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Bureau Publication No. 162
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1926
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I 1o 2 j
CONTENTS
Pago
T -IC i «
CO 05
The adoption o f an idea------------------------------Beginnings of the mothers’ aid movement.
Status of legislation in 1926-----------------------Principles of mothers’ aid legislation—
Administration and supervision____________
Extent to which the laws are applied_________________________________________
Standards o f aid__ ____________________________________________________________
15
16
MAPS
Public aid to children in their own homes— persons to whom aid may be
given-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Public aid to children in their own homes— ages under which aid may be
given_________________________________
Public aid to children in their own homes— local administrative agencies
acting alone or in cooperation with a State agency---------------------------------Public aid to children in their own homes— State supervision------------------
m
§
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7
9
12
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AID TO MOTHERS WITH DEPENDENT CHILDREN
THE ADOPTION OF A N ID EA
The Conference on the Care o f Dependent Children— commonly
referred to as the White House Conference— called by President
Roosevelt in 1909, was responsible in large measure for .focusing at
tention on the desirability o f conserving the child’s own home. In
the words of the conclusions o f this conference :
Home life is the highest and finest product of civilization. It is the great
molding force of mind and of character. Children should not be deprived of it
except for urgent and compelling reasons. Children of parents of worthy
character, suffering from temporary misfortune, and children of reasonably
efficient and deserving mothers who are without the support of the normal
breadwinner, should, as a rule, be kept with their parents, such aid being given
as may be necessary to maintain suitable homes for the rearing of the children.1
The experiment o f granting public aid in their own homes to chil
dren deprived o f the support o f the natural breadwinner was begun
almost simultaneously in Kansas City and in the State o f Illinois.
The passage o f the Missouri law o f 1911, applying at first only to
Kansas City, was promoted by a fraternal organization. The Illinois
law, also enacted in 1911, was proposed by Judge Merritt W.
Pinckney as a result o f his experience in the Chicago juvenile court.
A fter these beginnings the idea spread rapidly, fostered by the
Mothers’ Congress and other organizations o f women, juvenile courts,
and child-welfare agencies.
So far as legislation was concerned, the principle o f “ home care
o f dependent children ” met with more ready response than any other
child-welfare measure that has ever been proposed. Administration,
however, has not kept pace with the enactment o f laws, largely
because public interest in many States became dormant once a law
was passed and because appropriations were inadequate in all but a
very few localities.
The ideal that has dominated the movement for public aid o f a
character better fitted to make home life possible for children than
the poor relief commonly administered is shown in the following
excerpts, the first from the report o f the New York State Commis
sion on Relief for Widowed Mothers, and the second by the Pennsyl
vania State Board o f Education, when State supervisory 'agency
for mothers’ aid :
The normal development of childhood is one o f the main functions of govern
ment. Thè best education requires a proper home training, and it thereby
becomes the duty of the State to conserve the home as its most valuable asset
whenever factors, other than the improper . guardianship of the parents,
threaten its destruction.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
.
1 Proceedings of the Conference on the Care o f Dependent Children, held at W ashington,
D. C., Jan. 2 5 -2 6 , 1909. Sixtieth Congress, second session, Senate Document No. 721,
p. 8, Washington, 1909. See also Poster Home Care for Dependent Children, pp. 2 0 7 -2 1 2
(U . S. Children’s Bureau Publication No. 136, W ashington, 1 9 2 6 ).
1
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2
AID TO MOTHERS W IT H DEPENDENT CHILDREN
The [mothers’ assistance] law has two reasons for its existence— a humani
tarian and an economic one. There are in our communities a large number o f
women with dependent children who can not maintain their homes without
assistance. W e have come to believe that as a principle of justice no home
should be broken up for poverty alone. * * * Experience has shown that
private resources are not adequate, especially in cases of long-continued de
pendency. The State therefore came to feel responsible for the support of this
group. * * * I t is actually cheaper in dollars and cents to maintain children
in their own homes than to support them in institutions, and “ homemade ”
children, cared for by their own mothers, have the best chance of becoming
healthy, normal citizens.2
BEGINNINGS OF THE MOTHERS’ A ID M OVEMENT
Before mothers’ aid laws were enacted a number o f States and
localities had recognized the wisdom o f the principle of such aid and
had applied it in a limited way. As early as 1906 the juvenile
courts o f some counties o f California granted county aid to children
in their own homes; in 1911 the State began to reimburse counties for
such aid given to half orphans. A n Oklahoma law o f 1908 provided
for “ school scholarships ” to be paid by counties upon recommenda
tion o f the school authorities to children whose widowed mothers
needed their earnings. A Michigan law o f 1911 also authorized pay
ment from school funds to enable children o f indigent parents to
attend school. Through a resolution by the county board o f M il
waukee County, Wis., in 1912, aid to mothers for the care o f children
in their homes was given through the juvenile court. In New Jersey
some aid to dependent children in their homes had been granted
from county funds prior to the enactment o f the special law in 1913.
The first definite legal provision o f aid to mothers o f dependent
children was passed by the Missouri Legislature in 1911, applying
at first only to Jackson County (in which Kansas City is located),
and later in the same year to the city o f St. Louis. The first state
wide mothers’ aid law was enacted in Illinois in 1911. Colorado
adopted by popular vote the “ mothers’ compensation act,” submitted
at the election o f 1912. The law became effective early in 1913.
In 1913 a total o f 18 States enacted mothers’ aid laws. The experi
mental character o f much o f this early legislation, due largely to
the haste with which the idea was adopted, is seen in the revisions
and numerous amendments found necessary as the laws were put into
operation. The first Illinois act was completely revised in 1913;
in five States the 1913 laws were completely revised and in eight
others amended in 1915. Similar changes have been made in the
later legislation, but the majority o f these later amendments have
been for the purpose o f improving the administration, making the ap
plication more inclusive, and increasing the amount of the grant or
o f the total appropriation available.
STA T U S OF LE G ISLA TIO N IN 1926
Laws authorizing assistance from public funds for dependent
children in their own homes had been adopted by 42 States and
Alaska and Hawaii at the beginning of 1926.3 The following States
2 Report of the New York State Commission on Relief for Widowed Mothers, p. 1.
Albany. 1 9 1 4 ; circular issued by the State Board o f Education under the supervision o f
the State Supervisor of the Mothers’ Assistance Fund of Pennsylvania, April, 1916, p. 3 .
8An act providing mothers’ aid for the District of Columbia was passed by Congress
in June, 1926.
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PRINCIPLES OF MOTHERS* AID LEGISLATION
3
have such laws, variously termed “ mothers’ pensions,” “ mothers’
allowances,” “ mothers’ assistance fund,” “ widows’ compensation,”
“ aid for dependent children,” “ aid to mothers o f dependent chil
dren,” and (in New Jersey) “ an act to promote home life for de
pendent children.”
Arizona.
Arkansas.
California.
Colorado.
Connecticut.
Delaware.
Florida.
Idaho.
Illinois.
Indiana.
Iowa.
Kansas.
Louisiana.
Maine.
Maryland.
Massachusetts.
Michigan.
Minnesota.
Missouri.
Montana.
Nebraska.
Nevada.
New Hampshire.
New Jersey.
New York.
North Carolina.
North Dakota.
Ohio.
Oklahoma.
Oregon.
Pennsylvania.
Rhode Island.
South Dakota.
Tennessee.
Texas.
Utah.
Vermont.
Virginia.
Washington.
W est Virginia.
Wisconsin.
Wyoming.
Not all these States, however, have translated the legal theory into
practice. It may be said fairly that the principle o f home care for
dependent children is generally accepted in this country, but the
15 years’ experiment does not by any means indicate that the need
has been met.
In Maryland (except for two counties) the mothers’ aid legislation
has become inoperative because of defects. In several other States
practically no use has been made of the legal provision; and
in many States where excellent work has been done in certain locali
ties, in others the intent o f the law has been ignored or the appro
priations made have been so inadequate as to be o f little avail.
PRINCIPLES OF M OTH ERS’ A ID L E G ISLA TIO N *
ESSENTIAL ITEMS IN TH E L A W S
Although mothers’ aid legislation must be drawn with due consid
eration o f the conditions existing in each State or other division o f
government, and especially with regard to laws on related subjects,
certain fundamental principles must be observed i f such laws are to
be effective child-welfare measures. These may be summarized as
follow s:
1. Application broad enough to permit aid whenever
by such means a suitable home may be maintained.
2. Age limitation to conform with education and
child labor laws.
3. Amount o f aid to be based on the needs o f each
individual family, with due regard to other available
resources.
4. Inquiry in each case to determine the home con
ditions and the assistance needed for t)ie proper care
o f the children.
5. Continued oversight in order that the welfare of
the children may be protected and the aid adjusted to
meet changing conditions.
S------ 1----- :--------r------•------------------------------
4
See A Tabular Summary of State Law s R elating to Public Aid to Children in Their
Own Hom es (U . S. Children's Bureau Chart No. 3, W ashington, 1 9 2 5 ).
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4
AID TO MOTHERS W IT H DEPENDENT CHILDREN
6. Provision o f safeguards necessary to protect the
public treasury against fraudulent or unwarranted
claims and against burdens that should be borne by
other communities or by individuals legally responsible
and able to furnish support.
7. Administration lodged in the public agency best
fitted to carry out the provisions o f the law as a con
structive child-welfare measure.
8. Appropriation adequate to carry out the pur
pose o f the law, with respect both to funds required
for aid and to expenses o f administration.
9. Some form o f general oversight by the State com
bined with educational activities to develop high stand
ards in the work o f the local administrative agencies.
PERSONS TO W HOM AID
M AY
BE
GIVEN
The central idea in the theory and early discussion o f aid to
dependent children in their own homes and the most common inclu
sion in the earlier laws was aid to widows.5 Gradually the concep
tion widened, and the trend o f legislation in the various States has
been toward increasing the application o f the law, giving the bene
fit o f the aid to dependent children wherever the circumstances
were such that the home should be maintained. Though a few
States still limit the aid to children o f widows, the prevailing method
is either to permit aid to be granted to any mother with dependent
children or to define certain types o f case, including those where the
father is dead, deserting, divorced, physically or mentally incapaci
tated, or imprisoned, with necessary restrictions pertaining to cases
o f desertion and divorce. (See map, p. 5.)
In the State o f Washington the law is applicable to any mothers
who are needy; in Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island, to
mothers with dependent children; in Nevada and New Hampshire,
to mothers dependent on their own efforts to support their children.
The Colorado law provides that aid may be granted to any parent
or other person designated by the court. The Indiana law permits
aid for any child found by court to be dependent or neglected and
committed to a county board of children’s guardians, when it appears
to be for the best interests o f the child to remain with the mother.
In addition to these eight States in which all types o f need may
be met the laws cover various types of family conditions. In 21
States children o f deserted mothers may be granted aid, and in 8
States children o f divorced mothers. Families where the father is
totally incapacitated may be helped in 24 States; 16 States have
specific provisions authorizing aid if the father is in an institution
for the insane or is feeble-minded, and 22 States if the father is
in a penal institution. Michigan, Nebraska, and Tennessee specif
ically authorize aid to unmarried mothers, and in some other States
the law may be so applied. A few States give assistance to rela
tives or guardians having custody o f a dependent child as follow s:
5
The first Illinois act was entitled “ Funds to Parents A ct,” and the law that followed
shortly after in Colorado included a parent, or parents, who because o f poverty
were unable to provide properly for a dependent child. In Illinois, however, revision has
limited the application of the law to dependent children whose fathers are dead, deserting,
or totally incapacitated.
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PRINCIPLES OF MOTHERS* AID LEGISLATION
5
Any woman standing in loco parentis to a dependent child or chil
dren may be the recipient o f aid in Delaware and Rhode Island;
a guardian, female relative, or custodian upon whom a child is depen
dent in Florida, Idaho, Virginia, and Wisconsin; a woman who has
assumed the responsibilities o f mother when both parents are dead,
New Jersey; a relative within the second degree o f either parent i f
the mother is dead in New Y ork ; stepmother in Minnesota and
Virginia, a grandmother in Minnesota and Wisconsin; in Colorado,
Idaho, Nebraska, North Dakota, and Oregon payment may be made
to the mother or other person designated by the administering
agency; and in Arizona and California aid may be granted for whole
orphans as well as for half orphans who are living in private homes.
P U B L IC AID T O C H I L D R E N IN T H E I R OWN H O M E S
P E R S O N S T O W H O M AID MAY B E G IV E N
( IN C L U D E S L E G I S L A T I O N IN E F F E C T JAN. 1, 1926)
Language general:
Mother with dependent
child or children..
r m i Language specific:
11 lu Mother whose husband is (l)d e a d ;
(2)deserted; (3)d iv o rc e d ;(4)totally
incapacitated-physical ly or mentally;!.
<5 ) imprisoned; or (6) in institution.for
insane, feeble-m ind ed , or epi le p tic .
Y /A Widowed m other only.
I
I No m oth ers’ aid law.
The term 'mother" in some S ta tes includes relative or guardian upon whom child is dependent,
or any wom an standing in loco p a re n tis .
,
,
e x p e c t a n t m oth ers m ay b e a ided if otherwise entitled to ben efits of law in Colorado,
Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Virginia, and Wisconsin.
. ... ,
...
.
._
Unmarried m.others are specifically included in laws of Michigan, Nebraska, and TennesseeLaw o p e r a t iv e in b u t tw o c o u n t ie s in Maryland.
A id may be granted to expectant mothers in Colorado, Missouri,
Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Virginia, and Wisconsin.
In 1926 only 5 6 o f the 42 States having mothers’ aid laws limited
the grant to children o f widows, though all 42 included widows, di
rectly or by implication.
RESIDENCE AN D CITIZENSHIP
The eligibility requirements as to residence and citizenship vary
in the different States from a minimum o f one year in the county to
citizenship in the United States together with five years’ residence
6
Connecticut, Maryland, New Jersey, Texas, and Utah.
102933°— 26------2
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6
AID TO MOTHERS W IT H DEPENDENT CHILDREN
in the State and two years in the county. Most States do not require
citizenship or declaration o f intention to become a citizen o f the
United States, the laws o f only 11 containing such a provision.
Thirty-nine o f the 42 States having mothers’ aid laws require resi
dence in the State. Such requirement is satisfied by one or two years’
residence in 14 States, by three years in 5 States, and by four or
five years in 4 States. Five States require that the father must have
been a resident o f the State at the time o f his death or when he
became incapacitated. In three States time o f residence is not
specified. Thirty-two States require residence in the local political
unit for six months, one, two, three, or five years.
OW NERSHIP OF PROPERTY
In the majority o f the States no specific mention is made of owner
ship o f property, but in several laws there is either a prohibition o f
such ownership or a more reasonable provision limiting the amount
o f such property. For example in the Wisconsin law “ The owner
ship by a mother o f a homestead shall not prevent the granting o f
aid * * * if the rental thereof would not exceed the rental which
a family o f the same size as the family o f such parent, receiving
aid, would be obliged to pay for living quarters,” or in the Nebraska
law, “ A mother shall not receive such relief who is the owner o f
real property or personal property other than the household goods
o f more than two thousand dollars.”
CONDITIONS OF A L LO W AN CE
Conditions determining the granting o f aid refer mainly to eco
nomic need and the mother’s ability to give the children proper care.
Examples o f good provisions are found among the requirements in
the laws o f Arkansas, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland,
Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, North
Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Washing
ton, West Virginia, and Wyoming. The following is quoted from
the Arkansas la w :
Such allowance shall be made * * * only upon the following conditions:
(1) The child or children, for whose benefit the allowance is made, must be
living with the mother of such child or children; (2)
* * * and when by
means of such allowance, she will be able to remain at home with her
children; (3) the mother must, in the judgment of the court, be a proper
person, physically, morally, and mentally, for the bringing up of her children;
(4) such allowance shall, in judgment of the court, be necessary to save
the child or children from neglect.
Important items are included in the laws o f two States (Penn
sylvania and West Virginia) in regard to safeguarding the educa
tion o f the children receiving this form o f public aid. Pennsyl
vania provides that “ no payment shall be made on account o f any
child of proper age and physical ability unless satisfactory report
has been made by the teacher o f the school in which such pupil is
enrolled stating that such child is attending school,” and West
Virginia requires that “ satisfactory reports must be given by the
teacher o f the district school stating that the children of the recipi- |
ent o f this fund are attending school, provided they are o f proper
age and physically able to do so.”
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PRINCIPLES OP MOTHERS
AID LEGISLATION
7
AGES OF CHILDREN W H O M A Y BE GIVEN AID
The most important consideration in regard to the age to which
a child may be granted aid is that it shall be in conformity with
compulsory school attendance and child labor laws. Michigan and
Tennessee have placed the age limitation at 17 years. Indiana per
mits aid up to 17 for girls and 16 for boys. In 25 States children
may be granted aid until they are 16 years o f age, sometimes with
the proviso that aid shall cease when the child is eligible for an
employment certificate, unless it appears to be desirable to permit
P U B L IC AID T O C H I L D R E N IN T H E I R OWN H O M E S
A G E S U N D ER W H IC H AID MAY B E G IV E N
(¡INCLUDES L E G I S L A T I O N IN E F F E C T JAN. 1, 1926)
YZA Urvder 14.
I No m o t h e r s * a id law.
• B o y s u n d e r 16, g ir 'ls u n d e r 17: In d ia n a . U n d e r I4 in K a n s a s City a n d S t .L o u is , 16 th ro u g h
o u t t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e S t a t e : M is s o u r i.
▼ B e t w e e n 14 a n d 16 i f c h ild i s r e q u i r e d b y la w to a tte n d sch o o l: M assachusetts, W est V ir
g i n i a , W isco n sin ■ C hild 16 to 18 n o t e n t it le d t o e m p lo y m e n t c e r t i f i c a t e : Ohio.
OM ay be t e m p o r a r i l y c o n t in u e d if c h ild is ill o r in c a p a c i t a t e d f o r w o r k : u n t il 16 inMary
la n d and N e b ra s k a •, i s in L o u is ia n a ; p e rio d n o t s p e c i f ie d in N e v a d a a n d F lo rid a .'
V A id t o c e a s e w h e n c h ild Fs e n t it le d to e m p lo y m e n t c e r t i f i c a t e ( I 4 y e a r s > : M innesota
( u n l e s s a t t e n d in g s c h o o l r e g u l a r l y o r in c a p a c i t a t e d ) ; O re g o n (b u t if h is w a g e s do
n o t e q u a l t h e p o s s ib le m a x im u m u n d e r t h i s la w t h e y m a y b e s u p p le m e n t e d by an
a llo t m e n t e q u a l to t h e d if f e r e n c e ) .
* L a w op erative" in bu t tw o c o u n tie s in M aryland
him to continue his education. Provision is also made in a number
o f States for continuance o f aid when a child over the age limita
tion is incapacitated for work. (See map above.)
The following States permit assistance until the child is 16 years
o f age:
Arizona.
California.
Colorado.
Connecticut.
Florida.
Illinois.
Indiana.
Iowa.
Louisiana.
Maine.
Minnesota.
Missouri.
Montana.
New Hampshire.
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Nevada.
New Jersey.
New York.
Ohio.
Oregon.
Pennsylvania.
South Dakota.
Texas.
Utah.
Vermont.
Virginia.
s
AID TO MOTHERS W IT H DEPENDENT CHILDREN
Because o f inadequate appropriations it is doubtful, however,
whether a very considerable number o f children above the com
pulsory education age are beneficiaries o f these acts.
AM OUNT OP AID
PERMITTED
Experience in the administration o f mothers’ aid laws has shown
that it is desirable to avoid strict limitation o f grants and instead to
permit assistance to be based upon the needs o f each individual
family. In determining the amount o f the grant required due con
sideration should be given to the needs o f the family as determined
by its composition, as well as to available resources from earnings
o f members o f the family, aid from relatives, and other sources.
The laws o f six States—Arizona, Colorado, Maine, Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, and Virginia— do not specify the amount o f aid that
may be granted to each child or each family but provide that the
amount may be fixed by the administrative agency in accordance
with what is needed in each family to provide properly for the
children. In New York State also the amount is not specified, ex
cept that the law states that it shall not exceed the cost o f institu
tional care.
In order to make a comparison possible the maximum amounts
specified in the laws o f the various States are here reduced to the
maximum amount which might be allowed for a family with "three
children, grouping the States as follows:
Maximum, $50—$70 a month: 8 States.— California, Connecticut,7
Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Nevada, Ohio.
Maximum, $ 0 - $ $ a month: 7 States.— Florida, North Dakota,
Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Utah, West Virginia, and Wyoming.
Maximum, $30-$39 a month: 10 States.— Illinois,8 Iowa, Louisi
ana, Missouri,® Montana, Nebraska, North Carolina, Oregon, Ten
nessee, and Wisconsin.
Maxvmnm $20—$29 a month: 10 States.—Arkansas, Delaware,
Idaho, Maryland, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oklahoma, Texas,
Vermont, and Washington.
The laws o f 11 States contain a maximum limitation for a family
o f any size ranging from $40 to $60 a month—Kansas, Louisiana,
Maryland, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina,
Oregon, Utah, and West Virginia.
INVESTIGATION AND CASE SUPERVISION
v The laws o f most o f the States include a statement relating to
investigation o f each application to determine eligibility under the
law, the character o f the home, and the amount o f aid required:
and continued oversight o f the families granted aid is provided for
m accordance with the principles o f social case work. In order to
adjust the allowances to changing conditions it has been found
desirable in some States to provide for review o f the grants at
regular intervals—in most instances once in six months.
maximum weekly budget is given in detail in the law.
T h ffm
^ d i f f e r e n t 1 ag es™ 1^
This budget provides for the
' t0 children of w idows> and f ° r different amounts for
? rovi! ì on g a t i n g to Chicago permits $55 a month for three children.
thre£.d ifferen t provisions in its law. In Kansas City the maximum
L» " ls * 3 -50 * week for
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ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION
9
ADM INISTR ATION A N D SUPERVISION
ADM INISTRATION
The agencies which have been given responsibility for the adminis
tration o f mothers’ aid laws have varied in accordance with the
period in which the law was first passed •and the opinion o f its
sponsors regarding the existing agencies best fitted to undertake the
new work. In only four o f the 42 States having such legislation
(Delaware, New York, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island) has a
new agency been established.10 The majority of the States have placed
the administration o f the act in an agency o f county-wide jurisdicP U B L IC AID T O C H I L D R E N IN T H E I R OWN H O M E S
LO C A L A D M I N I S T R A T I V E A G E N C I E S ACTIN G A L O N E O R IN C O O P E R A T IO N
W IT H A S T A T E A G E N C Y
(IN C L U D E S L E G I S L A T I O N IN E F F E C T JAN. 1, 1926)
|C ourt having
1Juvenile ju risd i
other fun ction s).
|L ocal sch ool boards,
j P oo r-r e lie f o ffic ia ls .
i State a gen cy (acting alone, although.
I com p osed of members from each county
|No m oth ers' aid la w .
In cooperation with a State agency (ArU ona, California, C onnecticut, Maine, Massachusetts,
New Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode Island, V erm ont).
County boards o f public in stru ction coop era te (Florida).
O ther local agencies may g r a n t aid (California).
Juvenile cou rt in Kansas C ity; board of children's guardians in St. Louis; these citie s o p e r a te
under special laws.
Law o p e r a t iv e in b u t tw o co u n tie s in Maryland.
tion, but in nine States a State board has been given certain admin
istrative functions which it exercises in cooperation with a comity
or. town agency, and in one State (Delaware) administration is
solely in the hands o f the State.11 (See map above.)
Local administrative agencies.
Chiefly because the mothers’ aid movement was in the beginning
an outgrowth o f the juvenile court movement, 20 States12 have
10 The Maine law (Law s of 1917, ch. 222) originally provided that local boards might be
specially constituted for mothers’ aid work or be composed o f overseers o f the poor, but a
1919 amendment (Law s o f 1919, ch. 171) constituted these boards as boards o f children’s
guardians also, w ith general powers relating to the investigation and prosecution o f cases
o f cruelty or violations of law s for the protection o f children.
11 In two other States the laws give the State agency certain administrative powers
which have not been generally exercised, and in 14 additional States there is some form
o f State supervision of mothers’ aid laws.
12 In one other State (Missouri) administration is in the juvenile court in one large
city (K ansas C ity).
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IO
AID TO MOTHERS W IT H DEPENDENT CHILDREN
placed administration in courts having jurisdiction over cases of
delinquent, dependent, and neglected children. The type o f local
administrative agencies in the States having mothers’ aid laws may
be summarized as follows:
Local administrative agency
Number of States
Total _____________________________ .___________________ .________
42
Court haying juvenile jurisdiction_________________ ______________ 20
County or city child-welfare board, board of children’s
guardians, or board o f public welfare_________________________c 5
3
Special county board (with no other functions)________________
School b oard_______________________________________________________
1
County officials granting poor relief___________________________ __ 12
No administrative authority vested in local agency-----------------1
Administration in juvenile court.— The 20 States13 in which ad
ministration o f mothers’ aid has been placed in a court having
juvenile jurisdiction are :
Arkansas.
California.14
Colorado.
Idaho.15
Illinois.
Iowa.
Louisiana.
Michigan.
Minnesota.
Montana.
Nebraska.
New Jersey.10
Ohio.
Oklahoma.
Oregon.
South Dakota.
Tennessee.
Vermont.”
Washington.
Wisconsin.
Administration in county or city hoard having other functions
also.— The 5 States18 in which administration is in a county or city
board having other functions, also, with reference to child welfare
or public welfare are: Arizona (State board also has administrative
authority), Indiana, Maine (State board also has administrative
authority), North Carolina, and Virginia.
In Arizona county child-welfare boards investigate applications
for aid and report their findings to the State child-welfare board.
In addition to their duties in connection with the mothers’ aid law
the county child-welfare boards investigate the case o f any orphan,
waif, neglected or abandoned child and report conditions to the
judge o f the supreme court and also to the State child-welfare board.
A id to dependent children in their own homes is administered in
Indiana by county boards o f children’s guardians, which are also
responsible for placing dependent and neglected children in family
homes. In Maine municipal boards o f children’s guardians having
general powers relating to the investigation and prosecution o f cases
o f cruelty or violation o f laws for the protection o f children make
investigations o f applications for mothers’ aid. They transmit re
ports and recommendations to the State board o f charities and cor
rections (constituted ex officio a State board o f children’s guard
ians), and supervise the families granted ¡aid by the State board.
In North Carolina administration is placed in the county boards
o f charities and public welfare, which are boards with very general
duties. Cases are investigated and supervised by the county super
intendent o f public welfare (in effect the executive officer of the
18 In Kansas City, M o., also, the juvenile court is the administrative agency.
14 In some counties the aid is administered by courts and in others by county poor-relief
officials.
A State agency has certain, administrative powers.
15 The court acts upon approval of the county commissioners.
16 A id is granted by courts and supervision o f fam ilies is by a State board.
lT Children are committed by courts or overseers o f the poor to the State department for
care in their own homes.
18 In St. Louis, M o., also, administration is vested in the city board o f children’s
guardians.
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11
ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION
i
#
county board). The State board o f charities and public welfare has
general oversight o f the administration o f the law.
Administration o f the Virginia mothers’ aid law is placed in
county or city boards o f public welfare, which have general powers
as in North Carolina. I f no such boards exist, juvenile or domesticrelations courts serve as administrative agencies. The State board of
public welfare has general supervisory authority.
Administration in special county hoards.—The States in which
special county boards have been created to-administer mothers’ aid
are New York, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island (in cooperation
with a State agency which is not independent).
Under the New York law county child-welfare boards have been
especially created for the administration o f mothers’ aid, but a law
passed in 1922 provides that they may be reorganized and given
additional powers relating to dependent children.19
Pennsylvania has special county boards o f trustees of the mothers’
assistance fund. In New York the State board o f charities and in
Pennsylvania the State department of welfare are given general
supervision o f the administration o f the law.
City or town boards o f mothers’ aid in Rhode Island make inves
tigations and administer the law in cooperation with the State
bureau of mothers’ aid, which functions as a division o f the State
home and school for children.
Administration in local school hoards.—New Hampshire has made
local school boards, in cooperation with the State board o f education,
the administrative agencies.
Administration hy officials granting poor relief.— The States in
which county or town officials granting poor relief administer the
mothers’ aid law are: Connecticut (selectman, warden, mayor, or
■other local officials, make recommendation to State agency), Florida
(county commissioners act upon report and recommendation o f
county board of public instruction), Kansas, Maryland (act opera
tive in only two counties), Massachusetts (in cooperation with State
agencv), Missouri (except in St. Louis and Kansas C ity), Nevada,
North Dakota, Texas, Utah, West Virginia, and Wyoming.
State administrative agencies.
O f the 10 States with State agencies having administrative
responsibility (usually in cooperation with a local agency), only 1
(Delaware) has a special mothers’ aid board.20 The agencies in the
retnaining 9 States may be classified as follows:
Agency
States
State child-welfare board (having other duties
in addition to mothers’ aid w o rk )___________ 2 (Arizona and New Jersey).
State board of public welfare or board of
charities and corrections______________________ 4 ( M a i n e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s ,
Rhode Island, Vermont).
State department of finance_____________________ 2 (Californiaand Connecticut).
State board of education-------------------------------------- 1 (New Hampshire).
0
19 In three counties— Dutchess, Suffolk, and Westchester— administration o f the law
is placed in boards w ith other duties in relation to public welfare, in accordance with
special legislation.
, ,,
20 I t has been difficult in some cases to decide on the basis of the law whether the
function of the State agency is administrative or supervisory. For purposes o f classifica
tion a State agency has been designated as having administrative functions if approval
o f grants in individual cases or visits to fam ilies receiving aid. are required. In addition
to the 10 States listed here, the laws of Minnesota and Virginia give State departments
certain administrative powers and authorize reimbursement o f a portion of the expendi
ture from State funds, but no State appropriations have been made and administrative
responsibility has not been generally exercised.
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12
AID TO MOTHERS W IT H DEPENDENT CHILDREN
^ Delaware.—A special mothers’ pension commission has been estab
lished, composed o f nine members, three from each county. Appli
cation for aid is made to the State commission and referred to the
members o f the commission from the county o f the mother’s resi
dence for investigation and report. The commission determines the
amount and duration o f aid.
The agencies in the remaining nine States in which a State agency
exercises administrative authority are the following:
Arizona.— State child-welfare board which acts upon reports o f
county child-welfare boards.
California.— State department o f finance, bureau o f children’s aid,
working in cooperation with courts or county officials.
P U B L IC AID T O C H I L D R E N IN T H E I R OWN H O M E S
S T A T E S U P E R V IS IO N
(IN C L U D E S L E G I S L A T I O N IN E F F E C T JAN. 1, 1926)
(a) S ta te a gen cy acts alone in Delaware; in cooperation with local agency in th e other nine States.
Connecticut.—Department o f State agencies and institutions, con
nected with the office o f the State treasurer who appoints a State
agent for the administration o f the mothers’, aid and State pauper
laws ; acts upon report and recommendation o f local officer.
Maine.— State board o f charities and corrections constituted ex
officio a State board o f children’s guardians, working in cooperation
with municipal boards of children’s guardians, either especially con
stituted or composed of overseers o f the poor.
Massachusetts.— State department of public welfare and local
overseers of the poor.
New Hampshire.— State board o f education, acting upon recom
mendation o f local school boards.
New Jersey.— State board o f children’s guardians, which supervises,
the families ; aid is granted by courts.
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ADMINISTRATION" AND SUPERVISION
13
Rhode Island.— State bureau o f mothers’ aid (established by State
public-welfare commission and functioning as division o f State
home and school for children) and local boards o f mothers’ aid.
Vermont.—Department of public welfare; children are received for
care by the department through the juvenile courts or the, overseers
o f the poor.
.
. .
The division o f authority in the nine States in which administra
tive responsibility is shared by State and local agencies may be sum
marized as follows: The State agency determines whether aid shall
be granted and the amount, acting upon report and recommendation
o f local agency, in Arizona, Connecticut, Maine, New Hampshire, and
Vermont. In California local authorities granting aid may be reim
bursed by the State, within specified limits, the State agency investi
gating applications for aid and supervising homes where aid is
granted. The local agency in New Jersey determines whether aid
•shall be given and the amount, committing family to State board o f
children’s guardians which pays the allowance from county funds and
supervises the family. In Massachusetts and Rhode Island the local
agency determines whether aid shall be granted and the amount, the
State board being required to cooperate with and supervise the work
o f local agencies, visit families in receipt o f aid and approve expen
ditures before the local treasury may be reimbursed from State funds.
{F o r provisions in Minnesota and Virginia see footnote 20, p. 11.)
SUPERVISION
In addition to the 10 States in which administration is by a State
agency or department working alone or with a local agency, 16 States
have some form o f State supervision o f the administration o f mothers’
aid laws. (See map, p. 12.) In 8 o f these States rather general
supervisory powers are given to a State agency, and in 8 the only
provision for State supervision is that the local agency must make
annual reports concerning all its work, including mothers’ aid, to the
State department.
State supervisory agencies.
The States in which the law gives the State agency rather general
.supervisory powers are the follow ing:
Florida.-—-The bureau o f child welfare and education o f the State
board o f health is directed to cooperate with local agencies in inves
tigating cases and to supply necessary blanks for use in obtaining
•data. A history o f each case, including recommendation, must be
filed with this bureau.
Minnesota.—The State board o f control is directed to promote
efficiency and uniformity in the administration o f the law, to advise
and cooperate with the courts, supply forms, visit and inspect fami
lies granted aid (through its agents), have access to records o f courts
and other agencies concerning allowances, require reports, and ap
prove cases in which reimbursement is to be made by the State for
moneys expended. (No State appropriation has been made.)
New York.— The State board o f charities is vested with general
supervision over local boards o f child welfare and may require reuorts and revoke allowances obtained in violation o f law.
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14
A ID
TO
M OTHERS
W IT H
D E P E N D E N T C H IL D R E N
>North Carolina.—The law provides that the State board o f chari
ties and public welfare shall have general oversight o f the adminis
tration o f the law, furnish necessary blanks, give advice and help,
receive reports on each case, and give approval or disapproval o f re
imbursement from State funds.
North Dakota.—The board o f administration is directed to pro
mote efficiency and uniformity in' the administration o f the law.
Permsylvania.— The State department o f public welfare is charged
with the supervision o f the administration o f the law. The State
supervisor on the staff o f this department is to promulgate rules
o f procedure, visit each county board at least twice a year, and act
as general field organizer under the law.
Virginia.— The State board o f public welfare is authorized to
supervise local administrative agencies as to methods o f investiga
tion, supervision, and record keeping. It may require reports, and
is directed to visit and inspect families granted aid and to approve
reimbursement from State funds if State appropriations are made
therefor. (None appear to have been made.)
Wisconsin.—Approval o f State board o f control is necessary be
fore any county may be reimbursed from State funds.
The eight States in which annual reports only are required are
Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Indiana, Louisiana, Michigan, Nebraska,
and Ohio.
REIMBURSEMENT FROM STATE FUNDS
State appropriations to supplement local funds have been made
in some cases with a view to encouraging local grants and rais
ing standards o f relief. States in which the application o f mothers’
aid laws was originally left to the initiative o f local officials have
frequently found it desirable to amend the laws so as to make appro
priations mandatory instead o f permissive and to apply some form
o f assistance or supervision by the State to carry out the intent o f
the laws.
Twelve o f the 42 States having mothers’ aid laws are authorized
to share with the counties or municipalities part o f the expense o f
aid,21 and in New Jersey the cost o f administration is borne by the
State. In two other States (Arizona and New Hampshire) the
entire expenditure is made from State funds. In Delaware, Maine,
North Carolina,22 Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont the
State divides equally with the town or municipality the expenditures
for aid. In California the State furnishes one-half or more o f the
aid granted. In Connecticut and Massachusetts the State furnishes
one-third, and local units two-thirds, o f the expenditure's. In W is
consin a portion o f the expenditure is from State funds, the amount
available being limited by the maximum annual appropriation o f
$30,000 fixed by law. In Minnesota and Virginia the county m a y
be reimbursed by the State (in Minnesota to the extent o f one-third
o f the amount expended and in Virginia if appropriations are made
for this purpose), but no State appropriations have been made. In
a In two o f these States no State appropriation has ever been made
22 The law also lim its the maximum State aid permitted, the amount specified being
apportioned among the counties on a per capita basis.
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EXTENT TO W H IC H THE LAW S ABE APPLIED
15
Maine and Massachusetts all o f the aid paid to families in which
the mother has no legal settlement in any town is chargeable to the
State.
E X T E N T TO W H IC H THE L A W S A R E APPLIED
The unevenness •o f the application o f the principles expressed
in the mothers’ aid laws is evidenced by the results o f a survey
made by the Children’s Bureau in which information in regard to
administration was gathered, applying to conditions in 1922. Data
were obtained for 38 States.23 On the basis o f the data reported on
the number of children granted public aid in their own homes the
ratios o f children aided per 100,000 o f the general population24 o f
each State ranged from 331 to 1.4. New York, Nevada, California,
Massachusetts, Wisconsin, Montana, Minnesota, New Jersey, Dela
ware, Maine, and North Dakota were at the top o f the list m the
order named, reporting aid given to more than 200 children per
100,000 o f the total population. South Dakota, Oregon, Idaho,
Wyoming, Iowa, Colorado, Connecticut, Michigan, Utah, New Hamp
shire, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Arizona, and Ohio reported ratios o f
100 to 200 per 100,000 of their populations. Oklahoma, Washington,
Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Florida, West Virginia, and Vermont
had ratios ranging from 31 to 95. Arkansas, Indiana, Texas, I ennessee, and Virginia reported less than 20 children aided per 100,000
o f their populations, the figures for the last three States almost
reaching the vanishing point— 8.5, 4.4, and 1.4, respectively.
Even in the States reporting the highest proportions the possi
bilities o f constructive application o f this aid has by no means
reached its limit. It is probable that the ratios would be found to
approach 500, in comparison with those given, i f funds were avail
able for the full application o f these laws designed to promote home
life for children. It must be taken into account that conditions
in some States are such that not only this form o f dependency but
also the need for care of dependent children in institutions and by
child-placing agencies is less prevalent. In general, however, these
ratios can be taken as indications o f the adequacy o f the provision
made by the State. Considering the highest ratios reported as rep
resenting the needs—though it is recognized that they are in general
understatements—in 11 o f the 38 States reported upon two-thirds
or more o f the need was met ; in 14 States from one-half to one-third
o f the need; and in the remaining 13 States thè numbers reported
ranged from less than a third to less than one two-hundredth o f the
highest ratio reported by any State. It will be seen that the chief
problem at the present time is not to obtain new State legislation or
amendments to existing laws, but to obtain appropriations and to
raise the standards o f administration so that the laws may mean
something to the children they were intended to benefit.
28 O f the 42 States having such law s in 1926 Louisiana and M aryland were not in
cluded because their laws were operative in so few counties ; Rhode Island and ^ o rtn
Carolina enacted mothers’ aid law s in 1923, and data could not be included, therefore,
^ ^ T ^ ^ a ^ o 3^ ^ 00^000 of the general population is used rather than the more com
mon and more accurate ratio based on 1 ,000 o f the popuiation un£er 18 y^ rf
^
order to afford comparison w ith the census data on dependent children in institutions,
contained in a volume now in press giving data gathered in 1923.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
16
a id
to
m others
w it h
dependent
c h il d r e n
Mothers’ aid administration offers the most obvious evidence o f
the seriousness o f placing laws on the statute books, but failing to
make them practically effective through adequate appropriations
and proper administration. It is estimated that at this time, on
any one date, approximately 130,000 children are receiving public
aid in their own homes. I f estimate were made of the total number
o f children in the United States for whom aid should be granted
in their own homes, it would be closer to 350,000 or 400,000 and
probably beyond even this if all types of more or less permanent
family disability were included.
STANDARDS OF A I D 25
Questions are often asked in regard to the comparative cost o f care
o f a child in his own home and in an institution. Though it can
be demonstrated easily that home care—either in a child’s own home
or in a boarding home in which he is placed by a child-caring agency—
is more economical financially than care in an institution o f fairly
adequate standards, this should not be the point that is given em
phasis. The important consideration is what it costs the child. Dep
rivation o f his own home is a very serious thing for any child, and
it is in line with the best principles o f work for dependent children
that every effort should be made to conserve the home.
The New York City Board o f Child Welfare, the agency admin
istering the mothers’ allowance act in that city, in 1923 cared for
23,108 children and 8,440 widows in their own homes at a cost o f
$4,500,000. Compared with this, the city paid $4,000,000 to provide
for 13,680 children in institutions. It cost New York City $28.40
a month to care for a child in an institution and a little over $15 a
month to care for a child in his own home.
The most desirable form o f provision does not limit the amount o f
the grant for each family, but makes it possible to supply such aid
as is necessary in view o f other resources and the budget needed
for the proper maintenance o f the family. Most families have some
other resources, such as assistance from relatives or others who have
a logical responsibility or interest, earnings o f older children or o f
the mother, saving o f rental through ownership o f the house, or
garden products raised by families in small towns or rural districts.
The maximum amounts specified in the law, therefore, rarely fit
the situation, being either too small to cover the needs and requir
ing supplement from some other source, or, in more unusual in
stances, being larger than the family would require if other possible
resources were developed. It is probable that an actual saving
occurs when the law permits such leeway that the administering
agency can apply modern principles o f family case work.
Small as are the amounts specified in the laws, in actual application
the grants are frequently very much less than this, either because
appropriations are inadequate or because the officials in charge o f
administration o f this aid grant a small arbitrary amount without
special reference to the needs o f the family.
25 See Standards o f Public Aid to Children in Their Own Homes, by Florence Nesbitt
<U. S. Children’s Bureau Publication No. 118, W ashington, 1 9 2 3 ).
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STANDARDS OF AID
17
It has been shown in various studies—the most extensive being
made by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics26—that the
cost o f living o f workingmen’s families is considerably greater than
the amounts available for aid to dependent children in their own
homes according to the laws o f most o f the States. According to
this study, the average cost of living for 1918 was $1,434.37 for a
family consisting of father, mother, and three children under 14
years o f age.27
To arrive at the expenses o f a family consisting o f a mother and
three children under 14—the group taken as the basis o f the fore
going comparison o f maximum grants permitted by the laws o f
the various States (see p. 8 )—the cost o f the husband’s food and
clothing has been deducted from the $1,434.37, in accordance with
data contained in the cost-of-living study cited. The amount thus
arrived at is $1,197.78. Assuming that the expenditures for some
other items should also have been deducted, $1,000 may be consid
ered as the amount required for a mother and three dependent
children, on the basis o f actual expenditures reported by more than
12,000 families in almost 100 cities in the United States in 1918.
The maximum expenditures permitted by the laws o f 35 o f the
42 States having mothers’ aid laws would amount to less than $800
a year for a mother and three children. In 20 of these States the
amount would be less than $480 a year. It has been stated that
the inadequacy o f the appropriations available or careless adminis
tration reduces the aid considerably below even the low amounts
permitted under the law. Because o f the different resources avail
able to the families it is obviously impossible to fix a general amount
that would provide properly for the needs in all cases. The solu
tion is found in the laws that permit the administrative agency to
furnish aid that, in the words o f the Massachusetts law, shall “ be
sufficient to enable the mothers to bring up their children properly
in their own homes.” When a maximum amount is stated in the
law it should be such that the need o f any family may be provided
for in accordance with these same principles and should never be
construed to mean an arbitrary amount to be granted in each case,
either in the maximum stated in the law or any fraction o f it,
as is frequently the case.
Many administrative agencies, both under the general type o f
provision and the form limiting the grant to a certain arbitrary
amount, work out family budgets after careful study o f the needs
o f each family being considered for aid. The grants are then made
on the basis o f the requirements, so far as appropriations make
this possible, supplementary aid required being secured from other
public or private agencies. It is only in^ this way that the welfare
o f the children can be assured, and it is found that economy in
the use of public funds results when family needs and resources
are given proper consideration.
26 Cost of Living in the United States.
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 357.
W ashington 1924. The periods covered by this study ranged from, the year ended July
31 1918, to the year ended February 28, 1919.
*
h ibid n 5 (as reported, the average size o f fam ilies w as 4.9 persons). Taking the
year 1913 as a base the cost of living index for June, 1925, is reported by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics as 173.5, as compared with 174.4 in December, 1918, so that the figure
giveifm av be taken as representative o f present costs. See “ Prices and cost of living,
in The M onthly Labor Review, August, 1925, p. 76.
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18
AH) TO MOTHERS W IT H DEPENDENT CHILDREN
The effective administration o f mothers’ aid was summarized
by the conferences on child welfare held under the auspices o f the
United States Children’s Bureau in 1919 as follow s:
The policy of assistance to mothers who are competent to care for their
own children is now well established. I t is generally recognized that the
amount provided should be sufficient to enable the mother to maintain her
children suitably in her own home, without resorting to such outside em
ployment as will necessitate leaving her children without proper care and
oversight; but in many States the allowances are still entirely inadequate
to secure this result under present living costs. The amount required can be
determined only by careful and competent case study, which must be re
newed from time to time to meet changing conditions.28
28 Minimum Standards for Child W elfare Adopted by the W ashington and Regional
Conferences on Child W elfare, 1919, p. 11. U. S. Children’s Bureau Publication No. 62.
W ashington, 1920.
o
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