. Department
• For method or estimation see appendix B.
The increase in the number of farm youth varied widely among
the several States (appendix table 6). For example, although the
increase for the United States as a whole was less than 19 percent,
in Pennsylvania. it was 51 percent and in West Virginia and Michigan it was around 48 percent. Virginia. and Maryland likewise
showed large gains. Kentucky and Tennessee in the Appalachian
Area had the highest percentage increases in the number of youth
on farms of all the South Central States. In the West, Utah, Washington, and Oregon likewise experienced a considerable increase in
the number of farm young people.
The percent change in the number of rural-nonfarm youth during
the 5-year interval was much less ihan for farm youth, particularly
if Rhode Island and N evade. are excluded. Both of these States
have unusual population characteristics which make the estimation
of their respective nonfarm populations for 1935 exceedingly problematical. Though the other States presented variations ranging
II _The New England States are not referred to specifically in the discussion of
the increase in number of farm youth because there is some question about the
accuracy of the 1930 Census of Agriculture for some of the New England States.
The data for Connecticut are known to be incorrect. Though the percentages
calculated are misleading, they are included for what they are worth to complete
the tabulation. Their inclusion has no appreciable effect on the percent change
for the United States as a whole.
[)91.zedbyGooglc
16 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
from a 4.4 percent decrease in Ida.ho to a 16.8 percent increase in
Delaware, the variation by divisions appears to have been very
slight-only a little more than 1 percent (table 8). It would be
hazardous to draw conclusions from the figures for the rural-nonfarm
youth population since the estimates were made on a purely arbitrary
basis. 24
TRENDS IN THE NUMBER OF YOUTH AFTER 1930
The increase in the number of youth in rural areas, especially on
farms, between 1930 and 1935 helped to accentuate the phenomenon
which has been designated as the rural youth problem. The flow of
young people from the farms to the cities that prevailed during the
twenties was checked with the coming of the depression of the early
thirties while greater and greater numbers of boys and girls were
coming into the youth group (16-24 years).
There were probably about 700,000 more young people in the
United States in 1935 than in 1930 (table 9). It is estimated that
by 1940 the accretion will amount to twice that number (table 11,
p. 20). The checking after 1930 of the cityward flow of young people
which characterized the twenties was an impelling factor in changing
the trend of the distribution of youth and contributed greatly to the
increase of 1,150,000 in the number of youth in rural territory by
1935. There would have been 200,000 more youth in rural areas
had there not been a net migration of youth from the farms to the
cities of about that number. The tremendous increase of youth in
rural territory was due largely to the "piling up" process on the land.
Table 9.-Youth Population of the United States, by Residence, 1930 1 and 1935 1
Residence
TotaL ________________ ........... __________ . ___ . __
UrhBn. ________________________________________________ _
RuraL ________________________________________________ _
Fsrm ______________________________________________ _
Nonfann ___________________________________________ _
1930
20, 126, 800
11, 282,200
8,844,600
6, 140, 900
3, 703. 700
1935
Incres98or
decrease
20, 786, 700
659, 900
JO, 795, 100
9,001,600
6. 107, 000
3, 884, 600
-487, 100
l,H7,000
966, 100
180, 900
<-----,-----
1 Bureau of the Census, Fiftuntll C,mm oft/Ir United Stat,i: 1980, Populstlon Vol. II, U. 8. Department
of Commerce, Washington, l>. C., 19331_pp_. 698-000.
• For IDllthod of estimation see appenOIX B.
Exactly the opposite trend was manifest in the cities where the
number of youth declined by more than 450,000 from 1930 to 1935.
This decline in the number of youth in the cities during the depression did not prevent the rise of a youth problem of critical propor- ·
tions, but the problem would have been even greater if there had
been more young people coming in from the fanns and if the birth
rate in the cities had not dropped so precipitately some years ago.
The interfarm-city migration varied somewhat for individual years
from 1930 to 1935 and involved in it was a considerable contingent
H
For method of estimation see appendix B.
[)91.zedbyGooglc
DISTRIBUTION • 17
of young workers from industrial centers who sought refuge on farms. 111
The movement of population from cities to farms was greater than
the reverse flow only in 1932, however. 28 Beginning in 1933 the
number going to urban centers has been greater than the outward
trek. Probably relatively few people who migrated to the cities in
1933 when the tide of migration first turned were youth going to the
city for the first time. 27 Furthermore, the movement of youth has
no doubt varied considerably the country over. Some indication of
the variation may be gained from a survey made in October 1934 of
the mobility of the rural and town population in 139 counties scattered over the United States. "Sixty [counties] reported the existence of significant population shifts at the time the survey was made.
In 35 of these the dominant movement was from open country to
villages and towns, in 13 it was from villages and towns to the open
country, while the 12 remaining counties reported the 2 types of
movement to be approximately equal in volume." 28
Tal,le 10.--Estimated Mi9ration of Youth to and From Farms, by Geo9raphic Division,
1930-1934 1
Geographic div ision
Net mll!Tatlon
of youth from
farms. 1930-
Net migration
or youth to
fanns , 1930-
Jg;w
l:inlled StateiL ...... ... . .......... ... . . ... . ... .. ... . . ......... . .. .
New England . .... . . . .. .. . ....... . ......... . . .. .... . ......... . . . . .. . . . ..
Middle Atlantic........ .. ....... . . . ..... ... . .. . . .. .. .... .. ... ... ..... . ..
East North Central.... . .......... . .... . . . . . ........ ... . . . . .... ... .. . .. .
West North Central ... ... .. . ........ . . . .. ............. .. ••... .. . ...... . .
South Atlantic .• . .... .. .... ....... . .......... . .. . .. ... . . .. ......... . ... .
East South Central.. •. ••... . . .. ... . ......... .. ......... . ................
West South Central •••. .. ....... . ......... ... .. .. .... . ....... . . .. .... . . .
Mountain ..•... . ...... . ..... . .... . .. .. . . .... . . ... ... . . ... . .. . ..... . . . .. .
Pac111c ••••• ••.• •. ••••••••. •. .. . .. . . .. . ...... ... . .. .. .... ...... . •.. . ... ...
1
193'
2'7'.300
77,900
1 - - - - -1- - - - -
17, 100
42,600
18,200
78, 900
65, 400
43,000
75, 700
20, 000
1, 300
Bued on data from the U. 8 . Department or Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics.
The net migration varied considerably among the different geographic divisions (table 10). Thus, during the 5 years since 1930
apparently more youth migrated to than from farms in the New
England, Middle Atlantic, and East North Central States, reflecting
the shutdown in industry in these regions which forced people to take
refuge on the land. In Michigan, for example, youth 15-24 years of
u State Emergency Welfare Relief Commission, "Age, Sex and Employment
Status of Gainful Workers in Five Types of Communities," Michigan Censu.,
of Population and Unemployment, Lansing, Mich., July 1936, p. 6. See also
Goodrich, Carter, Allin, Bushrod W., and Hayes, Marion, op. cit., p. 62.
• Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Farm Population Estimates, January 1,
19S8, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., release of October 27,
1936.
27 Baker, 0. E., The Outwok for Rural Youth, op. cit., p. 6.
21 Division of Research, Bhtistics, and Finance, Mobility of Rural and To1•m
Population, Research Bulletin F-7, Federal Emergency Relief Administration,
W1MJbington, D . C ., April 16, 1935, p . I.
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18 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
age made up 17 .2 percent of the total population in the rural townships
in 1930 but in 1935 they made up 22.8 percent of the total. 29 In the
other divisions of the country, despite the limitations in industrial
opportunity, youth were forced to leave the farms. In the South
Atlantic and East South Central Divisions, where the average farm
income is notoriously low, and in the West North Central and West
South Central States, where the ravages of drought and dust storms
have been most severe, youth left the land in large numbers. This
movement in the 2 latter divisions conformed to the decline in the
farm population in the 10 drought States between 1930 and 1935.30
Data gathered in North Carolina show that young people from relief
families did not leave home as rapidly as did children from nonrelief
families during the years 1931 to 1934.31
Evidence is conflicting in regard to the pattern of youth migration
during the early thirties. According to mobility studies in certain
sections of Ohio it adhered to the general pattern of the twenties with
respect to age and sex. 32 Other evidence suggests that the young
women have been remaining in rural territory in larger proportions
than formerly and in greater proportions than the young men. The
increasing proportion of young women in rural relief households is
one evidence of this. 33 Moreover, the National Youth Administration
reports show that during several months in 1937 there were more
voung women than young men employed by this agency. 34
The increase in the number of rural-nonfarm youth between 1930
and 1935 was estimated at a little less than 200,000.M It seems
211 Calculated from base tables secured from the State Emergency Welfare
Relief Commission, Michigan Census of Population and Unemployment, Lansing,
Mich.
10 Taeuber, Conrad and Taylor, Carl C., The People of the Drought States,
Research Bulletin Series V, No. 2, Division of Social Research, Works Progress
Administration, Washington, D. C., March 1937, p. 25. See also Goodrich,
Carter, Allin, Bushrod W., and Hayes, Marion, op. cit., p. 62; and Hill, George
W., Rural Migration 01,d Farm Abandonment, Research Bulletin Series II, No. 6,
Division of Research, Statistics, and Finance, Federal Emergency Relief Administration, Washington, D. C., June 1935.
11 Hamilton, C. Horace, Recent Changes in the Social and Economic Status of
Farm Families in North Carolina, Bulletin No. 309, North Carolina Agricultural
Experiment Station, Raleigh, N. C., May 1937, pp. 123-125.
12 Lively, C. E. and Foott, Frances, Population Mobility in Selected Area, of
Rural Ohio, 1928-198:'i, Bulletin 582, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station,
Wooster, Ohio, June 1937, p. 33.
11 Melvin, Bruce L., Rllral Youth on Relief, Research Monograph XI, Division
of Social Research, ,vorks Progress Administration, ,vashington, D. C., 1937,
pp. 17-20.
"Divi8ion of Research, Statistics, and Records, Re7iort on Progress of the Worh
Program, December 1937, Works Progress Administration, Washington, D. C.,
table 40, p. 65.
35 The estimate for the rural-nonfann youth was made on the assumption that
there had been no migration from rural-nonfann territory. See appendix B.
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MAP OF
DISTRICT N0.28
Thal mountain children must still go long distances to school is illustrated by this sketch of a typical school
district in Kentucky. The distance from the McGuire house on the right to the school house on the left is
appr@imauly 5 miles. If the weather permits, Wernhl McGuire can save about 2 miles by going acroas the
mountain on foot or horseback and fording the river. Other distances are in proportion. Until recently the
"Project Road" was liUle more than a narrow mountain trail, at times impassable, but it has been improved
•omewhat through the emergency work programs. The roads across the mountain and up the creek hollows
are mere trails.
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DISTRIBUTION • 19
probable that the natural increase in the number of youth, that is, the
aging of those 11-14 in 1930, on the fringes of the cities would by itself
account for most of this. In fact, limited evidence indicates that
there was a decline in the number of youth in agricultural villages.
One study in Wisconsin states, "The depression has evidently sent
village people to the farm and it has certainly kept farm young people
from going to the village and city." 88
Enumerations made in 45 agricultural villages during the summer
of 1936 also showed that on the whole there had been a decline in
the number of youth since 1930.37 Had there been no migration from
1930 to 1936 there would have been 4,994 youth 15-19 and 4,910
youth 2~24 years of age in these villages in 1936, whereas the numbers
were actually 4,379 and 3,568, respectively. Thus, for these two age
groups there were only 88 percent and 73 percent, respectively, of
the number there would have been without emigration. If this situation can be regarded as typical, the "piling up" of youth in rural
agricultural territory has been largely on farms.
In 16 of the 45 villages a detailed study was made of the present
residence of high school graduates of the classes of 193~35. It was
found that 62.9 percent of the graduates who were residents of villages
at the time of graduation still resided in their own or other villages
on June 1, 1936. On the other hand, of the graduates who were
residents of the open country at the time of graduation, 73.4 percent
were living in the open country on June 1, 1936.38
The studies of part-time farmers bear out the conclusion that the
increase of youth in the rural-nonfarm population has been due to
natural increase and not to the movement of youth from the cities
to their peripheries. The part-time farming movement apparently
has consisted largely of persons above the youth age. 39
11
James, J. A. and Kolb, J. H., Wisconsin Rural Youth, Education and Occupa-
tion, Bulletin 437, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Madison, Wis.,
November 1936, p. 13.
17 These are 45 villages selected from the 140 villages used by Brunner, Edmund
deS. and Lorge, Irving for their study reported in Rural Tre11ds in Depression
Years, New York: Columbia University Press, 1937. Data on population will
be given in a forthcoming monograph by Melvin, Bruce L. and Smith, Elna N.,
Youth in AgricuUural Villages, Division of Social Research, Works Progress
Administration, Washington, D. C.
11 Melvin, Bruce L. and Olin, Grace E., "Migration of Rural High-School Graduates," The School Review, Vol. XLVI, 1938, table 3, p. 281.
• Salter, L. A., Jr. and Darling, H. D., Part-Time Farming in Connecticut: A
Socio-Economic Study of the Lower Naugatuck Valley, Bulletin 204, Connecticut
State College, Department of Agricultural Economics, Storrs, Conn., July 1935,
p. 25. Bee also Beck, P. G., Recent Trends in the Rural Population of Ohio, Bulletin
533, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio, May 1934; and
Morison, F. L. and Sitterley, J. H., Rural Homes for Non-Agricultural Workers-A Sun,ey of Their Agricultural Activities, Bulletin 547, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio, February 1935.
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20 •
RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
The extent of cityward migration within the next few years will
have much to do with the rural youth problem in so far as it may be
defined as a pressure of people for opportunity on the land and other•
wise. Without heavy migration from the farms there will be a greater
"piling up" of youth on the farms by 1940 than in 1930 40 (table 11).
At the same time, without migration the number of urban youth will
be almost 600,000 less in 1940 than in 1930. If the "piling up" in
rural territory above the number in 1930 is not to occur, the cities
must absorb between three and four times the decline that would
occur in the cities without migration. In fact, without migration
there would be almost 2,000,000 more rural youth in 1940 than in
1930. Even with the expected migration there will be over 1,000,000
more youth in rural areas in 1940 than there were 10 years previously."
Ta&le 11.-Youth Population in 1930 1 and 19-40 1 With No Rural-Urban Migration
Assumed for the Decade, by Residence
Residence
Total.............................................
Urban..................................................
Rural...................................................
Fann...............................................
N Onflll'lll... •. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • • • • • . . . . . • . • • . . . . • . . .
1930
1940
lncrell.'lll or
decrease
~ 1211,800
21,526,800
1-----1------1
11,282, m
8,8", 600
6, 1~.000
3, 703, 700
10,696. m
JO, 830, 600
6,627,000
4,~600
1.~000
-1186, 000
1,986,WO
1,488, 100
4911,000
tBureau of the Census, Fl~fflt/a Qmiu o{IM Vnlud Slatu: 1~, Population Vol. II, U. 8. Department
of Commerce, WBllhington, D. C., 1933, p p . ~ ' For method of estimation see appendix B.
40 Bees.use of the acceleration of migration during the la.ter thirties, it is estimated that there will be somewhat fewer youth on farms in 1940 than there were
in 1935. This decline, however, will have little effect on the current problem of
popula.tion pressure on the land.
" Since data at hand show that some migration is in process, it seems reasonable
to make certain assumptions from which to forecast the distribution of rural and
urban youth in 1940. It has already been indicated that the net emigration of
farm youth from 1930 through 1934 wa.s almost 200,000. Assuming that onethird of the net migration from farms to cities was youth, there was a cityward
movement of approximately 125,000 farm youth during the year 1935 and 150,000
during both 1936 and 1937. If 150,000 continue to migrate each year during the
years 1938 and 1939, the total migrating for the 5 years, January 1, 1935, to
January 1, 1940, will be approximately 725,000. If the 200,000 migrating between
1930 and 1935 are added to this number, an estimated total of 925,000 youth will
have left the farms between 1930 and 1940. Subtracting this total from the estimated increase in the number of youth on farms between 1930 and 1940, assuming
no migration, there will still be between 500,000 and 600,000 more youth on the
la.nd in 1940 than in 1930. At the same time there will be an increase of 500,000
rural-nonfarm youth. Thus, even with the expected migration of farm youth
there will still be over 1,000,000 more youth in rural territory in 1940 than there
were in 1930. For total number migrating see Bureau of Agricultural Economics,
Farm Population Estimatu, January 1, 1936, op. cit.; and Taeuber, Conrad,
"Farm Population Decreases During 1936," The Agricultural Situation, Vol. 21,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Washington,
D. C., July 1, 1937, pp. 17-18.
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Chapter II
THE ECONOMIC S/TUA TION OF
RURAL YOUTH
TRADITIONALLY, economic security in rural society has been measured by property ownership. Farm youth who expected to be farmers
looked forward to possessing an adequate amount of land free of debt.
Youth who were reared in villages expected to own some business or
to attain a secure and relatively independent position in some profession or skilled trade. With the passage of time, however, such
industries as lumbering, mining, and textiles were developed on a
large scale in rural territory, and a wage-earning class was created.
In rural America the trend in recent years has been toward dependence
on wages for work. The idea of having a job has become dominant,
particularly among the younger generation .
.Any analysis of the economic situation of rural youth mustrecognize
this trend as well as the traditional background both of the
rural economic "system and of the economic relationship between
parents and children. The economic status of rural young people who
are living with their parents and working at home can be but partially
measured by money income, by property owned, or by whether or not
they receive wages for their work. It must frequently be measured
by the prospects for ultimately owning a farm or business in the community or becoming established in a profession, in a secure salaried
position, or in a skilled trade.
Statistical statements concerning the number of unempJoyed youth,
especially farm youth, in rural territory will not be of much value
until the term unemployment, as it may be applied legitimately to rural
people, is clearly understood. One discussion of methods of making
unemployment estimates contains the following statement: "All
family farm labour (employables in the farm family who work on the
farm without receiving a stated wage) • • • are included as
employed persons. Thus, gainful workers who have moved from
cities to farms to live with and help their families and relatives, or to
21
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22 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
engage in subsistence fanning, are counted among the employed." 1
This definition of employed would include many farm youth in relief
households who were working on the home farm. Moreover, it would
consider as employed a mass of surplus rural youth just above the relief
level who were working at home with little or no economic return,
merely because they could not migrate. Furthermore, whether to
include people who are working on subsistence farms as employed
when they have no regular source of cash income is an open question.
Consequently, in analyzing the opportunities of rural youth for
obtaining economic security it must be borne in mind that in rural
territory this does not necessarily mean a job with wages. Many
studies of youth have been made on the assumption that the job
criterion was applicable to rural young people without qualification,
and this has resulted in much confusion among the data of the various
studies. In order to interpret the situation of rural youth fully, it
is necessary to analyze such studies in terms of opportunities for farm
youth to attain farm ownership or a satisfactory tenant status, if they
remain in rural territory, or for village youth to become permanently
established in some nonagricultural occupation. At the same time
some attention must be given to the possibility of these youth finding
security through migration to urban areas.
Rural youth may be grouped into three economic categories: (1)
those gainfully and advantageously occupied or otherwise advantageously situated; (2) those who have remained above the relief level
but whose situation is precarious; and (3) those who are at the relief
level. Unfortunately, data are not at hand to show in any comprehensive quantitative way the number, residence,or occupation of those
who belong to the first two categories, although obje(ltive information
is available regarding their economic condition in general. Where
rural conditions were particularly unfavorable, thousands of families
were forced on relief, and it is from this group that the third category
of youth is recruited. Considerable data are available for this latter
group.
EMPLOYMENT AND INCOME
Fann youth between 15 and 24 years of age form the bulk of the
unpaid fami)y labor and a large proportion of the hired labor on
farms, and these two categories comprise most of the agricultural
workers within these ages (table 12 and fig. 7). To be specific, over
95 percent of all the young men 15-19 years of age and over 70 percent
of those 20-24 years of age listed in the 1930 Census as agricultural
workers belonged to one or the other of these two groups, which together totaled over 1,843,000 youth. By 1935 probably 500,000 2
1 Nathan, Robert R., "Estimates of Unemployment in the United States,
1929-1935," International Labour Review, Vol. XXXIII, January 1936, p. 54.
1 See ch. I.
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ECONOMIC SITUATION • 23
more young men in this age group had "piled up" on the farm, which
sharpened the competition for available farm labor jobs and no doubt
greatly increased the number of unpaid family workers. It is significant that the predominant shift of the young men from unpaid family
labor appears to come between the ages of 15 and 24 years and the
shift from hired labor between 20 and 30 years. If the shift is not
ma.de from hired labor during this time, the young men tend to remain
in that status.
Ta&le 1!.-Typc of Employment of Workers in Agriculture, by Age and Sex, 1930
Farm operators
Unpaid family
W11Pworkera
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
90G, 1189
6,816, 11211
2113, II08
1,184, 7114
476,008
2,Ml,MII
171,323
49,0t3
-4,846
11111,474
87, 187
140,431
77,494
42,002
29,467
27,1110
422,824
673, 3M
7,986
31,718
30,472
3),080
16,271
UI, 130
13, 1!87
11,841
9,347
6, 4211
Total worken
workers
Age
Male
Total ___________ ll,M2,0IID
10-14 years ___________
UH9years ___________
20-24 years ____ ----- --
~084
1,080,008
1, 1511, 936
II02, 211
~211
ye&r9_
-------30--34 years ___________
826,680
3 ~ years ___________
896,899
849,079
4o-44 years
years____________
- -- ------4H9
844,949
!50-Myears ___________
802,094
1162, 246
66--1111
yeant_ - - - --- - -- eo-M years ___________
639, 104
386,893
M-GII years __ --------70-74 year., _____ -----241,862
75 years and over _____
147,369
Unknown ____________
4,644
96, 173
172, 1411
112,811
70,047
67,883
68,689
M, 157
67, 113
111,344
46,234
38, lll()
211, 198
16,063
12,440
438
344,438
497,771
676, 773
1191, 119()
682,340
687,713
MO,M7
647,392
442,800
3H, 196
1118,398
121,133
2,382
7,9116
13, 145
Z!,001
30, 163
36,467
39,153
33,321
211, !Off
21,009
13,584
10,777
172
II08,
141
239,143
112,032
26,838
14, 175
8,277
6, 7Z!
4,493
3,864
4,273
4, 461
4,1511
3, Ml
183
28,668
21,407
18,805
12, 1144
7,484
4,673
2, 1176
1, 124
7211
130
342,408
~069
100. 034
168,462
151,613
137,044
110, IIOO
112,031
67, Z!6
311, 308
22, 6815
2,080
4,421
2,613
1,365
937
1311
Source: Bureau or tbe CeDSUS, Fift«nt/1 Cemua o/lM United srau,: IIWJ, Population Vol V, U. B. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 11133, pp. 118 and 362.
Since a large proportion of all farm laborers are youth, data on the
wages of farm laborers provide one measure of the income of farm
youth. In 11 counties studied in 1936 the average annual earnings
among male agricultural workers per county ranged from $178 among
Negro cotton pickers in Louisiana and $125 among white workers in
a Tennessee county to $347 among white laborers in Pennsylvania
and $748amongorientalsinPlacer County, Calif.3 In some cases this
represented cash income over and above board and room but in a
large proportion of cases board and room were not furnished. These
data on low annual earnings of wage workers in agriculture are substantiated by monthly data published by the U. S. Department of
Agriculture. 4
The most common types of cash income of farm youth in southern
New York were found to be: first, spending money or irregular contributions from parents; second, wages earned at home; third, receipts
from the boys' own property; and fourth, wages earned away from
• Vasey, Tom and Folsom, Josiah C., "Farm Laborers: Their Economic and
Social Status," TM AgricuUural Situation, Vol. 21, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Washington, D. C., October 1, 1937,
p. 15.
4 U. S. Department of Agriculture, AgricuUural StalistiC11, 1996, Washington,
D. C.,
349.
.
p.
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24 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
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Age
F10. 7-NUMBER OF MALE WORKERS IN AGRICULTURE, BY
TYPE OF EMPLOYMENT AND AGE, 1930
Source: Fifl.-nlh Ct1n•u• of lh•
l/nllt1d Slt1I,.: 19.10.
AF·llll,WPA
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ECONOMIC SITUATION •
25
home. 5 Only a very small percentage of farm boys have any understanding with their fathers respecting a definite return for their labor
on the farm. Hence, an Iowa study made in the summer of 1934 of
1,107 out-of-school farm youth showing that only 286 of them reported
that they received wages II does not mean necessarily that the remaining 821 were unemployed.
The employment and the income of rural youth, when used as
measures of their economic welfare since the depression of the• early
thirties, generally show a widespread lack of gainful employment.
In Tompkins County, N. Y., only 42 percent of the unmarried rural
young men 15 to 29 years of age, not in full-time day school, were
employed full time in 1935, leaving 58 percent employed part time,
at home, or not at all. Indeed, 30 percent were unemployed or were
working only occasionally. Even on farms 21 percent of the young
men were unemployed. Of the total employed in both village and
open country, farm laborers, unskilled laborers, and skilled mechanics
were most numerous in descending order of importance. The average
weekly earnings of the entire employed group were $13.7
Of 110 married young men in the same county 81 percent were
employed full time, 11 percent were employed part time, 3 percent
were in school, 1 percent were occupied at home, and only 4 percent
were out of school and unemployed. 8 "The average weekly earning
of the 101 young men who reported weekly remuneration was $18
• • • 21 percent received less than $15 a week • • • 54
percent received between $15 and $24 a week • • *." Incomes
of village youth were somewhat higher than those of farm and nonfarm
youth of the open country .9
In 5 Connecticut townships the average money income of 282
unmarried rural young men and women, 182 of whom were out of
school, was $221 for 12 months ending in the spring of 1934. 10 The
range in average income of the young men was from $112 for those
16-17 years old to $378 for those 21-25 years old. The sources were
• Beers, Boward W., The Money Income of Farm Boys in a Southern New York
Dairy Region, Bulletin IH2, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station,
Ithaca, N. Y., September 1930, p. 13.
• Starrak, J. A., A Survey of Out-of-School Rural Youth in Iowa, Committee on
Education, Iowa State Planning Board, Des Moines, Iowa, 1935, p. 10.
7 Anderson, W. A., Rural Youth: Activities, Interests, and Problems, II. Unmarried Young Men and Women, 16 to !39 Years of Age, Bulletin 661, Cornell
University Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y., January 1937, pp.
10-16.
I Anderson, W. A., Rural Youth: Activities, Interests, and Problems, I. Married
Young Men and Won.en, 15 to 29 Years of Age, Bulletin 649, Cornell University
Agricultural Experiment Station, lth3ca, N. Y., May 1936, pp. 10-11.
• Ibid., pp. 18-19.
10 Brundage, A. J. and Wilson, M. C., Situations, Problems, and Interests of
Unmarried Rural Young People 16-25 Years of Age, Extension Service Circular
239, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., April 1936, pp. 14-16.
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26 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
work at home, work away from home, allowances, and gifts, including
spending money. In addition to the money income many of the
Connecticut young people had board, lodging, and clothing provided.
The authors of the report remark that "the young people studied
were well provided for from the standpoint of funds to care for their
social and recreational needs." The question might be raised, however, as to whether the maximum average income here shown is adequate for a young man who wishes to marry. Even so, the situation
in Connecticut at the time this study was made appears unusually
favorable in the light of other studies and of the widespread rural
destitution at that time.
A recent survey of unmarried young people conducted by the Cooperative Extension Service of the Department of Agriculture in Arkansas, Maryland, Iowa, Utah, and Oregon yielded significant data on
employment. 11 Of the young men who were out of school, only 26
percent were not dependent upon their father's farm for employment;
36 percent were needed on the home farm and were operating it or
replacing a hired man; while 38 percent were dependent on the home
farm but were needed only for seasonal labor or were not needed at
all.
In 9 townships in Ohio information was gathered in the spring of
1932 on 300 unmarried young men and women 16 to 24 years of age.
"These young people were unable to obtain remunerative employment.
Subsistence was essential. Even though these youth were of legal
age and no longer in school their parental families stood willing to
provide that subsistence, but not much more. In a few cases the
parental business was in such a state that it could utilize the labor of
such youth and pay wages. In most cases the young people were
forced to be content with subsistence plus whatever else the parents
felt able to give, which frequently was nothing at all." 12 This study
also showed that only a small proportion (31 percent) of the young
men not attending school received cash according to any definite plan.
The welfare of young people in such a category as that indicated
above, while obviously not as problematical as that of youth in marginal or relief families, nevertheless presents a serious challenge.
Low incomes of youth may be a reflection of the "piling up" process
discussed in the previous chapter. In a study made in Douglas
11 Reported by Joy, Barnard D., Extension Studies and Teaching Section of
the Division of CoopeMtive Extension, U. S. Department of Agriculture, at the
conference of State leaders in charge of developing older rural youth programs in
the State Extension Service, held during the annual meeting of the Land-Grant
Colleg& Association, Washington, D. C., November 14-17, 1937.
11 Lively, C. E. and Miller, L. J., Rural Young People, 16 to i4 Years of Age,
A Survey of the Stal!LB and Activities of 800 Unmarried lndividl'als in Nine Ohio
Towmhips, Bulletin No. 73, Ohio State Univeraity and Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Columbus. Ohio. July 1934, f>. 7.
D ~jl' zect by
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ECONOMIC SITUATION • 27
County, Wis., which is one of the poorest counties of the State,13
unemployment was found to be serious among 857 young people .
16-28 years of age. 1• About three out of four of these young people
reported that they were unemployed at the time of the survey, the
fall of 1934. They probably meant that they were not receiving
wages. In Wood County of the same State, where 2,176 young people
replied to a questionnaire in the winter of 1934-35, the proportions
which were not self-supporting ranged from 88 percent for those 15--19
years of age to 39 percent for those 25--29 years of age. When the
study was made, only 23 percent of the young men and 17 percent
of the young women were employed with pay. This indicates a high
percentage of idleness since only a little over 21 percent of the youth
were in school. 16
The economic handicap of youth in submarginal land areas, such
as the cut-over regions near the Great Lakes, is typified by the case
of the Harvey family. Three boys 15--25 years of age "worked out"
whenever they could. During 1932 they worked in a logging camp
and at odd jobs until they ea.med in all practically $100. 18 In McCracken County in the poor land area of Kentucky it was found that
of 242 out-of-school rural young men 15--24 years of age, 173, or 71.5
percent, were farming at home and only 18.6 percent were farming
away from home in 1936. 17 In Breathitt County of the same State data.
were gathered in 1935 on 104 young men and 75 young women. Only
13 were working for a cash wage although 121 were doing some work. 18
These examples illustrate the situation in the poor land areas, but
even on good land the effect on economic opportunities of the "piling
up" of youth is also manifested. In Nebraska, 19 for example, it was
found that of 6,232 young men, all but 437 of whom were 16-24 years
of age, 4,449, or 71.4 percent, were working on the home farm in 1935.
11 Kirkpatrick, E. L. and Boynton, Agnes M., Wisconsin's Human and Physical
Ruourcu, Research Section, Resettlement Administration, Region II, Madison,
Wis., July 15, 1936, pp. 4, 12, and 17.
"Wileden, A. F., What Douglas County Young People Want and What They Are
DoiTl{J About It, Rural Youth and Rural Life Series, Extension Service, University of Wisconsin, M;adison, Wis., December 1935, p. 4.
11 Kirkpatrick, E. L. and Boynton, Agnes M., Interests and Needs of Rural
Youth in Wood County, Wisconsin, Rural Youth and Rural Life Series, Extension
Service, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., January 1936, p. 4.
1• Kirkpatrick, E. L., Tough, Rosalind, and Cowles, May L., How Farm Families
Mui. the Emergency, Research Bulletin 126, Agricultural Experiment Station,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., January 1935, p. 20.
17 Woods, R. H., A Study of the Status of Rural Youth in Ten Counties in Kentucky, Heath High School, McCracken County, Ky., 1936, p. 1.
11 Office of the County Schools, Programs for Which Out-of-School Young People
in Breathitt County, Kentucky Are Asking, Jackson, Breathitt County, Ky., 1935.
1• Nebraska Vocational Agriculture Association, Summary of the 1935 State Study
of the Educational Needs of the Out-of-School Group of Farm Boys in Nebrad:a,
Lincoln, Nebr., p. 1.
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28 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
It has already been shown how the underemployment of young people
in Iowa, one of the best agricultural States, has pushed itself into the
realm of rural problems. Similarly in Michigan, "in the rural townships, over half of the male workers in the 15-19 year class and over
one-quarter in the 2~24 year class were working without pay for
relatives." 20
These studies indicate that rural youth were probably receiving
little return when working at home and, at the same time, had little
opportunity to work away from home. Indeed, farm youth in
dominantly farm territory are limited in the number of jobs they may
be able to secure away from the farm. In Connecticut, however,
where opportunities away from the farm are more frequent, only 37
percent of the young men studied in the spring of 1934 21 were engaged
in farm work away from home. Other leading occupations in order
of percentage employed were road work, millwork, and day labor.
Lack of opportunities for earning more money obviously constitutes
a serious problem among farm boys. Increased incomes for youth.
dependent on fanns are inextricably linked with increasing farm
income as a whole since many of the farms upon which these young
people are living could not be increased either in size or in number of
enterprises, "particularly because national policies emphasize agricultural conservation on a historical base." n
The situation of the rural young women who have been forced to
remain at home is probably more precarious than that of the young
men. The traditional job of the woman on the farm is housework or
farm labor. The farm offers little else to the unmarried young
woman although the villages do afford some opportunity for remunerative employment. Anderson found in Tompkins County, N. Y.,•
that of 161 out-of-school rural young women who were single, 50, or
31 percent, had no work of any kind. The chief occupations of those
working were homemaking, teaching, and office and stenographic
work. He states: "Remunerative work for young women was scarce,
and, if these figures are typical, the problem of employment was more
difficult for young women than for young men." Of those considered
employed, 49, or 30 percent, were doing housework, usually at home,
and very few received regular wages.
Wileden points out, however, that in Douglas County, Wis., the
average income of young women was more than twice that of young
State Emergency Welfare Relief Commission, "Age, Sex and Employment
Status of Gainful Workers in Five Types of Communities," Michigan Cena'"
of Population and Unemployment, Lansing, Mich., July 1936, p. 26.
21 Br11ndage, A. J. and Wilson, M. C., op. cit., p. 20.
See also data reported by
Joy, Barnard D., op. cit., for young people in five other Stat~s.
22 Joy, Barnard D., op. cit.
11 Anderson, W. A., Rural Youth: Activities, Interests, and Proble~, II. Unmarried Youna i\fen and Women, 15 to 29 Years oj Age, op. cit., p. 11.
20
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ECONOMIC SITUATION •
29
men, $266 and $130, respectively, for the preceding year. This
difference is accounted for by the fact that a considerable number of
the young women in the upper ages were teachers."
Young women are, on the whole, more dependent on the generosity
of their parents than are young men. Thus, in Connecticut 25 only
2 percent of the girls reported receiving wages for work at home
although 11 percent received an allowance averaging $87 for the previous year and 50 percent received gifts from their parents averaging
$83 for the year. Of the boys 16 percent received wages for work at
home but only 7 percent had an allowance and only 29 percent received
gifts from their parents. The annual average from the latter two
sources was $69 and $58, respectively. Eighty percent of the boys
but only fifty-seven percent of the girls had incomes from wages for
work away from home.
In Wisconsin one study showed that 65 percent of the girls depended
on their parents for spending money and only 20 percent reported
themselves as being economically independent. 20 Lively found in
Ohio that 82.8 percent of the girls 16-24 years of age were not gainful
workers. 27 It has been pointed out that the role of the girls in the
tobacco and cotton farm families of the South is that of an unpaid
servant. 21
The restricted opportunities of young women in rural areas to
obtain remunerative employment make their plight particularly
distressing.
YOUTH ON RELIEF
The large number of rural youth who had to be assisted directly or
indirectly by the Government during the depression of the early
thirties indicates the seriousness of their situation. Probably not
less than 2,000,000 rural youth have been members of relief households since 1930. The peak in the number of households on general
relief was reached in February 1935 when approximately 1,370,000
rural youth-14 percent of all rural youth-were receiving aid. 211
By October of that year the number had declined to approximately
625,000.
Wileden, A. F., op. cit., p. 4.
Brundage, A. J. and Wilson, M. C., op. cit., p. 14.
• Kirkpatrick, E. L. and Boynton, Agnes M., Interests and Needs of Rural
Youth in Wood County, Wisconsin, op. cit., pp. 4 and 6.
n Calculated from Lively, C. E., The Statua of Rural Youth, 16-24 Years Old,
in Selected Rural Areas of Ohio, Preliminary Research Bulletin, Ohio State University and Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Columbus, Ohio, November 1,
1935, p. 4.
• Miller, Nora, The Girl in the Rural Family, Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press, 1935, pp. 50 and 61.
• Melvin, Bruce L ., Rural Youth on Relief, Research Monograph XI, Division
of Social Research, Works Progress Administration, Washington, D. C., 1937.
H
11
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30 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
This did not mean that 700,000 youth became self-supporting,
although the general improvement in agricultural conditions undoubtedly took some rural households containing youth off the relief rolls.
The decline was chiefly due to the expansion of the Civilian Conservation Corps enrollment and to the transfer of rehabilitation families,
among which were several hundred thousand youth, from the
Federal Emergency Relief Administration to the Resettlement
Administration.
Certain facts about the relief situation of rural young people provide
a further basis for evaluating the economic problem presented by these
youth. There was an increase between February and October 1935
in the relative proportion that young women constituted of the total
number of youth on relief because enrollment in the Civilian Conservation Corps and most agricultural labor and other opportunities were
available only to young men. During the same interval there was a
tendency toward more concentration in the age group 16-19 years
than in the age group 20-24 years, as such opportunities were more
generally available to the older than to the younger age group. There
appeared to be greater need for assistance to the youth in the villages
than to those in the open country. This does not signify, however,
that youth in the open country were better off economically than
village youth. They may have been living on a mere subsistence
level in the open country where some food could be produced on the
land. As was to be expected, youth on relief were found in greater
numbers proportionately in poor than in good land areas.
In relief families less than one-half of the young men and slightly
more than one-tenth of the young women who were out of school had
some employment. They were employed chiefly as fann laborers,
domestic servants, and unskilled laborers.
Unlike urban youth most young men in rural areas and about onehalf of the young women who were in the labor market had had work
experience. This experience of rural youth on relief, however, was of
such a limited nature that it qualified them only for jobs at the bottom
of the occupational ladder.
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Rural youth obviously must find their employment opportunities
within the prevailing economic system. According to the American
tradition the youth in agriculture climbs the agricultural ladder-that
is, by beginning as a farm laborer, becoming a tenant, and then a fann
owner. The village youth likewise progresses in some occupation,
gradually attaining increased responsibility. Eventually he shares in
a business and perhaps owns it or has a secure position in one of the professions or trades. Are the trends in rural life increasingly restricting
the chances of youth to start at the bottom and climb these ladders?
Dg1
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ECONOMIC SITUATION•
31
Within Asrlculture
Several factors have combined to make it more and more difficult for
young people to pass up the rungs of the agricultural ladder. Chief
among these are: (1) the growing burden of debt on farms; (2) the
increase in tenancy; (3) the decreased demand for fann laborers;
(4) the trend toward large-scale ownership of land; (5) the mechanization of agriculture; and (6) the development of areas of general
agricultural maladjustment. These will be discussed in order.
Farmers are steadily losing the ownership of the land they cultivate. The equity of the farm operators dropped from 54 percent of
the value of all fann real estate in 1900 to 42 percent in 1930. It is
probable that this equity was considerably less in 1935 than in 1930.
The equities of farm operators in 1930 ranged from an average of less
than 30 percent in Illinois, Iowa, and South Dakota to an average of
over 70 percent in Maine, New Hampshire, and West Virginia.30
Two kinds of debts burden the farmer-long-time and short-time.
The short-time debts bear very heavy interest rates. Of the landlords interviewed in a study of landlord and tenant relations in the
South, 52 percent had short-tenn debts. The interest rates ranged
from 10 percent on Government loans to 15 percent on bank loans and
16 percent on merchant accounts. For tenants and croppers interest
rates were still higher. 31
The growing number of farms operated by tenants, especially in
good land areas, makes it constantly more difficult for youth to rise
on the agricultural ladder. A permanent tenant class is developing
from which relatively few are able to emerge into ownership.82 Tenancy has increased from 25 percent of all farmers in 1880 to 42 percent
in 1935.33 Between 1930 and 1935, depression years, the percentage
of the total number of farms operated by tenants in the country as a
whole declined slightly, but the actual number of tenants increase4.
Because the increase in the total number of farms was sufficient to
offset the increase in tene.nts, the statistics show a slight percentage
decline in tenancy.
This increll.Be in tenancy seems to be occurring in all sections of the
country. In the South, for example, "Since bad years outnumbered
good in the 25 years ending in 1935, the net shift waa down the
[agricultural] ladder, with losses in ownership and independent renting and large gains in the helpless sharecropper class, fixing the insti., Turner, H. A., A <haphic Summary of Farm Tenur6, Miscellaneous Publication No. 261, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.,December
1936, p. 1.
• 1 Woofter, T. J., Jr., Landlord and Tenant on the Cotton Plantation, Research
Monograph V, Division of Social Research, Worke Progress Administration,
Washington, D. C., 1936, pp. xxv-xxvi.
11 National Resources Committee, Farm Tenancy, Report of the President's
Committee, Washington, D. C., February 1937, p. 54.
11 Ibid., p. 3.
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32 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
tution of tenancy more firmly in the southern agricultural organization." a. In some sections of the South, such as the Mississippi
Delta, the proportion of tenancy has now reached 90 percent; in
the Red River Bottoms it is 80 percent; and in the Black Belt, 73
percent.86 Some tenancy is not incompatible with a. healthy state
of agriculture, but when it reaches such high proportions, a serious
condition begins to develop.
That the problem of tenancy was becoming serious for youth even
before the depression is shown by a study in the Middle West. "In
Wisconsin the farmers who acquired their farms 30 to 50 years ago
were tenants, on an average, some 4 or 5 years. Those acquiring
farms recently have been tenants 6 or 7 years • • *. In recent
years, 1912-1922, somewhat over one-fifth of those reporting had been
tenants 10 or more years. In Kansas the same change has occurred
except that the early tenant stage of 4 years has stretched out to 9
years. In Nebraska, starting with about the same period of tenancy
in the early years it has recently lengthened to more than 10 years." 38
The difficulties encountered by tenants in becoming owners a.re
paralleled by the even greater difficulties of farm laborers in moving
to the next rung of the agricultural ladder. This is especially important in an analysis of the outlook for rural youth since they
usually are destined to start on the lowest rung. As one author puts
it, "The children of owner-operators [in the Cotton States] start in
as laborers or sharecroppers at the bottom of the agricultural ladder,
and in increasing numbers remain to swell the lower ranks. The
rest of the country appears to become progressively less immune to
the same general influences that render ownership difficult in the
Cotton States." 87
This condition is further illustrated by the fact that while the
I\lllllber of all agricultural workers in the United States declined 1.8
percent from 1920 to 1930, the paid agricultural laborers increased
17 .0 percent. But in this interim the number of unpaid family
laborers dropped 10.3 percent (table 13).88 The increasing number
of hired farm laborers between 1920 and 1930 was concomitant with
the growing commercialization of agriculture, which is especially
marked by intensive production requiring seasonal labor. Added to
"Woofter, T. J., Jr., op. cit., p. 14.
11 Odum, Howard W., Southern Regiom of the United States, Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 1936, p. 61.
H Hibbard, Benjamin H. and Peterson, Guy A., How Wisconsin Farmer&
Become Farm Owners, Bulletin 402, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station,
Madison, Wis., August 1928, p. 33.
17 Watkins, D. W., "Agricultural Adjustment and Farm Tenure," Journal of
Farm EconomiCJJ, Vol. XVIII, 1936, p. 469.
aa The figures for 1920 and 1930 are not exactly comparable since the 1920
enumeration was made as of January 1, a slack time for farm labor, and the 1930
enumeration as of April 1, a peak period for farm labor.
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ECONOMIC SITUATION • 33
this situation is the fact that the depression seemingly forced many
persons who at one time were farm owners, tenants, or croppers into
the status of agricultural laborers. 39
Tol,le 13.-Workers in Agriculture 1 in the United States, 1920 and 1930
Type ol worker
Total •...•.. -······························-------- -- Farm operat-0r _____ -·- ______________________ ---·----- ______ _
Farm laborer'---·--··-··--··--·-··-·-··-·--·······- _______ _
Wage worker_··-------··---------··--··----·-·--------.
Unpaid lamlly worker------------·--·-··-·-------------
1920
1930
Percent In•
crease or
decrease
10,eM,812
10,471, IKl8
-1.8
8,479.684
8,079,234
4,392,764
2,732,972
-6.2
4,186,128
2,336,000
1,850, 1111
1,6611,7112
-t-4.11
+!7.o
-10.3
1 10 years ol age and over.
• The figures for 11120 and 1930 are not exactly comparable slnoo the 1920 enumeration WB.'I made 8.'I ot
January 1, a slack time for larm labor, and the 1930enumeration a.sol April I, a peak period !or !arm labor.
Sontte: Bureau ol the Census, Fiftu-nth Cemmoflll• Uniutl Stalu: 1930, Population Vol. V, U. B. Depart•
ment of Commerce, WB.'lbington, D. c., 19a3, p. 40.
During the depression the total number of farm laborers, including
both wage hands and unpaid family workers, increased from 4,393,000
in April 1930 to an estimated 5,919,000 in January 1935.4° In addition to the effect of the variation in the dates of the 1930 and 1935
Censuses, the number of hired laborers declined rapidly because of
lessened demand. In 1935 there were only an estimated 1,646,000
hired laborers while unpaid family laborers had increased to 4,273,000.
The tendency for ownership of the land to become concentrated
in the hands of corporate landlords also makes for an even larger
number of laborers and tenants. Corporate ownership of land in
Iowa, where this movement has been studied intensively, reached
11.2 percent in January 1937, an increase of 3.3 percent since September 1933.41 In Emmet County, Iowa, in which it was estimated
that over 70 percent of all farms were operated by tenants in 1936,
40 percent of all farms so operated were corporately owned. 42 In
1934, 14 percent of the land area of Montana was owned by corporations.43 This represents an increase of 18 percent in this type of
National Resources Committee, Farm Tenancy, op. cit., p. 63.
Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Censiu of the United Statea: 1930, Population
Vol. IV, U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1933, p. 25; and
Folsom, Josiah C. and Baker, 0. E., A Graphic Summary of Farm Labor and
Population, Miscellaneous Publication No. 265, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C., November 1937, p. 6.
41 Murray, W. G. and Bitting, H. W., Corporate-Owned Land in Iowa, 1937,
Bulletin 362, Iowa Agricultural ExpcrimentStation, Ames, Iowa, June 1937, p. 95.
u Schickele, Rainer and Norman, Charles A., Farm Tenure in Iowa, 1. Tenancy Problemit and Their Relation to Agricultural Conservation, Bulletin 354, Iowa
Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa, January 1937, p. 181.
41 Renne, Roland R., Montana Land Ownership, Bulletin No. 322, Montana
Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Mont., June 1936, pp. 17-29, and
Readjusting Montana'a Agriculture: IV. Land Ownership and Tenure, Bulletin
No. 310, Montana Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Mont., February
1936, p. 17.
19
t0
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34 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
ownership between 1925 and 1934. In the Southeastern Cotton
States large banks, insurance companies, and mortgage companies
began to take over vast acreages during the boll weevil period through
foreclosures. During the twenties the trend was well under way
and the. depression of the early thirties increased the corporation
holdings still more."
In addition, mechanization has been rendering unnecessary the
presence of large numbers of unpaid farm laborers-the farmer's
own sons-as well as paid laborers. With modem machinery the
farm operator can manage more acres with less help than formerly,
especially on the large commercial farms. While the total number of
farms in Kansas, for example, rose from 166,600 in 1890 to 174,600
in 1935, the number of farms of 500 to 1,000 acres increased from less
than 4,000 in 1890 to more than 15,000 in 1935. Farms of 1,000
acres and over increased from a few more than 1,000 to over 5,000
during the 45 years. At the same time the number of small farms,
those having less than 50 acres on which little machinery could be
used, increased, and the number of farms having 50 to 174 acres,
those that would compete with the larger farms in commercial production, declined. 46
The average amount of cropland per worker will continue to increase
as the tractor and other power machinery are perfected and displace
horsepower, if judgment can be based on what has happened in the
past. 411 In 1930 there were about 920,000 tractors on farms, but by
1935 the number had increased to approximately 1,175,000." Because
of this mechanization process the agricultural output per worker
increased 23 percent from 1919 to 1929.48 For example, by 1933 in
the wheat producing areas of the Great Plains only about 25 percent
as much man labor was required to produce 1 acre of wheat as was
required in 1919,49 and the labor requirements of many other crops
have also been sharply reduced. 60
"Woofter, T. J., Jr., op. cit., p. 20.
"Bureau of the Census, United States Cemus of Agriculture: 1935, Vol. III,
U. 8. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1937, p. 96. Comparison
of the number of farms with 50 to 499 acres was made for 1900 and 1935.
40 Hurst, W. M. and Church, L. M., Power and Machinery in Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publication No. 157, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C., April 1933, p. 8.
47 Cooper, Martin R., "Displacement of Horses and Mules by Tractors," Ths
Agricultural Situation, Vol. 21, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of
Agricultural Economics, Washington, D. C., June 1, 1937, p. 22.
48 Ezekiel, Mordecai, $2,500 a Year, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1936, p. 24.
49 Cooper, Martin R., "Mechanization Reduces Labor in Growing Wheat,"
The Agricultural Situation, Vol. 21, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of
Agricultural Economics, Washington, D. C., April 1, 1937, p. 12.
60 National Resources Committee, Technological Trends and National Policy,
Washington, D. C., June 1937, pp. 99-101.
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ECONOMIC SITUATION • 35
The mechanization of farming is a mark of progress in that machine
labor is substituted for human labor. Since the demand for food
products is relatively stable, little expansion of the demand for agricultural products can be expected unless there is a. tremendous increase
in their use in industry. Hence, what is to become of those whose
labor is displaced by technological changes? Unless the present preoccupation with commercial agriculture is modified, only three courses
seem open to these people: they may remain in rural territory at a
low level of living; they may go to the cities, usually to work at
miserably low wages; or they may go on relief or take jobs provided
by one of the governmental agencies.
All of these trends in rural America, impinging on the steadily
growing number of rural youth, have created a pressure for land and
opportunity unprecedented in American history. Youth can no
longer "go West." This pressure is becoming more and more severe
in the face of already existing widespread areas of intensive economic
maladjustments.
Early in the depression it was found that there were six extensive
rural areas in the United States in which poverty was rampant, with
20 to 30 percent of the families in many counties on relief. These
areas were: (1) the Appalachian-Ozark, (2) the Lake States CutOver, (3) the Spring Wheat, (4) the Winter Wheat, (5) the Western
Cotton, and (6) the Eastern Cotton. 61
The Appalachian-Ozark Area represents an extreme in maladjustment. Already overpopulated in 1930, particularly on submarginal
land, both population and the number of farms increased between
1930 and 1935. In this area there was a migration to the land during
the earlier years of the depression.6J Here, too, many- people who
were in nonfarm occupations previously turned to farming. 63 For some
time it has been recognized that the principal problems of the region
as a whole involve the excess of population in relation to the economic
opportunities available under prevailing conditions. There are large
numbers of persons, particularly among the younger generation, who
will welcome opportunities for employment elsewhere. 6' It has been
estimated that the area has a surplus of at least 340,000 people.66
11 Beck, P. G. and Forster, M. C., Six Rural Problem Areas, Relief-Resources-Rehabilitation, Research Monograph I, Division of Research, Statistics, and
Finance, Federal Emergency Relief Administration, Washington, D. C., 1935.
u Goodrich, Carter and Others, Migration and Economic Opportunity, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1936, pp. 73-74.
N Hamilton, C. Horace, Recent Changu in the Social and Economic Statiu of
Farm Familiu in North Carolina, Bulletin No. 309, North Carolina Agricultural
Experiment Station, Raleigh, N. C., May 1937, pp. 57-59 and 69.
" Gray, L. C. and Clayton, C. F ., in Economic and Social Problems and Conditions
-0f the Southern Appalachians, Miscellaneous Publication No. 205, U.S. Department
-0f Agriculture, Washington, D. C., January 1935, p. 5.
11 Goodrich, Carter and Others, op. cit., p. 122.
01g 11,ed by
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36 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
The Cotton Belt with its excess of population is an area of disorganized agriculture, characterized by extensive waste of human
ability and energy as well as of land and resources. It has been estimated that nearly 3,000,000 young people matured into the age group
15-25 years between 1930 and 1935 in the rural districts of 11 Southern
States. "Hardly a half million of these stepped into places vacated
by deaths of their elders, hardly a half million remained in school,
about a quarter of a million are cared for in the increases in farms-mostly subsistence farms." 68
Youth in the other three areas also face restricted opportunities
because of general conditions. The Lake States Cut-Over .Area
is suffering on the one hand from an exhaustion of its natural resources and on the other from a turning to the land both of persons
in the area previously engaged in nonagricultural occupations and of
others induced to settle there by colonization promoters.67 The two
Wheat Regions belong to the drought area in which there is probably
an excess of 900,000 people over the number who can profitably
inhabit these Plains States.68 This area has been characterized
of late years by intensive distress and important fluctuations in
population.69
The proportion of youth in relief families in these areas is generally
high. In addition there is a mass of young people in marginal families, some on good land, more on poor land, but all continually on
the borderline of distress. This large number of marginal youth is an
impelling force operating to cause the spread of areas of maladjustment. Under present conditions the farm population of America is
already above the maximum needed for maintenance of the agricultural output. Hence, unless unusual demands for labor develop in the
cities, more and more rural youth may look forward to living only on
a self-sufficing basis. 80
Oublde
of Agriculture
Can the nonagricultural fields of employment absorb the excess
number of rural youth? If these fields are to solve the problems of
rural youth, they will have to provide employment in 1940 for apao Woofter, T. J., Jr., "Southern Population and Social Planning," Social
Forcea, Vol. 14, 1935, p. 19.
17 Beck, P. G. and Forster, M. C., op. cit., pp. 11-15.
118 Goodrich, Carter and Others, op. cit., p. 243.
60 Taeuber, Conrad and Taylor, Carl C., The People of the Drought State&,
Research Bulletin Series V, No. 2, Division of Social Research, Works Progress
Administration, Washington, D. C., March 1937, p. 52.
eo See Kolb, J. H. and Brunner, Edmund deS., "Rural Life," ch. X in Recent
Social Trends, New York: Whittlesey House, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
1934; and Nelson, Lowry and Hettig, T. David, "Some Changes in the Population
of Utah as Indicated by the Annual L. D. S. Church Census, 1929-1933," Utah
Academy of Sciencea, Art& and Lettera, Vol. XII, 1935, p. 107 ff.
Dig t1zed by
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1
I
I
\
i
t
1
/Jurea u of Aol'icu l/urul E cunum i<;s .
On e Typ e of S easo nal Emp loym ent.
Dig1 1ized by
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Digitized by
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ECONOMIC SITUATION • 37
proximately 1,400,000 more rural youth than they did in 1930.81 Two
barriers, however, stand in the way of absorption of this potential
rural kbor supply: namely, competition of the older age groups and
·....~ labor situation in the cities which is complicated by many factors.
During the depression of the early thirties industries kept many
of their workers with families on part-time employment. When
industry began to pick up, naturally these part-time workers were
put on full time and those who had been released but were still employable and available were taken back. Consequently, many youth
who had reached maturity during these years could not find employment. This is one manifestation of the competition of youth with
the older age groups which must remain intense for many years.
Even for some years after 1944 the increase in the number of persons
in the productive ages above 24 years will be proportionately more
rapid than the decline in the number of youth.
The continued expansion of technology 82 is one force that constantly
complicates the labor situation that rural youth face in trying to find
employment in industry. For rural youth technology acts as a twoedged sword. The harvester-thresher combine, tractor, and comhusker displace farm wage earners, but the industries that manufacture such machinery obviously do not absorb these same laborers.
Unless there is a greater demand than now appears probable 83 on the
pa.rt of industry for agricultural products to be used in manufacturing,
displaced farm labor is forced to tum to nonagricultural occupations
for a livelihood. But at the same time the introduction of laborsaving machinery in industry inevitably forces men to seek other
jobs. Rural youth who go to the cities, therefore, find themselves
competing with this displaced group for work.
The increasing advance of technology has made the expansion in
production of manufactured goods possible but in recent years the
introduction of new or improved machines has not been accompanied
by increased employment. In 1935 the volume of total employment
was 18 percent below the 1920 level, but the volume of production was
14 percent higher. Taking the employee man-years per unit of production in 1920 as 100, the unit labor requirement index in 1935 was
72. 84 The trend toward restriction of the number needed to produce
11
Ch. I, table 11.
National Resources Committee, Technological Trends and National Policy,
op. cit.
11 Ibid., pp. 103 and 133.
See also Goodrich, Carter and Others, op. cit., pp.
404--408.
114 Weintraub, David and Posner, Harold L., Unemployment and Increasing
Produdivity, National Research Project, Works Progress Administration, Philadelphia, Pa., March 1937, pp. 19-20. See also Federal Reserve Bulletin, Board of
Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Washington, D. C., January 1938,
p. 44.
11
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38 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
manufactured goods is further shown 85 by the fact that during the
third decade of this century production in the manufacturing industries increased about 40 percent, but the number employed decreased
about 2 percent from 1919 to 1929.
While such changes in productivity and employment must be
qualified by the fact that over a period of time there are changes in the
relative importance of different products and different industries, with
their varying labor requirements,80 they do show that the manufacturing field is not absorbing an increasing number of rural youth. Moreover, new machines and new processes are constantly being developed,°7 which will result in extensive changes in labor demands in the
future. In the cases where the change involves displacement of labor,
unemployed persons are continually being thrown on the labor market
automatically to become competitors of youth seeking employment for
the first time.
During the twenties much of the unabsorbed labor that previously
would have gone into manufacturing turned to "service" industriestrade, professional service, public service, and personal and domestic
service. In 1920 persons employed in the service industries comprised
30 percent of all those gainfully employed. By 1929 this percentage
had risen to 38 percent of the total. Though this percentage fluctuated in the years following 1929, it had reached 42 percent by
1935.88 Whether the long-time trend in this field can continue is an
open question. On the other hand, the need for the services of more
teachers, doctors, recreation leaders, etc., is unquestioned.
Technology is not the only force that has made it difficult within
the last few years for youth of both country and city to obtain employment in nonagricultural occupations. In many localities the exhaustion of natural resources, such as timber and minerals, has left a
substantial segment of the rural population in those localities without
their chief source of income. Other localities have felt the effects of
the increased tendency to substitute materials, such as scrap iron and
plastics, for raw materials formerly in use and have consequently
experienced a lessened demand for their products. The general
economic depression also brought in its wake a decrease in demand for
many manufactured articles as well as for many services, and the
attendant widespread unemployment has exercised particular hardships on youth.
16
Weintraub, David and Kaplan, Irving, Summary of Findings to Dau, March
1938, National Research Project, Works Progress Administration, Philadelphia,
Pa., 1938, p. 23. See also Goodrich, Carter and Others, op. cit., p. 469.
60 Weintraub, David and Kaplan, Irving, op. cit., p. 23.
87 Ezekiel, Mordecai, op. cit., p. 20.
88 Weintraub, David and Posner, Harold L., op. cit., p. 26.
See also Goodrich,
Carter and Others, op. cit., pp. 490-491.
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ECONOMIC SITUATION •
39
In the South, where the oversupply of rural youth is especially
large, the outlook for labor outside of agriculture appears inauspicious.
The cotton factories that have afforded employment for youth as
well as others from the country have apparently reached their peak
in the number of workers needed. 09 "With few alternative avenues
of employment the southern labor supply must take its choice of
agriculture or the cotton mill • • *. The labor advantage has
tended to mask in the balance sheets the symptoms of disorganization
in the industry, and its factors of decadence thus have passed unnoticed and uncorrected." 70
In a sample studied in Detroit, Mich., in 1934, 50 percent of the
out-of-school youth were unemployed when the index of employment
was higher than it had been for 4 years. 71 In a study of youth in
Denver, Colo., in 1935, 27.5 percent were in school full or part time,
but 31 percent were out of school and unemployed with only 19.1
percent employed full time. 71 Of the remainder 8 percent were employed part time and the rest were either occupied at home or were
unable to work or attend school. In New York City an estimated
390,000 young people were unemployed in the 5 boroughs in 1935
with 140,000 of them never having had a job. 73
It has been the experience of the United States Employment
Service that it is more difficult to place youth than persons in the
older age groups. Thus, for the year ending July 1, 1936, youth
below 25 years of age constituted 34 percent of all applicants but
only 21 percent ot all persons placed.n Furthermore, of the total
number of applicants those with past experience in agriculture,
forestry, and fishing formed the largest segment. These facts reflect
the widespread unemployment of rural youth.
The problem of unemployment of urban young people seems to be
somewhat concentrated in the age group below 20 years. In the
Michigan study of unemployment 25.3 percent of the male workers
and nearly 21 percent of the female workers under 20 years of age in
the 14 largest cities (first-class cities) were seeking work for the
11 Allen, R. H., Cottrell, L. S., Jr., Troxell, W. W., Herring, Harriet L., and
Edwards, A. D., Part-Time Farming in the Southeast, Research Monograph IX,
Division of Social Research, Works Progress Administration, Washington, D. C.,
1937, p. 90.
20 Vance, Rupert B., Human Geography of the South, Chapel Hill: University
of North Carolina Press, 1932, p. 297.
n Stutsman, Rachel, What of Youth Today, Detroit Youth Study Committee,
Detroit, Mich., 1934, p. 46.
'1'1 Survey of Youth in Denver, University of Denver Reports, Vol. 12, No. 4,
1936, p. 10.
71 Matthews, Ellen Nathalie, "Unemployed Youth of New York City," Monthly
Labor Review, Vol. 44, 1937, p. 270.
7f Computed from reports of the l;'. S. Employment Service.
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40 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
first time. 76 According to the survey of workers on relief made in
March 1935, 49 percent of all urban workers 20 years of age and
under were inexperienced workers in comparison with only 14 percent
of those 21 to 24 yea.rs of age. 76 Such data are significant because
youth have supplied a large percentage of the urban-bound migrants
from rural territory. Under present circumstances such migrants are
likely to find the labor market already glutted with young people of
their own age.
Undoubtedly there was an improvement in opportunities for the
employment of youth in urban territory prior to the business recession
of 1937-38, but it is well to examine the types of opportunities which
seemed to be most nu~erous. According to the director of the
National Youth Administration for the State of Illinois 77 youth who
were willing to perform hard physical labor could find work. In the
service fields, including hotels, restaurants, and household service
work, it was thought that about two out of three seeking such employment in the spring and summer of 1937 would find jobs. The same
held true for factory employment, but only two applicants out of
every seven were considered likely to find employment in white-collar
jobs. This suggests that the chief employment even in cities will
be unskilled labor. 78 To rural youth will fall the lot of performing
the most menial and unremunerative types of labor in the cities
because their city cousins refuse to accept the pitiably low wages
paid for such work and because few rural youth are trained for skilled
work.
·
Even with a substantial increase in urban employment it is doubtful
if there will be a demand for workers approaching the available supply.
Faced with restricted opportunitiea in urban areas rural youth can
no longer solve their economic problems by leaving the village or the
farm.
71 State Emergency Welfare Relief Commission, "Age, Sex and Employment
Status of Gainful Workers in Five Types of Communities," Michigan Cen11u11 of
Population and Unemployment, op. cit., p. 26.
71 Calculated from data given in Hauser, Philip M., Workers on Relief in the
United Statu in March 1936 (Abridged Edition), Division of Social Research,
Works Progress Administration, Washington, D. C., 1937, table 7, p. 15.
77 Report based on a 30-day study of youth employment in Illinois by the
National Youth Administration. Released for the newspapers June 8, 1937.
71 Leybourne, Grace G., "Urban Adjustments of Migrants From the Southern
Appalachian Plateaus," Social Forcell, Vol. 16, 1937. p. 242.
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Young L oa f ers
111
a Mounluin T own .
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Chapter Ill
EDUCATIONAL ST A TUS AND
OPPORTUNITIES OF RURAL YOUTH
THE PRESENT educational system in America is based on the
assumptions of the necessity for equality of opportunity, freedom of
thought and inquiry, and the inevitableness of economic and social
change. In this connection three fundamental questions are raised
in this chapter: To what extent are rural youth being reached under
our present educational organization? Are they being adequately
prepared for farm living? Are they being adequately prepared for
nonfarm living?
AVAILABILITY OF SCHOOL FACILmES IN RURAL AREAS
The educational facilities available to large numbers of rural youth
are meager. Paradoxically, the best and most adequate educational
facilities are concentrated in areas where there are the fewest children
in relation to the total population and where under present conditions
there will continue to be the fewest children in the immediate future. 1
On the other hand, in the submarginal territory of the AppalachianOzark Area and in other parts of the South where the birth rates are
bigh and the educational needs great, school facilities are far from
adequate. The Southern States rank lowest in the value of school
property per pupil enrolled, in the average salary of teachers, and in
per capita expenditures for public day schools.i
This low ranking is due to the inability of these States to support
education as there are great differences in the relative ability of the
States in this regard. Some of the richest States have a. per capita
taxpaying ability at least six times greater than the poorest States.
Mississippi, Alabama, South Carolina, Arkansas, Georgia, and Ken1 Osborn, Frederick, "Significance of Differential Reproduction for American
Educational Policy," Soci.al Forces, Vol. 14, 1935, pp. 23-32.
1 Odum, Boward W., Southern Regions of the United Stal.es, Chapel Hill: l:"niversity of North Carolina. Press, 1936, pp. 103 and 105. See also Report of the
Advisory Committee on Educal.ion, Washington, D. C., 1938.
41
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42 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
tucky, all highly rural States, are at the bottom of the list in taxpaying
ability. It is, therefore, not surprising to learn that they rank 44th,
45th, 40th, 48th, 47th, and 42d, respectively, in opportunity for
education as reflected in per pupil expenditures.3
In many States it would require more than 100 percent of the available tax resources to bring the amount spent per child for education
even up to the national average. The disparities among communities
in ability to cope adequately with the burden of child care and education are apparent when the distribution of the national income is
considered. The farmers of the Southeastern States have to support
more than 13 percent of the Nation's children 5-17 years of age but
receive only 2.2 percent of the national income, whereas the adult
nonfarm population of the Northeastern States supports only about
twice as many children (27 percent) on its share of the national income
which is almost 42 percent.'
Table 14 shows concretely that rural areas are at a marked disadvantage in comparison with urban areas with regard to school expenditures and length of school term. Moreover, the South Atlantic, East
South Central, and West South Central Divisions lag behind the
others.
Accessibility of high school facilities is reflected in part by statistics
on enrollment in rural public high schools. In 1930 about 30 percent
of the rural population in the United States 14-17 years of age, inclusive, were in high schools in rural communities.6 This percentage
varied considerably among the States for several reasons. In the
New England and Middle Atlantic States town and city schools are
frequently readily accessible to rural youth. Consequently, on the
whole, they do not attend rural high schools in the same proportion as
in some other States. It has been estimated that 13 percent of the
enrollment in the urban high schools of the country come from rural
territory. 11 The percentage of rural youth 14-17 years of age in rural
high schools in 1930 was above the United States figure in the States
of the East North Central and West North Central Divisions except
in Wisconsin which barely approximated it. Rural schools are more
readily accessible in these States than in some of the other States.
• Hearings Before the Committee on Education and Labor, United Stat& Senau,
75th Cong., 1st sess., on S. 419, "A Bill to Promote the General Welfare Through
the Appropriation of Funds to Assist the States and Territories in Providing More
Effective Programs of Public Education," p. 23.
'National Resources Committee, The Problems of a Changing Population,
Washington, D. C., May 1938, pp. 206-207.
1 Gaumnitz, W. H., "The Place of the Small School in American Secondary
Education," Economical Enrichmenl of the Small Secondary-School Curriculum,
Department of Rural Education, National Education Association, Washington,
D. C., 1934, p. 16.
8 Ibid., p. 15.
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EDUCATIONAL STATUS • 43
The Mountain and Pacific States with the exception of New Mexico
and Arizona also exceeded the national average, but most of the South
Atlantic, East South Central, and West South Central States were
considerably below the average. In these States there are not enough
high schools to care for all youth. Moreover, in many sections of
these States the lack of transportation facilities makes school attendance at a distance impracticable. 7 Walking long distances day after
day is not conducive to sustained school attendance.
Negro youth in rural territory are especially handicapped by lack
of available high schools. The United States Office of Education estimated that in the early 1930's at least 900,000 Negroes of high school
age were not in school. In two States-Arkansas and MississippiTofJle 74.--Comparative Average Expenditure per Pupil and Length of Session in Urban
and Rural Schools, by Geographic Division, 1933-34
•
Number of
O-"'phlc division and residence
counties,
towns, and
parishes re•
~~~fsri:.i'
number of
urban school
Total current
expenses per
pupil
Average 01unber of days In
school session
systems
UNITED STATES
Urban ...........•.......•.....•.•......•..•......
Rural •.......•..•...........•••...................
$86.42
43. 10
181. 7
156.2
106. M
78.47
186.G
174.11
12
121.09
76.02
177.4
23
43
B!i. 30
G2. 4G
178. G
167. 7
18
70
7!1. 86
64.31
182. 2
167.2
10
66
411. 9!1
31.16
1411.11
10
81
.lO. 13
24. 66
1711.11
144.0
14
21
64.27
34. 311
176.11
169.1
64
26
76.81
77.Sd
178.6
175.2
22
21
105.32
73.41
183. 2
176. 8
145
440
NEW ENOL.t.ND
Urban •.•.•..••.•.............•.........•....•..........
Rural••......•...•....•..•..............•...•...........
11
83
JIIDDLJ: .t.TU.NTIC
Urban •••.•..•..•..•...••.•.•....••...........•.•••.•...
Rural ..•.•....•.....•.......•....•.....•.•....•..•.•...
11
1811. 8
EAST NORTH CENTRAL
Urban ......••.....•.....•...•.....•........•.•...•.....
Rural .••••••..••......•••..••.•..••••..•.•.••.•...•....
WEST NORTH CJ:NTIUL
Urban •..............•........•....•...•................
Rural .•••.....•..... -•. -.•.•••.•. -•· -· ·· · ·•• -·•·•··• ··· IIOUTH .l TU.NTIC
Urban •.•.....................•..................•......
Rural •••••••••.•.••.••.•...••.••.•.•.•••••••••••..••...
m.a
EAST IIOUTH CENTRAL
Urban ...•..•.•.....................•.••................
Rural••....•.•...•..•..•.....•.•.•.•...••.•..•••••......
WJ:l!T IIOUTH CENTRAL
Urban •..•..............................................
Rural•••.•..•..•....••••..•...•••••.•••••••.•.••••..•.•.
JIOUNTAIN
Urban •..........•.......... -......••••••••••.•••. ····· Rural .......•.•........ -...••.••.••• ·---· • ·-· · •· · •• · -· · ·
PACIFIC
Urban •••..........••.••..•••••••••••••••••••••••.•••...
Rural••.•••.•..•.••......... ············-······-······· -
Source: Herlihy, Lester B., "Urbsn sod Rural School Expenditures," School Life, Vol. 21, 1936, p. 272.
7 For the situation in southwestern Texas in 1924-25, see Works, George A. and
Others, Organization and Administration, Texas Educational Survey Report,
VoL I, Texas Educational Survey Commission, Austin, Tex., 1925, p. 224.
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44 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
only 4.7 percent of the Negro population of high school age are actually enrolled in high school. In 5 other Southern States the percent
is below 10. In 15 Southern States there are 230 counties having a
population of 159,000 Negroes 15-19 years of age and having no high
school facilities for colored pupils within their boundaries. In the
same States there are 195 more counties, with nearly 200,000 Negroes
of high school age, which have no 4-year high schools for Negroes. 8
The effect of lack of educational opportunity is reflected not only
in general statistics on school attendance but also in specific instances.
The situation in Breathitt County, Ky., is typical of a large section
of the mountainous, submarginal Appalachian Area. During the
5-year period, 1931-36, more than 2,000 of the 2,443 youth who finished the elementary schools of Breathitt County did not go to high
eschool because of their poverty and the difficulty of reaching the 1
county high school.'
In areas where facilities are available, a large proportion of all rural
youth attend school. 10 Of 300 young unmarried persons 16-24 yea.rs
of age interviewed in rural Ohio in the spring of 1932, 11 179 were still
in school, including practically all who were 16 years of age. Over 50
percent of those out of school were high school graduates. A study
in a number of rural counties in Indiana showed a substantial relationship between attendance and the adequacy with which high
schools are provided when measured on the basis either of population
or of area. 12 Hence it may be assumed that given adequate opportunity for public school attendance a substantial proportion of persons
of school age will take advantage of this opportunity if they can possibly do so. There are always some, however, who, like 50 percent
of the out-of-school youth interviewed in Taylor County, Wis., will
be unable to go on to school because of "lack of funds" while others will
be "needed at home" and therefore cannot continue their education. 11
8 Caliver, Ambrose, Secondary Education for Negroes, Bulletin, 1932, No. 17,
National Survey of Secondary Education, Monograph No. 7, U.S. Department
of the Interior, Office of Education, Washington, D. C., 1933, pp. 14-115 and 27.
9 Gooch, Wilbur I. and Keller, Franklin J., "Breathitt County in the Southern
Appalachians," Occupations, Vol. XIV, 1936, p. 1027.
10 Dawson, Howard A., Satisfactory Local School Uni~, Field Study No. 7,
Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers,
Nashville, Tenn., 1934, pp. 31-32.
11 Lively, C. E. and Miller, L. J., Rural Young People, 16 to 1/4 Years of Age, A
Survey of the Statue and Activities of SOO Unmarried Individuals in Nine Ohio
Townships, Bulletin No. 73, Ohio State University and Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Columbus, Ohio, July 1934, pp. 7-8.
u Report of the Indiana Rural Education Survey Committee, Indianapolis, Ind.,
March 1926, pp. 26-32.
11 Gessner, Amy A., You.rig People in Taylor County, Rural Youth and Rural
Life Series, Extension Service, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., October
1936, p. 5.
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SCHOOL DI STR ICT
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•
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Novilier• ia 1M pruaure of population on phylical reaource, more clearl11 demonatrated than in Turner, Creek
School DiMrid. Thirtr year, ago thia amaU llalley prooided a meager living for four familu,. Now worn-out,
erotkd hiluidea, denuded of their forest COi/er e decades ago, and the narro,o 11aUey must girJt sustenance to almost
10 time, that number since there is practically no meam of securing aupplemental income.
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EDUCATIONAL STATUS• 45
SCHOOL AMNDANCE OF RURAL YOUTH
Largely as a result of differences in educational facilities, rural
youth do not attend school to the same extent as do urban youth.
During the school year 1929-30 more than 6 out of every 10 youth
16 and 17 years of age in urban territory were attending school in
comparison with little more than 5 out of every 10 in rural territory
(table 15). More urban than rural youth in the older ages also were
attending school. Boys were in school to a greater extent than girls
in urban areas while the reverse was true in rural areas. The only
group in which rural youth were on an equal footing with urban youth
with respect to school attendance was among girls 18-20 years of age.
Tol,le 15.-School Attendance of Youth 16 Through 20 Years of Age, by Residence
and Sex, 1929-30
A!lll In years
16-17
lS-20
Resldenee and sex
Total number
2.
____
_
Total urban.................................... ,
Percent
attending
school
Total number
Pereent
attending
school
373. 283
60.5
3,744,064
22. 5
Male.......................................
Female. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1,149,003
62. 2
I, 736, 3.'ll!
I, 2'24, 280
58.Q
2. 007, 726
25. 4
:IO. 0
Total rural.. .................................. .
2, 289,!!M
53.11
3,071,646
19.9
Male . . ............... . .................... .
Female ......... . ......................... .
1. 100,007
I. O\KI, 787
51. I
1,501. 20R
I, 477,438
19. I
20.11
Rural-farm .................................. .
!\fale .................................... .
Female .......................... . ...... .
I, 432,010
52.0
7tifi,ftf),,'l
005, 347
56.5
l,!l.'ll!,004
990,2'21
848, (i83
19. I
17. 3
21. 2
57. 2
511.6
57. 7
I, 232, 742
f>03,9)!7
628,755
Rut~~t~~:::::=:::::::::::::::::::::::::I
-·1----r-----1----
857. 844
423. 404
434,440
56.Q
4R. I
I
21.3
22.0
20.6
Souree: Bureau of the Census, Viftunth Cen•,u of th, United Slate,: /9.,0, Population Vol. II, U. 8. De•
partment of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1033, p. lll\19.
The situation with regard to high school attendance is even more
unfavorable to rural youth than is total school attendance. 14 According to a recent report, "In urban areas (1931-32) one school
child in four was attending high school, while in rural areas only one
in seven of the school population was in high school. The difference
is a product primarily of difference in opportunity rather than difference in native ability or even in interest." 15
Comparison of school attendance in 1929-30 of rural-farm youth 16
and 17 years of age and of rural-nonfarm youth of the same age shows
the advantage to be with nonfarm youth in all geographic divisions
of the United States except the South Atlantic and the East South
Gaumnitz, W. H., op. cit., pp. 15-17.
Human Resources, report submitted to the National Resources Committee by
the American Council on Education, Washington, D. C., January 1936, pp. 55-56.
14
16
84015°-3S--5
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46 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
F1G.8·PERCENT OF RURAL-FARM YOUTH
16 AND 17 YEARS OF AGE ATTENDING SCHOOL
1929-30
Percenl
-
Less than 40
40 - 4 9
~ 50 - 5 9
[iill]] 60 - 6 9
CJ 70 or more
m
Source Fll tt~nl h Ctnsus
of the United States: 19.30.
Central (appendix table 7). Among the 18- to 20-year-olds farm
youth had the advantage in school attendance in the South Atlantic,
Mountain, and Pacific Divisions.
In some States the difference between the two rural groups in school
attendance was marked. In Michigan, for example, 62.2 percent of
the nonfarm 16- and 17-year-olds were attending school in 1929-30
while only 47.5 percent of the farm youth of the same age were in
school (figs. 8 and 9 and appendix table 7). An even greater discrepancy existed in Minnesota where 70.9 percent of the nonfarm
youth but only 39.9 percent of the farm youth were in school. In
both States the proportion of nonfarm youth in school exceeded the
FIG. 9-PERCENT OF RURAL-NONFARM YOUTH
OF AGE ATTENDING SCHOOL
1929-30
Percent
Lnl than 40.
1111111140 - 49
W2:I 50 - 59
filIID 60 - 69
070orffl0r9
Source: Fifteenth Census
of the United Stoles: 19.30
D ~jl' zect by
Goos le
EDUCATIONAL STATUS• 47
United States average while the proportion of fa.rm youth was well
below the average. In the Northern States, in general, where a large
percentage of the rura.1-nonfarm population is concentrated in agricultural villages and in areas immediately surrounding the cities,
rura.1-nonfarm youth were attending school in greater relative numbers
than were rural-farm youth.
The various States show a wide disparity with respect to the percentage of fa.rm youth attending school. In Minnesota. and Wisconsin,
where much of the Cut-Over Area is located, 39.9 and 34.3 percent,
respectively, of the farm youth 16 and 17 years of age were in school
in 1929-30. The only other State in which the proportion in school
was less than 40 percent was Maryland (37.0 percent), largely because
of the low attendance rate among Negroes. The highest percentages
were in Utah (80.0 percent), Washington (72.1 percent), and California
(71.8 percent).
In most of the southeastern section of the United States, comprising
the South Atlantic and East South Central Divisions, the school attendance of the 16-17 year old farm group was below the national average
of 52.0 percent. Exceptions were Florida, Tennessee, and Mississippi.
Negro youth in rural areas were at an especially great disadvantage
with respect to school attendance. According to the 1930 Census
only 46.4 percent of Negro farm youth 16 and 17 years of age and 39.7
percent of the nonfa.rm youth of that age were in school. 18
School attendance a.lone does not measure the educational situation
since many rural youth, particularly in the South, are greatly retarded.
While in such States as Minnesota and Wisconsin most of the youth
16 and 17 years of age attending school are in high school, in Georgia
and South Carolina or Tennessee and Mississippi many youth in this
age group, white as well as Negro, are still in the grades. In fact, in
Wisconsin in 1930 over 30 percent of the rural youth 14-17 years of
age were in high school in comparison with only 15 percent in Georgia. 17
ILLITERACY AMONG RURAL YOUTH
The educational situation of rural youth is clearly revealed by the
incidence of illiteracy. 18 About 1 in 20 rural-farm youth 15-24 years
of age was illiterate in 1930. The comparable proportion for the ruralnonfa.rm group was 1 in 33 (appendix table 8). In contrast less than
1 in 100 urban youth 15-24 years of age was illiterate in 1930.
Illiteracy is especially prevalent in the States with large reservoirs
of surplus youth and with large numbers of Negro or Mexican youth
(figs. 10 and 11). In the South Atlantic States over 8 percent of all
11 Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United Stales: 1930, Population
Vol. II, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1!)33, table 10.
17 Gaumnitz, W. H., op. cit., p. 16.
18 The U. S. Bureau of the Census defines as illiterate any person 10 years of
age and over who is not able to read and write, either in· English or in some other
language.
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48 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
F1G.IO-ILLITERACY AMONG RURAL-FARM YOUTH
15 THROUGH 24 YEARS OF AGE
1930
D
Percent
Less than 1.0
E3 10 - 24
IIlIIJ 2.5 - 4.9
va
11B
-
Source: FiflHlllh Census
of the United States: 1930.
-
5.o - 1.4
7.5 - 9.9
•0.0-12.4
12.5 or more
rural-farm youth 15-24 years of age were illiterate in 1930. More
than 1 out of every 10 youth on farms in South Carolina, Alabama,
Mississippi, Louisiana, New Mexico, and Arizona were illiterate.
Percentages of illiteracy among nonfarm youth in these same States
were also far above the average. Except in the three Southern and
the Mountain Divisions illiteracy rates were slightly higher among
rural-nonfarm than among rural-farm youth.
The increased school attendance during the decade prior to 1930
had an important effect in reducing the incidence of illiteracy in the
younger age group in comparison with those 20-24 years of age in
1930 (table 16). Moreover, since 1930 the work of the adult educaF1G. II -ILLITERACY AMONG RURAL·NONFARM YOUTH
15 THROUGH 24 YEARS OF AGE
1930
□ L-thanl.0
E3 1.0 - 24
IIIIlD
2.5 - 4.9
va
5.o - 1.4
11111
Source: Fifteenth Census
of the United States: 1930
Dig lized by
7.5 - 9.9
•
10.0-124
•
12.5 ormore
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EDUCATIONAL ST A TUS •
49
tion program of the Works Progress Administration and the education
program of the Civilian Conservation Corps, as well as locally sponsored programs, have contributed to reducing illiteracy among young
people in rural areas. 19
Tcr•te 16.-llliteracy Among Rural Youth 15 Through 24 YeaB of Age, by Residence,
1930
Aioo In years
Residence
115-19
Tot&!
number
Tot&! rureL ___________________ ___ ___ ___ _. · · ·- ··.
5,536,704
Rural-fam, _____________________________ ·---- · -- · · - · ····
Rural-nonfarm ______ . ___________________ _______ . _. __ ...
3,420,009
2, 116, 735
20-24
Pemmt
llllterala
TotBI
number
Percent
lllltarete
3. 3
4,450,070
4.11
---1----1--4. 0
2,434,241
5.11
2. 3
2,016,829
3. 7
Source: Bureau oftbe Census, FilluntA Ccm"' o/lM United SlJJl.,: 19~. Population Vol. II, U. 8 . Dt!i-,tment or Commerce, W asblngton, D . C ., 1933, p . 12Z1.
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENTS OF OUT-OF-SCHOOL RllRAL YOUTH
Farm youth apparently attend school less regularly and leave school
earlier than village youth, especially in dominantly agricultural areas.
Consequently, they have a lower grade attainment than rural-nonfann
youth. In five counties of Wisconsin 71.3 percent of the young
men on farms, 20-25 years of age, had not completed any work above
the eighth grade in comparison with only 30.0 percent among village
young men. Among farm young women 60.2 percent in contrast
to 21.0 percent of the village young women had completed only the
eighth grade or less. 20 The lower grade attainment of farm youth is
substantiated by other studies in Wisconsin 21 and in Iowa. 22
As indicated by the data for Wisconsin, young men in rural America.
do not receive as much formal education as do young women. A
recent study of unmarried youth in Tompkins County, N. Y., revealed
that 72 percent of the single young men in comparison with 81 per1• The Education Division of the Works Progress Administration estimated in
September 1937 that the literacy program had reached approximately 200,000
persons of all ages in rural areas (based on unpublished data). The Education
Division of the Civilian Conservation Corps reported that 2.7 percent of the
enrollees between April 1 and October 1, 1936, were illiterate, amounting to
approximately 9,000 men . This percentage has remained practically constant
among enrollees of the past year.
JO James, J. A. and Kolb, J . H., U'isconsin Rural Youth, Education and Occupation, Bulletin 437, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Madison, Wis.,
November 1936, p. 5.
21 Kirkpatrick, E. L. and Boynton, Agnes M., lruerests and Needs of Rural
Youth in Wood County, Wisconsin, Rural Youth and Rural Life Series, Extension
Service, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., January 1936, p. 3.
n Starrak, J. A., A Survey of Out-of-School Rural Youth in Iowa, Committee
on Education, Iowa State Planning Board, Des Moines, Iowa, 1935, table VII.
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50 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
cent of the single young women 15-29 years of age, who were out of
school, had received some high school or college training.11 Surveys
made in both Waushara County 24, and Wood County,26 Wis., as well
as in Ohio 28 and Virginia, 27 give further evidence of the fact that
young women in rural areas tend to stay in school longer than young
men.
The poor land areas show the worst conditions with respect to educational attainment. Data gathered from seven southern Appalachian counties show that 54.0 percent of the out-of-school rural
youth 16-18 years of age in 1932 had not gone beyond the sixth grade
and 93.4 percent had not gone beyond the eighth grade (table 17).111
Tol,le 17.-Grade Completed by Out-of-School Youth in 7 Submarginal Countios,1 by
Age, 1932
Total
Grade completed
- -
Al!t!
Number
Percent
3 or le88
4
5
fl
7
8
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -TotaL_
I, 165
100.0
9.3
13.4
13.1
16 years _______
17 years _______
18 years _______
381
413
371
100.0
100.0
100.0
13.6
8. 7
5.4
15. 8
13.8
10.5
13. 1
13.6
12. 7
9
10
II
18. 2
23. 7
15. 7
2. fl
1.4
2. 3
16. 5
18. 4
19. 7
22. 3
14. 2
14. 3
18. 9
2. 1
1. g
1.3
Lli
1.3
0.8
LIi
4. 3
---25. 7
22.9
12
-- -- -- -3.8
o.a
o.a
0.2
0,6
1 Lumpkin County, Ga.; Iackson and Wolfe Counties, Ky.; Macon County, N. O.; Monroe County.
Tenn.; and Mercer and Pendleton Counties, W. Va.
Sonroe: Computed from schedules provided through the oourtesy of W. H. OIIIIJll.Ditz, U. B. Department
ol the Interior, Otllce of Education, W e.shington, D. 0.
In Virginia's poor land and mountain areas "many of the present generation of young people are not getting much more formal training
than did their parents. • • • The children of unskilled la.borers,
subsistence farmers, and miners are the ones most prone to drop out
of school in the earlier grades." 211
23 Anderson, W. A., Rural Youth: Activities, Interests, and Problema, 11. Unmarried Young Men and Women, 15 to 29 Year& of Age, Bulletin 661, Cornell
University Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y., January 1937, pp.
5-6.
24 Kirkpatrick, E. L. and Boynton, Agnes M., "Rural Young People Face
Their Own Situation," Rural Sociology, Vol. 1, 1936, p. 156.
26 Kirkpatrick, E. L. and Boynton, Agnes M., Interests and Ne«h of Rural
Youth in Wood County, Wisconsin, op. cit., p. 3.
26 Johnson, Thomas H., A Study of Rural You.th, 18 to 25 Year&, Out of School
and Unmarried, College of Education, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, May 1935,
p. 34.
27 Magill, Edmund C., Handbook on Out-of-School Youth Education in Virginia,
A Summary of the Minutes of the Out-of-School Youth Training Conference,
National Youth Administration and Virginia Polyt~chnic Institute, Blacksburg,
Va., August 1935, p. 8.
28 Computed from schedules provided through the courtesy of W. H. Gaumnitz, U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Washington, D. C.
211 Garnett, W. E., A Social Study of the Blacksburg Community, Bulletin 299,
Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va., August 1935, p. 61.
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On e of /h e 132,000 011 e-lfoo111 Schools.
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EDUCATIONAL STATUS• 51
HIGH SCHOOL ATTENDANCE SINCE 1930
High school enrollments increased during the depression of the
early thirties in both rural and urban territory although an upward
trend was already in evidence prior to 1930. In that year 58.0 percent of all urban youth and 39.5 percent of all rural youth 14-17
years of age were in high school; by 1934 these percentages had risen
to 67.9 and 60.5, respectively. 30 Not only did more young people
attend high school but also a larger proportion was graduated. One
study found that of 1,000 pupils in the fifth grade in 1910-11 only
139 were graduated from high school in 1918, whereas of 1,000 pupils
in the fifth grade in 1928-29, 383 were graduated in 1936.31
Comparative data for the school years 1931-32 and 1933-34 show
that the percentage increase in school attendance was almost twice
as great in rural as in urban high schools (appendix table 9). The
aggregate number enrolled in urban high schools actually declined in
the South Atlantic and West South Central Divisions. Only the
New England Division showed a decline in the number attending
rural high schools. The increase in high school enrollment for the
United States as a whole between the school years 1933-34 and
1935-36 was only about half as great as between the years 1931-32
and 1933-34. During the more recent period, however, the percent-·
age increase in rural areas was almost three times as great as in
urban areas. Only in the urban areas of the Pacific Division was
there an actual decrease in enrollment. In spite of the greater proportionate increase in each period, however, youth in rural areas were
still not attending high school to the same extent as were those in
urban areas.
Although the expansion of high school enrollment during depression
years was in conformity with a general trend, at the same time it was
apparently due partially to the "piling up" of youth in rural territory.
Youth who would normally have gone to the cities remained in rural
areas and attended high school. Moreover, high school facilities for
rural youth and transportation facilities between the open country
and towns have been constantly increasing so that expanded facilities
have also operated to increase enrollments. The growing tendency
for high school graduates to take postgraduate high school work before, or in lieu of, college work accounted for the increase in this
type of student from 686,355 in 1931 to an estimated 945,000 in
1936 for the country as a whole. 32 No doubt the high school graduates in rural territory were well represented among this number.
ao Cook, Katherine M., Review of Conditions and Developments in Education in
Rural and Other Sparsely Settled Areas, Bulletin, 1937, No. 2, U. S. Department
of the Interior, Office of Education, Washington, D. C., 1937, p. 7.
11 Foster, Emery M., "School Survival Rates," School Life, Vol. 22, 1936, p. 14.
12 rtnd., p. 14.
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52 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Without critical analysis figures on rising school attendance may
obscure the influence of economic maladjustments on the education
of young people. Although there is no reliable information on the
extent to which youth in low income or relief families have been
forced to leave school, there are data which indicate that rural youth
in the lowest economic classes are greatly retarded educationally. 33
Furthermore, it is a well-known fact that, on the whole, youth from the
lowest income classes drop out of school very shortly after they reach
the maximum compulsory school age. Rural youth are no exception. 34
The activities of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, the
Works Progress Administration, and the National Youth Administration have helped to ameliorate the devastating effects of the depression for many youth in the lowest income groups by making it possible
for them to remain in school. These agencies helped either the family
of the youth or the youth himself. In those rural areas having an
excess of youth, however, where young people have been severely
handicapped even in normal times and where school attendance has
always been exceedingly low, aid similar to that which has been
extended during the depression must be continued and expanded if
youth are not to be permanently underprivileged.
VOC.ATIONAL TRAINING IN RURAL SCHOOLS
Many of the high schools that do exist in rural areas offer no vocational training and hence do not adequately meet the needs of youth
who will enter either agricultural or nonagricultural occupations.
Those which do offer vocational training are usually limited to agricultural and/or home economics courses and therefore do not provide
for youth who will enter nonagricultural occupations.
Regardless of whether girls seek employment outside the home, it
is important that they be adequately trained for homemaking. No
published data are available on the number of rural high schools
including home economics courses in their curricula. When a check
was made about 1933 116 on the location of the Smith-Hughes high
13 Melvin, Bruce L., Rural Youth on Relief, Research Monograph XI, Division
of Social Research, Works Progresa Administration, Washington, D. C., 1937,
ch. IV; and Hummel, B. L. and Bennett, C. G., Edu.cation of Per&om in Rural
Relief Household& in Virginia, 1935, Rural Relief Series, No. 8, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va., January 1937, p. 10 ff.
34
For example, see Nelson, Lowry and Cottam, Howard R., "A Comparison
of Educational Advantages and Achievements of Rural Relief and Nonrelief
Households of Two Counties in Utah," Utah Academy of Sciencu, Arts and
LeUer&, Vol. XII, 1935, p. 128; and McCormick, T. C., Comparative Study of
Rural Relief and Nor,,.Relief Households, Research Monograph II, Division of
Social Research, Works Progress Administration, Washington, D. C., 1935,
pp. 33-34.
16 Information obtained from U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of
Education, Division of Home Economics, Washingt-On, D. C.
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EDUCATIONAL STATUS • 53
schools teaching home economics, it was found that approximately
75 percent were in places of less than 2,500 population.
Federally-aided schools reached about 196,000 girls in 1936 in their
full-time day school courses and an additional 37,000 in part-time
classes for employed girls. Classes for adults had an enrollment of
better than 142,000, many of whom no doubt were young wives and
mothers seeking guidance in meeting their homemaking problems
more intelligently, efficiently, and economically. 36 In addition there
were thousands of girls taking homemaking courses in schools operated under State plans, but there is no way of knowing how many of
them were rural.
Vocational agriculture was included in approximately 40 percent
of the rural high schools of the United States by 1934. It was estimated at that time that 14 percent of the fann boys 14-20 years of
age who were in school were being reached by this vocational work. 37
Since that time the number of federally-aided vocational agricultural
schools has increased considerably, but because of the provision that
every dollar of Federal money must be matched by State funds,
the schools are not always located on the basis of need or of fann
population.
By 1936 there were 5,612 of these day schools. Computing the
average number of fann males 14-20 years of age per school in the
various States, 38 it becomes apparent that these schools have been
located without enough regard to the number of fann youth that
ought to be served. While Massachusetts and Connecticut average
a.bout 360 and 370 fann males of this age group, respectively, per
school and the Middle Atlantic and East North Central States average 340 and 350, respectively, such highly rural States as West Virginia, Georgia, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, Tennessee,
.Alabama, Arkansas, and Oklahoma average approximately 550,
660, 640, 930, 640, 620, 700, 620, and 710, respectively. Missouri,
Wisconsin, and Minnesota, though less rural than the other States
mentioned, nevertheless have almost one-half of their population
classified as rural, and these States have an average of 590, 600, and
18 Vocational Division, Digest of Annual Reports of State Boards for Vocational
Education to the Office of Education, Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1936, U. S.
Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Washington, D. C., p. 53.
17 Office of Education, Vocational Education and Changing Conditions, Bulletin
No. 174, U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C., 1934, p. 106.
See also Hamlin, Herbert M., "Our Dual System of Rural Education," School
Review, Vol. XLIV, 1936, p. 181.
11 Vocational Division, Digest of Annual Reports of Stale Boanls for Yocational
Education to the Office of Education, op. cit., table 1; and Bureau of the Census,
Fifteenth Censua of the United States: 1930, Population Vol. II, op. cit., were used
as the basis for this computation for the purpose of illustration although it is
recognized that the pumber of persons 14-20 years of age has increased considerably since 1930.
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54 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
670 fann boys, respectively, 14-20 years of age for every school
giving courses in vocational agriculture.
A survey in seven Southern States in 1933 showed that the departments of vocational agriculture already established constituted about
57 percent of the number needed. It was believed then that other
regions might have an even lower percentage of rural schools providing
this instruction in comparison with the total number operating under
such conditions as to indicate a need for this type of work. 39
. By the fall of 1937 the number of federally-aided vocational agricultural high schools had increased to almost 7,000, 40 and as a result
of the passage of the George-Deen Act in 1936 41 providing for the
further development of vocational education in the several States and
territories a still further expansion of vocational agriculture will
undoubtedly take place.
One of the most significant phases of the vocational agricultural
work in rural high schools has been the development of the organization known as Future Farmers of America. This organization is
now more than 10 years old and includes more than 120,000 boys between the ages of 14 and 21 enrolled in vocational agricultural courses
in the federally-aided high schools of the country. Active membership may be retained 3 years after the boy has completed his systematic instruction in vocational agriculture and high school."
While the members secure practical experience in fanning through
their agricultural instruction and membership in the organization,
the ultimate objectives are chiefly educational."" Since the distribution of the local chapters is restricted to schools including vocational
agriculture in their curricula, this program is denied a large mass of
rural boys who do not have access to a Smith-Hughes hi~h school or
who do not attend high school.
A parallel organization, called New Farmers of America, for Negro
boys enrolled in the approximately 600 federally-aided Negro high
schools had a national membership of 47,000 in 1937." The upper age
limit for membership is slightly higher than for white boys.
Not all rural or even farm boys are to become farmers, however.
A large proportion have for many years gone into nonagricultural
occupations, and for the good of agriculture as an industry under the
av Office of Education, Vocational Education and Changi11g Conditions, op. cit.,
p. 106.
40 Office of Director of Vocational Agriculture, U.S. Department of the Interior,
Office of Education, Wa~hington, D. C.
u Public, No. 673, 74th Cong., approved June 8, 1936.
41 Future Farmers of America, Retised l\fanual, 1936, p. 9.
41 Ross, W. A., "What Do You Mean-F. F. A?" School Life, Vol. 21, 1935,
pp. 94-97.
u Office of Executive Secretary of the New Farmers of America, U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Washington, D. C.
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Vocational Divi&io11, Ofllce of Educutio11 .
An FFA Boy's Test Plot of Hybrid Corn.
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EDUCATIONAL STATUS• 55
present system the proportion leaving farm territory ought to be
greater. Vocational openings are not easily found by graduates of
rural high schools in fields other than agriculture. 46 Inadequate as
the vocational training is for farm boys and girls who are to become
farmers or wives of farmel'S, the chances of obtaining training for
other occupations are almost nonexistent for rural young people
within reasonable distance and at a reasonable cost. A count was
made of the number of federally-aided schools in three StatesAlabama, Minnesota, and California-having vocational agriculture
and at the same time offering instruction in trade and industry. The
first of these States had 175 federally-aided schools, white and colored,
teaching vocational agriculture in 1936. Of these 16 white and 9
colored, or one-seventh of the total, also offered courses in trade and
industry. Only 6 of the 25 were in places having a population of
less than 2,500. Minnesota had 114 federally-aided vocational agricultural high schools but not a single school offered instruction in
trade and industry. California had 15 federally-aided schools that
provided vocational training in agricultural and nonagricultural
fields but only 1 was in rural territory, that is, in a place having a
population of less than 2,500. 46
The desirability of vocational training other than agricultural
training for rural young people has been recognized by many. Galpin
stated the problem concisely as follows: "The fact is that not all
children of farmers are to be farmers and housewives on farms.
The need of guidance in the matter of vocational careers among farm
youth is especially urgent, just because so many farm youth as a
necessity must select rationally or else drift ignorantly into a great
variety of occupations." 47
Vance has recently emphasized the importance of providing training for white and Negro youth in the direction of more flexible skills
which may open the way to a choice of jobs in the more complex
urban environments. This is necessary because many southern farm
youth must inevitably go to the cities for employment.48
46 Frayser, Mary E., Altitudea of High School Seniora Toward Farming and Other
VocativnB, Bulletin 302, South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson, S. C., June 1935, pp. 30-31.
48 Computed from lists of the federally-aided schools giving instruction in
vocational agriculture and in trade and industry provided through the courtesy
of the U. S. Department of the lnt€rior, Office of Education, Washington, D. C.
• 7 Galpin, C. J., "The Need of Guidance Among Farm Youth," The Vocational
Guidance Magazine, Vol. IX, 1930, p. 25.
ta Vance, Rupert B., New Orleana Item-Tribune, April 12, 1936.
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Chapter IV
MARRIAGE OF RURAL YOUTH
FoR ALL youth marriage is a major social adjustment; for farm
youth it is usually both a social and an economic adjustment. In
agricultural society marriage may well mark the time in life when the
young man begins to operate a farm for himself. The young woman
submerges her economic role within that of her husband rather than
embark on or continue an independent career. Traditionally the
farm home and the farm business are one. For rural-nonfarm youth,
however, marriage does not necessarily involve a comparable economic
adjustment since the young man in the small town may have been on
the way to becoming established in business, in a profession, in a
secure salaried position, or in a skilled trade for some time prior to his
marnage.
The normal sequence for American boys is school, employment,
marriage, and a new family. 1 The sequence for girls is similar except
that employment is not a necessary requisite to marriage. A break in
this cultural pattern is certain to have significant consequences. Previous chapters have shown that rural young people on the whole are
handicapped-more in some regions than in others-in securing a
satisfactory education and that the problem of employment and becoming established in a life work is acute in some sections. Youth
who leave school at a relatively early age face a fairly long period of
enforced leisure before they find regular employment.
The marriage rate in the United States has been declining more or
less steadily since the early twenties; the decline was greatly accentuated early in the depression, 2 affording evidence of widespread postponement of marriage among youth as a result of unemployment or
underemployment. That the postponement of marriage may have
1 May, Mark A., "The Dilemma of Youth," Progressive Edu.cation, Vol. XII,
January 1935, p. 5.
2 Stouffer, Samuel A. and Spencer, Lyle M., "Marriage and Divorce in Recent
Years," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 188,
November 1936, pp. 58-59.
57
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58 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
serious effects upon the birth rate has been shown 3 and that it affects
the emotional life of those unable to marry as well as the sex mores is
generally accepted. What are the facts regarding the marriage of
rural young people, and what are their implications for the future of
rural life?
PROPORTION OF YOUTH MARRIED
Youth is the period during which the majority of all marriages
occur. The proportions of youth which are married, however, vary
importantly by residence, sex, age, and color.
Rural and Urban Youth Compared
A larger percentage of the total rural than of the total urban population is married. If the farms and the cities having a population
above 500,000 had had the same age distribution of the total population 15 years of age and over in 1930, there would have been 15 percent fewer persons married in the big cities than on the farms. The
percent of young people below 20 who were married was about twice
as great on farms as in the large cities, and among those 20-24 years
of age the percent was about one-third higher on farms than in cities. 4
The proportion of youth married in 1930 was greater for both
sexes and for all years among rural than urban youth (table 18 and
fig. 12). At each year of age there is a considerable difference between the sexes, many more young women than young men being
married in both urban and rural territory. Apart from the fact that
rural as well as urban young women marry earlier than men, there is
the additional fact that early marriage for girls is the custom in many
rural communities. At the age of 24 years a little less than one-half
Tobie 18.-Percent Married of Total Youth Population, by Age, Residence, and
Sex, 1930
Urban
Rural
Age
Male
16 years
years.----------------------____ --------------------_
17
_______________________________________________
18 years _______________________________________________ _
19 years _______________________________________________ _
20 years ___ . ___________________________________________ _
21 years _______________________________________________ _
years _________________ ----------------------------- _
22
23 years
_______________________________________________ _
24 years._. _________________________________ ...... _____ _
0. I
0.4
I. 5
4. 3
9.3
16.8
25. 2
34. 3
42.4
Female
2. 7
7. 1
14. 9
23. ft
32.4
40. I
47. 8
54.8
00.4
Male
0.2
0.9
3.0
7.4
H.2
23.3
32. 2
41.2
48.8
Female
!I.I
13. 2
,u
35. 5
45.5
53.1
00.2
66. 4
71.4
Source: Jlureau of the Censu•, Flfl,nith Crn.,,., ofth, United Statta: 19/10, Population Vol. II, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1933, p. 851.
1 Stouffer, Samuel A. and Lazarsfeld, Paul F., Research Memorandum on the
Family in the Depression, Bulletin 29, New York: Social Science Research Council,
1937, p. 5.
• Ogburn, William F., "Recent Changes in Marriage," American Journal of
Sociology, Vol. XLI, 1935, p. 290.
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MARRIAGE • 59
(48.8 percent) of the young men but e.lmost three-fourths (71.4 percent) of the young women in rural areas were married. Among the
urban youth of this age 42.4 percent of the young men and 60.4 percent of the young women were married in 1930.
r!a
D
Urban
Rural
Percent
Percent
0A9e in0
yeoN
25
75
50
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
FIG. 12- PERCENT MARRIED OF TOTAL YOUTH POPULATION
1930
Source: Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930.
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The difference between the sexes in the percent married in 1930
was considerably greater for rural youth than for urban youth, particularly in the lower age range. Of the young men and women in
urban territory 20 years old in 1930, 9.3 and 32.4 percent, respectively,
were married. In comparison, of the rural young men and women
of the same age 14.2 and 45.5 percent, respectively, were married.
Since young women migrate to the cities at an earlier age than young
men,6 it is probable that a larger proportion of the girls remaining in
rural territory marry than would otherwise do so, many of them
taking husbands older than themselves.
In this connection attention should be called to the fact that between 1910 and 1920 the trend in the percent married of both sexes
was upward for both urban and rural youth. Thus 1 .4, percent of
the rural young men 15-19 years of age were married in 1910, but
by 1920 the corresponding percent was 2.4.6 During the same interval the percent of the rural young women of the same age who
1
See ch. I.
1
Stouffer, Samuel A. and Spencer, Lyle M., op. cit., p. 60.
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60 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
.
were married rose from 10.2 to 14.5 (table 19). Among the urban
youth 15-19 years of age 0.7 percent of the young men were married
in 1910 but by 1920, 1.7 percent of this age were married. Of the
young women of the same age the percents married were 7.7 and 10.4
for 1910 and 1920, respectively. A corresponding trend may be observed for those 20-24 years of age of both sexes.
To&le 19.-Percent Married of Total Youth Population, by Residence, Age, and Sex,
·
1910, 1920, and 1930
A11e In yran
15-19
3)-~4
R!'Sldence
:Male
1910
t;rbsn ___________________
Rural.-----------------·--
19:ll
Female
1930
1910
1920
Male
1930
1910
19:ll
Female
1930
1910
1113)
1930
- - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0. 7
1. 4
1. 7
2. 4
1.3
2.2
7. 7
10. 2
10.4
14. 6
10. 2
15.6
20. 6
27. 3
25.8
31.1
25.8
31.2
42. 4
57.5
47.6
58.4
(7.1
58.8
Sources: Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth C.n81U oflht United Stalta: 1930, Population Vol. II, p. 848 and
Foort,,nth CelUIU of the United State,: /9to, Population Vol. II1 p. 516, U. 8. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D. C.; and Stouffer. Samuel A. and Spencer, Lyle M., "Man-1811:e and Divorce in Recent
Years" Annal, oftllt American Acadtm• of Polu:ital and Social &inlet, Vol. 188, November 11136, p. 60.
Between 1920 and 1930 the proportion of all rural young women
who were married increased slightly, but there was practically no
change in the proportion of young men (table 19). The percent
change among urban youth in both age groups was negligible for this
decade. The fact, however, that in rural areas there was even a
slight increase in the percent of young women married and no decrease in the percent of young men married during the decade 1920
to 1930, when the price level of farm products was already much
below that of industrial products, suggests that rural youth may not
postpone marriage to any great extent under adverse economic
conditions.
Rural-Farm and Rural-Nonfarrn Youth Compared
Whe~ the number of married rural youth was analyzed with respect
to residence, it was found that with the exception of boys below 20
years of age and of girls 16 years of age, proportionately more ruralnonfann than rural-farm youth of both sexes were married in 1930
(table 20, fig. 13, and appendix table 10). This situation is difficult
to interpret since little is known about the marital status of the
various segments of the rural-nonfann population, such as the population of agricultural villages, industrial villages, and the peripheries
of cities. However, an examination by States and by divisions of
the percent of rural-nonfann youth of both sexes married suggests a
tentative explanation.
Rural-nonfarm youth 20-24 years of age were married in greater proportions in those States in which there was a large contingent of rural-
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MARRIAGE • 61
Table iO.-Percent Married of Rural Youth Population, by Age, Residence, and
Sex, 1930
Rural-nonfllnn
Rural-farm
Age
Male
HI years_----------------------- ______ -------.----··----
17 y-,,_ ------------- -------- ... _--- . --- -- . --- . -- ... -- .
18 y-,,_ --- ------------- ---- .. _. -- . -- _--- --- .. -- . -----19
_____ ....
-----_.--_____
---------.
20 years_-------------.
years ____________________
. ___ .. --- __. ----.
... ----- ..
21 y_.s _____________________________________________ , __
~ ;::::::::::::::::·: :::: :: :: :: :: :: ::: ::: :::::: :: ::: :: :
24 y-,, ___________________ --. --- --- -- -- ---- - -- ---- -- . - .
Male
Female
0.3
0.2
0.8
2.6
6. I
1.0
12.8
3.2
7.4
13. g
23. 7
33. 7
43.8
22. 5
61.2
58.8
65.4
30.8
39.1
46.3
Female
7.3
H.7
24.4
34.0
43. 7
61.6
70. 4
6. I
13.8
26. 7
37.9
47. 7
M.3
61.8
67.5
72.3
Source: Bureau of the Census, Flfte,ntll Cen,m of Ille UnUed Slatu: 1930, Population Vol. II. '(;. S.
Department of Commerce, Wllllbington, D. C ., 1933, p. 861.
industrial population than in other States. For example, in West
Virginia with its coal mining settlements 71.3 percent of the young
women and 39.3 percent of the young men 20-24 years of age were
married in 1930, whereas the corresponding percentages for this age
group in the United States as a whole were only 60.8 and 33.7, respectively. This explanation probably holds likewise for Kentucky which
also has many coal settlements, for Oklahoma with its coal, oil, and
natural gas settlements, and for Texas with its oil and natural gas
settlements, all three States having high percentages of both sexes in
this age group married. The proportions married of the younger age
m:a Rurol·farm
mil! Rurol·nonfarm
75
Percent
50
25
Percent
O Aoe inO
25
50
75
years
16
17
18
Female
19
20
21
22
23
24
FIG. 13-PERCENT MARRIED OF RURAL YOUTH POPULATION
1930
Source: Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930
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62 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
group in the rural-nonfarm population in these same States also
exceeded the comparable United States percentages.
In most other States in which the percent of the rural-nonfarm
youth of both sexes married exceeded the United States figure, 7 a considerable proportion of the rural-nonfarm population is composed of
inhabitants of mining, lumbering, or other types of nonagricultural
settlements. While the industrial composition appears significant, it
is important to note that most of the States with particularly high
rural-nonfarm marriage rates are Southern States in which marriage
rates among youth in general are high.
The percentages of rural youth married by sex and age groups
varied widely from one section of the country to another (appendix
table 10). Thus, of the rural-nonfarm women 20-24 years of age the
proportions married ranged from 48.1 percent in New England to 67.1
percent in the West South Central States while the same two regions
yielded the two extremes for the same age group of farm young women,
namely, 43.0 percent and 65.3 percent, respectively.
New England and the Pacific States had the lowest percentages of
both rural-farm and rural-nonfarm young men 20-24 years of age who
were married. The other extreme was provided by the East South
Central States, a highly rural division.
In New England, where the population is concentrated heavily in
industrial centers, the young people marry, on the whole, later than in
such rural States as Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. The same variation is apparent within the New England States themselves. Whereas
Connecticut and Massachusetts had exceedingly low percentages of
their rural youth married in 1930, Vermont and Maine, both highly
rural States, were not far below the United States total for each age
group.
Individual studies bear out the generalizations above regarding the
effect both of industrialization and of custom on the age of marriage
which in turn are related to the proportion of young people married
in any given rural area. In the rural sections of Tompkins County,
N. Y., which have been in the process of urbanization for many years,
the age of the married young men, ranging from 15 through 29 years,
averaged 28 years while for the married young women of the same age
range the average was 24 years. 8 In contrast, in a submarginal area in
Virginia, well removed from the cities, "Reports on the age of marriage
7 For example, Indiana, New Mexico, Louisiana, Alabama, North Carolin&,
South Carolina, Tennessee, Georgi", and Florida. Mississippi and Arkansas both
exceed the United States figure but the percent of rural-farm youth married in
both age groups exceeds the percent of rural-nonfarm youth. Both States are
highly agricultural and have a negligible rural-industrial population.
8 Anderson, W. A., Rural Youth: Actit>ities, Interests, a11d Problems, I.
Married
Young JI.fen and lVomen, 15 to 29 Years of Age, Bulletin 649, Cornell University
Agricultural Experiment Station, lthacs, N. Y., '.\la~· l!l:lo, p. 7.
D ~jl' zect by
Goos le
MARRIAGE •
63
for 501 women showed that 21.6 percent married at 16 or younger, 10.8
percent at 15 or below, and 38.3 percent between 17 and 20. Slightly
over a filth of the men were married by the time they were 20." 11
White and Nesro Youth Compared
Color and residence both influence the proportion of youth of the
various ages which is married. In 1930 relatively more Negro than
white youth were married in all segments of the population-urban,
rural-farm, and rural-nonfarm (table 21). While more Negro young
men in rural-farm than in rural-nonfarm territory were married, the
reverse was true for Negro young women with the exception of those
24 years of age.
Tobie 21.-Percent Married of Total Youth Population, by Age, Residence, Color, and
Sex, 1930
Negro
White
Ap
UJIIIAII
10 y - . ................................................
17 Y91118 . •.•. ·•·•••·•·•••••·••··•••·•••••···••••••···•·•
18 Y91118 ...•....•. ·•••••·••·•·•·••••••••••••••·•·•···•••
111 J'lllln. ···•···········································
21yeen ............................................... .
21 years .••..•......•.•.••••..••.•...••••..•..••...••.••
22 J'lllllll ...••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••
23y-. ............................................... .
24 YNn ............................................... .
Male
Female
Male
Female
0.1
0.3
1.3
3.8
8.4
15. 7
%1.8
33. 1
41.4
2. 3
11.3
13.6
:11.9
30.6
38.6
46.11
63.8
69. 7
0.3
1.2
4.4
10.4
Ill.II
31.3
40.11
49.3
66.2
7. 1
15. 7
71. 7
38.11
47.3
M.6
68. 7
63.3
116.11
0.2
0.8
2. 7
11.3
11.11
19.0
27.0
36.4
42.11
6.11
II. 7
21.4
31. 6
41.3
411.11
67.3
114.6
8. 2
17. 6
31.8
42. 2
51. 7
68. 0
63.6
ffll.ll
0.6
I.II
6.6
13.11
24.8
40. 7
61.0
69. 7
116.11
0.2
o. 7
2. 4
6.8
14.0
23.3
33. 1
43. 2
51.6
6.6
12.8
24.3
311.6
411.4
M.5
61.2
67.1
72. 2
0.6
1.6
4. 7
12. 2
21.11
35.4
43.5
52.0
56. 2
11. 2
21.8
34.8
46.8
M.4
RUBAL-rAIUl
10 y-. ............................................... .
17 yeen .•..........•.•••.....•.•............•......•.••
18yeen ..••.••••••.•...•.••.••..••..••..•..••.....••.•.
111 J'elllll •••••• ·•••• ••.••.•.••...•••••••.•...••••••••••••
21 yeen .••.....•••••.••••••...••..••••.•.•.•...••..•.••
21 yeen .•••••••.••••••.•.••••..•.••.••.........•••.•.•.
22 y - . ................................................
23 YNn •....•••••••..••••..•.....•.•.•.•....•..•.•••••.
lN J'Nn . ................•..........................•...
68.3
72.1
RUKAL-IIOllrilJI
10 J'_.. •.•••.•••• ·••••••••·•••••••••••••·•• ••••••••••••
17 YNn ••••••••..•.•.•.••.•••.•...•.•••..••••..••••••..
18 J'elllll. ···············································
lllY_.. ..•.•.....•.....•.•...•.••••••••••••••..•.••....
2>yeen ............................................... .
21 yeen .•...•.•......•.••.••.•.............•..•......•.
22Yeen ............................................... .
23 yeen ••...•....•............•••.........•............
24J'elllll ............................................... .
eo. 1
114.11
1111.6
11.
e
Boorcee: 8peclal tabulation by the U. 8. Buniau of the Census of the number of married youth; and
Bnnau oftbe Cenaus, Fl/utfll1' CerutU of 11w Unlte4 &au,: 19/J0, Population Vol. II, U. 8. Department
of Commerce, Wuhlncton, D. C., 1933, pp. 698-001.
In 13 Southern States, where a high proportion of all youth was
married, there was a general tendency for more Negro than white youth
in rural areas to be married. This was true of both young men and
young women in the rural-farm and rural-nonfarm groups (table 22),
although there were numerous exceptions, particularly among
females. In almost all of the Southern States and among both
sexes more Negro youth in rural-nonfann than in rural-farm territory were married.
• Garnett, W. E., A Social Study of the Blacksburg Community, Bulletin 299, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va., August 1935, p. 16.
Dig l1,ed by
G oog IC
64 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Table .2.2.-Percent Married of Rural Youth Population in 13 Southern States, by
Residence, Color, and Sex, 1930
Roral-nonfann
Rural-farm
State
Negro
White
Male
Female
Male
Negro
White
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
- -- - - - - -- - - Alabama •....................
Arkansas .•.....•.....•.•••...
Florida.•.•.•.....••.•........
Georgia .•••••••.••••••••......
Louisiana ...•...••...........
Maryland ..••.••.•••...•.•...
M!Bsls81ppl.. ...•.............
North Carolina.....•.••....•.
Oklahoma................•...
Booth Carolina ...........•.•.
Tennessee •... --··· -.. -- ·- --·.
Texaa .•.• ----··· ....•........
Virginia •••••.•••••.•.••.•••••
21.11
22.3
13.11
111.2
111.6
10.4
21. 6
111.8
111.2
16. 7
111.5
17.8
12. 7
43.6
48.0
37.11
40. 7
43.3
29.8
44.11
311.4
45. 7
311. II
40.4
40.8
30.4
23.8
30.0
19. 7
:16. I
25. 7
10.6
31.1
18.6
20.11
21.2
24.2
25.3
12.1
39. I
53.4
40. I
41.3
46. 7
31. I
51.6
33.4
45.1
33.8
43.5
46.2
211. 2
27.3
25.8
21. 7
23.0
22.3
16.8
22. 2
26.8
26.0
26.11
27.4
22.0
20.8
60.3
61.1
62.2
43. 7
46. 7
40.8
44.4
45.8
62.1
46.4
48. 7
48.4
44.6
31. I
211.11
28.8
33. 7
:111.6
111.4
31. I
24.6
26.4
33.5
2S.O
28. 6
111.1
53.6
62.1
111.5
61.11
61.0
37.8
61.11
41. 1
411.8
48. 2
41.8
60.11
37.3
Bouroe: Special tabulation by the U. 8, Bureau of the Census.
MARRIAGE DURING THE DEPRESSION OF THE EARLY THIRTIES
The marriage rate for the country as a whole fell from 10.1 per
1,000 population in 1929 to 7.9 per 1,000 population in 1932, the lowest
point in the recorded history of marriage in the United States (appendix table 11). Since the bulk of all marriages occurs within the
youth group, it is fair to assume that approximately the same decrease
occurred in the marriage rate of young people 16-24 years of age.
Many youth postponed marriage during the depression of the early
thirties. Among 13,500 youth 16-24 years of age interviewed in
Maryland approximately 20 percent of those over 20 years of age
stated that their marriage had been delayed. More than one-half of
this group gave some economic reason as the cause of the delay, while
others reported such causes as no opportunity, family objections, or
personal illness. 10
Two conclusions drawn from limited evidence seem tenable: the
decline in the marriage rate was not consistent in all States, and it
tended to be greater in urban than in rural States. It is very difficult
to judge the effects of the depression on the marriage rate among the
form population because the depression for farmers really began in the
early 1920's.11 Hardships of farmers during this period, however,
apparently did not cause farm youth to postpone marriage. Consequently, it is an open question whether the general depression beginning in 1929 was the primary cause of the drop in the marriage rate in
rural areas.
The decline in the rate of marriage in the urban population was not
Bell, Howard M., Youth Tell Their Story, American Youth Commission of the
Council on Education, Washington, D. C., 1938, p. 43.
11 For a discussion of research on rural life from this approach see Sanderson,
Dwight, Research Memorandum on Rural Life in the Depresaion, Bulletin 34, New
York: Social Science Research Council, 1937.
10
Dig 11zed by
Goog Ie
MARRIAGE • 65
consistent, if the situation in Philadelphia is typical.1 2 It was found
in this one city that the effect of the depression of the early thirties was
not uniform on all groups or classes of the population. In some areas
the rates fell, in others they rose, and instill others they were stationary.
Though a study in rural areas in North Carolina seems to demonstrate clearly a relationship between a decline in marriage rates and
economic conditions, 13 it is not known whether similar studies in other
rural sections would yield the same relationship of these two factors.
It seems unlikely that the effect of the depression would be any more
uniform in rural territory than it was found to be in the urban study
just referred to.
A compn.rison among the States further confirms the two conclusions
drawn above. According to the United States Census of 1930 there
were 21 States in which more than one-half of the population was
urban. Eleven of these States had an average marriage rate for the
period 1926-1929 above the national average for that period. In
1932 the rate was above the national rate in only nine of these States
(table 23). Whereas among the 27 rural States there were 14 in which
the average marriage rate for the period 1926-1929 was above the
national average, by 1932 this number had increased to 17.
Trends in marriage rates among the States were not consistent, but
on the whole they tended to confirm the statement that the decline
was less in rural than in urban areas. In IO States-New Hampshire,
South Dakota, Nebraska, Virginia, South Carolina, Kentucky, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, and Nevada-the rates were higher in
1932 than the average of their respective rates from 1926 to 1929.
Only one-New Hampshire-is more than 50 percent urban. Of the
remaining 38 States that experienced a decline in 1932 from their
marriage rate for the 1926-1929 period, 18 had rates below the national figure both in 1932 and for the period 1926-1929. Of these 8
were dominantly rural-Maine, Vermont, Minnesota, Iowa, North
Dakota, North Carolina, Idaho, and Wyoming-and IO were urbanMassachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Delaware, and Oregon. In the other 20
States, equally divided between the rural and urban categories, the
marriage rates were, with a few exceptions, above the national rate
both in 1932 and for the period 1926-1929.
Marriages began increasing in 1933 and continued through 1934,1'
when the national rate was only 0.4 per 1,000 below the 1929 level
12 Bossard, James H. S., "Depression and Pre-Depression Marriage Rates: A
Philadelphia. Study," American Sociological Review, Vol. 2, 1937, pp. 686-695.
u Hamilton, C. Horace, Recent Changes in the Social and Economic Status of Farm
Families in North Carolina, Bulletin No. 309, North Carolina. Agricultural Experiment Station, Raleigh, N. C., !\lay 1937, pp. 146-148.
14 Stouffer, Samuel A. a11d Spencer, Lyle M., op. cit., pp. 58 and 63.
The 1934
rate is given as 10.28 a11d that for 1935 as 10.41 per 1,000 population.
Dig llzed by
Google
66 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Tobie 13.--Marriage Rate per 1,000 Population in Urban 1 and Rural I States, 1926-1929
and 1932
Rate per 1,000
population
State
Average
11132
rate
19211-19211
UnitNI. State,,_ ••...... '. ... __ -------···-················--·-······--·-----·
10. l
7.11
10. 7
7. I
7.11
7.6
11.6
5.a
5.11
6.11
7.11
8.0
7.0
II. 7
10. 2
7.6
7.3
Ill
6.6
6.8
NICW 11:NOL.lND
Urban:
New Hampshire.-··--·· ...... _-·- ...••••. ···-··_-·· ............. ·-··-·_-·._.
M8SS8Chusetui ... __ -·. _-· ·- ·- _-· ·-- ___ . ···-· ............... ·-· ···-·· -··-. -- ·Rhode Island ......... ·-_·-·· ...... _.-· ........... ·-··_ .. ··- __ .•.. ·-··· .... _.
Connecticut. ____ .......... _.--· .... -·.·---·· .. _-·····- ... _··- .•........... ·Rursl:
MBln•--·-·-··---··--·---·---····--···-·-··-····················-·-·-·-·-·-··
Vermont ______________ . ____________________________________________________ _
KIDDLIC ATL.lNnc
Urban:
. New York-·········-··-··········-·············-···-·-·--·--·-······-·······
New Jersey .. _._ ... ···- ...... ···-.·--_._·-····-·· --· ..••• -. - . -· ··--·· ·- ·-·· -.
Penn.syJ..-ania .. ____ . _.. -· ... _.... ···-·-··· .. -··· _. -· ··- .. _···-- .•. _•.. ·-- ....
11:A!IT NORTH CICNTBAL
Urban:
Ohio .•••.••.......••. -·--·····--···•····································-···
IndlRDa ........ ···- ... -· -- -- ·--- --·. ---- ·- -···· -· .. -·-·· · · · -···· ··•· · ····- · Illinois_··--·_ •...••.••.. -·-· ••....••..•...•................ _........ -· ..... .
Michigan ...... -. __ ...... -··· ........ ···-··-·-·-·--··.-·-······--·- ____ -·-·_.
Wisconsin.···-_--·-· ...... ··--···-······ .•.•.•••••••••••• ··--····-· .••• --- --
11.0
13.1
11. I
8.3
5. 8
i.'
lL0
a.,
6. 7
'- 7
Wll:9T NORTH CICNTRAL
Urban:
Missouri. ••.•• __ --·········-·············-·-.-····--·-··- .•. ····-· .....•. ··Rural:
Mlnneeota .••••...... ·-·-···--·················-·····-···········-··········
Iowa .... ·-_·--··-·······- ... ······- .... _.. ·-·_-···-- .....•..................
North Dakota __ ·-··································-···-·········-····-·····
· South Dakota.·•·---··----···-·- · ········_ ... ·····-·-··•···--·····-····-···.
Nebraska ...•........•• --·- ___ -· _____ ··-········ .••....• ··-········ ... _...•..
Kansru ..••.........•.. ·--··--·--··--···-························---······-··
10.8
9.8
8.11
8. 7
6.3
II. 2
7. l
11.0
II. 7
a. 2
6. 3
10. 3
4.8
15. 7
10. 6
16. 7
3.11
13.8
10.0
10.0
8. 8
11. 1
7.2
14. 0
II.II
10. l
10. 6
3. 6
IL 5
ll.U
SOUTH ATLANTIC
Urban:
Delaware.•.•.....••••••..... ____ ·-. __ -·-----···-···············- .. ---·_ .•...
Maryland •.....•......••.• ······••·---·_ .... ····-·· ...•....••.•.•••..•.•••..
District of Columbia.•.•••.•••••..••..•. _...... ·---····-···········--·-·····
Florida .. -·-· ___ -···-·· ..•. _··-_ ...•...... _......... ········-_ ....... ·•·-·- __
Rural:
Virginia .. __ .... -·-·-··-_·-·-·- ___ .. _.. _.. __ .••• ·-·········- ___ ···- ____ .• ___ _
West Viri,iniR_ -···----··--------·- --·- ______ ..•.. -·········-···-··-. ______ . _
North Carolina __ ·····-····------·------·---·--·······--···········-·.-·- .. __
South Carolina ...... _. ___ . _____ . ___ .·---· ..... ·-·--·-·---- ......... . . . .... .
Georgia ••• __ ..... ·---•--· ___ ......... -····- .............. ··········-. ___ ... .
Rural:
1'.8
8.9
SMIT SOUTH CJtNTHA t.
Kentucky._ .........• _.. _··-·_.····-·- ......... _.. _......... ·-···-· .•.... -· _
Tennessee ......... _. __ .··- .........•. _·- ...... ...... __ ·-·-·._-·_·- ... _··- __ .
Alabama ....... -·····---···--····-·-·····-····-·-··--··--·-·----·---····---·
Millsis.slppl. ... _...•.... _. _-· __ . _....... ___ .. ·-··-······· ••••... -····· .•. ___ .
11.6
12.8
11. 5
16.3
12.0
6.8
II. f
11. l
14.8
10. 2
12, 6
13.0
13.!I
11.0
13.11
a. 7
11.6
11.3
a. 3
1L2
U.8
9.0
7.11
13.0
12. 7
41.1
9.2
3. 4
3.4
:ii. 6
17. l
76. 2
WKHT ~Ol'TR CENTRAL
Rural:
Arksnsa.,_ .......•... ____ . ___ .. ____ .. ___ . _. _. _.. _. _. _. _..... _____ ... _....... .
Louisiana ......... ····-----·_--· .. _.... _..... _..............•. _-······-··· ..
Oklahoma.......... ·-·.-·_ ....•.... _.. _... ·-_._-· __ ..... _·-· •. ··-- .. ·-·-· .. .
Texas_._.-·.·····- ... __ ._._ ..... ·- ___ .-· ____ ... -· __ .....•.... _·-_-· .... -·-··
140t'NTAJN
rrban:
Colorsdo •.• -··-······-······-·---· -· .. _. _-· .. _. ·- .... ___ ----······--- ··-····
Utah ••••••••.••••••• _••••.•. ___ ••.............••...• -··· •••••••••.•• ___ ···-Rural:
Montana .• ·-·············--··· ..••.•..... _·--··-···-···-···.·-·-··--·- ....•.
Irlaho._ -····- ... ·····- __ ..•• -· _·-· _.... _.. _..• ···- ··- _____ ..•...... -·- __ .. ·Wyomin~- ••.• -··- ... ____ -· _-·· .. _.•. _-···· ... ··········- .••......••••.. -· _.
N,•w
Mexico·--····-··-.
___ -·_-·_ .•. -········ ........•.•.•. -·· __ -······-_-··-_
Arirona
______________ . _____________________________________________________
Nevada •••••...••.•. -.... -·· ... -· -· -·· _... ··- ·-···-··-·-·. ·-··--···········
See footnotes at end of table.
Dig ll~ed by
Goog Ie
MARRIAGE• 67
Tobie JJ.-Marriage Rate per 1,000 Population in Urban and Rural States, 1926-1929
and 1932-Continued
Rate per 1,000
population
State
Average
rate
1932
11126-1929
Urbsn:
Washinirton __________ --- - -- -- ------- --- . _------ _. ____ ·- ... ·- ·------ ·---. ----
12. I
8.4
11. 2
0,.,.gon .. _............. -..... ---·-·-· · · · ·--------- ·· · · - ·- ·- -- - · - · --- - ·- --- ·--
California_ .. ____ .. -·· ..... -- --------- --- -- ·---- ----- -------------- _____ . __ ..
10. 1
6.9
7.3
1 With at leMt MJ pereent of the population living In eenters or 2,liOO or more.
• With at least 60 percent or the population living in the open country or in centers or Iese than 2,IIOO.
Source: Bureau or the CeDBUS, Man-lagt and Dlt>orct, Annual Reports, U. B. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D. C.
(appendix table 11). The recovery from the low rate of marriage was
general among both rural and urban States.
If judgment can be drawn from the situation in North Carolina, the
rate of marriage was somewhat higher among the rural nonrelief population than among the rural relief population during the depression
years of 1932 to 1934, inclusive. 15 " • • • the marriage rate of
the nonrelief population rose substantially in 1933; whereas, the
marriage rate of households (to be on relief in 1934) continued to
decline. 1118
Data are not sufficient to determine to what extent the findings in
North Carolina are applicable to the country as a whole. Taking all
the youth on relief in October 1935 the percent married was slightly
greater than was the case in the total rural youth population in 1930.
Of all the youth on relief in October 1935, 41 percent of the young
women and 20 percent of the young men were married, while in 1930
in the total rural population 39 percent of the young women and 17
percent of the young men were married. 17
The abnormal marriage rates in some States are undoubtedly due
somewhat to State laws or other special circumstances. 18 In North
Carolina, for example, the couples go from their home State to Virginia
and South Carolina to avoid conforming to laws requiring publicity
and certificates of physical fitness prior to marriage. As a consequence the rate in North Carolina was extremely low in 1932 and for
some years previous in comparison with neighboring States (appendix
table 11). Nevada's tremendous increase is related to the large
16 Hamilton, C. Horace, "The Trend of the Marriage Rate in Rural North
Carolina," Rural Sociology, Vol. 1, 1936, p. 455.
II Ibid., p. 461.
11 Melvin, Bruce L., Rural Youth on Relief, Research Monograph XI, Division
of Social Research, Works Progress Administration, WMhington, D. C., 1937, ch.
III.
11 Bureau of the Census, Marriage and I>ivorce: 1931!, U. S. Department of
Commerce, Washington, D. C., p. 14.
Dg1
zedbyGooglc
68 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
number of divorces and subsequent remarriages that take place in
that State.
A summary review of the statutes of the various States in order to
determine, if possible, whether or not there is any relation between the
laws regarding the minimum age of marriage and marriage rates
yielded the following results: Of the 23 States where the minimum
age for marriage of girls is 16 years or above, 12 19 are urban according
to the classification in table 23 and 11 20 are rural. Of the remaining
25 States where the minimum age of marriage is below 16 years, 9 21
are urban and 16 22 are rural. That is, on the whole there is a tendency
for rural States to have a lower minimum age of marriage than urban
States. There probably is some connection between the laws of the
rural States and the fact that larger percentages of rural than of
urban girls in the younger ages are married. Only in New Hampshire
is the minimum age fixed by statute at 18 years. 23
The period of delay before marriage has been instituted by only
one-third of the rural States but by more than one-half of the urban
States. The rural States taking this precaution against hasty and
unwise marriages of young people are Georgia, Maine, Minnesota,
Mississippi, Montana, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, and West Virginia; the urban States are California, Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New
York, Ohio, Oregon, and Wisconsin.
The limited data available for the depression years indicate that
in spite of fluctuations in rates the fundamental factors in the marriage
situation of rural youth have remained about the same. Rural youth
do marry at a somewhat earlier age on the average than urban youth;
but this is associated with the cultural pattern in rural areas where
early marriage is socially approved. It is also a well-known fact that
early marriages are characteristic of the lower economic groups and
hence of the groups with the lowest standards of living and the most
limited educational attainments. Because such large proportions of
rural youth are underprivileged in these respects, a high rate of mar,e California, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, MaS86chusetta, Michigan, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Penns~·lvania, and Rhode Island.
20 Arizona, Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New
Mexico, Vcnnont, West Virginia, and Wyoming.
21 Colorado, Florida, Maryland, Missouri, New Jersey, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin.
22 Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, MissiBBippi,
North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia.
21 Hcisterman, Carl A., "Marriage Laws," Social H'ork Year Book, N~w York:
Russell Sage Fo1111datio11, 1933, pp. 276-278. These and other data on marriage
laws were brought up to dat~, Oct{>bcr 1937, by the Legal Section of the Division
of 801:ial Research, Works Progress Administration, Washington, D. C.
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MARRIAGE • 69
riage naturally occurs. Yet these youth have such limited economic
opportunities that they face appalling handicaps in their efforts to
attain a reasonable economic base for family life.
The factors which are associated with early marriage are also conducive to high birth rates. It is not only the lowest economic groups
in general but these groups in rural areas in particular which are
contributing far more than their proportionate share of births. Modern methods of birth control are as yet little known in most rural
areas. Moreover, it is in such areas, where economic need is greatest
and birth rates are highest, that opposition to artificial family limitation is strongest.
The inevitable result of having a large proportion of rural youth
married, with the attendant high birth rate, is increased population
pressure on submarginal land areas and hence an increase in the number of economically marginal and submarginal families. Under conditions which might provide a satisfactory minimum standard of living for small families, the economic situation of large families becomes
intolerable. Hence this is a vicious circle in which poverty begets
poverty.
Escape by migrating to better land or through industrial opportunity is becoming possible for a constantly decreasing proportion of rural
young people. Consequently, it has been observed in some mountainous areas that a new cabin is built by a young couple farther up the
hollow where there are already too many cabins, and another family
is started on its tragic cycle.
The situation is not limited to farm youth. Through their high
marriage rate rural-nonform youth are augmenting the number of
families on the poverty level in rural-industrial areas just as are farm
youth in submarginal open country areas. The fact cannot be too
strongly emphasized that rural youth need guidance and assistance
under present circumstances in making the economic and personal
adjustments associated with successful family life.
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Chapter
V
THE USE OF LEISURE TIME
THE CONSTRUCTIVE use of leisure time is of more importance to the
individual during youth than during any other equal number of years
of his life. Social adjustments that have permanent consequences to
the individual are largely made through the social and recreational
activities of these years. Such activities follow three general lines:
(1) participation in the programs of the institutions and organizations
of the community, such as the church, the Farm Bureau, and the
Grange; (2) recreation through organized community facilities, such
as community houses, playgrounds, and swimming pools; and (3)
spontaneous group and individual activities, such as reading, dancing,
visiting, fishing, or going to motion picture shows. It is important
that youth have the opportunity to secure adequate recreation through
these three channels. Crime, to say nothing of restricted personalities,
is too often the result of inadequate recreational facilities.
RURAL CHANGE AND THE USE OF LEISURE TIME
Within recent years a number of forces active in rural life have
brought about great changes in the kinds of recreation in which rural
youth indulge. Among these the most important are: (1) the breakdown of the socio.I solidarity of old neighborhoods and communities;
(2) new methods of transportation and communication with the consequent more intensive contact with the city; (3) the expansion of commercialized forms of recreation, such as dance halls, roadhouses, and
movies, in rural areas; and (4) the increase of rural recreational activities. Along with these forces has come an increasing belief in the
value of recreation, although rural communities have been much
slower than urban communities to recognize the need for leisure-time
activities planned solely for pleasure. In some rural areas marriage
is still "frequently accepted as the end of 'good times'," 1 but this
idea is now much less widespread than it once was.
'
1 Frayser, Mary E., The Use of Leisure in Selected Rural Areas of South Carolina,
Bulletin 263, South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, ClernRon, S. C.,
March 1930, p. 58.
71
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72 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
The community of 25 years ago, now largely disorganized I and in a
state of change, provided the means of recreation in its natural environment and institutional life and exercised rather sharp approval
or disapproval of what youth might do. Leisure-time pleasures of
youth were closely associated with the family and the activities about
the farm. Family recreation consisted on the one hand of games,
practical jokes, and "roughhouse," and on the other hand of associations with friends and neighbors. Hunting and fishing were both
individual and neighborhood affairs. Opportunities for the association of young men and young women were provided through visiting
and the assemblages of the community institutions.
The church performed a distinct function as a social and recreational
institution, although its supporters frequently would have resented
such an implication. Young people went to church and attended
church suppers and other events in order to be together. Seasons of
protracted meetings provided the approved social and psychological
settings for the association of the sexes. The spelling bees of the
school, the programs of the old literary societies, and the special
activities of the Grange were all very important in the lives of the
youth. In a social and recreational way the community was a closed
corporation. Its standards of conduct brooked little variation; the
behavior of individuals followed socially approved patterns.
The rural community is no longer a closed unit. Its boundaries
have been broken. Its institutions and organizations have changed.
In many cases the rural churches have died. Some schools have declined and others have been consolidated. Economic and educational
organizations, such as the cooperatives and the clubs that cooperate
with the extension services of the States, have arisen in community life.
Probably the automobile and motion pictures have been the most
potent forces in changing community boundaries and in expanding
the social and recreational activities of young people. Isolation no
longer exists for the rural youth who has the use of an automobile;
he has access to the best that Hollywood produces.. How many of
the 15,273 motion picture theaters in the United States in January
1935 3 were in definitely rural areas or what proportion of the weekly
attendance consisted of rural youth is not known, but young people
from the country frequently drive many miles to participate in this
1 See Melvin, Bruce L., The Sociology of a Village and the Siirroundi11g Territory, Bulletin 523, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca,
N. Y., May 1931.
1 The 1935 Film Daily Year Book of Motion Pirtiires, p. 762.
The number of
theaters has decreased during the depression. In 1931 there were 22,731 theaters
according to Steiner, Jesse F., "Recreation and Leisure Time Activities," Recenl
Social Trends, New York: Whittlesey House, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
1934, p. 940. In 1930 the weekly atten<lance was estimated at 100,000,000.
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LEISURE TIME • 73
form of diversion. Moreover, the automobile is itself a form of social
life since "just riding around" is now one of the important types of recreation for a large number of youth.4
The growth of transportation facilities has also been a major factor
in developing commercialized forms of amusement other than motion
pictures in rural areas. Casual observation attests to the fact that
the dance hall, the tavern, the roadhouse, all of varied type and cost,
are now scattered on main roads throughout wide stretches of rural
territory. Whether these places are attended primarily by the young
people from the cities or from the country is an open question. But
inevitably they must influence the leisure-time activities of rural
young people.
The radio, too, has frequently invaded the most isolated homes.
"Popular dance orchestras no longer furnish entertainment to their
immediate patrons alone; their reputations are national; their music
is relayed to the most distant places * * *; the people throughout the entire country may hear the roar of the crowd and share in
the thrill of great sporting events * * * " 6
Aside from the extension of commercialized recreational facilities,
such facilities as public purks, playgrounds, swimming pools, and
community and recreational centers have recently been gr~a.tly
expanded in both rural and urbun territory. The proportionate distribution of these facilities in rural areas cannot be determined, but
definite effort has been made through the programs of the various
Federal emergency agencies to enrich rural life by making available
some of the facilities for wholesome recreation which are taken for
granted by city dwellers. Casual observation of empty swimming
pools and unfrequented community halls in some rural sections raises
a legitimate doubt, however, regarding the extent to which these
new facilities were bolstered by an adequate community organization
to foster their proper utilization.
In view of the numerous changes that are influencing rural society,
there arise certain fundamental questions which help define more
' Substantiating data will appear in a forthcoming monograph by Melvin,
Bruce L. and Smith, Elna N., Youth in Agrimlll,ral -Villages, Division of Social
Research, Works Progress Administration, Washington, D. C. See also Frayser,
Mary E., The Play and Recreation of Children and Yoiith in Selected Rural Areas
of Sou.th Carolina, Bulletin 275, South Carolina Agrirmltural Experiment Station,
Clemson, S. C., June 1931, p. 34.
6 Steiner, Jesse F., op. cit., pp. 941-942.
For 1nore detailed treatment of the
subject by the same author, sec Americans at Play, New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., 1933.
The study in four n1ral counties in South Carolina. showed that in 1931 "Radio
sets were found in relatively few of the homes of the young white people * * *."
See Frayser, Mary E., The Play and Recreation of Children and You.th in Selected
Rural Area., of South Carolina, op. cit., p. 20. This is undoubtedly not general
since radios a.re widespread in the farm homes of good land areas.
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74 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
clearly the problem of youth's expenditure of leisure time. Are the
youth of low-income families able to take advantage of the new opportunities for social and recreational life? Are rural institutions and
agencies providing opportunities for social life and recreation for rural
youth by performing deliberately functions which they once performed
in the course of their regular activities? Are rural youth being regimented and standardized in their leisure-time activities so that the
spontaneity that once accompanied rural recreation is being lost?
And if so, does it matter, or is it even desirable?
PARTICIPATION OF YOUTH IN RURAL ORGANIZATIONS
Data on the activities of rural youth yield a few tenable conclusions.
In the first place communities have not been sufficiently aware of the
social and recreational needs of youth. In the second place a great
mass of rural youth are in no way participating in the work or programs-social, recreational, or otherwise-of such community institutions and organizations as have been developed. These statements
may require slight modification in view of the activities of the various
emergency agencies in recent years, but by and large they still hold.
The church probably has more youth in its membership than any
other rural institution, but it is doubtful if it is reaching many youth
in a social and recreational way. In Virginia it was estimated that less
than 20 percent of the rural young people between 15 and 24 years of
age were being reached by young people's religious organizations}'
The role of the church in a community's social and recreational life,
however, seems to be variously interpreted. Fewer than a dozen of
all the churches in 140 villages studied in 1936 had well-rounded programs of recreation, adult education, or welfare. In one of the villages
studied "a socially-minded pastor, concerned over the obvious revolt
of youth against moral conventions and mores, initiated a program of
activities and discussion for the young people of the community. To
compete with roadhouses, weekly dances were included. The response
of the youth was almost unanimous. Immediately, quite unanimous
opposition arose from the other churches. Proselyting was charged.
The program was, therefore, discontinued; and the youth problem
rapidly assumed more serious proportions. In another village, a
young people's program in a well-equipped community building was
offered to the WPA recreation officials; but the building was closed
and the program discontinued when it was discovered that WPA
leadership meant that persons of any church could be admitted." 7
The extent of church attendance and membership varies greatly with
8 Hamilton, C. Horace and Garnett, W. E., The Role of the Church in Rural
Community Life in Virginia, Bulletin 267, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va., June 1929, p. 88.
7 Brunner, Edmund dcS. and Lorge, Irving, Rural Trends in Depre1111ion Ye,ars,
New York: Columbia University Press, 1937, pp. 314-31.'i.
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LEISURE TIME • 7 5
the locality. In Douglas County, Wis., about 40 percent of the young
people reported attending church and 27.5 percent were members. 8
These proportions were lower than those for the other Wisconsin
counties where youth surveys were conducted. In these counties almost 40 percent of the youth were church members and a slightly larger
percent attended church services and church functions.' In parts of
rural Ohio the church seems to play a larger role in the lives of the
young people. Practically two-thirds of 300 young people interviewed
replied that they held a church membership, but the survey also
showed that outside of church and Sunday school their organizational
affiliations were very meager. 10 Even higher percentages for participation in church activities were reported in Iowa, 11 in Genesee County,
N. Y., 12 and in Connecticut. 13 No doubt still higher percentages
would be reported for youth in the rural South were comprehensive
data available for youth separate from adults. One study in South
Carolina, for example, showed that church attendance ranged from
90 to 100 percent for young people between the ages of 14 and 21. 14
Some studies point out that more girls than boys attend church,
and there a.re indications that the church, as well as other community
organizations, plays a part in the lives of more village than open
country young people. 16 An exception to this generalization appears
8 Wileden, A. F., What DouglM County Young People Want and What They Are
Doing About It, Rural Youth and Rural Life Series, Extension Service, University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., December 1935, p. 5.
• Kirkpatrick, E. L. and Boynton, Agnes M., Interests and Needs of Rural
Youth in Wood County, Wisconsin, Rural Youth and Rural Life Series, Extension
Service, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., January 1936, p. 9; and Gessner,
Amy A., Young Peopl,e in Taylor County, Rural Youth and Rural Life Series,
Extension Service, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., October 1936, p. 7.
10 Lively, C. E. and Miller, L. J., Rural Young People, 18 to e4 Years of Age,
A Survey of the StaJus and Activities of SOO Unmarried Individuals in Nine Ohio
Townships, Bulletin No. 73, Ohio State University and Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Columbus, Ohio, July 1934, pp. 8--15. See also Johnson, Thomas
H., A Study of Rural Youth, 18 to f5 Years, Out of School and Unmarried, College
of Education, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, May 1935, pp. 12-13.
11 Starrak, J. A., A Survey of Out-of-School Rural Youth in Iowa, Committee on
Education, Iowa State Planning Board, Des Moines, Iowa, 1935, p. 10.
11 Thurow, Mildred B., Interests, Activities, and Problems of Rural Young Folk:
I. Women 15 to !9 Years of Age, Bulletin 617, Cornell University Agricultural
Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y., December 1934, p. 38.
11 Brundage, A. J. and Wilson, M. C., Situations, Problems, and Interests of
Unmarried Rural Young People 16-25 Years of Age, Extern,ion Service Circular
239, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., April 1936, p. 25.
H Frayser, Mary E., The Play and RecreaJion of Children and Youlh in Selected
Rural ArealJ of South Carolina, op. cit., p. 54.
11 Punke, Harold H., "Leisure-Time Attitudes and Activities of High-School
Students," School and Society, Vol. 43, 1936, p. 887; Kirkpatrick, E. L. and Boynton, Agnes M., op. cit., p. 9; and Dennis, W. V., OrganizaJ,ions Affecting Farm
Youth in Locust Township, Columbia County, Bulletin 265, Pennsylvania State
College Agricultural Experiment Station, State College, Pa., June 1931, p. 38.
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76 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
in New York State, however, where the greatest need for organizations is among the village and nonfarm married young people. ui
Except for the church and Sunday school, organizations in rural
areas have succeeded in attracting a relatively small percentage of
those eligible for membership 17 and have often failed to meet the
needs of those who did become members. One survey states that 56
percent of the young men and 46 percent of the young women who
were not married did not belong to any organization, while 62 percent of the young men and 54 percent of the young women who were
married indicated that they received no benefits from organizations.
The young men and women out of school indicated in much larger
proportion than those in school that they received no benefits from
the organizations of which they were members. 18 One writer makes
the statement in regard to a rural section of Pennsylvania that the
young people "participated to a very limited extent in the organizational life of the community. The clubs, lodges, and other organizations set up by the community either were not attempting to attract
the youth, or their purposes and programs were not of sufficient
interest to young people." 19
Scattered surveys report the membership of specific organizations._
One-fourth of all the unmarried young people interviewed in Connecticut were members of the Grange. 20 Less than 2 percent of the
young men were members of other farm organizations and less than
1 percent of the young women belonged to a home demonstration
group. There are, however, no comparable data for married young
people of the same age in the same locality. Communities in Iowa
varied widely in the percentage of out-of-school youth belonging to
organized groups, the extremes being IO and 35 percent. Outside of
18 Anderson, W. A., Rural Youth: Activities, Interests, and Problems, I. Married
Young .Men and Women, 15 to 29 Years of Age, Bulletin 649, Cornell University
Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y., May 1936, p. 47.
17 Garnett, W. E. and Seymour, Aja Clee, Membership Relations in Community
Organizations, Bulletin 287, Virgi11ia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va., June 1932, p. 22. See also Kirkpatrick, E. L., "Forgotten Farmers,"
Rural America, Vol. XI, May 1933; and Frayser, Mary E., The Play and Recreation of Children and Youth in Selected Rural Areas of South Carolina, op. cit.,
pp. 25-26 and 65--66.
18 Anderson, W. A., Rural Youth: Activities, Interests, and Problems, I I. Un-married Young Men and Women, 15 to 29 Years of Age, Bulletin 661, Cornell
University Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y., January 1937, pp. 27
and 29, and Rural Youth: Activities, Interests, and Problems, I. Married Young
l\len and Women, 15 to 29 Years of Age, op. cit., p. 38. See also Sones, Ellwood,
A Study of 100 Boys and Girls in Centre County, Pennsylvania, Master's thesis,
Pe11nsylvania State College, State College, Pa., 1933.
19 Dennis, W. V., Social Activities of the Families in the Unionville District,
Chester County, Pennsylvania, Bulletin 286, Pennsylvania State College Agricultural
Experiment Station, State College, Pa., April 1933, p. 21.
20 Brundage, A. J. and Wilson, M. C., op. cit., p. 26.
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LEISURE TIME • 77
religious organizations (other than church and Sunday school) which
claimed about 6 percent of the total, 4-H Clubs had slightly more
than 4 percent, lodges had more than 2 percent, and Future Farmers
of America. and women's clubs each had a little more than 1 percent
of the total in their memberships. Only 23 percent of the total surveyed belonged to any organized group. 21 There is no indication in
any of these studies whether the various types of organizations were
available to all of the youth surveyed.
It is possible that youth a.re being reached in equal proportions with
other groups since the factors bringing change to rural areas a.re influencing the whole of the rural population as well as the youth. A recent
study in Connecticut shows that "There has been a movement toward
the abandonment, the realignment, and the centralization of many
rural social, economic, and professional agencies, and much of this
movement has been cityward." 22 The attractions of rural institutions
may be a.bout as great for youth as for the older population. On
Muscatine Island in Iowa, for example, the few young people on the
Island attended Island organization meetings in much the same proportion as did the older people. 23
In Wisconsin the extension program in community activities, including drama, discussion, music, and recreation, was analyzed to find
what age groups were furnishing the leadership. This survey comprised a sample of 383 of the 1,500 volunteer local and county leaders
of all ages working on all of the various phases of this project. The
age group furnishing the greatest proportion of leaders was assumed
also to be providing the greatest proportion of participants. It was
found that a.bout 50 percent of the drama leaders and about 31 percent
of the discussion leaders were in the 15 to 30 age group. This is significant when we find that only about 25 percent of the rural-farm
population and 22 percent of the rural-nonfarm population in Wisconsin fall in this 15 to 30 age class. These figures indicate that this
kind of program as a whole in Wisconsin is reaching youth 15 to 30
years of age more extensively than it reaches any other corresponding
age group. 24
Youth's participation in social organizations apparently depends to
a large extent on two factors: economic status and educational attainment. In Pennsylvania it was found that the children of farm owners
21 Starrak, J. A., op. cit., p. 11.
n Hypes, J. L., Social Participation in a Rural New England Town, Teachers
College, Columbia University, New York City, 1927, p. 1.
n Wakeley, Ray E. and Losey, J. Edwin, R"ral Organizations and Land Utilization on Muscatine Island: A Stitely of Social Adjustments, Bulletin 352, Iowa
Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa, December 1936, p. 103.
u Wileden, A. F.," 'Neglected' Youth-What About Them?'' Rural America,
Vol. XII, May 1934, p. 10.
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78 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION A'ND PROSPECTS
had more varied and more extensive social activities than the children
of farm tenants and laborers. The latter had very little share in the
organized social life of the community.• Although data on the relationship of education to social participation are not available for
youth separately, it is likely that the relationship is the same as for
groups composed of all ages. In Illinois it was found that the participation of farm people in community activities was directly related to
the extent of their formal schooling. While 90 percent of the high
school graduates took an active part in the organizations of which they
were members, only 60 percent of those with less than an eighth grade
education were active members. Voluntary organizations, such 88 the
church, farm and home bureau, 4-H Clubs, cooperatives, social clubs,
and lodges, drew their support chiefly from the most stable members
of the community, farm owners who stayed on the same farm over a
long period of years and who had at least some high school education.•
In certain selected rural areas of South Carolina there appeared to
be a more or less close relationship between educational attainment
and economic status and the types and uses of leisure. The disparity
was especially marked between Negroes and whites. 27 Even the
church does not serve all occupational groups equally. According to
conclusions drawn from one Virginia study, farm and labor groups
"either do not care to participate in church activities as much 88 other
groups or [they] do not have the advantage of as much or as efficient
church service as do other occupational groups."• A survey of the
community participation of a relatively immobile group of hired farm
laborers in 11 selected counties yielded the conclusion that they did
not participate in organizations to any appreciable extent but that
they did take some part in the social and informal community life, such
as visiting, motion pictures, religious meetings, and shopping trips.•
In Arkansas it was found that age and automobile ownership had
more effect upon the participation of farm people at religious, social,
and recreational events than any other factors tested. "When other
things were equal, youth and automobiles each multiplied attendance
by three. If age and automobile ownership had been the same in each
tenure class, there would have been no significant differences between
the attendance of farm owners, tenants, and laborers. As it was, however, farm owners attended 2.5 times as often as laborers and 1.4
16 Dennis, W. V., op. cit., p. 22.
See also Lindstrom, D. E., Forcu Affecting
ParticipatiOfl of Farm People in Rural Organization, Bulletin 423, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, Ill., May 1936, pp. 103 and 110.
:ie Ibid., pp. 110 and 125.
17 Frayser, Mary E., The Use of LeisureinSelectedRuralAreaaofBoulAOrolina,
op. cit., pp. 76-80.
• Hamilton, C. Horace and Garnett, W. E., op. cit., p. 97.
n Vasey, Tom and Folsom, Josiah C., Survey of Agricultural Labor Conditions,
U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Farm Security Administration and the Bureau
of Agricultural Economics, Washington, D. C., 1937.
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. LEISURE TIME • 79
times as often as tenants;" 80 In one section the highest attendance
rate at religious, social, and recreational events was found among
members ot farm owners' families under 25 years of age with automobiles, and the lowest rate was among members of farm laborers'
families under 25 years of age without automobiles. 31 Thus, social
stratification may play a major role in detennining the recreational
opportunities of rural youth.
Organizational life for youth is particularly limited in poor land
areas, such as the Blue Ridge, Cumberland, and Allegheny Plateaus,"
and in other parts of the South.31 In some of these communities the
only social contacts are those obtained at church gatherings and
funerals and through informal house-to-house visits. In one community it was deemed inadvisable to have social gatherings of young
people because of the drinking of the young men. 34 In many sections
of the country youth are passing into maturity after having had little
influence exerted upon them by the regularly established institutions
and organizations of rural life.
The foregoing discussion very largely applies k, the social anq recreational participation of farm youth. Limited data suggest that conditions vary so widely in the rural-nonfarm population that specific
generalizations may be me.de only about particular groups. Thus, in
agricultural villages youth who are in high school on the whole engage
in numerous social and recreational activities both within and without
the school. Those out of school, however, show a very low degree of
social participation in comparison with those in school. 86 There seems
to be a decided drop in the participation of youth in social and recreational activities when their school careers close.
Among the youth of part-time farming families, who may be
considered rural-nonfarm from some points of view, a fairly high
., McCormick, T. C., Rural Social Organization in tha Riu Area, Bulletin No.
296, Arkan888 Agricultural Experiment Stlrtion, Fayetteville, Ark., December
1933, pp. 37-38. See also McCormick, T. C., Rural Social Organization in Waahington County, Arkanaaa, Bulletin No. 285, Arkan888 Agricultural Experiment
Station, Fayetteville, Ark., May 1933, pp. 37-40, and Rural Social Organization in
South--Ctr1tral Arkanaaa, Bulletin No. 313, Arkan888 Agricultural Experiment
Station, Fayetteville, Ark., December 1934, pp. 29-34.
1 1 McCormick, T. C., Rural Social Organization in South--Central Arkansa.,, op.
cit., p. 34.
11 Garnett, W. E., in Economic and Social Problem, and Conditions of the
SoutMTn Appalachian.a, Miscellaneous Publication No. 205, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Wuhington, D. C., January 1935, p. 164.
11 Raper, Arthur F., Preface to Peasantry, Chapel Hill: Univeniity of North
Carolina Press, 1936, chs. XVIII, XIX, and XX. See also McCormick, T. C.,
Farm Standard, of Living in Faulkner County, Arkanaa.,, Bulletin No. 279, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Fayetteville, Ark., October 1932, pp. 9-11. •
16 Garnett, W. E., in Economic and Social Problems and Condiiiona of the SoutMTn
Appalachi'ana, op. cit., p. 164.
11 Melvin, Bruce L. and Smith, Elna N., op. cit.
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80 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
proportion of young people participate in such social activities as are
available. In a study of part-time farming in the Southeast it was
found that young people's organizations, for example, were available
to 83 percent of the part-time farms with 40 percent of the families
having one or more members participating in such organizations.
This percent of participation was higher than for nonfarming industrial families studied in the same area, about two-fifths of whom
were living in towns, villages, or the open country. Young people's
organizations were available to 88 percent of the families but participated in by one or more members of only 24 percent of the families.:ie
INFORMAL LEISURE-TIME ACTIVITIES OF RURAL YOUTH
Outside of the church and other organizations found to a greater or
less extent in rural territory, there is quite a gamut of activities that
may absorb the leisure time of young people. These range from
organized group recreation, such as athletic teams promoted by some
local agency or by youth themselves, parties, and picnics, to individual
activities, such as swimming, reading, and attendance at motion
pictures, public dance halls, and roadhouses.
The literature presents a very confusing picture of the leisuretime pursuits of young people the country over outside of organizations. At one extreme is the statement for one section of the South:
"The majority of both races find nothing to do but to sit idly around,
tramp off to their neighbors, or while away the time at the store.
Their houses are unattractive and their minds unstimulated." 87
At the other extreme is the situation among the unmarried rural
youth in five Connecticut townships where the young people enjoyed
social activities of a diversified character.88 Attendance at movies
was reported by 93 percent of this group with an average of 28 times
a year. Three-fourths of the young women reported attending dances
and averaged 22 dances a year, and two-thirds of the young men
attended dances on an average of 26 times a year. Between these
two situations lie all degrees of extent of recreational activities.
In Ohio the 10 most widespread activities reported were reading,
attending shows, automobile riding, playing cards, attending parties,
playing basketball, friendly visiting, listening to the radio, attending
picnics, and swimming.39
ao Allen, R. H., Cottrell, L. S., Jr., Troxell, W. W., Herring, Harriet L., and
Edwards, A. D., Part-Time Farming in the Southeast, Research Monograph IX,
Division of Social Research, \\'orks Progress Administration, Washington, D. C.,
1937, p. 67.
17 Raper, Arthur F., op. cit., p. 401.
18 Brundage, A. J. and Wilson, M. C., op. cit., pp. 25-28.
19 Lively, C. E. and Miller, L. J., op. cit., p. 15.
See also Kirkpatrick, E. L.
and Boynton, Agnes M., op. cit., pp. 7-8; Gessner, Amy A., op. cit., pp. 5-7;
and Anderson, W. A., Rural Youth: Activities, Interests, and Problems, JI.
married Young Men and Women, 15 to 29 Years of Age, op. cit., pp. 20--23.
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LEISURE TIME • 81
Recreation within the home is still of great importance. In
Taylor County, Wis., where 90 percent of the young people indicated
that their recreational needs were inadequately met, "Almost twothirds of these boys and girls found some recreation in their homes
• • •. Homes of friends were also important agencies of recreation providing for about 45 percent of the boys and girls. The
movie theater is fourth in importance as an agency of recreation." 40
One important form of recreation in the home is reading but the
extent to which this is indulged in varies from locality to locality.
Comparable studies made in Illinois and Georgia indicate that the
high school youth of Illinois spent more time reading than did the
youth of Georgia. while the reverse was true of attendance at athletic
games.u Reading is, however, almost always high on the list of leisuretime activities, 42 although the type of reading matter ranges from
newspapers and magazines of varying caliber to books, mostly fiction. 48
Both the amount and the type of reading on the part of young people
are probably largely determined by the availability of a library to any
given group. That rural people are on the whole seriously handicapped by lack of library service has been long recognized by the
American Library Association. In 1935 it was said that 37 percent
of the Nation's population-slightly more than 45,000,000 people-were still without library service. Of these 88 percent lived in the
open country or in villages of less than 2,500 population. Moreover,
the 40,000,000 rural people who lived outside library service areas
formed 74 percent of the total rural population. There are still more
than a thousand counties in the United States without a single library
within their boundaries. 44
Surveys in individual States yield the same contrast in library
service to rural and urban people. In South Carolina 39.6 percent
of the population lived in library areas in 1930-31. But whereas 94
percent of the urban residents of the State had some kind of book
service, only 25 percent of the rural people were so favored. '5 In
Missouri almost 95 percent of the rural population receive no service
from public libraries, while more than 95 percent of the urban population of the State have such service. 46
Gessner, Amy A., op. cit., p. 5.
Funke, Harold H., op. cit., p. 885.
41 Gessner, Amy A., op. cit., p. 6.
41 Anderson, W. A., Rural Youth: Activities, Interests, and Problems, II. Unmarried Young Men and Women, 15 to 29 Years of Age, op. cit., pp. 24-26.
44 "Contrasts in Library Service," Bulletin of the American Library Association,
Vol. 29, 1935, p. 249.
46 Frayser, Mary E., The Libraries of Sou!h Carolina, Bulletin 292, South
Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson, S. C., October 1933, pp. 7-8.
46 Morgan, E. L. and Sneed, Melvin W., The Libraries of Missouri, A Survey
of Facilities, Research Bulletin 236, MiBBouri Agricultural Experiment Station,
Columbia, Mo., April 1936, p. 15.
40
41
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82 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
In recent years the emergency agencies have done a great deal t.o
help equalize library service. Under the Works Progress Administration about 2,500 free libraries have been established where such
services had either been discontinued or had never existed, and 2,000
traveling libraries are providing services for about half a million
persons in sparsely settled rural areas, especially in Arkansas, Ohio,
Virginia, Georgia, and Texas.'7 In this work the National Youth
Administration has had an important part."
The American Library Association indicates that at present there
are about 300 tax-supported, county-wide library systems serving the
people in the open country and in villages. There are also a number
of experiments under way in service to areas larger than a city or
county. In the last 2 years State aid for rural library development
has been an important factor in building up this service.
One study shows that the leisure-time activities engaged in by both
young men and young women are predominantly of the indoor passive
type, such as reading, card playing, checkers, chess, and other games,
and listening to the radio, but the young men stated that they would
prefer to engage in more outdoor activities.'9 Another study also
indicates a wish to shift from the more common activities to other
activities for which opportunities are often largely lacking, such as
t'3nnis, swimming, boating, golf, and camping.60 This lack in rural
areas has been poignantly described as follows: "What I have seen
has frequently saddened and distressed me. In some places the
country lacks cultural privileges today quite as much as it did a century ago, and the young men and women of farming districts must
look to the cities for whatever of social life and amusement and entertainment it is their fortune to purchase. As long as this is the case
we cannot make a well balanced race of agriculturalists; we cannot
make of country life a life worth living." 61 That lack of opportunities
for wholesome recreation is particularly acute in the poor land areas,
where there is a "surplus" of youth, is a matter of common observation.
There is a more hopeful side, however. In the 1936 report of the
Youth Section of the American Country Life Association the young
people stated that "Wiser use of leisure, including recreational programs, activities and facilities seems to be an outstanding need in the
47 Division of Research, Statistics, and Records, Report on Progru, of the Worb
Program, June 1937, Works Progress Administration, Washington, D. C., p. 61.
48
National Youth Administration, Facing the Problem, of Youth, Washington,
D. C., December 1936, pp. 27-28.
49 Anderson, W. A., Rural Youth: Activitiea, lntereata, and Problems, II. Unmarried Young Men and Women, 15 to 1!9 Years of Age, op. cit., p. 36.
80 Hubbard, Frank W., "Today's Youth Problems," The Journal of the National
Education Association, Vol. 25, 1936, p. 21.
11 Beattie, Jessie Louise, "Recreation Experiments in Rural Communities,"
Recreati<m, Vol. XXIX, 1936, p. 537.
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Bringing Books to Rural Youth.
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LEISURE TIME• 83
local community • • •." 62 This group recommended the development of various forms of group recreation already carried on
successfully in different communities, such as softball leagues; drama
and music festivals; folk games and songs; development of art appreciation; hobbies, such as marionettes, metalcraft, and weaving; and
discussion and other educational meetings. 68 In some instances the
depression has caused rural people, especially youth, to use their
initiative in developing recreational activities at home. 64 "With the
depression has come almost universally a home talent, home-grown
social and recreational life the like of which we have not seen for
decades. A little checking up indicates that this program is manned
and participated in largely by young people themselves." 86
While the lack of adequate facilities or programs for wholesome
recreation is no doubt partially due to the lack of financial resources
in an area, it is not infrequently due to the lack of awareness in communities of the recreational needs of youth. It is often assumed
that youth will adopt the practices of adults. The fact that the
young people have not accepted the adult patterns of recreation and
use of l(lisure time does not seem to have discouraged community
leaders in adhering to this belief. The recreational interests of young
people need to be studied as a problem in community organization,
and an effort should be made to find ways and means of interesting
them in activities that at least will not be harmful.• This would
apply with equal force to communities that have been overrun with
cheap commercial types of recreation and to communities where
drunkenness and disorder accompany such social activities as are
attempted. 67
CRIME AND DELINQUENCY IN RURAL AREAS
Urban studies of youth have revealed that the key to the problems
of many young people lies in the use they make of their leisure hours. 118
n Education for Living in the Rural Community, National Conference, Student
Section, American Country Life Association, Kalamazoo, Mich., August 10-13,
1936, p. 2.
• Ibid., p. 5.
N The part that the social and recreational program sponsored by the Works
ProgreBB Administration has played in meeting the needs of rural youth during
the depression is discussed briefly in ch. VI.
66 Wileden, A. F., "What Kind of Rural Life Have Young People Reason to
Expect in the United States?" speech at Ninth National 4-H Club Camp,
Washington, D. C., June 13, 1935, p. 4.
141 Hoffer, C. R., "Youth as an Object of Sociological Study," Sociology and
Social Reaearch, Vol. XX, 1936, p. 420.
67 Gooch, Wilbur I. and Keller, Franklin J., "Breathitt County in the Southern
Appalachians," Occupations, Vol. XIV, 1936, pp. 1011-1110.
68 Thrasher, Frederio M., The Gang, 2d ed., Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1936, p. 79.
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84 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
It has also been found that the wholesome use of leisure time plays
an important role in preventing crime and delinquency. There is
no reason to believe that this relationship is any less effective in rural
than in urban areas.
The frequency of youthful crime is appalling. J. Edgar Hoover
says "Persons who are little more than children form one-fifth of our
most dangerous heritage. It appears inconceivable; yet it is a stark
fact that our misguided boys and girls are thieving, robbing, holding
up banks and stores, and shooting down employees, proprietors and
the police who attempt to capture them." 69 In 1934 the United
States Census Bureau gathered information from 116 State and
Federal prisons, reformatories, and camps and found that 20 percent
of the total commitments were under 21 years of age.eo From 1932
through 1934 thenumberof youth 19 yeo.rsof agearrestedoutnumbered
any other age group, but in the last half of 1935 youth 21-23 years of
age constituted the largest number. The single age group having the
largest number of arrests during 1936 and the first quarter of 1937
was the 22-year-olds. 61
Crimes of youth were on the increase during the early part of the
depression. According to one statement the number of youth below
21 sent to reformatories and prisons was 11 percent greater in 1930
than in 1929, and for those 21 to 24 years of age the increase was more
than 15 percent. 62 The survey of youthful crime in Breathitt County,
Ky., confirms the fact of an increase for that particular section of
mountainous territory. 63
Table 24 seems to show that youthful crime measured by the munber of young people received by Federal and State prisons and reformatories from the courts increased through 1931 but that thereafter there was a consistent decline for all ages until 1935 when those
20 years of age and 21-24 years of age showed a slight increase.
While these figures do not by any means meo.sure the extent of criminality among youth,64 they are useful in indicating the trend.
A number of attempts have been made in the past to discover
whether or not there was any relation between crime and economic
conditions. These studies and the few studies on the depression of
Speech at a Boys' Club dinner, Chicago, Ill., November 9, 1936.
Johnston, James A., "The First Line of Defense," School and Society, Vol. 44,
1936, p. 43.
81
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reporl$, U. S. Department of Justice, Washington, D. C., Second Quarterly Bulletin, 1936, pp. 82-83,
and First Quarterly Bulletin, 1937, p. 39.
u Office of Education, Vocational Education and Changing Conditiom, Bulletin
No. 174, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C., 1934, p. 82.
ea Gooch, Wilbur I. and Keller, Franklin J., op. cit., p. 1052.
"Sballoo, J.P.," Youth and Crime," Annals of ihe American Academy of Political
and Social Science, Vol. 194, November 1937, p. 81.
11
80
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LEISURE TIME • 85
the early thirties were recently sum.marized. 86 The conclusion drawn
was that on the whole there appears to be little correlation between
crime and economic conditions.
Difference of opinion exists in regard to the prevalence of crime
among youth in rural territory. One authority believes that conditions in rural areas are more serious than statistics would indicate. ee
Attorney General Lutz of Indiana asserts that "there is more
crime in proportion in the country than in the city; that arch
criminals learn their first lessons of crime in the country, for instance,
John Dillinger • • •." 87 On the other hand, studies in five
institutions located in California, Michigan, New Jersey, Ohio, and
New York, exclusive of New York City, indicate that crime in rural
communities is not as great as in urban centers. 88
Ta61e H.---Prisonen 15 Through 24 Years of Age Received From Courts by Federal and
State Prisons and Reformatories, 1929-1935
Rate per 100,000 population of same age 1
Age
19211
1930
1931
1932
IQ33
1934
1935
------ --- --- --- ---
16-17 years ____________________ _
18 years •. ____________ . _____ •.•.
19 years ____________________ ....
:IO years ________________ ---- -- ..
44.8
146.4
180.1
166. 8
46.1
15-1.1
194. 5
187. 7
49. 3
164. 5
207.8
210.2
41.0
150. 5
1119.3
183.9
37. 9
138. 0
174. 0
170.7
1311.6
168. 2
165.0
37.9
130.0
165.9
165. 7
16-20 years_. __ • _____ ••. __ ..••..
21-:U yea,s ____________________ _
103.9
152. 8
111. 5
171. 2
120.9
193. 6
108.6
UH. 7
98. 7
167. 0
96. 3
155.8
95. 5
159. 2
39. 4
Calculations based on population July 1, of each succe&slve year estimated by the Bureau of the Census.
Source: Bureau of the Census, Pri•ontra in Stau and Fedtral Pri.aana and R,formatoriea, U. 8. Department
of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 19:111-1935.
1
The types of crime most prevalent in urban and rural areas appear
to differ significantly. Of the rural arrests reported for the first
quarter of 1937, 10.5 percent were offenses against the person (homicide, rape, aggravated assault) but only 4.2 percent of urban crimes
were of this type. 69 It is well to remember, however, that rural areas
are not policed as adequately as the more populous areas; hence only
the most serious crimes are brought to justice. These would most
·likely be offenses against the person. In cities the proportionate
66 Sellin, Thursten, Research Memorandum on Crime in the Depression, Bulletin
27, New York: Social Science Rescorch Council, 1937, ch. III.
18 Letter from L. J. Carr, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, l\lich., l\Iay 6,
1936.
17 Lutz, Philip, Jr., "Cooperation in Curbing Crime on Indiana Farms," radio
address, February 13, 1936. Obtained from Attorney Genera.I's Office, Indiana.polis, Ind. See also Thompson, Dave, "Fa.rm Stealing Must Stop!" The
Prairie Farmer (Indiana edition), Vol. 108, February 29, 1936, pp. 1-2.
18 Bowler, Alida C. and Bloodgood, Ruth S., /n.~titutional Treatment of Delinquent Boys, Bureau Publication No. 230, U. S. Department of Labor, Children's
Bureau, 1936, Pa.rt 2, p. 35.
09 Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Report,,, op. cit., First Quarterly Bulletin, 1937, p. 14.
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86 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SJTUATION AND PROSPECTS
percentage is decreased by the greater frequency of other types of
cnmes.
Generalizations from much of the statistical de.ta. are extremely
questionable because of variations in legal practice. A study conducted
near Nashville, Tenn., in an agricultural county containing a small
town shows that most of the juvenile cases up to a. certain degree of
seriousness had been settled by the judge and the families involved
and not even a record was kept unless a commitment was made.
But when psychiatrists and social workers were brought in they made
the local leader conscious that there was a youthful crime problem.70
Furthermore, definitions of crimes are inconsistent. In a west Tennessee county chicken stealing is a crime but drawing a knife on
another person is not. Thus deliquency is largely a. function of the
cultural pattern of a community.71
When this is recognized, as well as the fact that much of the crime
in rural sections, as in urban, may be explicable in terms of underprivilege, obviously the major methods of attack will be through
education and personal and vocational guide.nee. This was perceived by the workers on the Child Welfare Survey of Missouri 71 who
repeatedly pointed out that youth and children in particular rural
counties were in need of supervision and guide.nee because of behavior
problems.
Surveys of youthful crime in rural territory indicate that the solution lies largely in providing better economic opportunities, guidance
for living, and provisions for wholesome social expression of maturing personalities through participation in organizations and through
satisfying recreation. Furthermore, conditions of rural living outside the areas that are strongly e.ffected by urban influences seem to
provide values that are the anti thesis of crime. 73 A recognized method
of combating youthful crime whether in rural areas or city centers is
the provision of wholesome social and recreational life.
'° Reckless, Walter C., "Juvenile Delinquency and Behavior Patterning," Procudinga, Second Biennial Meeting, Society for Reaearch in Child Developmmt,.
National Research Council, Washington, D. C., October 31, 1936.
n Ibid.
n Child Welfare Survey conducted by the Civil Works Administration in 1934
in a number of rural counties in Missouri.
n Mann, A. R., "Some Foundations for a Philosophy of Country Life," Rural
America, Vol. X, June 1932, pp. 8-11; and Baker, 0. E., Farming a., a LijtJ Work,
Extension Service Circular 224, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C., October 1935, p. 6.
·
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Chapter VI
MEETING THE PROBLEMS OF RURAL YOUTH
VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS are expanding and adjusting their
programs to aid in solving the problems of rural youth. The most
important agency in rural society whose function has been, and still is,
to prepare youth to make their adjustments into adult life is the public
school. The school, like other agencies, has been expanding ita program. Since chapter III is devoted to a discussion of the problems of
education with emphasis on the public schools, however, attention is
focused in this chapter on the special activities of agencies directed
primarily toward meeting the needs of out-of-school young people. 1
These agencies, both governmental and nongovernmental, are performing valuable service in pointing out new paths to follow in assisting
youth to meet the many problems with which they are confronted in
the present-day world.
The major concern of this chapter is not with the number and proportion of rural youth being reached by the various agencies but rather
with the type of work that is being promoted. Furthermore, activities
designed to help rural youth have been studied with specific attention
to the fact that the complex situation confronting rural youth is not a
phenomenon of the depression of the early thirties alone and that
remedial measures must be designed to meet the long-time situation.
GOVERNMENTAL AGENQES
Both old and newly established governmental agencies are taking
special cognizance of the problems of out-of-school rural youth and
have developed constructive programs to meet some phases of their
problems. Probably more than 7,000,000 young men and women,
1
The U. 8. Offioe of Education in cooperation with the States fulfills an impor-
tant function in teaching vocational education in the Smith-Hughes high schools
(eee ch. III). The·organization, Future Farmers of America, is also discuSBed in
chapter III since membership is restricted to boys who are or have been enrolled
in vocational agricultural courses in federally-aided high schools.
87
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88 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
16 through 24 years of age, living in rural territory, are out of school.I
Youth in school are occupied and, on the whole, may be said to be
adjusted. With leaving school, either through graduation or by
dropping out, there comes the anxious period of striving to find a
place in the economic world. At least two regular agencies-the
Cooperative Extension Service of the United States Department of
Agriculture and of the State colleges of agriculture and the federallyaided high schools with regular courses in vocational agriculture-and
three emergency agencies-the Civilian Conservation Corps, the
National Youth Administration, and the Education Division of the
Works Progress Administration-have performed special educational
functions for out-of-school youth during the depression as well as
providing their regular programs of work. The Office of Education
in the Department of the Interior has done much to promote the cause
of education for this group.
Education is not the only channel, however, through which services
are available to rural youth to help them meet their problems of adjustment and development. The Works Progress Administration, the
Agricultural Adjustment Administration, and the Resettlement Administration have been playing important roles in this respect but in
such a way that it is very difficult to differentiate the particular benefits accruing to youth from those received by the general population ..
The United States Employment Service attempts to finds jobs for
youth as well as for their elders. The Farm Credit Administration
bas tried to help youth in a financial way. All of these agencies
have been accumulating experience along various lines that should be
of great value in formulating future policies and programs.
Cooperative Extension Service
The Cooperative Extension ·Service of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the State colleges of agriculture promotes its
work for youth through the 4-H Club program and through organizations for young adults. The membership of the 4-H Club begins with
boys and girls 10 years of age and includes about 1,000,000 young
people below 21 years of age. Only 20 percent of the total membership is composed of youth 16 years of age and over,3 and apparently
there is no tendency for the proportion in this age group to increase.•
1 According to the 1930 Census (Population Vol. II, pp. 1184-1185) 22.6 percent
of the rural youth 16-24 years of age were in school. Applying this percentage,
even though it is conservative, to the estimated number of rural youth in 1935
(table 9) yields more than 2,000,000 of the almost 10,000,000 rural youth in school.
• Calculated from figures for 1935 provided through the courtesy of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Office of the Cooperative Extension Service, Washington, D. C.
• Joy, Barnard D., Statistical Analysis of Trends in 4-H Club Work, With Special
Reference to 1935, Extension Service Circular 247, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., August 1936, p. 16.
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Ext e n sio n Se rv ice,
U.S . LJe11ar t1u e11t u/
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oj ec t.
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS • 89
Furthermore, an analysis of the 4-H Club members 16-20 years of
age shows that the out-of-school youth are not being reached proportionally since more than two-thirds of the members of this age are in
school while only approximately one-third of the rural young people
16-20 years of age are in school.6
The 4-H Club work is organized primarily for boys and girls whose
families make their living from agriculture 0 and largely fails to reach the
nonfarm segment of the youth population. Moreover, if the situation
in Illinois is typical, it draws its members primarily from the homes
having the greater economic and social advantages/ thus not serving
the lower income groups. Apparently, difficulty has been encountered
in developing a program of 4-H Club work which appeals to youth
above the sixteenth year except to those in positions of leadership. 8
The failure of the 4-H Club program to hold rural youth in the
upper age group has caused the extension service to promote a program outside the 4-H Clubs especially designed to appeal to this age.
The work thus far is largely in the experimental stage. The principal
lines of activity have been the promotion of better farming and the
development of leadership in educational and cultural guidance and in
recreational activities.11 In 1935 there were more than 1,800 older
youth groups with an enrollment of nearly 45,000. 10 By 1936 the
number of groups had increased to approximately 2,000 with a total
enrollment of 51,000. 11
These clubs are widely scattered, and the total enrollment in any
one State is not large. In only 2 States, Illinois and Arkansas, was
the membership more than 4,000 in 1936 (table 25). In some States
the groups have arisen spontaneously while in others they have been
foster~d by the State extension service. It is encouraging to see
that this work is being carried forward in the States with large areas
of submarginal land as well as in those in which fertile farming areas
predominate.
17.
e Harris, T. L., Four-H Club Work in Weat Virginia, Bulletin 241, West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Morgantown, W. Va., April 1931, p. 15.
7 Lindstrom, D. E. and Dawson, W. M., 'Selectivity of J,-H Club Work: An
Analysis of Factors Influencing Membership, Bulletin 426, Illinois Agricultural
Experiment Station, Urbana, Ill., August 1936, p. 255; and Duthie, Mary Eva,
4-H Club Work in the Life of Rural Youth, Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wis., 1935, p. 95.
8 Wileden, A. F., " 'Neglected' Youth-What About Them?" Rural America,
Vol. XII, May 1934, pp. 10-11.
11 Statement by Graham, A. B., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative
Extension Service, Washington, D. C.
10 Wilson, M. C., Statistical Results of Cooperative Extension Work, 1935, Extension Service Circular 244, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.,
June 1936, p. 7.
11 Calculated from reports in the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the
Cooperative Extension Service, Washington, D. C.
a Ibid., p.
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90 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Talile 25.-Young People Reached b.Y. the Cooperative Extension Service of the United
States Department of Agriculture Through the Older Young People's Program, by
Geographic Division and State, 1936
Geographic dlvlalon and State
United States_.·-· ... ·-···---·---·-·--·--------·New England ______ ·--······· ·-···-···-··-·-------·--·Maine .. _... ··-·--· ... -··--··-· ·--·----------·-·-·
New IIampshJre. __ ._ ... ---···--···-·-··-·-·-----·.
Vermont ___ .. ---- ... _--- __ --- __ . __ .. __ . _. ____ . -·. __
Massachusetts ___ .. _-····--···---··--··---··--·-·-Rhode Island __ .-·· .. ·--· .. ________ ···---------··-Connecticut ___ . ·-·· ..... -- · ·---·. ·---·---------·-Middle Atlantic---··· ... -· ... ··---··---·------------ ·New York ___ .......... ·---·---···-- ... --·-----·--·
New1erllt'Y---···--··----·-·--·-····---·---·------Eaai/:.°o~ih1c~~l:'n,i : ::: :: :: :: : . :::::: ::: : :: :: :: ::::::::
Ohio.•-·-------··-··-···-·-·-·---····-···----··---·
Indiana_.·----- .. __ ... __ .... --- .. ·- _. ___________ . __
Iliinols .. -------··--·-···· ·-··----···--·-------·---·
Michigan_.------·-----··. __ . --··.--------------·-Wisconsin ___ .... _______ ..... __ --- ... __ .. - ---- .. ___ .
West North Central.. _______ .··-··---·.·-··-----------·
Minnesota_----··-·-··--- .... ··---···--·--·---· ....
lowa·--·-------··--···---·--·---··-·-·---·------·--
Missourl_ .. ____ .... ·-·---··----·-·· ··-- ·----------North Dakota... _._ .... ·-·-----··-·--------·-----·South Dakota_ ......... --·.·---·····-·-·-·--------Nebraska_ ---· .. ·-- ·-· --· .... ·-----·-----·----···-.
Kansas. ______ . - .. -- .... -- . -... - . --- ... - . --- .. -- . --South Atlantic __ .... ·--· ... ·--·--···----···----·----·-Delaware ___ ... ___ --- ... ·-- ...... ---- .. -- --- . --- . - .
~~:':~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
West Virginia .... ··---· .... ·---··--·---·----·-·-·-·
North Carolina._.-·.---···-··---·-··. ___ .·----·--·
South Carolina__ .... ··-------· .. --·--· -· _____ ·---Oeor~la _____________ . __ .. _. _. ___ .. _______ .. _____ ·-Florida ________ ----· .. --- ... --· _. _. __ . _-- ___ --- __ --·
EBBtKentucky.
South Central_._
.. -······.··-··-··-·-·---·-··---·
_______ ...
_·--. ____ .·--· __ ... _________ . __
Number of memben
Number of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
1
groups
Young
organized
Young
Total
men
women
1, ll81
50,733
-----3,083
71
108
452
1,043
755
3
20
14
II
4
19
81
39
14
28
309
62
66
92
27
62
185
35
40
24
41
3
10
32
571
3
88
1137
2, 108
1,268
238
602
13,990
3,530
2,401
6,029
90
751
1,256
1,920
1,790
600
3,894
1169
92
71
11611
4,607
43
356
285
954
762
233
1,732
142
2,110
467
642
1118
395
1171
116G
1,008
267
2, 162
427
204
798
242
90fi
226
258
93.1
109
2
5
7
103
193
I
165
841
517
12
329
32
308
4,363
2,520
14
42
.
606
ll80
2,651
447
756
415
1,033
4,010
2,604
Pacific_. ________ ......... -- --- ---- --- -· -- . -- . - ----- ---Washington._. __ .. ----.----_-----._. ____ . --- . -----Oregon ........ ·-·-·--·.·- ... ·-·-· .. ·-·.--·------·-California ............ __ .. --···--·-· ........ ____ ·-·.
6
3
6
53
285
908
491
136
281
6,649
1,7M
1,211
3,037
4,761
914
1,398
613
1,836
8,373
5,124
446
1,704
1,099
1,508
268
9
422
292
ArkansBB-·-----··
... · -· ·-· ...
··--·--·.
·-Louisiana
_______ ._·-.·---____-·. ·---·
______·-·
.·-·
_______ ·-.
Oklahoma___ ·--········--·-·--···-------··------··Texss _______ .. _.... -.. ---··---··-·------·---------·
Mountain. _____ ...... ___ .. ____ .... ---··_ .. ________ .. __ _
Montana _____ .. __ ... _._.----- --- .. __ --- _. __ . ·---- __
Idaho.·--- .... _... ___ .. -· .. __ -·--- ....... ··--. ____ _
Wyomlng_ ..... -.. •··---·-----···----------------·Colorado. ___ .. ---·· ·- .... ··---···--·-·-------··---New Mexico--··---··--··-··------·--·-·----------Arltona ________ ·--- __ ... _·- _. --- . _·-- ... --------· __
Utah.·-------·---··---····-···---·---·-··---·-·--·Nevada_. ----· .. ·- __________ . -· ___ . _____ ; .. _______ _
119
567
404
3,022
542
932
30ft
807
63
00
492
6,263
47
26
9
32
ll8
74
232
476
333
35
352
1,200
777
102
321
7,341
l,!125
l, 190
2,1192
444
46
west1~~r~~~i.iiiC: :::::: :: :: ::::::::: ::::: :: ::::::
34
890
2, 791
244
63
1,633
~
736
26
119
407
26,203
1,4W
1,294
5,813
1,148
1,912
614
772
146
161
1,061
JO, 770
65
87
91
40
203
116
Tennessee ________ ·--- ... ·----- -- ... ·- - . --- . ·- -- ---Alabama _________ ._._ ... __ .. ____ .... _______ ·-------
24,630
68
43
69
581
33
803
571
68
117
11
32
18
211
41
370
14g
6
868
7
111'7
10
64
123
132
23
311
70
Source: U. S. Department nf Agriculture, Office of the Cooperative Exterudon Service, Division of
Extension Studies, Washington, D. C.
There is at the present time a. committee known as the Older Rural
Youth Committee of the Extension Section of the Land-Grant College
Association whose duty it is to promote the orga.niza.tion of such
groups. It is the policy of this committee to "help young people ro
analyze their own problems and to formulate their own programs."
In accordance with this position the committee recently made the
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS • 91
following suggestions to the several States: 11
"(l) At present, our primary interest should be with young men
and women who are out of school, at home on farms, and
are not yet married, or are not farming on their own
account.
(2) The Director of Extension should appoint a college older
rural youth committee.
(3) At each college, two persons, one representing agriculture
and the other home economics, should be designated by
the Director as leaders for the program on older rural
youth.
(4) A few demonstration counties should be selected in each State
in which to institute this program.
(5) When there are less than 25 interested youth members in a
county, a county organization should be formulated.
When the number grows sufficiently to warrant them,
local units may be formed.
(6) Each unit of young persons should have its own officers,
counselors, and leaders.
(7) Two other organizations are needed: (a) a county council of
officers of the local units of young people; (b) a county
committee of counselors and leaders and the extension
agents.
(8) Additional studies of the interests, activities, and problems
of the young people should be made." 13
The diversity of approach in the various States is well characterized by the situation in the Northeastern States where "Some States
are concentrating on honor clubs or outstanding 4-H members;
others are broadening the :field to include all farm youth, regardless
of 4-H experience; and others are opening the :field up to all rural
youth. In some cases the young men organize separately from the
young women, although provision is usually made for bringing the
two groups together. Again, the approach occasionally has been
along father-and-son lines." 14
A few examples of the interests of these older youth groups will
suffice to illustrate further the scope of the programs being promo~d.
In Illinois, for more than 2 years, these youth groups have been holding forum discussions on present-day problems. The development of
11 From the report of the committee presented by L. R. Simons, Chairman, at
the meeting of the Land-Grant College Association, Washington, D. C., November 17, 1937.
DJbid.
H Kendall, J. C., "Integration of Extension Programs in Order to Present a
Continuing Program Through 4--H Clubs, Old!'r Youth Groups, Young Married
Groups, and Adult Organizations," paper read at the Land-Grant College Association, Washington, D. C., November 17, 1937.
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92 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
the programs has been largely in the hands of the young people
themselves with the Extension Service offering advice and suggestions for the conduct of the meetings. In Indiana. a sma.11 group has
been studying methods of agricultural cooperation. In Montana. the
programs consist of four phases: economic and social improvement;
general education, largely through the medium of group discussion;
social and recreational programs for both the clubs and the community; and special community .service. 16 The young people of
Missouri have held institutes dealing with farm problems. During
the winter of 1933-34 instruction in typewriting, farm and home record
keeping, and amateur dramatics was given in the South Dakota
clubs. ui Dramatics have a prominent place in many of the young
people's groups. 17 In the Utopia Clubs of Kentucky emphasis has
been given to such projects as landscaping, farm accounts, clothing
budgets, poultry, and other subjects, following the pattern of the
4-H Clubs. 18 Study groups also make up the bulk of the activity of
the group in St. Louis County, Mo., where the members meet one
night each week to study dramatics, chorus work, orchestra, English,
and public speaking under instruction secured from the AdultEducation Service of the State. But social hours are also indulged
in after the regular business meetings are concluded. 19
Of particular promise is the direction being taken by an Iowa. club.
In September 1937 some of the members of the Boone County Rural
Young People's Club were hosts to a group of representatives of the
Boone Junior Chamber of Commerce from the county seat, Boone,
a town of 12,000 inhabitants and the only one of any size in the entire
county, at a meeting called for the purpose of discussing plans for
cooperative community activities. A joint rural-urban committee
was appointed to arrange the details of a plan of action. 20
At least three States-Iowa, Kansas, and Missouri-maintain a.
regular service at the State college of agriculture for sending out
material to assist youth in the development of programs. Fourteen
States have a person attached to the extension staff of the State
college of agriculture whose particular duty it is to promote these
15 Extension Service, Organization and Programs for Farm Young People,
Extension Service Circular 229, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C., December 1935, p. 19.
11 Ibid., p. 27.
17 For a statement concerning the rural arts program of the Extension Service
in the various States, see Patten, Marjorie, The Arla Workshop of Rural America,
New York: Columbia University Press, 1937. This book does not refer specifically to older youth groups but surveys the general program which benefits young
and old alike.
18 Extension Service, Organization and Programs/or Farm Young People, op. cit., p. 9.
19 Ibid., p. 18.
so Rural Youth Section, Over the State With Rural Youth Organizatiom, Extension Service, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, October 1937, p. 6.
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS • 93
older youth groups. In some cases this person is attached to the 4-H
Club office, and in other cases he reports to the director of the extension service in the State.
Office of Education and the Federally-aided High Schools
The federally-aided high schools with courses in vocational agriculture have for many years promoted part-time and evening classes
in agricultural education. This work has been greatly expanded during and since the depression of the early thirties. 21 This program of
work was designed to assist those who were out of school and unable
to find employment by giving training which would equip them for
work when the opportunity came. 22
In some cases the plans called for informal instruction in agriculture, agricultural shopwork, and community activities. One of the
most comprehensive State-wide programs of this kind was set up in
Louisiana for fa.rm boys 14-25 years of age without regard to previous
schooling. 23 The purpose was threefold: to assist boys to establish
themselves as farmers on a satisfactory basis; to assist those interested
in related work, such as farm shop, blacksmithing, sirup making, etc.;
and to provide training for participation in home and community
improvement. An individual program was worked out for each boy.
In Ohio there were, in 1935, 167 part-time classes in vocational
agriculture for out-of-school boys 16-25 years of age. The Ohio plan
has been followed successfully for some years. 24 It begins with
"finding surveys" to get in touch with out-of-school farm youth.
These surveys are followed by home surveys of needs and resources
which form the basis for planning what phase of instruction is to be
taken up in the group meeting once a week. The instruct\on pf'riod
is followed by a period of recreational activities. The completion of
the unit course of instruction frequently leads to the formation of a
Young Farmers Association, thus giving continuity to the program
from year to year.
Part-time classes for out-of_-school young men in Catchings, Miss., z
combine vocational agricultural training with individual business pro11 Vocational Division, Digest of Annual Reports of State Board.a for Vocational
Education to the Office of Education, Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1935, U. 8.
Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Data
for 1936 show a slight decrease in enrollment in part-time and evening classes in
vocational agriculture.
22 Swaneon, H.B., Youth .•• Education for Those Out of School, Bulletin 1936,
No. 18-111, U. 8. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Washington,
D.C.,p.1.
21 Ibid., p. 59.
14 Ibid., p. 58.
15 Waller, T. M., "Things Done With Out-of-School Boys in Catchings School
District," Mississippi Vocational News, Vol. XVI, No. 12, 1935, p. 3.
840111°-38-8
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94 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
grams designed to establish the youth in farming. Trades related to
agriculture are also taught.
The horizon of activity of the public schools is being expanded
more and more to include the out-of-school group. This tendency
shows itself in the increasing emphasis on nursery schools and kindergartens and on the subject of parent education, both of which are
particularly helpful to young parents. The development of these two
phases in rural territory has, as usual, lagged behind the cities.
While programs for part-time training of young people who have
either dropped out of school or been graduated have most frequently
emphasized the vocational motive, some progress has been made in
orienting part-time education toward other important objectives,
such as good citizenship, improved home membership, and worthy
use of leisure time. In the vanguard of this movement has been the
Office of Education of the Department of the Interior, which in addition to its usual services to the field of education, has pioneered in
conservation education, radio, and public forums.2G Ea.ch of these
fields needs further development in rural territory.
National Youth Administration
The N a.tiorial Youth Administration came into existence on June 26,
1935. It has four major objectives: 27
"(l) To provide funds for the part-time employment of needy
school, college, and graduate students between 16 and 25
years of age so that they can continue their education.
(2) To provide funds for the part-time empfoyment on work
projects of young persons, chiefly from relief families, between 18 and 25 years of age, the projects being designed
not only to provide valuable work experience but to benefit
youth generally and the communities in which they live.
(3) To encourage the establishment of job training, counseling,
and placement services for youth.
(4) To encourage the development and extension of constructive
leisure-time activities."
---Annual Report of the Secretary of the
Interior, For the Fiscal Year Ending
See pamphlets prepared by
the Committee on Youth Problems which functioned in the U.S. Department of
the Interior, Office of Education, from the fall of 1934 to the spring of 1936.
The Committee's activity was made possible by a grant from the General Education Board. The pamphlets are: Youth ••• How Communities Can Help,
Bulletin 1936, No. 18-1; Glover, Katherine, Youth ••• Leisure fur Living,
Bulletin 1936, No. 18-11; Swanson, H. B., Youth ••• Education fur ThoM
Out of School, Bulletin 1936, No. 18-111; Kitson, Harry D., Youth ••• Vocational Guidance/or Those Out of School, Bulletin 1936, No. 18-IV; Harley, D. L.,
Youth ••• Finding Jobs, Bulletin 1936, No. 18-V; and Jessen, Carl A. and
Hutchins, H. Clifton, Youth •.• Community Surveys, Bulletin 1936, No. ll~VI.
17 National Youth Administration, Facing the Problems of Youth, Washington,
D. C., December 1936, p. 8.
30
June SO, 1937, Washington, D. C., pp. 262-263.
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS• 95
Although the National Youth Administration was established
primarily to assist youth of relief status, in its operation it has helped
many others. This discussion therefore is oriented toward the broader
rather than the restricted service 28 that this organization has rendered through the several phases of its program. The work has been
accomplished largely through State organizations, the National Office
and National Advisory Committee functioning primarily as coordinating and advisory units. The program operates in each State with
the advice of a State Advisory Committee.
Student aid is extended on a work basis to youth who cannot attend
school without financial assistance. Local school authorities select
the youth and supervise the work for which the students are paid. A
total of 404,700 secondary school, college, and graduate students were
being helped in April 1936, the peak month of that year. 211 Of this
number 275,500 were in high school, but there is no way to determine
accurately how many of these were rural youth.
The peak month during the following year was also April when the
total number receiving student aid reached almost 444,000. 30 The
next year the number of students receiving student aid was cut onethird, chiefly because of the reduction in funds made available to the
National Youth Administration.
The wages paid have been for "Clerical and office work; library,
museum, and laboratory assistance; the conducting of forums, adult
education classes, and other civic ventures; special research; grounds
and building maintenance • • *." 81 The youth going to high
school may receive no more than $6 a month. The maximum that
may be paid in any one month to a student receiving college aid is $20,
while those in graduate schools may not earn in excess of $40 in any
one month. 32 The pay hag been low but it has enabled thousands of
youth who were close to the poverty line to continue their education.
An analysis of the NYA student aid quotas for 1936-37 indicates
that rural youth may be receiving more than their proportionate share
of this type of assistance. About 18 percent of the total was allocated
to counties having no incorporated place with more than 2,500
population. According to the 1930 Census only 13 percent of the
18 See Melvin, Bruce L., Rural Youth on Relief, Research Monograph XI,
Division of Social Research, Works Progress Administration, Washington, D. C.,
1937, ch. VI, for a discussion of the National Youth Administration as an agency
for meeting the needs of youth in rural relief families.
at A small number of grade school pupils were included who were 16 years of age
and over.
ao Division of Research, Statistics, and Records, Report on Progress of the
Worka PrO(ITam, December 1987, Works Progress Administration, Washington,
D.C.,p.64.
11 National Youth Administration, Facing the Problems of Youth, op. cit., p. 14.
12 National Youth Administration, School Aid 1987-1988, Bulletin 9, p. 4, and
College and GTaduate Aid 1937-1988, Bulletin 10, p. 5, Washington, D. C., 1937.
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96 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
total population of the country lived in these counties. Another 23
percent was allocated to counties having incorporated places with
populations of from 2,500 to 10,000. These counties contained 21
percent of the country's population.33
This apparent advantage of rural youth 34 may reflect the disadvantages in educational opportunity which rural youth face and which
the National Youth Administration, despite certain handicaps, is helping to overcome. The regulations for giving student aid do not limit
the expenditures to youth on relief. This is one of the few emergency
activities that was not restricted to the relief group and can thus contribute to the solution of the larger problem of making up the deficit
in education among the youth of all underprivileged rural groups.
In 1937 a new educational program for out-of-school young people
was initiated by the National Youth Administration in cooperation
with the Department of Agriculture and various agricultural schools
and colleges. This is a Nation-wide resident training project
which is making it possible for boys and girls from low income
fa.rm families to spend from 6 weeks to 6 months at the State agricultural colleges, working for their subsistence while taking courses in
agriculture and home economics. The students are selected with the
assistance of the local county agents and vocational agricultural
instructors. By October 3,300 students from families receiving some
form of public relief were attending 40 schools in 10 States. 36
Approximately half of each student's time is devoted to work on
projects established in connection with the schools. These consist of
various forms of construction work about the school property, such as
the construction of workshops and cooperative dormitories, maintenance of demonstration plots and plant nurseries, work in the barns and
dairies, assistance to farm and home demonstration agents, and similar
tasks. Students eam a monthly sum not exceeding one-half of the
Works Progress Administration security wage prevailing in the region
but sufficient to cover their expenses for room, board, medical ca.re,
and equipment. In addition, they earn from $5 to $10 each month
with which to meet personal needs. The monthly payments per
student range from $18 to $28, depending on the locality. 84 To reduce
costs to a minimum the students cooperate ip doing most of the work
in connection with their living arrangements, even raising a considerable portion of the food in some instances.
13 Melvin, Bruce L., op. cit.
There is so little difference between the percent
of the population 15 through 24 years of age and of the total population living in
these residence groups that separate calculation of the total youth by residence
was unnecessary.
14 It is not known how many youth in the second group of counties were rural.
11 Division of Research, Statistics, and Records, Report on Progresa of the Work,
Program, December 1937, op. cit., p. 67.
11 Office of the Director of the National Youth Administration, Washington,
D.C.
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Nl'A Trains Prospective Farmers.
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1\' ork .• Progress Acl111i11ist1·a ti on .
YA Gardenin g Project.
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS • 97
Because many of the students selected have had less than a high
school education, the bulk of the training is given through demonstration methods in such fields as farm practices, soil conservation, soil
chemistry, dairying, poultry raising, crop diversification, and care of
farm equipment. Girls are trained with a view to instilling certain
standards of home maintenance and are instructed in personal hygiene,
cooking, marketing, home gardening, and food preservation. The
course of study is reduced to as practical terms as possible, and
methods of instruction are informal.
The NYA has also established many youth training centers designed
to provide inexperienced youth with a knowledge of and training in
occupations found in their home communities. These centers are
widely scattered over the United States; the extent to which rural
youth are reached depends on the location of a particular project.
The setup at Passamaquoddy Village, Maine, affords an excellent
example of the methods and objectives followed.
The first year of the Passamaquoddy experiment ended on October 30,
1937. Each of 225 young men had been provided work experience
for 5 to 6 weeks on 3 different types of jobs. Among the score or more
types of occupational experience provided were painting, electrical
work, carpentry, plumbing, steam fitting, and automotive work.
Besides being given the chance to acquire occupational experience,
these youth were also afforded an opportunity to acquire sound work
habits. Supplementing the industrial training were classes in mathematics, science, and English closely associated with their work
activities. 37
The work projects of the National Youth Administration are confined to out-of-school youth who have. been certified as eligible for
employment on the Works Program and who have registered with the
United States Employment Service. An analysis of the distribution of
work among 2,120 counties in the United States in January 1937
showed that 18 percent of the youth employed on work projects were
in counties having no incorporated place with over 2,500 population
although only about 13 percent of the total population of the United
States live in the 1,400 counties belonging to this class. The counties
that have incorporated places of 2,500 to 10,000 population had about
16 percent of the employment although this group of counties has
21 percent of the total population of the country. 38
The work projects upon which youth are engaged are reliit~d in so
far as possible to the training, skills, and aptitudes of the individuals.
The development of skills is perhaps one of the most important
11
Brown, Richard R., "NYA Uses Quoddy in Education Test,"
New York
Times, October 24, 1937.
18 Melvin, Bruce L., op. cit., ch. VI.
This chapter calls attention to the obstacles
encountered in the operation of the National Youth Administration program in
rural areas.
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98 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
phases of this work since almost 50 percent of those working on the
projects of the National Youth Administration have had no previous
work experience. An analysis of the work being done in the latter
part of 1936 by 180,703 youth on work projects showed that 24 percent
were assigned to recreation and community service projects, 10 percent
to construction projects where skills in trades, such as carpentering and
bricklaying, were taught, and 14 percent to public service projects.
Other projects provided activities in sewing, domestic science, guide
service, agriculture, land development, and highway beautification.
The last three types were in operation especially in rural areas. The
average pay per month for all youth employment on work projects
was $15.46, the range being from $10.44 per month in Kentucky to
$21.28 in Califomia. 39 Since then the average monthly earnings have
been a little higher, fluctuating between $16 and $17.'°
The all time peak in employment on NYA work projects was in
April 1937 when more than 192,000 youth were employed. The munher fluctuated between 180,000 and 190,000 during the first 5 months
of 1937, after which the number steadily declined. Several factors
combined to bring about this decline. Funds for the operation of the
program were reduced somewhat. The effect of this curtailment was
not as serious as it might have been, however, since at the same time
there was a temporary increase in employment opportunities in both
regular and seasonal occupations because of the temporary improvement in economic conditions.
Another analysis was made of the type of experience being obtained
by these youth during the first part of October 1937. Unfortunately
the categories used are not identical with those used in 1936, which
makes comparison difficult. This analysis shows that 30 percent were
employed on professional and clerical projects among which clerical
projects predominated. Goods projects occupied more than 16 percent of the youth (10.8 percent working on sewing projects and 5.6
percent on workshop projects). About 13 percent of the youth worked
on the development of recreational facilities and almost 12 percent
were recreational leaders in parks and play centers. Public buildings
jobs occupied more than 10 percent of the youth. Other construction
activities (highway, road, and street projects and conservation projects) were less important. At that time there were about 123,000
young men and women employed. 41
How many of these youth were rural is not known. If the same percentage applied in October 1937 as applied roughly to an analysis of
NYA employment in June 1936, then slightly more than one-fifth were
&9 National Youth Administration, Administrative and Program Operation of tht
National Youth Administration, June !!!6, 1935-January 1, 1937, Washington,
D. C., pp. 6 and 32.
411 Division of Research, Statistics, and Records, Report on Progreaa of the Worka
Program, December 1937, op. cit., p. 66.
n Ibid., pp. 65-66.
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS • 99
rural young people.42 Included among these would be the youth from
farms who participated in the resident training projects previously
mentioned. 43 How many additional farm youth were employed on
other types of projects is not known. The resident training projects
were developed particularly for farm youth. There was a definite
need for this type of training program for out-of-school young people
who were forced to remain in rural areas. The usual type of work
projects was difficult to operate in many rural areas where the young
people who are eligible for employment by the NYA often live scattered
over wide areas, thus making the cost of transportation and supervision prohibitive. These educational projects cannot entirely take
the place of regular work projects for needy farm young people since
the maximum cash income on the resident vocational training projects
is $5 per month.
The National Youth Administration may be reaching a larger
percentage of the rural-nonfarm than of the rural-farm youth. This
is of particular importance since youth in industrial villages as
well as their elders have been among the most intense sufferers during
the depression. Furthermore, since youth are probably among those
having the least opportunity to receive special training for a vocation, the NYA program of uniting work and training is a distinct
service to a much neglected group. Its functions, however, might
well be extended to others than those certified as eligible for employment under the Works Program.
The Junior Placement Service of the National Youth Administration operates in conjunction with 65 offices of the United States
Employment Service in as many cities where junior placement counselors concentrate on placing youth in jobs. Efforts are made to
place the youth in positions for which they are adapted." Through
these offices and others of the Federal and State employment services
youth are being aided in finding jobs, but the proportion of those
placed who are rural residents cannot as yet be determined.
Unfortunately for niral youth these counselors are usually located
in cities with the result that their efforts are necessarily confined to
job opportunities in the cities. Hence this service can be taken advantage of by rural young people only when they come into the city.
Moreover, the fundamental need for the migration of some youth
from rural areas of limited resources, though recognized in the abstract, has not been incorporated into the policy of the Junior Placement Service. It has been felt that rural young people coming into
42 Melvin, Bruce L., op. cit., p. 51.
u Seep. 96.
"Division of Research, Statistics, and Records, Report on Progress of the Works
Program, December 1987, op. cit., p. 68. See also Hearings Before the Subcommittee
of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representa!ivelf, in Charge of Deficiency
Appropriatiom, 75th Cong., 1st sess., January 13, 1937, pp. 56--57.
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100 • RURAL YOUTH: THBR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
the cities in any considerable number would jeopardize the opportunities of the excess unemployed youth already in the cities, and the
chances for success or security of the rural youth migrants would be
restricted by the competition of the unemployed urban youth.
Vocational guidance is an important function being performed by
the National Youth Administration to assist youth-especially outof-school youth-to make occupational adjustments. The guidance
consists largely of giving information about various fields of work,
training required, pay and promotional possibilities, and relative
availability of jobs. This work is usually promoted by cooperation
with sponsors of work projects, individual guidance bureaus, and
other agencies that advise youth on occupational opportunities. In
many States special bulletins on occupations and occupational opportunities have been prepared. This service operates in practically
every State in one form or another and in varying degrees of extensiveness."
Apprentice training has also been promoted by the National Youth
Administration through the Federal Committee on Apprentice
Training. While this should contribute Efbmewhat to broadening
employment opportunities for young people, its chief purpose is to
set up standards to safeguard those entering the skilled trades. This
work was made a permanent function of the Department of Labor by
a congressional act signed August 16, 1937.40 Since industry is located
chiefly in urban centers, the bulk of the apprentices will naturally be
drawn from urban youth. The proportion of the apprentices in the
Nation's industrial establishments which comes from the farms and
small towns is not known. A realistic approach to the problems of
the "surplus" of youth in some regions ' 7 would involve more intensive
exploration of the possibility of extending opportunities for apprenticeships to rural young people.
It must be remembered, however, that the term apprentice is being
defined in a very restricted sense ,s and that those occupations which
either have or could have apprentices in this restricted sense include
probably little more than 10 percent of the gainfully employed persons in the United States. The apprenticeship system does not,
46 National Youth Administration, Report on the Placement and Guidance Program, Washington, D. C., February 1938.
•• Public, No. 308, 75th Cong., 1st sess.
t1 See ch. I.
tB Special Release No. 3, U. S. Department of Labor, Federal Committee on
Apprentice Training, March 1938, defines the term to mean "A person at leui
16 years of age who is covered by a written agreement with an employer, and
approved by the State Apprenticeship Council or other established authority,
which apprentice agreement provides for not less than 4,000 hours of reasonably
continuous employment for such person, for his participation in an approved
schedule of work experience through employment and for at least 144 hours per
year of related supplemental instruction."
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MEETING THE' 'Pff0BltM!i ·• i01
therefore, safeguard the training period-varying from a few weeks
to a few months or a year or two-of the other thousands of young
people who must enter the labor market every year with no assurance
of advance or ultimate security. Rural youth are more likely to be
found engaged in occupations other than those protected by apprenticeship, if indeed they are fortunate enough to obtain employment at
anything but unskilled labor.
During 1936-37 the National Youth Administration experimented
with setting up educational work camps for young women. 4g This
phase of the program was discontinued after a year's trial, chiefly
because of the high per capita cost of maintenance. 60
(MIian Conservation Corps
The Civilian Conservation Corps, initiated in 1933, was created
originally "for the purpose of relieving the acute condition of widespread distress and unemployment * * * and in order to provide for the restoration of the country's depleted natural resources
and the advancement of an orderly program of useful public works
* * *." 61 Though t4e original act did not contain any provision
as to the ages of the men to be employed, executive and administrative action in the early days of operation determined that the emergency conservation work should be primarily a young man's program. 62
The types of jobs performed by the youth in the CCC camps fall into
10 general classifications: 63 (1) structural improvements (including
bridges, fire towers, service buildings, etc.); (2) transportation improvements (including truck trails, minor roads, airplane landing
fields, etc.); (3) erosion control (including check dams, terracing,
terrace outletting, vegetative covering, etc.); (4) flood control, irrigation, and drainage (including dams, channel work, ditching, riprap,
etc.); (5) forest culture (including planting of trees, stand improvement, nursery work, seed collection); (6) forest protection (including
fire fighting, fire prevention, and presuppression, pest and disease
control, etc.); (7) landscape and recreation (including public campand picnic-ground development, lake- and pond-site clearing, landscaping, etc.); (8) range (including stock driveways, elimination of
predatory animals, etc.); (9) wild life (including stream improvement,
stocking fish, emergency wild life feeding, food and cover planting,
" Melvin, Bruce L., op. cit,, ch. VI.
IIO Office of the Director of the National Youth Administration, Washington,
D. C. This program was an outgrowth of the camp program for women begun
under the Federal Emergency Relief Administration in 1934. The emphasis in
the earlier camps was on workers' education, whereas in the NY A camps the
emphasis was on work projects.
11 Public, No. 5, 73d Cong.
11 World War veterans were also enrolled.
11 Annual Report of the Director of Emergency Conservation Work, Fiacal Year
Ending June SO, 19f, Washington, D. C., p. 4.
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102 • RU~Al ·YbUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
etc.); (10) miscellaneous (including emergency work, surveys, mosquito control, etc.).
In the Act of June 28, 1937, extending the lifo of the Civilian Conservation Corps 3 more years, the additional purpose of providing
general educational and vocational training was written into the act.
By the end of 1937, 1,800,000 unemployed, unmarried young men from
17 through 28 years of age had been enrolled in the camps.64 The
regular period of enrollment is 6 months although many youth have
had two or more periods. The new act limits the enrollment to 2
years 66 but specifies that enrollment need not be continuous. The
peak in the number of men in the camps was reached in August 1935
when there were 427,300 enrolled juniors,66 that is, unemployed single
men 17 through 28 years of age. The camps were established principally for the benefit of this age group. Since July 1, 1937, the
enrolled strength of the Corps may not exceed 300,000 at any one time,
of which not more than 30,000 may be World War veterans. 67
In September 1935 the age limit for enrollment was reduced from
18 to 17 years. This caused a considerable increase in applications
since a great many youth 17 years of age dre out of school and unemployed. The bulk of the enrollment is composed of young men
under 21 years of age. During the year prior to April 1937, 75
percent of the enrollees had not reached their twenty-first birthday.
Well over one-half of the juniors selected during that year were 17
or 18 years of age. 68
It is probable that 50 percent of all junior enrollees who have
passed through the CCC camps have come from rural territory.68
This would mean that by January 1, 1938, about 900,000 young men
from low income or relief families in rural areas had spent varying
periods of time in a camp. This is a substantial proportion of the
M Information from Office of the Director of Emergency Conservation Work,
Washington, D. C. See also Persons, W. Frank, "Selecting 1,800,000 Young Men
for the C. C. C.," Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 46, 1938, pp. 846--851.
61 The length of the service to be counted from July 1, 1937, the effective date
of the act.
IO Annual Report of the Director of Emergency Conservation Work, Fiscal Year
Ending June SO, 1936, op. cit., p. 2; and Melvin, Bruce L., op. cit., pp. 96-97.
11 See Section 7 of the Act of June 28, 1937, which provided for additional
Indian enrollees as well as territorial and insular possession enrollees. These
had also been enrolled since the beginning of the Civilian Conservation Corps.
11 Fourth Anniversary Report to the President, Director of Emergency Conservation Work, Washington, D. C., April 5, 1937, p. IO. Evidence of the need of
17- and 18-year olds for the type of training and experience available in CCC
camps continues to be borne out by later enrollments. See CCC Office, Quarterly
Selection Rep<m, Covering the January 1938 Enrollment of the Civilian COff8eTIIIJtion Corps, prepared by the U.S. Department of Labor, March 4, 1938, pp. 2-3.
1t Information from Office of the Director of Emergency Conservation Work,
Washington, D. C.
•
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS• 103
more than 2,000,000 rural youth who have been on relief rolls since
1933 when the Federal Government first began dealing officially
with the problem of destitution. 90 The percentage of youth in the
camps from rural territory has steadily increased since early in the
history of emergency conservation work. Whereas in the beginning
the bulk of the enrollment came from the cities, by January 1937
rural youth made up 54.7 percent 61 of the total enrollment. By
that time, therefore, the young people from rural areas were in the
camps in numbers disproportionate to the percentage they constituted of the total youth population. In 1930, according to the
census, the proportion of all youth who were rural was 43.9 percent
and in 1935, according to estimates, it was approximately 48 percent.62
In January 1937, when an analysis was made of the place of origin
of the youth then in the camps, the Civilian Conservation Corps
had an enrollment of 350,350. Seventy-five percent, or 262,760,
were from the open country or from centers with less than 25,000
population. Of these 191,494 were rural, but of this rural group only
a little over one-third, 35.9 percent, were from farms. The others,
approximately two-thirmi (64.1 percent), were rural-nonfarm youth.
This indicates that the Civilian Conservation Corps is reaching a
much greater relative proportion of rural-nonfarm youth than farm
youth. Furthermore, if the number of rural-nonfarm youth is added
to the number of youth in centers from 2,500 to 25,000 population, it
is found that this group constitutes 55 percent of all enrollees.63
Thus, more than one-half of the enrollees at the time of the survey
came from 35 percent of the total population.M
At least two hypotheses may be offered for this situation. One is
that the publicity about the Civilian Conservation Corps may not
reach the open country youth as it does the youth of the villages
and towns; the other is that poverty-stricken families from the open
country have been going to the county seats as well as to other towns
and small cities because they could no longer subsist on the farms or
could not get farms to operate and that the youth from these families
constituted a large proportion of those who went to the CCC camps
from places of this size.
The January survey of the enrollees in the camps previously
referred to revealed the fact that the Negro enrollees remained in the
camps for much longer periods of time than the white boys. Whereas
Melvin, Bruce L., op. cit., ch. VII.
Annual Report of the Director of Emergency Conservation Work, Fiscal Year
Ending June 90, 1937, Washington, D. C., p. 35.
112 See ch. I, tables 1 and 8, and appendix table 2.
ea Calculations made from data contained in Annual Report of the Director of
Emergency Conservation Work, Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1937, op. cit., p. 34.
" Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, Population
Vol. II, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1933.
60
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104 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
the median period of enrollment was 8.9, 9.9, and 9.6 months, respectively, for white enrollees classified according to place of origin as
rural, small city, and large city, the corresponding percentages for
Negro enrollees were 16.2, 15.8, and 11.5 months.86 The holding
power of the Corps for Negro youth, most of whom come from the
rural South, may be indicative of the fact that opportunities for
Negroes in their home communities were exceedingly restricted and
that in many cases subsistence was not even available at home. As a
result many Negroes re-enrolled two or more times.
It is not unlikely that the same type of factor operating in a different
way may have played a part in swelling the number of rural-nonfarm
enrollees in the camps at the time of the survey. When the average
white farm boy left the camps, he returned at lee.st to subsistence
on the home farm if he did not have remunerative employment awaiting him. after his discharge, whereas the village boy returning to his
family without prospect of employment became an extra. drain on
the family's financial resources. Hence, the village boy might elect
to re-enroll in a greater number of cases than the farm boy. By
January 1937 this process of re-enrollment on the part of the nonfa.rm
youth may have meant that there were at that time a considerable
number of long-term nonfarm enrollees augmenting the number of
new enrollees from nonfarm residences that came into the Corps at
each succeeding enrollment period.
The statute under which the Civilian Conservation Corps operated
during the first 2 years of its existence did not contain specific language
restricting enrollment to men of relief status. In practice, however,
enrollment was limited primarily to persons in this category since there
were more than enough of them to fill up the Corps. Beginning in
April 1935 a relief requirement for the selection of enrollees was in
force until June 30, 1937. The Act of June 28, 1937,statesthat "The
enrollees in the Corps • • • shall be unmarried male citizens of
the United States between theagesofseventeenand twenty-threeyears,
both inclusive, and shall at the time of enrollment be unemployed and in
need of employment." Doing away with thereliefrestrictions has made
it possible for the youth in economically marginal families to take
advantage of the work and training provided by the Civilian Conservation Corps though the great bulk of enrollees still comes from
families which are receiving some form of public assistance or are
eligible for such assistance.
The words unemployed and in need of employment are not defined in
the act. By administrative action priorities have been established
M The median length of enrollment of juniors in all of the camps at the time of
the survey was 9.7 months. The median for the total in each of the three categories-rural, small city, large city-did not vary appreciably from this figure.
Information from Office of the Director of Emergency Conservation Work,
Washington, D. C.
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS • 105
which attempt to give a preferred selection status in the Corps to
youth from families below the normal or average standard of living
in their home communities. The determination of what constitutes a
normal or average standard of living is the responsibility of the local
selection agents who, because of their familiarity with local conditions,
are the best judges of which boys should be given the opportunity of
the camp experience.
Since the new act went into effect there has been a steadily increasing pressure for enrollment in the Corps. By the time of the October
1937 enrollment there were many more youth wishing to enroll than
were needed to fill the approximately 130,000 vacancies. This was
the third largest number of vacancies in the history of the Corps and
was followed in January by one of the smallest enrollments in the
history of the Corps at which time there were several times as many
young men wishing to go to the camps as could be selected.M This
increased demand for enrollment was undoubtedly a reflection of the
increase in unemployment, the effects of which began to be felt by
October and became increasingly noticeable in the succeeding months.
Many of the young men who enter the camps have never had any
work experience of any kind, and a significant proportion of those who
could claim some experience had not had it in any line or under circumstances that would fit them for steady employment in the future.
It is apparent, therefore, that the opportunity to obtain worth-while
work experience through Civilian Conservation Corps employment is
doing much to take up the slack of unemployment between leaving
school and securing work. That the need for employment immediately
following a young man's leaving school is widespread in economically
marginal families is accepted. When enrollment was restricted to you th
from families certified for relief, it was found that during 1 year25 percent of the youth selected had had no employment prior to entering
the camp. The importance of a program which helps break the vicious
circle of jobs being unavailable to young persons without experience
and experience dependent upon jobs cannot be overemphasized.
The enrollees are at work on national, State, and private forest
lands, on State and national park lands, on eroded agricultural lands,
on drainage and reclamation projects, and on overgrazed portions of
the public domain. 97 From the enumeration of the major categories
into which the more than 150 types of work undertaken may be liste<l,88
it can readily be seen that the work of the Corps has contributed imee Information on October 1937 enrollment supplied by the U.S. Department of
Labor, CCC Office. See also CCC Office, Quarterly Selection Report, Covering
the January 1938 Enrollment of the Civilian Conservation Corps, op. cit., p. 2.
11 Statement of Robert Fechner, Director, CCC, before the United States Senate
Special Committee to Investigate Unemployment and Relief, March 15, 1938, p. 7.
ea Seep. 101. See also Annual Report of the Director of Emergency Conservation
Work, Fucal Year Ending June 30, 1937, op. cit., pp. 8-9.
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106 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTs
measurably to the conservation of our natural resources at the same
time that it has been a force in disseminating knowledge about conservation methods.
The work experience given the youth through this broad program
is designed to provide instruction in the jobs being performed, such
as auto mechanics, steam shovel operation, concrete construction,
clerical work, surveying, stonemasonry, etc. The thousands of enrollees who participate in this job-training program not only receive
instruction from the foreman while on the job but also attend at least
one class & week dealing with the subject related to their job.•
The educational work is a significant aspect of the service being
rendered youth by the Civilian Conservation Corps. Special vocational training and regular formal schooling are offered. During the
first 4 years of operation approximately 50,000 youth have been
taught to read and write. More than 500,000 enrollees have taken
work in grade school subjects; 400,000 have received high school instruction; and some 50,000 have taken college work. Cultural training is furthered through the promotion of dramatic clubs, circulation
of books, the formation of music groups, and arts and crafts production.70 In these activities the youth are being taught constructive
use of leisure time. The new act specifies "That at least 10 hours
each week may be devoted to general educational and vocational
training" which will make possible a broader development of this
aspect of the camp experience.
Wodcs Propas. Admlnllhatlon
The Works Progress Administration, independent of the National
Youth Administration, has aided youth both directly and indirectly
in its various programs. Most persons employed on WPA projects
are the chief breadwinners of their families. Many young persons
who have such responsibilities have been thus aided through obtaining
employment in this agency. In a few selected States for which accurate ~ata were available (table 26), a tabulation of the age distribution of those employed on all WPA projects showed that persons
16-24 years of age constituted from about 3 to 12 percent. Relatively more young women than young men were employed.
Most of the projects promoted by the Works Progress Administration have been in the field of construction, such as highways, roads
and streets, public buildings, parks and other recreational facilities,
conservation, sewer systems, and airports. 71 In addition projects for
69 Office of Education, Semi-Annual Report of CCC Educational Activitiea(July 1Deccmber 91, 1996), U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C., p. 3.
7° Fourth Anniversary Report to the President, op. cit., p. 18.
71 For a discussion of the work of the Works Progress Administration see Division of Research, Statistics, and Records, Report on Progress of the Works Pr<>gram, June 1987, op. cit.
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W orks Progress Adm i11islrut io11.
CCC Boys Going lo School.
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Study Hour in a South Dakota High School Dormitory.
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS • 107
white-collar workers and in the fields of public health, the arts, education, and recreation have been put into operation. The latter
type of projects probably has been of greatest significance for young
people.
Tobie 26.-Number and Percent That Youth Constituted of All Workers on WPA
Projects in 9 Selected States, November 10, 1937
State
Oeor,,la ··- __________________
Louisiana. ____ •••...•.... ___
Maine.·-·····--·--····---·
Minnesota•.••••••.•.... ____
Oklahoma •••••••..•. _.. ____
O1'1'1(on ..••..••........ ___ - Pennsylvania....•.•. __ . ____
;~1t~·-:~:::::::::::::::
Total
persons
employed
21, 98-4
21,882
3,041
33,631
40,415
10,0f,()
154,781
34,148
1,717
Youth
Number
2,708
2,007
312
2,971
3,471
344
19,409
2,821
172
Female
Male
Percent of
total
Total
12. 3 15. 064
v. 2 17, 794
2,442
10. 3
8.8 Zl, 920
8. 6 33,300
3. 4
8. 080
12.5 133,894
8. 3 29,617
10. 0
1,007
Per•
of
Youth cent
totRI
malea
Total
1,984
1,372
247
2,217
2,947
247
15,002
1,784
75
8,920
4,088
599
5,711
7,025
1,980
~."87
4,5~1
710
13. 2
7. 7
10. 1
7. g
8.8
3. 1
II. 2
6. 0
7. 4
Perof
Youth cent
total
remales
724
635
M
754
524
97
4,407
1,037
97
10.5
15. 5
10. 9
13. 2
7. 6
4.11
21. 1
22.9
13. 7
Soorce: Special tabulation, Division of Social Research, Worko Progress Administration, Washington,
D, 0., February 7, 1938.
The Education Division of the Works Progress Administration, for
example, bas conducted a variety of educational projects, including
the so-called emergency colleges, 72 with the cooperation of the State
boards of education and local educational authorities. At least
4,000,000 adults have availed themselves of the opportunities thus
provided during the past 3 years. 73 Though the program does reach
rural areas, no estimate is available of the relative proportion of the
students in rural and urban localities except for the literacy
classes. 74 Nor is there any estimate of the number of students in
the youth group attending these education classes. It is reasonable
to suppose, however, that a considerable percentflge consists of youth.
One of the most helpful educational phases of the emergency program begun by the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and
continued by the Works Progress Administration and National Youth
Administration in South Dakota is the establishment of the high
school dormitory system. Buildings in a number of small towns and
villages have been equipped as boarding and rooming establishments
where young people from the surrounding rural territory may live
while attending the local high school. This is the result of the joint
efforts of the local school boards and the Government agencies.
Almost 6,000 youth of high school age were being assisted when the
program was at its peak in 1936. 76
72 Swanson, H. B., Youth . . . Education for Those Out of School, op. cit.,
pp. 5-15.
71 " Education Program of Works Progress Administration," .llonthly Labor
Review, Vol. 45, 1937, p. 140.
n See ch. III, p. 49.
75 Information from the Women's Division, Works Progress Administration,
Washington, D. C.
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108 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
A still further contribution of the Works Progress Administration
to the needs of youth is in the recreation field. Not only have many
communities been supplied with physical facilities for wholesome
recreation, such as swimming pools, baseball diamonds, tennis courts,
parks and picnic grounds, and recreation and community centers, but
also great strides have been made in promulgating a philosophy concerning the place of recreation in modem life and in emphasizing the
relation of recreation to community organization and community
vitality. As a result of the recreational program undertaken, many
youth have shared in the training for leadership roles in the recreation
field in particular and in community life in general. In the country
as a whole approximately 20 percent of all persons employed on
recreational projects at that time were young persons under 25 years
of age.
Aside from giving work to youth the recreational program has made
available to all youth, not just those in relief families, recreational
activities that otherwise might never have been developed in many
communities. In an analysis of the recreational work promoted by
the Works Progress Administration in 320 selected counties in the
United States in August 1937 it was found that participation hours of
persons 16 to 24 years of age were approximately 25 percent of the
total hours. 78
Farm Credit Adminlllratlon
The Farm Credit Administration has a definite program for helping
young men to get started in farming, although it is doubtful if its
benefits are sufficiently widespread. Under its supervision about 550
production credit associations have been established in the United
States 77 which have as part of their function lending money to small
groups of boys to finance crop and livestock production. In 1936
approximately 200 groups, including about 2,500 boys, secured money
from this source. The chief requirement for the youth to secure a
loan is that a responsible sponsor have charge. Though the lending
has been confined primarily to groups from 4-H Clubs and Future
Farmers of America, other groups may secure aid. 78
The Farm Credit Administration, through the Federal Land Banks,
has another plan that is being tried out in cooperation with teachers
of vocational agriculture. Promising young students from the classes
in vocational agriculture are given an opportunity to rent a farm
which has come into the hands of the Administration with a view to
accumulating money and buying the farm. As yet there is no wide70 Willia.ms, Aubrey, "Rural Youth and the Government," Rural Sociology,
Vol. 3, 1938, p. 8.
77 The Fourth Annual Report of the Farm Credit Admi11istration, Washington,
D. C., 1936, p. 42.
78 Information from Fa.rm Credit Administration, Washington, D. C.
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS • 109
spread program of this nature, but the undertaking is well along in
the experimental stage. 79
Agricultural Adiustm•nt Administration
The Agricultural Adjustment Administration has initiated constructive measures which a.re assisting youth in an indirect manner. The
provisions of the act which established the original AAA in 1933
"related to the purchasing power of a group of commodities, to the
establishment of a price relation between agricultural and urban
products, and to the economic status of fa.rm producers as a group
80
•
•
•."
The second act, passed to take the place of the original
act invalidated by the Supreme Court and known as the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, has five specified purposes:
preservation of soil fertility, diminution of soil exploitation, promotion
of the economic use of land, protection of rivers and harbors against
the results of soil erosion, and the attainment of parity income for
agriculture.81 This program was not, of course, designed primarily for
youth. It will help thousands of youth by assisting their families
although it cannot solve the problems of other thousands on poor land
nor can it enlarge a fa.rm to make room for two boys when the fa.rm
has only enough acres to require the care of one.
Raatl•m•nt Administration
The Resettlement Administration, now the Farm Security Administration, has promoted a varied program which also has indirectly aided
youth in the families assisted. Two phases of the program-rehabilitation and resettlemen~uld be of special significance for
youth if directed toward helping young people make their adjustment
into farming. The rehabilitation work has consisted largely of making
loans and direct grants to families on the relief level in order to give
them a new start. The work of resettlement proper has consisted in
taking families from poor land areas and resettling them on good
land.113 As a long-time measure it would be more advantageous to
help youth obtain good land when they begin to fa.rm rather than to
rehabilitate or resettle them and their families later.83 In one or two
of the resettlement units the families selected have been chiefly young
71 Pearson, James H., "Progressive Establishment of Young Men in Farming
Occupations," American Vocational Association Journal and News Bulletin,
Vol. XI, 1936, p. 146.
80 Agricultural Adjustment Administration, AgricuUural Adjustment, 193,'I to
1985, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1936, p. 7.
81 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Report of the Secretary of AgricuUure, 1936,
Washington, D. C., p. 11.
81 Resettlement Administration, First Annual Report, Washington, D. C., 1936,
pp. 9-18 and 33-40.
81 See discuBSion of this suggestion in Rainey, Homer P. and Others, How Fare
American Youth1 New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, Inc., 1937, ch. VI.
84015°--38--9
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110 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
couples below 30 years of age. The selection of such families, however, did not constitute a definite policy on the part of the Resettlement Administration.
United States Employment Service
The years since 1933 have seen an enormous development of the
Federal and State machinery for assisting the citizens of the country
to find work. While almost every county in the United States had
some persons registered as seeking work," there are still no data on
how far the service is really able to deal with unemployment in rural
territory in the light of the factors that have been complicating the
employment situation during the last decade.
Though the problem of obtaining employment is serious for the older
workers, the difficulties of the young people appear even more pressing,
according to Employment Service experience.86 Mention has already
been made of the presence of junior counselors in some employment
offices and of their probable effectiveness in dealing with the problems
of unemployment among rural young people. In offices where there
are no junior counselors the young people must take their chances in
competition with older workers.
NONGOVERNMENTAL AGENOES
Nongovernmental agencies serving youth are numerous and variedcharacter building, religious, political, fraternal, civic, cultural, social,
and recreational 86-but it is doubtful that many are penetrating very
far into rural territory. 87 Attention has therefore been directed only
to a few which are designedly working in rural territory an~ definitely
fostering programs for out-of-school rural youth. This is admittedly
an incomplete list. There have been no definite criteria for the
selection of those that have been included. Some are mentioned
because they seem particularly suggestive and promising; others are
discussed because of their timeliness or their extensiveness.
Farm Bureau
The Junior Farm Bureau has recently been formed under the direct
guidance and sponsorship of the American Farm Bureau Federation.
The primary purpose of this developing organization is to supply the
84 In July 1936 the active files of the registrants in 37 States and the District of
Columbia comprised between 9 and 18 percent of the total number gainfully
employed in 1930, and in 6 States more than 18 percent of the total gainfully
employed were registered. U. S. Employment Service. Who Are the Job Seekers1
U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D. C., 1937, pp. 17-18.
8.1 Ibid., p. 41.
Ml Chambers, M. M., "Non-Governmental National Youth-Serving Agencies
and Organizations," School and Society, Vol. 44, 1936, pp. 544-547.
~ DouglafiB, H. Paul, How Shall Country Youth Be Servedt New York: George
H. Doran Company, 1926.
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l VorJ,s Progress A d rn ini sl rCL lion.
At the Employment Office.
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS • 111
need for "social, recreational and educational development of rural
young people • • •." 88 In order to realize this purpose the
Farm Bureau Federation has perfected a standard plan of organization consisting of local and county units. The members of the
county organization consist of young persons living on farms who
have reached the age of 18 years or who are former members of 4-H
Clubs or Future Farmers of America or similar organizations. Membership is automatically terminated at the age of 25 years or at the time
youth establish homes or engage in farming on their own account.
The promotion of social and recreational activities and educational
work on agricultural problems 89 will be of value to the youth, but the
sponsoring agency has an institutional purpose also in securing Farm
Bureau membership. It would "develop an intelligent, constructive
leadership in the ranks of the Junior Farm Bureau, who would be
prepared to take up the responsibilities of leadership for the Farm
Bureau when they became members." INl In Ohio and Indian11,
this means leadership in the promotion of the cooperatives fostered by
the Fa.rm Bureau. Hence, youth who go to the Farm Bureau camps
in these States are given thorough instruction in the theory and or.,.
ganiza.tion of cooperatives. 91
Farmers Educational and Co-operative Union
The Farmers Educational and Co-operative Union is particulariy
strong in the Dakotas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Montana, and Okla.:.
homa. but functions also in several other Staws, chiefly in the Middle
West. Membership of the entire family in the organization is encouraged. To this end the Farmers Union has organized the Juveniles,
children of members who are under 16, and the Juniors, those between
the ages of 16 and 21. Not until they are 21 years of age do the boys
become dues-paying members. At the same time the girls become
honorary members. The Juniors have all of the rights of dues-paying
members; they may hold office in the local organization, vote, and be
sent as delegates to county or State conventions. They study social
problems, legislation, and cooperation and enter contests in essay
writing and speechmaking. In some States they attend summer
camps for a period of inwnsive study and training in leadership. 92
88 Strayer, George, "The Junior Farm Bureau," address before the Midwest
Rural Youth Conference, Ames, Iowa, July 23, 1936.
119 Vaniman, V., "Relationship Between the Junior Farm Bureau and the Farm
Bureau Movement," address before the Midwest Rural Youth Conference, Ames,
Iowa, July 23, 1936.
IO Ibid.
11 Letter of August 3, 1937, from the Extension Sociologist, State College of
Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio, and letter of August 13, 1937, from Office of State
Farm Bureau, Indianapolis, Ind.
112 Edwards, Gladys Talbott, The Farmers Union Triangle, Farmers Educational
and Co-operative Union of America, Jamestown, N. Dak., 1935, pp. 54-59.
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112 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
The history and methods of cooperation are emphasized, but instruction is also given in the various aspects of economic problems that touch
the farmer's interest, such as money, credit, and taxation, as well as
in conservation of natural resources, handicraft, and social and recreational leadership.
Like the plans of the Farm Bureau for its youth the work of the
Farmers Union on behalf of the Juniors is designed to prepare youth
to take their part in furthering the basic program and philosophy of
the parent organization. The Junior program is a development of the
la.st 10 years, having received official recognition at the national convention of the Farmers Union in 1930.
National Granse
Like the Farmers Union the National Grange also embracee in its
membership the entire family though the children must be 14 years of
age to be voting members. The national office estimates that 35 percent of the membership is less than 30 years of age.111 The 1936 membership was said to include 800,000 persons in 35 States.M No special
effort has been made on a national scale to enlarge the program of the
Grange to meet the needs of young people although in some States the
youth problem has been recognized. 116 The educational and social
services rendered youth by this organization are therefore through the
medium of the regular program.
WIICOlllln Fann Shon Coune
The Wisconsin State College of Agriculture provides a Farm Short
Course each year from the middle of November to the middle of March
for young men from the farms. There are no entrance requirements or
examinations. Most of those who have attended thus far ranged from
19 through 26 years of age. Since the course is adapted from the Danish Folk School program, it is founded on the theory that "The
satisfactory solution of many of our agricultural problems will be
greatly aided by the education of our farm youth. This education
should be in the economic and social fields which train for better
rural organization and able rural leadership as well as in the arts and
sciences of agriculture."98 Unlike the Danish schools, however, there
111 The National Grange Publicity Bureau, Springfield, Mass.
AU locals do not
present this picture. In 1 farm community in Pennsylvania only 15 out of a
total membership of 91 were less than 30 years of age and these were between
25 and 30.
94 The National Grange Publicity Bureau, Official Roster, Springfield, Mass.,
1936.
11 Volunteers for Youth Service and Department of Sociology, Michigan Youth,
Vol. I, No. 2, Michigan State College, East Lansing, Mich., November 1933.
"Christensen, Chris L., An Educational Opportunity for Young Men Ofl ~
Farm, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., June 1935, pp. 3 and 1 l.
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•
MEETING THE PROBLEMS • 11 3
is no course for girls.
Classes are held in principles and practices of
business cooperation, the social sciences, and the humanities. The
maximum enrollment of 325 was reached in the 1936 term.
Cooperative Youth Ouba
With the growth of the cooperative movement in America. there
have developed a number of youth clubs in various parts of the country. These clubs act as educational and cultural centers for youth in
localities where there already are cooperative societies and aid in the
formation of consumers' clubs in places where there is as yet no cooperative society or enterprise.w In two sections of the country youth
clubs have been united into leagues-The Northern States Cooperative Youth League with headquarters in Superior, Wis., and The
New England Federation for Cooperative Clubs with headquarters
at Gardner, Mass. 98 While most of the cooperative youth clubs are
not rural, they are to some extent reaching rural youth in their respective localities. Their extension is definitely linked with the
progress of the consumer movement in rural territory. The most
significant rural development in the direction of cooperation is the
educational and cultural programs for youth promoted by the Ohio 911
and Indiana Farm Bureaus through their summer camps.
Dou9la1 County, Wis.
In Douglas County, Wis., the young people themselves requested
the establishment of a forestry camp during the winter of 1934-35.
The camp was financed under the forest crop law 100 and was attended
by 60 young men. Although the project lasted only 1 year, it was
considered unusually successful because: (1) it provided employment
for young men who were idle; (2) it gave opportunity for a practical
type of education for that county; and {3) it was a feasible method of
promoting reforestation and conservation. 101
Breathitt County, Ky.
Breathitt County, Ky., is an area in which youth are especially
handicapped by poverty and lack of opportunity. In an attempt
to ameliorate the adverse situation a program of study and planning
was begun in 1934 with the specific purpose of building up a guidance
t7 Letter from secretary-treasurer of Massachusetts League of Cooperative
Clubs, October 1936.
18 Letter from The Cooperative League of the United States of America, 167
West 12th Street, New York City, November 15, 1937.
18 Jones, Inis Weed, "Not by Bread Alone," Good Housekeeping Magazine,
July 1937, pp. 38--39.
100 Wileden, A. F., What Douglas County Young People Want and What They
Ara DoiTl{J About It, Rural Youth and Rural Life Scnes, Extension Service, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., December 1931>, p. 7.
JOI Letter from A. F. Wileden, April 8, 1936.
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114 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
program. The experiment has been under the direct guidance and
control of the County Planning Board in which the moving spirit
has been the County Superintendent of Schools. The Alliance for
the Guidance of Rural Youth-formerly known as the Southern
Women's Educational Alliance with headquarters at Richmond,
Va.-has been helpful in planning and advising on certain phases of
the program.
The first step in this undertaking was to gather basic facts on economic and social conditions in the county with special reference to the
problems which the youth themselves were facing. Although the
county has approximately 2,700 out-of-school youth, the educational,
occupational, and recreational opportunities are greatly limited."12
In an economic way this program is helping the youth to adjust occupationally both within and without the county in so far as this has
been possible. Socially it is stimulating the youth to individual
initiative and self-reliance, to develop a better way of life under
adverse economic conditions. Educationally it is assisting in building up opportunities for youth who are out of school as well as for
those who are in school.
Roclcland County, N. Y.
A unique experiment in building and maintaining a unified countywide program of guidance in 4 7 schools in the semirural county of
Rockland, N. Y., was initiated in a modest way in 1929.1m Two years
later the County Board of Supervisors, in accordance with the authority granted by State law, appointed a county vocational and extension board and authorized the employment of a county director of
guidance, but, because of the straitened circumstances of county
finances at that time, only limited funds were available for the experiment. Despite financial handicaps, however, a twofold program
was embarked upon: first, a series of community surveys was undertaken for the purpose of revealing pertinent information about the
county, characteristics of its population, and its educational, health,
and occupational situation; and second, a county-wide program of
guidance was promoted as well as guidance programs in such individual school systems as contracted for the services of the county
director of guidance.
On the basis of the knowledge gained and interest aroused through
the various surveys, and by pooling the resources of the State, foundations, and local institutions, a mental hygiene program has been initiated. Teachers have been given the opportunity of obtaining some
training in guidance. A Junior Placement Service has been inaugu102 Gooch, Wilbur I. and Keller, Franklin J., "Breathitt County in the Southern
Appalachians," Occupations, Vol. XIV, 1936, p. 1027.
toa Gooch, Wilbur I. and Miller, Leonard M., "Vocational Guidance in Rockland County," Occupation.,, Vol. XIV, 1936, pp. 835-911.
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MEETING THE PROBLEMS • 115
rated and a service providing guidance and training in household employment and child care has also been set up.
This program has been credited with bringing together many diversified interests in the county, vitalizing the curriculum of practically
the entire school system from the elementary grades through the high
school, and broadening the outlook of pupils and citizens alike in regard
to the forces operating to produce the unemployment situation in
Rockland County. To many of the pupils now in the secondary
schools in this county, or recently graduated, the selection of an occupation has been presented as an orderly, logical, and thoughtful process
instead of a haphazard chance process with its attendant human waste
in occupational misfits and in feelings of frustration and futility.
Though the system has been attached in its initial stages directly to
the public schools and serves, therefore, the in-school group primarily,
there is a follow-up of those who leave school or are graduated. Moreover, the placement service is intended to serve more than merely the
in-school group.
Private lnttltvtlom Serving Rural
Areas
Scattered throughout some of the underprivilegea areas of rural
America are private schools or settlement centers of varying character
and purpose, many of which are rendering valuable service to specific
communities. Some of them have labored under severe handicaps,
but in many communities they have rendered the only social service
available to the people. In some communities they have blazed trails
of economic and social rehabilitation, trails which too often have later
been neglected for want of resources to render the programs really
effective. Because their sphere of activity is restricted, they know
their people and their community background BS few social leaders do
who are entrusted with the development of broad programs. Their
personnel, often seasoned by years of self-sacrificing labor, are eager to
cooperate with any agency that can help raise the standards of living
of the poverty-stricken folk among whom they work.
Some of these private endeavors lay special emphasis on youth
though they maintain the general community approach. This is certainly true of the Campbell Folk School at Brasstown, N. C., 1M the
Farm School at Asheville, N. C., 106 and the Ashland Folk School at
Grant, Mich. Another interesting rural community development
under way in Michigan is known as the Hartland Area Project.
Financed by a foundation, it has markedly enriched the lives of the
young people of the coffilnun1ty. 10G Pine Mountain Settlement School
te>t "The People of an American Folk School," Survey Graphic, Vol. XXIII,
1934, pp. 229-232.
106 White, Edwin E., Highland Heritage, New York: Friendship Press, 1937.
J011 Western State Teachers College, The Educational News Bulletin, Vol. VII,
Kalamazoo, Mich., October 1936, p. 20.
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116 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
in Harla.n County, Ky., is still a.nother type of school performing an
educational service for the young people who come to stay e.t the
school's quarters e.nd to younger children in the community who come
e.s de.y pupils. In addition the school's leaders a.re ministering to the
social needs of the community e.nd assisting in planning for its economic enrichment. 107 These illustrations do not exhaust the roster
of private institutions affecting the lives of rural young people, but
they suffice to suggest that e. significant service is being rendered by
this type of organization.
107 Glyn A. Morris, Director of Pine Mountain Settlement School, Pine Mountain, Ky.
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Chapter VII
CONCLUSIONS
YOUTH IS an adjustment period. It is the age when most young
people leave school. It is the time when they strive for economic
adjustment, which frequently involves migration from one community
to another. It is a short period in the life of each individual when
marriage and preparation for marriage and other social adaptations
into adult life are made. During these transition years most of
life's patterns are fixed. Society's maladjustments are of particular
concern when they intensify the problems of youth. To the extent
that these maladjustments make a permanent imprint on the personalities of large numbers of youth, their consequences will be lastingenduring for at least a generation.
The plight of rural youth is not a problem of the country alone. It
is of vita.I significance to the cities as well. In one respect the crux of
the rural youth problem is the relation of rural youth to city youth.
Except in periods of severe depression it is probable that urban youth
could make their economic adjustments with relative ease, at least on
a minimum subsistence level, if they did not face the competition of
rural youth who migrate to the cities. Death among the older city
dwellers opens opportunities about as fast as urban youth mature.
But the long-time rural youth problem is that of an excess in numbers
in relation to a dearth of rural opportunities, a situation which becomes
greatly aggravated during "hard times." Hence, rural youth must
go to the cities in large numbers as long as there is any hope of
employment.
During the next 15 to 20 years there will be a continual increase in
the working population of the entire country. The number coming
into the productive ages and automatically competing for employment opportunities, particularly with workers immediately older than
• themselves, will for some years be much greater than the deaths
within the productive ages. As a result the intensification of the
problems of youth in making their economic adjustments is likely to
continue for some time.
While most n1ral young people encounter some difficulties in making
their economic adjustments and in obtaining an adequate education
117
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118 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
and the opportunity for satisfactory personal and social development,
those encountered since 1930 have been more acute than ever before.
This does not mean that the majority of all rural youth have been on
relief or that all have faced insurmountable handicaps in "getting a
start," but it does mean that great numbers of young people have
faced serious obstacles in making their transition into adult activities.
Moreover, without definite public policies directed toward aiding
young people, America is facing the prospect of successive generations
of youth, among which many young people will ·be seriously maladjusted and some will be idle or only partially occupied throughout
their mature years.
The future of American rural life, and to a large extent of urban life,
rests on increased industrial production, a closer integration of industry
and agriculture, and an expansion of the cultural and human services
so badly needed in rural society. Rural youth as they approach the
threshold of citizenship responsibility need not necessarily face contracting opportunities. It is the responsibility of a democratic society
to see that these new citizens receive a fair share of the national income
in order that they may become effective consumers as well as producers
and thus contribute in just measure to the prosperity of both agriculture and industry.
Rural America must choose between two courses. One is the active
planning for the conservation of its human resources, recognizing the
fact that with no age group will the planning produce greater returns
than with young people. The other is to let present trends continue.
Until free land in the West was exhausted and the cities ceased their
mass absorption, youth could escape from their home communities.
But the problems of rural youth can no longer be wholly transferred
to other communities. Never has this country been faced so forcefully with the necessity of charting a course for its rural youth.
THE NEED FOR EDUCATION AND GUIDANCE
The ability of the individual youth to make his economic adjustment when opportunities are available depends largely upon the
education and guidance that may have been afforded him. That
education gives an advantage in the struggle for security and that
equality of educational opportunity is an inherent right of youth are
traditions in American life. The fact must be clearly faced, however,
that there is not equality of educational facilities in rural America
and that the areas which supply the largest portion of the oncoming .
generation are those in which educational opportunities are most
severely restricted.
A heavy increase in rural high school enrollment has occurred during
the same years that the most serious problems of rural youth have
emerged. ·while this enrollment may have been partly due to expanded school facilities, it undoubtedly has been in large measure a
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CONCLUSIONS • 119
result of present-day employment conditions. In numerous instances
youth have gone to school because there was nothing else to do.
Moreover, during recent years there has been a definite movement to
keep youth in school longer. This raises certain questions. Will the
fact that youth attend school for longer periods solve the problems of
rural youth? Or does continued attendance in the average public
school of today only postpone the time when the same problems must
be faced, with little better chance for successful solution? To what
extent have the schools been shock absorbers for the depression?
How effective have they really been in assisting youth to make their
social and economic adjustments?
These queries cannot be answered categorically. They point,
however, to the desirability of a redefinition of the functions of the
rural schools in terms of current conditions, especially with respect to
vocational education and guidance:
Guidance toward occupations is almost entirely lacking in rural areas.
Youth commonly pass through the rural school curriculum with the
hazy assumption that they are being prepared to enter adult life. But
the preparation they receive other than that core of knowledge recognized as general fundamental training too often has only indirect
relation to their future work. Most youth enter adult occupations
by chance. Giving them greater opportunities for both general and
specific occupational training and for learning more about occupational openings is a special need facing rural America.
Rural schools are responsible for the training and guidance of three
broad groups of pupils: thosewhowill go into commercial agriculture;
those who will enter nonagricultural occupations in either rural or
urban areas; and a third large group comprising those who under
present circumstances are destined to remain in rural territory living
on the land on a more or less self-sufficing basis. It is being increasingly
recognized that one of the first duties of the school is the discovery of
the particular potentialities and aptitudes of the developing pupil so
that on reaching the youth age the individual has some idea of the
vocation or vocations in which he or she could reasonably expect to
succeed if given additional and proper training. It is, of course, not
to be expected that every rural high school can be equipped to train
youth in a wide variety of skills, but there are certain fields in which
they must provide training if a large proportion of rural young people
are to have any vocational training at all. Vocational training in
agriculture is doing much to prepare youth for farming, but with all
the efforts in this direction it is doubtful if at present enough youth
are being trained in high schools and colleges to provide an adequate
number of farmers to raise the agricultural products needed for market
atthehighestpossible level of efficiency and at the same time to operate
their farms in accordance with the best principles of soil conservation.
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120 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
That does not affect the fact that there is a "surplus" of youth on the
land; it only indicates that youth are not being prepared in sufficient
numbers to engage in scientific agriculture.
The rural-nonfann youth who will enter nonagricultural occupations and the farm youth who will leave the farms receive little special
consideration in the educational system. These two groups together
constitute considerably more than half of all rural youth. Usually
these groups can secure only the general education provided by a standard curriculum. Moreover, it is usually a curriculum built on the
assumption that at high school graduation the young people will go on
to college. This is in spite of the fact that many of the professions and
white-collar occupations for which young people are being trained are
at present overcrowded when judged in relation to the economic
demand.
Schools have not been sufficiently aware of the fact that for youth in
economically marginal families--and in recent years in families that
have been on relief-the problems of social and economic adjustment
are intensified. Though some of this group of rural youth will migrate, the large number that will remain presents a continuing challenge to the schools to teach them a better way of life in their home
communities.
In analyzing the educational needs of rural youth, it must be kept
constantly in mind that high school facilities are not readily available
for all rural youth. The above discussion respecting vocational education does not apply to many areas because even general secondary
schools are lacking. Despite past and pending commendable efforts
to remedy the gross inequalities in educational opportunity, the goal is
far from being reached. There has been a justified movement to place
better schools in these areas through extending Federal support. In
view of the limited financial resources available in many rural areas, it
seems clear that unless the Federal Government does extend support,
the democratic ideal of equality in education will remain unrealized
for rural youth.
Because inadequacies and inequalities in educational opportunity
do exist, there are thousands of out-of-school rural youth poorly
prepared to cope with modern life. It has been the function of the
National Youth Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps
to provide some education and training for this group. These two
agencies have done more than merely help the youth from underprivileged families. They have provided experience from which to
project permanent policies to aid such out-of-school youth. Unfortunately, limitation ·of funds has prevented them from meeting
fully the needs of this mass of young people, who constitute the bulk
of all rural youth and who need aboYe all both training and guidance
for occupational adjustment.
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CONCLUSIONS• 121
Consideration of the youth group, whether in or out of school,
whether employed or unemployed, should be a definite and integral
part of a program of social planning. Such a program should go
hand in hand with economic planning whether under Federal, State,
or local auspices. In areas that are predominantly rural the unit
for local planning is likely to be the county, though any particular
type of plan that might be set up should be adapted to the particular
situations of the communities concerned. Representatives of such
agencies as the extension service with its county farm and home
demonstration agents; women's and business men's organizations of
the villages and towns; the welfare agencies; the farmers' organizations,
such as the Farm Bureau, the Grange, and the Farmers Union; the
National Youth Administration; land banks; the Civilian Conservation
Corps wherever possible; employment services; the schools, including
particularly the county superintendent, principals, and vocational
education teachers; the churches; and other special groups in particular
counties that may be interested in youth's welfare could well constitute
county planning councils to deal with the problems of youth.
Such councils could have at least three functions: planning for the
general welfare of the youth of the county; acting as channels through
which information on opportunities for work could be given to the
youth of the county; and providing for adequate guidance for youth.
Such guidance involves encouraging youth to remain in school as
well
helping them to make their adjustments when they leave
school. The efforts of such county councils would be increased in
effectiveness if coordinated and guided by State-wide councils organized on somewhat the same basis. The programs for such councils
might be developed along somewhat the following lines.
In each State a division of occupational information and guidance
with paid leadership and responsible financial backing could be established through the cooperation of such agencies as the State college
of agriculture, the State department of education, the National
Youth Administration, the Civilian Conservation Corps, the employment services, the State department of public welfare, and other
governmental and nongovernmental agencies concerned with the
problems of youth. In fact, occupational information is now being
gathered in many States. 1
as
1 The National Youth Administration, for example, has already made industrial
and occupational studies in Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio,
Texas, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Among the industrial studies made are
those of aviation manufacturing, air transportation, baking, candy making,
canning, cotton growing, furniture making, insurance, and millineiy. The
occupational studies include aviation, beauty culture, diesel engineering, forestry,
photography, plant patholoii;y, radio service, soil science, school teaching, and
salesmanship (data secured from the Office of the National Youth Administration,
Washington, D. C.).
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122 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Through this office to the county planning councils would pass the
results of the work of the many agencies that are working with youth
and are assembling data. on available opportunities and personal
characteristics necessary for success in various occupations. With
the passage of time a. State agency of this type would be able through
both persona.I representation and literature to render assistance to
county councils or other county organizations that deal with youth
problems.
With the available facts about occupational opportunities at hand,
together with the school records and a working knowledge of the
interests and aptitudes of the youth, the county planning councils
would be in a position (1) to help youth locate employment opportunities; (2) to advise them as to whether or not they should accept
some job that might be available in the community or vicinity or go
to urban centers; and (3) to recommend whether or not they should
seek further education (with assistance from the National Youth
Administration if necessary), go to a Civilian Conservation Corps
camp, seek an apprenticeship in industry, take advantage of one of
the training centers established by the National Youth Administration, or enroll in part-time training courses available through the
schools. Through this mechanism, moreover, the migration of
youth either to cities or to other rural areas could be directed, thereby
reducing the hazards of seeking to become established economica.lly
in a strange community. 1
Both the National Youth Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps have been making their programs of training more
and more practical. Both agencies have demonstrated their usefulness in assisting youth to make their adjustment from the public
school into an occupation. It appears essential that these agencies
be allowed to plan on a more permanent basis, thereby increasing
both their efficiency and their effectiveness.
In connection with advising young men about going into farming
it would be well to emphasize the desirability of expanding the plan
now being fostered by the Division of Vocational Agriculture of the
United States Office of Education and by the Fann Credit Administration to place graduates of vocational high schools on good farms
and to provide agricultural guidance until they are able to assume
full responsibility for their farming operations. By this method the
1 State and county councils have been organized in New York State on a voluntary basis. Efforts are now in progress to establish these councils on a legal
basis. The movement is a result of cooperation between the State department
of education, the State college of agriculture, and the National Youth Administration. While this plan differs in certain details from the one suggested here,
the chief objectives are the same. See mimeographed statement of New York
State Advisory Committee of the National Youth Administration, 30 Lodge
Street, Albany, N. Y., February 11, 1938.
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Farm S ecurit y .4d m i11 is lra t io11 (L ee ; .
Th e Rural Co 1111111111 ity 11111 st P/0 11 for It s r oulh .
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CONCLUSIONS •
123
youth is given a chance to help himself and, if he is successful, in
time he can purchase the fa.rm from the Fann Credit Administration.
To thf- extent that rural youth can be started on good farms at the
be'~- ng of their careers they will be spared the destitution and
f- u'v ;hat have been the lot of so many tenant, laborer, and share·1er families.
()ther educational activity which needs expansion is the dis'\ and evaluation of the problems of youth by the youth themThis is being done to some extent on other age levels by the
..,.
method in both rural and urban areas. By this means farmers
~Ives are planning soil conservation and crop control programs
'ioooming acquainted with the broad aspects of agricultural
•· 1ems in America through the help of the State colleges and of the
led States Department of Agriculture. Agencies dealing with
rur. youth might well embark on the promotion of discussions to
help the youth understand their own problems. Youth want to
talk about their own problems and the problems confronting the
world. A democracy is obligated to give to its youth the facts about
the complex economic and social world in which they live and which
is so largely responsible for the difficulties they face in making their
own adjustments. Moreover, the solution of problems in a democracy must be a continuing process. The discussions may not
produce immediate results in economic and social changes, but the
conclusions reached by youth today are likely to fonn the groundwork for the programs of tomorrow.
THE BAFFLING ECONOMIC SITUATION
In the past rural youth entered farming or found work in a town
or city as a matter of course. There was never any question on the
part of themselves or their parents about opportunities being available
when adulthood was reached. • If the individual wanted to work, he
could find employment at home, in a city, or on new lands. The person
who failed was generally considered to do so because of indolence.
"Go West, young man," was a guiding principle for decades.
While agricultural areas were expanding, it was almost traditional
that one son would take over the father's fann, a second go West,
and a third go to the city. During the first quarter to a third of
the present century, while these traditional avenues were narrowing,
education came increasingly to be looked upon as a necessary prerequisite to satisfactory adjustment into adult life. No amount of
education and training, however, will be of much benefit to youth
if adequate opportunities for gainful employment are lacking. In
spite of increasing pressure on the land in both good and poor farming
areas many youth not needed for agricultural work have been forced
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124 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
to remain on farms, and many rural youth in nonfarm territory have
turned to the land for a meager living.
Farm youth who are fortunate enough to be members of one- or
two-child families and live on a family-sized farm largely free of
debt in a good land area have the prospect of future security. They
• stand a chance of coming into ownership through inheritance and of
making the adjustments in their operations that may be required by
developments in technology and commercial production. Not so
fortunate are youth who belong to large families, particularly in
poor land areas, or who are the children of tenants, sharecroppers,
and farm laborers.
More emphasis could well be placed on settling young married
couples from this group, who want to go into farming, on land which
will provide them a decent living and which they ultimately can
expect to own or to hold under an equitable long-time lease and on
giving them whatever assistance and supervision may be necessary
to place their farming operations on a sound basis, instead of waiting
until they have lived half or more of their lives on poor land. Bases
for programs to establish qualified youth on good land are supplied
by the experience of the Farm Credit Administration and the Division
of Vocational Agriculture in the plan already referred to for starting
youth in agriculture, as well as by the experience of the Farm Security
Administration. The experience of the latter agency in selecting
farm families in the lowest income class and supervising their agricultural activities has shown that with proper supervision and with
the provision of other badly needed assistance many of these families
can attain economic self-sufficiency. Tho youth of these families if
properly taught and supervised can likewise succeed.
Unless present trends are checked and specific action taken to
start youth on the road to fa.rm ownership, more and more rural
youth will never climb above the first or second rung of the agricultural ladder. The difficulties of getting started in nonagricultural
occupations also appear to be increasing. There is need of definite
policies to prevent the logical consequences of these trends from
blighting the lives of thousands of rural young people.
It must be remembered that probably less than one-half of the youth
in agricultural territory today can be placed on good commercial
farms. Consequently, the other half face one of two alternatives,
accepting a lower standard of living or going into nonagricultural
occupations. This latter course involves either migrating to the
cities or entering nonfarming occupations in rural territory. Such
trends as increasing mechanization of agriculture, removal of submarginal land from cultivation, and limited foreign markets for farm
products are factors restricting the opportunities for rural youth
which have been discussed sufficiently (ch. II). Introduction of new
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CONCLUSIONS • 1 2 5
types of agricultural production and wider use of fann products
already grown may offer some possibilities. For example, soy beans
are being utilized for purposes other than food. Cornstalks are used
in insulation and synthetic materials of many kinds. This is all to
the good. But farm products, it is well to remember, are largely consumed as food and fibers, and the expansion in consumption of both
occurs very slowly. Increase in consumption depends upon an
expanding population and the ability of that population to buy. As
long as population was increasing rapidly in this country through the
excess of births over deaths and immigration, the increase in demand
for farm products was greater than the increase in production per
man. Since population is no longer rapidly increasing, this outlet for
farm products cannot be expected rapidly to augment the opportunities for commercial farming.
Owing to the fact that the solution of the problem of "surplus"
youth on the land would appear to lie in• the direction of expansion of
opportunities in other fields than agriculture, brief consideration is
given to a few possibilities. Migration to urban centers of those
not having economic opportunities in rural territory is one method of
relieving the situation and preventing the increase of the lowest
income group. 3 If it proceeds too rapidly or on too large a scale,
however, migration to the cities is fraught with dangers both to the
migrants and to laborers already there. Rural migrants are frequently in the position of having to accept work at any wage and
under any conditions. Untrained persons going from submarginal
areas to the cities tend to follow unskilled occupations, and of unskilled
laborers the cities already have an oversupply. These newcomers
find it difficult to establish themselves while facing desperate competition in a strange environment. Frequently these young people
have no way of effectively relating themselves to other workers, to
employers, and to society! Hence, thousands of young people who
have sought work in urban centers within the last few years have been
advised by employment agencies and employers to return to their
home communities.
Directed migration could prevent in large measure the waste
attendant upon unsuccessful search for urban employment and at the
1 For a full discussion of migration see Goodrich, Carter and Others, Migration
and Economic Opportunity, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1936.
t A study in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the adjustments of migrants from the Kentucky mountains to the city showed that in comparison with residents of the
same urban neighborhoods and of the same social class more highlanders worked
at low-skilled occupations and more earned less than $1,000 a year. In slack
times they were laid off earlier and were rehired later. See Leybourne, Grace G.,
"Urban Adjustments of Migrants From the Southern Appalachian Plateaus,"
Social Forces, Vol. 16, 1937, pp. 238-246.
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126 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUAllON AND PROSPECTS
same time smooth the way for those who are able to enter the skilled
trades, services, and professions. It appears unlikely, however, that
the cities will be able to absorb the vast numbers of rural youth who
are now pressing for a stQ.11; in life and who ought, under present conditions, to leave rural territory. While a limited number were being
directed to satisfactory adjustments outside of rural territory, there
would still be the problem of the adjustment of the remaining surplus.
Some of these should be enabled to prepare themselves for skilled
trades and services so badly needed in rural communities. This
should be paralleled by definite steps to make possible the utilization
of these trained persons for the benefit of rural society.
It has frequently been proposed that this surplus, or part of it,
might be satisfactorily provided for through part-time farming combined with employment away from the farm. The system has long
been in operation in New England, and the industrial villages of the
Southeast were frequently laid out on the assumption that the workers
could tend small plots of land in their off-time from industrial employment. This practice of living on the land and securing a wage from
some source other than farming is common near cities and in rural
industrial areas. It has several distinct advantages, such as low cost
of housing, home ownership, and the production of a more adequate
food supply than might be purchased, all of which supplement wages.
However, without an extension of opportunities for industrial .labor
with hours adapted to some work on the land, the expansion of this
way of life to meet the needs of more youth appears unlikely. Industry must evince additional signs of actual decentralization into
more widely scattered areas of rural territory before this combination may be encouraged on a significant scale, except in connection
with labor made available through conservation and forestry programs and such other occupations as may be developed in hitherto
undeveloped rural areas. The prospects for expansion of the principal rural industries, such as mining and small manufacturing plants,
do not in general seem promising. 6 Development of commercial
services is becoming increasingly noticeable along extensions of hardsurfaced highways into remote rural territory, but neither the nature
nor the extent of such possibilities has as yet been accurately gauged.
While developments in scientific agriculture and mechanization of
the farming process in the years to come promise to restrict even
further opportunities for youth in agriculture and expansion in
industrial opportunity appears problematical, the field of service
6 See Allen, R. H., Cottrell, L. S., Jr., Troxell, W. W., Herring, Harriet L.,
and Edwards, A. D., Part-Time Farming in the Southeast, Research Monograph
IX, Division of Social Research, Works Progress Administration, Washington,
D. C., 1937; and Creamer, Daniel B., /a Industry Decentralizing? Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1935.
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CONC-LUSIONS • 127
occupations holds possibilities for absorbing large numbers of young
people if adequate financial provision can be made for supplying
more adequate social services in rural areas. There is a distressing
need for more doctors, nurses, and teachers. Society could also use
more librarians, social workers, and recreational leaders. The field
of personal services is only beginning to be exploited in rural areas.
In recent years the Nation has been awakened to the consequences
of unrestrained exploitation with its attendant waste of the country's
natural resources. It is time society recognized the cruel exploitation
and waste of its young manhood and womanhood which now exist.
The foregoing analysis may have a pessimistic outlook. The task
of absorbing this surplus labor is not as easy as it might seem, nor
can it be done with the facility that is implied when expansion or
decentralization of industry is so glibly prescribed as the remedy for
unemployment. Talk alone does not bring about either of these
developments. One prerequisite to a solution of the problem is the
recognition on the part of both urban and rural society that the
problem is a mutual one and that both need to appreciate the complementary relationship the other bears to the solution. The difficulty
in bringing about a full realization of the situation rests in the fact
that temporary remedial measures are in danger of obscuring the
long-time trends which were causal factors in the depression of the
early thirties. However, America will choose during the next few
years between letting more and more of her rural youth drift into
debilitating poverty and making provisions for them to travel a
road to economic security.
THE SOCIAL AND RECREATIONAL SITUATION
The consequences of inequality of opportunity are nowhere more
apparent than in the social and recreational life of young people.
Since apparently rural youth marry at almost as great a rate in bad
times as in good and in even greater proportions in the States with
large destitute rural populations than in States with the higher rural
incomes, it is clearly important to provide, in low as well as high
income areas and in bad times as well as good, an environment conducive to wholesome family life and individual development. It has
been said that greater emphasis should be given "to values of family
life, to ways of living which promote physical vigor, and to conditions which guarantee a larger measure of economic security,
especially to young couples during the early reproductive years." 8
While education in its broader sense can do much to develop a more
wholesome family life and is exceedingly important both to insure a
wide selection of the marriage partner and as training for parent1 Lorimer, Frank and Osborn, Frederick, Dynamica of Population, New York:
The Macmillan Company, 1934, p. 348.
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128 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SHUATION AND PROSPECTS
hood, economic security is fundamental to the promotion of family
welfare. The attainment of economic security for a substantial proportion of the families now in the marginal or submarginal class
economically, in either rural or urban society, must occur through a
process of social and economic evolution at times painfully slow.
Some of the debilitating effects of inequality of economic opportunity may be offset by more adequate provision for wholesome social
and recreational life. Youth who cannot afford commercialized recreation because of their poverty may in the long run be better off if
they can be guided to use their leisure time in pursuing interests that
will provide a chance for full activity and self-expression. Moreover,
as already suggested, leadership in the field of wholesome recreation
would afford opportunities for employment for some of the "surplus
rural youth" if a program, along the lines of that now carried on by
the Works Progress Administration, could be greatly expanded and
placed on a more permanent basis.
Regardless of what the future holds in the way of recreation in
rural areas, a fundamental question remains: To what constructive
use is the leisure time of youth being put? Too often youth in rural
communities are looked upon as a "floating population," meaning
that they are past the age of high-school activities and have not yet
reached the age for joining adult organizations. 7 This period in a
young person's life should be bridged not only by wholesome individual activities but also by group activities that will both train and
encourage him to enter into and assume responsibilities for the success of adult social-civic organizations.
Youth's participation in adult organizations outside the church is
negligible if the entire bulk of the rural youth population is considered
and is, moreover, definitely conditioned by social status. This, in
turn, is usually conditioned by economic status. While some of the
farm organizations have made noteworthy attempts to appeal to the
younger generation, they appear, with few exceptions, to have succeeded better with the juvenile age group than with youth. Moreover, they serve only a fraction of the rural population a.nd chiefly
those in the higher income brackets.
There are many factors in the situation. The fault lies not entirely
with either the adults or the young people. In some cases the older
generation may not take cognizance of the desire of youth to be
effective participating members of local community organizations.
In other cases young people may scatter their energies over such
wide areas in pursuit of commercialized urban amusements or the
cheap counterpart which has invaded the countryside that there is
no time or desire to join with the older folk to consider community
7 Office of Education, Young Men in Farming, Vocational Education Bulletin
No. 188, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1936, p. 101.
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CONCL.USJONS • 129
problems or to participate in such group recreation as there may be.
Roadhouses, "beer joints," and other "hangouts" in many cases provide the meeting places for the younger generation. In some communities the tradition of what recreation should be restricts the
actions of the young people with the result that they go to more
distant places to do as they please. Those young people who do not
have transportation facilities are then dependent upon communities
that all too frequently have meager opportunities for recreation. In
those isolated rural areas where most of the families are at the poverty
level, very few of the young people are able to seek diversion (?Utside
of the local community. These are precisely the communities that
have a dearth of facilities for constructive leisure-time activities with
no financial resources to remedy the situation. It is not surprising
therefore that in some areas of this type the principal forms of recreation indulged in by youth are drinking and fighting.
The attack on the problem of leisure-time activities cannot be uniform but must vary with the community. In some areas the first
need is the provision of physical equipment, such as parks, swimming
pools, tennis courts, baseball diamonds, recreational centers, and
libraries. The emergency agencies have made a beginning in this
direction. Not only have they placed facilities for recreation in
hundreds of communities but they have also provided motivation for
orderly behavior by providing work projects for young people. These
absorb the energy and interest of youth, and they yield a small
money income. They also give youth a vision of what constructive
activity can mean to the individual, and they offer the hope that life
need not always be drab, monotonous, and tragic. Local leaders in
backward rural areas have many pathetic tales to tell of the hardships that some young people endure in order to be able to get to the
county seat from their homes to participate in a shopwork or mechanics training project. A major result of the work of the National
Youth Administration has undoubtedly been a reduction in the volume
of crime among young people. Moreover, a boy's experience in a
Civilian Conservation Corps camp often does much to change his
attitude toward life and to give him an appreciation of constructive
recreation. This avenue of experience should certainly be kept open,
and it probably should be extended to girls
Dull and uneventful communities do not necessarily breed antisocial behavior, but they may yield lethargic and restricted personalities that are no asset to the community and that make the execution
of progressive programs in any sphere of endeavor extremely difficult.
Individuals with such personalities are almost sure to lack social
insight and even the elementary understanding of the workings of
present social, economic, and political institutions which is so necessary
as a background for a fundamental attack on local problems. In
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1 30 • RURAL YOUTH THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
vitalizing young people who were in imminent danger of being set in
the mould of a dwarfed personality, the programs described in the
preceding chapter have been of great benefit.
In rural areas that are not economically underprivileged, where
there are or could be adequate recreational facilities, the approach
is less obvious and may involve a change in idealogy of both youth
and adults. 8 In these areas youth must be encouraged to appreciate
the wholesome value of community endeavors and neighborly fun es
over against the doubtful, expensive, and ephemeral value of the
mere seeking of diversion and thrills. Adults must be willing to
relinquish some of their control of local affairs and accept younger
people into their councils. All this requires skillful leadership among
both adults and youth, leadership which must, in large part, be consciously developed within the community, if not actually imported.
In an earlier day satisfactory rural leadership may have evolved
naturally. Today, however, there are too many hazards in the path
of developing socially-minded rural leadership to risk trusting it to
spontaneous growth.
Society must, therefore, accept the responsibility not only of providing opportunity for adequate physical and mental development on
the part of maturing young people but also of providing trained leadership. Moreover, it must accept responsibility for bringing within the
reach of the "other half" the means for developing rounded personalities, well equipped and eager to contribute to the life of their
community.
Rural communities, and the youth who live within them, hold the
power to solve their leisure-time problems. The youth themselves
can do it if given direction. In addition to direction, of course, it may
be necessary for help to be extended in providing facilities. There
are very few young people who would not rather engage in sports than
sit around and plan mischief. The principle of keeping active young
bodies engaged in wholesome physical recreation is just as applicable
to maturing youth as to adolescents. One fundamental principle to
follow, however, in developing activities among youth for the wholesome use of leisure time is to give the youth themselves a chance at
leadership. Questions have been raised frequently respecting the
competition of the roadhouse and other forms of commercialized
amusement with community activities. Often the commercial agencies win. It seems probable, however, that when this is the case
programs have not been built with and by the youth but have been
imposed by well-meaning adults. 9
1 Lindeman, Eduard C ., "Youth and Leisure," Annals of the American Academy
of Political and Social Science, Vol. 194, November 1937, pp. 59-66, especially p. 65.
9 For a diacuaaion of this point see George, William R., The Adult Minur, New
York: D. Appleton-Century Company, Inc., 1937.
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CONCLUSIONS• 131
GOVERNMENTAL RESPONSIBILITIES
The problems confronting rural youth today are the results of longtime trends as well as of the depression of the early thirties, but the
depression has revealed the trends and intensified the problems.
Many long-time remedial measures must be directed at the roots of
the social-economic structure of society. They should be directed in
some cases to specific problem areas that cross State boundaries, in
other cases to specific inequalities within local areas which need correction. Some measures will benefit youth only through bettering
the general condition; others should be promulgated expressly for
youth's benefit.
Since all public services must, in the main, be pa.id for by taxation
and since the States vary so widely in taxpaying ability, it is not
to be expected that all States will be in the same position to deal with
their youth problem. Nor could the wealthier States be expected to
contribute gratuitously to financing educational and welfare programs for youth in the less fortunate States merely because some of
these youth may eventually become their citizens. Hence, attempts
to deal with the youth problem as a whole and to embark on a program of equalizing both social and economic opportunities, if these
are to be effective, would appear to require the active participation of
the Federal Government.
The Government's principal responsibilities to youth in this connection appear to fall into four categories: (1) assisting to equalize
and to broaden educational opportunity; (2) helping young people find
work for which they are fitted by training or aptitude; (3) providing
work when private employment is not available; and (4) making
provision by which youth can develop their full potentialities through
wholesome leisure-time activities.
The Government has for some time past accepted limited responsibility in the first category. It has discharged this responsibility by
assisting the States to bring instruction in vocational agriculture and
home economics to schools serving rural areas and through the Cooperative Extension Service. During the depression the Government
has accepted additional responsibility for vocational training as well
as general education for hundreds of thousands of young men from the
lowest income families through the Civilian Conservation Corps camps.
Also, the National Youth Administration has extended vocational
training to thousands of other young men and women from low
income families by means of vocational training centers established
over the country and through special training courses for rural young
people at various State colleges of agriculture and other colleges.
This program, combined with the provision of student aid for students
who cannot otherwise attend public schools and colleges, is evidence of
the acceptance of the obligation on the part of the Federal Government
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1 32 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
to remove the economic barrier to educational opportunities, particularly on the high school level and above, for youth in low income
families. The need for these types of service has been demonstrated.
Public opinion must decide how far the Federal Government should
go in the future in supplementing the educational efforts of the various
States. 10
The second and third categories of responsibility have been accepted
on a broad scale only since the recent depression. Never before had
the Government undertaken to provide work for its unemployed citizens or to engage in a wholesale search for employment in private enterprise for those who do not have work. The second category of
responsibility has now been accepted on a permanent basis by the
expansion of the United States Employment Service of the Department of Labor and the inclusion of the work of an apprentice training
committee as a regular function of the same department. Their activities should, however, be made more effective in rural communities.
Under present conditions it appears probable that great numbers of
youth-those from families above the relief level as well as those who
have been the recipients of public assistance-will be unable to find
satisfactory employment within a reasonable period after leaving
school, particularly if they leave school at an early age. How far the
Federal Government should go in providing work and other assistance
in making economic adjustments during this transition period remains
to be determined. In this respect American democracy has as yet
formulated no definite, inclusive policy.
Assumption of the last responsibility on a broad scale has also come
since the initiation of the recreational program of the Works Progress
Administration. In giving work by this means social and recreational
life, much needed in times other than in a depression, has been provided in many places. The work of this agency has pointed the way
to permanent guidance and assistance for the more widespread and
advantageous use of spare time by rural youth. It has no adequate
program, however, to train people in underprivileged rural communities in effective utilization of such physicnl resources as are at hand.
It would be the better part of wisdom for America to provide an
acceptable minimum of public services to these people, through
Federal subsidy if no other means seems possible, to the end that a
more satisfactory standard of living may be obtained.
The final outcome of the complex situation in which youth find
themselves today depends upon whether definite, comprehensive, constructive policies for meeting the situation are adopted or only
opportunist program building is followed. Accumulated experience
points the way to enlarging and intensifying constructive action.
10
See Report of the Advisory Committee on Education, Washington, D. C., 1938.
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CONCLUSIONS • 133
America. has adopted a policy of conservation of natural resources;
human resources are likewise in need of conservation. One step in
the direction of human conservation has been taken through Social
Security legislation, 11 but on the whole it does not contribute importantly to the solution of the immediate problems of youth. 12 Public
opinion directed toward the conservation of youth must be the ultimate arbiter of governmental policy.
LOCAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Thoughtful students of rural life are constantly cautioning a.bout
the dangers of the inculcation of unhealthy dependence on Federal
funds and leadership for the amelioration of the problems of rural
youth. In spite of the necessity of, and the advantages to be secured
through, Federal a.id, the danger that many rural youth will come to
feel that the Government owes them a living, that the Government is
responsible for ma.king available the facilities needed in rural areas,
must be constantly guarded against.
Local groups have a tremendous responsibility in seeing that governmental assistance does not cloud the issue so far as the local situation is concerned. Many communities, though often loathe to admit
it, can go a. long way toward helping themselves. The local leaders
a.re keenly cognizant of local conditions. They should feel responsible for getting needed help for their youth and for encouraging and
training them to participate constructively in community life. From
this approach the values of local leadership and initiative developed
over a long period cannot be overemphasized.
Only wise local leadership, moreover, can successfully incorporate
into the local community life the full advantages offered by governmental agencies. Such leadership must be appreciated and retained
while ma.king available resources for carrying out programs impossible
of achievement without outside financial aid.
It is easy to cite statistics concerning the accomplishments of
various programs but far more difficult to evaluate their results in
terms of the development of self-reliance and an appreciation of
citizenship responsibilities on the part of the youth benefited. Here
is where the community faces a tremendous task in helping youth to
profit most by this assistance and gradually to reach the point of
relying on their unaided efforts.
11
Public, No. 271, 74th Cong.
Unemployment compensation may be paid to young people if they have had
employment of the types covered by State legislation for a specified period during the year prior to their application for benefits. Since the Social Security Act
does not apply to agriculture, however, it is apparent that this legislation cannot
directly affect any very large number of rural youth unless they have employment
in covered industries.
12
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134 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Numerous local nongovernmental agencies for helping rural youth
were described in the preceding chapter. Since these organizations
are limited in their scope, their effects are likewise closely bounded.
However, their value as indigenous efforts to solve some of the difficulties faced by youth are incalculable and should not be overshadowed
by the more extensive Federal and State programs. With their rural
leadership, with their emphasis on training children and youth for
wholesome rural living and for eventual responsibility, they are deeply
significant with respect to contemporary rural life. The majority of
rural youth are not touched by governmental programs, and it is on
locally developed institutions that they must primarily depend.
While continuation and expansion of governmental programs for
youth are earnestly to be desired, the increased development of nongovernmental programs is equally as urgent. To allow local programs
to be curtailed or supplanted would bear tragic consequences in t.enns
of the development of youth as well as of a well-rounded community
life. An equilibrium must be reached between what the community
itself can and should do for its youth and the assistance it must have
from outside sources.
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Appendixes
135•
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Appendix A
SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES
Tol,le 1.-Number of Births in the United States, 1910-1936
Year
Number of
births
Number of
births
Yi,ar
1910 ..••. · ·•···•·········· · ····· ····•
1911 .••••.•.•.•••••••• - .•..•• ••• •..•
1912 .•••••• • ••.• • ••.•.••.•••. . ••....•
1913 .•.•.•••• • •• •. ••. .• ••· • •·· •·•···
1924 ..... .. . ..... . . .. · ·•···· ...... .
1925 .....• . . •• · · ·•·· ········•·· .... .
1026 .... .•... ····· · · . . .. . ·....•.......
1914 .....•...•.•... . .••.•• •.. ... ··· ··
2,542,000
2,588,000
2. 633,000
2,674,000
2,781,000
1915 .•.•.•••••••.• • •.•••••••...•.....
1916 .••••••••..•••••••••• . ··• •· ··•··•
2,800,000
2,816,000
1929 .. ·· · ··· · ···· · ········· ····· ··· ··
1030 . .. .......... . . . ........ ·········
1917 .....•........•.•.•..............
1918 .........•. • ........•.•..•.......
1919 .....•..•... • .•••••...••.•.......
1920..............•.•.•••.••.. · ... · ..
11121. .••••••.•.• • ••••••••• ••• • •• .• •••
11122 .•• •••.• .•••.•••••••• ••• ••••.•..•
1923 ...............•.•...• • • .•..... ..
2,821,000
2, &14, 000
2,636,000
2, 8.',0, 800
2,95'1, 200
2, 792.000
1927 .•..... •. . . . .•.. . . ···········•··
1928 ...•••.•.• . . ··•• · · ·•·•··••• •·••·•
1931. ....•...•.•..•....••...•..•...•
1932 . .....••.•.•.• . . • . • •.. ········· · •
19.13 . · ···• · ····· • . . .• • . . •.. . .•.......
1934 . • . • ••••••.•• ..• •••• • •.••• • .....•
1935 . . .. • .• •· •··• ·• · •·••····•••··· · •
1936 .......•.... . . . .... . ....
2,893,300
2,829,400
2,767,000
2,733,000
2,612, 100
2. 525, 500
2,565,200
2,459,000
2,400,400
2,278, 100
2,373,000
2, 3.'i9, 200
2,330,000
2,823, 700
Source: Thompson, Warren H. and Whelpton, P. K., Scripps Foundation for Research in Population
Problem5, Oxford, Ohio.
Tol,le J.-Number of Youth in the United States, 1920-1952
Year
111211 ........ . . . ...•...•.... . ....... . ..
1921. •.. .. ·••·•••••••·• · •·•• • ····· · ··
1922... . ············••·•· •·• ··· · ······
1923.. ... .. . .. ... . . • .•.• ••. ... ....... .
1924 .. . .. .. ..• •. · · · •·• ·• ·• · •· · · •· · ··.
11125 .•. ···· · · • ·•··•···•·•·• · ··· · ·····
11126 .... ............ .•.... . ... . .......
1927.•........ . ..... .•• .•... . . . .. . .. . .
1928 ....... • . . . . ...•....•. . ... ........
1929...... . . . . ·· ·· · • · .•..•.. . ..• •··· ..
1930......... ...... .. ········ · ·······
li.11. ..... .• .... .. • • . ..•.• . . . • . .......
1932.•..••.•.....• . •...•.. ••..........
li.13 .. ·····• • · ....•••••• • . • .• .• ...... .
li.14 .....•.•.•••.• ..• •...•... •...•....
1935 ...... ·········· • •·•· . •• .. . .......
1936•. ············ ·· ······· · ·· · ······•
Number of
youth
16, 8411,032
17,242. 300
17,fi08, soo
17,858,000
18, 506, 200
18,513, 100
18, SOIi, 700
19,070,400
19, .548, 600
19, 8.52, 100
20, 126, 704
20,258, 700
20,452, 700
20,519,100
20,736,800
20, 78f,, 700
21,006,400
Number of
youth
Year
1ro1 .. • . • . ... •••• ....• ••.•• . . .
1938 ..•..•• • •...• ··• • • · •·· · ···
11139. ···•····· · ···· · · .. ..• . ..•
21,120.000
21,386,000
21,450. 0011
21, 526,800
21,707,000
11140 .•.. • ·· ·• . . •• · · ·· · · · ..
11141. .... •• . ••.•. • ••• . •. •. •.• • • . .
1942. . . • . • ·•· · · · · · · · · . . · · · · • · ·
1943• . ·•·• · · ·• · ••• ·•· ··· . . ·· ·-
21 ,880, 000
21,876,600
21,000,000
1944 . · -·· · •···· · ·· · · ···•· · ·· ·· ·
1945 . . ..... . . · • . . · · ····· ·· · • ·.
1946. ·· · · ·· · · · ·• · · .. · · · · · · • · ·
1947 · ·• ·· · · · . . . . . •· · ·
Ill-I~ · · · · · ··· · ··· · · .. . .... . . . .
194P . ....• . . . .. . .••••.......•. •... •
195/l .. • . .. • .•.•.•...• . .••.•.•........
21, 71ff, 000
21,540,000
21,186,000
21,006,000
20,492,000
20, 175,000
19,51. .•.••••••••••••• • • ··•·····••·•·
19,813,000
1952 . ·•·················· · ··· · ·······
19,457,000
Sources: Number of youth for 1920 rrom BW1'BU of the Cenru,, F&urlttnth C,n.,,,, of the United State,:
19t0 and for 1930 from Fiftunth Ctn.ttLa of th, United State,: 19:JO, U. 8 . Department o{ Commerce, Waah•
ington, D. a. For Ute years subsequent to 1930 estimates were mn<le by applying the pro bu hie mortality
rates to the population 5 throwh 23 years of nge, IY30, and to the number of births 1926-1936. For the
years 1921 through 1929 estimates were made by taking the number or p ersons 17 through 38 years of age
In 111:!0 and calculstlng the probable numher from whom these survived for tt,e different years. Data on
the nnmber of births were secured from Thompson, Warren H . sod Wbelptoo, P. K., Scripps Found&·
lion for Research lo Population Problems, Oxford, Ohio.
137
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138 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Tol:,le 3.-Residence of Total Population and of Total Youth Population, by Geo,raphic
Division and State, 1930
Rural
Urb&n
Urban popu- Urban youth Rural popu- Rural youth
lation 811
lation 811
percent of percent
percent of
percent of 811
of 811
total :,outh
total :,outb
total
total
popuJatlou
population
population
population
Geographic di vision and State
United.States............................
New England..................................
M.2
M.l
43.8
43.11
77.3
40. 3
58. 7
33.0
90.2
92. 4
70. 4
77. 7
83.6
82.6
78.7
41. 2
61. 2
34. 7
91.0
93. 0
72. 3
79. 6
86.0
84.3
22.7
!ill. 7
41. 3
117.0
11.8
7. 8
211. 6
22. 3
16.4
17.4
21.3
58. 8
38. 8
65.3
ll.O
7. 0
27. 7
20. 4
14.0
15.7
69.8
57. 9
32.2
44. 5
:ii. I
31. 8
47. I
58. 2
51. 0
80.4
48. 8
83. 4
81.1
84. 7
81. 2
83.11
48. 3
40. 2
1-----·l-----+-----·I-----
Maine.....................................
New Hampshire...........................
Vermont...................................
Massachll3etts.............................
Rhode Island ............... ___ .... _... __ ..
Connecticut ................ _...............
Middle Atlantic ............................ _...
New York.................................
NewJen,ey................................
1
Easn~h
Ohio.......................................
Indiana ...................... _.............
IDino!s.....................................
Michigan..................................
W lsconsin ......... __ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
West North Central............................
Minnesota .• __ .............................
Iowa.......................................
Missouri...................................
North Dakota..............................
South Dakota ........................ _.....
Nebraska..................................
Kansas........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
South Atlantic.................................
Delaware..................................
Maryland..................................
J:'istrlct of Colwnhla....... ... . . ... .... ... .
Virginia....................................
West Virginia..............................
North Carolina............................
South Carolina ................. c...........
Georgia._..................................
Florida.....................................
East South Central............................
Kentucky..................................
Tennessee.......... _.......... _............
Alabama ................ _........... _......
41. 8
49. 0
39.6
51. 2
16. 6
18. 9
35. 3
38. 8
36. I
51. 7
59. 8
100. O
32. 4
28. 4
25. 5
21. 3
30. 8
51. 7
28. I
30.6
34. 3
28. I
34.11
39. 4
35. 9
53. 3
60. 7
100. O
33. 7
29. 2
26. 8
21. 5
31. 2
weers~~t~Pc!ntriiC:::::::::::::::::::::::::
ArkansllS............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:::
20. 6
i~:~
20. 6
c~~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Louisiana..................................
Oklahoma..................................
Texas......................................
Mountain......................................
Montana...................................
Idaho......................................
Wyomin~..................................
Colorado...................................
New Mexico...............................
Aruona ........... _.............. .. ... . .. . .
Utah.......................................
Nevada....................................
Paci Ile.........................................
Washington................................
Ore~on.... ..... ............................
California..................................
iu
67.8
65. 5
73.9
118. 2
52. 9
39. 7
34. 3
41.0
39. 4
33. 7
29. I
31.1
50. 2
25. 2
34. 4
52. 4
37. 8
67. 5
56.6
SI. 3
73. 3
:::
75.8
70. 6
M. 7
42. I
49. 1
39.8
52. 9
16. 8
19. 3
50.6
28. 3
30.4
35. 2
28. 5
39. 2
34.11
41.0
39. 3
34. 2
30. 2
29.6
48. II
25. 2
34. 8
63. 2
38. 3
67. 9
57.6
/i.1. O
73. 5
:::
:n
67. 6
71. 8
74. 6
78. 7
69. 2
48.3
71.11
1111. 3
70. 8
73. 2
78. 6
l!8. 8
411.4
71. 7
1111.4
1111. 7
71. 11
:.u
79. 4
60. 3
85. 7
69.0
60. 8
1111. 3
70.11
88.11
411. 8
74. 8
85. 8
47. 8
82. 2
32. 5
43.4
48. 7
211. 7
30.2
42. l
24.2
29. 4
45. 3
57.11
50.11
60.4
47. 1
83. 2
80. 7
85. 1
60. 8
64. I
46. 7
311. 3
1111.8
64. 8
71. 6
::u
79. 4
t!O. 8
85. I
511.0
t!O. 7
85. 8
69. 8
70.4
61.1
74. 8
85. 2
46.8
81. 7
32. 1
42.4
47. 0
36. 5
Source: Bureau of the Census, Fi/tttnlll Cen,iu oJ Ille United S!atu: 1930, Population Vol. II, U. B. De-"
partment of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 11133, pp. 611,671,674, and 6114.
D19 t1zed by
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To&le 4.- Number of Youth, by Geographic Division, State, and Residence, 1930
Rural
Urban
Total
Oeograph_Jc division and State
I
Total
I
Number
I
Percent
or au
you th
Number
Nonfann
Farm
Percent
orau
youth
Number
Percent
o(all
youth
Percent
otrural
you th
Number
P ercent
o!all
youth
---
- -Un ited S1.ates ............ ....... .... ........... 20, 126, 794
0
o·
;c;.'
N.
(D
Q_
O"
'<
CJ
0
0
00
,.._
(v
New England ..... ..................................
Mnine ...... . .. ..................... . ... . ......
New H am pshire ........ . ................. ...... .
Vermont. .... . .. . ................ ....... . . .... ...
M BSSllch use t ts ..... .... . .........................
Rhode Island .. ...... .. ..........................
Connecticut. ... ......................... ..... ..
M idd le Atlan tic ............... ................ . .....
N ew York ........... .. .. ........................
N ew J ersey .. ... ...... ..........................
Penns ylva nia.. ....... ...........................
Ea.s t North Central.. ....... .......................
Ohio...... . ........ . . .. ...... . ..................
I ndiana ........... . .... ....... . .. . .............
[ll!nois ................................... .. ......
M ichigan . .. ...... .......... . ...................
Wisconsin . ... ...... ............................
West North Cen t ral. .. .............................
M inneso l.8 ............... .... .... ..... .. .......
Iowa ............................ .. . ..............
Missouri.. .. .. ... . .... ..........................
No rth D ako l.8 ........... .... ...................
Sou t h Da kota . ............. ........ ............. .
N ebraska .. ......... .. ............. .... ..........
Koosss _____ ___________ . ___ ___ __ _. __ ___ ---- ......
Sou t h Atlan tic .................................... ...
D elaware .................. . .... .. ....... ........
M ary lan d ............ .... ... .. ..... . . ....... . ....
D istrict or Col umbia .......................... ...
Virgin ia ............ . ...... .. .. . ....... . ........ .
W~ t Virgin ia ...... .. ... . ..................... ...
N ort h Ca rolina .. . .............. . .......... ......
Sou t h Caroli na ..... .. .......... .. ............ ...
Georgia ..... ............... . ....... .. .. . .. . .. ....
Florida .... ........... . .... .. .... ............ . ...
- -- -
I, 228, 115
11 5, 166
65, 788
52, 868
637,313
100,002
260,018
4, 188, 224
2,000, 613
642. 413
t, 545, 198
3, 946,300
1, 025,667
403. 964
I, 218, 123
749,667
458. 975
2, 128,536
405, 083
379, 41 3
576, 793
121,903
116, 232
226, 851
303, 213 1
2, 830, 915
37, 189
263, 197
77, 790
422,917
294, Oil
693, 2J J
335,920
657,015
248, 733
Percent
or rural
yo uth
11 , 282, 151
56. 1
8,844.643
43. 9
6,140. 9 10
25. 6
58. I
3, 703,733
18. 4
41 . 9
066, 370
47,603
40, 242
18, 335
680. 021
99, 522
180, 747
a. 331, 878
I, 721 , 287
641,315
I, 060, 276
2. 705,644
716, 255
285, 782
923,438
529, 061
251,008
895, m
198, 971
160, 322
305, 291
20, 490
22, 229
79, 084
U9, 335
1,010, 437
19, 814
159,717
77, 790
142, 640
86,080
158, 789
78. 7
41. 2
61. 2
34. i
91.0
93. 0
261, 745
67, 663
25, 646
21. 3
58. 8
38. 8
66. 3
0. 0
7. 0
27. 7
20. 4
14 . 0
15. 7
30.8
31.4
30. 2
42. 1
24. 2
29. 4
45. 3
57. 9
60. 9
60. 4
47. I
83. 2
80. 7
66. 1
60. 6
64. 1
46. 7
39. 3
72, 388
22, 881
7,317
16,3 14
12. 133
I, 505
12,148
249,071
98, 137
18, 901
132,033
672, 382
149, 228
us, 262
153, 142
113, 340
138, 410
884. 861
147,676
157,399
172, 456
74, 186
ZI. 7
33. 8
28. 6
47. 2
21. 2
21.4
17. 6
29. I
35. I
18. 7
27. 7
M. 2
48. 2
56. 8
62. 0
6U
66. 6
67. 7
71. 6
68. 7
63. 6
73. 2
71. 2
68. 5
62. 9
58. 7
189, 357
44, 782
18,229
18, 219
45, 169
6. 845
57, 123
607,276
181,189
82,197
343,889
568,470
160,184
16. 4
38. 9
ZI. 7
72. 3
84. 4
62.8
7. 1
6. 6
78. 6
101 , 282
115, 6ZI
1, 065,628
7. 361
38,016
6. 9
19. 9
II.I
30. 9
1.9
1.6
4. 9
6. 9
4. 9
2. 9
8. 6
17. 0
14. 6
23. 9
12. 6
15. 1
30. 1
39. 2
36. 6
41. 5
29, 9
60. 9
S7. 6
44. 6
38. 1
37. 6
19. 8
14. 4
38. 4
36. 7
70. 8
73. 2
78. 5
68. 8
40. 4
76,669
292, 768
172, 764
267, 889
47. 972
26. 0
49. 3
61.4
48.1
19. 3
30. 7
67, 4
6.5.5
69. 9
39. I
72,090
173, 716
125, 895
72. 3
70. 6
86. 0
84. 3
69. 2
68. 6
69. 8
67. 9
75. 8
70. 6
64 . 7
34, 633
57,292
7, 440
69, 27 1
856. 346
Zl9, 326
101 , 098
475,922
1, 240, 852
309, 412
208,182
294,685
220,606
207, 007
42. I
I, 232,814
49. I
39. 6
62. 9
16. 8
19. 3
34. 0
39. 4
35. 9
53. 3
00. 7
100. 0
33. 7
29. 2
26. 8
2t. 5
31. 2
60. 6
206, IJ2
229,091
271 , 602
JOI , 413
93, 003
147, 767
183, 926
1, 814, 478
17,375
103, 480
280, 371
208,83 1
434, 424
263, 830
383, 329
122, 838
66. a
66, 235
162, 200
42. 4
67. 9
89,920
141,543
107,266
69, 667
397, 963
58, 436
71 , 692
99,046
27,227
26, 768
46, 485
68, 290
748, 860
10, 014
65, 46.5
ll8, 171
132, 172
141,656
91,066
116,440
74, 866
22. 8
14 . 5
9. 1
12. 8
22, 3
14. 4
16, 7
18. 2
11.6
1(. 3
16.2
18. 7
1(. 4
18. 9
17. 2
22. 3
23. 2
20. 6
66. 2
71. 4
78. 8
82. 6
70. 9
64. 9
81.3
72. 3
4.5. 8
61.8
43. 2
48.0
48.6
33. (
32.3
28.4
31. 3
36. 6
26. 8
28.8
31.6
UI
C:
~
'"
~
'"-4z
)>
,0
22.6
26.6
26.9
24. 9
37.1
-<
41 . 3
67.6
63.3
a,
44 . 8
os. a
82. 6
34. 6
80. 1
27. 9
23. 9
27. 1
20. 7
30. 1
42. l
60. 9
-4
)>
r
~
....•
'°
w
....
Table .f.-Number of Youth, by Geographic Division, State, and Residence, 1930-Continued
~
•
Rural
:ii,
Urban
Geographic division and State
I
Total
Tennes.,;;;ee __________ . ________ ---- ----. ---- -- --- -
N
Alabama ....•••.................................
M ississippl. •....................................
West South Central. ...............................
Arkansas .••••........•.....•...........•.•.....
Wuisiana .......... ______________________ . ____ •.. ____
Oklahoma .•..........•... . .....................
Tems ..•••.•.....................................
Mountain ..••................................... __ ..
Montana ........................................
Idaho ........................................ • ...
Wyomini: .........•..............................
Colorado ........................................
New Mexico .................................. . .
Arizona .........................................
Utah ...........................................
Nevada .........................................
Q_
Pacific ................ . ........................ . .....
0
IQ
"'
~
G;
0
~
,;;-
Wnshlni:ton ................................•..
Oregon ......
------ --Clilifomia
---------------
I
I, 774,416
428. 845
472,650
494,811
378, 110
2,221.507
337,230
381, 22'l
43-1. 377
1,068. 678
601. 971
83,395
72. 963
36, r,73
163,302
72. 444
72. -~98
87,843
12,753
I, 206, 714
240, 722
144,882
821,110
Nonfann
:ii,
)>
Number
Ea.st South CentmL. .. _.. .. _...........•...•........
Kentucky .............. _.........................
Farm
Total
I
I
C
PerC'Pnt
of all
youth
1i02,037
130,449
lf,6,363
140,957
64,268
808,802
69,337
H9, 510
151. 408
438,547
236,488
28,521
22,041
10,861
79,923
18,248
25,281
46, 726
4,887
818,873
138,663
76, 767
28.3
30.4
35.2
28. 5
17.0
36. 4
20.6
39. 2
34. 9
41.0
39. 3
34. 2
30. 2
29.6
48. 9
25. 2
34. 8
53. 2
38.3
67. 9
57. 6
53.0
603,443
73.5
Number
1,:l72,379
2118, 396
306,287
353,854
313,842
1,412, 705
267,893
231,712
282,009
630,131
365,483
54,874
50,922
25,812
83,379
54,100
47,317
41, 117
7,866
387,841
102,059
68, 115
217,667
Percent
of all
youth
71. 7
69.6
64.8
71. 5
83. 0
63.8
79. 4
60.8
65.1
59.0
60. 7
65.8
69. 8
70. 4
51. l
74. 8
65. 2
46.8
61. 7
32.1
42.4
47.0
26.6
Number
912,120
193,863
215,544
246, 797
255,916
984,511
206,027
152,863
187, I 14
438.1i07
186,701
32,136
30,624
11,918
46,665
27,393
16,505
19,029
2,431
163,248
45, 741
32, 714
84, 793
PerC<'nt
ofall
youth
Percent
of rural
youth
61. 4
45. 2
45. 6
49.9
67. 7
44.3
61.1
40.1
43.0
41.1
31.0
38. 5
42.0
32. 5
28.6
37.8
22. 7
21. 7
19. 1
13. 5
19. 0
22. 6
10. 3
71. 7
65.0
70. 4
69. 7
81.5
69. 7
76. 9
66.0
66. 1
69.6
51. 1
58. 6
60.1
46.2
56.0
50. 5
34. g
46. 3
30. 9
42.1
44.8
48.0
39.0
Number
Percent
of all
youth
360,259
104,533
00, 743
107,057
57,926
428, 194
61,866
78,849
95,855
191,624
178, 782
22, 738
20,298
13,894
36,714
26,803
30. 812
22,088
5,435
224,693
56,318
35,401
132,874
Source: Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Cen.,,u of tht L'niltd Statu: l931J, Population Vol. II, U. B. Department of Commerce, WashlD&ton, D. C., 1933, p. 674.
Percent
of rural
youth
---
20.3
28.3
24. 4
19. 2
21.6
15. 3
19.3
18. 3
20. 7
22.1
17. 9
29. 7
27.3
27.8
37.9
22.5
37.0
42. 5
25. 1
42. 6
18.6
35.0
29.6
30.3
18. 6
30.3
23.1
34.0
33.9
30.4
48.9
41.4
39.9
53.8
44.0
49. 6
65. l
53. 7
69.1
67.9
23.4
24..4
16. 2
M.2
62.0
81.0
r
-<
0
C
-4
::r
x
m
;ii;
V,
::;
C
)>
-4
5
z
)>
z
0
~
:ii,
§
@
SUPPLEMENT ARY TABLES • 141
To&le 5.-Replacement Rates of Males 18 Through 64 Years of Age in the Rural-Farm
Population, by Geographic Division and State, 1920 and 1930
Geographic division and State
1920
United States.............................................................
New England...................................................................
Maine.......................................................................
New HBIDpshlre.............................................................
Vermont....................................................................
Mas.sachusetts............. .... ..............................................
Rhode Island................................................................
Connecticut.................................................................
Middle Atlantic.................................................................
New York...................................................................
New Jersey..................................................................
1
Easn°::.rtB:::.
Ohio........................................................................
Indiana.....................................................................
Illinois......................................................................
1930
2. 1
2. 4
-0. I
0.0
-0. 8
0. 5
-0. 5
-1. 1
-0. 2
0. 3
-0. 4
O. 4
0. 4
0. 6
-o. 3
0. 8
0. 3
-0. 1
0. 4
0. 8
0. 0
O. G
I. 1
I. 3
I. 6
1.1
1. 2
1. 3
~:2.0g
i2.0~
1-----1-----
:1iai.·:: ::::::::: :::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~i~~~~~fn ............................ ··•··•············· ······•·············
\Vest North Central.............................................................
Minnesota..................................................................
Iowa..................................... ... . .... ...... .. . ....... ... .. .....
M issourl.... ......... .... ........... .. . . .. . . .. . ....... .. .. ......... .........
North Dakota...............................................................
South Dakota...............................................................
Nebraska....................................................................
Kansas......................................................................
South Atlantic..................................................................
Delaware....................................................................
t:
2. 2
1.11
2. 0
2. 0
I. 3
1. 6
2.1
2. 4
2.3
2. 0
3. 2
0. 9
~:~
i~
2.8
2. 0
2.6
2. 7
3. 1
2. 8
2. 2
2.4
2. 3
2. 4
2. 5
we.t1J;;"~f~~ni.mi:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~:;
Texas.......................................................................
Mountain.......................................................................
Montana....................................................................
Idaho.......................................................................
Wyoming...................................................................
Colorado. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
New Mexico.................................................................
Arizona......................................................................
Utah........................................................................
Nevada.....................................................................
Pacific...........................................................................
Wa..shlngton.............. ..... ............ ... ...............................
01'e!(on.... ............. ............... ......................................
California...................................................................
2.11
2.2
I. 9
2. 6
I. 2
tl~1~fan.d···········•·······················································
West Virginia...............................................................
North Carolina..............................................................
South Carolina..............................................................
Georgia...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Florida......................................................................
East South Central..............................................................
Kentucky...................................................................
Tennessee...................................................................
Alabama....................................................................
~~t,~:~a.
.. ........... ... .... ..............................................
Oklahoma...................................................................
t:
3. 7
4. 1
3. 6
2. 2
2.8
2. 5
2. 8
3.1
~: ~
3.1
ir
i3.3~
2. 9
3. 2
1. 5
I. 7
I. 0
0. 7
I. 7
I. I
1. 3
I. 7
2. 0
2. 9
0. 2
0. 5
0. 9
0. 8
0. 2
2.1
1.4
1. 7
1. 9
1. 5
3. 1
0. 6
0. 7
I. 0
I. 0
0. 6
Sou.roes: Bnresn of I he Censn.s, Fot1rle,11th Crn~,_. of the Unit,d Stau.: /9t0 and F'f/,,nlh Cen,m of tht
Uniltd Stat,,: 19.'!0, U. S. Department ol C'ommer<'f', Washington, D. C. Special tabulation lrom the
Bureau of the Censn.s lor a~e 6.', !or rn20. The number ol deaths IO through 114 years of age was obtained
by applying rates lrom Dublin, Louis I. and Lotka, Alfred J ., Length of Lift, New York: The Ronald
Press Company, rn:16.
}.fr/hod of ea/c,1/atian: The number of persons 65 years or a~e and the number or deaths 19 throu~h 64
during the year were snbtrartecl from the numher or persons I~ ye.ars ol a~e. The re«ult (I he annual increment In the group) wss computed as a percentage of the number 18 through 64 years of age to secure the
annual replacement rate.
840\~ 0 -38--11
D~11·
zeobyGoogle
142 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SIT'JATION AND PROSPECTS
Tobie 6.--Number of Rural Youth in 1930 1 and Estimated Number in 1935,1 by
Geographic Division, State, and Residence
Total rural
Per•
cent
In-
Geographic division
and State
1930
1936
crease
Per-
1930
1936
orde-
crease
--- -- --United States...•.. S,844,M:l 9,991,600
------
cent
In-
orease
or deorease
Per-
1930
1936
cent
In-
crease
orde-
~
--- - -
13.0 5,140,910 6,107,000
- -4
New England. •••........ 261,745 30!, 700
67,663
76,200
Maine ..........•....
New Hampshire •....
25,546
31,600
Vermont .............
34,533
41,700
57,292
Massachusetts.......
65,600
7,440
10, JOO
Rhode Island .•..••..
69,271
Connecticut ..•.•••..
79,500
856,3'1fi
1,002,
JOO
Middle AUantic·--······
New York •.....•.... 279,326 332,500
New Jersey •..•..•... IOI, 098 108,600
Pennsylvania. ____ ... 475,922 561,000
East North Central ...... I, 240,852 l,4791 0CIO
Ohio ....••••......... 309,412 37i,500
Indiana. ..•••••.•.... 208, 182 247, 700
Illinois ...•.•.•...••.. 294,685 321,800
Michigan .••.•.•...•. 220,600 280,400
Wisconsin ..•.•...... 207,967 252,100
West North Central ..... I, 232,814 1,329,600
Minnesota ........... 200, 112 229,300
Iowa......•...•...... 229,091 237,500
Missouri.. ........... 271,502 319,200
North Dakota ....... 101,413 ]00, 700
92,100
South Dakota. ..•....
93,003
Nebraska ............ 147, 767 152,200
Kansas .............. 183,926 198,f,OO
South Atlantic....•...... 1,814,478 2, ()8.,, 500
17,375
21,100
Delaware .......•....
Maryland ........... 103,480 115,500
Virginia ............. 280,371 339,800
West Virginia ....•... 208,831 2.53, 400
North Carolina ...... 434,424 493, 100
South Carolina ...... 263,830 302,800
Georgia .. ····-······. 383,329 419. 900
Florida ...........•.. 122,838 139,000
East South Central.·-··· 1,272,379 I, 433,500
Kentucky ........... 298,396 362,000
Tennessee ___________ 300,287 3GO, 300
Alabama...•...•..... 353, 8..'>4 397,500
1
313,842 312,800
Wes~
I, 412, 700 I, 530,000
Arkansas ..••........ 267,893 301, 9()0
Louisiana ____________ 231, 712 2.'i.1, 700
Okh1homa. ··---····· 282,969 311,600
Tex!IS ..•.....•• _•.... 6.30, 131 &,1, 700
MountRin ...•.....••.... 36.5, 483 393, 100
Montana •...........
54,874
56,000
Idaho .........•..••..
50,922
65,100
26,800
Wyoming ..•.....••..
25,812
Colorado_ ....•....•..
83,379
87, 700
58, 700
New Mexico ..••.••..
54,196
Arizona ______________
47,317
50,600
Utah_ .•.......•.••••
41,117
48,0IJO
7, 8f,6
Nevada •.............
10,200
Pacific....... ····-······· 387,841 432. 700
Washington ..••..... 102,059 117,600
f,8, 115
81,100
Oreirnn ..••..........
California. ...••.....• 217,667 234,000
J~~i~Pd~niraC:::
Rural-nonfann
Rural-farm
------
72,388 106,600
16.
12. 6
22,881
29,600
12,200
23. 7
7,317
20. 8
16,314
22,300
12, 133
19,000
14.5
2,300
35.8
1,595
12,148
21,200
14.8
17.0 249,071 365,000
98, 137 142,200
19. 0
7.4
18,901
23,100
17. 9 132,033 HIil, 700
19. 2 672,382 885,200
22.0 149,228 210,500
19. 0 118,262 154,500
9.2 153, 142 174,200
27. I 113,340 167, 700
21.2 138,410 178,300
7.9 834,861 IHO, 100
11. 3 147,676 167,200
3. 7 157,399 163,700
17. 6 172,456 214,300
-0. 7
74,186
73,500
-1.0
66,235
64,000
3.0 101,282 IOI, 700
8.0 115,627 124,800
14. 0 I, 005, 628 1,300,800
7,361
21. 4
9. 400
II. 6
38. 015
49,500
21. 2 162,200 215,500
76, 6.,9 113,500
21. 3
13. 5 292, 768 345, ,500
14.8 172. 764 205,700
9.5 267,889 299,500
47, 972
62,200
13. 9
12. 7 1112, 120 1,056,700
21.6 10:l, 863 2.'>4, 100
17. 6 215,544 263,200
12. 3 246, 797 284, 91.KJ
-0.3 2.55, 916 254,500
8. 4 !184, 511 1,080, :mo
12. 7 206. 027 235,900
9. 5 152,863 172.100
10.1 187. 114 2!0, fl()()
5.3 438,507 461, 700
7.6 186. 701
200. 600
32, 7()1)
2.1
32, 136
35, 7()()
8. 2
30,624
3.8
II, 918
11,300
46,665
5. 2
48,800
31, 5()0
8.3
27,39:1
16, 5().5
19, /j()()
6.9
16. 7
19, 02\1
24,700
29. 7
2,431
2,400
11.6 163,248 195, 700
15. 2
45,741
59,300
IIU
32, 714
42,300
7. 5
84, 703
114,100
4.11
---------4..6
18.8 3,700,733 3,SSf,MO
47. 3
29.4
66. 7
36. 7
56. 6
44. 2
74. 5
46.5
44.9
22. 2
51.3
31. 7
41.1
30.6
13.8
48.0
28.8
9.0
13. 2
4.0
24.3
-0.9
-2.0
0.4
7.11
22.1
27. 7
30. 2
32.9
48. I
18.0
19.1
11.8
29. 7
15. 9
31.1
22.1
15. 4
-0.6
9. 7
14. 5
12.6
12.6
5.3
10. 7
1.8
16.6
-5.2
4.6
15.0
18.1
29.8
-1.3
19.9
29.6
29. 3
11.0
189,357
44, 782
18,229
18,219
45,159
6,845
57,123
607,275
181,189
82, 197
343,889
56R, 470
160,184
89,920
141,543
107,266
69,557
397, ll53
58,436
71,692
99,046
21,m
26,768
46,485
68,299
7~.850
10,014
65,465
118,171
132,172
141,656
91,066
115,440
74,866
360,259
104,533
90, 743
I07, 057
57,926
428, 1114
61,866
78,849
95,855
191,624
178, 782
22. 738
20,298
13,894
36, 714
26,803
30,812
22. 088
6,435
224,593
56,318
35,401
132,874
198, 100
46,600
19,400
Ill, 400
46,600
7,800
58,300
637,100
190,300
85,500
361,300
594,300
167,000
93,200
147,600
112, 700
73,800
419,500
62, 100
73,800
104,900
27,200
27,200
50, r,oo
73,800
784,700
11, 700
66,000
124,300
139,900
147,600
97,100
120,400
77, 700
376,800
108,800
97,100
112,600
58,300
450,600
66,000
81, f,00
IOI, 000
202,000
186,500
23,300
19,400
15,500
38,900
27,200
31,100
23,300
7,800
237,000
58,300
38,800
1311, 900
4..1
6.4
6.5
3. 2
33.4
2.1
4.ll
5.0
4..0
5.1
4.5
4..3
3.6
4..3
5.1
6.1
5.4
6.3
2.9
5.ll
0. 1
1. 6
8. 5
8.1
4.8
16.8
0.8
5. 2
5.8
4..2
6.6
4. 3
3.8
4.6
4..1
7.0
5.2
0.6
5.2
6. 7
3.5
5. 4
5. 4
4.3
2.5
-4..4
11.6
6.0
I. Ii
0.11
5.5
43.li
5.5
3.5
9.6
5.3
1 Bureau of tbs C•nsns, Fiftunth CtTil!m oflM United Statu: 1/JSO,Populatlon Vol. II, U.S. Department
of Commerce, Washington, D. C., rn:i:l, 1'· 674.
• For method of estimation see a]>p,mdt• B.
D91
zeabyGooglc
i SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES• 143
Taf,fe 7.-School Attendance of Rural-Fann an~ Rural-Nonfann Youth 16 Through 20
Years of Age, by Geographic Division and State, 1929-30
Rural-farm
<Jeocraphlo div!slon and State
l&--17 years
Total
number
Percent
attendIng
school
Rural-nonlarm
l&--17 years
1S-20years
Total
number
Percent
attendIng
school
Total
number
Percent
attendIng
achoo!
1S-20years
Total
number
PllrCellt
attendIng
IICbool
--- ------ --- --Unlted States_ 1,432,010
New England •••••..
Maine...........
New Hampshire.
Vermont
________
M~uaetts...
Rhode lsland.••.
Connecticut. ___ .
Middle Atlantic•.. __
New Yort _______
New Jeney______
Pe=lvanla. ...
EutOhio
Nort
Central.
____________
Indiana. ••• __ . ___
Dllnola •••.•••...
Michigan••...•..
20,214
11,269
2,011
4,516
3,515
435
3,4o8
72,604
27,423
5,406
39,775
195,982
43,641
34,560
42,385
35,174
40,222
Wisconsin .......
West North Central. 222,329
Minnesota..... __
39,984
Iowa ____________
40,855
48,162
Mt.sour! .........
North Dakota... _ 19, «4
17,061
South Dakota ...
25,841
Nebraska........
30,982
Kansas ..........
South Atlantic •. __ ._ 308,078
2,124
Delaware........
M~Jand _______
11,057
V
ta _________
47,975
West Virginia ___
22,414
North Carolina .•
84,237
South Carolina..
50,783
Georgia. _______ ..
75,669
Florida. _________
13,819
Ea11t South Central._ 253,645
Kentucky _______
M,678
Tenn________
59,720
Alabama ________
71,349
MIB!lssipC,I.. ... _ 67,898
West South entral. 264,382
Arkansas ________
M,584
4/J, 488
Louisiana. --- -- . Oklahoma •.•....
51,727
Texas ____________ 117,583
49,815
Mountain ...........
8,274
Montana ........
Idaho
___________
8,443
Wyoming .......
2,993
12,530
Colorado ........
New Medco.....
7,239
4,417
Arizona .........
5,325
Utah ............
Nevada ..........
594
44,961
Pacific ...............
13,251
Washington .....
Oregon ..........
9,369
California .. ___ ..
22,341
52. 0 1,838,904
19.1
867,844
57.2 1,232,742
21.3
51.6
54.8
59.6
48.0
52. 4
40.9
46.5
47.1
52. 7
48.4
43.0
52. 4
66. 7
63.4
50.1
47.5
34.3
50. 2
39.11
54.2
46. 5
47.3
52. 4
53.2
~-2
46.8
47. 5
37.0
46.8
46.9
50.8
47. 9
41.2
55. 9
52.9
47. 5
52.8
50.9
59.3
M.5
57.0
47. 6
58. 2
M.l
62.2
58.6
68.8
60.3
57. 9
58.3
54.0
80.0
69. 7
71. 2
72. 1
68. 2
71. 8
20.5
21.1
24.1
17.11
23.1
18.3
18.5
17. 5
21.2
16.8
14. 9
19.0
23. 5
23.6
18.1
17.6
12. 5
18.6
14. 4
IS.II
17. 2
17.2
46,147
10,552
4,298
4,253
11,432
1,43.',
14,177
149,189
41,202
19,630
88,357
137,266
38,540
21,339
35,489
25, llll
~6, 779
5,770
14,822
17.556
23,273
6,984
6,570
11,193
15,372
168,296
2,208
14,853
27,101
31,134
31,888
20,366
24,645
M.8
61.2
57.0
58.11
56.5
40.11
48. 1
49.6
59.9
48. 7
45.0
63.9
68.0
611.3
59.2
62. 2
65.4
70. 8
70.11
74.11
58.0
78.5
80. 2
76.1
73.9
44.9
56.3
44.1
45. 2
46.9
45. 7
38.8
43. 4
48.3
52.5
49. 7
53.8
49.2
62. 3
60.2
62.1
48. 7
66.5
61. 1
66.0
73.8
72. 9
73.1
64. I
52. 1
M.6
78.4
75.11
73.6
73.2
70.6
74. 7
21.4
23.2
23.2
22. 4
23.4
13.11
18.5
18.0
23.6
17.0
15.4
22. 8
23.5
23.8
20.11
21. 7
25. 7
30.1
31.9
31.8
22.2
37.8
38.0
31.6
31.0
15.6
20.3
14. 7
16.1
17.3
16. 7
14. 2
13.8
14.8
19. 7
19. 4
20.3
16.0
26.4
22.0
23. 7
17.2
27.3
20.8
24.11
32.3
30.6
25. 7
25. 7
16.8
18.0
28.ll
27.6
27.6
30.-l
28.3
26.2
25,875
8, 171
2,596
5,903
4,280
602
4,323
89,006
34,873
6,613
48,420
239,070
53,497
42,311
53,949
40,448
48,865
293,950
51,398
55,200
60,820
26,625
23,366
35,489
41,052
389,862
2,609
13.376
58,332
27,846
105,937
65,192
99,739
16,831
322,022
68,383
77,600
8.5, 46-1
IJO, 485
353,610
73,600
M,577
67,524
157,819
66, 748
11,004
11,061
4,200
16,689
9,889
5,989
6,929
867
57,861
16,453
11,663
29, 745
20.6
17.6
26.4
16. 7
15. 7
11.9
16.9
18.8
19. 7
17. 7
12.0
21.3
19.5
17. 8
19.6
18.0
22. 2
18.9
20.8
17.0
22. 6
17.1
26. 2
22.8
31.3
22. 5
24. 2
23. 5
25. 7
33.9
29.6
30.9
33.8
30.1
29. 6
16, IOI
78, 744
24,020
20,446
22,808
11,470
92,928
13,540
17,083
21,560
40,745
40,670
5, 7ll2
4,693
2,719
8,426
6,122
6,478
5,332
1,108
48,834
12,880
8,065
27,889
113,815
15,004
6,1117
6,146
14, 1128
2,026
19,484
203,865
59,651
ll6,IU3
117,301
186, 1157
52,739
30,094
411,«8
34,8(,8
22.808
132,247
19,283
23,678
33, 119
9,182
9,131
15,575
22, r,g
253,313
3,363
21,728
40,152
44,056
47, 798
31,915
39,906
24,395
1111, 521
34,548
30,903
35,122
18,948
140,977
20,Ml
26,179
31,644
62,613
59,376
7,704
6,671
4,518
12,309
9,123
9,931
7,418
1,702
72,671
18,430
ll, 608
42,633
Source: Bureau or the Census, Fifteentll Cen•u.t of the UnUed State,: 1930, Population Vol. II, U. S.
Department or Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1933, pp. 674 and 1133.
[)91.zedbyGooglc
144 • RURAL YOUTH, THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Ta&le 8.-llliteracy Among Rural Youth 15 Through 2-' Years of Age, by Geographic
Division and State, 1930
·
Rural•nonfarm
Rural•farm
Geographic division and State
Total
number
Pereent
Illiterate
Total
number
Peroent
Illiterate
United St~tes .........................•..........
5, 8M, 210
4. 8
4, 131, 564
New England .•.•••.......................•.•••••...•..
Maine ..•.........•......••...•.......•...••••.....
New Hampshire .•.•......•.......•................
Vermont .................................••........
Ma.ssschusetts ..•.•.•....•.......••.•.•.•••........
Rhode Island .......•...............•.•............
Connecticut...•..................................•.
Middle Atlantic....................................... .
NewYork .••....•.................................
New 1ersey .•••........ --·-·············-······ ....
1
Easn~lc!,~
Ohio .....•••••.•.......... - ................. -·····.
Indiana .•••••.•.••...... -............ -• -...... - ... Illinois ..•••••.••...•............................•..
Michigan ..•••.•.•.................................
Wisconsin ......••••••..... -........... - .•.•....•••.
West North Central ................................... .
Minnesota .•...•••.•.................•........•.• -Iowa ..•••..•.••.••.........................•...•...
Missouri .....••••............................••••..
North Dakota. ...........................••........
South Dakota..••.........•.....•.••••.••••.•••....
Nebraska .•••.•..•.......•..•...•..........••••....
Kansas ........•...•.................•..•..•........
South Atlantic ..••••..............•.....•.•.....•......
Delaware ..••.•.••..............•..................
Maryland. .•.......................................
Virginia. ..•....••.•................................
West Virginia.................•....................
North Carolina .....•..............................
South Carolina.......••.........•..................
Georgia ...•••..•••..•..............................
Florida..•..•.....•........•............•...........
East South Central ..••...........•.....•..............
Kentucky•...••.....•.........•.......•............
Tennessee •..............•...............•..........
Alabama.....•.•...................................
82,683
26,104
8,341
18,621
13,888
I, 796
13,933
286,067
112,474
21,602
152,091
771, 774
171,236
135,447
174,343
131,585
159,163
945,477
167,926
177,867
196,834
83,776
74,776
113, Sill
130,438
1, 220, 269
8. 358
..-i. 579
186,550
87, 730
1. 0
I. II
0.5
o. 6
0. 6
1.4
0.4
o. 5
o. 5
212, ll60
1. 1
20,465
20,363
51,186
11,544
0.5
o. 7
1.6
2.7
t"rai::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
wesr~~TI:~i:iim1::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Arkansas .............•...............•.............
LouLslana ......•................................•.
Oklahoma.•......••..........................••....
Texas .•...•........................................
Mountain. ........................................•.•..
Montana ....•...............•...................•..
Idaho ..••.•.•.......•..•....•••...............•.•..
~ro~A~g::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::
New Mexloo ••......•......•...........•••.••.•.•••
Arizona ..•..................•.........•.•..••••••••
Utah ..•.•.•.•..•..............•....•..•....•....••.
Nevada .•.•.........•.......•...•.............•.••.
Pacific ..............•...............•.•...•.•.....••••.
Wnshlngton ......................••.......•...•.••.
Oregon ....•••.••...•.......••.•..••••.........•.•••
Ce.llromia ••••••••.•••.•••••••••.•••••••.•.•.•••.•.•
335,007
198,069
305,947
54,933
1,035, 758
221,032
244,335
281, 718
288, 673
1, 116, 300
233,691
173,335
212, 60-I
496,670
211,305
35,686
34,930
13,365
53,006
31,013
18,675
21, 8911
2,i31
185, 57;
52,478
37. 35;1
95, 746
0. 9
0. 4
0. 4
0. 4
0. 4
0. 4
0.4
0.3
0. 5
o. 3
0. 2
1. 4
0.4
0.4
0. 3
0.3
8. 4
2. 0
3.0
7. 3
2. 7
8. 4
13. 9
8. 1
7. 3
8. 1
4. g
5. II
10. 4
10. 2
6. 6
•. 9
13. 4
1. 9
6. 9
3. 9
0. 6
0. 2
I. 0
I. 5
10. 6
17. 9
I. I
1.9
1. 2
0. 3
0. 2
2. 0
no, 1112
64,240
684,842
202,800
92,316
389,726
638,609
179,942
100,671
1511, 186
120,369
78,441
-M5, 407
66,088
80,6M
110,459
30, 8«
29,950
51,833
75, .~72
829,132
11,172
72,844
131,226
147,005
156,841
100,384
126,006
82,604
397,084
116,072
100, 25.l
117,595
63, 164
473,978
68, 44S
87,301
106, -168
211, 761
200,151
26,505
22,614
15,303
40,972
29,800
33,997
24,940
6,020
249,401
62,874
39, •s2
H7, 075
3. 0
1. 5
0. 7
o. 8
0.11
1. 1
0. 7
0. 8
0. 8
0.11
0.8
0. 7
0. 8
0.8
0. 3
0.4
1.4
0.3
0. 5
0. 7
1. 2
11.1
1.4
2. 5
11. 5
2. 7
5.6
11.5
6. 4
8. 7
5. II
4. 7
5. 0
7. 3
G. 6
4. II
2. 8
8.8
1. II
5. 5
3.3
0. 7
O. G
1.1
2. 4
9.5
5. 8
0. II
2. 2
1.6
0. i
o. 8
2. 2
8ource: Bureau or the C•n•n•, Fi(l,enlh Cm.,,• of tht Fnited Statu: 1930, Population Vol. II, U. S.
Department or Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1933, p. 1256.
DgilzeclbyGoogle
Tat.le 9.-High School Enrollment in the United States, by Geographic Division and Residence, 1931-32, 1933-34, and 1935-36
Percent
Increase or
decrease
Total
Percent
Increase or
decrease
Urban
Percent
Increase or
decrease
Rural
Geographic division
1931-32 1933-34
1931-32 1933-34
1931-32
1933-34
1~
to
to
1933-3-1 1935-36
United States _________ 5,140,021
New England _______________
363, 595
l\Iiddle Atlantic ____________ 1, O.,Y, 709
East North Central _________ I, 153,451
West North Central ________
62:l, ZiO
South Atlantic ______________
562,459
East South Central_ ________
278, IOI
West South Central ________
488,240
Mountain __________________
192,984
Pacific ______________________
418,212
--5,669, 1511
6, 974,537
10. 3
39-1, 676
1,253,456
1,255, 741
670. 296
627, 796
313,006
506,411
205,382
441,495
410,555
1,342, 791
I, 285. 613
681, 71l3
8. 5
18. 3
8. 11
i. 6
II. 6
12. 9
3. 7
6. 4
6. 6
61!2, 922
32S, 139
560,397
216, 511
468,646
5. 4
- --
4. 0
7. 1
2. 4
1. 7
8.8
3. 6
10. 7
5. 4
6.1
1931-32
1933-M
19:IS-36
--3, 216,073 3,466,922 3,575,360
to
to
1931-32 1933-M
1931-32
1113.'>-36
to
to
1933-,14 1935-38
--- --- --- --- --- ---
7. 8
3. I
I, 1123,1148 2,202, 237 2, 31111, 177
- - --- --- - - -283,247
- - -319,-114- -321,618
80,348
12. 7
0.8
ll5ij, 249 I, 015, 908 1,059,491
;w, 4;1
829,5-16
746, 48 1
321,380
330, 754
305. 077
242,216
Z71 , 007
255,206
100,421
107, 336
114,940
237,085
249,165
242. 624
94,349
97,030
89, 188
317,610
318, 779
330,057
1933-34
1933-34 1935-36
18.2
7.1
6.3
-10.6
6.9
-2.3
5.8
3.6
4.3
3.8
2. 9
6.4
7.1
6. 1
2.8
-3.8
200,460
406,970
318, 1113
291,452
177,680
2-15, 616
103, 796
99, 433
75,562
237, 548
456,264
348,916
385,580
206,570
269,326
111,033
111,438
88,937
283,300
456,267
351,009
427, 716
210,199
311,232
119,481
151,036
H. 5
8. 9
-6. 0
18.6
12.1
9. 7
32. 3
16.3
9. 7
7.0
12. I
17. 7
19. 3
o.o
0.8
10. 11
1. 8
16. 8
7.8
35. 6
Source: U. 8. Depw-tment of the Interior, Office of Education, Washington, D . C.
I
0
co;=..
;;;-
CD
0.
-:?"
L)
0
a
,..._
(v
~
X,
-<
m
►
6i
....•
•
VI
146 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Table 70.--Percent of Rural Youth 1 Married'- by Geographic Division, State,
Residence, Age, and ::,ex, 1930
Rural-farm
Oeographlc division and
111--111 years
Rural-nonfum
:ID-24yean
State
Male
Female
Male
Female
IC.-IIIJMn
Male
Female
New England ................
Maine .....................
New Hampshire ..........
Vermont ....................
MassachuaettlL...........
Rhode laland.................
Connectlcnt ....................
Middle Atlantic..................
New York.........................
New Jersey ..........................
Pe~lvanla. ...................
Eut No
Central ...................
Ohio.........................................
Indiana .............................
Dllnolll ...........................
Mlchlpn .........................
Wl.9consln ........................
West North Central...............
Minnesota........................
Iowa ...........................
Mlllsourl ...................
North Datot&.. ..............
South Dakota ......... _.. __
Nebraska.. .......................
Sou~Tt:iiic:::·::::::::::::
Delaware ................................
M~and ..........................
V
la ............................
West Virginia ......... _.....
North Carolina.. ..............
South Carolina ................
~...........................
East South CentraL............
Kentucky .............................
T e ~ ......................
Alabama .............................
MlllslasiP&:-· ......................
West South
ntral ...............
Ark-.............................
Loulslaoa ...............................
Oklahoma.. ...........................
Texas .....................................
Mountain ............................
Montana .............................
Idaho ..................................
W!omlng ......................
Coorado ..........................
New Mexico ....................
Arbon& ......................
Utah ............................
Nevada .......................
Paclllc ...............................
Washington. - -................
~on ..........................
al ornla .•..............
0.8
1.4
1.0
o. 7
0.8
O.li
0.2
0.11
o. 7
O.li
1.0
0.8
O.ll
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.4
0.11
0.4
0. 7
1.8
0.4
O.li
0.8
0.11
2. 7
I. 2
1.0
1.6
1.4
2. Ii
2.11
4. 4
2.0
4.0
3.4
3.11
3. 7
li.O
3.2
4.2
3.3
3.0
2.8
I.I
0. 7
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.6
I. 7
1.0
0. 7
0. 7
0. 7
o. 7
0. 7
7.11
11.e
8.3
ll.4
3.9
Ii. I
3.3
7. 7
8.2
8.4
7.4
8. I
7.8
ll.1
ll.4
7.8
6.8
9.0
5.li
8.1
14.7
6.1
7. 7
8.8
II.I
Iii. I
12.1
II.II
11. 6
11.4
14. 3
14. 7
19.8
16. Ii
20.ll
19.3
18.8
19. 8
2/i. 3
20.ll
2/i. 4
21.1
20.6
18.8
13.0
10.3
11. 6
13.8
13.8
17.4
17.4
7.9
11. 7
II.Ii
7.4
9. 2
10.8
Male
Female
--- ---
---
United States................... --2. 2
14. 7
---
:ID-24y-,.
29.2
57.0
2.1
Ul.8
aa 7
Iii. 7
20.8
18. 2
18. 2
ll.4
13. 1
8.11
17. 6
18.3
13.2
111. I
18.1
18.4
22.4
20.9
18.1
13.1
19.4
11.0
19.ll
211.0
13.4
18.0
20.3
21.9
34.0
26.1
21.0
2/i. 6
21.11
34.li
39.8
41.ll
30. 7
42.0
3/i. g
38.2
43.4
48.4
38.8
44. 9
41.2
38. 7
3/i. 6
21.4
16.6
21.2
17.9
23. 7
26.0
26.2
111.3
13.3
14. 4
13.6
Iii.I
14.8
43.0
62. 3
40.1
liO. ll
31.3
31.6
28.li
44.3
47.1
39.3
42.9
40.li
4/i.8
li0.4
Iii. I
lil.6
49.0
li2.0
43.8
62. 8
118. 8
47.1
61.2
64.2
62. 4
M.2
M.O
li0.4
48.8
411.8
/iii.Ii
M.O
lill.7
lill.2
82. 6
81. 4
lill.ll
IIO. ll
88. 7
85.3
611. 2
64. 8
67.1
82.8
lill.9
lill.O
li8.8
62. 4
62. 4
81.8
82.6
60.3
M.3
M.O
60.3
64. I
/iii.II
1.1
I.II
I.Ii
1.3
0.6
1.0
O.li
1. 2
0.11
0.8
1.4
I.Ii
1. 7
2. 2
1.3
1.3
0. 7
1.3
O.li
1. 2
2.2
O.li
0.8
1.2
1. 7
3.3
14
1.4
2. 3
2.3
3.11
4.11
6.0
3.3
4. 2
4.4
4.4
4.1
3.11
2.11
3. 7
2. 8
3.1
2. 7
1. 7
0.8
). 4
1.3
1.8
2. 4
2.1
1.8
1.1
I. 2
1.4
1.4
I. I
11.0
18. 4
11. 7
12. Ii
ti.Ii
7.8
li.8
11.3
II.II
10. 1
12. 3
13.3
14. 0
15. 2
13.0
14. 3
8.8
11. 2
8.1
ll. 7
17.li
li.8
7.4
II.Ii
13.11
21.4
Iii.ti
14. 7
18.0
23. 7
Ill. 4
22. 7
23.3
28.li
2/i. 2
KS
32. 4
Z.4
22. ll
Z.3
24.8
22.8
KIi
22. 4
23.6
21.8
18. 4
11.4
16.ll
17. 7
17. 7
Kli
KO
13.11
21.0
16.3
16. 8
18.0
UI.J
28.11
71. 7
20.9
23.8
Ill. 6
28.6
24.6
26.4
31.6
31.ll
33.8
Sli. 7
30.0
34.0
23.8
71.8
18.8
28.0
3/i. Ii
18. 3
21.3
26.8
211. 7
39.8
32.11
28.8
34.8
39. 3
43.11
47.8
42. 5
39. 7
44. e
4/i. 4
«. 7
4G. l
40.4
39. 1
44.0
39.2
41.6
88.3
211. II
22. a
31.8
21. 8
30.6
37.ll
31.0
32. ll
23. 3
26.8
26. 7
31.3
K2
II0.8
--48.1
M.4
li0.8
68.8
41.11
4/i.8
41.4
M.4
lil.4
153. 2
M.S
80.8
82. 3
113.2
M.O
85.4
lil.3
li0.8
40.ll
47. 7
81.4
40. 7
«. I
48.0
68.4
64. 4
81.1
li8. 7
80.8
71.3
81.8
113. 7
82. 4
71.8
88.6
70.2
64. 8
87.0
81.9
87.1
87.11
85..0
70.4
88.1
85.6
68.0
85..4
85.8
112.2
70.li
71.8
85.. 4
811. 2
88.1
85..1
88.ll
811. 0
• Persons 15 through 24 years of age.
flouroe: Burau of the Census, Ffftetfllli
of 1M United Stale,: /98(), Population Vol. ll, U. S.
Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., 1933, pp. 8-48, 934, and 936.
c,,.....
Dgt
zedbyGoogle
SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES • 147
Taf,#e 11.-Marriage Rate per 1,000 Population, by State, 1926-193-t
State
192111
19271
19281
--United Btetes _________
10.3
JO. 1
ll.ll
--- --- --New England:
Maine __________________
New Hampshire________
1112111
19301
19311
111321
11133 I
10. 1
9.2
8. 8
7.9
8. 4
9. 7
19341
8. 1
10. 2
8.0
7.3
7. 7
7. 7
7.9
JO. 7
7.ll
7.2
7.8
7.4
7.8
10.6
8. 5
6.8
7.1
7.0
7.8
11.2
7.6
7.2
7.8
7. 7
8. 1
11.0
7.3
6.4
7.0
6. 9
7.8
11.ll
7.1
8.1
6. 7
6. 2
7.0
11.8
6. 7
6.3
6.ll
6.8
7.8
13. 7
-
16.6
8.3
8. 7
6. 2
7.0
7.ll
7.3
10. 7
7. 7
7.5
10.4
7.6
7.3
9.ll
7.8
8.ll
9.8
7.6
7.4
ll.3
7.0
6. 7
9.0
6.4
6. 2
8. 1
6.5
5.8
8. 3
6.8
6.5
ll.4
6.ll
8.0
8.4
12. 9
11. 5
9.1
6.8
8.8
13.1
11. 0
8. 1
5.8
8. 7
12. 9
10.8
8.1
6.4
10.0
13. 8
11. I
7. 7
6. 2
9.0
11.9
9.9
6.1
5.2
8.4
11.8
9.3
6.ll
5.0
4. 4
11.0
8.4
6. 7
4. 7
---
-8.5
8.ll
8. 7
10.8
6.2
8. 7
7.0
11. I
8. 7
8. 7
10. 6
6. 2
8.6
7.0
10.8
8.6
8. 6
10.6
6. 7
ll.6
7. 1
10. 7
ll.5
8.ll
10.6
6.1
ll. 7
7.4
11. 2
8.8
8.4
9.6
6.6
9.4
i.4
10.8
7.6
6. 7
ll.3
5.3
10.0
8. 0
9. 7
6. 7
3. 2
ll.6
5.3
10.3
8.6
8.ll
4.6
16.4
10. 4
8.5
11.0
7.9
13. I
II.I
21.6
4. 8
15. 7
10.3
8. 7
JI. 4
7. 7
13.8
9.6
15.8
4. 7
15.0
9.8
8.3
10. 7
7. 3
13.4
9.5
12. 8
6.2
15. 6
11. 7
9.8
11.2
6. 0
15. 7
11. 2
12. 7
4. 7
15.0
11.0
ll.8
10.2
4.6
15.0
10.4
11.8
4. 2
15.0
10.8
10. 4
10.4
4. 1
16.2
9. 7
11.5
3.8
13.8
10.0
10.1
10.5
3. 8
14.8
8. 9
10.0
11. 3
13. 3
11. ll
16. 0
11. 9
13.5
11.8
16.6
IJ. 4
13.5
11. 2
16. 9
11. 7
10. ll
11.2
15.8
11.ll
7. ll
10.4
12. 8
13. 0
7.6
9. 7
10. 7
12. 0
6. 8
9.4
11. I
Oklahoma ______________
Texas ______________ . ____
14. 8
10.8
l1. 7
13. 2
13.9
10.3
12. 0
13. 7
14. I
9.5
11. 7
13.9
16. 4
10.0
15. 1
11.0
Mountain:
Montana __ ------------Idaho __________ --------wiomlng _______________
Co orado ________________
New Mexico ____________
Arizona _________________
Utah_----------------Nevada_________________
13.5
9.9
15.2
7. 7
13. 2
9.5
14.0
6.9
13. 8
ll.O
13.11
6. 7
7.5
8.4
8. I
11. 3
11.5
9.2
10.8
15.9
9.8
8.4
7.5
11.1
12. I
10.8
11.0
31.0
10.8
8.5
7. 3
11. 1
12. 4
13.5
11.0
11. 4
10.8
8. 7
12. 7
17. 3
12. 5
63. 7
9.4
5. I
5.5
ll.5
19.6
17.1
11. 2
82. ll
11.2
53.ll
10.1
JO. I
7.8
II. 3
20.5
17.6
II.I
67.0
17. I
11. 2
76.2
-70.1
11.6
8. I
13.1
12. 0
8.3
12.1
11.9
8. 6
10. 3
12. 7
8.8
9.4
JI. 7
8. 0
8. 8
JI. 3
7.6
8.1
10. 1
6.9
7.3
7. 7
Vermont ________________
MMMChusetts__________
Rhode Island ___________
Connecticut ____________
Middle
NewAtlantic:
York ______________
New Jersey _____________
Ea.l:,r~rti:tra1,-------Ohio ____________________
Indiana _______ -- -- . - . ___
Illlnob _________________ .
Michigan _______________
Wisconsin. - -----------We11tMinnesota
North Central:
______________
Iowa _______ -------------
M!asourf ____ -- ------. -- .
North Dakota __________
South Dakota __________
Nebffll!ll:a _______ ------ --
Kansas __ ----------- ____
South
Atlantic:
Delaware
_______________
Maryland ___ -- . - -_. ____
Dbtrict of Colombia ....
Virginia ___ .---------- __
West Virginia___________
North Carolina _________
South Carolina _________
Georgia ____________ --- __
Flortda __ -----------. ___
EastTenn
Rooth Central:
Kentucky ________ .. _. __
_______________
Alabema ________________
wesfJ:~p&:niiaii - -- - --Arkansu. ______________
Lonblana _____ ---- ----- -
Paclllc:
Washington ___________ .
Ore1ton _________________
Calltomla. ______________
HU
3.4
3. 4
6.3
:JO. 8
6. 8
6. 3
6.6
6. 0
8.8
-
6. 7
-
8. 1
-
10. 7
8. 2
9. 7
7.0
11.ll
ll.O
10.9
4.2
14. 7
4. 8
17. 2
11. 5
13.0
-11. 7
--
-
12. 5
16. 0
-
-
14.6
-
-
11. 5
13. 6
11.ll
14. 7
15. 2
16.8
8.6
-
11.1
--
--
--
---
-
101.3
--
8. 4
1 Bureau or the Censna, Marriage and .Dl,oru, Annual Reports, U. B. Department of Commerce, Wuhhlllton, D.C.
.
- r Estimates fuml8bed by the Metropolitan Lire Insurance Company throngb the courtesy of Loul8 I.
Dublin. Tb- estimates are lower than those publbhed by Stouffer, Samuel A. and B_penoer, Lyle M., In
"Marrla&ll and Divorce In Recent Yeers," Anno/a oftlu Amer/eon Acadtmr of PolUleal and SociaJ &itflct,
Vol. 1118. ~ovember 1938, p. 118.
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Appendix 8
METHOD OF ESTIMATING THE
NUMBER OF YOUTH
ESTIMATING THE number of youth for 1935 and 1940 involved two
basic steps: (1) the application of expected mortality rates, and (2)
adjustments for the probable migration from farms to urban areas.
The total number of youth in 1935 was estimated as the number
11-19 years of age in 1930 who survived to 1935. The probable
percentage decrease because of deaths was computed from life tables
prepared by the Bureau of the Census. 1 This procedure was also followed in estimating the total number of youth in 1940 by using the
group 6-14 years of age in 1930.2 Similar methods were followed
as the first step in estimating urban, rural-nonfarm, and rural-farm
youth for both 1935 and 1940.
The second step, that of estimating the probable migration of
youth from farms between 1930 and 1935, was made as follows.
Since it has been estimated that one-third of the net migration from
farms consist of youth, one-third of the estimated net migration from
farms to villages, towns, and cities by States 3 were subtracted from the
total survivors in the rural-farm group 11-19 years of age and added to
the survivors in the same age group in the cities. This gave the
approximate number of youth on the farms and in urban territory
in 1935 by States.
1 Bureau of the Census, "Life Tables for White Males, White Females, Negro
Males, and Negro Females, Continental United States: 1930," Vital Statistics-Special Reports, Vol. I, No. 20, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C.,
July 27, 1936, pp. 389-399.
1 The estimates for both years are subject to a slight error since the probable
decline in the number of white males was applied to the total youth population
in all cases.
• Calculated from data prepared by 0. E. Baker and Conrad Taeuber. See
Baker, 0. E., "Rural and Urban Distribution of the Population in the United
States," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.
188, November 1936, p. 264; and Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Farm Popir
lation Estimates, January 1, 1936, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C., release of October 27, 1936.
149
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150 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
The estimate of the number of rural-nonfarm youth by States was
made without taking into account any expected migration, since
estimates of the rural-nonfarm population made by Thompson. and
Whelpton of the Scripps Foundation for Research in Population
Problems show a differential of only about 33,000 between the estimates of rural-nonfarm youth aged 15-24 yea.rs in 1935 with and
without migration.•
If one-third of the net migration from farms to cities were youth,
there was a cityward movement of approximately 125,000 farm
youth during the year 1935 and 150,000 during both 1936 and 1937.
Assuming that migration will continue at the same rate during 1938
and 1939, it was possible to correct the total estimates for 1940 for
migration. No attempt was made to estimate the probable migration
to cities between 1935 and 1940 by States.
' See Dorn, Harold F. and Lorimer, Frank, "Migration, Reproduction, and
Population Adjustment," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science, Vol. 188, November 1936, p. 280 ff.
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Appendix C
LIST OF TABLES
TEXT TABLES
Table
Page
1. Percent of total population and of total youth population in urban and
rural areas, by geographic division, 1930________________________
3
2. Estimated percent distribution of migrants from farms, by age and
sex, 1920-1930_______________________________________________
8
3. Population of the Unired States, by age and residence, 1930_________
8
4. Residence of rural youth in the Unired States, by geographic divison,
1930________________________________________________________
5. Color of rural youth in 13 Southern States, by residence, 1930_______
6. Replacement rates of males 18 through 64 years of age in the ruralfarm population, 1920 and 1930________________________________
7. Replacement rates of males 18 through 64 years of age in the rural-farm
population, by geographic division, 1920 and 1930________________
8. Number of rural youth in 1930 and estimated number in 1935, by geographic division and residence_________________________________
9. Youth population of the United States, by residence, 1930 and 1935__
10. Estimated migration of youth to and from farms, by geographic
division, 1930-1934 _________________ --- ---- ------------ ------11. Youth population in 1930 and 1940 with no rural-urban migration
assumed for the decade, by residence___________________________
12. Type of employment of workers in agriculture, by age and sex, 1930__
13. Workers in agriculture in the United States, 1920 and 1930__________
14. Comparative average expenditure per pupil and length of session in
urban and rural schools, by geographic division, 1933--34__________
15. School attendance of youth 16 through 20 years of age, by residence
and sex, 1929-30______________________________________ --- . __ 16. Illiteracy among rural youth 15 through 24 years of age, by residence,
10
12
13
13
15
16
17
20
23
33
43
45
1930________________________________________________________
49
17. Grade completed by out-of-school yeuth in 7 submarginal counties,
by age, 1932 __________________________________________ -- _____
50
18. Percent married of total youth population, by age, residence, and sex,
1930________________________________________________________
58
19. Percent married of total youth population, by residence, age, and sex,
1910, 1920, and 1930_ ---------------------------------------20. Percent married of rural youth population, by age, residence, and sex,
60
1930________________________________________________________
61
151
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152 • RURAL YOUTH: THEIR SITUATION AND PROSPECTS
Table
PQ{l6
21. Percent married of total youth population, by age, residence, color,
and sex, 1930___________________ ----------------------------22. Percent Jll8rri~ of rural youth population in 13 Southern States, by
residence, color, and sex, 1930_________________________________
23. Marriage rate per 1,000 population in urban and rural States, 19261929 and 1932_______________________________________________
24. Prisoners 15 through 24 years of age received from courts by Federal
and State prisons and reformatories, 192~1935__________________
25. Young people reached by the Cooperative Extension Service of the
United States Department of Agriculture through the older young
people's program, by geographic division and State, 1936_________
26. Number and percent that youth constituted of all workers on WPA
projects in 9 selected States, November 10, 1937__________________
63
64
66
85
90
107
SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES
1. Number of births in the United States, 1910-1936__________________
2. Number of youth in the United States, 1920-1952__________________
3. Residence of total population and of total youth population, by geographic division and State, 1930_______________________________
4. Number of youth, by geographic division, State, and residence, 1930.
5. Replacement rates of males 18 through 64 years of age in the ruralfarm population, by geographic division and State, 1920 and 1930..
6. Number of rural youth in 1930 and estimated number in 1935, by
geographic division, State, and residence________________________
7. School attendance of rural-farm and rural-nonfarm youth 16 through
20 years of age, by geographic division and State, 192~30________
8. Illiteracy among rural youth 15 through 24 years of age, by geographic
division and State, 1930_ _ _ _____ ___ ____________ ___ ___ _________
9. High school enrollment in the United States, by geographic division
and residence, 1931-32, 1933--34, and 1935--36___________________
10. Percent of rural youth married, by geographic division, State, residence, age, and sex, 1930______________________________________
11. Marriage rate per 1,000 population, by State, 1926--1934____________
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137
137
138
139
141
142
143
144
146
146
147
Index
153
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INDEX
Agricultural Adjustment Administration:
Page
Indirect aid to youth furnished by ______________________________ 88,109
Objectives____________________________________________________
109
Agricultural workers (see also Farm):
Employment opportunities _____________________________________ 30-36
Income _______________________________________________________ 23, 25
Number and type ____________________________________ 21-22, 23, 24, 33
Allen, R. H ____________ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _- _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ 39, 80, 126
114
Alliance for the Guidance of Rural Youth____________________________
Allin, Bushrod W _______ -- --- - -- - ---- - -- -- - - - _ - - - _- ____________ 7, 9, 17, 18
American Council on Education_____________________________________
45
American Country Life Association__________________________________
83
American Farm Bureau Federation ________________________________ 110-111
American Library Association _____________ - _________________________ 81, 82
American Youth Commission_ _ _ _ __ __ __ _ ___ __ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ __ _ _ _
42
Anderson, W. A _______________________________ 9, 25, 28, 50, 62, 76, 80, 81, 82
Apprentice, definition (see also National Youth Administration)_________
100
Ashland Folk School_______________________________________________
115
Automobiles. See Recreational facilities.
Baker, 0. E ____________________________________________ 6, 7, 17, 33, 86,149
Beattie, Jessie Louise ________________________________ - __ __ ___ _ __ __ _
82
Beck, P. G __________________________ - - _- _- - - - - _- - - - - - - ... - - _- - 19, 35, 36
25
Beers, Howard W _______________ . ___ . __ . _______________ . _. ________
Bell, Howard M____________________ . - _- . __ - - - - - - _- - - . - - - - - - - - ... - 64
Bennett, C. G ___________________________________ . ______ . ___ . ______
52
Birth rate. See Fertility rate; l\Iarringe, early; l\larriage, postponement;
Youth, number of.
Births, number of_ ____________ ._. __________________________ . ____ 1, 3, 137
Bitting, H. W ______________________________________ - _. - _______ - - - 33
Bloodgood, Ruth S _________________ ------ ----- ---- - -- -- . -- -- -----85
Bossard, James H. S ____________________________________ . _. - __ - __ . 65
Bowler, Alida C ___________________________ - _- - . _ - - - - . - - - - - - -- - - -- 85
Boynton, Agnes M___ __ ________________________________ 27, 29, 49, 50, 75, 80
Brown, Richard R ______________ . ___________________ .. ____ - ____ - _- 97
Brundage, A. J ________________________________________ 25, 28, 29, 75, 76, 80
Brunner, Edmund dcS _______________________________________ 11, 19, 36, 74
Caliver, Ambrose__________________________________________________
Campbell Folk School_ _________________ -- - -- -- - ---- - - -- - -- - - - -- -- _
Carr, L. J ______________________________ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - __
44
115
85
155
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156 • INDEX
Census, Bureau of the:
Page
Agriculture _________________ - _ - ______ - __ - - - - - _ - - - - - - - - - - - ___ - _ 10, 34
Life tables____________________________________________________
149
Marriage and divorce, annual reports ___________________________ 67, 147
Population _______________________ - __ - - _ - _ - _ - _ - _ - - - - __ - - - __ - - _ 3, 4, 5
7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 20, 23, 24, 33, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 53, 58,
59, 60, 61, 63, 88, 103, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146.
Prisoners in State and Federal prisons and reformatories _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _
85
Chambers, M. M__________________________________________________
110
Christensen, Chris L_ _______ ______ ____________________________ ____ _
112
Church, L. M ________ ------- - - - -- -- - - - - -- - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 34
Churches (see also Recreational facilities):
Membership, youth ____________________________________________ 74-76
Role of, in community life ______________ -~-- _____________ - - _ __ _ _
74
Civilian Conservation Corps:
Conservation work ______________________ - _ - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - _- _ 105-106
Educational and vocational training program _______________ 106, 122, 131
Educational functions for out-of-school youth______ 48-49, 88, 120--121, 131
Employment:
Eligibility for ___________________________________ 101,102, 104-105
Types of _______________________________________________ 101-102
Work experience obtained through _________________ . ________ 105,106
Enrollment:
Age limits ______________________________________________ 101, 102
Eligibility for _________ - --- - - - -- -- -- - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - 104-105
Enrollees, age and residence of_ _______________________ 102, 103-104
Period of_ ___________________________ - _ - - _______________ 102, 103
White and Negro compared ___________________________ 103-104
Relief status and ______________________________________ 30, 104-105
Trend____________________________________________________
105
Illiteracy _____________________________________________________ 48-49
Objectives __________________________________________________ 101-102
Reports:
Anniversary, fourth ______________________________________ 102, 106
Annual _________________________________________ 101,102,103,105
Educational activities, scmiannuaL __ _ _ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ _ __ _
106
Selection, quarterly______________________________________ 102, 105
Clayton, C. F_____________________________________________________
35
Congress, Acts of:
Public, No. 5 ___________________ - _______ - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ - _ - 101
Public, No. 27L______________________________________________
133
Public, No. 308_ __ _ _ ___ ___ _ _ __ _ ___ _ ___ _ _ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _
100
Public, No. 673_ _ _ _ _ __ _ ___ __ ___ __ _ ___ ___ __ __ _ _ __ __ ___ _ _ __ _ __ _ _
54
Cook, Katherine M___ ______________ __ ___________________ _________ _
51
Cooper, 1\1:artin R_ _ __ __ __ _ _ ___ _ __ __ __ _ _ __ ____ _ __ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ __ __
34
Cooperative Extension Service. See Four-H Club; United States Department of Agriculture.
Cooperative youth clubs (see also Recreational fac-ilities):
Functions____________________________________________________
Location ______________________________________________ - ___ - _Cottam, Howard R_ _ _ ___ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ _ ___ _ _ __ _ _ _
Cottrell, L. S., Jr ______________________________________________ 39, 80,
Cowles, l\lay L____________________________________________________
Creamer. Daniel B _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ ___ _ _ __ _ ___ __ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ _ ___ __ __ _
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113
113
52
126
27
126
INDEX•
157
Page
84,85
86
84--85
84,85
83
84, 85
Types committed, rural-urban comparison _______________________ • 85-86
Crime:
Age distribution ______________________________________________ _
Combating, suggestions for ____________________________________ _
Economic statue and __________________________________________ _
Frequency ___________________________________________________ _
Leisure-time use and __________________________________________ _
Trend _______________________________________________________ _
Darling, H. D ____ __ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ ___ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ ___ _ _ _ _ __ __ __
Dawson, Howard A________________________________________________
Dawson, W. M______ _____________ . ___ . ___ ___ __ ____ ____ ______ ______
19
44
89
Delinquency. See Crime.
Dennie, W. V _______ . ______ • _________ • _______ . _• ___ • _ ___ _ _ __ _ __ 7 5, 76, 78
Discussion groups_. ____ . ____ . ____ .________________________________
123
Dorn, Harold F ______________ . _. _________ . ____________________ 6, 8, 9, 150
Douglass, H. PauL _________ ~ _ _ ___ _ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ ___ _ _ ____ __ _
110
Dublin, Louis L ______ . _________________ . _______ . _______ . ____ 13, 141, 147
Duncan, 0. D ____ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ ___ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ _ __ ___
9
Duthie, Mary Eva ____ . __ . _____________ . ________ .__________________
89
Earnings, rural youth (see also Agricultural workers, income; Youth, rural,
income) ________________ . _________________ ._~_. _____ 23, 25-26, 27, 28-29
Economic status. See Youth, rural.
Education (see also Civilian Conservation Corps; Educational facilities;
National Youth Administration, out-of-school youth; Works Progress
Administration) :
Advisory committee on, reportoL __________ . ___ . ____ . ____ . __ .. __ 41, 132
High school graduates, residence of. ____________ . ___________ .____
19
Illiteracy (see also Civilian Conservation Corps):
Definition________________________________________________
47
Reduction in ______________________________________ ·------- 48-49
Rural-farm and nonfarm youth, by region and State _______ 47-49, 144
Office of, promoting cause of out-of-school youth (see also United
States Department of the Interior) ______ . ___ ._________________
90
School attendance:
Facilities, availability of, and_______________________________
44
Federal Emergency Relief Administration, effects of, on________
52
High schools, rural-urban ______________________________ . ____ 51-52
Percent of, by residence and sex •• ___________________________
45
Postgraduate high school work, increase in.__________________
51
Rural-farm and nonfarm youth, by region and State. 45-47, 51-52, 143
Works Progress Administration, effects of, on_________________
52
School session, length of, by region and residence. _________________ 42, 43
Vocational training ____________________________________________ 93--94
Special studies_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ ___ ___ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ ___ _ _ _ 53--54, 84, 94, 128
State board reports, digest of ______ . _____________________ . __ 53, 93
Educational attainment, by age, residence, and sex _________________ 47, 4~50
Educational facilities (see also Education):
Availability _______________________________________________ 41-44, 120
Expenditures per pupil, by region and residence__ __ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ _ 41-42, 43
High school enrollment, by race, region, and residence ____________ 42-43,
44, 51, 118-119, 145
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158 • INDEX
Educational facilities-Continued.
Page
Vocational training courses (see also Civilian Conservation Corps,
educational and vocational training program):
Agricultural, number and adequacy ot,'by region ______________ 53-55
Federally-aided schools having ___________________________ 53-55, 88
For out-of-school youth ____ - _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ 93-94
Non.agricultural:
Availability of, by region_______________________________
55
Need for_____________________________________________
55
Smith-Hughes high schools having ____ . __ . _.. _ ___ __ _ __ _ 52-53, 54, 87
Educational needs:
Federalechooleupport_________________________________________
120
Fol'UD18___________________ ____ ___________ ___ __ _____________
123
Occupational guidance _________ __ _________ . __ . ___ 118-119, 120, 121-123
School facilities ___________ •. __ .. ___ . _________ .________________
120
Vocational guidance _______ • . _.... _. _.. _.. . . _. __ .. _ _ ___ _ _ __ __ 11 !}-120
Vocational training ______ . _ ....... _.. ________ .. _. _.. __ _ __ __ __ 11 I}- l 21
Educational News Bulletin, The ___________ . __ . _________ .___ __ ________
115
Edwards, A. D _______ .. _.. - - - - - .. _. _.. _.... - - - - ... ________ ____ 39, 80, 126
Edwards, Gladys Talbott _______________ . _____________ ._____________
111
Edwards, Newton ________________ ._. _______ - -- - - ____ . _____ . _ _ __ ___
42
Emergency Conservation Work. See Civilian Conservation Corpe.
Employment (see also Agricultural workers; Civilian Conservation Corps;
National Youth Administration; United States Employment Service;
Works Progress Administration, work projects):
Opportunities, urban _________________ . ___ . _.. _ _ __ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ __
40
Rural:
Extent of ______ .... __ . ____ .. _. __ . ____ .. __ .•. ________ 25-27, 28-29
Nonagricultural _________ _______________________________ 36--37,38
Occupations, type of_ __________ ..... _______ .... 25, 26, 27-28, 3!}--40
Older workers, competition with ____ .. _.... _. _____________ 37, 3!}--40
Service industries furnishing ________________________ 38, 40, 126-127
Sex and ___________________________________ _______________ 28,30
Technology as factor in _______ . __ . _____ ...• __ . __ _ __ _ _ 34-35, 37-38
Unpaid ______________ ___________________ 22, 23, 24, 25, 26-29, 32-33
Extension Service, Cooperative. See Four-H Club; United States Department of Agriculture.
Extension services, State. See Recreational facilities.
Ezekiel, Mordecai __________ . ______________ .. _. ____ . _ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ M,
~
Farm:
Debt_________________________________________________________
31
Laborers. See Agricultural workers.
Mechanization __________________________________________ 34-35,37-38
Population estimates _______________________________________ 17, 20,149
Real estate, equity in__________________________________________
31
Tenancy ___________________________________________________ 31-32,33
Fann Bureau, JJnior:
Membership_ . __ ... ________ . _ __ __ _ __ __ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _
111
Objectives __________________________________________________ 110-111
Fann Credit Administration (see also Four-H Club; Future Farmers of
America):
Farm rental plan, related to youth ___________ __________________ 108-109
Loans to youth _____ . ____ . _________________ __ _____ 88, 108, 122-123, 124
Report, fourth annual_ _____ • ____ _ _ _ __ _ ___ ___ __ __ _ _ _ ___ __ __ _ ___ _
108
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Page
Farm School, Asheville, N. C _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _
115
Farm Security Administration:
Aiding farm youth ___________ --'--______________________________
124
Resettlement Administration succeeded by ______________________ 109-110
Farm youth. See Education; Marriage; Residence; Youth, number of;
Youth, rural.
Farmers Educational and Co-operative Union:
Family membership __________________________________________ ._
111
Junior membership____________________________________________
111
Objectives____________________________________________________
112
Fechner, Robert _______ --------____________________________________
105
Federal Emergency Relief Administration aid to youth_________________
52
Federal Reserve System, Board of Governors of the____________________
37
Fertility rate, by race and residence_________________________________ 1, 3-6
Folsom, Josiah C _____________________________________________ 7, 23, 33, 78
Foott, Frances____________________________________________________
18
Forestry camp, Douglas County, Wis________________________________
113
Forster, M. C _____________________________________________________ 35, 36
Foster, Emery M_______ _______ __ _______ ___ ___ __ ___ __ ____ __________
51
Four-H Club:
Farm Credit Administration loans to members_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 108-109
Limitations ___________________________________________ ._______
89
Membership __________________ . _________________________ 76-77, 88-89
Programs for older youth ______________________________ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
89
Enrollment, by region and State _____________________________ 89-90
Objectives and scope___________ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 89, 91-93
Frayser, Mary E ___________________________________ 55, 71, 73, 75, 76, 78, 81
Frey, Fred C ________ .__________________________________________
9
Future Farmers of America:
Farm Credit Administration loans to members __________________ 108-109
Manual of, revised ________________ ·_____________________________
54
Membership ____________________________________________ 54, 76-77, 87
Objectives _______________ . __ ._________________________________
54
Galpin, C. J _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
55
Garnett, W. E ________________________________________ 50, 63, 74, 76, 78, 79
Gaumnitz, W. H ____________________________________________ 42, 45, 47, 50
Gee, Wilson ___ . ____________________________ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
9
George, William R_ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
130
George-Deen Act, provisions of______________________________________
54
Gessner, Amy A _____________________________________________ 44, 75, 80, 81
Glover, Katherine_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
94
Gooch, Wilbur!_ ___________________________________________ 44, 83, 84,114
Goodrich, Carter ______________________________ 7, 9, 17, 18, 35, 36, 37, 38,125
Graham, A. B_____________________________________________________
89
Gray, L. C _____________________________ • _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
35
Guidance programs:
Breathitt County, Ky ________________________________________ 113-114
Need for ___________________________________________________ 118-120
Rockland County, N. y ______________________________________ 114-115
Hamilton, C. Horace _________________________________ 9, 18, 35, 65, 67, 74, 78
Hamlin, Herbert M ______________________________________ ---------53
Harley, D. L ____________ . ___________________________ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
94
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Page
Harris, T. L ____________________________________ - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Hartland Area Project_____________________________________________
Hauser, Philip M ______________________________________ -- _ __ _ _ __ _ __
89
115
40
Hayes, Marion________________________________________________ 7, 9, 17, 18
Hearinga Before the Committee on Education and Labor, United Statu Sen-
ate_____________________________________________________________
42
Hearinga Before the Subcommillee of the Commillee on Appropriatiom, Howe
of Representatives, in Charge of Deficiency Appropriations______________
99
Heisterman, Carl A__________ ______________________________________
68
Herlihy, Lester B____ __________ __ ______________ _________ ___________
43
Herring, Harriet L _____________________________________________ 39, 80,126
Bettig, T. David__________________________________________________
36
Hibbard, Benjamin H__ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
32
Bill, George W _____________________ . _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
18
:µoffer, C. R______________________________________________________
83
Hoover, J. Edgar____________ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
84
Hubbard, Frank W________________________________________________
82
Hummel, B. L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
52
Hurst, W. M _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ ___ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ _
34
Hutchins, H. Clifton_______________________________________________
94
Hypes, J. L_ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
77
Illiteracy. See Civilian Conservation Corps; Education.
Income. See Agricultural workers; Youth, rural.
Indiana. Rural Education Survey Committee, report oL _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Industries, rural, development of (see also Youth, rural, problems of)_____
44
21
James, J. A_____________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 19, 49
Jessen, Carl A_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
94
Johnson, Thomas B _______________________________________________ 50, 75
Johnston, James A________________________________________________
84
Jones, Inis Weed_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
113
Joy, Barnard D _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___________________________ 26, 28, 88
Kaplan, Irving____________________________________________________
38
Keller, Franklin J __________________________________________ 44, 83, 84,114
Kendall, J. C _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
91
Kirkpatrick, E. L ___________________________________ 27, 29, 49, 50, 75, 76, 80
l\'.itson, Harry D_ _ ___ _____ _ __ _ _ _ __ _______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ __ _ _
94
Kolb, J. H _____________________________________________________ 19, 36, 49
Landownership, corporate _________________________________________ _ 33-34
Lazarsfeld, Paul F ________________________________________________ _
58
Leisure-time activities (see also Recreational facilities; Works Progress
Administration, recreational program):
Changes in __________________________________________________ _
71-74
Crime and. See Crime.
Depression, effects of, on_________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 82-83
Transportation facilities and ____________________________________ 71-73
Types oL ____________________________________________________ 71-73
lnformaL _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 80-81, 82-83
Leybourne, Grace G ______________________________________________ 40,125
Library service, rural. See National Youth Administration; Recreational
facilities; Works Progress Administration.
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Page
Lindeman, Eduard C_ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ ___ _ __ __ __ _ __ __ __ _ ___ _ __ __ __ _ __ ___
130
Lindstrom, D. E __________________________________________________ 78, 89
Lively, C. E _ _ _ _ __ __ ___ _ _ _ __ __ __ ___ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ ___ _ 18, 26, 29, 44, 75, 80
Lorge, Irving_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ ___ _ _ _ __ _ ___ _ __ _ __ _ ___ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ __ 19, 7 4
Lorimer, Frank __________________ .____________________________ 8, 9,127,150
Losey, J. Edwin___________________________________________________
77
Lotka, Alfred J ___________________________________________________ 13,141
Lutz, Philip, Jr___________________________________________________
85
McCormick, T. C ________________________________________________ _ 52,79
Magill, Edmund C _______________________________________________ _
50
Mann, A. R _____________________________________________________ _
86
Marriage:
Adjustments needed __________________________________________ _
69
Early, effect on birth rate _____________________________________ _ 68-69
Factors affecting _____________________________________________ _ 68-69
Family limitation, opposition to ________________________________ _
69
Percent of, by age and sex:
Rural and urban compared _______________ . ___________ 58-60, 62-63
Rural-farm and nonfarm compared ______________ ·---·- ______ 60--63
Regional variation ___________________________ 60, 61, 62--64, 146
White and Negro compared _________________________________ 63--64
Postponement ________________________ . _______ . __________ 57-58, 60, 64
Rate:
Decline in __ . ___________________________________ . ______ 57-58, 64
67
Relief status and. _______________ . __ __ __ _ __ ___ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ ___
State laws affecting. _______________________________ . _______ 67-68
Trend in, by residence and State ________________________ 64--69, 147
Massachusetts League of Cooperative Clubs__________________________
113
Matthews, Ellen Nathalie ___________________________ ----___________
39
May, Mark A_____________________________________________________
57
Mechanization. See Farm.
Melvin, Bruce L _________ l8, 19, 29, 52, 67, 72, 73, 79, 95, 96, 97, 99,101, 102, 103
Michigan Censm of Population and Unemployment. ____ ~ _________ 17, 18, 28, 40
Michigan Youth___________________________________________________
112
Migrants, rural youth as:
Age and sex distribution __________________________________ 7-8, 9, 18, 19
Method of estimating ________________________________________ 149-150
Percent of total_______________________________________________
7-8
Relief status__________________________________________________
18
White and Negro compared_____________________________________ 9--10
Migration (see also Migrants, rural youth as):
Direction of___________________________________________________ 9--10
Economic security and. ____________________________________ 39--40, 125
Factors in____________________________________________________
9
Part-time farming movement and________________________________
19
Submarginal land areas and____ ___ __ _ ___ ___ __ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ __ __
7
Trend ________________________________________________ 7, 16--17, 19--20
Youth:
Net, to and from farms, by region _________________________ 7, 17-18
Principal age of_ _____________________________________ 7, 17-18, 19
Miller, L. J _________________________________________ ________ 26, 44, 75, 80
Miller, Leonard M _______________ . ___________________ - . _. _- _- __ ___ _
114
Miller, Nora ______________ .. ·------------------------------------29
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162 • INDEX
Page
Mobility studies ___________ . ____________ ------- __ ------ ______ 16-17, 18-19
Morgan, E. L____________________________________________________
81
Morison, F. L_____________________________________________________
19
Morris, Glyn A____________________________________________________
116
Motion pictures, year book of (see alao Recreational facilities) ______ .____
72
Murray, W. G _________ --- --- - --- - - ---- ---- - --- - - - - - - - -- - --- _ __ _ _ _
33
Nathan, Robert R__ __ ____ __ ___ _ _ __ ___ __ _ _ ___ _ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ ___ _ _
22
National Grange:
Membership _________________________________________________ 76,112
Roster, official ______________________ ., _ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ ___ _ __ _ _ __
112
National Resources Committee:
Farm tenancy _________________________________________________ 31, 33
Population _______________________ - _____ - _____ -- - _____ ---- - _ 3, 6, 7, 42
Technological trends _________________________________________ . 34, 37
National Youth Administration:
Apprentice training program __________________________________ 100-101
Employment __________________________________________________ 97-99
High school dormitory system___________________________________
107
Industrial and occupational studies______________________________
121
Junior placement service __________________________________ 99---100, 110
Library services aided by _________________________________ ; _ __ __
82
Objectives ____________________________________________________ 94-95
Out-of-school youth:
Educational functions for _______________________ 87-88, 120-121, 131
Training centers for________________________________________
97
Vocational training ______________________________ 96-97, 98-99, 131
Earnings_ _ _ ___ __ _ ___ __ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ ___ _ _ 96, 99
Enrollment ___________________________________ . _ _ _ __ _ _
96
Methods _____________________________________________ 96-97
Work projects, employment on:
Earnings_____________________________________________
98
Eligibility for _______________ ·-- __ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ _ _ __ _ _
97
Types oL __________ ---- __ --------- __________________ 97-98
Workers, number, residence, and sex of_ ____________ 18, 97, 98-99
Relief statue and ______________________________________________ 95, 96
Reports_________________________________________ 40, 82, 94, 95, 98, 100
Residence of youth aided_______________________________________
99
Student aid:
Number of youth receiving, by residence _____________________ 95-96
Wages___________________________________________________
95
Work performed, types of__ _ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ ___ _ __ __ __ _ _ _ __ __
95
Vocational guidance service ___________________________________ 100,122
Work cam pe, women's_ _ _ _ __ ___ __ __ _ __ __ __ _ ___ __ __ _ _ ___ _ _ _ __ __ _
101
Nebraska Vocational Agriculture Association_ _ _ _ _ __ _ ___ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ __ _
27
Negro youth (see also New Farmers of America):
Civilian Conservation Corpe enrollment, period of_ ______________ 103--104
Educational facilities:
Availability of high schools, and enrollment ___________________ 43, 44
Retardation ____________________________ . __________________ 47, 48
School attendance _________ ·-- _________ . ___________________ 43, 47
Vocational training ________________________________________ 54-55
DgitzeclbyGoogle
INDEX•
Negro youth-Continued.
Married:
Percent of rural, by State __________________________________ _
Percent o_f total, by age, residence, and sex_ _________________ _
&sidence distribution, by State ________________________________ _
Negroes:
Educational attainment related to leisure-time activities ___________ _
Fertility _____________________________________________________ _
Migration ___________________________________________________ _
Nelson, Lowry _________________________________ -- ---- ____________ _
New England Federation for Cooperative Clubs ______________________ _
New Farmers of America __ _______________________________________ _
Norman, Charles A _______________________________________________ _
Northern States Cooperative Youth League __________________________ _
~
163
Page
63,64
63
11-12
78
6
9-10
36,52
113
54
33
113
Occupations. See Youth, rural, problems of.
Odum, Boward W ________________________________________________ _ 32,41
Ogburn, William F _______________________________________________ _
58
Olin, Grace E ____________________________________________________ _
19
Organizations, rural. See specific organizations; Youth, organization
activities.
Osborn, Frederick________________________________________________ 41, 127
Out-of-school youth (see also Civilian Conservation Corps, educational
functions for out-of-school youth; Education, Office of; Educational
facilities, vocational training courses; National Youth Administration;
Works Progress Administration):
Agencies aiding:
Governmental
___ ~---------------------------------------87-110
Nongovernmental
_______________________________________ 110-116
Numberof ____________________________________________________ 87-88
Parks, public. See Recreational facilities.
Part-time farming. See Migration; Youth, rural, problems of.
Patten, Marjorie_ _ _ ____ _____ ____________ _____ __ _ ___ ____ ___ __ ___ ___
92
Pearson, James H _ _ _ ____ ____ __ _________ ___ ____ _____ ________ _ _____ _ 109
102
Persons, W. Frank_________________________________________________
Peterson, Guy A_ _ _ _ ___ __ ______ __________ ____ _____ _ ____ ___ _____ ___
32
Pine Mountain Settlement School_ ________________________________ 115--116
Playgrounds. See Recreational facilities.
Population:
Age distribution, 1930, by residence______________________________
7-8
Distribution, rural-urban, by region and State ________________ 1, 3, 42,138
Farm and nonfarm youth, percent of_____________________________
12
Stationary____________________________________________________
6
Population, rural-farm (see also Farm, population estimates):
Decline_______________________________________________________
7
Replacement rate of males, by region and State _______________ 12-14, 141
Method of computing ______________________________________ 12-13
Posner, Harold L __________________________________________________ 37, 38
Private institutions serving rural areas (see also specific institutions)_____ 115--116
Problem areas_______________________ __ __ ___ ____ __________ _____ ____ 35--36
Programs for Which OuJ.-of-School Young People in BreathiU County, Kentucky Are Asking________________________________________________
27
Punke, Harold H __________________________________________________ 75, 81
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164 • INDEX
Radio. See Recreational facilities.
P<Jfle
Rainey, Homer p _________________________________________________ _
109
Raper, Arthur F __________________________________________________ _ 79,80
Reckless, Walter C _______________________________________________ _
86
Recreational facilities (see also Works Progress Administration, recreational
program; Youth, rural, social and recreational needs):
Adequacy of ______________________________ 76, 77, 79-80,82,83, 128-130
Automobiles __________________________________________________ 72-73
Churches providing_ ___ __ __ __ ___ _ __ _ __ __ ___ _ __ _ __ ___ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ 72, 7 4
Commercialized ___________________________________________ 71, 73, 130
Cooperatives__________________________________________________
72
Extension of, in rural areas_____________________________________
73
Extension services, State_ _ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ __ ___ __ __ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ 72, 92-93
Factors affecting participation in ________________________ 77, 80, 128-129
Federal agencies providing ____________ . _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ _ __
73
Leadership for _______________________________________________ 77, 130
Library service, rural:
Federal agencies promoting ________________________________ _
82
Inadequacy of ___________________________________________ _
81
State aid for _____________________________________________ _
82
Motion pictures ______________________________________________ _ 72-73
Parks, public __ . ______________________________________________ _
73
Playgrounds _________________________________________________ _
73
Radio _______________________________________________________ _
73
Swimming pools_______________________________________________
73
Relief. See Civilian Conservation Corps, enrollment; Marriage, rate;
Migrants, rural youth as; National Youth Administration; Youth, rural
relief.
Renne, Roland R___ _ __ _ _ _ _ ___ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ ___ __ _ ___ _ __ _ _ _ __
33
Resettlement Administration:
Indirect aid to youth furnished by __________________________ 88, 109-110
Rehabilitation families transferred to_____________________________
30
Report, first annual____________________________________________
109
Reeidence:
Rural-farm and nonfarm, by region______________________________ 10, 11
Rural-urban, by region and State ______________________ 1, 3, 6, 10-11, 138
Reuss, Carl F _ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ ___ __ _ __ _ _ ___ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ ___ __ ____ _ ___ _ _ _
9
Ross, W. A_ _ ___ _ __ _ ___ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ ___ __ __ _ _ __ __ __ ___ _ _ _ _ ___ _
54
Runk, Dewees____________________________________________________
9
Salter, L.A., Jr___________________________________________________
Sanderson, Dwight_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ ___ _ _ ___ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ ___ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _
Schickele, Rainer__________________________________________________
Schools. See Education.
Sellin, Thorsten __________ .____________ __ __ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _
Seymour, Aja Clee____ __ __ ___ ___ ______ ___ __ __ ____ ____________ _____ _
Shalloo, J. P _ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ __ _
Simons, L. R_ _____ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ ___ ___ __ _ __ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ ___ _ __ __ _ _
19
64
33
85
76
84
91
Sitterley, J. H __ -------------------------------------------------19
Smick, A. A______________________________________________________
9
Smith, Elna N _ _ __ _ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ ___ _ __ __ _ _ 19, 73, 79
Smith-Hughes high schools. See Educational facilities, vocational training
courses.
Sneed, Melvin W _________________________________________ - - -- - ---81
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Social planning for youth:
Page
County ____________________________________________________ 121-122
State _______________________________________________________ 121-122
Social Security legislation, in relation to youth____________________
132-133
Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, provisions of_ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _
109
76
Sones, Ellwood____________________________________________________
Spencer, Lyle M _________________________________________ 57, 59, 60, 65,147
Starrak, J. A ________________________________________________ 25, 49, 75, 77
Steiner, Jesse F _ _ _ _ __ ___ _ _ ___ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ ___ _ __ ___ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ _ 72, 73
Stouffer, Samuel A ____________________________________ 57, 58, 59, 60, 65,147
Strayer, George_ _ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ _ ___ __ ___ _
111
Stutsman, Rachel_ ________ . __ . _ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ _ ___ _ __ _ ___ _ _ __ _ __
39
Survey of Y ouih in Denver______ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
39
Swanson, H. B ________________________________________________ 93, 94,107
Swimming pools. See Recreational facilities.
Taeuber, Conrad----------------------------------------~-- 18, 20, 36,149
Taxpaying ability, variation by States _______________________________ 41-42
Taylor, Carl C ____________________________________________________ 18, 36
Technology as factor in employment ___________________________ 34-35, 37-38
Tenancy. See Farm.
Thompson, Dave _________________________________________________ _
85
Thompson, Warren H ________________________________________ . ____ _
137
Thornthwaite, C. Warren __________________________________________ _ 9, 10
Thrasher, Frederic M _____________________________________________ _
83
Thurow, Mildred B _______________________________________________ _
75
Tough, Rosalind ___________________________________________________ _
27
Tractors, number, 1930-1035 _______________________________________ _
34
Transportation. See Leisure-time activities; Recreational facilities, automobiles.
Troxell, W. W _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 39, 80, 126
Turner, H. A-____________________________________________________
31
Unemployed youth (see also Employment, rural, extent of)_ XI, 2,5, 26--27, 39-40
Unemployment, definition __________________________________________ 21-22
United States Department of Agriculture:
Agricultural statistics__________________________________________
23
Cooperative Extension Service:
Educational functions for out-of-school youth ______________ 88, 89, 90
Four-H Club program of. See Four-H Club.
Report of the Secretary_ __ __ __ _ _ _ ___ _ ___ ____ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ _ ___ __ _ _
109
United States Department of Commerce. See Census, Bureau of the.
United States Department of the Interior:
Office of Education _____________________ 53, 54, 55, 84, 87, 88, 93, 128, 145
Report of the Secretary_ _ _ _ ___ ___ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ _ __
94
United States Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation,
reports _________________________________________________________ 84,85
United States Employment Service:
Apprentice training committee____________________________________ 132
NY A Junior Placement Service _____________________________ 99, 100, 110
Scope________________________________________________________
110
Youth:
Placement of, by __________________________________ 39, 88,110,132
Registration of, with_______________________________________
97
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166 • INDEX
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Vance, Rupert B _____________________ ------- - ____ --- _-- ___________ 39, 55
Vaniman, V _________________________________ ·--------------------111
Vasey, Tom _______________________________________________________ 23,78
Vocational guidance, need for_____________________________________ 119-120
Vocational training. See Civilian Conservation Corps, educational and
vocational training program; Education; Educational facilities; National
Youth Administration, out-of-school youth; Negro youth, educational
facilities.
Wakeley, Ray E_____ ___ _ _ __ ____ ____ _ ___ __ ___ _ __ ___ _ __ __ __ __ ___ ____
77
Waller, T. M ___ - __ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ ___ __ __ __ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ ___ _ ______ _ ____
93
Watkins, D. W____________________________________________________
32
Weintraub, David _________________________________________________ 37, 36
Whelpton, P. K __ - __ - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - _____ -- ---- _______________ 6, 137
White, Edwin E___________________________________________________
116
Wileden, A. F---~--------------------------------- 27, 29, 75, 77, 83, 89,113
Williams, Aubrey_________________________________ __ __ __ __ __ ___ _ __ _
108
Wilson, M. C __ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25, 28, 29, 75, 76, 80, 89
Wisconsin Farm Short Course:
Age of students_____________ ___ _ __ __ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ __ _ ___
112
Courses offered ____ - -- _ - - - -- -- - - -- - - - ___ - ____________________ 112-113
Enrollment, 1936_ _ ___ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ __ ___ __ ___ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _
113
Women's clubs, membership ________________________________________ 76-77
Woods, R. H _____ _ __ ___ _ __ _ ___ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ __ _ __ __ ____ __ _ __
27
Woofter, T. J., Jr _______________________________________ 7, 13, 31, 32, 34, 36
Works, George A__________________________________________________
43
Works Program, reports ____________________________ 18, 82, 95, 96, 98, 99, 106
Works Progress Administration:
Educational projects------------------~-------------------- 48, 49,107
High school dormitory system___________________________________
107
Library services provided___ _ __ _ __ ___ __ _ __ __ ___ __ __ __ __ ___ _ __ _ _ _
82
Out-of-school youth, and:
Educational program for _____________________ . _____________ 87-88
Meeting problems of_______________________________________
88
Recreational program_ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ _ _ 83, 108, 132
Work projects:
Types of employment_ ___________________________________ 106-107
Workers on, number, and percent youth constitute of________ 106, 107
Youth, school attendance of, aided by____________________________
52
Yoder, F. R _ _ _ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ __ __ __ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ ___ __ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ _
9
Young, E. C_ __ _ __ __ __ ___ ___ _ _ ___ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ ___ _ __ __ ___ _ __ __ _ _ _
9
Youth:
Definition__ __ _ ___ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
XI
Number of:
Birth rate affecting________________________ ___ __ __ __ ___ _ __ _ 1, 3, 6
By region, residence, and State, 1930_________________ 10-11, 139-140
By year, 1920-1952_ __ __ __ __ __ __ ___ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ ___ ___ _ __ _ __ 1, 3, 137
Change in:
1930-1935, by residence _____________________________ 16, 18-19
1930-1940, by residence, without migration_____ __ __ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ 20
Decline in, in urban areas __________________________________ 16, 20
Estimated for 1935 _ _ _ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ _ ___ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ _
1
Increase in, by residence ______________________________ 7, 10, 15-16
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INDEX• 167
Youth-Continued.
Page
Number of-Continued.
Method of estimating ____________________________________ 149-150
Trend _____ ----- _________________________________ 1-3, 6, 16, 18-19
Organization activities:
Age distribution __________________________________________ _
77
Extent __________________________________________________ _
74-77
Factors affecting _________________________________________ _ 77-80
Problems, related to (see also specific subjects) :
Agriculture_______________________________________________
11
Economic depreBBion ____________ ___ _____ __ ____ __ ___ ___ ____ _
1
Factors in ____ ... __ . ___ .. _- - . - _.. __ .. ___ . _____ . ______ XI, 117-118
Industry_________________________________________________
11
Migration. See Migration; Migrants, rural youth as.
Number, increase in _______________________________________ _ 15,20
Population structure. _____________________________________ _
12
Race ____________________________________________________ _
11-12
Residence _______________________________________________ _
1
Youth, rural (see also Agricultural workers; Youth, number of; Youth,
rural relief) :
Economic categories_ _ _ __ _______ ______ _______ ___ __ __ __ ________ _
22
Economic opportunities. ___________________________________ 21, 22, 123
Factors restricting .. _______________________________ 31-36, 124-125
Economic status:
Measures of_____________________________________________ _
21
Submarginal land areas and_________________________________
27
Farm youth, as percent of, by State _____________________________ 10, 11
Income:
Average annual. ___ ...... ___ . _. ___ .. ___________________ 25, 28-29
Farm income related to__ _ __ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___________________
28
Sources of __________________________________________ 23, 25-26, 29
Number, increase in, by region, residence, and State _____ 14-16, 18-20, 142
Percent of, by State _________________________________________ 3, 6,138
Percent of, in rural population._________________________________
12
Problems of:
Agricultural and nonagricultural.. ___________________________ 3G--40
Governmental responsibility for ___________________________ 131-133
Local responsibility for, importance oL ______ • ____ . ___ ______ 133-134
Migration as solution of. _________________________________ 125-126
Occupations, service, solving ___________________________ 38, 126-127
Part-time farming as solution of_____________________________
126
Rural industries related to.________________________________ 11, 126
Social and recreational needs __________________________________ 127-130
Youth, rural relief (see also Civilian Conservation Corps, enrollment; Marriage, rate; Migrants, rural youth as; National Youth Administration):
Employment experience _______________________________________ _
30
Number and trend ____________________________________________ _ 29-30
Residence ___________________________________________________ _
30
30
Sex ______ ·-----------------------------··-------------------Submarginal land areas and ____________________________________ _
30
Youth, urban. See Residence.
Zimmerman, Carle
c_________ ___ ___ ______ ________ _____ _____________
9
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@FedFRASER