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REEMPLOYMENT OF
NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
IN PRIVATE INDUSTRY
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
Women's Bureau Bulletin No. 140
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
UNITED STATES DEPARTM ENT OF LABOR
FRANCES PERKINS, Secretary
WOMEN'S BUREAU
MARY ANDERSON, Director
+
REEMP LOYME NT OF NEW ENGLA ND
WOME N IN PRIVATE INDUST RY
By
BERTI-IA M. NIENBURG
B u LLETIN OF THE WoMEN's BUREAU,
No. 140
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1936
For sale by the Supe ri ntendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - - - - - - - - - - Price 15 cents
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CONTENTS
Letter of transmittaL ________ ____ ______ _____ __ ______________ _____ _
~~ -~~~-
~~~~~
The M'!!j~11~fe f~f~~;rt;-g;;ds- f
i;~(
=================
Potential market for a staple fabric for wool gloves _______________ _
Need for a low-to-medium-priced canned fish in interior and hightemperature areas where fresh fish is not easily obtainable _____ _ _
Potential markets for "epicurettes" ______ _______ ______ _____ __ ___ _
Domestic engineers' household clinic __ ___ ________ _________ ______ _
A centrally managed organization to build up various types of service
for the care of preschool children and children up to 10 years of age_
Incipient solution of the household-service problem _______ ________ _
Introduction __ ___ ___ __ ____________ ___ ____________ _____ ___ ________ _
Origin and purpose of survey __ ______________________________ ___
Scope of survey ________ _____ ___ ____ _______ _______ __ _________ __
Methods of survey ___ ___ _____ ________________________ ____ ____ _
Sec. 1. The resources of New England __ _________ ________ _____ _____ _
Momentum of an early start in manufacture and trade ___ _____ __ _ _
Women's part in the d evelopment of New England' s manufacture and trade ______ ______ ______________ _______ ____ ____ _
Massachusetts unemployed women breadwinners _________________ _
Numbers unemployed ___________ _______________ _______ ___ _ _
Ages of unemployed women __ _________ ________________ _
Occupational experience of unemployed women ___ ___________ _
Problems d emanding solution ______ ___ ___ __________________ _
Problems confronting unemployed factory workers _____ ____ ______ _
Problems in cotton-mill cities ___ _______ _______ _____________ _
The Fall River women cott on-mill workers in 1935 ____ ___ _
New Bedford cotton-mill operatives in 1935 _____ __ ______ _
Mill operatives' problems still pressing for solution __ ____ __
Employment problems in shoe-manufacturing cities in 1935 ___ _
Women shoe operatives in the Old Colony area, 1935 __ ___ ____ _
Women seeking relief in this shoe area __ ____ __________ __ _
Women in woolen and worsted industry in 1935 ________ ___ ___ _
Unemployment among other women factory workers in Massachusetts __ _____________________ ____ ______ ___ ____ _______ _
Clothing trades _______ _________________ __ __________ - __
Other factory workers _ ____ ___________________________ _
Conclusion concerning employment needs of factory women ___ _
The unemployed clerical worker and prospects of future clerical
workers _____ __________ ______________ ___ ______ __ _____ ______ _
The situation in Boston __ _________ __ ______________ ____ ____ _
The problem of the clerical worker in industrial cities _________ _
Unemployed women in domestic and personal services ____ ________ _
A demand which is not being met __________ _____ ___________ _
Unemployment among professional women __________ ____ _______ _ _
Problems of the teaching profession ________ ________________ 'Nursery schools _____________ __ __ ___ ___ _____ __ ___ __ _______ _
New Hampshire's unemployed women breadwinners ____________ __ _
Factory unemployment ___________________ __________ ______ _
Clerical unemployment ______ ___ __ ___ _________ ___ _____ ____ _
Domestio service __ ____ _________________ _______ ~ __________ _
Conclusion _______________ _____ ______ ~- ---- --- ---- --- -- --Sec. II. Consumer product needs which may be translated into demands
requiring employment of New England's trained women __ __________ _
Potential markets for a new staple canned fish _____________ ___ ___ _
The need ___ ____________ _________________________ ________ _
The supply of fish _________ ___ ______________________ ___ __ __
The probable demand ____ _______________________ _________ _
Difficulties to be overcome __ _____ -'- ______ _________ ______ __ __
Competitive advantages of Atlantic Coast canning operations ___
Resultant employment of women workers _____ ___________ ___ _
III
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Sec. II. Consumer product needs which may be translated into demands
requiring employment of New England's trained women-Continu ed.
Potential markets for "epicurettes" ________ ___ ____________ _____ _ _
Growing demand ____________________ ____ ______ ______ ____ _ _
Supply of raw material in New England ______ _____ __ ____ __ _ _
Competitive conditions _________ __ __ __ _____ _______ __ _____ _ _
Resultant employment of women workers ___ _______ __ ____ ___ _
Difficulties to be overcome ___ ____ ____ _____ - _- _- _- _- _- _- _- _Potential markets for sports goods _ ___ _____ _____ _______________ _
Growing demand _________ ____ ______ ________________ ___ __ _ _
Importations ____________ _____ ___ ___ ____ ___ _____ _____ ___ _ _
Competitive conditions _____ ____ ____ ________ ____ __ _______ _ _
New E ngland's available resources ____ __________ _______ ____ _
Practical production organization and r esultant employment of
women workers __ ___ _______ __ ___ ____ __ ____ _____ _______ _ _
Potential market for wool fabric street gloves ___ ____________ ____ _ _
The need __ __ __ ____ ______ __ ___ __ ___ ______ ___ _______ ____ __ _
Competitive conditions ___ __ ___ __________ ___ _____ _____ ____ _
Difficulties to be overcome __ __ __ _____ _______- ____ - - - - - - - - - Sec. III. Home service needs not adequately m et which may b e translated into sustaining demand for women's services ____________ __ ___ __
Method of determining home and family unmet n eeds among groups
able to pay for limited service, __ _____ _______________ __ ______ _ _
Results of survey of demonstrated needs in eight residential cities __ _
Approximate number of families able to afford services ____ ___ __
Measured need of an adjusted service for the preschool child __ ____ _
Feasible methods of organizing services to meet n eed ___ ______ _
Existing desire for such services at feasible prices ___ __ ________ _
Translating
existing desires for child
service
a sust aining
demand ______________________
___ __
______into
____ _______
__ _ _
A problem
catering_____________________________
service as an incipient solution_____
of the
household-service
_____
____ ____ ___ __
The problem _________ _________ _______ ___ ____ ___ __ __ ____ _ _
Opportunity to shift from " servant" to "home cr after" _______ _
Domestic engineer's household clinic ___ __ __ __ __ __ _________ __ ____ _
The n eed ______ ___ ___ ____ ___________________ _____________ _
The solution __________ __ ___ ___ _______ ____________________ _
Concrete examples ___ ____ _____ ___ ________ __________ _____ _ _
An inventive mother has solved each of these problems __ ___ __ _
Resultant employment of women ____ ___ ___ ___ ______ __ ___ ___ _
Other professional services still to be developed ____ ______ __ _____ _ _
Appendix I. Detailed analysis of potential markets for a new staple
canned fish ____ ___ _____ __ ___ _____ __ ___ __ ______ ____ ___ __ ____ ___ _ _
Additional cheap protein foods essential to Nation's well-being _____ _
Fish con sumption by countries _____ _______ ___ _____ __ ______ _ _
Food value of fish _____ ______ ___ ___ _______ _____ __ _________ _
Relative cost of protein foods __ ______________ ___________ ___ ___ _ _
Marketing fish today ______ ___ ____ ___ ______ ____ ___________ __ __ _
Fresh fish ______ __ _____ ___ ____________ __ __ _______ _____ ___ _
Frozen fish _____ __ ___ __ __ ______ _____ ________ _____________ _
Cured fish _____ ____ _______ ____ ___ __ ___________ ____ _______ _
Cannedfish----------- ----- -- -- - - -- -- -- ---~------ - ----- - N umber of employees ____ ___ ___ __ ____ ______ ____ ______ _ _
Kinds of fish canned ____ ________ ___ ____ ____ ___ ________ _
Sales value of canned fish _ ____ _____ ____ __ _____ ____ ____ _
Conditions which must be met if a new staple canned fish is to secure
a market position similar to that h eld b y canned salmon _______ _ _
Different species sold a s one kind of fish ___ ________ __ ______ _ _
Government control_ _____ ____ ___ ___________ ______ __ ___ ___ _
Control of industry ________ __ _____ _________ _______ _______ _ _
Canning m ethods ___ ___ _____ ___ ___________ ________ _____ __ _
Labor ____ __ __ ____ ___ __ _____ _________________ ___ _______ _ _
Costs of canning salmon _______ __________________________ _ _
Fisheries of the New England States ____ ___ _____ __ _______ ____ __ __
Kinds of fish and quantity of catch ___ _____ ______ __________ _ _
Fish wastage ______________ _____ ___ ____ _________ __ ____ ___ _
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CONTENTS
Appendix I. Detailed analysis of potential markets for a new staple
canned fish-Continued.
Fish canning in New England__________ ___ ____________ _________
Wage rates and earnings_______________ _____ ___ ____ ________
Comparison of cost of canning New England fish with that of Pacific
coast fish______________________________________ _____________
Sea-fish costs________________ ________ _____ __ __ ____________
Mackerel_____ __________ _____ ____________ _________________
New England fish-canning possibilities____ _______________________
Problem of varying yield___________________________________
Fish not used extensively by the fresh or frozen markets believed
to have canning possibilities____ ___ ____ ___________________
Lean fi sh____ __________________ ___________________________
Major retail food markets___________________ ___________________
Appendix II. Detailed analysis of fish specialty products and their
markets_ __ __________________________________________ ___________
Fish specialties imported for the retail trade____________________ __
Quantity_______ __________________ ________________________
Kinds________________________________________________ __ _
. Marketed products and retail prices___ ____ ____ __________________
Fish specialty material and methods of preparation________________
Basic methods of preparation_________ ______________________
Competitive costs of production_____ _________ ___________________
Appendix III. E xcerpts from interviews with sports goods merchants
and manufacturers______________________________________________
Present status of sports goods manufacture in New England_______ _
Importations of sports goods_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Appendix IV. Detailed statistics concerning a potential wool-glove
market________________________________________________________
Undeveloped markets for women's woolen and women's leather
gloves_____________________________________________________
Appendix V. D etailed statistics on economic and social status of unemployed women in cities and areas of Massachusetts, and of women on
relief in Old Colony area_____ __________________ _______ _____ _______
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TEXT TABLES
1. Women gainful workers 16 years of age and over in Massachusetts,
1910, 1920, and 1930, and status of women's employment as of
Jan. 2, 1934____ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ ___ ___ _ ___ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _
2. Number of female gainful workers 10 years of age and over in Massachusetts in 1920 and in 1930 and number of employable female s
14 years of age and over not fully employed in 1934, by occupation_
3. Age, occupation, and industry of women wholly and partially unemployed in manufacturing, in building trades, and in independent
hand trades as of Jan. 2, 1934-city of Boston_________________ __
4. Age, occupation, and industry of women wholly and partially unemployed in clerical pursuits as of Jan. 2, 1934-city of Boston_______
5. Follow-up study of class of 1934, Boston public high schools, 1 year
after graduation_____________________________________________
6. Age and industry of women wholly and partially unemployed in
trade, transportation and communication, professional service,
and domestic and personal service as of Jan. 2, 1934-city of
Boston____ _____ ___ ___ ______ ___ __________________________ __ _
7. Numbers of experienced and inexp~rienced women applicants for
domestic- and personal-service jobs registered at Boston public
employment office, August 1934 to August 1935, by t y pe of job
wanted_____________________________________________________
8. T ype of job of longest duration of women applicants for domesticand personal-service jobs registered at Boston employment office,
August 1934 to August 1935, by duration of job and marital status_
9. Number of unemployed women teachers who made application in
1935 (up to Sept. 20) for teaching jobs outside Boston, with number
of placements for school year 1935- 36, by school grade or subject
and by experience_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
10. Positions held by women in Boston public schools and numbers of
applications and .of placements of women in teach_ing positions, as of
Sept. 1, 1934, by school grade or subject_____________ ___________
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CONTENTS
11. Number of men and of women applicants for jobs on registers of
State employment service and National Reemployment Service
in New Hampshire, Oct. 12, 1935, by county and by city_______ _
12. Number of women applicants for jobs registered at Manchester
employment office in October 1935, by age and by type of job
,vanted_ ___ ___ ___ ________ __ ___ _____ _____ ___ ___ ____ _____ _____
13. •survey of local home service needs _____________ ______ __ ____ __ ____
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APPENDIX TABLES
APPENDIX
I
I. Food value of fish-- - ------------ ~- --------------- - ---------II. Catch of fish and shellfish in the United States and Alaska, 1929 to
1934, and quantities prepared for market by certain methods__ __
III. Kinds, amounts, and value of canned fishery products in 1934United States, including Alaska__ ________ ______ ___ __________
IV. Average cost of producing canned salmon per full case, 1916 and
1917 (years in which opening sales prices approximated 1934
and 1928 sales prices, respectively), by locality and item of cost_
V. Amount and value of fisheries of the New England States-1928,
1932, and 1933___ ___ ______ __ __ __ __________ __ ____ ____ ______
VI. Amount and value of fisheries of Massachusetts and Maine-1928 __
VII. Retail food sales in the major retail food markets of the United
States, 1929 _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _
APPENDIX
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I. United States production and importation of women's and children's
dress and street gloves and mittens in 1929, 1931, and 1934___ _
II. United States production and importation of woolen and worsted
gloves and mittens, various years, 1919 to 1935_______ ___ _____
III. Imports of cotton warp-knit fabric gloves, 1914 to 1934 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
APPENDIX
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II
I. Imports of fish special ties ready for retail sale, 1932 _____ __ _ _ __ __ _
II. Costs of production per case of 100 no. ¼ tins of Maine sardines,
1931 ___________ ______ _____ _____________ ___________ _---:- -- .
APPENDIX
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I. Number of women wholly unemployed as of Jan. 2, 1934, by major
occupational group-State, industrial section, and city____ _____
107
II. Age and industry of women wholly unemployed as of Jan. 2, 1934metropolitan Boston_ ____ __ _____ ____ __ __ ______ ___ ____ __ __ ___
108
III. Age and industry of women wholly and partially unemployed as of
Jan. 2, 1934-city of Boston____ ____ __________ ___ _______ __ __
109
IV. Age and occupation of women wholly unemployed as of Jan . 2,
110
1934, by city___ ___ __ __________________ ________________ ___ _
V. Age, occupation, and industry of women wholly unemploy.ed as of
Jan. 2, 1934, by city______________________________ ___ ______
113
VI. Age, by relation to head of family-women seeking work relief in
Old Colony area, 1935__ _______________________________ ___ __
115
VII. Marital status, by age-women seeking work relief in Old Colony
Area, 1935____ __________ __ __ ___ __ ___ _____ ___ ___________ ___
116
VIII. Maximum schooling, by industry and usual occupation-women
seeking work relief in Old Colony area, 1935_____ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _
117
IX. Duration of employment in last usual job, by industry and usual
occupation-women seeking work relief in Old Colony area,
1935___ ___ ___ ____ ___ ____ ____ _____ _____ ___ _____ ____ ______ _
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Chart.-Employment status of women gainful workers in Massachusetts,
January 1934 ___ ___ ________________ ______ _____ Frontispiece facing page 1
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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
wOMEN'S BUREAU,
Washington, March 10, 1936.
MADAM: I have the honor to transmit a report upon possible
industries and services that may be developed in New England and
thereby reemploy many of its unemployed factory, c-lerical, and professional women. The report calls attention to the need for concerted action among New England's citizen groups if new industries
and new services are to be developed that will provide satisfactory
working conditions.
The survey, made at the request of 14 New England organizations, was planned and directed by Bertha M. Nienburg, chief
economist for the Bureau. She was assisted in the study of unemployment by Caroline Manning and in the survey of consumer needs
by Ethel Erickson, Catherine R. Belville, Louise Foeste, and Ora
Marshino.
Respectfully submitted.
MARY ANDERSON, Director.
Hon. FRANCIS PERKINS,
Secretary of Labor.
V II
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EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF WOMEN GAINFUL WORKERS
CHUSETTS, JANUARY 1934 2
Empioyed full time
_____I 357,450 women.
1
IN MASSA -
~ Unemployed
~
or not fully employe d
164-, 150 women
1 Excludes girls under 16.
2 Massachusetts Depart ment of Labor and Industries. Report on t he Census of Unemployment in
Massachusetts as of Jan. 2, 1934.
vm
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REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND
w OMEN
IN PRIVATE INDUSTRY
The Path-Finding Facts
1
Employment opportunities for New England women in private
industries and in adjusted-service undertakings were investigated
by the Women's Bureau at the request of 14 New England organizations, seeking to find ways to reemploy jobless women and to lift
the cloud of uncertainty from thousands of those still employed.
The survey reveals that goods and services needed call for the type
of skill that is the inherittm.ce of New England workers and for the
manufacturing genius possessed by New England's employers.
The depression and economic changes that began long before the
depression demand a new application of these assets if New England
is to supply developing markets. Furthermore, the new application
calls for such a concert of action among New England's major citizen
groups as was not required during the early days when developing
and maintaining markets did not present so many complicating factors. Because New England's advantages over other States lie in
its mobile resources- its women and men trained in manufacture,
trade, and teaching, and the instrumentalities they have built for
manufacture, trade, and education- it behooves New England men's
and women's organizations to conserve and foster these human
resources by aiding in bringing about their regular employment in
industries and services paying wages which permit healthful living
and expanding purchasing power.
In the 3 months allotted to the Bureau's survey of possible adjustments of New England's woman power to the Nation's current needs,
attention was focused largely on the factory-trained woman, who
must be recognized as a resource on the advantageous use of which the
continued prosperity of women engaged in clerical, in trade, and in
professional pursuits depends. The industries and services suggested,
however, will draw for their successful development on the trained
abilities of business and professional women; they will give added
employment to salespersons and to clerical workers and provide some
opportunities for girls without experience.
1 'rhe basis of these findings will be found in the summarized report following and in the statistical appendixes.
1
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2
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
Potential national markets were found for the following products
whose manufacture could be developed effectively in New England
and would absorb large numbers of unemployed New England women
under working conditions satisfactory for personal and community
advancement:
Manufacture of sports goods for men and women.
There is convincing evidence of a growing demand for correct
sports clothing and up-to-the-minute equipment among the rapidly
swelling numbers of men and women who are participating in yearround sports. Conspicuous among such sports are camping, hiking,
cycling, skating, skiing, and sailing.
The American sports-goods buyers go abroad for "prestige" sports
goods, first, because of the long prestige imported goods have had, and
second, because of claims that the goods are of higher quality, original
in <;lesign and style, and because small orders for many designs are
acceptable.
These facts constitute a stirring challenge to the men and women
of New England, the native heath of the Nation's wool weavers and
the cradle of the cotton and leather manufacturing industries. While
in the early days the infant New England textile industries were fully
occupied in supplying the plain-wear needs of American families, they
are not fully occupied today and many skilled workers are idle.
While absence of stylists and fashion authorities and the established prestige of overseas fashions gave reasonable ground 50 years
ago for the importation of practically all sports wear, that ground is
sharply restricted today. New York has developed stylists and
sports-wear authorities whose advice American men and women are
taking now. New England has the human skill and managerial
experience and the production facilities needed to match any goods
produced abroad.
But this market will not be captured for New England without
the eHective cooperation of the best sports-fashion authorities,
creative designers, textile experts, merchandising experts, and
sportsmen and sportswomen.
A necessary preliminary to the ultimate control of the market
for New England workers is the promotion of small prestige
workshops that seek a high-priced market; which produce goods
whose value is high but whose volume is small; and which
together could have the services of authoritative stylists and
creative designers.
By developing these small sports-goods workshops as fashion
pilot plants for existing large mills and factories, the mass
sports-goods production market can also be captured, thus
assuring increased stabilization of employment for .men and
women in textile and leather factories under acceptable standards of wages and conditions of labor. (See sec. II, pp. 44 to 47.)
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PATHFINDING FACTS
3
Potential market for a staple fabric for wool gloves.
A staple material is being sought, out of which can be made a warm
winter street glove for men and women. The material must combine
warmth with softness and with tenacity of shape. The problem is
one of finishing rather than one of fashioning the material or the glove.
The glove would make its own market among men; it would
compete with the less warm double-fabric cotton sueded glove
for women, which is now imported.
Fall River is noted for its finishing of cotton goods. Lawrence
and Lowell are noted as wool centers. Can their experts, working with glove manufacturers, solve this problem and bring
to Massachusetts a wool-glove fabric and a wool-glove-making
industry? (See sec. II, pp. 48 to 49.)
Need for a low-to-medium-priced canned fish in interior and high
temperature areas where fresh fish is not easily obtainable.
While there has always been a shortage in the country's supply of
cheap protein foods, which could have been offset in part by canned
fish, the existing situation in the pork and red-meat markets makes the
present an opportune time for the development of a new canned-fish
staple.
The new canned fish staple needed should meet the same
household requirements at the same normal price as does
canned salmon. New England waters have ample supplies of
fish distinct in flavor from salmon and not generally used for
the fresh or frozen fish trade.
Such an expansion of the fish industry, aiming at a development
of a quantity market, requires substantial capital investment. The
product must be packed under sanitary conditions with modern
machinery. Furthermore, marketing activities must be launched in
many inland centers at the same time. But, as in all industrial
ventures, the capital involved must be measured against the reasonable expectation in productive value and employment opportunity.
Assuming that the usual attention would be given to the development of profitable byproducts, if the proposed new canned-fish
industry reached a product value equal to half that attained by the
salmon industry in 1934, or $23,000,000, 2 the industry could give
employment at reasonable hours and rates of pay to seacoast men
and women for 9 months in the year.
New Bedford's citizens in early days built a whaling industry;
when that disappeared they built a cotton industry. With the
migration of much of its cotton industry is there not ground for
faith that their descendants can open new opportunities for
employment in a staple canned-fish industry? (See sec. II, pp.
39 to 41.)
' U.
s. Department of Commerce.
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Bureau of Fisheries. Statistical Bull. 1133, 1934, p. 1.
4
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
Potential markets for "epicurettes."
A limited but expanding market in homes, clubs, and public eating
places was found for finely flavored novel salt and spiced products.
This market is supplied at present almost entirely by importations.
New England's waters are well stocked with the sort of ti.sh
used as a base in. these products. As the market constantly
needs "new and diHerent" specialties, quality and novelty
are important sales factors. Com.petition with imported products need only be in quality. High quality products are the
secret of success in an "epicurette" industry.
Because this industry is primarily a hand industry and requires
ingenuity and infinite care in preparation of products, it is a skilled
woman's industry. And New England has the skilled women.
Production can be developed in small units with small outlay of
capital_under the aegis of a consumers' cooperating committee.
Should the industry's products be so developed as to equal
our consumption of imported ti.sh specialties during 1932, the
wage earners' annual pay roll would amount to approximately
$2,500,000. (See sec. II, pp. 42 to 43.)
-·-
New facilities that would permit more satisfactory service to
home and family and furnish profitable employment to numbers of
New England women may be developed through the following centralized services. Other facilities are required to meet other known
needs, but time did not permit the intensive analysis of methods of
organization yielding reasonable earnings to workers.
Domestic engineers' household clinic.
Housewives tell of many accidents, inconveniences, and discomforts which occur in the home because household equipment is not
designed to facilitate smooth running of the home.
A clearing house to which the inventive woman can bring constructive ideas concerning equipment that will facilitate household operations, and to which other housewives can bring their
diffi.culties, should be sponsored by an active women's organization.
A careful examination of all ideas submitted and a check-up
with products on the market by an alert staff, a reexamination by
an expert committee in each specific field, and a patenting of recommended articles by the sponsoring organization and the individual
presenting the idea, would be an inducement for manufacturers to
proceed with production of articles bearing the sponsoring organization's approval.
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PATHFINDING FACTS
5
A new field would be opened to women in household engineering.
A necessary outlet would be supplied to women with an inventive
mge, the lack of which has heretofore restricted their contribution
in the field of invention. Other women would find increased employment in factories making the new articles. (See sec. III, pp. 59
to 60).
A centrally managed organization to build up various types of service
for the care of preschool children and children up to 10 years of age.
Family needs and income status were measured against existing
home-service facilities in eight residential towns of metropolitan
Boston. In si~ of these towns there was revealed an unmet need for
trained care of the preschool child. Feasible methods of organized
trained service to meet this need, together with charges involved,
were presented to representative mothers in each of the six towns.
The results indicate thatA sustaining demand exists for regular group care of the preschool child; for week-end and school-holiday supervision
of the child under 10 years of age,· for day camps during summer
vacation both at home and at resorts .
Resi dents of all towns, however, preferred to have this service
developed under the aegis of local mothers' groups in cooperation
with a central sponsoring group and centralized manage.rial control. (See sec. III, pp. 53 to 55.)
Incipient solution of the household-service problem.
A demand for household service exists which cannot be met in
spite of the unemployment among domestics and other women
workers. Service to the one-servant or the servantless home should
be completely reorganized if home needs are to be adequately met
and if this demand for service is to be developed as an outlet for
employment of capable women. Women should have reason to
believe that upon completion of school training in home service
they will find positions requiring skill at earnings high enough to
justify training.
Surveys in six residential towns revealed a sustaining demand
in small homes for guest luncheon and dinner, and children's party
catering service. About this existing demand might be organized
a meal cooking and serving service, not only for special occasions
but for the family itself- a service managed centrally but reaching
communities around Boston. This might be used as the nucleus
about which to develop specialized trained service for the small
home in all the home crafts.
Boston and Worcester trade schools for girls already train girls
for commercial catering; they are equipped to train girls for home
catering. (See sec. III, p. 58.)
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REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND
w OMEN
IN PRIVATE INDUSTRY
Introduction
Origin and purpose of survey.
The origin and purpose of the survey here reported, and,the results
hoped to be achieved thereby, are clearly stated in the resolution
passed at a meeting of New England organizations called in April
1935 to consider the problems confronting thousands of unemployed
New England women. The resolution and signatories thereto
follow:
In view of the large amount of unemployment which exists among the women
of New England, we request that a survey be made by the Women's Bureau of
the Department of Labor, to ascertain what products may be made, or services
rendered, by New England women, under standard labor conditions, to help
existing unemployment; and that as a result of such a survey a permanent committee with representatives from existing interested groups be formed to give
intelligent consideration to the conclusions of the survey and sincerely to seek
definite results.
John S. Lawrence, vice president, New England Council; Eliot
Wadsworth, president, Boston Chamber of Commerce; Mrs.
Mary Gordon Thompson, president, Women's Trade Union
League of Boston; Rosamond Lamb, president, Consumers'
League of Massachusetts; Mrs. Barrett Wendell, chairman,
National Civic Federation, women's department, Massachusetts
section; Carl W. Buckner, director of rural rehabilitation, State
emergency relief administration; Thomas F. Sullivan, local
administrator, Boston Federal Emergency Relief Administration;
Susan J. Ginn, director of vocational guidance, Boston school
committee; George C. Greener, director, North Bennett Street
Industrial School, Boston; Mrs. Abby Langdon Wilder, administrator, New Hampshire Emergency Relief Administration;
John C. L. Dowling, executive director overseer of the public
welfare, Boston; Mrs. Schuyler W. Van Ness, chairman, American
home department, Massachusetts State Federation of Women's
Clubs; Mrs. Carl W. Schrader, chairman, Middlesex County
Consumers' Council; Mrs. Henry D. Tudor, president, Women's
Municipal League of Boston.
This resolution was transmitted t o the Secretary of Labor by Mrs.
Robert W. Lovett, treasurer, women's department, Massachusetts
section, National Civic Federation, the organization that called the
initial meeting.
The resolution received favorable action from the Secretary of
Labor on May 8, 1935, and was referred to Mary Anderson, Director
of the Women's Bureau, with instructions to undertake the requested
survey and to consider all factors that might bring about a reabsorption of New England's unemployed women in regular breadwinning
pursuits.
7
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8
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
In order that the Women's Bureau might have the counsel of New
England groups during the course of its work, an executive committee
was appomted, comprised of the following persons:
John S. Lawrence, vice president, New England Council, chairman.
Mrs. Mary Gordon Thompson, president, Women's Trade Union League.
Alternates: Mrs. Julia O'Connor Parker; Mrs. Eva Whiting White, president,
Women's Educational and Industrial Union, Boston; and J. Paul Foster, m anager,
New England Affairs Bureau, Boston Chamber of Commerce.
To this committee, to the Consumers' League, members of the
Parent-Teacher Association, the Boston school committee, State
board of education, the Emergency Relief Administration, and
many other groups and individuals, the Women's Bureau is indebted
for very real cooperation. Much appreciation for technical information and advice is due also to the technical staffs of the United States
Tariff Commission, the Bureau of Fisheries, and bu_reaus in the
Department of Agriculture.
Scope of survey.
The economic and social life of New England has been so rich and
diversified that a program for reemployment of its women cannot be
generalized, but must be considered in relation to the character and
amount of available woman power in specific communities.
With the agreement of the executive committee, therefore, the
survey was limited to the area in which the known volume of unemployment among women was greatest; that is, the region designated
as the "major Boston marketing area." Within this region, which
includes Essex, Middlesex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Bristol, Plymouth, Duke,
Nantuck9t, and Barnstable Counties in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and a small area in Vermont, lie the vast Boston wholesale and
retail trading markets, both shore and mountain recreational areas,
and cotton, shoe, and wool manufacturing cities of New England
which have suffered from industrial migration as well as from the
depression.
Methods of survey.
Study of new industries or new or adjusted services through the
development of which a material number of unemployed New England women could be absorbed in normal breadwinning pursuits was
approached from three avenues of inquiry:
1. What has the section of New England under study to offer
the rest of the country in superior natural or developed resources?
2. What are present-day consuzner product deznands not adequately served by this country's existing industries which could
be effectively znet by use of New England's resources?
3. What are the local hozne service needs which are not satisfactorily znet by existing service facilities that could be translated into a sustaining deznand for trained woznen's services?
A conference between the Women's Bureau and the New England
executive committee resulted in the decision that purpose could be
translated into performance more speedily by using as a basis for
committee action the results of the first 3-months' study by the
Women's Bureau. Effective action in the fall of 1935 leading toward
the development of self-sustaining industries or services was regarded
as worth more to the unemployed New England women than action
delayed several months through preparation of an exhaustive statistical report.
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SECT ION I.
The Resources of New England
MOMENTUM OF AN EARLY START IN MANUFACTURE
AND TRADE
The range of productive activities in community are no longer
measured by the community needs but by the principal advantages
afforded by its special resources. The activities engendered by the
self-dependence of New England's early communities, however, gave
New England an early preponderance of facilities which more favored
agricultural and mineral regions have not yet attained. The poor
soil of New England forced the colonists into the field of manufacture
on the one hand, and out to sea on the other hand, where fish supplied
the basis upon which trade with Europe and the West Indies was
built.
This momentum of an early start iL. trade and manufacture placed
New Englanders in a favored position as the agricultural and mineral
lands of the West and South were developed and transportation facilities increased. Dependence on locally grown food and raw materials for manufacturing was no longer necessary, for with its finished
manufactures it could buy its food supply and all raw or semifinished
materials needed in manufacturing.
Today Boston is still the country's greatest wool and shoe-leather
market; it is still a most important fish port. And today as in earlier
years its trade with the world rests principally on its ability to produce
finished articles. The value of New England manufactures even in
1933 was approximately $3,073,000,000 1 as compared with an agricultural production valued at $208,300,000 2 and a mineral yield
worth $16,600,000. 3
WOMEN'S PART IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ENGLAND'S MANUFACTURE AND TRADE
Now, as in pioneer days, New England's resourceful human beings
are its greatest asset. From earliest days to the present women have
played a vital part in New England's upbuilding. They were as
truly industrial pioneers as were its men, for they had to make and
build, instead of buying, the clothing and implements of civilization. Their skill at curing fish and making whale-oil candles con~ributed to the success of early commerce. Wife's and daughter's
unpaid labor at cloth-and-clothing-making was a part of every New
Englander's stock in trade, which he converted into the support of
his household until early mills sought out their skill and sold their
1 U. S. Bureau of the Census.
Census of Manufactures, 1933. Summary for Geographic Divisions and
States, p. 1.
2 U . S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Statistical abstract of the United States, 1934, p.
572.
a U. S. Bureau of Mines. Summary of Mineral Production. Statistical Appendix to the Minerals
Yearbook, 1934, p. a7.
58825°-36-----2
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9
10
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW :ENGLAND WOMEN
products in the open market. New England textile industries, shoe
manufacture, and manufacture of small mechanical and household
articles were built up about the large supply of skilled women who
had either to produce goods for their families at home or turn over
to their families money with which to buy goods.
While the many economic currents that have swept the country
since the beginning of the factory era have drawn thousands of New
England's breadwinning women into the trades and professions, the
women who are factory trained must still be recognized as a basic
human resource, upon the advantageous use of which depends the
continued prosperity of women engaged in clerical, mercantile, and
professional pursuits.
This is not to overlook the value of New England's natural resources. But while fish is a valuable natural resource in the four
coastal States; while hardwoods of northern New England still have
unexplored possibilities; while granite, marble, slate, limestone, feldspar, mica, talc, and maple sugar, cranberries, blueberries, and certain
other crops are important sources of income in limited New England
areas, the mobile facilities of manufacture and trade-the men and
women trained in manufacture and trade and teaching, and the
instrumentalities they have built up for manufacture, trade, and
teaching-are the greatest resources New England has to offer today
to the rest of the country. But because men and women and the
instrumentalities they have created are mobile as compared to the
immobility of natural resources, New England's advantages over other
States are never static; they are consta:::i.tly undergoing changes due
to invention, research, discovery of new raw materials, shifting populations, and corporate combinations. It behooves New England to
conserve this human resource, which has been threatened with exhaustion by the migration of industry during the last 13 years.
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THE RESOURCES bF NEW ENGLAND
11
MASSACHUSETTS UNEMPLOYED WOMEN BREADWINNERS 4
Numbers unemployed.
The number of women and girl breadwinners in Ma::isachusett8
increased through 1930, when 528,999 females 10 years of age and over
were counted as gainful workers by the United States Census of Occupations. E xcluding children under 14 years, in January 1934 there
were, according to the State census of unemployment, 357,819 women
and girls employed at regular full-time occupations, and there were
as many as 164,797- 31.5 percent of all- wholly unemployed or employed only part time. In other words, one out of approximately
every three M assachusetts women and girls who wanted full-time
work at the beginning of 1934 could not secure it. Of this number ,
some 54,000 were able to pick up an occasional job or were employed
on a part-time basis, but 110,500 had been unable to secure even
part-time employment. State and Federal relief proj ects aided approximately 7,000 of these women temporarily, but for over 100,000
the problem of financial independence was not solved.
Unless the material resources of M assachusetts are forced to yield
employment as in pioneer days, these skilled women will migrate,
thus reducing the State's wealth-producing resources, or they will
remain and as a jobless army confront .their communities with even
graver problems.
• Figures secured from data of the Massachusetts Census of Unemployment, cond ucted by the M assa- chusetts Emergency R elief Administration in 1934.
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TABLE
1.-Women gainful workers 16 years of age and over in Massachusetts, 1910, 1920, and 1930, 1 and status -of women's employment as of
Jan. 2, 1934
Year
Age groups
Total women
gainful workers 16
and
years of age
16, under 18 years 18, under 20 years 20, under 25 years 25, under 45 years 45, under 60 years 60 years and over
over
Number Percent Numbocl Pe,eent
umbe,I Poccent Numbe,1 Pe<cent Numbocl P,roont Numbocl Pereent NumM,1 PocC6nt
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --1910 __ ____ ____________________________ _______ 430,728
70,107 (16.3 percent 45 years and
265,530 (61. 7 percent 21 and under
100. 0 95,091 (22.1 percent 10 and under 21)
over)
45 and
tboo, whoo,
not reported)
I"
1920 ____ ______ ________ . ---------------------- 2489, 146
19"0 ___ __ __ ___________ ·----------------- ----- 3524, 485
100. 0
100.0
32,083
6. 6
23,246
4. 4
8. 8
106,596
21. 8
212, 130
43. 4
44,090
8. 4
114,550
21.8
223, 147
42. 5
STATUS OF EMPLOYME T AS OF JAN. 2, 1934
16, under 18 years
Total
w,,.
43,119
18, under 20 years
94,806 (19.4 percent 45 years and
over)
88, 9391
11.oJ
30, 0391
5. 7
4
20, under 25 years 25, under 45 years
45, under 60 years
60 years and over
Employment status
umber Percent
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Total employable women ___________________ 5521, 600
100.0
17, 785
3. 5
43, 450
8. 5
117,600
23. 1
227, 713
44. 8
78,489
15. 4
23,671
4. 7
--------- --------- --- ------------ -------4. 0
6,621
14. 7
24, 174
34. 8
57, 120
24. 9
Wholly or partially unemployed ___ ___ 164, 150
14. 5
7. 0
40,834
11,556
100. 0
23. 845
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - ---- - - - - - Wholly unemployed ________ ________________ 101,946
4.1
4,213
14,021
7
29.
8
13.
30,292
5
25.
17,887
26,018
9,515
17. 5
9. 3
100.0
3.6
1,930
15. 7
Having part-time employment ____ __________ 54,240
8,491
23,478
24. 3
43. 3
13, 189
9. 8
5,297
3. 4
1,855
100.0
Temporarily employed on Government
6. 0
42. 1
47
20. 9
1,662
20. 4
1,627
3,350
projects or in private enterprises _________ _
8. 3
€61
2. 3
186
100. 0
7,964
U. S. Bureau ot the Census. Occupation Statistics, 1910; Ibid., 1920 and 1930.
Includes 412 women who did not report age.
Includes 474 women who did not report age.
4 Massachusetts Department of Labor and Industries.
Report on the Census of Unemployment in Massachusetts as of Jan. 2, 1934.
6 Includes 12,892 women who were on the staff or were inmates employed in institution . or who did not report age.
1
2
3
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,-..,.
tv
THE RESOURCES OF NEW E
GLAND
13
Ages of unemployed women. 5
In 1934 the largest number of breadwinning women were 25 and
under 45 years of age; consequently their number bulks largest among
the unemployed. This age group was 30 percent of the number of
women entirely unemployed and 43 percent of the part-time job
holders. In other words, 57,120 adult women in their prime vigor
were without full-time employment. The second largest number
unemployed falls in the 20-and-under-25-year age group. About a
fourth of those wholly unemployed and of those partially unemployed
were in this age group, making a total of practically 41,000 women 20
and under 25 years of age needing remunerative work. (See table 1.)
Among the 16- and 17-year-old girls, about 9,500 were entirely
without work and another 1,850 had part-time jobs. While these
form but a minor part of the unemployed, they are not far from twothirds of the young girls who desired work, in spite of the fact that
more young girls than in earlier years remained in school. 6
The proportion of each age group that wanted full-time work and
could n ot secure it decreased rapidly with age until the 25- to 34-year
group was reached, after which it increased again until 31 percent of
the women 55 to 64 years old, in a total of 31,000 employable women,
were reported as unable to secure regular work. After that the proportion _dropped until it reached 21 percent for those 70-years and over.
While the problem of unemployment may be equfl,lly acute for the
individual woman or girl regardless of age, if those from 18 years to
60 years were reemployed, the fringe at either end probably would be
cared for by family-group earnings.
Occupational experience of unemployed women.
In 1934 almost 42 percent of the women and girls at least 14 years
of age in Massachusetts who desired work and could not find full-time
employment had been employed in manufacturing operations. The
next largest group (14.4 percent) were experienced clerical workers.
In addition to these experienced office workers another 5 percent were
vocationally trained in office work but had n ever been fully employed
since leaving school. The total se~king clerical positions was, therefore, over 31,000, as compared with 68,750 unemployed factory
workers. (See table 2.)
The third largest group had been employed in certain domestic and
personal-service pursuits. These include not only household workers
but employees in hotels and restaurants, in beauty parlors, and in
other services to the home or the person.
Eleven thousand saleswomen in retail and wholesale trade reported
being wholly or partially unemployed. Professional workers, in which
group trained nurses and teachers were most numerous, formed about
6 percent of the unemployed.
Of the total of 164,797 unemployed women 14 years of age and over
in Massachusetts, 7 percent were entirely untrained and had never
had any work experience.
6 647 girls under 16 who were partially or wholly unemployed have not been included in the discussion,
as 16 is generally conceded to be the minimum age at which any child should go to work.
6 In 1920, 32,083 Massachusetts girls of 16 and 17 years of age were breadwinners; in 1930 this figure had
fallen to 23,246, while in 1934 only 17,785 had work or were reported as waiting for work.
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TABLE
2.-Number of female gainful workers 10 years of age and over in Massachusetts in 1920 and in 1930 and number of employable females
14 years of age and over not fully employed in 1934, by occupation
Female gainful workers 10 years of age
and over as reported in census year 1
Occupation
1920
Number
Employable females 14 years of age and
overnotfullyemployed as of Jan. 2, 1934 2
Total
1930
Percent
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
Wholly
unemployed a
P ar ttime
employed
- --- ---- ---- ---TotaL __________________________ -- -- _________ ____ --- -- - - -- --- --- - --- ----- - -- -- - - - - - -- - - Workers on manufacturing processes and forewomen in factories _____ ------------------- - --- --
503, 155
100. 0
528,999
203,094
40. 4
156,085
---- ---- =
- - --
----
100. 0
164, 797
100. 0
110,507
54,290
11,744
14, 562
9,951
6,719
4, 719
421,061
7. 1
8. 8
6. 0
4. 1
2. 9
12. 8
5,427
7,365
3,587
3,555
1, 901
11,970
6,317
7, 197
6,364
3,164
2,818
9,091
- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - 29. 5
68,756
41. 7
33,805
34,951
---- ---- ----
Operatives and laborers inCotton mills _______________________________ ______ __ ___________ -- ____ -- ________ ____ _-- Shoe factories ___ ____ __ _____________ _____ ________________ _____ _____ ________ ________ __ __
Woolen and worsted mills ___________________ __ __ __ ____ _____________ _________ __ __ __ __ __
Clothing factories ________ _____ ______ ___ ___ _____ ___ _______ ____ _______________ ___ ______ _
Paper, printing, and allied industries ________________ _____ ___________ ______ ______ __ ___
All others ___________ ________ ______ ________ -- -- -- - - -- -- -- -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
52,925
31,227
22,590
11, 195
13, 115
72,042
10. 5
6. 2
4. 5
2. 2
2. 6
14. 3
28,820
24,991
15, 168
13,878
8,867
64,361
5. 4
4. 7
2. 9
2. 6
1. 7
12. 2
Factory managers and officials ______ ____ ___ ___ __ _______ ___ ___ ___ ________ ___ ____ _____ -- ______ -Independent hand trades ___________ _____ ____ ________ ________ ____ __ ___________ ____ ______ ____ __
603
15,556
.1
3.1
564
8,328
1.
3, 456
Clerical workers ____________ __________ ____________________ ________ ____ ________ __ _______ ____ ___
95, 219
18. 9
117,880
22. 3
23,720
Clerks ________ _____ _____ ______ ___ ___________ __- - __ - - -- _-- __ _____ - - -- -- - - -- --- - -- - - - - - - - - -Stenographers and typists _____________________________________________________ ________ __ _
Bookkeepers, cashiers, accountants, and auditors _____ _______ _____________ ____ __ ___ ____ ____
All others _____________ ___ ________ _________ _____________________ ____ _______________ __ __ ___ _
30,803
32, 721
30,242
1,453
6. 1
6. 5
6. 0
.3
48, 221
36,416
32, 149
1,094
9. 1
6. 9
6. 1
.2
Trade pursuits __ __ ______ ____ ______ _______________ ________________ __________ ________ ________ __ _
Clerks in stores and saleswomen ___ _____ __ _________ ____ ____________ -~- __________ ______ ____
Retail dealers _________ ____ __ __ _____________________ __________ __. ___ ______ ___ _____ __ ___ ___ _
All others ___ ___ _____________ _______________ ___ ___ - __ -- - - -- -- -- -- - -- -- --- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
.1
6
(5)
-- ---- ---- · - -- ------ ---- -----2. 1
2,440
1,016
14. 4
19,292
4,428
7. 7
12, 155
7. 4
32,888
6. 5
40,560
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
8,539
3,616
(5)
(5)
(6)
(5)
---- ---3,397
8,182
-------- -- ---------- ---------219
.3
357
32, 131
4,509
3,920
6. 1
.9
.7
611,579
10, 549
2.1
12,296
- - - - 1 -- - - - 1 - - Telephone operators _____ __ _______________ .. ___ _____ ____ _________ ___ ________ ____ _________ _
9, 387
1.
9
10,948
All others ___ _____________ ____ __ __ ______ __ __________ __________ ___________ __________ _______ _
1,162
.2
1,348
2. 3
1,193
.7
726
467
2. 1
.3
846
347
.5
.2
494
232
352
115
Transportation and communication ______ ______ _____ ___________ _______________ __________ _____ _
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26,904
3,761
2,223
5.3
.7
.4
(5)
576
7. 0
........
~
Professional and semiprofessionaL ___________ ___ ____________ _________________ __ ______________ _
48,137
9. 6
70,959
Teachers (school) ___________________________________________ ____ _________________________ _
Musicians
and __________________________________________
teachers of music __ --- -- ---------------------- ------- ----- - ------------ ---_
Trained nurses
___ ______________________________
All others ______ ___ __ ________________ --- _-- -------- __ ______________ _______________________ _
24,235
4,092
9,506
10,304
4. 8
.8
1. 9
2. 0
32,481
3,830
17,983
16,665
94,766
18. 8
Domestic and personal service __ -- ------------------------------- --- -------------------------Household domestic and personal service ___ _____ ____________ ____________________ __________ ____ ____ __ _____ ___ __
Service in hotels, restaurants, and boarding houses__ ______________________________________
71,635
14. 2
Housekeepers and stewards in private establishments _____________ ____________ ___ ___________________________ __
Midwives and practical nurses__ _____ ___ ____ ______ ___ __ ___ ________________________________
8,754
1. 7
Laundry operatives _____________________ ____ ____ __ -- __ __ ___ _______ ____ __ __ ___ ___ ______ ___ _
3, 784
.8
Beauty p arlor operatives__________________________________________________________________
1,524
.3
Boarding and lodging house keepers______ ___ __________ ______ ___ ____________ ___ _________ __
5, 692
1. 1
Managers and owners of service establishments ___ ---- ------ -- - ----------------- -- -------u 727
.1
All others_________________________________________________________________________________
2, 650
.5
Agriculture, forestry and fishing, extraction of minerals, and public service not elsewhere
classified __________________ ___ ______________________________________________________________ _
2,343
•5
13. 4
9,401
5. 7
7,366
2,035
6. 1
.7
3. 4
3. 2
72,783
8 727
9 3,091
2,800
1. 7
.4
1. 9
1. 7
2,041
424
2,777
2,124
74.2
303
314
676
---- ---- ---- ---- ----
119,806
22. 6
23,120
14. 0
16,307
6,813
57,357
17,945
14,905
7,201
6,205
5,379
5,805
1,515
3,494
10. 8
3. 4
2. 8
1.4
1.2
1.0
1.1
.3
10 15,021
114,566
(5)
(5)
122,312
1,221
(13)
(13)
(13)
9. 1
2. 8
10,973
3,515
4,048
1,051
1. 4
.7
1,021
798
1,291
423
2, 521
.5
.7
479
•3
349
130
"Management workers" ____________________ · _____________ ---------------------------- _____ _________ _____________ ____ ______ __ ______ __ _
1,045
.6
749
296
Never fully employed since leaving schooL __________________________________________________________________________________________ _
21,472
13. 0
20,934
538
9,482
233
1,153
227
7,545
324
11,990
5. 8
.1
.7
.1
4.. 6
.2
7. 3
9,094
214
1,073
222
7,269
316
11,840
388
19
80
5
276
8
150
Vocationally trained ______ -· __ ___ ____________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _
Skilled mechanical workers _____ _____ __________ ___ ___________________________________________________________________________ _
Professional workers __ ______ ___________ _____ ____ __ ___________________ _____ ___ _____________________________ __ __ ___ ____________ _
Domestic and personal workers _____________________ ___ ___________________________ __ ___ ____ ____ ____ ____ ______________________ _
Clerical workers __________ ____ ____ ___ ___ _____ __ ____________________________ __ ______ __________________________________________ _
All others ________________________________________ ____ _______ _________________________________________________________________ _
Untrained _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _
U. S. Bureau of the Census. Occupation Statistics, 1920; Ibid., 1930.
Massachusetts Department of Labor and Industries. Report on the Census of Unemployment in Massachusetts as of J an. 2, 1934.
a Includes those temporarily employed on Government projects and in private industry.
• Includes 1,472 women for whom industry was not reported .
"Not shown separately in Massachusetts report.
6 Total sales workers in all industries and trades and all types of establishment; 11,129 are sales workers in wholesale and r etail trade.
1 Includes teachers of music.
s Musicians only.
11 Includes other attendants besides nurses.
10 Includes "all others" not elsewhere classified .
11 Excludes boarding houses.
12 Includes pressing and cleaning shops.
1a Included in household domestic and personal service.
u Exclusive of owners and managers of cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shops, n ot listed separately in 1920 census.
1
2
1-4
c:.n
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
16
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
Problems demanding solution.
The problem of employment for Massachusetts breadwinning
women therefore may be restated in the following questions:
The factory wo.man-Will she be absorbed with a return to
nor.ma/ conditions? If not, to what new e.mploy.ments can her
capabilities be applied?
The clerical worker, experienced and inexperienced-Will a
return of manufacturing to its normal level in Massachusetts
give her ample outlet for her services?
The saleswo.man-Can the retail store place her in full-ti.me
e.mploy.ment when industry operates nor.mally?
The do.mestic worker-How .may she be fi.tted for household
positions that are even now available?
The untrained worker-Who is she and to what should she be
directed?
The professional worker-Will teaching and -nursing absorb
all the wo.men and girls who are trained or being trained for these
professions?
-·-
PROBLEMS CONFRONTING UNEMPLOYED
FACTORY WORKERS
As is ell known, the employment problems of factory workers,
both men and women, became acute in New England before _the
national depression began. In 1920, according to United States
census figures, 50.5 percent of all gainfully employed ·New England
men and women were in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits;
in 1930, 43.1 percent were so employed.
PROBLEMS IN COTTON-MILL CITIES
This reduction was in large part due to a decline in cotton-textile
manufacture in all New England States. Active spindles in New
England declined from 181/io million in 1922-23 to just over 11 ;~
million in 1929-30 and to 8½ million in 1933-34. 7 Employment declined from about 190,000 persons at the beginning of the twenties
to 127,000 in 1929 and to 90,600 in 1933. More than one-half of all
workers who had depended upon the cotton industry in New England
for a livelihood in the early twenties were stranded as to employment
opportunities in the industry 10 years later. Serious economic problems have followed the closing of the mills, for in many towns these
mills were not only the major source of employment but the major
source of town revenue. In Fall River, for example, textile corporations, chiefly cotton mills, accounted for 55 percent of the assessed
valuation of the city in 1920; in 1932 they formed only 14 percent. 7
It is obvious that such a major tragedy to a manufacturing industry
affects the lives not only of the factory employees but of all workers
in textile towns.
In 1920, according to the Federal census, almost 53,000 women in
Massachusetts were employed in cotton mills. By 1930 their number
had become less than 29,000, a reduction of more than 45 percent. A
7 S. Doc. 126, 74th Cong. 1st sess. Message from the President of the United States transmitting "A
Report on the Conditions and Problems of the Cotton Textile Industry", p. 48.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
THE RESOURCES OF NEW ENGLAND
17
glance at various manufacturing figures shows that there was little
absorption in other factories of the twenty-odd thousand displaced
employees. Yet in 1934 only about 11,750 still reported themselves
as unemployed cotton-mill workers.
Numerous conferences with cotton-mill operatives and other informed persons in Fall River and New Bedford, the leading cotton-mill
cities in 1920, threw light upon existing employment conditions in
cotton-mill workers' families.
The Fall River women cotton-mill workers in 1935.
In 1930, the number of women employed in Fall River cotton mills
was 7,725. By 1934, of a total group of 6,266 women who were wholly
or partly unemployed, over 3,000 were or had been cotton-textile
workers. Approximately one-half (1,574) were totally unemployed.
Moreover, decreased business for the city's cotton industry had not
ended by 1934. In 1935, six mills operating in 1934 had either liquidated, moved elsewhere, or closed at least ~emporarily. Then, too,
mills still operating were employing fewer people. Current estimates (1935) place the number of women in Fall River who are given
any employment in the mills, regardless of its irregularity, at less than
4,500.
Needle trades locating in city.-New industries- primarily the
needle trades and hat manufacturing- have located in Fall River.
By October 1935 it was reported that there were about 41 such new
plants in the city. 8 At the height of the season these plants were
estimated as employing 5,000 women at most. Moreover, work was
said to be irregular and fluctuation in numbers employed was marked.
All persons interviewed agreed that these new needle-trade industries afforded an employment outlet, though seasonal, to the young
women of the city, but that the displaced textile worker has little
hope of employment in such industries. However, their importance
to the young girl of Fall River is obvious when, as in 1934, over 1,400
out of 3,174 employable girls of 16 and under 20 years of age were not
fully employed.
Lack of training facilities.- The eagerness of the young girl to obtain enough experience to secure a job in these needle trades has been
such that girls have paid and are paying a fee of $3 and up to garmentshop foremen who installed power sewing machines in their homes
and to women running employment agencies who also have put in
power machines. This situation led the Bradford Durfee Textile
School to offer women night instruction in power-machine operation.
The school has only 12 machines, so it has 2 classes a week of 2
nights each. The course lasts 13 weeks. Registration is always in
excess of the number that can be accommodated, and there is a
waiting list of applicants. In the fall of 1935, 227 registered and only
24 could be accommodated immediately.
The chamber of commerce is bending every effort to bring these
industries to Fall River. Its director claims that a supply of trained
sewing-machine operators would be a real asset in persuading needletrade firms to locate in the city. It is important, however, for the
community to ascertain that these new shops are not fly-by-night
establishments that will contribute nothing of lasting value by way
of employment and purchasing power to its citizens.
s Information from Chamber of Commerce, Fall River, Mass.
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18
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
If the industries coming into the city agree to pay school-trained
operators ·the State minimum-wage rate for experienced workers,
should the public-school system assume responsibility in training these
young women? At present only commercial training courses (clerical
work) are available to women in the public schools.
Is relief the only answer for mill operatives?-But there still are the
unemployed cotton-textile workers. The largest number of these are
mature women. Many are homemakers who have shared the financial support of the family with their husbands. On October 7, 1935,
603 women were on the Federal-State relief rolls and 1,897 had applications pending. · In this group the unemployed textile worker of
over 30 years predominated. There is no State employment office
in Fall River, but in the National Reemployment Office about threefourths of the registered women who h ad manufacturing experience
were textile workers and the majority were in the middle-age group.
No woman had been placed in a cotton mill in the last 3 months of
1935 and only about 6 percent of all applicants had been placed in
other types of manufacturing.
Obviously the unemployed cotton-mill worker of Fall River is still
face to face .with very serious economic problems.
New Bedford cotton-mill operatives in 1935.
New Bedford cotton mills produce high-quality goods, and the
value of their cotton output has exceeded. that of all other textile
centers in Massachusetts. It has represented two-thirds of the value
of all goods produced in the city and given employment to about
three-fourths of the city's wage earners. In 1923 there were 30 cotton
mills, employing about 32,000 persons 9 and paying over $34,000,000
in wages. In 1933 there were only 22 mills, and their 17,000 employees earned but $11,415,000 in wages. The secretary of the Cotton
Manufacturers Association of New Bedford reported that by October
1935 the mills were reduced to 21, employing 15,000 persons, of
whom approximately 7,800 were women.
Of a total of 18,465 employable women in ew Bedford, 5,734, or
31 percent, were without full employment as of January 2, 1934. Of
this number 2,700 were cotton-textile workers, 1,368 of whom were
wholly unemployed. This number does not include some of the
older married mill workers, who lost their positions when the first mills
closed and have been out of industry for 5 years or more. These
women want work, but they are supported by mill-operative husbands
who have jobs, though at much lower earnings than in the period
when both husband and wife were employed.
New Bedford textile mills operating in 1935 are reported to have
kept their regular workers regardless of age, so the experienced cotton
operatives who are out of work are chiefly those who lost out because
. of the closing of the mill in which they had been employed. When
operating mills take on new workers, they draw from ranks of the
younger experienced mill workers. New industries that have become
established in the city in recent years are few; there are two pocketbook factories and about eight small garment shops. Moreover,
these take the young girl and refuse to try out the older textile
worker.
g
Massachusetts Department of Labor and Industries. Press release, October 1934.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
THE RESOURCES OF NEW ENGLAND
19
An active State-Federal employment service in New Bedford is
hard at work endeavoring to place women who need employment.
Although it is not customary for mill workers to register at public
employment services, as mill foremen take on extra hands from
among the persons applying at the mill, 700 textile workers were
said to have registered for work at this office.
Citizens of New Bedford sponsored a community program for idle
youth of the city in the winter of 1934- 35. Boys responded well,
but girls dropped out whenever carfare to the community center was
necessary or other difficulties arose.
Aptitudes of young women.-New Bedford has 28,298 persons of
first or second generation Portuguese. Some of the men are fishermen
and they habitually bring in a larger catch than is salable in the
fresh-fish market. Their daughters, who have been factory workers,
are regarded as excellent workers, responsive to any call for a possible
local fish cannery. Then, too, these Portuguese women do "beautiful
Madeira needlework", but they are without any knowledge of market
requirements and without designing ability. The abilities they do
possess should serve the community in its search for new industries.
First and second generation French and French Canadians in New
Bedford number 20,938, while English or persons of English descent
total 15,213. These are the prevailing nationality backgrounds of
New Bedford's population that is not native born of native parents.
Mill operatives' problems still pressing for solution.
New Bedford and Fall _R iver cotton mills gave employment in
1930 to three-fifths of Massachusetts' women cotton-mill employees.
Not only had the approxima~ely 2,900 wholly unemployed and a
larger number with but part-time employment in January 1934
failed to find regular employment by the fall of 1935, but their numbers had been increased by the closing of other cotton mills. No
tendency was found among these mill workers or their families to
leave for other communities even though many do not own homes.
Male members of the family go into Rhode Island for mill work but
they return each week end to their families.
The closing of cotton mills not only deprived the older women
workers of jobs but cut off the usual avenues of employment for
many younger women. Fall River's new garment factories are
aiding this group to some extent, but in New Bedford new industries
must be developed to care for women workers of all ages and degrees
·
of experience.
EMPLOYMENT PROBLEMS IN SHOE-MANUFACTURING CITIES IN 1935
As in the case of cotton, the difficulties besetting New England's
shoe industry developed before depression years. From 1919 to 1929
the number . of shoe factory employees in New England decreased
by about a fourth, and their total earnings decreased in almost like
proportion. It is not surprising to find, therefore, that 14,562 women
shoe workers in Massachusetts reported themselves as totally or
partially unemployed in January 1934. And like cotton, the industry
is localized in a few sections. W omen'-s shoes are produced chiefly
in Lynn, Haverhill, Boston, and Salem, while men's shoes are made
chiefly in the Old Colony area, a section lying south of Boston with
Brockton as its center. Manchester and Nashua, N. H., also are
important centers in the manufacture of men's shoes.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
20
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
Because New England's production of men's shoes suffered greater
and earlier losses than did women's shoe manufacture, the Brockton
region known as the Old Colony area was chosen for specific study
of its woman unemployment problem in 1935.
WOMEN SHOE OPERATIVES IN THE OLD COLONY AREA, 1935 10
Though Brockton is the metropolitan center of this district, shoe
factories are scattered throughout the Old Colony area. In periods
of uncertain employment, shoe workers seek work throughout the
area regardless of the particular town in which they reside. Consequently, the unemployment picture for Brockton alone is not complete without the inclusion of other communities in this shoe area.
In 1934 there were approximately 19,000 employable women
within the Old Colony area. About 6,900 were wholly or partially
unemployed. The proportion with part-time employment is larger
than in some other sections, primarily because the strong labor
organization of shoe workers has served to divide available shoefactory work among its members. This organization h as also
prevented the entrance of new employees into the shoe industry,
which unquestionably is responsible in part for the fact that half the
totally unemployed women are under 25 years of age.
.
The index of factory employment in Brockton 11 showed fewer
wage earners employed in the 5 months February to June 1935 than
in the corresponding months of 1934. The manufacture of shoes
and allied products so dominates the area's activities that little else
is offered when these industries operate at only two-thirds capacity,
Women seeking relief in this shoe area.
Because very little new industry had been brought into this area,
a study was made of the women who were seeking relief at StateFederal relief offices. Of a total of 1,740 registered applicants, about
a third were experienced shoe operatives. For the majority, experience ran into years; about 60 percent had been employed in shoe
factories for 5 years or more. (See table IX in appendix V.) The
shoe workers had, for the most part, gone through at least the sixth
grade of school; about a fourth had reached the ninth grade but had
not been graduated from high school, and 9 percent had finished
high school. (See table VIII in appendix V.)
The second largest group seeking relief were women who had never
had a job; these represented 15 percent of all whose records were
obtainable. But here a larger proportion, over two-fifths, were
high-school graduates or graduates from schools of higher education,
and another fourth had attended the ninth to eleventh grades.
Domestics, other than those employed in commercial establishments, represented 13.6 percent of the women seeking relief. In
this group about equal proportions had extensive experience and
had been. working in households only since the beginning of the
depression.
The clerical group was fourth on relief lists. A large proportion
had bad· some experience, many in shoe-factory office work, and the
majority were high-school graduates.
10 Old Colony area includes Abington, Avon, Braintree, Bridgewater, E ast Bridgewater, West Bridge
water, Brockton, Holbrook, Middleboro, Randolph, Rockland, Stoughton, Weymouth, and Whitman.
11 Information from Massachusetts Department of Labor and Industries.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
THE RESOURCES OF NEW ENGL AND
21
The largest number of women seeking relief assistance in the Old
Colony area were in the age group 45 to 59 years. (See table VII in
appendix V.) In this group equal numbers were married or had
severed marital ties. Some of these older women lived alone, but
a large proportion were the economic heads of their families or were
wives and mothers. In fact, one-fourth of all women seeking relief
had the financial responsibility of two or more persons. One-eighth
of the women lived alone. (See table VI in appendix V.)
Other mature women were numerous among those asking assistance,
for more than a third were 25 but under 45 years of age. Naturally,
the majority of young girls wanting financial aid were unmarried
dauO'hters living with their families.
The picture of 1,740 of about 4,100 wholly unemployed womenmore than two-fifths- seeking relief in a community where the largest
numbers live in family groups is disheartening. That the problem
of insufficient family income bears heavily upon the woman, whether
she be wife or daughter, is obvious. Increase in employment in
nearby Boston may help some of the younger, clerically-trained girls,
but the older factory workers and those without extensive experience
must hope for new developments within their own communities if
they are to continue to live there without charity.
WOMEN IN WOOLEN AND WORSTED INDUSTRY IN 1935
The third largest group of women employed in Massachusetts
factories are making woolen and worsted goods. Here, too, decreased employment followed upon decreased business prior to the
general depression. However, its cause was not factory migration
from New England but a generation that used only 4 yards of woolen
goods where 8 had been worn 20 years ago. From 1923 to 1933 production dropped by 186}~ million yards. Moreover, in 1923 looms
were mostly hand fed, whereas now about one-half have an automatic
feed which increases the capacity per worker from 10 to 30 percent.
As a result, employment in the woolen and worsted industry throughout the country declined from 194,500 persons in 1923 to 110,200 in
August 1934. 12 The low point- 75,500- was reached in June 1932.
In Massachusetts these changes affected women more a.dversely
than men, for according to Federal census figures, in 1920 women
were about 43 percent of all persons employed (10 years of age and
over) and in 1930 they were only 39 percent. In January 1934 about
10,000 women woolen- and worsted-mill workers (excluding girls
under 14) were reported as unemployed. Not quite two-thirds of
these were still on pay rolls subject to call whenever volume of work
required their services.
Many of these women later went back to regular work in the mills,
if one may judge by reports on average numbers of wage earners
employed in manufacturing industries in Lawrence, the principal wool
city. From December 1934 through the first half of 1935, the average
number of wage earners employed each month exceeded the average
number employed during the 3-year period 1925 to 1927.
This bright spot on the industrial horizon gives hope that the woolmanufacturing industry may so adjust its production and distribution
12
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review, June 1935, p. 1449.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
22
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
methods to meet modern market conditions as to give regular employment to its own workers as well as to absorb new employees.
UNEMPLOYMENT AMONG OTHER WOMEN FACTORY WORKERS IN
MASSACHUSETTS
Clothing trades.
The cotton, woolen, and shoe industries of Massachusetts contributed 48 percent of the wholly unemployed and 57 percent of the
partly unemployed women factory workers in the State unemployment census of 1934. Clothing industries added another 10 percent
to each group. The men's and women's clothing factories had
increased their number of employees between 1920 and 1930 but
could not maintain their position during the depression.
Boston clothing workers.- The largest number of clothing workers
are employed in the Boston metropolitan area. In Boston proper,
some 2,200 women garment operatives were partially or totally
unemployed in January 1934. These women were of all ages. (See
table 3.) All indications point to an increase of employment in
clothing trades since that time. The manufacturers themselves are
cooperating to improve their markets both locally and in New York.
Other factory workers.
The only other industrial groups in which 3,000 or more women
were unemployed in Massachusetts in January 1934 were "other
textiles" (knit goods, silk, rugs, and miscellaneous textiles), food
products, paper and allied products, and electrical machinery and
supplies. While knit goods, especially staple underwear, has suffered
because of changes in type of garment worn, today producers of
knitted outerwear in Boston claim that they cannot secure women
machine operators to meet their requirements.
Though food-products factories in Boston reported 1,710 unemployed women in the census of 1934, improved conditions were
reported later, at least in the confectionery industry.
Paper boxes, which usually are manufactured close to the factories
for which they are made, reflect the conditions of the industries they
serve. In Brockton the industry has not picked up, but in Boston
its position is better. Other paper products, such as envelopes and
labels, tags, and cards, are important in a few sections west of Boston.
Printing and publishing also has reflected better market conditions.
CONCLUSION CONCERNING EMPLOYMENT NEEDS OF FACTORY
WOMEN
Beyond question, several thousand of the almost 69,000 Massachusetts women factory workers who were wholly or partially unemployed at the beginning of 1934 had obtained more regular work by
the fall of 1935. But uncertainty of livelihood in threatening aspect
still looms in the future of other thousands in cotton textile and shoe
towns and for thousands in the Boston industrial area. The cold
figures do not tell the human heartbreaks and psychological and
moral disintegration that affect women who see no opportunity for
self-support ahead. The figures tell only of the enormity of the
problem, which cannot be overcome by individual workers but must
be solved by concerted action of the citizens of the State of Massachusetts.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
3.-Age, occupation, and industry of women wholly and partially unemployed in manufacturing, in building trades, and in independent
hand trades as of Jan . 2, 1934-City of Boston 1
Number of women
Industry
Occupational grou~
Allun employed
women
16,
18,
20,
25,
45,
16years under
under under under under
of age
18
20
25
45
60
and
years years years years years
ov er
Skilled and unskilled
60
years
and
over
- - - -- - - - - - --Manufacturing- TotaL ______
Clothing (wearing apparel, millinery, furnishings) _____ _____ _____ _
Iron and steeL _____ _______________ _
Metal exclusive of iron and steel. ___
Lumber and furniture ______________
Boots and shoes (leather) ___________
Other leather ___ ____________ __ ______
Printing, publishing, and engraving _____ ____ ___ ______ ·----- -----Paper and allied products __________
Cotton mills _______ ·----------- -- - -Woolen and worsted mills __________
Other textiles ___ . _____ ______ . _______
Electrical m achinery and supplies_ .
Rubber products ____________ ______ .
Food _____ _______________ ----- . -----Clocks and watches ______ __________
Jewelry and silverware ____________ _
Other __ --------------------~------Building trades _______ __ _____ _
Independent hand t rades. ___ .
9,410
3,001
3,375
383
17
2
7
150
37
717
44
7
35
258
50
747
68
9
55
449
32
42
943
9
12
24
331
7
81
3
50 --- ---4
652
46
116
13
174
1
35
195
5
125
1,832
383
6 ------- ------18 ----3
1,288
124
50
232
100
27
14
236
55
72
681
2
8
463
452
162
139
45
32
11
16
13
190
51
90
11
70
12
533
100
2 ------4
2
487
137
- --
2,356
150
25
122
1,046
147
460
1,347
140
3
1
2
49
14
--- -
-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---
7,869
437
1,238
2,492
2,664
69 2,214
300
18 -- - · --73
1
10
5
18
5
75
120
20
931
14 ------109
138
3
1
1
46
14
368
11
1
4
142
33
653
21
2
20
225
38
702
29
4
31
394
15
19
22
6
3
112
9
33
369
91
88
25
10
216
38
62
642
234
116
34
112
10
39
27
1
9
11
10
3
171
50
13
2
50
7
1
53
9
482
89
7
1 - ----2
1 ----- -3
346
103
15
1,019
214
Professional
M an- Clerand
ical Other
semi- Sales agerial
18,
20,
45,
Total
16,
25,
60
profesunder under under under under years sional
18
20
25
45
60
and
year~ years years years years over
Age
859
179
83
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -
46
11
1
3
13
4
1
2
1
27
499
5
12
283
71
3
37 ------607
45
107
1
163
5
121
1,710
3 -- ----11 --- --· 966
42
25 --- ----
10
161
2
11
35
85
21
7
862
16
60
93
298
246
149
57
16
------3
103
-- -- --4
357
285
68
9 --- ---2 ---- --15
4
105
19
9 -------
1
1
15
5
59
92
296
245
3
11
42
66
117
66
11
45
111
37
7
7
4
2
3
1
Z •
371
42
10
11
34
61
29
102
3
7
281
7
2
~
3
3
------------- ------ ------------- -- -1 ------------------ ------ -----52
2
8
1
6
1
3
6
3 -----1
1
9
1
1
1
2
---- --- _,.. ____ ----- ---- --- ------ -- -- -
----- - - ----- - ----- ---- -- ------ -- -- -10
12
26 ----- -
-----8
149 -- - ---- ------ ---- --
----- --2
1
2
1
8
-------------
219
100
2
4
1
1 Di.ta compiled by Women's Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor, from figures secured in the Massachusetts census of unemployment by the Massachusetts Emergency Relief
Administration.
2 Includes 1 woman whose occupational group was not reported.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
~
w.
0
q
18 1,338
-- - - - - --4
1
~t_,:j
~
0
t_,:j
w.
0
l'zj
t_,:j
t_,:j
z
0
~
z
t1
24
.
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
THE UNEMPLOYED CLERICAL WORKER AND PROSPECTS
OF FUTURE CLERICAL WORKERS
In spite of the decrease in factory employment in Massachusetts
from 1920 to 1930, the number of women gainfully occupied in clerical
pursuits increased by more than 22,500. In 1930 over 22 percent of
all gainfully employed women were working in various office capacities. An unemployment roll in January 1934 of over 23,700 experienced clerks and stenographers, with an additional 7,500 inexperienced clerical workers, is not out of line, therefore, with the proportion
of such workers in wage-earning ranks.
The situation in Boston.
An analysis of the unemployed clerical group was made in Boston
proper. Here 8,419 girls were without regular employment. (See
table 4.) Somewhat over one-fourth of these had never been fully
employed since receiving school training. While the great majority
were girls under 20, more than 700 were 20 and above.
Wholesale and retail trade was responsible for the release of 2,595
women, constituting the largest group who had been employed.
From the city's manufacturing plants some 1,338 had been released
as business declined. Professional offices, hotels, restaurants, and
laundries each had added to the toll of discharged clerical workers as
they decreased their operating staffs.
Stenographers and typists represented approximately 2,600 among
the 6,000-odd experienced unemployed women office workers. General office workers totaled about 2,000, while bookkeepers and accountants numbered 1,524. The inexperienced girl was recorded
quite generally as a stenographer or typist.
This is the picture of unemployment among Boston women office
workers in January of 1934: 6,055 experienced workers unemployed,
and 2,364 inexperienced, mostly stenographers and typists, unable to
find jobs. In June 1934 the Boston schools sent out about 1,400
others with some commercial training; only 461 of these had secured
positions a year later (see table 5), while 500, according to data
secured from the Boston school committee, were taking special business courses. Further, more than 7,200 girls were enrolled in the
commercial course of Boston high schools. In other words, the ranks
of girls seeking office work in Boston from Boston schools alone had
been increased and will be increased by more than a thousand each
year. Nor is this the entire story, for the high schools in the residential suburbs around Boston also are turning out students in large
numbers who expect to secure·employment in or near Boston. While
the number who have been graduated from commercial courses in
these suburbs was not reported, there were, for example, over 300 13
girls enrolled in commercial courses both in Arlington and in Newton
in 1934-35.
Marriage or other causes will withdraw some of these girls from the
busLT1ess field. A survey made by the Boston school committee,
department of vocational guidance, 5 years after girls had graduated
in 1924, revealed that 25 percent were removed from remunerative
occupations by marriage, illness, or-other personal reasons. Some of
1s
Information from Massachusetts Department of Education, secondary-school division.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
4.-Age, occupation, and industry of women wholly and partially unemployed in clerical pursuits as of Jan. 2, 1934-City of Boston 1
Occupational group
00
°'
00
All clerical workers
NI
°'
r'°
OJ
Bookkeepers, cashiers,
accountants
Industry
...
...
Age
Q>
El
::,
...
Age
Q>
.a
.a
Stenographers and typists
...
Age
Q>
.a
~A
Others
Age
Q>
.a
~ ~~ ~~ a;~ a>~ ~~
'-'a>
~"' "'~~'"'
'-'a>
'"' A 'O~~al 'O~~al ~f 'O~~al ~~ alt,.
~~
~~ ~~ 'O~~ell ~~ 'O~fal "'alt,.
'O al ~~
A a> 'g ~ p,O
A <> A a>
'8::, ~P> ::,A P>a> ::,Aa>?> ~~ A 'O::,A ?>a>al 'O§~ell 'OA::, a>?> 'O::,;,,.
A
A a> p,O
::, P> ::, P> 'O
::, >,
30 ::,A·ooa>P> ::,A P>a> ::,A a>P> ::,A P>a> ::,A a>P> ~~ 30 ::Si»
::, P> 'O
3
(.000
0
oA
·o
•oo
oA
..........
~g
g-~
oA
~~
~~
ci'~
~g
~ ..... ~~
E-<
ci'~
~~ ~~ ~-~ ci'~ ~'°
E-<
~ ..... ~~ ~-~ i~ ~g oA
E-<
E-<
'°
al
'°
al
'° al
'° al
-- - - - - - - -- -- - - -- -- -- -- -- -- - - -- - - - - - - -- -- - -- -- -- -- -- -Total_ _____ __ ________ __ _
8,419 420 1,856 2,960 2,608 494 81 1,739 44 216 539 702 199 39 4,640 334 1,402, 1,664 1,087 132 21 2,040 42 238 757 819 163
21
- - -- - - - - - - - -- - - -- -- -- - - ---- - - - -- - - - - -- - - -Manufacturing ______________ 1,338 21
99
625 115 20
458
291
4 18 77 135 49
42
552
8
9
219
257 22
495
8 39 162 233 44
3
9
Building trades _____ __ _______ 100
2
9
52
28
29 ---2
7
10 16
2
1
4
44 ---27
10
2
27
1
2
5
9
8
3 ---Independent hand trades ___ _
1
1
2 ---- - --2 -- -1 ---- 1 ---- --- - ------ -- -- ------ ---- -- -- ---- ---- ---2 ---- ---- 1
Trade _________ ___ ___ ________ 2,5954 ---1 ---- ---26
264 1,034 1,050 189 32
759
5 52 255 335 93 19 1,007
118
8
437
398 38
829 13 94 342 317 58
8
5
~~
A
'O al
30
::, P>
A a>
~~
A a>
::, P>
~~
'O al
El::,
vi ...
VJ ...
al
§~
al
<l>
__
Tra:nsp_or
and commumcat10ntation
__ _________________
D _omestic and personal servIce __ ______________________
_
168 ---308
572
10
7
7
63
84
2
11
21
5
----
64 ----
3
27
31
3
----
65
----
2
25
32
6
31
76
100
194
124
224
35
65
8
6
159
4 10
72 ---- 6
45
16
77
35
18
13
5
2
40 ---373
3
6
51
15
139
16
136
2
40
1
4
109
127
6
4
15
19
40
39
3'l.
53
15
12
----
52
331
57
368
10
5
1
11
12
161
1
10
3
54
4
77
3
16
1
·3
63 ---414
4
3
32
27
181
30
173
3
21
---3
52
268
---3
3
25
22 23
96 118
4
21
----5
6!l9
22
1
1
215
30 116
68
1
2,083 310 1,143
609
19
1
1
66
6
36
22
Professional service __________
Publicservice not elsewhere
classified, agriculture, forestry, fishing, and extraction of minerals __________ __ 127
7
Industry not reported _______ 843 ---67
8
Never fully employed since
leaving school_ ____________ 2,364 346 1,295
14 - - --
39 ----
-- 1--
-- -- ----
2 ----
---2
----
Data compiled by Women's Bureau, U.S . Department of Labor, from figures rncured in the Massachusetts census of unemployment by the Massachusetts
Emergency Relief
Administration.
1
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
26
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
the older women will, of course, drop out each year. But allowing
fully j or such usual adjustments, Boston's business and professional
activities must increase greatly if these young people are to find remunerative work in offices.
TABLE
5.-Follow-up study of class of 1934, Boston public high schools, 1 year
after graduation
·
[To the study made by the Boston School Committee, Department of Vocational Guidance, were added
data secured from the Girls Latin School and the School of Practical Arts]
Number of
girls
Status of 1934 graduates in 1935
Number of graduates in 1934_ __________________________ __
Working in 1935__ ____ ______________ ____ _____ _________________ __
13,168
l=====l l
1,058
1- ~ - - - 1 1
Commercial and business _____ _________________ __ __________
Domestic and personal service ____________________ ______ ___
Junior professionaL - -- ----------- --- --------- __ ___ ___ ______
Manufacturing and mechanicaL ____ ____________ __ _________
Mercantile________ ___ ___ ___________________________ ________
Trades _______ __ ___________________________ - ____ ___ ___ ___ ___
Miscellaneous and E. R. A___ __ ____ ____ __ _____________ _____
461
Further education-day_________ ___ ___ ____ _____________________
1,117
Public or private commercial schools_______________________
Post-graduate high-school courses, including commerciaL __
Colleges_ __ _______ ___ ___ __ ________ __ ______ __ _____ _______ __ __
State teachers' college and private normal schools_______ ____
Nurses' training schools___ ____________________________ _____
Preparatory schools ____ __ _____________ __________ ___ __ ______
Kindergarten t raining schools ___ __ ______ ___ ____ _____ _______
Art schools, including dramatics, plastics, music, etc_ ____ __
Trade schools__ ___ _____________ __ __________________ __ __ ____
Miscellaneous__________ ___ _____ __ _____ __ _________ __________
124
42
99
237
4
91
,- - - - - <
Further education-evening__ ______ ___ _________________ ___ _____
Wanting work_ ----- -- - --- -----------------------------------__
Ill, married, moved, or unaccounted for __ ____ ___ __ ___ _______ ___•
536
174
230
37
48
19
15
30
1/i
12
301
779
214
t Details aggregate more than total because some of the graduates wanting work are included also among
those taking further educational courses.
The problem of the clerical worker in industrial cities.
The increased number of girls attending high schools, and the fact
that the "commercial" course is the onl:y___public-school trade course
open to women, outside of Boston and Worcester and a few Stateaided home-making schools, naturally lead to an increase in the number of girls everywhere who are seeking office employment. For
example, in New Bedford, where even in 1930 employment was
given to only 1,608 women office workers, school reports showed that
663 girls were enrolled in commercial courses in 1934- 35. And only
38 of the June 1934 graduating class were placed in clerical positions.
In Brockton 696 out of 1,581 high-school girls were studying for clerical pursuits. In Quincy it was the same story- about half of the
girl high-school students were specializing in office work. And in
each of these cities older girl clerks and stenographers waited around
hoping that an opportunity for work would come their way.
UNEMPLOYED WOMEN IN DOMESTIC AND PERSONAL
SERVICE
While hotels and restaurants, power laundries, beauty parlors, and
other forms of service to the public in commercial establishments
accounted for about 5 percent of the 165,000 women not fully em-
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
27
THE RESOURCES OF NEW ENGLAND
ployed in Massachusetts in January 1934, an additional 9 percent of
the unemployed claimed to have had domestic or personal household
experience. The term "claimed" is used advisedly, because a tendency exists when seeking a job to confuse experience as a housekeeper
in one's own home with paid service in another's home.
Decreased family income is immediately reflected in all the service
trades, not only in numbers employed but in wages paid. In the
worst of the depression, the need for shelter forced women with varying occupational backgrounds to take domestic service positions without any cash remuneration or for very little cash. This condition
has left in its wake a lowered wage scale for household workers, a
scale so low in many instances that Federal or State relief was preferred to this form of employment.
A demand which is not being met.
A sampling of the conditions in Boston and environs was undertaken so that the many problems involved could be more clearly
understood . In 1934, the 2,944 unemployed Boston women for whom
age was reported considered themselves trained in household service.
Of this number more than one-eighth were 60 years of age or more, and
another three-eighths were 45 and under 60. Only one-seventh were
less than 25 years of age.
6.-Age and industry of women wholly and partially unemployed in trade,
transportation and communication, professional service, and domestic and personal service as of Jan. 2, 1934-City of Boston 1
T ABLE
b
Age groups of unemployed workers in
pursuits specified
!,::
"O
Unemployed
workers in-
Cl)
p,,
0
Industry
•A
s s sAos
P.A
Cl)
Cl)
A
::ii,::
3
"@~
::l
0
E-<
~
Cl)
Cl)
0
~~
A
Cl)
::,p,,
...,p,,
LQ-
C"I
~~
~~
"O o,
A
A '"
Cl)
"O
Cl)
::l p,,
::lP'>
0
LQ
~
C"I
oo
"O
'°
A
"'
~~
~~
"''"'
A
A
"'>
... Cl)
::lP'>
0
~
C"I
E-<'p. ~
C"I
-- -- -- -- -LQ~
LQ~
~
"'
""'""'~
....~... ...,"'
...
Q)"3
b.Orn
~o
-~~ "'t:i
~ p.
0
5
Cl)
Cl)
::l p,,
§
p.
~
Cl)
:S0
'° - - - - - ---
~
SALESWOMEN
I
Trade ______________________ ___ _-- --- _ 6,910 23,4551122163811,26211,014
350
TELEPHONE OPERATORS
Transportation and communication _
513
2141
1
I
21
531
1431
I 69
15 1---- -
2,595
92
768
168
2
129
PROFESSIONAL AND SEMIPROFESSIONAL
l t'
WORKERS
Professional service :
Teachers _______ ____________ __ ____ 760
Nurses (trained) _________ __ ______ 847
All others ______ ___ ________ ___ ____ 1,241
11 I • ~1 I "'J
847 ----273
5
,oo
10
15
SKILLED AND
Domestic and personal service :
Hotels, restaurants, boarding
houses, etc ____________ __________2,090 1,649
31 100
Laundries, cleaning and pressing
shops _____________ -- --- _--- -- -- 745
32
613
57
Barbers, hairdressers, and manicurists ___ ___________ ___________ 335
22
335
9
Nurses (not trained) ___ ___ _______ 183
2
183 ---- Other ____ ________________ __ __ __ __ 3,212 2,944
61 150
150
62
440
128
NSKILLED
204
48
43
15
-- -- -- ------- - - --------572
3 3393
---- --
0RKERS
271
750
396
101
199
27
215
133
227
139
25
102
7
23
172
44
81
55
81
9
205 1,054 1.067
7 --- - -- - ---- - ---36
-- -- -- - --407
202 l 59
7
1 Data compiled by Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, from figures secured in the Massechusetts census of unemployment by the Massachusetts Emergency Relief Administration.
2 All but 7 of these women were in wholesale and retail trade.
3 Includes 1 person for whom occupational group was not secured.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
28
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
Among the registrants for household employment in the Boston
Public Employment Office from August 1934 to August 1935-an
office which receives applications from as far west as Worcester and
as far south as New Bedford-there were only 700 who applied for
work in private families and 185 who sought household day work.
(See table 7.) Of this number, 340 were from Boston proper; that
is to say, while about 3,000 Boston women stated that they were
unemployed domestics, only a little over a tenth had registered for
employment at the public employment office. There are, of course,
private employment offices in Boston with which others may have
registered. But the failure to seek work in a well-conducted free
employment office calls for explanation.
The explanation, according to the director of the employment
service, lies in two conditions. Householders ready to pay acceptable wages demand experienced workers in good health and with
good personality. These are difficult to locate; for among those
registered for employment, only 31 were experienced cooks, only 157
were experienced in general housework and were willing to "live in."
Even when householders were willing to take inexperienced young
women, girls seeking work in stores, offices, or commercial service
establishments were unwilling to become household servants.
At the other extreme are the many housewives who want assistance
in the home but cannot afford to pay much for it. These may be
ready to take inexperienced girls, but they want vigorous, reliable
workers; and the workers will not accept employment at the wages
offered.
All persons dealing _with the domestic-employment situation agree
that there is a demand for household help that is not being met. Why?
1. There are no established job speci.i.cations in homes with
one helper. A woman may be hi.red as cook or as mother's helper
and be expected to undertake anything that needs doing.
2 . There has been no recognized training for any of the num erous occupations in household service.
3. The status of "servant" is obnoxious to the majority of
white women who have Jived in this country any length of time.
4. "Living in" results in isolation, at which every human
being rebels.
5. Lack of occupational standards has resulted in a complete
lack of wage and hour standards.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
29
THE RESOURCES OF NEW ENGLAND
7.-Numbe:rs of experienced and inexperienced women applicants for domestic- and personal-service jobs registerd at Boston Public Employment Office,
August 1934 to August 1935, by type of job wanted 1
TABLE
Experience status
Type of job wanted
Total applicants
Total reporting
Experienced
Not reporting as to
Not experi- experience
enced
TotaL ______________ ____ ___ _________
1,921
1,785
1,251
534
136
Private family ____________________________
700
662
429
233
38
Housework (live in) ______________ ____
Housework (live out) ____________ _____
Mothers' help (live in) __________ ______
Mothers' help (live out) ____ '__________
Nursemaid ___________________________
Cook. ____ ______________ ________ -- ---Housekeeper
or housekeeper and companion ______________________________
Practical nurse ________________________
223
62
129
96
11
32
209
62
128
87
10
32
157
41
40
6
31
52
21
68
47
4
1
------------
72
75
60
74
32
62
28
12
12
1
110
102
64
38
8
7
7
4
9
17
8
------------3
InstitutionaL _______ ___ ___ ________________
60
14
------------1
9
1
Housekeeper; linen room ___________ __
Matron _______________________________
Attendant ____________________________
Ward maid ___________________________
27
24
51
25
47
24
3
15
30
16
Hotels and restaurants ____________________
828
784
633
151
44
Housekeeper; manager; linen room ___
Chambermaid. ___ __ ____ __ ____ ___ _____
Waitress (counter, steam table, soda) _
Bus ________ . --- _-- -- ---- ---- -------- -Hostess; food checker; cashier ___ _____ _
Cook ___________ _____________ ____ ___ __
Kitchen; pantry; dishwasher __ _____ __
53
87
408
31
32
82
135
47
82
393
29
30
78
125
31
62
340
20
24
71
85
16
20
53
9
6
7
40
6
5
15
2
2
4
10
Household-day work __________________ __
Office cleaning_- -- -______
-- --- ---------------Miscellaneous
_____
_________ ______ __
185
65
33
152
55
30
70
36
19
82
19
2
311
33
10
•3
4
1
1 Data obtained by Women's Bureau from registration cards of all applicants at Boston employment
office.
2 3 each, manager and doctor's maid; 2 each, dressmaker or sewing woman, saleswoman, storeroom attendant; 1 each, companion, graduate attendant, hairdresser, house mother, nursery-school teacher, personal
maid, maid in hospital.
.a 6 companions; 2 sewing women; 1 each governess, manager, saleswoman.
• Companion, manager, serve dinners.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
8.-Type of job of longest duration of women applicants for domestic- and personal-service jobs registered at Boston employment office,
August 1934 to August 1935, by duration of job and marital status
Reporting duration of experience
Type of job of longest duration
Total
Less than 6 months
Reporting marital status
Total
6 months, less than l year
Reporting marital status
Total
Reporting marital status
------------------~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
TotaL_····················-··············· 11,456
Total reporting type of job.·-··············-····· 1,440
Private family...................................
445
General. ................... ..... . _...........
212
Mother's help.... ............................
89
Nursemaid.·--····· · ······················· ··
15
Cook ....... ·--·······························
36
Housekeeper .......... _......................
34
Practical nurse.. .............................
38
Other.. ......................................
21
InstitutionaL ········-········· ······-···········
153
Housekeeper.................................
6
Matron .. · ...................................
11
Attendant; nurse.. ..........................
32
Ward maid; waitress. ...................... .
61
Other........................................
43
Hotels and restaurants...........................
488
Housekeeper; manager; linen. ...............
32
Chambermaid; cleaner............. ..........
53
Waitress; steam table; soda dispenser;
counter .......................... _.........
255
Bus..........................................
11
Hostess; food check; cashier.. ...............
28
Cook ................. . .... ....... -- ·.........
46
Kitchen; pantry; dish washer; vegetable
preparer.... .............. ....... ..........
61
Other ........................._···········-·2
Household day work.............................
32
Office and building cleaner.......................
46
Miscellaneous....................................
276
Laundry and dry cleaning .. _.... ~...........
19
Manufacturing ............. ·-················
124
Clerical............... . ..... .... .............
44
Sales.........................................
41
Other........................................
48
Type of job not reported.............. ...........
16
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1,346
1,331
417
198
81
15
35
31
38
19
707
699
244
103
12
18
9
14
11
2
5
4
7
2
140
6
11
26
58
39
443
29
46
84
2
8
15
42
17
224
12
20
18
1
4
5
8
92
4
10
229
9
24
43
146
3
13
14
33
3
2
13
50
61
2
31
43
257
18
114
40
41
15
1
27
19
7
5
5
5
3
1 ................ ··-··-·· ....................................................... .
12
3
3
2 ..•••...
2
2
1 ..... .. .
18 ... ... .• ....... . ........ ........ . . .. ....
4
4 ....... .
3
62
32
30
23
3
4
16
15
9
5
6
2
2 ...•... . - - 1 - ---124
13
13
12
1
10
9
4
5
8
7
5
4
1
2
2
2 ...........•...•
12
6
6
4
1
1
3
3
3 ....... . ····-···
12
4
4
3
1 .••.•...
1
1
1 -·······
5
1 ... ... .. ··· · ··-· ..... . .. .. . .....
_5
5
5 ............... .
44
15
258
256
54
34
77
4
140
7
64
26
22
21
8
16
21
55
5
26
6
7
11
2
381
376
119
61
4
1
12
18
17
6
255
254
113
42
41
5
5
4
14
2
230
163
34
33
230
163
34
33
106
71
14
21
·37
18
9
10
39
37 ····-···
2
5
4
1 • .••••..
5
3
2
4
2
1
1
14
7
3
4
2 ......•. ..•.••..
2
192
187
67
35
18
2
4
3
3
2
181
176
63
33
16
2
4
3
3
2
119
16
46
114
16
46
43
5
15
18
3
12
15
1
1
1 ...•.•••
4 ..••.•. . ··-··-··
2
1
2 .••..•.. ·······-
== ........................ == == ........ == ........ -·······
38
22
21
14
4
3
4
2 ..•. •. .. ..•.•... .•.•..•. ...... .. • . •••• ..
7
3
3
2
1
11
15
14
11
1
2
14
4
4
1
2
1
127
84
70
54
11
5
13
16
5
3
3 - ····· ·· ...••.•.
== ........ ........ ........ ........
3
9
16
52
5
6
9
44
3
5
8
41
2
4
3
3 -------1
1
2
3
22
22
15
3
6
10
3
76
4
11
3
6
10
3
70
4
10
2
4 ...••••.
8 ...••.•.
1
1
46
6
3
6
1
48
3
2
3
43
3
2
3
32
1
1
2
3
6
1
2
2
1
18
1
4
8
2
1
1
== == == == ==
c.i.:i
0
1 year, less than 2 years
Type of job of longest duration
2, less than 3 years
3, less than 5 years
5 years and more
Total Reporting marital status Total Reporting marital status Total Reporting marital status Total Reportin g marital status
numnumnumnumber Total Single
Other her Total Sin gle
Other ber Total Single
Other ber Total Single
Other
~:f
~:a:-
~:d-
~:r
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Total____________ ____ _______________ ____ 246
224
123
44
57
182
170
76
47
47
242
225
100
55
70
339
316
126
62
128
Total reporting type of job _______ ___ __________ ~ 222 ~ ~
56
182
170 ~
47
47
239
222 ~
55
68 ~ 311
124
61
126
Private family_______ ______ ___ _______ _________ 102
93
53
12
28
55
52
29
6
17
53
52
29
9
14
55
51
19
8
24
GeneraL_ _____________________________ ___
57
54
29
9
16
29
28
15
3
10
26
25
15
6
4
23
21
8
4
9
Mother's help____ ______________________ __
21
18
17
1
4
3
3 ______ ______
5
5
5 _____________ _____ ___________ _ ___________ _
Nursemaid_ ______________________________
3
3
3 ____ __ _____ _
1
1
1 ______ ____ __
3
3
2
1
1·
1 ____ ___ ____ _
Cook___ ____ ___ ___ _____ ___________________
6
5
1
3
4
4
2
2
3
3
2
14
14
6
3
5
Housekeeper__ ______ ______ __ __ ____________
8
7
1
5
4
4
2
2
9
9
1
7
6
4
1
1
2
Practical nurse_ _________________ __________
4
4
1
3
6
6
2
2
2
4
4
2
1
7
7
1
6
Other_____ ____ __ __ _____ __ ______________ ___
3
2
1
1 -----7
6
4
1
1
3
3
2
1
4
4
2
2
Iru:titutionaL_________ __________________ ___ __
29
26
16
3
7
18
16
7
4
5
36
31
21
6
4
26
24
11
13
Housekeeper ______ ___ ___ __________ ________
2
2
1
1 _____ _ ______ ______ __ __ __ ______
2
2 ______ ______
2
2
2
1
1
Matron_ _______ __ __ ___________________ ____
1
1
1 ______ ___ ___ ______ ______ ______ ___ ___ ______
3
3
2
1
4
4
3
1
Attendant; nurse_ ___ _________ _____ ______ _
6
5
2
2
5
3
1
2
8
6
5
1
4
3
2
1
Ward maid; waitress______________________
12
11
9
1
10
10
6
2
2
8
7
6
1
6
6
2
4
Other_______ __ __ __ ______________________ __
8
7
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
15
13
8
3
2
10
9
3
6
Hotels and restaurants____ __ ___ ______ _________
73
66
35
15
16
65
59
23
20
16
85
78
27
19
32
105
100
39
21
40
Housekeeper; manager; linen_____________ _
2
2
1
1
4
3
1
2
10
10
3
2
5
12
10
5
1
4
Chambermaid; cleaner______ ___ _____ ___ ___
8
7
3
2
2
10
9
2
3
4
5
4
2
1
1
14
13
4
4
5
Waitress; steam table; soda dispenser;
counter_ _________ _________ __ __ __________
46
42
26
6
10
31
28
16
7
42
38
16
14
36
34
15
Bus ___ ___ ____ ___ __________________________ -- ----- -- --- -----------------1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 ------ -----Hostess; food check; cashier______________ _
1 ______ __ ____ ____ ____ ___ _
2
2
1
8
9
6
3
9
6
Cook __ - ----- -------- ---- -------------- --4
3
7
2
15
1 _____ _
16
8
16
4
8
6
Kitchen; pantry; dish washer; vegetable
preparer______ __ __ ______________________
13
13
5
6
2
10
10
2
4
4
10
10
2
4
4
16
16
4
5
7
Other _________ ____ ___________ __ ______ ____ _ ____ __ ------ __ ___ __ _____ ------____________________________ __
1
1 ______ ______
1
1
1
1 ___________ _
Household day work __________ : ______________ _
3
3
2
1
3
3
1
2
6
6
15
14
6
7
Office and building cleaner_____ ________ _______
9
8
6
1
6
6 _____ _
3
3
11
10
2
4
4
16
15
5
9
Miscellaneous ___ ________________ _______ ____ __ _
28
26
18
3
35
34
17
13
48
45
20
12
13
117
107
53
21
33
L aundry and dry cleaning_ _____ __________
2
2
2 __ ____ ______
2
2
1
1 __ __ _
6
6
1
2
3
7
6
3
1
2
Manufacturing ___ _________ ____ __________ _
14
13
~
4
1i
16
8
7
1
14
13
7
2
4
56
50
25
13
12
ClericaL___________________________ ______
2
2
2 __ ____ ______
4
4
2
2
11
10
7
2
1
18
17
9
4
4
Sales________ ____ __ __________________ ______
5
5
3
2
6
6
3
2
1
5
5
2
2
1
16
16
7
2
7
Other____________ _______ ____________ ____ __
,5
4
3
1 __ ____
6
6
3
3 ______
12
11
3
4
4
20
18
9
1
8
Type of job not reported__________ __________ __
2
1 - ----- ______ ______ _____ _ ______
3
3
2
5
5
2
2
----
1
Excludes 116 with no experience and 349 with duration of experience not reported.
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UNEMPLOYMENT AMONG PROFESSIONAL WOMEN
While unemployed professional workers were less than 6 percent
of the total unemployed women in Massachusetts in 1934, 9,400
trained women without work represents a great waste of resource,
to say the least. These unemployed women were about equally
divided among teachers, nurses, and "all other" professions.
Problems of the teaching profession.
Teaching is one of Massachusetts' leading occupations, for not
only is its public-school enrollment heavy but its private schools
and colleges educate many young people from other States. In
1930 the United States census reported 32,481 women teachers in
. public and private schools of all types in the State; in other words,
there were as many teachers as there were saleswomen handling all
retail sales. By 1934 about 8 percent of the experienced women
teachers in Massachusetts were unemployed.
The situation in Boston day schools is indicative of the young
teachers' problems. From 1931-32 to 1934-35 the number of
teachers of both sexes increased but 5 percent; the increase in number
of women teachers was negligible. 14 Positions in all grades totaled
3,432 15 at the beginning of the 1934 fall term. There were 1,106
applications for vacancies, 319 of which were from teachers who had
never been employed at teaching and 787 from experienced teachers.
Permanent placements were found for 163 and temporary positions
at $5 or $6 a day gave at least partial assistance to 142 others. (See
table 10.) In June 1935 Boston Teachers' College graduated 143
other teachers, a number about sufficient to take care of the permanent turnover. But ahead of these new graduates on the waiting
list were 801 from the previous year's registration plus 142 who
had done temporary serVIce during the last semester., (See table 10.)
The Massachusetts teachers' colleges outside Boston graduated
655 teachers in 1933, 677 in 1934, and about 785 in 1935. 16 Just
what the State turnover was each year could not be ascertained.
But on September 20, 1935, there still were 2,676 inexperienced and
585 experienced unemployed teachers registered with the State of
Massachusetts for teaching outside of Boston. Only 170 others
had been placed by the State at the beginning of the fall term. (See
table 9.)
u U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Biennial Survey of Education, 1930-32, ch. II,
p.41.
15
16
Boston School Committee. Unpublished data.
Massachusetts Department of Education, State Teachers' College Division.
32
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TABLE
9.-Number of u nemployed women teachers who made application in 1935 (up to Sept. 20) for teaching jobs outside Boston, with
number of placements for school year 1935-36, by school grade or subject and by experience 1
School grade preferred by applicant
Experienced
Inexperienced
Women applicants
Total still
8till un•
unem•
Total employed Range of requested
ployed
salaries
placed 2 Sept. 20,
Sept. 20,
1935
1935
Placement~ for school
year 1935-36
Range of
Number year':;:
salaries
Still un•
employed R ange of requested
salaries
Sept. 20,
1935
Placements for school
year 1935-36
Range of
Number year's salaries
--TotaL ..... . ..... .. ·-·-- · ... ·· - -· ·-· . ..
Nursery, kindergarten, and grades 1 to 4.. . . .
Kindergarten and grades 1 to 5.......... .. . .
3, 261
- -- - 35
84
170
--
2,676
3
33
2
84
Special classes . .... ·---·- -··.· · ............ ...
19
9
17
Grammar (grades 1 to 8) ..... . . .......... ....
08
45
538
Junior high (grades 7 to 9) . . .. .. . .. ......... .
352
19
312
Senior high ........ . ....... . .. . •. .. . ..... .. ..
1,500
68
1,334
Household arts (cooking and sewing) .. .. .. ...
2131
21
252
Sewing only· ----·-· .. . .. ·-- - · ·--·· ....... ...
Physical education. _...... .. . ..... ·--·· .. ...
1
2
3
13 -- -- ------
6
3
100
169
3
0-$15week, $500$1,600 year.
0-$10 week, $55<'r$1,200 year.
0-$10 week, $550$1,000 year.
O-$G00-$1,000 year.
147
$75<'r-$1,000
585
3
$75<'r-$1,000
2
0-$13 week, $600$2,500 year.
$75o-$1, 800
0-$80 month ... . ... ----- --- -- --------------
2
7fi0- 1,000 - - - - - - - - - ------ -- ------- - -- -- --.--- ---- - - - ---------- --
7
750- 1,000
~
40
75<'r 1,000
0-$15weck, $1,000$1,500 year.
i50- 1,000
17
0-$15 week, $500$1,200 year.
75<'r- 1,000
57
0-$14 week, $1,200
year.
21
750- I, 000
0-$15 week, $75<'r$1,600 year.
0-$1,000-$1,200
-------- -- ---------- -- -year.
0-$15 week, $1,200 -------- -- ----- - --- ----year.
0-$95month, $1,200
year.
0-$75<'r-$1, 500 year.
2
270
5
751}- 1,450
40
0-$600-$1,800 year .
2
1, 200- 1,600
2
166
29
7
69
Data compiled from records of Massachusetts State Department of Education, teachers' registration office.
While only this number were placed through the State department of education, undoubtedly others were placed by local offices.
Some registrants were wiUing to accept positions without pay for the experience they hoped to gain.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
23
$900-$1, 200
1, 000- 1, 800
11
0-$600-$1,000$2,500 year.
0-$13 week, $1,200- ---------- -- -----------$1.800 year.
$0-$1, 200-$1, 300
- -- -- ----- ----- --------year.
1, 000- 1, 700
3
0-$1,800 year . .....
34
REEMPLOYMENT OF '.NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
10.-Positions held by women in Boston public schools and numbers of
applications and of placements of women in teaching positions, as of Sept. 1,
1934, by school grade or subject 1
TABLE
Applications
Placements for school year 1934-35
Positions •
Temporary a
Total
Permanent
held by
School grade pre- women
!erred by applicant
in
Boston Total Inexpe- ExperiRange of
rienced enced 2 Num- Percent
public
Num- Day's Num- year's salary
of
schools
turnber salary ber
for grade
ber
group
over
-- --- --- -- --- -- - -8. 8
3HI
787
305
142 $5or$6
Total• -------- 3,432 1,106
- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Kindergarten ______ __
(5)
325
19
5. 8
19
20
20
5
*51
*6
*540
6. 9
5
Grades 1 to 9 6___ ___ _ } 2,296 {*546
t291
tl91
tlOO
t107 -------- t65 -------Senior high (grades
10-11-12) 7 _ ________
16. 8
635
208
102
106
107
58
6
Household arts in }
137
28 -------28
17
12. 3 ------ -------elementary and
intermediate ___ ____
Physical education
39
13 -------13
4
10. 2 ------ --- ----throughout system_
163
$1, 248-$3, 072
*51
t42
1, 248-2, 016
1, 248-2, 304
1, 344-2, 400
49
1, 728-3, 072
248-2, 304
17 { *1,
tl, 344-2, 400
4
1, 728-3, 072
* Elementary.
t Intermediate.
Data compiled from records of Boston School Committee.
Not known whether experienced are unemployed when they place application.
3 Appointment to positions vacated for 1 or 2 semesters only.
(Not substitute work.)
• 4 During first year out of Boston Teachers' College graduates may do daily work helping teachers or
teaching at 50 cents a day; 90 (6 elementary, 66 intermediate, and 18 senior high) were serving as cadets
in 1934 and are not included in this table.
5 Included in grades 1 to 9.
6 Cannot be broken down.
7 Includes household arts.
1
2
Unless the State is able to employ more teachers to meet the increased
enrollment in high schools it does not seem as though unemployment
among teachers will be ended through public office.
Nursery schools.
In a much smaller degree, too many teachers for the organized
demand are being trained in the private nursery schools. There were
three such schools in Boston in 1934 and in 1935 it was reported one
other was to be organized. Yet of the graduates from the schools
operating in 1934 the majority had not been placed in paying positions
when the school term began in the fall of 1935.
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NEW HAMPSHIRE'S UNEMPLOYED WOMEN
BREADWINNERS
In 1930 approximately 50,000 New Hampshire women were gainfully employed. This number represented but a small increase
since 1920. About two-fifths of those actually employed were in
manufacturing and mechanical pursuits, about one-fourth were in
domestic and personal service, one-seventh in professional service,
and one-eighth were clerical workers.
The extent of unemployment among New Hampshire women in
1935 is not fully known. Minimum measurement only is available,
based on the number who sought work or relief from the New Hampshire Emergency Relief Administration and on the number who were
applying for employment at the State employment service and the
National Reemployment Service. In October 1935, 3,042 women
were listed as unemployed employables on relief or work projects.
In the same month, 4,352 women were registered with the State
emnloyment service or the National Reemployment Service. (See
table 11.) That these figures show only a part of the unemployment in the State is evident from the report of conditions in
Manchester.
In 1930 some 12,000 women were gainfully employed in Manchester, 57 percent of whom were in manufacturing pursuits. In
October 1935 the city employment service reported 1,311 women
registrants, and only one-third of these were seeking factory employment. (See table 12.) While there were 3,365 women who gained
a livelihood by employment in Manchester textile mills in 1930,
and the largest factory in the city was completely closed in October
1935, only 231 textile workers were registered at the free employment
office. Beyond a doubt the mass of unemployed workers from the
city's large cotton and shoe factories do not place applications with
the public office. Foremen expect workers to apply at the factory's
em:ployment office and do not call on the public office except at peak
per10ds when there is no one waiting at the factory gate.
Factory unemployment.
Though women textile workers in Manchester represented the
largest number of unemployed in October 1935, there was much
irregularity of employment in one of the city's two largest shoe
factories. The policy of shutting down and reopening as business
warrants results in spotty employment throughout the year. Other
woman-employing industries in New Hampshire also operate only
for immediate market delivery.
While there are, therefore, peak periods of employment in specific
factories in both small towns and large cities when not enough trained
women can be secured to meet the demand, for a large part of the
year many women factory employees are idle.
Clerical unemployment.
In 1930 there were over 6,000 women gainfully employed in clerical
pursuits in the State of New Hampshire. Since that time schools
have graduated several hundred girls a year from commercial courses.
35
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
36
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
While no Sta.te record of employment in this group is available,
in Manchester 345 women were seeking work at the public employ-•
ment office.
The director of the Manchester Employment Service and the
director of its women's division stated that clerical workers were
difficult to place, as there were few offices in Manchester. Factory
office staffs and clerical staffs in retail and professional offices were
small. It was their opinion that only a few of those taught commercial work by the schools each year had any chance of placement in
New Hampshire. Boston was the nearest center for such workers.
Domestic service.
Hotels in the New Hampshire resort region furnish a summer
demand for domestic service for about 10 weeks. But if orders
from these resort hotels are not filled immediately upon call, the
hotels contact Boston agencies. The calls from private homes for
service at reasonable rates are not numerous.
Conclusion.
New Hampshire needs outlets for her trained women, outlets that
will furnish year-round employment or supplement the seasonal
employment given by existing mills and factories. The record of
handicraft sales in the State shows too low a total for handicraft
to be counted on as an earnings source for any number of women.
11.- Number of men and of women applicants for jobs on registers of State
employment service and National R eemployment S ervice in New Hampshire,
Oct. 12, 1935, by county and by city 1
TABLE
Number on active file
County
Total
Men
Women
- -- - - - -- - - - -- -- - - 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - TotaL ________________ --- ------ ------- ------- - -- --- -- --- 465,293
31,219
26, 867
4,352
- - - - -Belknap _________________ _______ _______ ___ _________ _
22,623
2, 160
1,945
215
Carroll ___ ___ _________________________ __________ ____ _
14,277
1,473
1,394
79
Cheshire __ _______________________________ ________ __ _
33,685
2, 021
1,848
173
Coos __ _____________________________________________ _
38,959
2,203
2,597
394
Grafton ____________________________________________ _
42,816
2,166
2,052
114
Hillsborough ____ _________ ___ ____________ __ _______ __ _
140, 165
9,870
1, 622
8, 248
Merrimack _______________________ -- _______ ________ _
56,152
3,583
2,933
650
Rockingham _______________________________ ___ _____ _
53,750
3, 470
3, 032
438
Strafford __ __________________________________ ____ ___ _
38, 580
2, 639
2, 101
538
Sullivan ________ _______ __________ ------ -- ----------24,286
1, 240
1, 111
129
BY I NCORPORATED CITY (INCLUDED ABOVE)
City and county
Berlin, Coos. __ --- ______ -- _______________ ________ __ _
Concord, Merrimack __________________ _____ _____ ___
Dover, Strafford ___________________________________ _
Franklin, Merrimack __ __________________________ ___
Keene, Cheshire ______________ ____________ _______ __ _
Laconia, Belknap ________ ___ __________ ________ _____ _
Manchester, Hillsborough ___ _________________ _____ _
Nashua, Hillsborough ___ -- ------------------- --- --Portsmouth, Rockingham ___ ______ ________________ _
Rochester, Strafford __________ ___________ ___ _______ _
Somerswath, Strafford ________________________ _____ _
3
1
2
1
3
2
1
1
2
2
2
20,018
25,228
13,573
6,576
13, 794
12,471
76,834
31,463
14,495
10,209
5,680
1,562
2,181
1,031
286
873
1,247
6,599
1,674
950
380
649
1,243
1, 652
857
260
781
1,106
5,343
1,455
796
330
488
319
529
174
26
92
141
1, 256
219
154
50
161
1 Weekly report furnished by Mrs. Abbey Wilder, director of State employment service and N ational
Reemployment Service, New Hampshire.
'Pi~tri9t 1 js Stat{} employment service. Districts 2 and 3 are National Reemployment Service.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
THE RESOURCES · OF NEW E
TABLE
37
GLAND
12.-Number of women applicants for jobs registered at Manchester employment office in October 1935, by age and by type of job wanted
Age group
Type of job wanted
Total
applicants
16 and
17
years
18 and
19
years
20, un- 25, un- 45, un- 60years
der 25 der 45 der 60
and
years
years
years
over
- - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - Total- Number ______ ________________ _
Percent. __________ ____ ___ __ ___ _
Industrial:
Textile ____ _______ - - __ - - ____ . ___________ _
Shoes ______ __ _____________________ ______ _
Power-machine operator (needle trades) __
Sewing (not power machine) ___________ _
Other factory _____ __ ____ ------- --- -- ----Domestic and personal service, etc.:
Institutional housekeeper ___ ____________ _
Chambermaid ______________________ ___ __
Cook ___ ________ ______ ---- ______________ _
Kitchen maid ________ ______ ______ ______ _
Waitress __ ______ -- -- -- -- ----- -- __ - - - - - - . L aundry work __ _______ _________________ _
Housekeeper; companion _______ ________ _
General maid (includes 1 second maid) __
Mother's helper; nursemaid . ___________ _
Day work and cleaning _________________ _
Registered nurse ____ ___ _____ _____ __ _____ _
Practical nurse _____________________ ____ _
Beauty parlor work ____ _________________ _
Office work:
General ___________________ __ ___________ _
Stenographer; secretary ___________ ______ _
Machine operator ___________ ___ ________ _
Bookkeeper _______ ____ __ _______ ________ _
Typist. __ ---- --------------------------Other:
Saleswomen ______ _______________ ______ __
Teacher:
Inexperienced ___ ______ _____________ _
Experienced _____ . _____ ____ ________ __
Telephone operator __ ______________ ____ _____ _
Professional 1 (musician; social worker; librarian; etc.) . - - - - - - - - -- -- - -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - 1
1,311
100. 0
149
11. 4
226
17. 2
264
20. 1
435
33.1
204
15. 5
33
2. 5
231
7
11
1
2
7
35
11
2
4
3
38
34
7
3
3
101
30
14
26
6
46
8
3
25
2
4
2
- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 96
27
64
21
10
27
18
7
39
6
29
63
94
66
19
18
2
-------- ---- -- -- -------1 ---------- ----- -------- ---- ---2
5 --- --is'
1
-------- -------1
--- ----- --- --- -20
16
20
65
20
8
2
1
2
-------- ------ -1
-------- -------1
- ---- -- - ---- ----
5
5
16
9
7
11
3
1
10
5
2
3
7
14
2
5
1 --- -- --- -------~8
29
6
16
1
4
10
1
29
27
2
6
22
58
4
6
16
2
1
3 -------- -------15
3 --- ----14 -------- --- -----
141
98
6
27
10
9
73
7
34
43
1
3
30
58
9
10
16
32 ------- - ---- ---11
4 ------ -- ------ -- -------23
12
Exclusive of registered nurse and teacher, entered above.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
4
2
15
15 --------
4 -------- -------20
1 - ---- --4 -------- --- ----2 --------
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
SECTION II
Consumer Product Needs Which May Be Translated into
Demands Requiring Employment of New England's
Trained Women
Fundamental human needs remain the same throughout the ages.
But their manifestations assume new aspects as new natural and
varied economic forces are brought into action. Science has made
available more and more products and more effective processes to
provide increasing numbers of people with sufficient food, adequate
clothing, shelter, and means of communication, and to permit increased leisure for self-expression and social intercourse. Applied
science is continually remolding the world, creating new demands to
satisfy old needs and stimulating demand among larger numbers of
people.
New products must be manufactured to satisfy new demands.
The community whose citizens are quick to -recognize developing
needs and measure local resources in terms of such needs will create a
demand for its new products that will eliminate unemployment from
its midst.
POTENTIAL MARKE'l'S FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED
FISH
[The detailed report on which this summary is based will be found in appendix I, p . 63]
The need.
Many American families regularly consume insufficient protein
foods for normal body growth and repair because the cost of protein
foods most commonly used in this country is far greater than the cost
of starch or fat foods. The present high price of pork and red meats
has increased the need for other protein foods substantially.
This need is met in foreign countries by- drawing heavily on fish
as a source of cheap protein. In Canada the per capita consumption
of fish is 29 pounds, in England 35 pounds, and in Sweden 52 pounds,
as compared with 13 pounds in the United States. (See appendix I
for source.) In the United States fresh fish is a source of cheap protein only near fish landing ports. Its perishability makes preservative
methods necessary, which increases the costs in inland markets.
While modern freezing methods make some frozen fish available in
inland markets, the careful refrigerating conditions required during
transit and handling limit its wide consumption to sections and communities where dealers have adequate equipment and use it intelligently to preserve fish flavor.
The in-transit difficulties over which the dealer in fresh or frozen
fish has no control are not encountered in canned fish. If the canner
processes fresh fish according to well-tested methods of canning, the
public is assured a uniform product even though the canned goods
may have traveled far.
39
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40
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
A ·protein food in addition to canned salmon, which could be kept on
hand for fill-in purposes, either hot or cold or blended, either jor lunch,
or, dinner, or supper, which could be served without bone-choking danger
to young children, would meet a continuous household need.
Salmon formed over 57 percent of the total fish and shellfish canned
in the United States and Alaska in 1934. Its wholesale canned value
was about $45,800,000. (See appendix I, table III.) Its largest
sales are in pound cans, retailing at from 12 cents to 19 cents a can.
Obviously this is the price level at which any other fish must be sold today
to become a staple household food.
The supply of fish.
Massachusetts' fish supply is far in excess of the demands of the
fresh-fish market. Even should present efforts to increase the consumption of fresh fish prove successful, New England waters have
many kinds of fish that are not in demand either in the fresh or frozen
state. Ground fish are year-around fish in New England and therefore give a distinct potential advantage to a New England canning
project over Alaska salmon canning.
Such canning of staple fish products as has been done in New
England has been casual, for the most part, fluctuating with the supply
and demand of species for the fresh, frozen, or cured fish market.
The fish dealer has attempted to sell in cans the same species forwhich
he has created a fresh, frozen, or cured fish market. When he has
added other fish to the product he has given it the obviously left-over
titles of "fish flakes", "fish balls", and "salad fish."
The probable demand.
It is the opinion of retail grocers and of competent housewives
in Middle Western and Middle Atlantic States that there will be
ready acceptance in inland markets of a ca~med fish as tasty as
salmon, but quite different in flavor, if available at the same price
levels as salmon.
If a canned fish is to get and hold a market, it must be available
chiefly in canned form to masses of the population, and it must have
a name which will convey a definitely established flavor and appearance. Only firms interested in developing canned fish as a major
and not a contingent product will be successful in developing a major
canned fish market.
Difficulties to be overcome.
A reason given for failure to develop a New England staple cannedfish industry has been that the yield of any fish fluctuates from year
to year.
This problem was met and overcome by salmon and tuna-fish
canners by use of one name to include a number of different species
and even different families having similar flavors. Differences in
color and texture were used to determine grade.
A number of New England's ground fish having similar flavor and
not well known to an extensive fresh-food market could be canned
under one name but as different grades. Informal opinion of the
United States Food and Drug Inspection Service is that a "made':
name would be less likely to infringe upon the numerous popular
names applied to fish.
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CONSUMER PRODUCT NEEDS
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Competitive advantages of Atlantic coast canning operations.
Cost of fish and unit labor costs on the Pacific coast, in Alaska, and
in Massachusetts are very similar; both continental coastal regions
have minimum-wage laws for women. Any Massachusetts product
should have an advantage in the cost of materials and in the cost of
marketing. Byproducts from parts of fish not canned lessen fish
costs materially.
The canning of summer fish, followed by fall canning of ground
fish, followed in turn by winter canning of fish sandwich spreads,
fish puddings, and chowder, will give 9 months over which to distribute overhead in Massachusetts concerns, whereas Pacific coast
salmon canneries can operate for a few weeks at most.
Resultant employment of women workers.
Forty-seven percent of the workers in continental United States
fish canneries in 1929 were women. (See appendix I, p. 68, for
source.) Nine months' work to New Bedford's unemployed women
at wage rates agreed upon in the Fish Canning Code of 1934 would
overcome some of the unemployment and wage loss to women resulting from the migration of cotton mills. Many of New Bedford's
unemployed women are members of Portuguese fishermen's families.
Gloucester, Mass., affords sufficient example of sanitary fish
canning, with comfortable working conditions, of State minimum-wage
rates observance for women. Good factory conditions are necessary
not only for the workers but for a sanitary canned product.
58825°·- 3 6 - 4
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POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR "EPICURETTES"
[The detailed report u pon which this summar y is based will be found in ap pendix II, p. 87.)
Growing demand.
Novel, finely flavored, salty products for an epicurean trade have
a limited but expanding market in homes, clubs, and public eating
places. The growing custom of serving salt, pickled, and spiced
foods in canapes, as entrees, as hors d'oeuvres, or as supper snacks is
developing the taste for these food products among an increasing
number of Americans.
At the present time most of the fish appetizers and pastes are
imported. Comparable products of domestic manufacture are
inconsiderable. In 1932, importations in containers ready for retail
use totaled over 57,000,000 pounds, with a value of $5,392,000 and
carrying a duty of $1,595,000. (See appendix II, p. 88, for source.)
These figures are exclusive of smoked, salted, or pickled fish sent to
the United States in barrels, to be repacked by wholesalers in various
ways, partly to meet the high-priced American market but also to
supply a low-priced trade among the foreign-born in New York City
and other metropolitan areas.
Preliminary figures for 1934 show a general increase over 1932 in
the amount of specialties reaching our shores, excepting only the
lower grades of sardines.
Supply ofraw material in New England.
Imported fish specialties are sold under many names in attractive
containers. The principal ingredients are few, however. The
anchovy, the small sardine, the herring, fish roe, and lobster are the
chief basic foods used. These are flavored in many ways by the use
of different preparation processes and by combinations of herbs,
spices, vinegar, and oil. They are sold in various forms, such as
roll-mops, paste, and antipasto.
Though there is much discussion as to whether the anchovies and
members of the herring family of the North Atlantic are as good
fish for specialties as are the same species caught in Scandinavian
waters, unbiased facts lead to the conclusion that the differences in
product are in method of preparation rather than in the fish itself.
In addition to the fish commonly used for imported fish specialties
many other species can be preserved deliciously for hors d'oeuvres
or sandwich spreads. Then, too, spiced ground vegetable combinations and new cheese attractions are further possibilities. Massachusetts also grows vegetables and fruits that could be used as new
nonalcoholic cocktails, and could be made to contribute to yeararound employment.
Competitive conditions.
As the market to which imported appetizers cater is one exacting
"something new and different", quality and novelty are the important
sales factors. Competition with imported products need only be in
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CONSUMER PRODUCT NEEDS
43
quality and not in kind. High quality New England products properly
introduced will find their own market alongside the imported articles.
Because the American consumer in search of new dishes is willing
to pay a good price for novel products, New England epicurettes
should bring prices equal to those charged for imported products.
These prices permit of a hand industry such as exists in Europe.
Resultant employment of women workers.
Because such an industry is primarily a hand industry and requires
infinite care in preparation of products, it calls for skilled women.
Production can be developed in small units with small outlays of
capital under the aegis of a consumers' cooperative committee.
Should the industry be developed to equal our consumption of
imported specialties in 1932, its wage earners' pay roll would approximate $2,5.00,000 annually, an amount which would permit skilled
workers' rates of pay for :most of the women.
Difficulties to be overcome.
The heavy initial cost of the usual commercial methods of introducing new products to the market is the chief obstacle to the development of New England "epicurettes."
In order to decrease to a minimum the cost of the usual introductory
methods, it is advisable to develop the industry in close cooperation
with consuming groups. To women consumers whose own choices
are a dominating factor in setting dinner and supper customs, to club
managers who cater to men food connoisseurs, should be submitted
the products developed in the laboratory kitchen. Favored products
in favored containers can then be developed in quantity to meet
expanding markets at less expense.
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POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR SPORTS GOODS
[Excerpts from interviews with sports goods merchants and manufacturers will be found in appendix III]
Growing demand.
There is fresh and convincing evidence of a demand for goods
suitable to the outdoor sports in which increasing numbers are participating the year around. Conspicuous among such sports are
hiking and camping, cycling, winter sports, and water sports. Healthful living makes desirable, and increased leisure makes possible, such
a life of activity.
·
Among the concrete evidences of this increase in activity and consequent demand for appropriate sports goods are:
(a) The movement to establish youth hostels throughout the
mountains so that youth may hike and camp safely and cheaply.
(b) Popularity of the "snow trains" carrying city people to the
snowcapped mountains and other winter sport regions.
(c) Beginning of the weekly "bicycle train" in New England.
(d) Increase in number of bathing beaches and development
of beach sports along with swim.ming.
(e) Increased sailing and sea fi.shing as well as increased
inland water sports.
When relatively small numbers of persons engaged in these sports,
correct clothing and equipment were matters of slight importance.
But with rapidly swelling numbers of sportsmen and sportswomen,
correct costuming and up-to-the-minute equipment are fast becoming
as important as these furnishings have always been to equestrians and
polo players. How large a factor is this demand for sports wear and
sports goods is shown by such facts as these:
(a) Certain New York department stores are em.ploying wintersports authorities to advise customers on proper apparel and
equipment for specifi.ed sports; one is giving instruction in
winter sports.
(b) The lengthened week end- now usually from. Friday
evening to Monday m.orning---creates a need for at least one
entire change of clothes among men; that is, special wear for
special sports.
(c) One Boston store's sales of ski shoes, which 5 years ago
amounted to about a thousand pairs a year, rose to 6,000 in 1934.
(d) Another Boston sports specialist considers that the
demand for sports wear and sports goods from. all over the country is just beginning. "Only the surface has been scratched in
sports equipment," he said.
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CONSUMER PRODUCT NEEDS
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Importations. 1
The American man's sports specialist who goes abroad imports for
menWool mufflers and ties from England and Scotland.
Wool caps, hats, and other headgear from Austria, Norway,
and Czechoslovakia.
Wool gloves and mittens from Austria, Norway, and Czechoslovakia.
Wool sports hose in Argyles and high colors from England; wool
ski socks from Austria.
Ski suits from Austria.
Wool sweaters from England and Scotland.
Tweeds, cheviots, etc., from the British Isles for making golf
jackets, riding coats, and sports suits and jackets of all kinds.
English flannels for sport shirts.
English Bedford cords and drills for riding breeches.
Rubber fi.shing waders from England.
Light-weight blankets and lap robes for camp, auto, or steamer
use from Canada and England.
Calfskin riding boots from England.
Irish string riding gloves.
The American woman's sports specialist who goes abroad buysWool scarfs from England and Scotland.
Angora ankle socks from England.
Fine sweaters from France, Austria, and England.
Irish string riding gloves.
English and Scotch tweeds for riding coats and sports suits.
English cords and drills for riding breeches.
Flannels from England for sports shirts.
Ski suits from Austria .
Ski mittens, rnufflers, and caps from Norway, Austria, and
Czechoslovakia.
Competitive conditions.
There are two major obstacles which must be overcome in a drive
to capture the sports wear market: First, the influence of the long
prestige of imported goods among smart American men and women;
and second, the sports wear buyer's natural adherence to longestablished familiarity with over-seas centers of sports wear. This
adherence doubtless has some influence, though unconscious, on
the following reasons assigned by certain leading buyers of men's
sports wear for buying abroad wool cloths, garments, and accessories:
(a) The quality of yarn is softer and fi.ner.
(b) The fi.nished goods are very light in relation to warmth,
are softer and better fi.nished.
(c) The fi.nished goods have style and originality of design.
(d) Small orders are acceptable for a number of different
designs.
1
See appendix III for excerpts from interviews with sports goods merchants and m anufacturers.
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46
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
New England's available resources.
New England's resources, human and material, are sufficient to
overcome the competitive conditions existing today. Chief among
these resources are the following:
1. New England's m.ills can supply the ti.nest quality of yarns
on dem.and.
2. Man7 of its m.en and worn.en are highly skilled in the m.anuf acture of woolen, cotton, and leather goods, as well as in the
manufacture of fi.nished garments.
3. Boston is the largest American m.arket for wools and for
sole leather.
4. Because nature has so richly endowed New England with
seacoasts, high mountains, rolling hills, and rich valleys, the
region has itself becom.e a sports mecca and has developed outstanding sports leaders whose influence can be reasonably
assumed.
5. New England has its own sports class, and its influence can
be as effective for New England products as British nobility's
sponsorship of London fashions is for England.
6. The unusual num.ber of .men's and worn.en's colleges in New
England afford focal points for sports-wear sales.
This country has developed stylists and sports-wear authorities
whose advice American men and women are taking now. Each of
these resources can be brought into effective aid for permanent
reduction of unemployment by making New England the center for
sports fashions and sports wear. But effectiveness will be measured
only by the success with which prestige for sports goods of New England make is built up throughout the Nation.
Practical production organization and resultant employment of women
workers.
Prestige sports goods can best be produced in a number of small
workshops, for the creative nature of the work calls for emphasis on
new color combinations, new designs and textures, rather than on
volume of production. It calls for creative ability as well as for
highly skilled work.
No small shop can afford the services of a number of designers and
stylists such as would be necessary to offer many advanced ideas
sports or fashion leaders each season. However, a group of creative
designers and stylists can serve a number of cooperating work shops
when the production has fashion coordination, even though one shop
may be producing accessories, another fabrics, another garments,
and a fourth equipment, to the advantage of all.
Because the sports goods produced by such shops must seek the
high-priced market, value of goods produced will be high but volume
will be confined to the advanced market, which is necessarily small.
By use of these "prestige" work shops as fashion pilot plants for
New England's quantity production mills and factories, the mass sports
goods production market also will be developed, resulting in more
employment for women in cotton, woolen, leather, and garment
factories.
It takes about 1 year from the date of creation for fashions to be
accepted in the mass-consumer ma,rket. The a,cceptance of each
to
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CONSUMER PRODUCT NEEDS
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season's creations as shown by their popularity is carefully observed
by fashion magazines and retailers who try to foresee consumer
demand. The mill or garment factory with its own pilot fashion
plant is in position to be ready to offer the cutter-up or retail trade
some of the accepted creations without delay. Though the manufacturer must await the season's opening showings in specialty or department stores before quantity orders will be placed, he has a direct
contact with the consuming public which he has not had in the past.
Many existing losses of money and time for employers and employees through attempts to gage fashion vagaries without real
guidance would thus be avoided and mill work would be stabilized.
When "Crawford Notch" ski costumes and equipment, when
"Bretton Woods" cycling costumes, when "Chatham" beach accessories are acclaimed by leading sportsmen and sportswomen as useful
and beautiful in color, design, and texture, employment will be
assured to women and men designers and stylists, to women and men
experts in raw materials, to women makers of sample goods and
materials, to sales and advertising persons, and to many skilled
women and men weavers, knitters, and sewing-machine operators.
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POTENTIAL MARKET FOR WOOL FABRIC STREET
GLOVES
[Detailed data will be found in appendix IV]
The need.
In winter months leather gloves and cotton suede gloves do not
protect hands adequately from cold. Wool mittens, excellent for
sports wear and children's wear are too clumsy and not suitable for
use in everyday street costumes. The production and importation
of all types of woolen and worsted gloves and mittens for both sexes
was but 775,766 dozen pairs in 1934. (See table I, appendix IV.)
The difficulty lies in perfecting a staple glove fabric that combines
warmth and softness and lends itself to careful tailoring and maintenance of shape. The mixed fabric fashion gloves brought out in
October 1935 are a fashion feature rather than staple goods. There
is evidence to indicate a warm staple glove would find an extensive
market not only among women but among men.
Among women alone there is a potential market for approximately
2,000,000 dozen pairs based upon the use of one pair a year by half
the rural women and one pair by all urban women in States in which
the mean temperature falls below freezing during 1 to 5 months.
Men who do not now wear street gloves would appreciate a serviceable winter woolen glove.
Importations of woolen gloves in 1935, which were chiefly the
highly colored unseamed knit glove for school children and for sports
wear, increased more than 700 percent over 1934. (See table II,
appendix IV.)
Competitive conditions.
Such a glove would not compete with the higher-priced leather
glove made in Fulton -County, N. Y., or the imported kid glove. It
would compete with the cotton suede double-fabric glove now imported. This glove sells at $1 and up to $2, depending on length,
quality, and style.
Twice in recent years the American market has been cut off from
such importations. During war years all German importations
ceased and American fabric-glove manufacturers began production.
No American firm can be located today that is producing a doublewarp glove, though one firm is making a single-fabric glove. Recently lessened importations from Germany have been such as to
stimulate fashion fabric gloves for summer use in this country and
also to develop the glove industry in Belgium and Czechoslovakia.
In 1934, over 1,770,000 dozen pairs of cotton suede gloves were
imported. 2
·
Difficulties to be overcome.
A staple material made of wool or part wool which will have all
the qualities necessary for a good wearing street glove remains to be
2 U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Foreign Commerce
and Navigation of the United States, 1934, vol. I, p. 97.
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CONSUMER PRODUCT NEEDS
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produced. The problem involved in shrinking, dyeing, and sueding
a part-wool warp-knit material so that it will be velvety on both
sides and hold its shape has not been solved.
New England mills are experienced in the fi.nishing of woolens
and worsteds, cottons, and rayons. Can they solve the fi.nishing
problem which will give to American women and men a staple
wool fabric for winter gloves? Or must it rest with the glove
manufacturer elsewhere to fi.nd a way out?
Concerted action on the part of cloth and glove manufacturers
might lead to the development of a staple wool glove industry in
a city such as Fall River, a city famous for its cotton fi.nishing
and now with many unemployed women and men available, for
both cloth making and glove sewing.
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SECTION III
Home Service Needs Not Adequately Met Which May Be
Translated into Sustaining Demand for Women's Services
A satisfactory rebuilding of manufacturing and trade in New
England would bring with it increased local income, a part of which
would be available for increased service to the home and family.
In measuring existing service needs with a view to bringing about
immediate employment of women on a self-liquidating basis, however, future income cannot be anticipated. Family status today,
existing home-service facilities, needs recognized by the mother for
the supply of which she is ready to pay adequate rates today, alone
are subject to critical analysis. Only such factors of measurable
demand can serve as bases upon which to develop new, adjusted, or
additional services to home and family.
In the 3 months allotted to this survey it was not possible to cover
a large part of the home service needs within the major Boston trading area. In consultation with the advisory committee, the survey
was limited to representative residential towns in metropolitan Boston
and to summer-resort areas on the South Shore and on Cape Cod and
only to the needs of children and for various household services.
Factors of demand and the limited financial ability to satisfy them
privately also were weighed in three industrial cities to determine
extent of service employment possibilities for women in such towns.
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METHOD OF DETERMINING HOME AND FAMILY UNMET
NEEDS AMONG GROUPS ABLE TO PAY FOR LIMITED
SERVICE
As ability to pay is an essential in determining the existence or
possibility of creating a market for any service, study was made, first
of the economic status of families living in four residential towns lying
northwest of Boston proper-Arlington, Belmont, Lexington, and
Winchester; in adjoining towns just south of Boston-Milton and
Quincy; and in suburbs to the west-Brookline and Newton.
Because it was possible to ascertain roughly the proportion of
families in each town whose net yearly income 1 was $2,500 or more,
this figure was used as the income level at which a family may be
able to afford some paid service for home or family care. It is recognized fully that some families must have paid service at whatever sacrifice, that others have it even when the income falls below $2,500, and
that still others are unable to have service, or do not desire it, though
income may exceed $2,500 materially. That figure is not set as a
standard; it is used simply because it was the available measuring rod.
1 "Net income" is the term used by the Internal Rev;nue Bureau for income left after taxes, interest on
debts, and available gifts are deducted from gross income.
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REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW '.ENGLAND WOMEN
Checking number of families 2 having a net income of $2,500 or
more in 1933 with savings-bank deposits in 1935 and with the value
of homes owned or rent paid for homes, gives a reasonable estimate of
families with incomes in excess of that absorbed entirely in payment of
food, shelter, and the mere essentials of living.
Having determined the approximate number of families with net
incomes of $2,500 and over, the composition of the family group was
studied. Such an analysis included determination of number of
families having children in the various age groups, number of children
in each age group, and number of elderly persons, some of whom may
require special care. Data indicate also the type of dwelling in
which the family lives and the proportion of families in which the
head is American born.
Facts concerning the facilities in the community which served the
family and the home were obtained largely through personal interviews with public officials and with informed persons· in each community.
Demonstrated needs were thus ascertained. Facilities necessary
to meet these needs effectively, at prices families to be served seemed
able to pay, and with salaries to women employees in accord with their
training and experience were devised. The suggested services thus
outlined and their costs were submitted to families in each community
who might become patrons of the service or to women who were
familiar with prospective patrons' viewpoints.
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RESULTS OF SURVEY OF DEMONSTRATED NEEDS IN EIGHT
RESIDENTIAL CITIES
APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF FAMILIES ABLE TO AFFORD
SERVICES
In four residential towns lying northwest of Boston properArlington, Belmont, Lexington, and Winchester-the proportion of
families having net incomes of $2,500 or over, ranged from approximately 40 percent in Lexington to about 58 percent in Belmont.
In other words, approximately 9,700 families out of the 19,700 families
residing in these four adjoinins- towns may be said to be possible patrons for home or family service. In Milton and Quincy, adjoining
towns just south of Boston, the proportion of families with net incomes
of $2,500 or more was about 22 percent in Quincy and 50 percent in
Milton. Together these two towns furnish a possible market for
family service of more than 6,000 families in a total of over 22,000.
In Brookline three-fourths of the families were in the income group
under consideration; while in Newton approximately two-thirdsamounting to 10,000 families-may be considered to have incomes beyond the mere subsistence level.
By way of comparison, New Bedford, Lawrence, and Brockton,
three industrial cities, reported only 8 to 15 percent of their families
as having net incomes of $2,500 and over.
2 These figures include some individuals reporting incomes of $1,000 or more, separate from the combined
family income; unfortunately these individuals c~nnot be separated from the totals.
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HOME SERVICE NEEDS
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MEASURED NEED OF AN ADJUSTED SERVICE FOR THE
PRESCHOOL CHILD
Mothers who have no relief from the care of babies during the babies' waking hours are unable to give proper attention to family needs
that take them outside the home. Nor are they able to take the part
in community and social activities which is necessary not only for
their own relaxation but for a more rounded family life.
In days past an adult relative usually was at hand in such cases, but
today paid service is the chief aid for self-sustaining income families. 3
In Arlington, Belmont, Lexington, and Winchester, in families with
net incomes of $2,500 and overThere were in 1934 approximately 1,500 children of less than 3 years of age and
about 1,100 children between 3 years and the public-school entrance age whose
mothers had no regular assistance in their care.
The entrance age to public school in these cities varies from 4 years and 5
months in Belmont to 5 years and 8 months in Lexington.
Private schools for the preschool child had an enrollment of approximately 125
children.
On the basis of the number of families in Arlington in 1934 having domestics
living in, 4 only approximately 6 percent could have had regular service in the home
to care for young children.
In Milton and Quincy families with net incomes of $2,500 and overThere were in 1934 approximately 890 children under 3 years of age and 660
children between 3 years and the public school entrance age for whose continuous
care the mother had full responsibility. ·
The entrance age to public school in Milton is 4 years, 8 months; in Quincy it is
5 years, 5 months.
Private schools for the preschool child cared for approximately 55 children.
The number of domestics living with the family of the employer would provide
some care for children in less than 350 families.
In Brookline's families with net incomes of $2,500 and overThere were in 1934 approximately 475 children under 3 years of age, but fewer
than 100 children between 3 years and the public-school entrance age, for whose
full care the mother was responsible.
The entrance age to public school in this city is 4 years, 9 months.
Private schools for the preschool child had an enrollment of a minimum of 120
children.
Families with servant s living in numbered 2,509 in 1934. 4
In Newton's families with net incomes of $2,500 and overThere were in 1934 about 1,000 children under 3 years of age and 280 children
between 3 and less than public-school entrance age whose mothers had no regular
assistance in their care.
The entrance age to public school is 4 yea'l'S, 6 months.
Private schools for the preschool child cared for almost 250 children.
The number of women domestic servants regularly employed is over 3,400
women.
Because the above figures showed that Brookline and Newton had
so nearly reached the saturation point in child-care service, the
Women's Bureau confined its estimates of amount of services needed
to the obvious requirements of the residential towns of Arlington,
a Social settlements and lately emergency-relief projects endeavor to provide expert care for the babies
of poor families or families on relief.
• Data secured from unpublished records of Massachusetts unemployment census.
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54
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
Belmont, Lexington, and Winchester, and the assistance needed m
Quincy and Milton.
Feasible methods of organizing services to meet need.
Care of young children is now regarded as so important in laying a
sound foundation for future mental and emotional as well as physical
development that expert supervision should be an integral part of
any service to the young child. Consequently there was suggested
a centralized managed service that would build up with local parent
committees the types and amounts of service necessary. Such central
management of many local centers would bring to each center excellent
technical and business service at a permissible cost. It would raise
the standards of local centers and bring to them the advantages of
consultation, while it would provide all-year-around employment to
its staff by shifting employees about as occasion warranted.
In order that the opinion of mothers acquainted with conditions in
these six towns might be ascertained concerning definite services, the
Bureau drew up for discussion a list of preschool child services which
appeared to be needed and could be organized under one head. It
made an estimate of costs of such services that would permit adequate
salaries to the expert managerial staff and to local nursery aids and
play supervisors. This suggested service included the following:
A. For the baby of under 3 years:
1. Home care by visiting nursery aids:
(a) On 4-hour basis morning or afternoon.
(b) Sunday service.
(c) Week-end service.
(d) Night service (to include all young children).
2. Home care by permanent child's nurse.
3. Nursery school for children of working mothers or others.
4. Consulting and instructional service for mothers.
B. For the child of 3 and 4 years:
1. Group supervised outdoor and indoor play, story t elling, hand work.
2. Home play supervision:
(a) On 4-hour basis.
(b) Sunday service.
(c) Week-end service.
3. Consulting and instructional service for mothers: Special instruction
in story telling, game playing, toy buying, etc.
C. Saturday seririce for older children.
D. Summer service:
Regular service reduced by two-thirds.
Additional service for children 5 to 7 years. Day camp, excursions, etc.
Resort service-day camp or play supervision, children to 7 years.
Fees that would permit earnings of $1,200 annually to local nursery
aids and play supervisors and smaller salaries to untrained young
assistants, together with adequate salaries for the managerial staff,
were figured at 75 cents an hour for half-day home service and $12
a month for group service to children 3 to 5 years of age.
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HOME SERVICE NEEDS.
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Existing desire for such services at feasible prices.
The services listed above were discussed with several women in
each of the six towns, women recommended by the Massachusetts
Parent-Teachers Association or by local school supervisors as being
well acquainted with mothers in their localities.
The prevailing opinions are as follows:
A centralized managed service:
Value in bringing about more competent and better managed local
service is recognized.
Local sponsoring mothers' committees:
Believed vitally important if movement is to grow.
Home care by trained nursery aids:
Desire for relief in care of infant exists but no recognition of special
value to child and mother in paying for services of trained girls
was found.
Price of trained nursery aids too high.
Present practice is to pay school girls 50 cents to $1 for an entire
evening's service.
Suggestion was made that several mothers could bring their babies to one home
so that the trained nursery aid at $3 for 4 hours could care for several
children at one time. Favorable response was received to this
suggestion in other towns visited.
Group care in play schools:
Definitely r ecognized need; rate satisfactory if transportation from
home to school is included.
Week-end and school-holiday play supervisors for older children:
Considerable demand for children under 10 years for year-round
sports.
Dissatisfaction expressed with public playgrounds for children of thiB
age group.
Day camps during summer vacation:
Enthusiastic response to this for children up to 8 or 10 years.
Translating existing desires for child service into a sustaining demand.
Trained leadership and business ability to organize the existing
desire into a sustaining demand for group care of children not in
school is available in or near Boston. Local play supervisors from
nursery training schools and from colleges are also obtainable.
Assistants might well be drawn from the unemployed fun-loving
young girls in.the clerical group.
A metropolitan Boston sponsoring committee with representation
from each town interested would be necessary to organize the movement not only in the towns surveyed by the Women's Bureau but
in all other towns whose needs are not met by existing facilities.
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TABLE
13.-Survey of local home service needs
PART !.-FACTORS OF DEMAND
Towns and cities surveyed
Item
Industrial towns
Residential towns
1
Arlington
Belmont
Winchester Lexington
Brookline
Newton
Milton
Quincy
Brockton
Lawrence
New
Bedford
Population in 193(}-totaL ____________
Percent native white ___________ __
36,094
77. 5
21,748
78. 2
12,719
79.1
9,467
78.9
47,490
72.6
65,276
78. 2
16,434
79.4
71,983
75.4
63,797
76.8
85,068
66.1
112,597
63. 5
Number of families-totaL ___________
Percent in which head is native
white ________________ __-- - -- -- __
Tenure of home:
8,962
5,543
2,963
2,248
11,489
15,315
4,021
18,324
16,677
20,026
27,920
63. 8
67. 7
70.4
68.4
66.8
70.4
72. 3
59.8
60. 7
37.6
39.8
;::m: ~:m~t=================
4,794
4,146
2,805
2,691
1,989
960
1,637
575
3,720
7,721
9,759
5,482
2,711
1,251
9,724
8,435
7,311
9,277
5,158
14,544
9,465
17,936
4,744
1,887
115
9,868
3,069
1,006
147
6,584
2,618
132
20
3,487
1,917
145
13
3,035
4,407
1,143
1,171
8,865
11,821
1,441
151
17, 704
3,184
392
17
4, 1?4
11,766
2,247
481
20,199
7,424
2,365
1,271
2 13,264
5,586
3,263
2,287
22,749
10,012
4,284
2,757
28,799
4,993
4,875
423
1,109
1,274
1,238
1,009
4,688
4,672
1,136
1,127
3,259
3,325
404
3 714
3 796
1,080
1,060
2,833
2,825
757
751
1,777
1,710
193
3 363
3 405
406
(9
1,625
4,508
4,357
324
796
910
1,244
1,181
4,280
4,264
1,311
1,308
9,017
8,687
685
1,775
1,953
2,128
2,122
8,168
8,142
2,995
2,972
2,037
2, 097
221
3 481
3 536
522
510
1,907
1,896
467
465
10,337
9,862
933
2,317
2,533
2,344
1,991
9,387
9,376
2,685
2,673
6,696
6,568
591
1,725
1,696
1,793
11,428
11,321
939
2,101
2,479
2,456
2,342
11,418
11,388
3,356
3,317
14,425
14,374
1,147
2,751
3,168
2,801
2,651
14,699
14,658
4,233
4,219
3,429
·1,890
2,143
2,245
3,125
2,533
3,899
5,784
3,374
4,629
1, 461
1,093
7,332
3,891
3,699
5,466
3,678
4,654
7,793
4,716
4,325
10,534
6.332
6,309
1,035
1,701
354
809
1,333
1,878
470
948
324
456
105
208
1,153
1,562
418
566
1,578
1,823
518
735
1,503
1,776
391
655
2,101
2,547
677
984
1,065
1,270
1,790
3,454
4,592
7,540
Type of dwelling:
1-family ___________ __________ ___ __
2-family ________________ _____ _____
3-family or more ______________ ___ _
Children under 16 years ______________
Male ____________ ___ -- - -- --- -- - --Female _________________ - - ---- - - -Under 1 year_ ____________________
1 and under 3 years _______________
3 and under 5 __ ___ ____________ ____
5 and under 7-totaL _____________
Number in schooL _____ ______
7 and under 14-totaL ____________
Number in schooL ___________
14 and under 16-totaL ___________
~~ti ~iiifctren: ---0
N um be:orr!1:;M~
Under 10 years ____________________
10 and under 21 years _____________
Number of persons aged 65 and over __
65 and under 75 years-Male ___ ___
Female ___
75 years and over-Male __ __ ______
Female ________
Number of homemakers gainfully employed away from home ____________
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. (6)
581
(4)
495
123
673
367
281
1,468
1,465
404
399
1,118
(6)
(6)
845
379
552
121
201
219
361
90
175
(6)
}
(')
1,253
656
914
214
359
-----------3,035
(6)
{
901
618
'}
}
414
204
(5)
{
{
(5)
(6)
2
2
(')
7,459
(')
(4)
(')
PART IL-INDEXES OF COMMUNITY WEALTH
Ol
00
00
~
Ol
Tenure of home : 6
Owned homes (non-farm)-number ____ ________________ _________
Median value ______________ __ _
lo
r
Ol
Percent valued atUnder $5,000 ______________
$5,000 to $7,499 ____ ________
$7,500 to $9,999 ___ _________
$10,000 and over ____ _____ _
Rented homes (non-farm)-number _______________ _____ _________
Median rentaL ___ ____________
Percent rented forUnder $30 ___ _____________
$30 to $49 ___ ___ ____ _______
$50 to $99 _________________
$100 and over _____________
4,752
$9,626
2,776
$12,023
1,966
$10,583
1,554
$7,687
3,697
$17,695
9,708
$12,168
2,644
$9,505
9,545
$6,881
7,172
$/'i,890
5,039
$7,446
9,013
$5,860
7. 8
23.1
4. 7
10. 6
17. 2
67. 5
21. 0
14. 5
11. 7
52. 8
17. 4
31.1
19. 8
31. 7
2. 9
5. 7
7. 6
83. 8
10. 1
14. 9
13. 3
61. 7
6. 5
23. 9
24. 4
45. 2
20. 0
39. 9
22. 5
17. 6
36. 9
36. 8
13. 2
13. 1
20. 8
29. 9
17. 1
32. 2
37. 3
37. 0
13. 3
· 12. 4
$51. 44
2,668
$53.10
958
$41.30
550
$38. 70
7,675
$85. 55
5,454
$48. 62
1, 194
$50. 32
8,339
$39. 74
9,209
$25. 65
14,470
$24. 24
17,577
$23. 01
6. 7
40. 5
52. 2
.6
5. 5
39. 4
53. 1
1.9
31. 8
32. 2
28. 1
7. 9
29. 5
47. 1
22. 4
1.1
10. 4
23. 3
28. 7
39. 5
8. 5
13. 3
36. 2
46. 6
3. 9
24. 8
51. 7
23. 3
.2
69. 1
27. 8
2. 9
.1
75. 6
22. 2
78. 9
18. 4
2. 5
.2
22. 3
46. 7
4,122
13. 1
38. 7
37. 9
2.1
.1
Value of assessed property: 1
Real property _______ _____________ $57, 484; 700 $48,305,875 $29,954, 750 $20, 013, 722
$148,892,500 $147,479, 150 $33, 949, 200 $115, 842, 725 $67, 296, 475 $83,087,175 $93, 029, 800
Tangible personal property ___ ____ 3,459,150
1,130,785
1,867,050
1,526,400
14,139,500
16,408,050
3,622,800
11,600,675
8,918,400 15, 307,025 23,997,750
Deposits in savings banks: s
Number of accounts ______________
23,241
6,575
6,636
5,959
22,459
31,687
4,945
25,813
34,000
66,000
84,000
Average deposit_ ____ ____ _________
$531
$329
$724
$308
$761
$841
$521
$669
$676
$757
$607
Number of individual Federal incometa~ returns in 1933 u__________ _________
3,791
3,231
1,750
990
8,931
11,092
2,386
5,560
3,221
2,782
3,503
Number of domestic servants 10 _______
(!)
(5)
(5)
544
(5)
4,548
3,913
924
1,089
927
1,632
1 Figures on children 5 years of age and over are for 1934 and were secured from school officials for all cities and towns but Brockton. All figures for Brockton and those for children
under 5 in Arlington, Brookline, Lawrence, New Bedford, Newton, and Quincy are from Massachusetts Department of Labor and Industries, Report on the Census gf Unemployment in Massachusetts as of J an. 2, 1934. For Belmont, Lexin&ton, Milton, and Winchester the figures are from U. S. Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population,
vol. III, the source (with vol. VI on Families) of all other matenal in Part I of the table.
2 Includes only children 13 years of age and under.
a Estimated.
4 Information not secured.
6 Data not available.
6 U. S. Bureau of the Census.
Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population, vol. VI.
1 Report by the Commissioner of Corporations and Taxation, Massachusetts. Aggregates of Polls, Properties, and Taxes, as Assessed Apr. 1, 1934.
s Reported by Massachusetts Savings Bank Association as of July 1, 1935. (Includes o,nly banks belonging to the association.)
u U.S. Treasury Department. Bureau of Internal Revenue. Individual Income Tax Returns for 1933.
10 U.S. Bureau of the Census. Fifteenth Census, 1930: Occupations, vol. IV.
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A CATERING SERVICE AS AN INCIPIENT SOLUTION OF THE
HOUSEHOLD-SERVICE PROBLEM
The problem.
In days past girls were trained by their mothers or by their employers in the household arts. Today it is necessary to give school
training to a cook or maid if the occupations are to be given an attractive position in social economics and if the home is to have this
much needed service. But girls will not give time to training until
they have reasonable assurance of employment as skilled craftswomen
and at rates high enough to warrant training.
Tasty, scientific planning and preparation of meals requires greater
skill and ingenuity than careful typing. When this is recognized it
will not be difficult to divert some of our young clerical workers into
the "homecraft" field.
Nor need "homecraft" be devoid of human contacts. A survey
of Brookline, regarded as one of the wealthi~st of Boston suburbs,
reve~led that in over 11,500 families only one-fifth had "living in"
service.
The small amount which the larger number of families can pay
for service calls for a reorganization of the "homecraft" field so that
the service these homes desire most may be given without undermining the wage scale of the era£ t.
Opportunity to shift from "servant" to "homecrafter".
In Boston and Worcester trade schools girls are taught catering.
The course in catering is a 2-year course, after which all girls have
been placed as cooks in tearooms, as waitresses, or with caterers.
While these schools place their graduates in commercial establishments, they are giving an occupational status to cooking and serving.
In six residential towns of metropolitan Boston where housewives
were interviewed there was an expressed demand for guest lunch and
dinner and children's party service. Organization of this demand
for special service from the very large group with moderate incomes
might provide the opening through which would emerge a regular
specialist service in all homecrafts under centralized management.
58
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DOMESTIC ENGINEER'S HOUSEHOLD CLINIC
The n«!ed.
Accidents, inconveniences, discomfort occur in every household because much of the equipment commonly used in the care of the
family and the house is not designed to facilitate the smooth running
of home mechanism.
Many women of alert minds, on failing to secure adequate or safe
service from existing tools, make an article which, though crude,
satisfies their personal needs. These articles are not patented or
made available to others, because housewives do not know how to
secure a patent at a cost they can afford, or how to interest manufacturers in their ideas; consequently other women complain of unsatisfactory equipment but the complaint never reaches the ears of
persons who can adjust the mechanism to the need, or devise new
equipment. Hence needed products are not produced for the market
and possible new employments are lost to women and men.
The solution.
A clearing house in Boston, sponsored by an active women's organization, to which inventive women can bring constructive ideas
concerning equipment would do much to facilitate the smooth :running of the household and increase family comfort. An alert, trained
staff would examine the idea carefully, check up on similar equipment
already on the market or patented, and have a sample made if the
idea be new and satisfy a need more adequately than any article on
the market. The sample would then be brought to the attention of
the sponsoring group and consulting experts to consider more fully.
Their stamp of approval, after patents are taken out in the name of
the organization and the individual presenting the idea, would be
inducement for a manufacturer to proceed with its production and
thus increase employment of factory women.
Other housewives could bring their difficulties to the proposed
household clinic. If the market already has articles to satisfy their
needs, these would be recommended. If not, the problem would be
studied by the domestic engineers of the organization.
No goods should be manufactured for sale by the household clinic
nor should goods already manufactured be sold. The proceeds from
part patent ownership of new articles and a charge for stamp of
approval upon all other equipment, which the sponsoring group and
its experts believe are satisfactory from every home service angle,
would support the clinic.
69
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60
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
Concrete examples.
Three baby-equipment problems have been presented to the
Women's Bureau by young mothers in the present study which
illu~trate the type of service to be rendered by a household clinic:
Dangers involved in the use of safety pins on or near infants.
Combining perfect freedom of action and warmth for baby in
its crib.
Combining foot freedom with an inexpensive protective
coverin8 for the crawling, beginning-to-walk baby.
An inventive mother has solved each of these problems.
The articles of her own manufacture, which she was using, were
checked by the Women's Bureau against the New York and Boston
baby-store stocks of supplies and against patents on babies' equipment
in the United States Patent Office. It remains for a sponsoring
organization to secure expert medical opinion on these articles and to
have them patented; their manufacture would give employment to
many sewing-machine operators.
Resultant employment of women.
A new field would be opened to women of inventive and mechanical
ability. That many such exist is evidenced by the number who have
already taken out patents.
Women inventors, even more than men, are in need of facilities for marketing
or promoting their patented creations, because women are generally more restricted in funds and less informed concerning the methods of profitable patent
disposal.
The Patent Office records, on the whole, furnish a reasonable guaranty that
with a reduction in the excessive discouragements due to frequent failures to
realize money quickly on patents, with an expansion of opportunities for research,
and with easier access to the facilities essential to patent procedure, the Nation
will be rewarded by the increased measure of inventive service from women of
creative abilities; and capable women will find constantly enlarging opportunities
in this branch of the field of creative labor. 5
The manufacture of useful articles would also increase the employment of factory women.
-·-
OTHER PROFESSIONAL SERVICES STILL TO BE
DEVELOPED
A brief 3-months' survey did not permit a detailed analysis of new
or adjusted professional services for women, save as professional
service would be required in the "Domestic Engineers' Household
Clinic", in the "Service for the preschool child", ,and in the development of "Prestige sports goods."
But the possibilities and the challenge for concerted action are as
c9nspicuous in this field as in the fields of manufacturing. There is
the additional asset · of versatility which comes with high mental
training.
6
U. S. Department of Labor Women's Bureau Bui. 28, 1923, p. 10.
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APPENDIX I
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF POTENTIAL MARKETS
FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED FISH
61
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APPENDIX I
Detailed Analysis of Potential Markets for a New Staple
Canned Fish
ADDITIONAL CHEAP PROTEIN FOODS ESSENTIAL TO
NATION'S WELL-BEING
The importance of protein foods for body growth and for the
maintenance of body cells is well known. Nutrition standards for a
family whose adult members are engaged in hard physical labor require
that protein total about one-fourth the food consumed.1 Largely
because the cost of protein foods most commonly used in this country
is far greater than the cost of starch and fat foods, many American
families consume insufficient protein for normal growth and cell repair.
This is especially true in the southern sections of our country, where in
several States protein consumption drops as low as 13 and 14 percent
of total food consumption. 2
FISH CONSUMPTION BY COUNTRIES
Foreign nations have drawn heavily on sea foods as a source of
cheap protein, as did many of the early American colonists. In Sweden,
for example, the annual per capita consumption of fish has been estimated as 52 pounds; in England and Wales it is 35 pounds, in Canada
29 pounds, whereas in the United States the per-capita consumption of
edible fish is 13 pounds a year as compared with 138 pounds of meat. 3
The following list shows the consumption of the United States and
that of other countries:
Estimated annual per ca.pita consumption
Country: 1
Pounds
Japan __ _____ _______ _______ 55
Sweden_ ___ _____ ____ _______ 52
Norway __ __________ _______ 44
Denmark_____________ ____ _ 39
Portugal_ ________ ____ ______ 37
England and Wales _________ 35
Canada_ ___________________ 29
Netherlands___ _____________ 29
Germany_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ 18
Belgium ___________________ 17
Country-Continued.
Pound8
Spain _____________________ 16
New South Wales_ _______ ___ 15
France _______ __ ________ ___ 14
United States__ ____________ 13
Australia _______ ___________ 13
Uruguay____ _______________ 12
Argentina________________ __ 10
Italy______________________
9
Chile____ _ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _
8
Egypt __ _________________ __
7
1 U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. Special Memorandum 2127-F. Published in Fishing Gazette, February 1935,
pp. 9-10.
Just as fish consumption is less in countries with much inland
territory, so consumption in the United States decreases as cities lie
farther from seacoasts. New York City has a per capita consumption
of nearly 32 pounds of fresh and frozen fish, and Boston consumes 20
pounds per capita. But as one goes inland, cities such as Louisville
1 U. S. Department of Agriculture. F armers' Bul. 1313, 1923, p. 4.
2 See, for example, Report of U.S. Coal Commission, appendix II of pt. III, Retail Prices and the Cost
.
of Living in Bituminous Coal Regions. 1925, pp. 1531, 1541, 1573.
a U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Apparent P er Capita
Consumption of Principal Foodstuffs in the United States. 1930. p. 18. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.
Special Memorandum 2127-F. Published in Fishing Gazette, February 1935, pp. 9-10.
63
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64
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
consume but 6 pounds per capita and smaller inland communities
without refrigerating facilities drop to still lower fish-consumption
levels.
FOOD VALUE OF FISH
Fish not only contains protein in readily digestible form, but it is
rich in minerals and vitamins, the latter of which are now regarded as
essential in the prevention of certain diseases. Some fish .are also
rich in fats, varying somewhat with the season and other factors.
The following table compiled by the Bureau of Fisheries shows the
relative food values of fish and shellfish of various kinds.
TABLE
I. - Food value of fish
1
[Food chart (edible portions)]
Vitamins
Fish
2
Protein
Fat
P ercent
Percent
Alewife __ __ _____ ___ A, B __ ____ _
Blue pike ______ _____
Buffalo fish ____ _____
Butterfish ____ ______
Carp_ ____ ____ __ ____
Catfish and bullhead_
Clam ______________
A,
A,
A,
A,
A,
A,
19
B ______ _
B ______ _
B ___ ___ _
B ____ __ _
B __ ___ _ _
B, D, G __
19
Cod ____ ________ ___ A, B ______ _
16
Crab ____ _______ __ _ _
Croaker ___________ _
Flounder __________ _
Haddock ___ _______ _
Hake __ ___ ________ _
Halibut ______ _____ _
Herring (lake) __ ___ _
Herring (sea) __ ____ _
Lake trout ___ ___ __ _
Lobster ___________ _
MackeraL __ ___ ____ _
Mullet ____________ _
Oyster ______ ______ _
17
18
14
17
15
A, B, G ___ _
±: ~~======
A, B, G ___ _
A, B ___ ___ _
A, B ______ _
A, B __ ____ _
A,
A,
A,
A,
A,
A,
B, D ___ _
B ______ _
B ______ _
B _______
B ___ ___ _
B, D, G __
18
18
19
21
9
1
19
19
19
2
3
.6
.3
.7
5
3
11
10
19
19
7
5
6
1
Salmon ____ ____ ___ _
Sardine (pilchard) __ _
Scup ______________ _
Shad _____ _________ _
Sheepshead (freshwater).
Shrimp _____ ___ ____ _
Squeteague or "sea
trout".
Tuna _ ___ _________ _
Whitefish __ __ __ ____ _
Whiting ___________ _
22
B, D ___ _
B ______ _
B ___ __ __
B ______ _
.4
18
16
22
A,
A,
A,
A,
.5
2
11
1
14
Pollock ____________ A, B ______ _
A,B,D, G_
5
25
19
19
20
A, B, D ___ _
A, B __ ___ __
25
A, B, D ___ _
A, B ______ _
A, B ______ _
2
.8
Mineral nutrients
Calcium, phosphorus, copper,
sulphur, iodine.
Do .
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Calcium, iron, copper, phosphorus, iodine, sulphur.
Calcium, phosphorus, copper,
sulphur, iodine.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Calcium, iron, copper, phosphorus, iodine, sulphur.
Calcium, phosphorus, copper, sulphur, iodine.
13
13
5
Do.
9
4
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
1
Do.
2
Do.
22
4
Do.
23
7
Do.
19
15
.4
Do .
1 U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries. Fish and Shellfish for Food. Special Memorandum 2256-B. 1934, pp. 2--4.
2 A deficiency of vitamin A causes xerophthalmia, an eye disease. Lack of vitamin B is evidenced in
beriberi. Scurvy is caused by the absence of vitamin C from the diet. Insufficient vitamin D brings about
rickets. Pellagra results from the absence of vitamin D. The absence of a specific vitamin or other nutritional factor from the chart does not always indicate that the fish in question does not contain this factor,
but may indicate that this fish has not been tested for the nutritional factor concerned.
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POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED FISH
65
RELATIVE COST OF PROTEIN FOODS
When the present costs of fish and meat are compared on a basis of
protein yield, the importance of developing fish as a food of general
use is obvious. Canned pink salmon retailing at an average price for
51 cities of 13.2 cents a pound actually costs per pound of protein
yielded $0.68. The same amount of protein when consumed as leg
of lamb costs, at April 1935 prices, $1. 72; as round of beef, $1.91; as
sirloin of beef, $2.4 7; as smoked ham, $1.82. Milk at 11.9 cents a
quart costs $1.80 per pound of protein yield. 4
Prices charged for fresh fish vary greatly at the point of catch and
at inland centers. For example, on a certain day when halibut sold
fresh in Boston for 10 cents a pound, it sold in Washington, D. 0., for
30 cents a pound. While at 10 cents it was as cheap a protein food
as canned salmon in Boston, in Washington it became three times as
expensive, or about t:qe same price as protein bought in round steak.
Obviously, provision of a cheap protein food for inland markets cannot be solved by use of fresh fish, such as halibut. However, though
80 percent of the food fish is now supplied by 12 species, there are 160
edible varieties caught in United States waters, leaving ample opportunity for expanding the use of other food fish. 5
MARKETING FISH TODAY
In what form is the fish catch marketed?
The latest complete figures available are for 1930. These show that
35 percent of the United States fish catch is marketed fresh for immediate consumption, that 4 percent is frozen for future use, that
25 percent is canned, 8 percent salted and smoked, 26 percent used
for oil and meal, and 2 percent for miscellaneous nonedible products.
If the fish products not now sold for human consumption are eliminated, the proportions would be 54 percent for fresh and frozen fish,
35 percent for canned fish, and 11 percent for salted and smoked fish,
with a negligible amount of fresh cooked shellfish and edible oil. 6
FRESH FISH
The fresh-fish catch may be auctioned off at the principal port
exchanges on both coasts or be sold at private sale or direct to a
manufacturer.
Wholesalers assemble their buy into lots for resale
to other wholesalers or retailers. If the fish is consigned to a wholesaler at a distant point, he may again sell at auction or at private sale
to other wholesalers, jobbers, or retailers. Such extensive handling
of a highly perishable product results not only in loss of fish through
spoilage and in loss of flavor of the fish that reaches the ultimate consumer, but in a wide margin between prices the fisherman receives
and the consumer pays for fish.
The supply of fish is not a lmown factor, for nearly all fish migrate,
depending on food supply, season of the year, and breeding habits.
Variations in runs cause recurring surpluses beyond all possible absorption by the fresh-fish market. Attempts to regulate through
N. R. A. agreements the amount of catch per fish vessel proved futile
along the New England coast. Consequently, wastage is heavy unless
the surpluses are preserved for later consumption. The existing
methods used are freezing, curing, and canning.
4 Percentage of protein :figured from tables in The Chemical Composition of American Food Materials,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bul. No. 28, p . 19ff. Prices used are averages for 51 cities. Retail Prices, April 1935, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Serial Number R. 236, pp. 3-4.
6 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries. Special Memorandum 1061-A, 1935, p . 1.
o U.S. Tariff Commission. Fishery Products. Report No. 69, 1933, p. 6.
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TABLE
IL-Catch of fish and shellfish in the United States and Alaska, 1929 to 1934, and quantities prepared for market by certain methods
Catch of fish and shellfish in
United States and Alaska 1 (not
including whale)
Pounds
Frozen-fish products
2
Pounds
Cured fish (dried, salted, smoked,
pickled)'
Canned fish s
Pounds
Packaged fresh fish
Pounds
6
Pounds
Year
umber
Percent
increase
(+) or
decrease
H
Value
Number
Percent
increase Estimated
value
(+) or
decrease
H
from
from
1929
1929
1929 ____ 03, 552,814,000 -------- 6$122, 183, 000 121, 542, 589 -- ----- - $15, 000, 000
1930 ___ _ 63,273,319,000
-7. 9 6 108, 712, 000 139,297,228 +14.6 16,500,000
1931__ __ 2,657,317,000 -25.2
-7.6 11, 000, 000
77,344,000 112, 257, 416
1932 ____ 62, 605, 539, 000 -26.7 6 54, 657, 000 92,471,545 -23. 9 7,000,000
1933 ____ 6 2, 891, 339, 000 -18. 6 6 60, 065, 000 95,874,000 :-21. 1 8,000,000
1934 ___ _
(9)
+9.8 12,000,000
-------- ------------- 133, 494, 000
Number
Percent
increase
(+) or
decrease
H
Value
Number
Percent
increase
(+) or
decrease
Value
Number
(-)
(-)
from
from
1929
from
1929
1929
689, 446, 781 -------- $101, 065, 055 119, 257, 056 -- ------ $18, 191, 081
576, 685, 454 -16. 4 82,858,261 124, 496, 656
+4.4 16,837,406
506, 702, 116 -26. 5 62,939,879 98,968,945 -17.0 12,364,364
(9)
416, 062, 406 -39. 7 43,749, 182
-- ----- - -----------532,146,326 -22.8 59,632,664 11 104,310,213 -12.5 11 12, 823, 491
(i)
699, 443, 233
+1.4 79,863,716
-------- ------------
7
3
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Value
60,863,031 -------- 1 $10, 619, 920
55,223,297
-9.3
8,719,892
- 24.8 B 6,560,662
4,467, 512
-40.0
4,261, 6.39
32,886,445 -46.0
4,980, 554
39,780,009 -34.6
B 45, 782, 808
10 36,531,201
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries. Fishery Industries of the United States, 1930, 1931, 1932, and 1933, and Statistical Bui. 1126.
Ibid. Fishery Industries of the United States, 1929, 1930, 1931, and 1934; and Statistical Bui. 1117; 1934 figure from unpublished data.
Ibid. Fishery Industries of the United States, 1929, 1930, 1932, 1933; and Statistical Buis. 1086 and 1133.
' Ibid. Fishery Industries of tho United States, 1930, 1931, 1932; and Statistical Bui. 1128.
6 Ibid. Fishery Industries of the United States, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1933; and Statistical Buis. 1080 and 1138.
6 For certain geographic areas for which current figures were not available, figures for other than the current year were included.
7 Includes a small quantity of frozen fish.
~ In addition there were 147,025 pounds of packaged fish, valued at $25,224, for which information as to fresh or frozen was not reported.
9 Figures not available.
10 There were prepared 3,100 pounds; valued at $1,550, for which information as to fresh or frozen was not reported.
11 Certain items included in the total are for 1931.
1
2
Percent
increase
(+) or
decrease
O':l
O':l
POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED FISH
67
FROZEN FISH
Before the advent of mechanical refrigeration it was not feasible
to ship fresh fish any distance, for even though it was well iced in
railroad car or ship, facilities for handling and selling it were madequate. Today fish not for immediate use is frozen, principally by
two methods: It may be frozen in rooms where the temperature
ranges from 0° to 12° F.; or it may be filleted, packaged, hermetically
sealed, and then subjected to a quick freeze at temperatures as low
as 50 degrees below zero F. If the frozen fish is to be shipped, it goes
in refrigerator cars to the market area. Wholesalers are expected
to keep it in cold storage, and retailers are expected to putitinmechanically refrigerated show cases. If the frozen fish is to be stored until
the demand warrants shipment, the slow frozen fish must be glazed
and be kept in a room of not higher than 15° F. to prevent loss of
flavor, rusting, and other forms of spoilage. 7 The packaged, sealed
fish need only be kept in a low temperature and does not rust.
The development of these freezing methods has increased greatly
the possibilities of furnishing inland communities with frozen fish.
From 1921 to 1930 the production of frozen fish increased approximately 70 percent. 8 But getting frozen fish to the consumer in a palatable condition without loss of valuable food elements depends on
the knowledge, skill, and care of everyone, from fisherman to consumer, who handles the fish. Poor inspection of fish to be frozen,
insufficient freezing, poor refrigeration facilities at wholesale warehouses, breaking open of packages by retailers or their failure to keep
fish at low temperatures, or even improper defrosting in the home
lessens the chance of retaining the product's natural flavor and juiciness. In the words of Dr. John Ruel Manning, United States Bureau
of Fisheries, speaking at the Army Medical Center in WashingtonIt is now possible to freeze strictly fresh fish, store these fish for a year or more,
and at the end of that time place them in the consumer's hands so that when they
appear on his table he cannot detect any difference in flavor or desirability
between the frozen product and fresh fish right out of the water. This accomplishment, of course, requires the best of modern engineering skill and equipment
and, above all, the cooperation, intelligence, and integrity of producer, wholesale
and retail dealers, and consumer are absolutely essential to carry this operation
through. 9
CURED FISH
The preservation of fish by salting, smoking, drying, or spicing
which prevents bacterial growth has been known to man for many
centuries. In this country cod, haddock, hake, cusk and pollock,
salmon, herring, and mackerel h ave been the chief fish prepared in
this manner. In 1929 the total amount of cured products was
119,257,000 pounds, in 1931 it was 98,969,000 pounds, and in 1933
it was 104,310,000 pounds. (See table II.) Though the generally
depressed market does not reveal true consumption changes, the
belief prevails in the trade that the demand for this type of preserved
fish is not increasing in this country, while the exports have fallen off
materially.
1 American Geographical Society . N ew England's Prospect: 1933. Special Pub. No. 16, p . 265, and
Tressler, Donald K ., M arine Products of Commerce. 1923, p. 288ft.
s U . S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Fisheries. Statistical Bul. 973. Fishery Products Frozen
and Cold Storage Holdings of Frozen and Cured Fishery Products in the United States and Alaska, 1931,
p . 3.
' U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries. Special Memorandum 1061-A, 1935, pp. 2 and 3.
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68
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
CANNED FISH
Though fish must be as fresh for canning as for freezing or any other
form of preserving, once the fish is hermetically sealed and processed
in cans it is subject to no deterioration through fluctuations in temperature, lengthy storage, or faulty handling on its way from cannery
to ultimate consumer. The United States Food and Drug Administration inspects and analyzes samples of canned fish as it passes into
interstate commerce. Through its powers to remove from sale as
they pass over State lines all canned goods unfit for food, it serves
as a constant protection against any tendency to can fish discarded
by the fresh-fish market because of poor quality.
Table III shows the kinds of fish canned in this country in 1934.
The total amount canned was almost 700,000,000 pounds.
Number of employees.
The canning of fish and shellfish in the United States proper employed its largest number of wage earners in 1929. At the height of
the canning season in September 20,516 persons were employed in
canneries. This is exclusive of fishing crew and of employees in
Alaska salmon canneries. 1° Forty-seven percent of the workers in
fish canneries were women. 11
While the peak of the season varied somewhat for different fish
and shellfish, August, September, October, and November afforded
employment to the largest number and March, April, May, and June
to the smallest number. The minimum employment was about 45
percent of the maximum. The average number employed was
13,612. 10
In Alaska, salmon-canning operations last only from 4 to 8 weeks,
depending on locality and the nature of the fish. Salmon and clam
canning gave employment to approximately 24,450 persons in 1929. 12
The pay roll of salaried employees and wage earners engaged in
the canning and preserving of fish and shellfish was $11,605,762 in the
United States in 1929. Wages alone were $8;799,058. 13 Comparable
figures for Alaska 14 are not available for that year; in 1930, however,
wages in Alaska in the salmon-canning industry alone amounted to
more than this amount. 15
Kinds of fish canned.
In 1934 over 57 percent of the fish and shellfish canned in the
United States, including Alaska, was salmon. Sardines formed 17}6
percent, mackerel approximately 9 percent, and tuna and tuna-like
fish about 7 percent. No other kind put up comprised as much as
2½ percent of the entire pack. (See table III.)
U. S. Bureau of the Census. Biennial Census of Manufactures: 1931, pp. 75-79.
U. S. Bureau of the Census. Fifteenth Census, 1930: Manufactures, 1929, vol. I, p. 310.
U. S. Department of the Interior. Annual Report of the Governor of Alaska for Fiscal Year Ended
June 30, 1930, pp. 49 and 50.
13 U. S. Bureau of the Census.
Fifteenth Census, 1930; Manufactures, 1929, vol. II., p. 82.
u This report follows the practice of the Bureau of Fisheries in presenting figures for Alaska as distinct
from figures for "United States proper."
u Department of the Interior. Annual Report of the Governor of Alaska for 1930, pp. 54-55.
10
11
12
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POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED FISH
TABLE
III.-Kinds, amounts, and value of canned fishery products in 1934United States, including Alaska 1
Value
Production
Canned product
All canned fish __ ____ ________________ _____ __ ____ _
Salmon:
U ni ted
---- ----- - - -____
- - - ----- ______ _
Alask
a __States
__ _______
___--______
___ -______
____________
___
Sardines:
M aine _______ ________________ __ ____ _____ - - - __- - - - - California __ ____- - --- - ----- - ----- -- -------- -- ----- Tuna and t una-like fish ___ -- --- -- -- --- - - -- - -- - ---- --- Alew ives ___ _____ ____ ___ ___ ____ __ ______________ _______ _
Alewife roe __ ____ ___ ____ _____ _____ ____ _________ _____ ___
Shad _______ __ ___ ___ _____ ______ ------ __ _____ ________ ___
Shad roe ____ ____ ___ __ ______ _--- - -- - -- ---- - - -- -- -- - - - - - MackereL ___ ___ ___ _____ ___ ________ ________ _______ ___ __
Fish flakes _____ ___ ______ _____ _____ __ __ ________ ___ ____ _
Fish cakes, b alls, etc __ ____ ___ ________ __________ ____ ____
Cat and dog food ______ ___ __ _____ _____ _____ __ ______ ____
Miscellaneou s fish _____ _________ ___ ____________ ____ ____
Sturgeon caviar ____ ___ _____ ___ ___ ___ __ ____ ___ _________ _
Whitefish roe and caviar ____ ____ ________ ______________ _
Salmon eggs (for b ait) __ ______ _______ _____ __ ________ __ _
Miscellaneous r oe and caviar ___ ____ ___ ____ ____ ______ __
Oysters ___ __ _____ __ _____ ___ ________ ______ __ ___ ________ _
Shrimp ______ __ _________________ ___ __ ___ ___ ___ __ _____ __
Clam products __ ---- - - - --- --- - - --- --- ------- - ------ - - Crabs ___ ___ __ __ __ __ ______ ____ __ - - - - -- _-- -- -- ____ _____ _
Terrapin products ______ _- - -- -- - ---- - - ---- - - __________ _
Turtle products __ - - ----- - --- --- -- - - - - -------- -------- Miscellaneous shellfish ___ ____ ____ __ _______ _________ ___
1
2
69
U. S. Department or Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries.
Less than ½o of 1 percent.
Number of
pounds
Percent
of total
699, 463, 223
100. 0
$79, 863, 716
43,257,888
359,127,840
6. 2
51. 3
8,205,947
37,611,950
28,568,250
94,562,256
47,206,632
887, 952
736,848
395,184
101,664
61,220,112
1,753, 920
3,724,560
14,472,384
209,568
150, 048
43,776
242, 112
792,864
6,045,615
16,973,860
16,392,780
557,472
2,496
151,296
1,865, 856
4.1
13. 5
6. 7
.1
.1
3,315, 190
5,481, 391
10,009,542
54, 044
75,581
24, 458
58, 857
3, 244,944
326,372
609, 889
823, 440
31,945
396,824
37,678
128,453
116, 173
1,722,276
4,403,077
2,713,228
191,532
4,606
53, 626
222, 693
Bul. 1133,
(2)
(2)
8.8
.3
.5
2.1
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
.1
.9
2. 4
2. 3
.3
Amoun t
A verage
per
pound
Cents
19. 0
10.5
11. 6
5.8
21. 2
6.1
10. 3
6. 2
57. 9
5. 3
18.6
16. 4
5. 7
15. 2
264. 5
86.1
53.1
14. 7
28. 5
25. 9
16. 6
34.4
184. 5
35. 4
11. 9
1?· 1.
Production by State.-Because the larger part of the salmon pack is
put up in Alaska-about 90 percent of the total-this territory's
proportion of the value of the United States canned products in 1934
was 48 percent. California, with its canned pack of sardines and tuna
fish, was second with 24 percent. Washington ranked third, while
Maine's sardine pack gave fourth place to that State. The value of
the Massachusetts pack was but 1.4 percent of the entire United
States pack, or about $1,090,000. 16
Sales value of canned fish.
Wholesale value.-The value placed on canned-fish products at the
canneries is directly indicative of the retail market they are intended
to reach. Alaskan salmon had in .1934 an average value of 10½ cents
a pound at the canneries, while the Puget Sound and Columbia River
salmon was valued at 19 cents. The California sardines were as low
as 5.8 cents a pound, mackerel 5.3 cents. Maine sardines were 11.6
cents a pound. Tuna fish obviously was in the upper price levels, at
21.2 cents a pound at the canneries. Almost all canned shellfish and
roe was valued at luxury levels. (See table III.)
R etail price and value.-Chain stores sold I-pound cans of salmon
that retailed at 19 cents per can and-in largest quantities-at 2 for
23 cents. A can selling for 35 cents on which the company had a
higher mark-up was disposed of to only one-fifth the amount of the
16 U . S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries. Statistical Bul. No. 1133.
Canned Fishery
Products and Byproducts of t he U nited States and Alaska, 1934, p. 1.
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70
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
cheaper brands. Figures from several large independent grocers
showed the same market demand even though the prices were somewhat different from those asked in the chain stores.
On all kinds of fish low prices based on a quantity rather than the
quality factor apparently- increased sales. A 7-ounce can of tuna fish
priced at 13 ½ cents sold m 10 times the volume of a I-pound can of the
identical tuna priced at 29 cents. Sardines at 5 cents for 4-ounce tins
had 7 times the sale of the same sized tin of a quality that sold at
2 for 25 cents.17
If a canned Ii.sh is to be popularly priced, therefore, it would
seem that it must retail at between 10 and 20 cents. If it is to
build up a general demand, it must fi.11 the same household
needs as does canned salmon, that is, furnish a palatable and
wholesome dinner, lunch, or supper dish; it must be usable
with little preparation whether served hot or cold, and must
lend itself to combination dishes for many purposes.
What then are the conditions which any canned-fi.shproduct
must overcome in meeting salmon competition?
-·-
CONDITIONS WHICH MUST BE MET IF A NEW STAPLE
CANNED FISH IS TO SECURE A MARKET POSITION
SIMILAR TO THAT HELD BY CANNED SALMON
Different species sold as one kind of fish.
Fish sold on the retail market as "salmon" are of five species of the
genus Oncorhynchus and one species of a closely related genus Salmo.
These species, locally known by several common names, as well as
individually within a species, vary in color from deep salmon red
through pink to white and to gray flesh. In the early years of
canning only one species-the red-was used, but as this species
became uncertain in quantity and a demand for a cheaper quality
arose, other species were caught and canned. There is much difference in the fat content of different species, though the protein content is approximately the same. However, the price is determined by
color rather than calories.
Government control.
To prevent depletion of salmon through man's destructiveness,
the United States Government exercises regulatory control over
Alaskan fishing, and Oregon and Washington have State regulatory
provisions. The length of the fishing season is fixed and catch is
regulated to permit escapement of fish to spawning grounds in
Alaska. , Fish delivered at canneries must be canned if in good
condition. Then too, the industry is protected against imports from
Canada and Siberia by an ad valorem duty, so that in 1933, for
example, the domestic product supplied the home market almost
entirely and about one-tenth of the total output was exported. 18
11 Data secured from retail merchants in 2 cities in July 1935.
1a U. S. Department of Commerce. Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States, 1933,
p. 12, and U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Fisheries. Statistical Bul. 1086, 1933, p. 1.
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POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED FISH
71
Control of industry.
Five firms produce about 32 percent of all the salmon. They are
the Alaska Packers Association; Libby, McNeill & Libby; _Northwestern Fisheries Co.; Alaska Consolidated Canners; and Sunny
Point Packing Co. One hundred and twenty-four other companies
produced 68 percent of the pack in 1928. 19
Canning companies operating in Alaska have their own fishing
equipment and have relatively large sums invested in boats, fishing
gear, canneries, and canning machinery. In 1926, Alaskan companies' capital investment aggregated over $49,000,000. 20 Those in
or near cities may buy from individual fishermen and do not require
so much capital investment. Large operators with a number of
plants are not· subject to the irregularities occasioned by the unreliability of any one fishing ground, for they may shift operations to
grounds where the catch is abundant. Then, too, they have the
advantage of fixing the "opening price" and handling merchandise
sales on a large scale.
Canning methods.
Alaska.-In Alaska canning is done almost entirely by machine,
as labor is scarce and much of it is brought from the States and must
be housed and fed. An endless-chain conveyor carries the fish to
the "iron chink", which removes heads, fins, tails, and entrails.
Inspectors du such work as is passed up by the machine. A cutting
machine cuts the trimmed fish into sections to fit cans of different
sizes. As empty cans fed down a chute pass by a plunger, cut fish
is pressed into the cans. Only salt is added to the fish.
Filled cans are weighed by a machine which automatically pushes
out any of wrong weight to be filled by hand. Tops are then loosely
attached. Cans pass through an exhaust box at a temperature of
about 212° F., so that some air is removed from the cans. A double
seamer then clamps the top on tightly, making the joint by pressure
and use of a sealing cement. After the cans are washed, they are
ready for the cooking process. Fish are cooked for 80 minutes or
longer at a temperature of about 240°. Steam pressure varies from
10 to 18 pounds depending on the fish.
Defective cans are detected in a subsequent lye immersion. Lacquer is sprayed onto tops and bottoms or on the entire can, to prevent
rusting. The cans are labeled and packed, 48 one-pound tall cans,
96 half-pound cans, or 48 half-pound tins to a box. In Alaska the
cans and the boxes may be made in the cannery. 21
United States.-While Alaskan conditions require a high degree of
mechanization, in the United States proper more labor is done by
hand. Any hand packing is done by women. Checking of weight
and clipping off or adding necessary amounts is also a woman's task.
Inspection and labeling are regular women's occupations. On the
other hand, few canneries in the States make their own cans or boxes.
1g U . S. T ariff Commission. T ariff Information Surveys. P ars. 717 and 718 of the T ariff Act of 1922.
Salmon. 1929, p. 37.
20 I bid, p . 48.
21 Ibid, pp. 81- 84.
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72
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
Labor.
Alaska.-As has been stated, the remoteness of large canneries in
Alaska has mad.e it necessary to bring most of the cannery labor
from the States. Alaskan labor is used to only a limited extent.
In 1930, 22,324 persons were employed to put up 5,032,326 cases,
valued at $29,694,898. 22 From 35 to 45 percent of the labor imported
was contract labor. 23
Code rates . -Under the Code of Fair Competition for the Canned
Salmon Industry, approved May 15, 1934, all employment contracts
had to be between members of the industry and their employees, and
payments were direct to these employees. The minimum-wage rate
in the code for all employees whose work was chiefly within the cannery
and who were employed on a monthly basis was $50 a month in addition to board and lodging, $75 a month when these were not furnished.
The value of board and lodging, when furnished in Alaska, was figured
at $1 a day. Other workers in the States were guaranteed a minimum
of $60 a month with board and lodging; those in Alaska, $70. Minimum hourly rates in Alaska were 35 cents when board and lodging
were not furnished and 25 cents when these were furnished, whereas
in the States they were 37½ cents an hour for men and 32½ cents an
hour for women.
Costs of canning salmon.
Raw salmon costs are the largest factor in the cost of canned
salmon. The fishermen are well organized and operate under a
contract which calls for different prices on various grades of salmon
and is dependent on the amount of equipment furnished by the
canners. When canners catch their own fish, their costs vary with
the size of the catch. Then, too, there is a marked degree of difference
in waste in the canning of salmon. On chinook, waste is between 40
and 45 percent; on chum or sockeye, about 32 to 38 percent; while
other and cheaper species have 26 percent or less waste. 24
Unfortunately no recent figures are available on actual costs of
operation. However, as opening prices in 1917 and 1928 were
similar (save for chinook) and those of 1916 and 1934 were approximately so, a comparison of 1916 and 1917 costs may be considered
indicative of relative costs in a medium-priced and a high-priced
salmon year.
As can be computed from table IV, the cost of raw fish formed, in
the various fishing areas, from 23 }f percent to almost 49 percent of
the total cost of production in 1916 and from 27}f percent to 48 percent
of the cost in 1917. In spite of a 15- to 20-percent wage increase, the
1917 pack was so much larger than the 1916 pack that labor cost
showed practically no increase per unit and was about 70 cents a case
in both years. Cans cost 59.5 cents a case the first year and 94.6
cents a case the second year, or about 16}f percent and 21 percent,
respectively, of the total cost. Prices charged for cans varied greatly
from canner to canner. The heavy cost to Alaskan canners of
22 U.S . Department of the Interior.
Annual Report of Governor of Alaska for Fiscal Year Ended June
30, 1931, p. 55.
23 U. S. Department of the Interior.
Annual Report of the Governor of Alaska for Fiscal Year Ended
June 30, 1932, p . 114.
H The Federal Trade Commission. Report on Canned Foods: Canned Salmon, December 1918, p . 39.
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POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED FISH
73
transporting men and supplies is indicated clearly in this table, for
in the earlier year it ranged from 7 percent of the total in south
Alaska to 14 percent of that in central Alaska. This item is no
part, or is only a limited part, of expenses in canneries near cities in
the States.
Variation with size of container.-While these figures necessarily
cover all varieties in each district, without regard to size of can, a
more detailed study shows that costs of canning in half-pound flat
tins was from 20 to 40 percent more costly than putting up in tall
I-pound cans, and that this difference in cost usually is nearer the
higher percent. 25
Marketing costs.-Marketing costs are not included in these
figures. Federal Trade Commission accountants' examination of
books would indicate that marketing costs averaged about 38.2
cents a case when brokerage, advertising, and other sales items were
included. 26
26
26
Ibid ., p. 45.
Ibid., p. 9.
58825°- 36--6
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
IV.-Average cost of producing canned salmon per full case, 1916 and 1917 (years in which opening sales prices approximated 1934 and
1928 sales prices, respectively), by locality and item of cost 1
1916
1917
West Alaska
Item
West
Alaska
Central
Alaska
Southeast
Alaska
Puget
Sound
Total
Amount
- -- -- - - -- -- - - 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -Number of plants _____________ ___
17
Number of cases (48 1-pound
cans) packed _______________ ____ 1,411,538
Average cost per case:
Raw fish _________________ __ __
$1. 110
Other materials ____ ___ _____ __
.022
Cans ____ _____ ________ _______ _
.594
Shooks, boxes, and labels _____
.160
Labor ___ ___ __ ______ __ ____ ___ _
. 782
Other conversion costs ___ ___ _
.065
Transportation, men and
supplies ____ ___ __ ___ ____ ___ _
.538
Depreciation ___ ______ ___ ___ __
·. 132
Factory swells __ ____ ________ _
.023
Plant overhead ____ ____ ____ ___
.310
General expense ____ _________ _
.194
11
18
777, 274 1,002, 357
8
54
Central Alaska
Southeas t Alaska
P erPercent
cent
inincrease
crease
over Amount over
Amoun(
1916
1916
(-in(-indicates
dicates
dedecrease)
crease)
PerPercent
cent
in•
increase
crease
over Amount over
1916
1916
(-in(-indicates
dicates
dedecrease)
crease)
- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - -- - - -17 -- - - ----
186,789 3,377,958 1,428, 547
14 - ----- - -
23 --- - ----
682,314 -- -- ---- 1,619,480
$0. 736
. 002
.587
.150
.606
.048
$0. 945
. 007
. 598
.162
.627
.072
$2. 763
. 008
.626
. 137
. 885
.257
$1.066
. 012
. 595
. 157
. 701
.074
$1. 432
29.01
. 015 -31.82
. 996
67. 68
.182
13. 75
. 845
8. 06
.098
50. 77
.444
.122
.020
. 256
.168
. 231
.144
.005
. 215
.236
.106
.222
.005
.428
.263
.402
. :i.38
.016
.276
.204
.814
51.30
.157
18. 94
. 020 -13. 04
.365
17. 74
.170 -12. 89
$1. 200
. 005
. 953
.168
. 722
.072
63. 0.4
50. 00
62. 35
12. 00
19.14
50.00
$1.128
.004
. 873
. 203
. 579
.079
34. 24
- 8.33
58. 99
19.11
. 57
24.32
27. 25
. 565
. 142
16. 39
. 015 -25. 00
. 381
48. 83
. 218
29. 71
. 339
46. 75
.120 -16. 66
.004 -20.00
. 221
2. 79
. 230 -2. 54
.077 -27.36
.119 -46. 40
.008
60. 00
. 301 -29. 67
.319
21. 29
. 485
.134
.011
. 295
• 241
20. 65
-2. 90
-31.25
6. 88
13. 24
. 019 -44.12
. 110
307.41
2. 999
4. 430
17. 70
22. 58
.012
.034
.027
. 244
442. 22
.082
583. 33
. 051
325. 00
2. 775
3.885
2. 391
3. 127
2. 285
3. 230
2.903
5.666
2.548
3. 614
3. 418
4.850
23.17
24. 86
3.159
4. 359
32.12
39. 39
2. 601
3. 729
13. 83
15. 45
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
62 - -------
$1. 431
.013
. 946
.187
. 705
.092
.012
December 1918, p. 37.
- - -- - - -
$2. 565 -7.17
.003 -62. 50
. 979
56. 39
.184
34. 30
• 718 -18. 87
.093 -63. 81
.045
Report on Canned Foods (Canned Salmon).
Amount
Percent
increase
over
1916
(-indicates
decrease)
19. 36
42.86
45. 99
25. 31
-7.66
9. 72
Cost of production excluding raw
fish __________ _________________ _
Total cost of production _______ ___
Federal Trade Commission.
8 -- -- - - - -
Total
606,174 - - - ----- 4,336,515
Deduct income from byproducts __
1
Puget Sound
2. 782
5. 347
-4.17
-5. 63
POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED FISH
75
FISHERIES OF THE NEW ENGLAND STATES
Kinds of fish and quantity of catch.
In 1933 the fish and shellfish catch of New England was almost
500,000,000 pounds, valued at over $13,000,000. (See tables V and
VI.) This formed more than one-sixth of the en tire catch in the
United States and Alaska and over 22 percent of the total value.
While New England fishermen ply their trade in Atlantic waters
from Long Island to Newfoundland, by far the largest amount of
fresh fish is landed at Boston. Gloucester receives the bulk of fish
salted on the fishing vessels and also much fresh fish. Portland,
Maine, ranks third as a fish-landing port.
Haddock far outranks other fish in quantity and value of catch.
In 1928 haddock totaled approximately 237,700,000 pounds, but the
catch dropped to 160,000,000 pounds in 1933. A news statement
covering the first 4 months of 1935 reported landings of 56,000,000
pounds of haddock. With this increase indicated, the price dropped
to 2.48 cents a pound. 27 This haddock is sold fresh and froz en in
almost equal quantities. About a million pounds is smoked and
cured and sold as "finnan haddie."
Cod, belonging to the same family as hadaock, 1s the second largest
New England catch, being just short of 100,000,000 pounds in 1933.
Almost equal amounts are sold salted and fresh. Other fish belonging
to the same family as the cod and haddock are caught in less amounts
though equally edible; such fish are cusk, hake, and pollock. Most
of the species belonging to this, the Gadus family, are caught in
New England.
TABLE
V.-Amount and value of fish eries of the New England States-1928, 1932,
and 1933 1
A . ALL SPECIES B UT SHE LLFISH
1932
1928
1933
Species
Pounds
Value
TotaL __________________ 561, 103, 967 $18, 103, 467
Alewives_ _____________________
4,556,978
51, 954
Amberjack_ ____________ _______ _____ _______ _ ____ ____ ____
Bluefish____ _____ ______ _______ _
55,284
9,153
68,260
6,875
Bonito_ _____ ____ __ ____ ______ __
Butterfish ________ __________ __ _
1,548,563
192,857
14,395
1,749
Carp____ ____ __________________
Catfish and bullheads_________
1, 200
77
2,955,603
Cod__ ___ _________ _______ ______ 90,335,557
Crevalle ____ _____ ____________ __ ___ _____ ______ ________ ___
Croaker_____ _____ ___ _____ _____ _______ ______ ____________
Cunners_ ___ ____ ______________
86,285
2,700
Cusk________ ____ __ ________ ____
3,230,045
91,473
Drum:
.
Black ___ __________ ___ _____ ____ _________ _________ ___
Red _____ ______ ___ _______ __ ______ ____ ___ ____________
Eels ____ ___ __ ___ ___ ____ __ ____ __
845,365
96,458
Common_____ __________ ___ ______ ______ _ ________ ____
Conger___ ___ __ _______ _____ _____ ______ __ ____ ________
Flounders____ _______________ __ 50, 274, 092
2,259,077
Goosefish __ ___ __ __ _______ _____
43,130
907
Frigate mackereL__ ___ __ ___ __
5,336
349
Grayfish_ ___________ __________
206,309
3,312
Pounds
V alue
Pounds
Value
440, 918, 24.5 $9, 184, 008 461, 620, 966 $9, 592, 453
3,572, 179
18,739
2,817,296
16,837
975
39
2,275
68
647,685
51,996
920,965
75,757
44,522
2,104
51,544
2, 156
2,262,297
99,912
1,553,523
67,932
41,430
3, 452 ___ ___ __ _____ ________ _
1,600
32 ___ _______ __ __ ____ ___ _
86,275,611 1,725,257 99,632,023 1,855,994
__ _____ ____ ___ ___ __ ___ _•
2,200
81
468, 884
10,427
2,496,883
35,852
76, 000
2, 170
41, 767
458
5,172,783
66, 824.
6,109,531
72,451
51
1
132
2
_____________ ________ ___
1,755
32
961,422
56,782 ______ ______ ___ ______ _
______ ___ __ __ _____ ______
517, 309
34,832
_________ ___ _ __ ___ ____ __
40,975
882
37,489,004 1,128,982 37,795,211 1,173,016
2,332
23 - - ----- ----- __ ____ ___ _
___ ____ _____ _ ______ _____
125,453
4,361
27,049
374
13,428
151
t U. S . Depar tment of Commerce. Bureau of Fisheries. Fisheries of the New England States: 1928.
Statistical Bul. 882, p . 2; 1932, ibid. 1074, p. 2; and 1933, ibid. 1123, p . 2.
21
Christian Science Monitor.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
July 18, 1935.
76
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
TABLE
V.-Amount and value of fisheries of the New England States-1928, 1932,
and 1933-Continued
A. ALL SPECIES BUT SHELLFISH-Continued
1928
1932
1933
Species
Pounds
Value
Pounds
Value
Pounds
Value
Haddock ____ ___ ____ _____ __ ___ _ 237,707,820 $7,047,591 150,468,362 $3,400,076 160,106,512 $3,646,020
H ake____ ____ ___ ______ _______ __ 17,506,210
321,828
16,941,640
208,622 15,319,692
202,695
Halibut__ ____ ______________ __ _ 4,256,510
643, 121
2,416,645
256, 703
2, 4.57, 366
235,555
Herring, sea_____ ___ ___ _____ ___ 70,555,252
474,617
38,074,452
156,662 48,086,954
211,087
Herring, smelt__ ____ _____ ___ __ ___________ __ ____________
3,600
169
11,648
313
Hickory shad_ ____ _______ _____
9,815
589 _______ __ ___ _ ______ _____
2,308
23
Hogfish_ ___ __ _______ ___ __ _____ _________ ____ ________ ____
2,998
37 _____ ____ __ ______ ___ __
King whiting __ _______ _____ ___
3,053
170
6,945
228
40, 187
1, 100
Launce________ ____ ________ ____ ____ ___ __ ____ _____ _______
24,000
480
21, 000
420
M ackerel___ ___ ____________ ____ 42,722,006
2,185,462
60, 088,143
962,360 40, 831,679
878,065
Menhaden_ __ ______ ____ ______ _ 5,174,906
73, 155
53,634
708
1,029,094
2, 791
Minnows_ _______ __ ___ ________
17,707
5,214
5,525
211 __ ___ ______ _ _____ __ __ _
Mummichog__ ________________
6,610
1,123
4,250
43 _______ ____ _ ______ __ __
Mullet__ _______ _____________ __ ______ _____ __ ___________ _ ___ __ ___ _____ ___ _______ _
8, 821
322
Pigfish_ ___ __ ____ __________ __ __ _____ ___ ____ _ _____ __ __ ___ _____ _______ _ __ ______ ___
3, 832
73
Pike ______ ____________________
10
2 ______ _______ ___ ____ ______ __ ___ _____ ____ _____ _
223,561
10,635,009
103,237 15, 026, 546
164,055
Pollock_ ___ ______ __________ ___ 11,039,383
Rosefish____ ___ ________ ______ __
125,808
1,930
124, 729
1, 550
264,318
2,841
Salmon___ ____ __ ________ ____ __
30,901
6,032
36,125
8,566
24,689
6, 278
Sand launce____________ __ _____
312,680
3,327 ______ ___ __ ____ __ _____ __ __ ___ ______ ___ _____ ___
Scuporporgy _______________ __
2, 858, 838
191, 429
4, 457,742
113,908
4, 194, 828
89, 160
Sea bass__ ___ __________________
.228, 501
23, 1-02
3,606, 970
94,597
3, 998,969
121, 707
Sea robin_____ __ _______________
482,097
4,427
116, 430
1,246
77,435
738
Shad_ ___ __ _____ ______ _________
345, 804
37,943
232,116
12, 758
385,692
15, 927
Sharks__ __________ _________ __ _
145, 156
8, 697
245,019
2,025
66,018
545
Sheepshead ____ __ ___ _________ _ __ ______ _____ __ _____ ___ __ __ ___ ___ _____ ____ ____ __ _
9
1
Skates ________ _____ ___ ________
1,058,323
14,459
949,156
7, 453
240,197
2,107
Skipper or "billfish" __ ________
13, 150
1,059 ____ __ _______ _____ ___ ___
4,840
55
Smelt ____ ______ ____ ____ _______
903, 081
187,569
277,341
37,499
550, 747
59, 616
Spot__ _____ ___ ___ __ ___________
5,120
343
22,280
222
32,838
378
Squeteagues or sea trout___ ____
114,143
15,592 _______ ______ ____ ___ ____ ____ ____ ____ _____ ____ _
Gray __ _______ _________ ____ ____ ________ _ ____ _____ ___
132,333
9,380
369,367
14,291
Spotted ______ ___ __ _______ ___ .______ _____ __ ___ ____ ___
2,328
216
2,048
204
Striped bass______________ _____
56,521
9,347
41,938
6,916
61,439
6,575
Sturgeon_____ _______ ___ _______
3,817
699
8, 132
738
7,931
905
Suckers_ ______ _____ ___________
125,823
10,864
138,086
5,931
51, 518
1,562
Swellfish __ ___________________ _ _____________ _____ _______
200
2 ____ ________ ____ ___ ___
Swordfish______ _____ __________
4,365,922
779,138
4,548,350
485,390
3,381,396
404,647
Tautog___ __ ___ ____ ___ _______ __
395,262
32,694
445,834
18,541
483, 764
16,063
Thimble-eyed mackereL ___ ___ ___ ___ _______ _____ __ ___ __ ___ __ __ ____ __ __ __ _____ __
77,707
1, 533
Tilefish_ _______ _______ ___ _____ ____ ______ __ _ ______ ____ __
249,207
10,576
207,000
10, 330
Tomcod___ __ __ _______ _________
27,169
1,039
56,224
1,169
2, 164
52
Tuna or "horse mackerel" _____
285, 730
16, 717
255,626
11,561
401,481
17, 569
White perch___ ___ ______ ___ ___
12, 396
1,834
53,445
5,575
49,647
7, 151
Whiting_____ ____ _____ ___ ______
8,377, 756
92,026
7,201,048
61,225
9, 419,023
96, 821
Wolffish _____ ___________ _____ __
559,283
13, 998
1, 932, 950
28, 659
2,197,458
31,936
Yellow perch___ ___ ________ ____
305
30
15,689
1,655
534
80
White bait__ ________ ____ ______
300
105 --- -- ---- - --- - --- --- --- - - - ---- -- - - - - _____ _____
B. SHELLFISH
TotaL __________________
42, 494, 083
$7,516, 437
39, 602, 636 $4, 817,288
38, 315, 173 $3,893, 097
Crabs:
Hard____ __ ________ ________
3, 753,436
91,417
1,096, 847
54,960
5, 629,059
40, 315
Soft_ __ ____ ___ ___ __!_ __ ___ _
1,065
400
1, 095
425 ____ ___ ______ ________ _
6, 5.74
King______ ___ ___ _____ _____ -- - --------- - -- -- - - -- -- ----- --- -- ----- -- - - --- ---18
Lobsters_ _____ _____ _______ __ __ 11, 603,979
3,413,831
10,279,119 1,913,027
9, 088, 1.Q5 1, 608, 041
Shrimp___ ________ ____________
1, 200
900
320
120
41, 200
2, 170
Periwinkles and cockles _______ _____ _____ ___________ ____ ___ ___ ____ ____ ____ _____ _
190, 658
12, 3.176
Clams:
Cockle __ __________________
9, 870
3, 097
15,789
237,648
Hard, public 2_ __ _ _ _ _ ___ _ __
2,231,000
735, 797
420,442
3,450,493
2,948,615
361,884
Hard, private 2_ __ _ ___ _ _ __ _
1, 200
450
1,750
91,245
8,250
12. 649
Razor__ __ ______ ____ _______
38,400
8, 000
17, 254
403,744
358,400
15, 874
Soft, public 3__ ____________
5,469,810
47:il, 742
10, 144, 536
471,964
9, 430, 7(77
475, 641
Surf or sk,immer ___ _____ _______ ____ _____ ______ __ ____
3,525
55, 390
59, 240
3,575
2 Statistics on hard clams for 1933 and 1932 are based on yields of 11 pounds of meat per bushel in Maine,
Massachusetts, and Rhode Island and 10 pounds in Connecticut (1928 base not stated) .
3 Statistics on soft clams for 1933 are based on a yield of 15 pounds of meat per bushel in Maine and M assachusetts, 16 pounds in Rhode Island, and 14 pounds in Connecticut. For 1932 the figures are based on
yields of 15 pounds of meat per bushel in Maine, 16.09 pounds in Massachusetts, 15.61 pounds in Rhode
Island, and 14 pounds in Connecticut (1928 base not stated).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED FISH
77
V.-Amount and value of fisheries of the New England States-1928, 1932,
and 1933-Continued
TABLE
B. SHELLFISH-Continued
1928
1932
1933
Species
Pounds
Value
Pound s
Mussels, sea __________________ _
130,000
$1,300
Oysters: 4
M arket, public, spring ____ }
, 470
15
4, 480
Market, public, falL__ ____
M arket, private, spring __ _ } 4 522 910
1 221 137
Market, private, fall_____ _
'
'
'
'
Scallops:
Bay---- ----------------- -1,218, 174
576, 936
Sea__ ________________ ______
475,272
162,695
Squid__ _______________________
7,927,518
156,703
Irish moss___ _____ _____________
91, 210
4,562
Bloodworms_ ------- - --------- ____ _________ _______ _____
Sand worms _--- - ---------- -- -- __ ___________ ___ _________
Sea urchins.__ ______ _______ ___ ____ _________ ____ __ __ __ __
Turtles, loggerhead____________ ___ __ ________ ______ __ __ __
K elp__________ __ _____ _____ ____
90,000
450
P eriwinkles__________________ _
18,970
3,444
Oysters, seed, public____ _____ _
404,649
57,807
Oysters, seed, private_________
4. 429,950
600,239
Value
Pounds
Value
63,390
$4,404
141,246
$5,572
29,429
14,087
{ 2,225,277
5,117,639
4,958
1, 750
373,284
822,335
37, 030
49, 994
2,214,092
2,856,164
5,090
6,957
318,811
416,515
1. 537,357
1,571,941
3,110,167
83,500
58,667
34,956
401,504
193, 722
41,518
4,175
45,842
21,030
{
620, 735
203,918
2,158,195
267,454
1,075,495
19, 234
11,650
582
660,611
70, 724
640,223
45,480
____ ______ ___ _________ __
5, 845
217
1,425
15 ______ _______ _____ __ __
___________ ___ ________ ___________ ____ ________ _
77,359
3,495 ______ _______________ _
__ _____ _______ _______ ______ __ _____ __ ______ __ __
____ __________ ____ _________ _______ __ _______ ___
4 Statistics on oysters for 1933 are based on yields of 6.57 pounds of meat per bushel in M assachusetts,
6.96 pounds in Rhode Island, and 6.81 pounds in Connecticut. For 1932 the :figures are based on yields
of 6.56 pounds of meat per bushel in M assachusetts, 6.50 pounds in Rhode Island, and 6.75 pounds in
Connecticut (1928 base not stated).
TABLE
VI.-Amount and value of fisheries of Massachusetts and Maine-1928
1
A. (1) MASSACHUSETTS: ALL SPECIES BUT SHELLFISH
Species
P ounds
Value
TotaL ___ ___________ 363,406,942 $12,921,051
Alewives_____ _____ _______ _ 2,247,972
Bluefish__ ______ ___ ________
14,516
Bonito_ ____ _________ ______
18,465
Butterfish_________________
580,397
Cod __________ _____________ 67,665,689
Gunners_ ___________ ____ __
30
Cusk___ ___________________ 2,185,262
Eels_______________________
356,149
Flounders _____ ____________ 36,685,927
Gray:fish _______ ___ ________
68,210
H addock __ ____ __ __________ 177,577,775
Hake_ _________ ________ ____ 9,321,072
Halibut_________________ __ 4, 060,713
Herring, sea_______________ 5,645,538
Hickory shad _____________
25
King whiting____ _________
98
Mackerel__ __ ______________ 37,161, 091
Menhaden____ ____________
4,356
Pollock___ ____ __ __________ 7,700,726
Rosefish ___________________
123,388
29,298
1,699
1,955
79, 997
2,268,375
2
51,569
42,305
1,640,674
818
5,230,961
204,669
606, 150
72,509
2
14
1, 862,939
48
168,783
1,883
Species
Pounds
Salmon __ ___ ___________ ___
Sand launce ______ ________ _
16,050
312,680
855,272
154,281
350
30,911
81,918
32,918
12, 850
32,356
3,426
8,357
2,838
2,730,085
151,931
585
35,642
10,400
6,995,830
520,813
50
~~~~ass _____ -------------Sea robin _________________ _
Shad ___ ___ ____ ____ ____ ___ _
Sharks ___ ________ _____ ___ _
Skates ___________________ _
Skipper or "billfish" __ ___ _
Smelt ______________ ______ _
Squeteagues _______ ____ ___ _
Striped bass ________ _______ _
Sturgeon ___________ ______ _
Swordfish _______________ __
Tautog ___ _____________ ---Tomcod ___________ _____ __ _
Tuna or "horse m ackerel"_
White perch. ___ _______ __ _
Whiting ______ _______ ____ __
W olffish ____ _________ _____ _
Yellow perch ___ _________ __
Value
$710
3,327
34,660
15,549
3
2,322
7,905
620
954
4,423
498
1, /U
567
481,016
12,980
29
3,445
1,560
70,967
13,350
5
A. (2) MASSACHUSETTS: SHELLFISH
TotaL __________ ____ 16,761,417
$2,727,725
Crabs:
H ard __________________ 3, 139,119
71,567
Soft_ ___________________ ___ _____ _______ ______ _
761, .561
Lobsters.________ ___ ______ 2,042,331
Shrimp ___________________
1,200
900
Squid____ _________ ___ _____ 5,540,424
117,522
Clams:
Cockle________________
6,870
2,917
Hard, puhlic______ ____ 1,661,416
524,999
H ard, private ________ _______ _______ _____ ____ _
Razor__ ________________
38,400
8,000
Soft, public ________ ___ 1,797, 090
233,237
Mussels ___________________ __________ _______ __ ___ _
Oysters:
M arket, public _________ ___ _________ __ _______ _
M arket, private_______
753,949
$365,504
Seed, public ____ ___ ____ ____ _________ ___ _____ __
Seed, private__________
324,730
44,428
Periwinkles_ __ ____________
10,250
1, 600
Scallops:
Bay_________________ __ 1,235,304
548,348
Sea_________ ___________
119,124
42, 580
Irish moss ____ _____ __ ______
91,210
4, 5G2
Kelp __ __ ____ ____ ____________ __________ ______ ____ _
1 U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Fisheries. Fisheries of the New England States, Statistical Bul. 882, 1928, p . 2.
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REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
TABLE
VI.-Amount and value of fi sheries of Massachusetts and Maine-1928Continued
B. (1) MAINE: ALL SPE CIES BUT SHELLFISH
Species
Pounds]
TotaL ___ __ _____ ____ 111,998,075
Alewives ______________ ___ _
Bluefish __ ________________ _
Bonito __________ __ _______ _
Butterfish ____________ ____ _
Cod ______________ ________ _
Cunners ______ _______ ____ _
Cusk ________ _______ ___ ___ _
Eels __ ___ ___ __ ___ _________ _
Flounders ___________ _____ _
Grayfish _____ ____ ___ _____ _
Haddock _________________ _
H ake ____ ________ _________ _
Halibut _____________ _____ _
Herring, sea ______________ _
2,131,916
140
845
25,339
16,186, 739
10,000
959, 759
141,650
1, 17fi, 313
100,000
12,203, 984
7,681,461
191,341
64,685,474
Value
Species
Pounds
$1,872,638
M ackereL ____ ____ ______ __
Pollock ______________ ____ _
Rosefish ___ __ _______ ______ _
Salmon __________________ _
Shad ______________ _______ _
Sharks _______ ___ ______ ___ _
Skates __ _____ _____ _______ _
Smelt __·___________ ___ ____ _
Sturgeon _______ _________ __
Suckers _______________ __ __
Swordfish ________ _____ ___ _
Tomcod __________________ _
Tuna or "horse mackerel" _
Whiting _____ ____ _____ ___ _
Wolffish _______ __________ _
Yellow perch ____ _________ _
1, 595,816
2,876,481
2,420
14, 747
110,149
45,438
75
832,216
652
62,560
693,071
21,204
207,270
3,510
38,305
200
$71,921
37,943
47
3,000
3, 620, 580
2,000
326, 178
90,000
$180
228,756
500
110,125
450
19,001
19
36
2,864
434, 963
500
21, 704
12,739
61,543
2,000
337,125
106,890
30, 825
397,777
Value
5,288
7,755
619
11
176,189
87
6,256
127,585
841
9,313
34
643
20
B. (2) MAINE: SHELLFISH
TotaL______ ________ 11,328,080
Crabs, hard ____ ___ ___ ____ _
Lobsters ___ __ ____________ _
Squid _____ _______________ _
158,900
7,100,332
27,090
$2,358,553
4,698
2,013,451
393
Clams:
Cockle ___ ________ __ __ _
Soft, public _____ __ ___ _
Periwinkles ___ ____ __ _____ _
Scallops, sea ____ ___ _______ _
K elp _________ _____ ____ ___ _
At one time there was little demand for haddock. But with the
introduction of otter trawls, so much of the catch consisted of haddock that efforts were made by the Bureau of Fisheries and the
trade to popularize this species. Advances in filleting and packing
and freezing aided such efforts. This is cited as a clear illustration
of the feasibility of promoting a market for a fish at one time almost
unknown to the consumer.
Sea herring formed not far from three-fifths of the catch landed
at Maine ports in 1928. (See table VI-B (1).) All of this is salted,
smoked, cured, or canned for the trade.
Another fat fish caught in quantity is the mackerel, which varies
in abundance from period to period. However, expert analyses of
the new stocks of mackerel each year make it possible to predict the
probable abundance of sizable mackerel at any period. Mackerel is
caught to a less extent in Pacific waters.
Fish wastage.
The New England markets receive fresh-water as well as sea
fish. Though the Gadidae are caught all the year round, other
fish are brought in, chiefly during the summer months. A large
part of the fishing is carried on by small fishing vessels. Consequently there is little adjustment between the summer catch and the
market demands. A few of the larger fishing companies have their
own vessels and communicate by radio concerning the catch that
can be got and the amount for which there is a market. 28
Statements are made by some fishing experts that much fish is
discarded at sea by the fishermen, either because it is of a species
bringing too low a price or because an overabundance of catch of
2s Atlantic Coast Fisheries Co., Bay State Fisheries Co., Gorton-Pew Fisheries, Ltd. Booth Fisheries
Corporation.
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POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED FISH
79
any popular kind lowers the price for all. Others claim the wastage
at sea is small, that the main difficulty is having more brought in
to market than can be sold, with the ever-constant danger of fish
too old for sale being offered at small ports at a lower price.
Regardless of where the waste occurs, all experts agree that the
summer fish supply in New England is far in excess of the demands
of the fresh fish market.
-·-
FISH CANNING IN NEW ENGLAND
While Maine canned over $3,000,000 worth of sardines largely for
southern trade in 1934, 29 the value of New England fish canned
for a food staple to compete in the canned-salmon market was about
$1,000,000.
This fish is offered to the market as codfish cakes or balls, fish
balls, fish flakes, salad fish, finnan haddie, fish chowder, or as canned
mackerel. It is not canned by firms specializing in fish canning
but rather is a method of using surplus fish by firms marketing fresh,
frozen, or cured fish or other canned goods. The terms "fish flakes",
"salad fish", and "fish cakes" are used rather than names of fish so
that the canner may be free to can any fish that is abundant at the
time.
Four Massachusetts firms and two Portland firms were engaged
in canning fish staples in 1934. One firm employed no women at
canning because its canning facilities were inadequate. The three
largest firms employed 93 women and 665 men throughout the year
and 305 women and 1,725 men from August to November.
While cod and other Gadidae may be caught at any time of the
year, they are firmest and thickest from August to December; consequently much is canned during these months. Mackerel is abundant from June 15 to November.
Cod, haddock, and other Gadidae are dressed, cleaned, and soaked
in salt to extract the blood and give flavor. They are then skinned
and napes carrying fine bones are removed. Unlike fat fish, such as
salmon, herring, and mackerel, the lean fish must be partially cooked
before canning, to remove some of the water content of the fish.
After they are taken from the steam retort, women remove the bones
with pincers.
The fish are put into cans by women if they are hand-packed; or if
they are flaked by hand, women do this. They also peel potatoes
and eye them if machines are not available. Where canning is done
entirely mechanically, women watch container lines, watch for underweight or overweight cans, adjust these by hand, and do labeling.
In the dried-fish department, they may press and pack the flaked fish
into cakes; in the freezing department, they may wrap fillets in parchment.
Wage rates and earnings.
Bone pullers and potato peelers and eyers were paid by the piece.
Other women workers were paid 33 and 33½ cents an hour in Massachusetts and 30 cents an hour in Portland, Maine. In the Portland
firm the earnings of almost two-thirds of the women workers in a
21 U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau or Fisheries. Canned Fishery Products and By-Products
of the United States and Alaska, 1934, Statistical Bul. 1133, p. 3.
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80
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
representative week in the spring of 1935 fell between $9 and $12.
A few earned a full week's wages- that is, $15 to $16-but few worked
the 48 hours necessary to earn such an amount.
Working conditions in the largest fish cannery were excellent.
The work was done in sanitary quarters, in moderate temperature,
and the workers were dressed in white. This condition is indicative
of the fact that a cold, wet workroom is not a necessary concomitant
to fish canning.
-·-
COMPARISON OF COST OF CANNING NEW ENGLAND FISH
WITH THAT OF PACIFIC COAST FISH
Cost comparisons are difficult, because the varieties of fish are
packed in different-sized containers and in large and small quantities.
Whereas salmon is usually put up in I-pound cans, 48 to a case, tuna
is put up in 7-ounce cans, and codfish and other New England fish
flakes are marketed in IO-ounce cans. While cost of fish can be computed for each species regardless of size of can used, the can cost, the
labor cost, and the overhead of a 16-ounce can is not 1.6 times that
of a IO-ounce can. Then, too, New England canning firms seU fish
fresh or salted or dried, and when the whole cat ch is owned or purchased, they may put up codfish tongues and fish roe, and sell the .
liver oil for medical purposes, and the wastes for glue or meal, all of
which divides the original cost of the fish among a number of products.
Sea-fish costs.
On a used poundage basis in 1934, the cost of lean fish allotted by
New England firms to canning was less than 3 cents a pound, or
approximately $1.35 for a case of 48 pounds. This compares very
favorably with the price paid for west and central Alaska salmon.
(See table IV.) Tuna fish costs from $1.882 to $2.663 for raw fish
in cases of forty-eight 7-ounce tins and obviously is far more
expensive. 30
The unit cost of labor compares favorably in Massachusetts and
along the Pacific coast . State minimum-wage rates for women in
both sections (Massachusetts and California) determine tha bottom
level of wage rates for both sexes.
Even though preparation of lean fish may seem to involve more
expense than machine preparation of fat fish such as Alaskan salmon,
comparison of actual operations showed a margin in favor of New
England. If there is any difference in the cost of cans or materials,
these should be cheaper for New England, which is so near the source
of supplies. Likewise, selling costs with markets close at hand
should be lower for the New England products.
Mackerel.
As to mackerel, no costs of the Pacific coast canning are available.
Mackerel canning in New England began only recently. The California mackerel can be caught all year, while the New England is a
seasonal fish. The California mackerel is put up by tuna and sardine
canners to lengthen their season without additional overhead expense.31 Some is exported to the Philippines. As it was valued in
ao U.S. T ariff Commission. Fish P acked in Oil. R eport No. 71, 1934, p. 19.
31 U.S. D epart ment of Commerce. Bureau of Fisheries. Canned Fishery Products and By-Products
of the United States and Alaska, 1934. Statistical Bui., 1133, p. 1.
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POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED FISH
81
1934 at but 5.3 cents a pound at the cannery, obviously it is seeking
a low-quality market.
-·-
NEW ENGLAND FISH-CANNING POSSIBILITIES
As has been stated, with the exception of sardine canning New
Englanders have engaged in fish canning only as a means of using
surplus fish not sold fresh, frozen, or salted, and purchased at a
lower price than is paid by the fresh-fish market. No attempt has
been made to develop a canned product and advertise it as such, so
that the public will call for that particular fish in canned form as
it does salmon and tuna. As long as only the surplus of the fresh
or frozen fish market is canned, the public will regard the canned
product as a poor substitute for the fresh fish.
Problem of varying yield.
One reason why the canning of a specific fish has not been developed
is the fact that the yield of any one species fluctuates so from year
to year. Building up a trade for a specific product takes time, and
just one season's failure as regards catch would cause much loss of
customers.
This problem had to be met by the salmon and tuna industries.
Both industries started by canning one species of fish. As their
market grew, this species became scarcer, and they had to can
other species under the same name, selling it, however, as a different
quality. (For description of species canned as salmon see p. 40.)
The albacore was the original tuna fish packed in California. Now
the yellow fish, blue fish, and striped tuna, both white and dark
meat, are ca,nned as different grades of tuna.
The New England firms have attempted to overcome this difficulty
by putting up fish as "fish flakes" or "salad fish." These terms in
no way indicate the contents of the can to the customer, nor can the
retail clerk throw any light on the contents. The customer naturally
assumes that these cans contain "left-overs", and fish left-overs have
no appeal.
The United States Food and Drug Inspection Service has called
upon the Bureau of Fisheries for its opinion in determining whether
canned fish is labeled accurately. Authoritative opinion is that one
name can be given to a number of Atlantic lean fishes, similar in
taste and texture, but that such a name must not infringe on names
now applied by the public, whether correctly or incorrectly, to other
fish. Thus, scarcity of a species in any one year would have little
effect upon ability to supply the market demands.
Fish not used extensively by the fresh or frozen markets believed to
have canning possibilities.
Thorough experimentation in canning new fish has not taken place.
The Bureau of Fisheries has tested fresh fish by numerous preparation
methods and has pickled alewives successfully.
Two private firms are known to have experimented on a few types
of fish in New England. The results of one firm's experiments were
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82
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
sold to a Gloucester, Mass., firm. The second small firm is hesitating
to put out a new canned fish because of the market costs.
The opinions given herewith are those of practical canners, fish
technicians, and home economists. They are based not on scientific
experiments in canning specific species but on lmowledge of the fish
and its qualities. The list includes only New England fish that have
attracted most attention as having good market possibilities.
Lean fish.
Cusk (Gadidae-Brosmius brosme). White fish, fine texture, and delicate
flavor. Caught the year round, but low-priced for fresh market, though
excellent fo od.
White hake (Gadidae-Urophycis gill). White fish, delicious, but softens
quickly. The white hake is mixed with cod flakes.
Silver hake (Merlucciidae bilinearis). The silver hake is frozen in the round
. and shipped to St. Louis, where as "whiting" it is a specialty in barbecue
stands and hot-fish shops.
Pollock (Gadidae-Pollachius Nilsson and Carbonarius). Excellent flavor,
gray in color. Tremendous runs, but yields erratic. Sold in some markets
erroneously as bluefish.
Tilefish (Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps).
Atlantic tuna. Same as canned in California.
Goosefish (Lophius Piscatorius). Fine flavor. Extensively used in Germany.
Rosefish or red fish. (Scorpaenidae-Sebastes Marin us). Fine flesh and
delicious flavor, but small and bony. Now being offered as a . frozen fish.
Methods of canning leanfish.-As one expert said, "The taste of any
fish is largely dependent upon care in its preparation." Today the
lean fish, such as cod and haddock, that is canned as fish flakes or salad
fish is merely precooked, salted, and canned.
California tuna fish, also a lean fish, after it is cleaned and precooked
is chilled. After bones and skin are removed a masher cuts the fish
into the correct lengths for the cans. Not only is salt added but
cottonseed oil, and for a special trade olive oil is added. ·
Whether chilling and the addition of some oil to New England lean
fish would help to preserve their delicateflavor and also to keep the
fish whole, experimentation would show.
-·-
MAJOR RETAIL FOOD MARKETS
In 96 metropolitan districts, retail food sales in 1929 exceeded 8
million dollars, the range being from approximately 8}~ million to practically 1 ½ billion. These districts serve about 45 percent of the total
population. While the total retail food bill of the Nation was just
over 11 billion dollars, these districts spent more than 6 billion. (See
table VII.) How much was spent for fish or for protein food is not
known, but unpublished data show how little fish consumption was
of total food consumption in a number of cities.
There are many metropolitan food districts that are not near fishcatching regions and to which fresh fish is not easily available. While
fresh fish will always be preferred to canned fish along the seacoast
when it can be purchased cheaply, practically the whole Middle West
affords an excellent market for additional canned fish.
Though the figures are given for major purchasing areas, the possibilities of canned-fish sales in the smaller towns and rural regions is
great. Because refrigeration facilities are limited in these communities, case goods have added value. In the words of a merchant in a
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POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR A NEW STAPLE CANNED FISH
83
small Michigan town: "A new tasty canned fish would go well in this
region, for people cannot get over the snow-covered roads easily in
winter and they are looking for new types of canned goods."
The buyer for a chain store in the Middle Atlantic States also said,
"There is need for additional tasty canned fish in this region."
TABLE
VI1.-Ret1:iil food sales in the major retail food markets of the
United States, 1929 1
Food sales
Metropolitan districts where retail Population Number Retail
served
of
food
food sales exretail
sales
ceed $8,000,000
(000
food
stores omitted)
Total for United
States _________ 122, 775, 046
Total for 96
districts
included
here ___ ___ 54,753,645
New York 2 ____ _ _
Chicago . ___ ____ __
Philadelphia _____
Boston _________ __
Detroit. _________ _
Los Angeles ____ __
Pittsburgh ___ ____
San Francisco __ __
Cleveland _____ ___
St. Louis _________
Baltimore _______ _
Buffalo ____ _______
Milwaukee ______ _
Minneapolis - St.
Paul.. __ ________
Providence. ___ ___
Cincinnati.. ______
Washington ____ __
Kansas City ______
Denver _________ __
Rochester ___ _____
Albany ___ ________
Seattle. __________
Scranton _______ __
Indianapolis ______
Hartford __ __ ___ __
Portland ___ .. _...
Springfield _______
Louisville ___._____
Columbus ________
Houston ___ _______
Toledo ___________
Akron ____________
Youngstown _____ _
New Orleans __ __ _
Atlanta __ __ _______
Lowell. ___ ____ ___
Worooster. _______
Dallas ____________
Omaha ___________
Birmingham _____
Syracuse ____ ___ __
New Haven ___ __ _
Memphis _________
Allentown __ ______
497,972 11,129,320
=
----
253,615
10,901,424
4,364, 755
2,847, 148
2,307,897
2,104, 764
2,318,526
1,953,668
1,290,094
1,194,989
1,293, 516
949, 247
820,573
743,414
61,457
19,009
15,851
9,213
8,057
7,699
7,509
6,100
6,019
5,617
6,382
4,979
3,187
832,258
963,686
759,464
621,059
608,186
330, 761
398,591
425,259
420,663
652,312
417, 685
471, 185
378,728
398,991
404,396
340,400
339, 216
346,530
346, 681
364,560
494,877
370,920
332,028
305, 293
309,658
273,851
382, 792
245,015
293, 721
276, 126
322,172
3,260
4,633
3,720
2, 471
2,256
1,335
2,092
2,243
1,944
3,004
], 757
1,634
1,730
1,784
1,714
1,242
1,224
1,275
1,340
l, 509
3,990
1,387
1, 759
1,141
966
920
1, 114
1,119
1,575
968
1,536
6,207,960
----
1,458, 780
526,380
291,020
248,890
210,060
217,470
177, 130
172,810
139,830
133,860
115, 170
106,630
99,740
99, 290
96,330
96,080
84,110
66,540
57,660
52,430
52,390
52,350
49,160
47,250
46,350
46,130
44,850
41, 980
39, 190
38,780
38,200
37,780
37,760
37,140
33,610
32,060
29,950
29,950
29,620
28,760
28,110
27,830
27,750
27,000
Food sales
Metropolitan districts where retail Population Number Retail
food sales exserved
of
food
ceed $8,000,000
retail
sales
(000
food
stores omitted)
- -Dayton _____ _____
251,928
24,850
688
Norfolk ___________
273,233
1,360
23,790
Canton ___________
191, 231
801
23,360
Grand Rapids ____
207, 154
22,760
808
Richmond ___ _____
220,513
1,137
22,690
Flint __ ___________
512
21,420
179, 939
San Antonio ______
1,211
279,271
21,270
Bridgeport. __ ___ _
203,969
1,059
20,960
Duluth _________ __
155,390
19,950
671
Racine ___ ___ ___ __
133,463
593
19,400
Nashville _________
209,422
651
19,080
Trenton ____ ______
190, 219
19,040
938
Wilmington ______
751
163,592
18,460
San Diego ____ ____
181, 020
722
18,440
Utica ________ _____
190,918
862
18, 160
Oklahoma City ___
202, 163
18,070
659
South Bend __ ____
616
146, 569
17,920
Fort Worth ______
174, 575
17,680
635
Davenport. __ ____
154, 491
654
17, 230
Tulsa ____________
183,207
494
17, 140
Atlantic City_____
102,024
552
16,700
Peoria __________ __
16,690
144, 732
550
Des Moines ___ ___
160,963
673
16,520
T ampa ____ _______
169,010
840
15,950
Binghamton ___ ___
130,005
484
15,910
Reading __________
170,486
756
15, 740
Spokane __________
128, 798
5/52
15,560
Sacramento _______
430
15,290
126,995
Waterbury ___ ____
140,575
15, 240
730
Jacksonville ______
15,230
148, 713
780
Fo!t 'Y ayne. ___ _.
126, 558
412
15, 170
M1am1. ___ __ ___ __
132,189
14,960
686
Salt Lake City __ _
184,451
14,530
509
T acom a __________
14,340
146, 771
572
Erie _____________ _
129,817
905
14, 300
Chattanooga _____
168,589
538
13, 890
Wichita. _________
119, 174
431
13,700
123, 130
13,490
598
Evansville .------Rockford _________
103,204
388
13,480
Wheeling ________ _
625
13,380
190, 623
Knoxville __ ___ ___
552
135, 714
12,860
Huntington ______
624
12,810
163,367
Harrisburg __ __ __ _
161, 672
1,019
12,060
Altoona ___ ____ ___
.114, 232
521
11, 190
El Paso _____ _____
118,461
558
JO, 690
Little Rock _______
478
9,940
113, 137
Roanoke ____ ____ _
103,120
9,610
335
Savannah ___ __ __ _
105,431
503
8,910
San Jose __ ___ ___ __
281
8,640
103,428
Charleston. ______
291
108,160
8,640
Johnstown. ___ ___
464
8,580
147, 611
Lancaster ____ ____
435
8,130
123,156
1 U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce and Bureau of the
Census; General Consumer Market Statistics, Supplement No. 1 to the M arket Data Handbook of the
United States, 1932.
2 Only the name of the principal city in a metropolitan district is listed. For example, the metropolitan
district of New York includes New York City, Elizabeth, N . J ., Jersey City, Newark, and Paterson.
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APPENDIX II
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FISH SPECIALTY
PRODUCTS AND THEIR MARKETS
85
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APPENDIX II
Detailed Analysis of Fish Specialty Products and Their
Markets
Fine-flavored fish products have always had an important place on
European and oriental menus. They have been used to a limited
extent as hors d'oeuvres in American households serving formal
dinners and by some of our foreign population, but they have not
been known in the average American home.
Now there is an increased demand for novel, salty products for
use in canapes, as en trees, as hors d' oeuvres, or as supper snacks.
This demand bids fair to develop among Americans a taste for the
salt, pickled, and spiced article.
At the present time most of the fish appetizers are imported.
Comparable products of domestic manufacture are inconsiderable.
-·-
FISH SPECIALTIES IMPORTED FOR THE RETAIL TRADE
Quantity.
In 1932 over 57,000,000 pounds of fish specialties in containers
ready for retail use were imported. These had a value of $5,392,000
and carried a duty of $1,595,000. 1 (See table I.) The ad valorem
duty rate for this year was 30 percent on fish preserved or prepared
in any manner, when packed in oil and other substances. 2 While
detailed figures for 1934 importations were not available, an analysis
of figures published to date indicates an increase in quantity of some
products over 1932. For example, importation of anchovies in olive
oil increased by 40,000 pounds and by approximately $150,000. 3
1 Exclusive of smoked , salted, or pickled fish sen t to t he United States in barrels which are repacked by
wholesalers in small con tainers for high-priced markets and in larger quan tities for foreign markets.
2 U . S. T ariff Commission. R epor t to t he Presiden t.
F ish P acked in Oil. Report No. 71, 1934, pp.
37-38.
a U. S. D epartment of Commerce, Bureau of F oreign and D omestic Commerce.
and N avigation of the Uni ted States, 1934, p . 245.
Foreign Commerce
87
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REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
TABLE
I.-Jmports of fish specialties ready for retail sale, 1932
Fish product
Quantity
TotaL _____ ___- --- _______ - - _- - - - - - - - 57,009,805
Anchovies:
In oil or in oil and other substances ___ 1,853, 137
Not in oil or in oil and other sub~tances 3,036,565
Fish paste and fish sauce __________________
61, 742
Antipasto ___ ______________________________
326,957
Caviar and other fish roe:
Not boiled:
Sturgeon ___ _________ __ _______ __ ___
372,042
Other fish roe __ _______ ___________ _
99,261
Boiled, packed in air-tight containers_
57, 781
Sardines in oil or in oil and other substances ___ __- - - -- - - --- -- - - - -- - --- -- - --- -- 42,335,906
Sardines and herring not in oil or in oil
and other substances, in air-tight containers _____ __________ _____ ___ _____ ____ __ 7,117,096
260,958
Other fish in oil (except tuna)----- --- --~ -Other fish in air-tight containers __ __ ______ 1,488,360
1
Value per Equivalent
pound
specific
(cents) 2 rate (cents)'
Value
Duty
$5,392,272
$1,595,475
9. 5
2.8
446,160
228,020
15,949
107,364
133,848
57,005
4,785
32,209
24.1
7. 5
25. 8
32. 8
7. 2
1. 9
7. 7
9. 9
448,693
14,392
4,423
134,608
19,852
1,327
120. 6
14. 5
7. 7
36. 2
20.0
2.3
3,562,489
1. 068, 747
8. 4
2. 5
405,255
33,967
125,560
101,314
10,190
31,390
5. 7
13. 0
8. 4
1. 4
3. 9
2.1
1 U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Dome~tic Commerce.
and Navigation of the United States, 1932, pp. 459, 460.
2 Computed in Women's Bureau.
Foreign Commerce
Kinds.
Sardines.-As will be seen in table I, by far the largest importations are of sardines packed in oil. .A.bout 70 percent were packed in
Norway, 25 percent in Portugal, 2 percent in Spain, 1 percent in
France, and 2 percent in other countries combined. 4 These sardines
are small fish, boned and skinned, or very small fish with bones.
They are carefully selected as to quality and size and packed in olive
oil. While sardines are no novelty product, the imported grades are
used for appetizer purposes to a large extent. There is much dispute
as to whether these importations, which under normal market conditions bring higher prices than our own Maine pack, are a superior
type of small herring. Unbiased judgment would lead to the belief
that the difference in quality is due more especially to the care taken
in Europe to select fish of the same size and fatness for specified
grades and also to the care in preparation and use of olive oil in place
of the American cottonseed oil. European preparation and packing
methods require much more woman hand labor than does the American pack. '
In the last few years the depreciation\ of Norwegian currency has
lowered the price of the formerly high-priced bristling and the intermediate grade of musse so that they sell at the price of our Maine
pack, while the lower grades of imported sardines sell at less than our
low-grade packs. The Norwegian musse was delivered in New
York in 1933 for $2.86 per case of 100 no. ¼ key tins, whereas the
Maine pack in 1932 cost $3.98 a case delivered. 5 As a consequence
the President of the United States in December 1933 increased the
tariff from 30 percent ad valorem to 44 percent ad valorem. 6 This
not only should increase the domestic production from the 1932 low
• U. S. T ariff Commission. Report to the President. Fish Packed in Oil. Report No. 71, 1934, p. 28
Ibid., p. 35.
U.S. Tariff Commission. Report to the President. Fish Packed in Oil. Report No. 71, 1934, p. 38.
6
6
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FISH SPECIALTY J 'RODUCTS AND THEIR MARKETS
89
of 11,259,000 pounds but it makes possible the use of Maine sardines
as a base for the preparation of fish specialties.
Anchovy.-The anchovy is second in importance as an imported
fish specialty. It is prepared in Italy, Portugal, and Spain. Concerning this species, too, there is dispute as to whether the anchovy
occurring along the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Texas is of as
good a quality as the imported product. Little attempt has been
made to prepare these anchovies, though efforts to use the larger
California anchovy were regarded as not successful. A member of
the staff of the Bureau of Fisheries states that the New England little
anchovy is practically the same as the Norwegian anchovy and can
be used for the same food purposes.
Caviar.- Caviar from sturgeon roe has been an important Russian
industry. In the United States some imported sturgeon roe is
canned. The roe of other fish is lightly salted at the fishing center
and shipped to packing centers for further treatment and canning.
The roe of salmon, cisco, whitefish, herring, haddock, pike, perch,
spoonbill, catfish, and shad is also used.
Other fish roe put up in forms different from caviar comes principally from the alewife, mackerel, cod, and herring. The United
States has an abundant supply of roe, if not of sturgeon roe.
Other specialties.-Other specialties are imported and are known
by the type of product rather than by the fish used. Antipasto, for
example, is a preserve of fish, vegetables, and olives. Marinated
fish are usually herring, but the same process could be applied to
other species. A "rollmop" is a small rolled fillet containing a caper.
Fish cakes, fish balls, and fish puddings to the extent of over 3,000,000
pounds are imported from Norway and Japan.
-·-
MARKETED PRODUCTS AND RETAIL PRICES
Fish specialties are marketed for the appetizer trade for the most
part in attractive cans or glass jars. The sardine and herring appear
differently flavored under many names. The following articles are
some varieties that appear on the grocery shelf at stated prices:
Retail pric~
Gaffelbiter:
(cents)
Spiced Iceland herring __ __ _____ ______________ 5-ounce jar___ ___ _ (1)
Snacker in wine sauce ____ _________________ ___ 67{-ounce can_ ____
40
In lobster sauce ____ _________________________ 4-ounce can___ ___ _
32
Sardellan ___ _________ _________ _______________ ___ 3- to 5-ounce jar__ (1)
Butter ____________ __ ____________ ___ ________ 2-ounce tube ______
23
In olive oiL _____ ______________ ____ ______ __________ ____ _______ (1)
Favoritsild (herring boned and skinned with lemon)_________________ ___ (1)
Marine sardines (with herbs and spices) ___ __ ______ 5- to 9-ounce tin__ (1)
Riga sprats_ __ ___ ____ ______________ ________ _____ 5-ounce tin_ ______ (1)
Delicatess herring _______________________________ 4-ounce tin_______
15
1
Price each not reported.
58825°-36-7
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REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
Wholesale price
French Philippe Canard sardines ___ _ 7½-ounce tin ____ $5.60 dozen, $0.43 each.
Portuguese sardines ___ ____ _______ _ 8-ounce tin _____ $2.50 dozen, $0.29 each.
Norwegian smoked sardines _______ _ 12½-ounce tin ___ $2.40 dozen, $0.25 each.
Norwegian smoked sardines _______ _ 7½-ounce tin ____ . $1.35 dozen, $0.15 each.
Fresh Russian sprotten ___________ _ ½-pound tin ____ $0.22 each.
French herring fillets with pickles __ _ 1 pound ________ $1.20 dozen.
English kippered h erring __________ _ 3¼-ounce can ___ $0.08 each.
Yarmouth bloaters _______________ _ 1 pound ________ $4.35 dozen.
Imported rollmops _______________ _ 5-ounce________
(I)
Bloater paste (French) ____________ _ 2-ounce tube ____ $0.23 each.
Anchovies are sold as:
Imported Embassy:
Rolled with capers ________ 3½-ounce jar ___ _ $4.35 dozen, $0.49 each.
Rolled with pimentoes _____ 3¼-ounce jar ___ _ $4.35 dozen, $0.49 each.
Rolled with pistachios __________ do ________ _ $4.35 dozen, $0.49 each.
Rolled with pignolias ___________ do __ ___ ___ _ $4.35 dozen, $0.49 each.
Flat fillets ___________ ______ __ _ 3½-ounce jar ___ _ $4.35 dozen, $0.49 each.
Assorted _____________________ 3¼-ounce jar ___ _ $4.35 dozen.I
D and G-French rolled____ ___ 4-ounce bottle __ $5.40 dozen.I
Rolled Spanish ________ _____ ___ 2-ounce tin ____ _ $1.35 dozen.I
Genuine Swedish anchovies in
lobster sauce _______________ ½-pound can ____ $0.40 earh.
Rolled anchovies ______________ 2-ounce can _____ $0.15 each.
Flat anchovies _____________________ do _________ $0.15 each.
Fillet anchovies in piquant
sauce _______ _____ _____ _____ 2½-ounce can ___ $0.25 each.
Anchovy paste ________________ 3-ounce tube ____ $0.40 each.
Anchovy sauce ________________________________ $0.75 each.
1
Price each not reported.
Fish roe best sellers are said by two wholesale houses to be "Russian Beluga", 2-ounce jar, $7.75 per dozen wholesale, 85 cents each
retail; Romanoff Green Seal, 2-ounce jar, $7.50 per dozen wholesale;
and Pressed Russian Caviar, i-pound jar, $32 per dozen wholesale.
White American caviar sells at a much lower price.
Antipasto in 5-ounce tins sold for 37 cents each and 3½-ounce jars
for 49 cents.
Pastes, coming especially from England, were sold for 40 cents
for 3 ounces. They were made of salmon, lobster, and shrimp, as
well as anchovy, bloater, and sardine.
-·-
FISH SPECIALTY MATERIAL AND METHODS OF
PREPARATION .
As stated elsewhere, there is much discussion as to whether the
anchovies and members of the herring family of the North Atlantic
are as good fish for specialties as are the same species caught in
Scandinavian waters. Unbiased facts lead to the belief that the
differences are in method of preparation rather than in the fish itself.
For example, Dr. G. Brown Goode, at one time United States Commissioner of Fisheries, made this statement:
There is little reason to doubt that this species of anchovy (Atlantic) might be
prepared in salt or in paste, like that of Europe, and that the results be equally
satisfactory; as an actual fact, however, most of the anchovies put up in Europe do
not belong to this genus at all, but are simply pilchards or sprats preserved in a
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FISH SPECIALTY PRODUCTS AND THEIR MARKETS
91
peculiar manner, the name anchovy having come to be descriptive of a peculiar
method of preparation rather than of the fish which is prepared/
In addition to the fish commonly used for fish specialties, many other
species can be preserved deliciously for hors d'oeuvres or sandwich
spreads.
A detailed description of the manufacture of numerous European
products is contained in Dr. Donald K. Tressler's Marine Products of
Commerce. Among the Swedish, Norwegian, and German cookbooks
which give excellent fish recipes m ay be mentioned Cook Book of
Popular Norse Recipes, by George W. Mohn; Swedish Smorgasbord,
100 recipes for the famous Swedish hors d'oeuvres, by Jennie Soderstrom; and German National Cookery for American Kitchens, by
Henrie.tte Davidis.
Basic methods of preparation.
Because many fish specialties must be packed in decorated tins or
in glass jars, it may be advisable to process as well as preserve them
before packing. Whether fish is preserved by salt or by salt and
vinegar, or by cooking and canning, the preliminary preparation would
be much the same as in canning fish.
The fish is cleaned and trimmed and put in brine to draw out the
blood from the tissues and give flavor and firmness to the fish. If th e
fish is to be held, it must be kept in brine under low temperature. The
fish may then be steamed and dried, or dried and steamed as in canning, or fried in oil, or preserved in vinegar immediately. The spicing,
grinding into paste, putting up in many different sauces, and/or
combining with other foods, follows.
-·-
COMPETITIVE COSTS OF PRODUCTION
Detailed costs of producing foreign specialties are not obtainable
and would have little application value if they were. Total packed
value of Norwegian sardines based on an analysis of customs invoices
and other entry papers is available for the year ending September 30,
1931, and for an 11-month period ending November 30, 1932. The
first period was one of almost par currency exchange, the second was
one of depressed currency exchange. 8 Consequently, 1931 gives a
clearer picture of probable costs in Norway than does 1932.
The packed value per case of 100 no. ¼tins, at the prevailing rate
of exchange on date of exportation, is shown by these invoices to have
been as follows for 1931:
Bristling (18- 24 fish) ___ __ _______ ________ __________ $7. 6736
Musse (18- 24 fish)__ ___ ___ ____ ___ __ ___ _______ ____ 4. 3162
Musse (6-10 fish) - - -- -----~- ---- - -- - ---- ----- - --- 3. 8803
. In the United States the 1931 costs of production of Maine sardines
of three kinds were as is shown on table II, following.
Goode, G. Brown. American Fishes, 1888, p. 408.
s U.S. Tariff Commission. Report to the President. Fish Packed in Oil. Report No. 71, 1934, p. 33.
1
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92
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
TABLE
11.-Costs of production per case of 100 no. ¼ tins of Maine sardines, 1931
1
Sardines packed inItem
Cottonseed
Cottonseed Olive oil, per
oil, per case oil, per case
of no. ¾ key- of no. ¾ key case of no. ¾
less tins
tins
key tins
Price paid for fish by p ackers, f. o. b . factory 2___ _____ _ ______ _
$0. 276
$0. 328
$0. 475
Computed cost of raw fish a__ _____ ___________________________
. 452
. 537
. 775
P acking costs: a
Materials and supplies:
Cottonseed oiL ___ ___ ____ _______ _________ __ __ ___ _____
. 273
. 290 _____________ _
Olive oiL ___ __ ______ __ ______________________________ _ ______________________ ___ __ _
1. 335
Cans_________________________________________________
1. 420
1. 714
1. 729
Cartons_______________ _______________________________
• 003
.109
.103
. 098
Cases ___ _____ ----------------------------- - ---------. 046
• 116
Salt__ _____ __ _________________________________________
• 036 ·
. 038
. 045
Heat, light, and power_ ______________________________
. 043
. 046
. 090
Miscellaneous_________________ ________ _____ __________
. 064
• 063
.045
Labor_______ __ __________ ___ ___ __ __ _______________________
. 436
• 513
. 755
Overhead and maintenance:
Insurance ______________ ______________________________
• 040
• 067
.050
T axes_ ________________________ _______ __ ______________
• 040
• 067
.072
. 094
Repairs .------------------------------ - ----------____
• 053
• 125
Depreciation_________________________________________
• 098
.172
. 209
Miscellaneous (including executive salaries)_____ _____
.122
.108
• 039
Computed interest on.176
Inventories ___ -------------------------------- --. 102
.146
Fixed assets___ ___________________________________
. 087
• 124
.149
Total packing cost, including raw fish at price paid by packers_
Total packing cost, in cluding raw fish at cost to fisherman
(including boating) _____________________________ __________ -Total packing cost, including raw fish at computed cost_ ____ _
3.139
4. 026
5. 464
3. 357
3. 315
4. 285
4. 235
5. 836
5. 764
1 U.S.
2
Tariff Commission. Report to the President. Fish P acked in Oil. Report No. 71. 1934, p. 32.
These prices are considerably less than the computed cost of catching fish. (See next item.)
a Average cost of raw fish weighted on basis of catch and quantity imported .
The 1931 prices upon which these costs were based were as follows:
9
Price
Fish, f. o. b. plant ________ _____ _____________ per hogshead __ $6. 000
Cans, ¼ keyless, decorated ____ •- ____ ____ ____ per case of 100 __ 1. 403
Cans, ¼ key, decorated ____ _________________________ do ___ _ 1. 723
Salt _____________ _____ __________ __ _______ per 140-lb. bag __
. 900
Coal ___________________________________________ perton __ 8. 340
Cases, fiber, decorated ____________________ ______ per 1,000 __ 48. 000
Cottonseed oiL _______________________________ per pound __
. 068
Olive oiL ____ __ ______ _________________ ________ per gallon __ 1. 700
Cartons _________ ___ __ _________________________ per 1,000 __ 1. 350
Labor _______________ ____ ______________________ perhour __
. 300
Obviously, the labor cost for any specialty would be more akin to the
cost for the high-grade Maine olive-oil pack, which is put up in small
quantity. Costs of containers would be greater and there would be
added costs of other raw food materials used in the specialties. As the
retail price of fancy products was 15 cents a 2-ounce tin and up, or $15
a case of 100 2-ounce tins, even a 100-percent mark-up over wholesale
would permit an increase of one-third in manufacturing costs of the
Maine olive-oil-packed sardines.
g
U.S. Tariff Commission. Report to the President.
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Fish Packed in Oil.
Report No. 71. 1934, p. 33.
APPENDIX III
EXCERPTS FROM INTERVIEWS WITH
SPORTS GOODS MERCHANTS
AND MANUFACTURERS
93
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APPENDIX III
Excerpts From Interviews With Sports Goods Merchants
and :Manufacturers
PRESENT STATUS OF SPORTS GOODS MANUFACTURE IN
NEW ENGLAND
New England manufacturers have made materials or outfits and
equipment for hunting and fishing-sports engaged in by small numbers-and for football, baseball, basketball, tennis, and other spectator
sports. Other New England manufacturers make such staple goods
for general wear as sweaters, caps, and hose. While much of the
equipment in such factories could be used to make styled costumes
and equipment for SiJ?Orts engaged in by the many, the New England
staple-goods manufacturers interviewed by Bureau agents not only
had no interest in extending their field of operations but were decidedly
opposed to making any garment or equipment different from their
established lines of manufacture.
However, a few firms were found that have recognized the demands
to be met in the field of "sports for the many" and are shifting to new
lines of production. One Massachusetts woman is creating lovely
sports tweeds; another is weaving beautiful mufflers and other small
woolen articles. A New Hampshire woman hand-frames socks, and
several Maine women are knitting mittens. These small enterprises
may well serve as the nucleuses about which to build a prestige sportsgoods business, for they are still struggling to gain a foothold because
of limited marketing facilities.
In contrast to the attitude of staple-goods manufacturers, a beginning has been made by several New Hampshire and Massachusetts
firms in ski-costume manufacture. These endeavors are aimed
chiefly at the medium-priced market. A Vermont firm is originating
sailing costumes. A few Massachusetts companies are trying to
enter the high-priced market for sports flannel shirts and sweaters.
While two of the firms visited were secret~e about their plans for
future development, others indicated a willingness to join in a movement to better the quality and style of New England sports goods.
The following opinions of progressive New England manufacturers
are indicative of their attitude toward sports-goods development in
their part of the country:
A creator of sports woven materials said: "That English homespuns cannot be made in this country is all an idea. Labor costs
are not prohibitive; New England goods can be sold at the same
price retailers ask for imported goods."
A New York manufacturer who has been producing ski suits in New
Hampshire reports that New York firms are out seouting for goodlooking sports wear. They want to buy in the East. He says the
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96
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
older trained women he has employed are "the finest help in the world."
He claims they earn approximately $15 a week.
A New Hampshire firm that formerly made work clothing has
shifted to sports wear, using the same staff and much of the same
equipment.
A New Hampshire sports dealer suggested that a knapsack which
would stand off from the wearer's back to permit the passage of air
was needed for hikers.
Knit-goods firms in both New Hampshire and Massachusetts
asserted there were not enough local women trained to sew or to
finish knitted garments to meet the demands for style garments.
One Massachusetts firm reports that New England has only begun
to enter the better sportswear field. There are unlimited possibilities.
But an experienced woman labor supply is lacking. Shoe factory
workers who apply are of little value until they are trained to operate
the special sewing machines used on knit goods.
Women employed on the sewing and finishing of sports garments
usually are paid by the piece. Employers in New Hampshire and
Massachusetts state that they average between $15 and $17 a week.
It is said, however, that between seasons there is much undertime, in
which earnings fall below this full-week's average.
-·-
IMPORTATIONS OF SPORTS GOODS
Statistics on imports do not separate sports goods from articles or
materials made of the same basic materials for general consumption.
For this reason it is not possible to determine the volume or value of
sports-goods importations, but interviews with leading specialty and
department stores in New York and Boston are indicative of their
extent.
NEW YORK
Largemen's- All ski mits, hose, ski mufflers, caps, hats, and ski underwear are
specialty
imported. Fifty percent of the ski suits are imported. All riding
store.
coats, breeches, habits, and vests for riding are made of imported
materials. Stock ties, tennis socks (worn for riding), and turtle
neck sweaters are all imported. Ninety-five percent of the men's sweaters,
general sports-wear wool hose, wool scarfs, and mufflers, and 30 percent of the
wool woven ties carried for general sports wear are imported. All flannel shirts
for general sports wear are made of impo:vted clo1,h.
Sports-goods specialty
retailer and custom
tailor.
All men's sweaters, wool scarfs, and mufflers are
imported, as are the bulk of the wool ties and the cloth
which the firm uses for making riding clothes. Twenty
percent of the wool sport hose, some cloth for women's
ski suits, and a fair proportion of the wool gloves and mitts also come from abroad ..
Department store (medium priced).
All men's wool gloves and mitts are
imported, as are some of the auto robes
and camp blankets.
Sports-goods chain retailer and
manufacturer (has an importing
department in New York).
orders.
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All men's wool half hose, wool mufflers, and
sweaters are imported, as are women's ankle
sport hose. Store makes men's wool sport
coats from imported tweeds to fill individual
EXCERPTS FROM INTERVIEWS
97
BOSTON
Sports-goods specialty store.
Men's specialty store.
Imports wool sweaters, wool hose, wool caps,
and accessories.
Imports wool sweaters, hose, and mufflers. Handles
domestic-made sports coats, and riding breeches and
coats, made of imported woolens.
Handles small quantities of imported parkas, ski jackets,
Hudson Bay blanket coats, riding breeches and coats,
sweaters, and Argyle hose.
Department store.
Other stores in both New York and Boston displayed imported
wares and made a point of advertising them. The following extracts
from advertisements in the newspapers of these cities and in national
magazines are illustrative of the prominence given to imported goods:
In the course of 117 years - - - have probably introduced more fine British
woolens into this country than any other importer. Consequently when we state
that in all this experience we have rarely handled a better group of materials
than---plaids, the statement is significant.
We sent - - - to Scotland to get a unique collection of authentic Scotch
fabrics for sports clothes which would have no precedent or parallel in America,
and she has done it. She visited the Hebrides, Orkney, and Shetland Islands;
she lived among the crofters, and watched over the spinning and weaving and
dyeing. She went to Edinburgh, Inverness, to see and select clan tartans.
She worked on the collection for months, and with the active help of the Highland
Home Industries, under patronage of royalty. Now she has returned with the
finished products, hand-spun, hand-loomed, hand-dyed tweeds in natural sheep
color or dyed with indigo, heather, lichen, and peat-soot dyes; superbly soft
Shetlands in deep monotones and famous Glen checks; authentic tartans in
famous clan patterns-a collection which truly has no precedent, no parallel in
this country.
You'll do your loudest yodel when you see this triumphant - - - ski suit,
designed by---, of course. It's fashioned of a snow white, weatherproof
herringbone.
What if it rains! With a Scotch mist overcoat you could whistle at black
clouds and laugh at chill breezes. These beautiful Scotch cheviots woven
exclusively for us in Scotland after our own rainproof formula.
Wonderfully warm, very smart imported all-wool three-quarter-length socks
with jacquard tops.
Imported English Argyle wool hose. Would you believe it mon ! They're
such a favorite we expect to sell every pair in no time!
This famous label is on each of these blankets and pram rugs-"Made in England for - - - . "
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APPENDIX IV
DETAILED STATISTICS CONCERNING A
POTENTIAL WOOL-GLOVE MARKET
99
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APPENDIX IV
Detailed Statistics Concerning A Potential Wool-Glove
Market
TABLE
!.-United States production and importation of women's and children's
dress and street gloves and mittens in 1929, 1931, and 1934
1929
Material of glove
or mitten
1931
1934
ManuTotal
supply factured Import(in
in
ed
dozen
United
pairs)
Sta tes
----
Total
ManuTotal
M anusupply factured Import- supply factured Import ·
(in
(in
in
in
ed
ed
United
dozen
United
dozen
pairs)
pairs)
Sta tes
States
------ - ----- - --------
Total-Number . . . 4,773,069 1,237,721 3,535,348 4,969,017 1,274,544 3,694,473 5,469,991 2,614,232 2,855,759
Percent ____
25. 9
U.1
100. 0
25. 6
74. 4
100.0
47.8
52. 2
100. 0
- - - - --
- - - - --
- -- - - - - - - - --
---
Leather: 1
Number ____ __ 1,841,222 399,308 1,441, 914 1,741,880 697, 833 1,044,047 1,157,431 745, 178 412,253
Percent __ _____
59. 9
100.0
64.4
35. 6
100.0
21. 7
78.3
100.0
40.1
Cotton:
Number ___ __ _ 2,141,345 2 150,000 31,991,345 2,694,205 • 145,269 32,548,936 63,469,416 61,156,472 32,312,944
Percent__ -- ___
94.6
100.0
7.0
93. 0
100.0
5. 4
100.0
33. 3
66. 7
Woolen and worsted: 6
Number_ ___ __ 467,817 • 365,762 3 102,055 420,060 • 335,306 384,754 7 775, 766 7 712,582 363,184
Percent_ _____ _
78. 2
79. 7
20. 2
100. 0
91.9
21.8
100.0
8.1
100.0
Silk-Number ____ 322,685 322,651
96,136
34
9/i,932
796
22
22 - -- - - -- - Rayon-Number __ --------- ---- ----- ---- ---- 15,940
67,356 -------- 15,940 --- -----67,356
1 U .S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Special tabulation.
2 Approximately.
3 U . S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 1934: Monthly Summary
of Foreign Commerce of the United States; 1929 and 1931: Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United
States.
• U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Biennial Census of Manufactures, 1931.
6 Approximated by counsel for National Association of Leather Glove Manufacturers, Inc., and for the
Fabric Glove Manufacturers' Association.
6 Includes men's and boy's as well as women's and children's gloves and mittens.
1 Source: U. S. Tariff Commission, report on Wool Knit Gloves and Mittens, Feb. 11, 1936. Figures
are for 12 mills as compiled by the Wool Group of the National Association of Leather Glove M anufacturers,
Inc. Includes men's and boys' as well as women's and chilctren's gloves.
TABLE
IL-United States production and importation of woolen and worsted gloves
and mittens, various years, 1919 to 1935
Total
supply
(in )
Year
dozen
pairs)
M anufactured
in
United
States 1
Imported 2
- - --
---
966,264
1919 __ - -- - - -- - ---- - -- 1,005,399
1925 __ - ---- -- - - - - -- -- ], 414,358 1,230,805
1927 __ - - -- _-- - ----- -- 1,184,389 1,021,946
365, 762
1929 __ - - - - - - - -------- 467,817
39,135
183, 553
162,443
102,055
Total
supply
Year
(in
dozen
pairs)
Manufactured Importin
ed 2
United
States 1
- -- - - - 193L ___ ______ _______ 420,060
1933 ___ -- - --- -- --- _-- 504, 161
1934 __ _-- - - -------- -- 775,766
1935 __- ---- --- - _- - - - - 1,241,630
335,306
459, 261
712,582
714,766
84,754
44,900
63, 184
526,864
1 Source: 1919 from U. S. T ariff Commission, Summary of Tariff Information, 1929, on Tariff Act of 1922,
schedule 11, Wool and Manufactures of; 1925 to 1931 from U.S. Bureau of the Census, Biennial Censuses
of Manufactures, 1925-1931; 1933 to 1935 from U. S. Tariff Commission, Report on Wool Knit Gloves and
Mittens, Feb. 11, 1936. Figures for 1933 and 1934 are for 12 mills as compiled by the Wool Group of the
National Association of Leather Glove Manufactures, Inc., and those for 1935 are for 15 mills reporting to
U.S. Bureau of the Census .
2 Source: 1919, 1925, and 1927 from U. S. Tariff Commission, Summary of Tariff Information, 1929, on
Tariff Act of 1922, schedule 11, Wool and Manufactures of; 1929 to 1934 from U.S . Bureau of Foreign and
Domestic Commerce, Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States; 1935 preliminary statistics
supplied by the Department of Commerce.
101
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102
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
TABLE
III.-Imports of cotton warp-knit fabric gloves; 1914 to 1934
Year 2
Fiscal year:
1914________ -- __ -- _-- -- -- -- __
1915 _____ -- - -- -- - - --- - - -- ---1916 ____ -- - _-- _-- -- -- _-- - _- __
1917 --- - __- _- -- -- - - - - - - - -- - -1918 ____ _-- ____________ -- ____
1919 _____ __ ____ _-- _____ -- ____
Calendar year:
1920 ____ ___ -- -- -- ------ -- --- 1921_ ____ ___________ - _- _- ____
l 922 ____ __ ____ __- - _________ -1923 _____ _- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1925 3 ___ ------------ - ------ 1927 3 _______________________
1929 3 _______________________
1931_ ____ - - - - - -- -- - - - -- - - - - - 1933 _____ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1934___ __ __ - - -- -- ____ -- -- -- --
1
Value per
dozen pairs
after duty'
Total imports (in
dozen pairs)
Total value
Value per
dozen pairs
before duty '
Total duty
collected
1,523,728
1,513,338
664,471
112,027
420,667
149,333
$2,184,038
2,386,781
1,147,790
208,565
590,684
245,089
$1. 433
1. 577
1. 727
1. 861
1. 898
1. 641
$771,559
835,373
401,726
72,997
206,739
85, 731
$1.940
2.129
2.332
2.153
1. 896
2. 215
304,015
1,164,024
1,748,074
1,018,486
163,337
1,516,476
373, 713
1,792,063
661,300
1,324,017
2,482,831
2,728,804
1,773,364
1,078,081
3,451, 142
5,230,303
3,643,044
453,359
5,048,493
1,500,977
5,099,935
2,384,152
3,574,990
6, 9'±2, 607
5,134, 7o0
3,735,817
3. 546
2. 965
2. 992
3. 577
2. 776
3. 329
4.016
2.846
3. 605
2. 700
2. 796
1.882
2.107
377,328
1,248,848
2,339, 149
2,311,948
294,424
3,786,370
818,671
3,824,951
1,363,695
2,681,242
4,165,564
3,080,850
62,241,490
4. 787
4.038
4. 330
5.847
4. 578
5.826
6. 207
4.980
5.667
4. 725
4. 474
3.011
3. 371
1 Compiled from material as follows: 1914 to 1927 from reports of the U. S. Tariff Commission: Cotton
Knit Goods, revised edition, 1923; Cotton Warp-Knit Fabric Gloves and Cotton Warp-Knit Fabric, 1926;
Summary of Tariff Information, 1929, on Tariff Act of 1922, schedule 9, Cotton Manufactures. 1929 to
1934, from U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the
United States.
2 Statistics for 1914 to 1922 are for imports of all cotton gloves, reported to be mainly of warp-knit fabric;
those for 1923 and following years are for imports o f cotton warp-knit fabric gloves only.
a After 1923 the bulk of the cotton warp-knit gloves became dutiable as "embroidered cotton gloves."
The second entry for each of the years 1925, 1927, and 1929 is for the separately recorded imports of embroidered cotton gloves.
'Computed by Women's Bureau.
6 Calculated .
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POTENTIAL WOOL-GLOVE MARKET
103
UNDEVELOPED MARKETS FOR WOMEN'S WOOLEN AND
WOMEN'S LEATHER GLOVES 1
SUMMARY
The 1934 consumption of woolen and worsted gloves and mittens
(includes men's and boys', but women's and children's comprise Dozen pairs
about 90 percent) _______________________ __________________ _
775,766
Possible consumption of women's woolen gloves __________________ _ 2,040,887
Undeveloped market for women's woolen gloves ____________ ______ _ 1,265,121
Present
(1934) of leather
gloves (women's
and chil-_
dren's)consumption
_____ __ ________________
_____________
______ __________
1,157,431
Possible consumption of women's leather gloves __________________ _ 2,863,813
Undeveloped market for women's leather gloves __________________ _ 1,706,382
DETAIL
WOOLEN GLOVES
In 31 States 2 and the District of Columbia, the normal mean temperature is below 32° in 1 to 5 months during the year.
Urban female population of these States 15 years of age and over __ 19,896,347
Rural female population of these States 15 years of age and over __ 9,188,598
Assuming that each urban woman purchased 1 pair of woolen gloves
annually, their consumption would be _________ __ ________ pairs __ 19,896,347
Assuming that one-half of the rural women purchased 1 pair of woolen
gloves annually, their consumption would be ___________ _pairs __ 4,594,299
Total urban and rural, 24,490,646 pairs, or 2,040,887 dozen pairs.
LEATHER GLOVES
Urban female population of the United States 15 years of age and
over___ ___ __________ ____________________________________ __ 25, 936, 560
Rural female population of the United States 15 years of age and
over ______________________________________________________ 16,858,383
Assuming that each urban woman purchased 1 pair of leather gloves
annually, their consumption would be ___________ __ _____ pairs __ 25,936,560
Assuming that one-half of the rural women purchased one pair of
leather gloves annually, their consumption would be ______ pairs_ _ 8, 429, 192
Total urban and rural, 34,365,752 pairs, or 2,863,813 dozen pairs.
1 Statistics on present consumption are for 1934 and are from table I, p. 101. United States Production
and Importation of Women's and Children's Dress and Street Gloves and Mittens iu 1929, 1931, and 1934.
Population statistics are from U. S. Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population, vol. III,
pt. 1; Climatological Data from U. S. Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau: Climatological Data
for the United States by Sections, year 1934.
3 Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Maryland, Massachusett.<;, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey,
New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode 1~1and, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont,
Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming. In 4 of these States-Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Virginiaand the District of Columbia, the mean temperature for 1934 only was reported.
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APPENDIX V
DETAILED STATISTICS ON ECONOMIC AND
SOCIAL STATUS OF UNEMPLOYED WOMEN IN
CITIES AND AREAS OF MASSACHUSETTS,
AND OF WOMEN ON RELIEF IN
OLD COLONY AREA
[Data compiled by Women's Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor,
from unpublished :figures secured in the Massachusetts Census of
Unemployment of the Massachusetts Emergency Relief Administration 1 and from records in local Emergency Relief
Administration offices]
t The untiring assistance of John J. Croston and Verna B. Leighton, of the Massachusetts Emergency
Relief Administration, made these compilations possible.
105
58825°-36-8
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APPENDIX V
Detailed Statistics on Economic and Social Status of Unemployed Women in Cities and Areas of Massachusetts, and
of Women on Relief in Old Colony Area
TABLE
!.-Number of women wholly unemployed 1 as of J an. 2, 1934, by major
occupational group-State, industrial section, and city 2
[The t ables in this appendix were compiled by Women's Bureau employees from unpublished figures available in the office of the Massachusetts Census of Unemployment. For this reason, certain slight discrepancies in totals appear- of no significance statistically-between some of the appendix tables and those in the
published report. For the most part the unemployment figures in the text are from the published report]
All occupational groups
Section and city
Number
Number of women
OccupaProfestional
sional
group
Per- Skilled Clerical Mana- Sales and Other not recent andungerial
semiported
skilled
professional
- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
State-Number ___________ _ 108,793
Percent ____________ _ -------- 100. 0
48,794
44. 9
24,803
22.8
1, 660
1.5
8,521
7.8
8,149
7. 5
3,215
3.0
- - - =
- - - -3,666
= 629 -5,017
Metropolitan Boston ________ _____ =47,471 -43.6 17,340 14,727
1,519
Boston _______________________
Cambridge ____ ______________ _
Malden ______________ ___ ____ _
Medford __ _________ __ ________
Quincy _______________________
Somerville ___________________
Other ________________________
- - 25,938
3,294
1, 526
1,294
1,456
2,854
11,109
Southeastern M assachusetts______ 16, 851
Old Colony area 3 _ ____ _ ______
Brockton 3 ________ _ ______
Fall River ________________ ___
New Bedford ________________
Other _____ _______ ---- -- ___ ___
4,103
1,816
3, 914
3, 520
5, 314
1,476
Springfield _______________ ____
Holyoke
____ ------------- ---_
Other _____________________
___
3.0
1. 4
1. 2
1. 3
2. 6
10. 2
1,471
513
360
379
1,017
3,372
822
569
558
478
1,023
3,802
34
26
15
22
22
184
268
168
114
173
323
1,107
238
81
106
122
158
1,016
798
126
52
21
23
87
412
15. 5
9,371
2, 275
419
910
1,215
372
2,289
3.8
1. 7
3. 6
3. 2
4. 9
1,778
874
2,701
2,393
2,499
1,042
243
291
699
81
29
42
51
245
275
156
186
190
259
337
150
344
148
386
94
31
36
35
207
496
193
362
412
1,019
18. 0
11,154
3,263
218
1,099
1,238
265
2, 297
1.9
2. 8
3. 2
1.0
5. 9
1,572
2,078
2,189
577
2,853
207
263
529
180
1,426
17
15
34
10
111
67
143
229
70
360
83
116
197
89
595
14
22
45
14
106
450
123
410
281
102
931
335
117
120
259
224
1,216
383
--- ---- -- -- -- -- -3.2
1,885
31
658
230
158
64
1.4
824
286
29
61
110
35
131
9.•
5,035
1,627
170
628
833
257
1,707
.8
5. 2
410
3,051
134
777
15
132
74
191
312
64
457
24
87
201
912
9,230
8.5
3,602
1,924
128
619
673
404
1,880
3,502
1,802
3,926
3. 2
1. 7
3. 6
1,229
966
1,407
961
319
366
94
159
321
88
264
87
27
644
47
10
71
290
491
298
1,091
3. 7
1,468
701
67
187
414
363
774
2. 5
964
389
59
105
307
323
610
Worcester County _______________ 10,257
--Worcester ____________________ 3,728
Fitchburg ______ -- ---------- __
922
Other ___ ___ ---- ________ __ ____ 5, 607
Hampden, Hampshire, and
Franklin Counties __ ___________
4,573
--- ---- -- -- -- - - -23.8 10,228
7,475
326 2,864 1,945
2,302
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -
Northeastern Massachusetts ___ __ 19,534
-Lynn ___ _____________________ -3,476
H averhill ________ __ __________ 2,083
Lawrence ____________________
Lowell _______________ ________ 3,047
Salem ________________________ 3,504
1,042
Other ______ -- ____ ---- ---- --- _ 6,382
E ast central M assachusetts _______
13,651
12. 5
- --
-- ---- -- - -3.4
- -1,574
716
23
363
--
-146
--594
--- - ---- ---- -- -- -- -- -
Berkshire County _________ ______ _ 3,974
--Pittsfield _____________________ 1,217
Other ____ -- --------- ___ __• ___ 2,757
-107
----1.-1 - -504- - -312- - -8 - 82
40
164
1 Women able to secure some part-time work are not included in these totals. Text tables include partially and totally unemployed.
2 Data compiled by Women's Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor, from figures secured in the Massachusetts Census of Unemployment by the Massachusetts Emergency Relief Administration.
3 Brockton figures are included in Old Colony area.
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108
TABLE
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
IL-Age and industry of women wholly unemployed as of Jan. 2, 1934M etropolitan Boston 1
Unemployed
women 16 years
of age and over
Industry
Number
Percent
Number of women
60
16,un- 18,un- 20,un- 25,un- -15,un- years
der 18 der 20 der 25 der45 der60 and
years years years years years over
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -Total-Number ______ _________________ 47,471
Percent. ____ __________ ____ ____
-- -- ----
-ioo:o-
3,400
7. 2
4. 3
.4
.1
138
4
2
2
100
20
18
18
2
1
48
14
49
131
6,337
13. 3
1,863
3. 9
77
2
1
7
23
2
57
15
1
8
36
6
5
3
38
10
178
- -M anufacturing_ . ____ ______ ________ _______ __ =11,215 = 23. 6 - -611- 1,669
Clothing (wearing apparel, m illinery
and furnishings) ___ __________ ___ ______
Iron and steeL _______ __ ____ ______ : __ ____
Metal exclusive ofiron and steel. _______
Lumber and furniture ____ _______ ___ _____
Boots and shoes (leather) _____________ __
Other leather ____ _________ ______ ______ __
Printing, publishing, and engraving _____
P a per and allied products ___ __ ______ ____
Cotton mills ___ ___ ______________ ___ _____
Woolen and worsted mills ____ _____ _____
Other textiles ___ _______ . _____________ ___
Electrical m achinery and supplies ___ ___
Rubber products ____ _______________ ___ _
Food __ ____ _- -- - - -- - -- -- - -- -- - - -- - - - - - - Clocks and watches ___ __________________
Jewelry and silverware ____ ___ ___________
Otl:i_er ____ _______ __ ____ ____ ______ ____ ____
Building trades __ ____ __ _____ ___ _________ ____
Independent b and tra des ____ __________ _____
-- - - - =
3,287 3,949 1, 385
314
- - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - 2,032
190
38
170
1,395
194
1,269
405
120
107
819
329
801
1,631
77
29
1,609
287
1,055
Trade _________ ___ ___ -- - - --- - - - -- ---- -- -- -- - - 10,172
Wholesale and retail_ ___________________
Retail dealers ____ ______ __ __ _____________
Other ___ _____ ____ ___ ____ _______ ______ __ _
Transportation and communication ___ ____ __
Operators in telephone companies _______
Other__ __ __ _____ _______ ______ ____ ______ _
Domestic and personal service _____________ _
Hotels, restaurants, boarding houses,
etc _______________ ___ __________ _______ _
Laundries, cleaning and pressing shops_
Barbers, hairdressers, and m anicurists __
Nurses (not trained) __ __ ________ ____ __ __
Other _______________ _____ __ ___ ___ ____ __ _
Professional service __ ____ ___________ ___ _____
Teachers ____ _________________ __ _________
Nurses (trained) __ ____ ________ __________
Other __ __----- ___ ------- --- -- -- _-- -- - __ _
- -- - -
8,615 12,805 14,451
27. 0
30. 4
18.1
• _4
2.9
.4
2. 7
.9
.3
.2
1. 7
.7
1. 7
3-4
.2 -- --- -1
.1
63
3.4
- -- -
358
19
6
13
235
47
81
39
12
9
112
49
139
356
5
2
187
557
47
12
42
362
60
333
125
25
27
242
101
206
583
27
10
528
591
95
12
76
515
45
584
155
55
41
275
140
280
441
24
11
609
311
23
5
30
160
20
196
53
25
21
106
19
105
109
16
2
184
2. 2
3
19
15
79
68
118
151
348
40
313
21.4
233
1,414
3, 534
3, 648
], 104
2, 685
22
941
886
16
202
452
77
.6
- -- - - - --- - - - - - - - -- - --
22
11
239
--
8,165
47
1,960
17_ 2
.1
4.1
222
1
10
1,251
2
161
2,915
2
617
755
1.6
5
26
181
278
477
•6
1. 0
1
4
4
22
58
123
258
56
8,090
17.0
267
603
1,139
2,896
2, 349
836
2,439
826
430
457
3,938
5_1
1. 7
.9
1.0
8.3
48
50
13
5
151
172
102
3
282
430
204
117
32
356
1,045
255
207
140
1,249
587
163
47
192
1,360
157
52
2
85
540
4, 215
8.9
16
184
1,127
1,927
756
205
1,249
1,844
2. 6 -- ----15
3.9
14
156
226
660
739
282
341
67
101
- - - --- --- - - - - - - -
206
4
29
-194- --21
14
--
--- -- -
14
- - - --- --- - - - - - - - -- - - - - 44
--- --- --- --- --- --- - --1,122
14
2-4
1
409
528
133
37
492
Public service not elsewhere classified, agriculture, forestry, fishing, and extraction of
minerals __ - - - --- - - - ---- -- -- -- ____ ____ _____
489
1.0
2
31
154
205
73
24
Industry not reported ______ _________________
1,726
3.6
38
181
558
700
217
32
9,467
19_ 9
2,206
4,413
2,639
175
23
11
5,691
3,776
12. 0
8.0
733
1,473
2,830
1,583
1,986
653
131
44
9
14
2
9
Never fully employed since leaving school._
Vocationally trained ___________ ___ ______
Untrained _________ ______ ________ _____ __
- - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1 D ata compiled by the Women's Bureau, u_ S. Department of Labor, from figures secured in the Massachusetts Census of Unemployment by the Massachusetts Emergency Relief Administration.
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TABLE
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL STATUS OF UNEMPLOYED WOMEN
109
III.-Age and industry of women wholly and partially unemployed
Jan. 2, 1934- City of Boston 2
as of
Unemployed
women 16 years
of age and over
Industry
Number
Percent
Number of women
16,
18,
20,
25,
45,
60
under under under under under years
18
20
25
45
60
and
years years years years years over
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ! - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -T otal-Number __________ _________ ___ 33,500 __ _____ 2, 101
Percent_ ____ _____________ ________ _____ 100. 0
6. 3
M anufacturing _- -- ------ -- ----- ------ --__ __
Clothing (wearing apparel, millinery,
furnishings) ___ ____ ____ ___ ___ . _______ _
Iron and steeL __ _____ _____________ _____ _
Metal exclusive of iron and steeL ______ _
Lumber and furniture . __ ______ _______ __
Boots and shoes (leather) ____ __________ _
Other leather ________ ____ __ __ ___ _____ ___
Printing, publishing, and engraving ___ _
Paper and allied products __ ______ _____ _
Cotton mills ______________ ____ ___ ______ _
Woolen and worsted mills ____ ____ ___ __ _
Other textiles _______ _________ __________ _
Electrical m achinery and supplies _____ _
Rubber products ____ ____ __ __________ ___
Food ____________ ___ _______ ____________ _
Clocks and watches _______ _______ _____ __
Jewelry and silverware ____ ________ __ ___
0 ther ____ ____ ______ ___ _________ . _______ _
--
5,255
15. 7
9,041 10, 900
27. 0
32. 5
4, 791
14. 3
1,412
4. 2
9,416
28. 1
460
1, 347
3, 001
3, 375
1, 019
214
2,356
150
25
122
1,046
147
943
331
81
50
652
174
195
1,832
7.0
.4
.1
.4
3. 1
140
3
1
383
17
717
7
2
7
150
37
42
24
7
4
116
13
35
747
68
9
55
449
32
452
139
32
16
190
90
70
533
300
18
5
18
120
14
162
45
11
13
51
11
12
100
69
2
5. 5
46
1
5
125
383
35
258
50
232
100
27
14
236
55
72
681
.1
3.8
50
3
124
463
.4
2.8
1.0
.2
.1
1. 9
.5
.6
49
14
9
12
3
6
18
1,288
44
2
8
2
4
487
1
5
20
46
11
1
3
13
4
1
10
2
2
1
137
27
Building trades_ _____________ ____ _____ ______
161
.5
2
11
35
85
21
7
Independent hand trades_________ __ _______ _
862
2. 6
16
60
93
298
246
149
Trade_ ___ __ ____ ____ ____ __ ________ _____ ____ _
6, 910
20. 6
158
967
2, 452
2, 120
746
167
Wholesale and retail_ ___________ ___ ___ __
Retail dealers _____ __ ____ _____ __________ _
Other _____ ________ ___ -- --- ____ -- --- -- ---
5,862
33
1,015
17. 5
.1
3. 0
151
881
2,130
1
321
1,919
15
486
636
14
96
145
3
19
Transportation and communication ____ ___ _
86
513 - 1. 5 --- --
___,___ __
13
145 ,_
53
92
286_,__
___,___
55
11
Operators in telephone companies __ ____ _
Other ____________ __. _____ ________ -- - - . -
214
299
.6
.9
1
2
11
Domestic and personal service_____ ___ ______
6,565
19. 6
147
368
838
2, 549
1, 995
668
Hotels, restaurants, boarding houses,
etc ___ ._ . _. _________________ _
L aundries, cleaning and pressing shops __
Barbers, h airdressers, and manicurists __
Nurses (not trained) __ _______ ___ ______ __
0 ther. ____ ___ ______________ _.. __ _-- _-- -- -
2,090
745
335
183
3,212
6. 2
36
39
114
77
9
22
2
338
194
81
9. 6
63
153
216
940
258
172
55
1,124
520
151
44
81
1,199
142
2. 2
1.0
36
457
Professional service ________ __ ______ ________ _
2,848
8. 5
16
121
733
1,266
552
160
Teachers ___ ___ ---- -·· - ·------- - ---- ---- -Nurses (trained) _________ _____ ___ ____ ___
Other ________________ _. ___________ _____
760
847
1,241
2. 3
8
271
88
10
103
150
312
353
440
473
39
43
78
.5
2. 5
3. 7
15
2
9
143
143
15 -----40
11
204
260
26
7
Public service not elsewhere specified, agriculture, forestry, fishing, and extraction of
minerals _______ ___ _________ __ _______ _____ _
220
.7
2
13
73
90
36
6
Industry not reported ___ ______ ______ ____ ___
1,031
3.1
12
82
352
449l
112
24
Never fully employed since leaving schooL_
Vocationally trained ______ ______ ______ __
Untrained _- ------------------------ --- -
4,974
14. 8 1,285 2,273 1,319
8Ja
9
6
- - - - - - - - - - - - l - - -- i----1----1--3,031
1,943
9.0
5.8
470
815
1, 465
808
1, 029
290
62
20
4
5
1
5
1 Partially unemployed women are included here, though they are not included in other tables of this
appendix.
·
2 Data compiled by the Women's Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor, from figures secured in the Massachusetts Census of Unemployment by the Massachusetts Emergency Relief Administration.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
110
TABLE
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
IV.-Age and occupation of women wholly unemployed as of Jan. 2, 1.934,
by city
[Data compiled by Women's Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor, from figures secured in the Massachusetts
Census of Unemployment by the Massachusetts Emergency Relief Administration]
Unemployed
women 16
years of age
and over
Number of women
Occupation
Number
Percent
18,
16,
20,
25,
45,
60
under under under under under years
20
25
18
45
60
and
years years years years years over
FALL RIVER-Excludes 2,351 women partially unemployed
Total-Number _________________ ______ 3,914
Percent_ _____________________ __
------- 100. 0
All skilled and unskilled ____ _________________ 2,701
69. 0
538
13. 7
478
12. 2
744
19. 0
1,232
31. 5
275
320
430
891
727
18. 6
195
5_ 0
---615
170
Skilled and unskilled in factories ___ _____ _ 2,280
58. 3
228
290
390
781
472
119
- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - Clothing _____ ____ _____ ___ ____________
362
9. 2
86
95
88
26
64
3
Leather other than boots and shoes __
104
2. 7
15
30
55
3
1
Cotton mills ___ ______________________ 1,574
40. 2
91
95
203
639
435
111
Textiles other than cotton and woolen
mills ________ __ --- --- --- --- - -- --- - -5. 0
42
65
43
195
40
3
2
Other manufacturing ___ _____________
1.1
12
12
3
45
8
8
2
__ ---- - -· --------------------Clerical workers
Saleswomen
_______________________________
__
ManageriaL _________ ___ _____________ ___ _____
Professional service _____ __________________ __ _
Other ________ __ ______________ __ _______ ___
Not reported __________ __________________
6. 2
4. 8
1. 1
-~==
243
186
42
344
36
362
.9
9. 2
10
18
3
5
3
224
33
41
3
6
5
70
94
29
4
152
4
31
84
69
8
141
15
24
21
24
14
32
9
12
Hand trades 1____ ----------------- - ---------Domestic and personal service! ___________ __ _
53
390
1. 4
10. 0
1
51
1
34
2
41
15
95
27
119
8. 8
1
5
10
8
7
50
NEW BEDFORD-Excludes 2,195 women partially unemployed
Total-Number _____________ ___________ 3,520
444
642 1,267
404
638
125
Percent_ _______ - - - _- - - - __ - - - - - - ----- -- 100. 0
11. 5
12. 6
18. 2
18.1
36. 0
3. 6
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- - All skilled and unskilled _____________________ 2,393
68.0
175
247
388
967
516
100
Skilled and unskilled in factories ___ ______ 1,876
138
193
53. 3
- - - - - - - - - - -Clothing_____ ______________ - ____ _____
215
6. I
41
72
Cotton mills __ _______________________ 1,368
38.9
73
64
Textiles other than cotton and woolen
104
3.0
3
7
mills ___ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Electrical machinery and supplies ___
62
1.8
20
20
Other manufacturing ________________
127
3.6
21
10
Clerical workers
__-- - ------__- --------------Saleswomen
___ ___________
__ _____________ -__
ManageriaL __ __ ________________ __ -- -- -- -- - -Professional service __________________________
Other ______ ______ ____ ______________ -- --- __ -- _
Not reported _______ -- -- -- --- -- ------------ - - Hand trades! _________ _______________________
Domestic and personal service'--------------
291
190
51
148
35
412
8.3
5.4
1.4
4.2
1.0
11. 7
7
12
5
2
1
202
57
487
1. 6
13. 8
42
l
298
821
369
57
53
183
43
670
4
330
2
48
--- --- --- - 16
14
32
60
15
3
8 -- ----- - --- -40
20
4
2
123
93
54
4
58
5
40
121
64
17
64.
14
20
26
29
12
22
10
23
4
3
9
2
3
4
3
58
1
95
17
133
27
121
8
38
40
28
4
1 Total for this group; details are in occupations above.
2 Old Colony area includes Abingdon, Avon, Braintrae, Bridgewater, East Bridgewater, West Bridgewater, Brockton, Holbrook, Middleboro, Randolph, Rockland, Stoughton, Weymouth, and Whitman.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL STATUS OF UNEMPLOYED WOMEN
TABLE
111
IV.-Age and occupation of women wholly unemployed as of Jan. 2, 1934,
by city-Continued
Unemployed
women 16
years of age
and over
Number of women
Num-1 Ferber
cent
16,
18.
20.
25,
45.
60
under
under
under
under
under
years
18
20
25
45
60
and
years years years years years over
Occupation
I
I
I
I
I
OLD COLONY AREA 2-Excludes 2,858 women partially unemployed
Total-Number ____ ____ ______________ __ 4,103 _______
Percent.__ ______ _______________ _____ __ 100. O
288
7. O
702
17. 1
987
24. 1
l, 217
29. 7
697
17. O
212
5. 2
---------------,=-----All skilled and unskilled_____________________ 1, 778
43. 3
107
184
311
559
457
160
Skilled and unskilled in factories _________ 1,220
29. 7
213
417
313
91
73
113
- --- - - --- --- --- - Clothing ___ _. ________________ _____ ___ - -58- - 12
1. 4
10
15
12
6
3
Boots and shoes (leather) ____________
934
22. 8
39
67
148
335
263
82
Cotton mills _________________________
5
.1
1
1
3
Woolen and worsted mills ___ _______ _
52
1. 3
4
4
9
19
12
4
Other manufacturing ________________
171
4.1
51
31
2
20
29
38
Clerical workers ___ --------- ----------------- 1,042
275
Saleswomen ___
--------- -------------------Managerial.
______
___________________________
81
Professional service __ . _______________________
337
Other ___
94
496
Not reported ___ ----------------------------Hand trades! _________ __ _______ ___________ __ _
43
Domestic and personal service! _____________ "
592
25.4
6. 7
2.0
8. 2
2.3
12.1
1.0
14. 4
40
10
1
7
123
227
47
4
10
8
222
324
86
2
156
27
81
360
76
28
128
33
33
82
50
34
35
11
28
9
6
13
7
8
9
39
1
79
5
100
12
156
12
157
13
61
1, 133
32. 6
673
19. 4
197
5. 7
LYNN-Excludes 2,394 women partially unemployed
Total-Number _________ __________ . ____ 3,476
Percent ___ ----------- -- ---- --- ------- 100. 0
184
5. 3
501
14. 4
788
22. 7
--- --- --- - - --- --- --- - -
54. 2
62
161
316
675
510
161
All skilled and unskilled -------------------- 1,885
Sldlled and unskilled in factories _________ 1,374 39. 5
502
115
49
235
369
104
--- --- --- - - --- --- --- - Boots and shoes (leather) __ __________ 1,037
29. 8
40
89
153
357
304
94
Cotton mills _________________________
.2
1
1
1
6
3
Electrical machinery and supplies. ___
177
5.1
3
7
33
94
36
4
Other manufacturing ___ _____________
18
154
4. 4
5
49
48
28
6
Clerical workers._---------------------- - ---Saleswomen_._---- ------------------------Managerial
__________________
___ . ____________
Professional service __ . ___ ---------------- ____
Other ______ __ __ ___ ____________ ----- - __ - -- - --Not rel?orted ________________________ ___ ______
658
230
31
158
64
450
18.9
6. 6
.9
4. 5
1.8
12. 9
Hand trades! ________________________________
Domestic and personal service! ______________
58
462
1. 7
13. 3
11
6
1
104
4
3
197
221
74
1
70
10
96
14
2
42
6
75
-------
112
24
-- --- --
252
83
12
62
19
30
56
39
11
14
22
21
6
4
7
8
9
18
152
22
124
10
55
349
16. 8
860
41.3
436
20. 9
118
5. 7
224
704
370
101
2
HAVERHILL-Excludes 1,454 women partially unemployed
umber ______ . ____ ____________ _ 2,083
130
Total- Percent.
190
_______________________
6. 2
9. 1
------- 100. 0
- - - - - - - -All skilled and unskilled __ . __________ . _______ 1,572
75. 5
63
110
--- --- --- - -
Skilled and unskilled in factories ___ ___ __ _ 1,362
6,5. 4
52
193
648
99
73
297
--- ---- - - - --- --- --- - Boots and shoes (leather). ___________ 1,264
49
60. 7
93
181
611
264
66
Cotton mills ____________________ . ____
. 3 - -- -- -- ------- ---- --6
3
3
Other manufacturing ________________
12
92
4.4
3
6
34
30
7
Clerical workers._-- -----------------------Saleswomen
.. _______________________________
Managerial. _________________________________
Professional service. __________________ _______
Other ____________________________________ . ___
Not reported _________________________________
207
67
17
83
14
123
12
9. 9
3. 2
2
.8
2
4. 0
.7 -- ----5. 9
51
Hand trades 1-------------------------------Domestic and personal service! ________ ___ ___
13
203
.6 - ------ -- --- -- ------13
13
32
9. 7
For footnotes see p. 110.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
22
9
1
3
---- 45
---
60
19
1
26
2
17
81
21
4
39
6
5
26
11
6
14
5
4
6
5
3
1
1
1
2
47
7
71
4
27
112
TABLE
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
IV.-Age and occupation of women wholly unemployed as of Jan. 2, 1934,
by city-Continued
Unemployed
women 16
years of age
and over
Number of women
Num-1 Percent
ber
16,
18,
20.
25,
45,
60
under
under
under
under
under
years
18
20
25
45
60
and
years years years years years over
Occupation
I
I
I
I
I
LAWRENCE-Excludes 4,344 women partially unemployed
Total-Number __________ ________ ______ 3,047
463
658 1,047
467
308
104
Percent. __ ___ _____ _____________ ------- 100. 0
15. 2
2L6
34. 4
15. 3
10. 0
3. 4
- -- --- --- --- --- --- --- - All skilled and unskilled _____________________ 2,078
109
259
400
822
404
68. 2
84
Skilled and unskilled in factories _________ 1,858
- -149
Boots and shoes (leather)·-··· -----·197
Cotton mills-- --··· -· -·---·- ·-·-· -··Woolen and worsted mills ... ----···- 1,323
Electrical machinery and supplies .. _
54
135
Other manufacturing __ -- --··-· --·--Clerical workers ..... --··-·--·-··---···-··-··
Saleswomen .. ___ .... -· .......... -..... -· ....
Managerial __ --·-- ----······-······-·--······
service_
0Professional
ther. ____ . _______
. __--·--····-····-·
.. __ . _. ___ . __ ...··-···
______--._
Not reported ___ . _.. -··· ·· -·-·-·-·-·----_.-· __
263
143
15
116
22
410
Hand trades 1___ ·------·------·-·- · · -· -- ·--·Domestic and personal service 1____ ··-·-·· · ··
31
191
342
6L 0
92
233
360
767
4. 9
6. 5
43.4
L8
4.4
21
7
49
1
14
50
13
127
12
31
37
21
233
36
33
33
8
92
54
10
259
604
51
5 - ---- -- -----33
21
3
8. 6
4. 7
.5
3. 8
.7
13. 5
2
6
1
46
18
2
188
139
109
47
2
49
1
50
85
46
4
59
10
21
16
23
4
6
5
9
5
3
4
1
4
3
1
41
8
42
20
43
1
21
64
--- --- --- --- --- --- - -
LO ------- ------25
6. 3
19
LOWELL-Excludes 1,813 women partially unemployed
Total-Number_···········-··-·· ····-- 3,504 ______ _ 341
492
731 1,200
586
154
Percent _·-·---·-----·-----·---·.:..:..:..::..: 100. 0 ~ _l!..Q_ ~ ~ ~ ~
All skilled and unskilled. ___ . ____ -·. ____ -·___ 2, 189 6IT ~ ~ 350 ~ ~ -W
Skilled and unskilled in factories_. _-· -· .. 1, 721
- -Clothing. ... ---· ··--- ··- ·-····----·-68
Boots and shoes (leather)- ---·- -- -·-453
Cotton mills __ ... ________ . ___ ._. _____
447
Woolen and worsted mills . .. -.......
311
Other textiles............. . ..........
305
Other m anufacturing-.......... .....
137
1
142
184
296
688
330
81
-49.
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --1. 9
12. 9
12. 8
8. 9
8. 7
3. 9
3
78
10
11
34
6
27
11
99
9
18
35
12
Clerical workers ............................ .
Saleswomen ........ . .......... ·--··-········
M anagerial. .. ................. . ... ........ . .
Professional service ......................... .
Other .......................... ......... . ... .
Not reported ................................ .
529
229
34
197
45
281
15.1
6. 5
LO
5. 6
L3
8. 0
131
145
31
2
5
2
71
Hand trades 1••••••••• ••• •• ..••• •••• ••• •••• ••
Domestic and personal service 1••••••••• • ••••
52
414
L5
lL 8
26
1
53
14
2
6
126
42
58
37
29
116
226
132
122
63
19
29
132
92
44
14
5
43
16
12
5
182
61
1
79
11
47
138
99
7
89
15
26
34
22
17
23
11
6
3
2
5
1
6
4
53
16
117
22
117
9
48
27
SALEM-Excludes 1,510 women partially unemployed
Total-Number ...................... .. 1,042 .......
122
195
271
280
129
45
Percent. .......................
100.0 ____!_!:_l_ ......!!1_~ ~~___.i:1
All skilled and unskilled ..................... ~ 55.4 ~ -W ~ ---r&l ~ ~
=
431
4L 4
58
91
Skilled and unskilled in factories ....... .
108
--- --- --- --- --216
20. 7
Boots and shoes (leather) ........... .
24
46
43
3
1.5
1
Cotton mills ............... --· ...... .
16
31
107
10. 3
36
34
Electrical machinery and supplies . . .
92
Other m anufacturing .......... . ... . .
8. 8
2
9
28
Clerical workers ................. ... .... .... .
Saleswomen ... ................ ·-·-·- ....... .
M anagerial. ... -·----·-··-- ................. .
Professional service ............... ··-· · ·-· .. .
Other ....................................... .
Not reported ........................... ..... .
180
70
10
89
14
102
17. 3
29
55
10
11
6. 7
26
1. 0 --- -- -- - ----- - -- --- -42
4
8. 5
1
1. 3
1
6
43
9. 8
45
10
Hand trades 1•••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••
Domestic and personal service'····-·-··-·-··
11
136
1. 1
13. 1
For footnote seep. 11 0.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
--- ---- ------9
15
---- - -26
120
13
- -41
- -27
67
9
8
4 -- ---6 ---- --- - ----39
10
4
64
21
2
32
1
2
16
10
5
10
3
2
6
2
3
1
2
4
32
5
35
2
19
113
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL STATUS OF UNEMPLOYED WOMEN
TABLE
V.-Age, occupation, and industry of women wholly unemployed as of
Jan. 2, 1934, by city
[Data compiled by Women's Bureau, U.S . Department of Labor, from figures secured in the Massachusetts Census of Unemployment by the Massachusetts Emergency Relief Administration]
Unemployed
women
16 years
~
of age
and over I>,
- - - - ~...
"'
~I>,
~
Industry
~
..c
ti
z
~
~
§
p.
~~
"'
03
~
I>,
I>,
I>,
0
~
~
~
::,
I>
~
"O"O
"O
A
A~
...
<N
...
03
03;::::::
"O
A
"O
A
"O
A
"O
A
03
"O~
~
~
.,;
0
~
::,
~
...
~
<D
~
~
::,
0
<N
::,
"'...
~
::,
~
ell
i>,
-.j<
<D
~
0
~
~
-~
6
"O
A
03
03a,
~
-.j<
0
"O
A
"'...
lt:)
<N
~
~
a"'
lt:)
0
"O
~
Occupation
Age
"O"O
.,.... A
A
~-S
03 0
s ti
~
0
0 03
o.~
bl) .....
~
03 0
~t5.
~
~
~
ell
...~A::,
~
...,
0
0
..cl
z
WORCESTER-Excludes 1,790 women partially unemployed
Total-Number. __ __ _______ _ 3, 728 __ ___ 344 678 1, 114 1,085 397 110 1,574 716 363 335 146 594
Percent. _____ __________ ___ 100. 0 9. 2 18. 2 29. 9 29. 1 10. 6 3. 0 42. 2 19. 2 9. 7 9. 0 3. 9 15. 9
Manufacturing _________________ ___ 1,174 31. 5
Clothing ____ . ___ . ___ . __ . _______
Iron and steel. _________________
Boots and shoes (leather) ______
Printing, publishing, and engraving ______ _________ . ____ -Paper and allied products ______
Cotton mills _____ ___________ ___
Woolen mills ___ ________ __ _____
Other textiles _____ __ -- -- -- -- . - Other manufacturing __________
179
38
251
4. 8
2. 4
6. 7
73
87
26
97
123
250
2.0
2.3
.7
2. 6
3. 3
6. 7
73 193
344
22
6
25
38
8
66
43
24
72
41
38
65
27
10
20
8
2
3
171
30
234
6
1
1 ---- ---12 -- - - ---- 46 ---l;l
2 - --2 ----
1
5
1
3
2
8
14
26
32
7
20
36
84
28
31
10
47
48
97
1
3
10 -- -1
5
2
13
23
3
22
6
49
82
23
89
U5
140
18
1
4
1 ---1 ---4 ---- --- 3 ---- - --- ---- -- -8 -- - - ---- ---- ---8 -- -- ---- - --- ---87
3
3 17 -- --
3
201
18
177
25
125
115
7
94
31
1 34 ---10 13 --- 2 ---172 109 45 536 24
1 24 12
1
42
1
253
1
150 32
21
5 ----21
4
1
5 27 -- -3 ---- -- -93 30
191
3
52
4 ----1 -- --
87
113
1 32 --- - 19
6 --- 1 ----- 107
12
3 ---- ----- ---- ---- -- -- ---- 521
9
2
12
11
33
Hand trades ______ ________________ _ 52 1. 4
1
7
Trade __ ---------- ----------------- 566 15. 2 11 88
Transportation and comm uni cation ____________________________ _ 58 1. 6
--- - --- Domestic and personal service ___ __ 598 16.0 49 98
Professional service _____________ ___ 318 8. 5
2 14
Other ______________ ___ _____ -- ___ -- _ 35
2
. 9 --- 247
6.
6
1 25
Not reported. __ ------ ------------Never fully occupied:
Vocationally trained ___________
Untrained _______ _____________ _
159 4. 3 10 55
521 14. 0 197 196
405 133
15
69
26
8
20
933 159
7
50 ---- - --40 153 350
8
67 __ __
-- --
2 ---10 ----
13
FITCHBURG-Excludes 794 women partially unemployed
Total- umber _____________ 922 ____ _ 142 175 208 244 125 28 410 134 74 79 24 ~1
Percent, _______________ __ __ 100. 0 15. 4 19. O 22. 6 2ti. 5 13. 6 3. O 44. 5 14. 5 8. O 8. 6 2. 6 21. 8
Manufacturing _________ __________ _
Cotton mms _______ ___ ________ _
Woolen and worsted mills ____ _
Other m anufacturing _________ _
Hand trades __ ____________________ _
Trade ___ ____ __ ____ ____ --------- --Transportation and communication __ -- ----- ------ --- ----------Domestic and personal service. ___ _
Professional service. ____ __________ _
0ther _____ ___ ____ _________________ .
Not reported _______ ____ _____ _____ _
Never fully occupied :
Vocationally trained ________ ___
Untrained ___ _____ ____________ _
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
304 33.0
25
59 6. 4
96 10. 4
149 16. 2
3
6
16
5
19
28
51
107
57
12
11
8
32
24
33
50
13
23
21
3
7
2
13 1. 4 ---3
lOil 11. 8
1
10
6
32
3
47
1
16
2
1
9 1.0 -- - - --- 142 15. 4 10 22
70 7. 6 --- 3
2
14 1. 5
1
51 5. 5 15
7
2
36
33
3
6
5
34
25
5
13
2 --- 29 11 104
8
1 ----2
3 --- 9
1 -----
39 4. 2
171 18. 5
13
26
- - -- -
5
82
52
- -
18
61
-- -- -- -
-----
280
23 ----
58
94
128
1 ---- ---- ---- ---2 ---- ---- -- -- ---20 -- -1 ---- --- -
- - -- - - -
1 -- - -
-
13 --- - ---- ---- ---- ---6 35 64
3
1 --- 4
8
9
10
17
---- ---- --- - ---1
---- 10 19
3 ----- -- 58
1
---1 -- -8 -- -- --- - 26
2
3
3 --- - ---- ----- 28
6 --- 2 ---- -- - - --- -- -- - - ---- -- - - ---- 171
114
TABLE
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
V.-Age, occupation, and industry of women wholly unemployed as of
Jan. 2, 1934, by city-Continued
Unemployed
women
16 years
of age
and over
Industry
Age
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SPRINGFIELD-Excludes 1,188 women partially unemployed
Total-Number _____________ 3,502 _____ 274 619 9611,060 464 1241, 229 961 366 368 87 491
Percent__ ____________ _____ ~ 7. 8 17. 7 ~ ~ 13. 2 ~ 35. 127.410. 5 10. 5 ~ 14. O
Manufacturing ___ ____ _______ ____ __
Clothing ______ ___ __ ________ ___ _
Leather ot her than boots and
shoes ___________________ ____ _
Printing, publish ing, and engraving _________ ____________ _
Paper and allied products ___ __
Cotton mills ____ __________ ____ _
Textiles other tha n cotton and
worsted mills __ _____ ___ _____ _
Electrical machinery and supplies ________ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Food __ -----------------------Other manufacturing __ __ _____ _
Hand trades _____ _________________ _
Trade _______________ ______ - --- ---Transportation
and communication _ __ ________________
______ ___ _
826 23. 6
253
342
93
69
2. 0
24
3
94
9
36
11
94
2.7
5
42
25
59
85
28
1. 7
2. 4
4
. 8 --- -
15
22
8
28
41
13
20
619 184
6
2
5 ----
93
1 ---- --- - ---- -- --
8
3
3
3
1
36
67
25
20 ---3 ---- - -- 17 -- -- -- -1 --- 3 ---- --- - - --- - ---
9
70
2. 0
2
14
33
12
5
64
3. 8
2. 1
6. 2
4
2
3
49
34
60
44
24
98
13
3
27
1
2
4
106
57
109
119 3. 4 ---667 19. 0 20
2
93
8
211
27 49
225 101
33
17
Domestic and personal service __ __ _
Professional service _______________ _
Other _____________________________ _
Not reported _______________ ___ __ __
46 1. 3 --- 576 16. 4 34
281 8. 0
4
67 1. 9
1
125 3. 6
2
2
10
4
13
13
118
82
13
32
26
4
191 146
124 51
38
8
67
6
19
34 486
10 ---- 3
8
Never fully occupied:
Vocationally trained_____ ______
Untrained__ ____ __________ _____
352 10. 1 47 157
443 12. 6 142 191
136
95
9
11
9
7 -- --
132
73
216
53
6
62
6 ---- ---- ---- -- --
24
1 - --15 - --- ---93
5
4
59
1 ---38 241 351
5 -----
2 ---- --- -
58
20
1 -- -1 -- -3
2
1 --- 17 - ---
22 ---- - --5 - --28
3 34 25 -- -46
1 209 25 -- -47 ---3
8
1
92 ---- ---- ---- 33
2
1 __ ___ 300
5 35 ____ 12
4 _________ ---- ___________ _ 443
HOLYOKE-Excludes 1,555 women partially unemployed
Total-Number ________ ______ 1,802 _____ 187 308 423 599 238 47 966 319 94 98 27 298
Percent _____ __ ___ ____ _____ lOQ. 010.417.1 23. 5 33.213.2 2.6 53. 617. 7 5.2 5.4 1.516.5
Manufacturlng ___ __________ • _____ _
Paper and allied products _____ _
Cotton mills __________________ _
Woolen and worst ed mills ____ _
Other textiles ________ __ ___ ___ __
Other manufacturing _________ _
Hand trades ______________________ _
Trade ___ _________________________ __
Transportation and communication _________________ ___ _________ _
Domestic and personal service ____ _
Professional service __ ________ _____ _
Other _______ _____ __ ___ ___ _________ _
Not reported ________ ________ ______ _
Never fully occupied:
Vocationally trained ___ ____ ___ _
Untrained ___ _________________ _
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
809 44. 9
-- - -
177 9.8
104 5. 8
143 7. 9
306 17. 0
79 4.4
35 70 138 396 142 28 707 95
- 2 - 7 --33 --84 - 40 --11 - 123- --52 --1 --1 -----5 --------24
25
36
20
39
65
173
35
19
19
56
8
2
7
7
1
. 8 - -- - ---8.3
3 13
1
57
7
49
6
25
1
2
---42
----3
6
50
31
2
16
7
58
41
2
8
1 --- 50 13 225
6
3 ----1
1 ---2 ---- -----
159 8.8 21 65
284 15.8 103 108
67
55
4
6 ---- ---- ----- 130 ---- 25 ---13
5 ---- ----- ---- ---- -- -- ---- 284
15
149
14
. 8 -- -236 13.1 23
88 4. 9 -- -5
. 3 ---2
43 2.4
7
20
101
140
295
48
---- -- -- -- -1 ------2 --- ------2 - -- -
12
19
24
8
8
8
10
7
3
2
9
29
15 --- 10 37
5
6
10
4
32
-------------
---- -- -93
7
----
----
2 -- --
---1 ---- --- 1
---4 --- ---- 63 15 ------- ---- -- -- ---1 10
---- ----
115
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL STATUS OF UNEMPLOYED WOMEN
TABLE
V. - Age, occu pation, and industry of women wholly unemployed as of Jan.
2, 1934, by city-Continued
U nemployed
women
16 years
of age
and over
Industry
...
~
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~
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8
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z
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Age
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g
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PITTSFIELD- Excludes 819 women partially unemployed
Total- Number ______________ 1,217 ___ __ 124 233 340 345 137 38 504 312 82 115 40 164
Percen t ___________________ 100. 0 10. 219. 1 27. 9 28. 3 11. 3 3.1 41. 4 25. 6 6. 7 9. 4 3. 3 13. 5
Manufacturing ___ _______ __ ________
Paper and allied products ____ __
Cotton mills ___ ___ ___ _________ _
Woolen and worsted mills ____ _
Electrical m achinery and supplies _______-- -- -- -- -- -- _-- _-Other m anufacturing _________ _
371 30. 5
19
36
115
149
4. 2 ---1. 8
5
2
7. 6
4
7
12
15
4
14
20
5
46
9
3
1 ---14
5
37 11
1
2 -- -- --- 22 ---- ---- ---- - --- ---88
5 -- -- ---- ---- ----
---12
1
12
54
28
64
14
13 ---5
2
76
60
14 1. 2 ---150 12. 3
4
3
55
8
17
51
22
93
132 10. 8
73 6. 0
42
10
283
83
2
55 - - -- -- -12 - --- -- --
2 ----
1 -- -1 -- --
H and trades ____ __________________ _
Trade ___ __- _- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Transportation and communication ______ ___ _______ __ __ ___ ______ _
Domestic and personal service ____ _
Professional serv ice __________ -- ___ _
Other _______ ____ ________ _______ ___ _
Not reported ________ - _- - - _- - - - - - - - -
----
20
1
50
24 2. 0 ---- -- -233 19.1 31 37
104 8. 5 - --5
20 1. 6 ---3
48 3. 9
4 14
11
36
39
3
18
Never fully occupied:
Vocationally trained ___ _______ _
Untrained_ ___________ ________ _
117 9. 6
136 11.2
46
2 ____ ____ _____ 97 ____ 12 ____
8
21 __ ___ ______________ _____ __ __ ______ 136
TABLE
11
55
58
60
2
4
14 -- -- --- - -- -- -- -- -- -8 56 81
5 ---- ----
13 ---- ---15
· 51 59 19 184
51
7
2 ----11
2
1 ----10
2 -- -- -----
7
11
13
17
28
---- -- -2
- - -6 32
--- - 87
4
---3 ------- -- -- ----
----------
-- --
20
VI.- A ge, by relation to head of family-Women seeking work relief in Old
Colony area, 1935 1
All women
Relation to head of
family
Number
Percent
Age
NotreWorn- 16, un- 18, un- 20, un- 25,un- 35,un- 45,un- 60
porten re- der 18 der 20 der 25 der 35 der45 der 60 years ing age
port- years years years years years years
and
ing
over
--- Total-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - --
- -- - - -
umber_ __ 1,740
Percent -------
141
94
225
257
366
454
197
6
------- 1,734
------- 100. 0 5. 4 8.1 13. 0 14. 8 21.1 26. 2 11. 4 ------- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Total reporting ___ ___ 1,737 100. 0 1,734
141
225
257
366
454
94
197
3
- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -· - -- - - Hea d : 1 person
in family _____ _
222
12. 8
222 --- - ·· -3
9
31
87
86 ------6
H ead: 2 2 or more
in family ______
441
25. 4
440 ------1
12
72
148
165
42
1
Wife __
Mother_ _________
D au ghter ________
Sister ____________
Other ____________
Not reported _____ ___
1
2
470
16
513
56
19
27.1
.9
29. 5
3. 2
1.1
469 ---- --7
26
87
16 ------- - - --- -- ---- --- --- --- ··
512
91
123
79
169
1
5
56
9
8
2
19
2
3
2
135
2
40
9
1
160
54
1
4 ------10
1
10 --- -- -18
6 ------4
5 -------
3 ------- ------- ---- -- - ---- - -- --- --- - -- ---- · ------- ------- -------
3
Data compiled by Women's Bureau from r ecords of local E . R. A . offices in t he several tow ns.
The wife is considered t he head if the husband is too ill to work and no occupa tion is reported for him.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
116
REEMPLOYMENT OF NEW ENGLAND WOMEN
TABLE
VIL-Marital status, by age-Women seeking work relief in Old Colon y
area, 1935 1
All women
Marital status
Number
Percent
Age
!0~_porting
TotaL ___ __ ___ 1,740 ____ __ _ 1,734
Notre60
portder 18 der 20 der 25 der 35 der 45 der 60 ~~xs ing age
years years years years years years over
16, un- 18, un- 20, un- 25, un- 35, un- 45, un-
94
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Total reporting __ ___ _ 1,731
Single _____ ______
Married ___ __ ____
Widowed ____ __ __
Separated __ ______
Divorced ________
Not reported __ ___ ___
1
651
567
290
167
56
100. 0
1,728
37.6
32. 8
16. 8
9. 6
3. 2
651
564
290
167
56
9 --- -- --
94
141
225
257
366
454
197
140
225
256
365
452
196
84
46
162
65
= = =l====l===•l==='===I===
132
94
179
33
7
--- -- ---- - --- - ---- -- --- --- 1
9
--- -- -4
-- --- -- - - --· --
6 --- - ---
1 ------ -
40
15
71
21
69
191
141
38
13
1
1
2
106
11
47 -- -- -- 65
73
8
3
Data compiled by Women's Bureau from records of local E. R. A. offices in the several towns.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
=====
TABLE
VIII.~Maximum schooling, by industry and usual occupation-Women seeking work relief in Old Colony area, 1935 1
M aximum schooling
All women
Industry and occupation- last usual job
Women
Number Percent reporting
No
schooling
6, less than
9, less than
Colle~~~~irmal Not re12 years
9 years
12 years
porting
Less i-----°"-r--t-h-~---~-W-it_h_ 1----,--W-1-_t_h_ 1---~-W-it_ b_ 1 schoolthan 6
years
Total
addiTotal
addiTotal
addiing
addiTotal
tional
tional
tional
tional
training
training
training
training
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Total- Number_ _______ ___ ___ ________ _ 1, 740 _______ __
Percent_ ___ __ ____ _______ ______ -- - ------ -- - ------
=
Total reporting .. _. ______ ______ ___ ___.. ____ _
No usual job __ ______________ __ _________ _
Workers in manufacturing:
Shoes ________ __________ _____ _______ _
Textiles __ _____ _________ ______ ______ _
Other _________ _______ ____ ___ _______ _
1, 723
=
1,508
100. 0
23
1. 5
87
5. 8
664
4
44. 0 -- -- -----
315
21
20. 9 -- -- -----
-- --- ---
232
32
1
2. 1 --------- ---------
~=--1-~~=1====~===,====1====1=====1==== - - - - - - - - - - -1,498
23
87
660
256
14. 9
221
2
8
64
583
30
108
33. 8
1. 7
6. 3
516
27
99
15
1
33
2
10
298
15
49
100. 0
387
12
25. 7 -------- -
4
384
55
q
12
312
21
1
86
34
2
32 ---------
62
2 --------45
61 ------- - - --------4
13 ------- - - -- --- ---- ---------
123
5
Zl
225
35
6
67
3
9
Managerial, professional, and semiprofessional_ _____________ ____ __ _________ _
46
2. 7
4
11
64
10
21
---------
9
Domestic and personal service __ _______ _
379
22. 0
321
5
31
163
80
64
39
61
3 -- -- -----
58
Practical nurses ______ ______ ________ _
Servants in hotels, restaurants, etc __
Other and not specified servants____ _
Other_ . ______ ________ ______________ _
44
63
235
37
2. 6
3. 7
13. 6
2. 1
34
56
199
32
1
10
19
1
13
24
108
18
12
16
45
7
64
4
1
51 -- ----- -- --------8
6 -- - -- - - -- -- ------ - --------2
21
4
1
10
7
36
5
Clerical service __ _________ __ ___________ _
147
8. 5
126 --- ---- --
---------
16
71
31
7
1
72
Other:
Sales _____ ____ _________ ___ -- --- - - --Telephone operators __ ___ __________ _
Other __ ___ ___ ___________ _____ ______ _
115
16
43
6. 8
.9
2. 5
101
13 -- - ---- -- - --- - ---37
2
34
3
14
7
7
1
1
35
8
9
26
2
30
2
11
Not reported ______________________________ _
17
10 --------- ----- --- -
4
37 ------ ---
---------
D ata compiled by Women's Bureau from records oflocal E. R. A. offices in the several towns.
2 Music, voice, etc.
a 1, kindergarten training; 3, high school graduate work.
4 Dressm aking.
~ Nurse's training.
6 2, graduate nursing; 2, musical training.
7 Business school.
s 6, business; 2, voice.
1
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
3
88
12
7
1
21
2
1 ---- --- - - --------1
1 ----- - ---
14
3
6
3 --------- --------- ------- --
7
67
7
7
TABLE
IX.-Duration of employment in last usual job, by industry and usual occupation-Women seeking work relief in Old Colony area,
1935 1
All women
Number
00
Duration of employment in last usual job
Industry and occupation-last usual job
Percent
Women
reporting
Less
than 1
year
1, less
than 2
years
2, less
than 3
years
- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
I
3, less
than 4
years
4, less
than 5
years
5, less
tha n 10
years
Never
Not reemployed porting
10 years
or n?
d~f !!in
and over usual Job usual job
f
----1-----1---- - - - - - - - - - - - -
Total-Number_ ________ _____________________
1, 740 ___ ____ __ _
991
106
103
108
78
68
Percent_ ___ ____ __ ___ ________________ ___ _____ _-- __________ _
100. 0
10. 7
10. 4
10. 9
7. 9
6. 9
======l====:t====l====l====:I====
Total reporting _______________ - _____ _____________ __ _
1, 723
100. 0
988
106
103
108
77
67
220
22. 2
308
31. 1
256
493
219
308
256
479
- - -- - - -- - - - - -----1--------1----~----1-----1-- - - - - - - 1 - - - -
No usual job _______ ______ ____________ _______ __ _
256
256
11. 9 --- ----- -- - ------ - -- ---------- - --------- ---------- - --------- --- - ---- -- ---- - - ---Workers in manufacturing:
Shoes-Number__ _____________ ____ ________ _
583
33. 8
87
35
425
31
44
28
35
165
158
Percent_ _____ ----_ -- ______________ ______ ___________ _____
8.2
20. 5
100. 0
7. 3
8. 2
10. 4
38.8 --- ---- --- ---------6. 6
Textiles-Number___________ ______________
30
1. 7
1
4
7
2
1
19
4
11
12
9
3
6
14
15
42
7
66
Other-Number
__ _--------- ------------6. 3_
Percent __________
____
___________
___ _____ _108
. ______ ______
9.1
18. 2
13. 6 ---------- ---- -- ---4. 5
100. 0
21. 2
22. 7
10. 6
Managerial, professional, and semiprofessionaL _
46
2. 7
Domestic and personal service-Number______ _
379
22. 0
Percent_ _________ ______ ___________ _
31
216
100. 0
3
38
17. 6
Practical nurses__________ ____ ______________
44
2. 6
Servants in hotels, restaurants, etc_ __ ______
63
3. 7
Otherandnotspeci.fiedservants-Number___
235
13. 6
Percent_ __________ ___ ________ _
Other__ ____ _________ _________ ___ ____ ______ _
37
2. 1
25
37
131
100.0
23
29
22.1
2
Clerical-Number_ __ ____ _________ ______________
147
8. 5
Percent ___ _______ _____ __________ --- ___ _--- - ____ ---------Other:
Sales-Number
_- ----- - - - ---__________
-------------115 _____ ______
6. 7_
Percent ____
__________
______________
111
100. 0
83
100. 0
11
26
Telephone operators________ ________________
Other______ ____ _____ _________ __ ______ ______
16
43
Not reported ___________ __ _____ __ __ ______ ___ _______ _
17
1
.9
2. 5
3
34
15. 7
2
26
12. 0
1
18
8.3
11
5.1
8
48
22. 2
14
15
41
163
19. 0 ------- --- --------- -
2
8
17
13. 0
7
3
19
14. 5
4
3
2
10
7.6
3
1
2
7
5. 3
1
9
12
26
19.8
1
10
19
3
26
23
104
17. 6 ------- --- ---------14
5
7
6. 3
10
9. 0
9
8.1
11
9. 9
29
7.2
26.1
37
36
33. 3 ·---------- ----------
8
9. 6
1
1
11
13.3
2
3
10
12. 0
13
15. 7
3
3.6
18
21. 7
7
6
20
32
24. 1 --- ------- ---------1
5
14
17
7
8
Data compiled by Women's Bureau from records of local E. R. A. offices in the sev eral towns.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
---------- ---------- ----------
3 ---------- ---------- --------- -
0
1-l
1-l
14
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
@FedFRASER