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OUTLOOK for COMPUTER PROCESS CONTROL Bulletin 1658 U S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR Bureau of Labor Statistics OUTLOOK for COMPUTER PROCESS CONTROL: Manpower Implications in Process Industries Bulletin 1 658 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR George P Shultz, Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Geoffrey H. Moore, Commissioner 1970 Digitized forFor FRASER Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 2 0 4 0 2 . Price 7 0 cents. PREFACE The Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 directs the Secretary of Labor to establish techniques and methods for detecting in advance the potential manpower effect of automation, technological change, and other innovations that may result in changes in the structure of production. This type of early warning system could be of great assistance to management and union leaders, educators, government officials, economists, and others in planning policies to cushion the effects of change. This bulletin focuses on effects of computer control of production processes. The number of installations of process computers is expected to increase substantially over the next decade, and this trend will have significant implications for productivity, occupational requirements, training programs, employment, and industrial relations in many major industries. This study is one of a series prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics on technological developments and their effect in different industries. Our earlier studies include a survey on the use of computers for business data processing in government and industry, and a study that focused on the manpower implications of numerical control of machine tools in the metalworking industries. This bulletin provides firsthand information on manpower and economic implications of computer process control through study of applications in user plants. The study focuses mainly on the effect of computer process control on employment, occupations, skills, training, and labor-management relations. Emphasis also is placed on the outlook for the future of this important innovation, the extent of its utilization by industry, and its impact on production and productivity. An account of the procedures that some companies used in planning and effecting changes may suggest to management and employee organizations measures that might be useful elsewhere. The primary source o f information presented in this study is data collected by BLS representatives during field visits to plants with significant applications of computer control. Additional information was obtained from discussions with union and government officials and experts employed by major manufacturers of computers and related equipment, and by reviewing secondary source materials, particularly trade and technical journals. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is grateful to the many individuals who provided useful information and reviewed the draft of this report. We also wish to thank American Cement Corporation, American Electric Power Service Corporation, American Oil Company, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, F.L. Smidth and Company, General Electric Company, International Business Machines Corporation, National Steel Corporation, and Westinghouse Electric Corporation for providing us with photographs. This bulletin was prepared by Arthur Herman and Robert Ball assisted by Richard Lyon, under the direct supervision of Richard Riche. The study was made in the Office of Productivity, Technology, and Growth under the general direction of John J. Macut, Chief of the Division of Technological Studies. The report is part of the Bureau’s research program on productivity and technological developments. iii CONTENTS Chapter 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... Chapter 2. S um m ary............................................................................................................................ Chapter 3. Role of the computer in process c o n tro l.................................................................... Characteristics of control computer system s.................................................................................... Functions of the com puter................................................................................................................... Advanced forms of control................................................................................................................... Chapter 4. Status and applications of process computers ............................................................ Extent of u s e ...................................................................................................................................... Trends in installation......................................................................................................................... Applications of process control computers in plants surveyed ................................................... Applications of process computer in industries not studied......................................................... Chapter 5. Costs and benefits of installing process control com puters...................................... Costs at survey p la n ts .......................................................................................................................... Objectives................................................................................................................................... Benefits of computer c o n tr o l............................................................................................................. Problems at survey p la n ts ................................................................................................................... Chapter 6. Manpower for planning and implementing computer process control.................... Characteristics and function of the project group......................................................................... Manpower requirements by major installation phases ................................................................ Status of the user process control computer group...................................................................... Staffing p roblem s................................................................................................................................ Significance of prior EDP experience............................................................................................... Chapter 7. Impact of employment and jo b s................................................................................. Changes in em ploym ent..................................................................................................................... Displacement ....................................................................................................................................... Changes in job duties and skills.......................................................................................................... Changes in grade statu s........................................................................................................................ Chapter 8. New jobs required for computer process control....................................................... Type and description of new jo b s .................................................................................................... Selecting employees for new jo b s ...................................................................................................... Extent of upgrading.............................................................................................................................. Characteristics of employees in new jobs........................................................................................... Chapter 9. Training for computer process control............................................................... Training provided by vendors.......................................................................................................... Training provided by u s e r s ................................................................................................................. Training provided by educational institutions and other groups................................... ............. Criteria and method of selecting employees for training.............................................................. Appraisal of training............................................................................................................................ Chapter 10. Labor-management adjustments..................................................................................... Contract provisions relating to technological change....................................................................... Informing employees about change.................................................................................................... v 1 2 5 5 6 6 10 10 10 10 13 17 17 17 17 20 22 22 22 26 26 26 27 27 27 28 33 34 34 35 35 37 40 40 43 46 47 47 48 48 48 CONTENTS-Continued Special negotiations and grievances................................................................................................. Union comments about computer process c o n tro l....................................................................... Chapter 11. Outlook for computer process control and m anpower............................................ Growth in number of computer control installations.................................................................... Factors affecting outlook for computer process co n tro l.............................................................. Outlook for employment and occupations in process industries................................................. 49 49 50 50 50 51 Tables: 1. 2. Level of control for computer applications in survey p la n ts ............................................ Installations of digital process computers reported in the United States, by major categories of users, cumulative totals, 1958-68 ............................................ 3. Computer applications in survey p la n ts................................................................................ 4. Costs of selected process computer systems in survey plants with purchased computers ........................................................................................................ 5. Costs of selected process computer systems in survey plants with rented or leased com puters............................................................................................... 6 . Management’s objectives in introducing computer process control.................................... 7. Man-years required to implement computer process control at survey p la n ts .............. 8. Personnel involved in planning and implementing process control computer systems at selected survey plants..................................................................... 9. Employment in computerized units as a percent of total employment in survey plants............................................................................................. 10. Distribution of modified jobs at survey p lan ts..................................................................... 11. Changes in major job duties of selected unit employees caused by computer process control ........................................................................................... 12. Extent of job modifications in hot strip m ill....................................................................... 13. Types of job duties performed by computer in hot strip m ill.......................................... 14. New computer jobs at survey plants...................................................................................... 15. Description of duties of new computer process control occupations at a paper m ill............................................................................................... 16. Extent of upgrading of employees selected to staff new computer jobs........................... 17. Age, education, and senority: Employees in new computer process control positions and those in affected production units.............................................. 18. Education of employees in new computer jobs, by category of jo b ................................. 19. Training provided by computer m anufacturers.................................................................. 20. Selected courses offered by the training school of a large vendor of process control co m p u ters.......................................................................................... 21. Training provided by user companies..................................................................................... 22. Type of courses for computer process control desired by officials at selected survey plants...................................................................................... 23. Outlook for further occupational changes at selected survey plants because of computer process control.................................................................... VI 8 12 13 18 19 19 23 24 27 28 29 31 33 34 36 37 38 39 41 44 45 47 53 CONTENTS—Continued Charts: 1. 2. 3. A digital computer control system ...................................................................................... Basic relationships in open-loop and closed-loop control.................................................. Number of digital process computer installations reported in the United States and the World, selected periods, 1958-68 ...................................................................... 7 9 11 Appendixes: A. Scope and m ethod.................................................................................................................. A - l. Number of survey plants, process control computers, and employees in operating units with process control computers......................................................... B. Tables: B -l. Employment, output and output per man-hour, in manufacturing and major process industries, selected years, 1957-69.................................................. B-2. Major applications of process control computers in survey industries in the United States, July 1968........................................................................................ B-3. Major job duties of three occupations in an 80-inch hot strip mill affected by process computer control............................................................................. B-4. Suggested courses for process control systems engineers.................................................. B-5. Union comments on computer process control at survey plants....................................... B-6. Outlook for installations and applications of computer process control at selected survey p lan ts...................................................................................... B-7. Factors expected to accelerate and retard growth in process computer installations ..................................................................................................... C. Selected annotated bibliography.......................................................................................... 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 VII CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION within precise limits. The computer represents a signifi cant advance over conventional control devices since it can receive and store information about process condi tions, perform calculations on this information to see if process conditions should be changed, and send out signals to process control equipment to make corrections when necessary. The application of computers to industrial process control is growing rapidly in number and complexity. In many early installations, process computers were used primarily to accumulate and print out data on processing conditions, which assisted the operator to control the process using the same instrumentation and equipment as before. As experience broadened and technology improved, the operator increasingly was removed from direct involvement, and in the frequently used “closedloop” mode of today, operators often only monitor process equipment while many control actions are taken automatically by the computer. A significant segment of the Nation’s work force is employed in process industries, which lead all other major industry groups in the application of process con trol computers. About 2 million workers, approximately 1 0 percent of the total work force in manufacturing, are employed in the six major process industries covered in this report. (See appendix B-l.) Thousands of employees in these industries work in production units with func tions that have potential for computer control. One of the most significant technological develop ments in U.S. industry has been the introduction of electronic computers. Their phenomenal speed, remark able versatility, and large storage capacity have trans form ed dramatically data processing operations in offices, banks, research laboratories, engineering firms, and other organizations, and have had widespread man power effects. Although much research has been con ducted into the employment effects of computers on office employees, relatively little is known about these effects on blue-collar and technical workers in factories and plants where computers now are being introduced to control production processes. In an effort to assess the manpower impact of this emerging technology, this study undertakes to provide answers to the following questions: How extensively are process computers being used, and how many will be installed in the future? What factors, such as costs and benefits, govern the rate of adoption? What type of manpower is required to implement computer process control? How has employment been affected by this innovation?What changes in occupational requirements are brought about? What are the training needs for computer process control? What industrial relations problems arise? This bulletin deals with the use of the computer as part of the operations of 12 plants in 6 process indus tries: electric power, industrial chemicals, steel, petro leum refining, paper, and cement.1 Plants in these industries depend upon the monitoring of instrumenta tion and control devices to maintain process operations d e ta iled information on scope and method is presented in appendix A. 1 CHAPTER 2. SUMMARY Most plants achieved the gains that they anticipated, and benefits were substantial in some cases. Gains were achieved by reducing fuel and raw material costs, increasing output, producing products of higher dollar value, reducing equipment and process malfunctions, and decreasing labor costs. Implementing computer process control required a substantial amount o f technical manpower for a period generally exceeding 2 years. At survey plants, engineers, technicians, and supervisors from the plant staff were assigned to project groups for the purpose of applying computer process control. Working closely with this staff were systems analysts, programers, and technicians from the firm supplying the computer. In general, the plant installing the computer provided staff who were familiar with the process, while the firm manufacturing the computer supplied personnel experienced in com puter operations, systems capabilities, and programing. This computer group worked on the following four major phases of implementing computer process control: Feasibility study; planning, systems design, model build ing, and programing; installation; and operational and system refinement. A range of from 2 to 21 man-years were required to complete computer projects at indi vidual survey plants. Impact upon plant employment has been slight, although job duties o f employees working with com puter control have been altered significantly. Employ ment levels at survey plants were affected more by factors other than computer process control, such as shifts in market demand, changes in general economic conditions, and adoption of other technological changes. Within computerized units, relatively little employment change occurred because most operating crews already were at a minimum consistent with the safe operation of the process. Although the computer assumed some of the manual tasks of the operators, the crew size was generally maintained at its previous level to cope with emergencies that might arise or possible computer failure. Consequently, no layoffs occurred and only 20 employess at 2 of the 12 plants visited were displaced because of changes attributed to the computers. All of the displaced employees who were available for work were reassigned to other jobs within their plants at no reduction in wages. Current use o f process control computers is limited but outlook is fo r significant growth. By mid-1968, nearly 1,700 process control computers were installed or on order for a variety of applications in process and other industries throughout the United States. Process control computers were introduced first in industries with processes that require precise control over many vari ables, such as in petroleum refining, steel, chemicals, and electric power. Functions of process computers include collecting and recording operating data, providing infor mation to guide operators in controlling the process, warning in case of impending equipment malfunctions, and undertaking automatic control of parts of the production process. Specific applications observed at survey plants included control of ammonia and ethylene processes in chemical plants; catalytic reforming and crude distillation units in petroleum refineries; electric generating equipment in electric power plants; basic oxygen and hot strip mill operations in steel mills; a papermaking machine in a paper mill; and a rotary kiln in a cement plant. Applications of process computers already have spread to many other areas, including a u t o m o b i l e manufacturing, mining, research, and medicine. Advances in process computer technology, such as more reliable and greater capacity computers, specialized computer languages, and standardized pro grams and process models should accelerate computer use, with an estimated 5,900 installations in the United States forecast by 1975. Adoption was encouraged by favorable cost benefit balance. The costs of introducing process computers were c o n si d er a bl e , ranging from $200,000 to $1,500,000 at survey plants. Costs depended upon numerous factors including the complexity of the process to be controlled, the type of computer to be used, the amount of auxiliary equipment purchased, the amount of new instrumentation added, and the degree of control desired. The major management objectives for installing com puters were to decrease raw material and fuel costs and to optimize or increase production. A reduction in man power requirements was a goal in only a few plants, since labor costs in operations to be placed under com puter control at most survey plants were reported to be a relatively small part of total production costs. 2 The most significant effect of the introduction of process computers was changes in job duties. A total of 352 workers, based on information from 11 survey plants, had their jobs modified. Operators in comput erized units made up the largest occupational group affected. Job changes encompassed a shift from manual to automatic data logging and manipulation of dials, levers, and other control devices. Process operators generally were trained to operate the computer console and gained responsibility for the additional computer equipment installed in the control room. Another occupational group significantly affected was instrument maintenance technicians. These employees generally were trained to service the additional process instrumentation needed for computer control and in some cases also were trained to provide normal service for the computer and auxiliary equipment. The growing use of process computers probably will reinforce a number of divergent employment trends underway in the process industries. Employment of workers such as control and systems engineers, elec tronic and instrument technicians, and programers, is expected to increase. On the other hand, fewer operators may be needed. Occupational structure generally was upgraded. A total of 68 new jobs were required to implement and operate process computer systems in survey plants. Systems analysis, programing, and related occupations made up about two-thirds of the new jobs; the other one-third consisted of supervisory, computer console operation, and instrument development, installation and maintenance occupations. Employees assigned to new computer-oriented jobs generally were upgraded in title and salary. Most of the new jobs were staffed by employees who already were working for the user firm in other positions and had a thorough knowledge of the process to be put under computer control. A large majority of the employees selected for the new jobs were college graduates with a degree in engi neering or a related field. A small number of new jobs, however, were staffed by personnel without college degrees. Particularly noteworthy were the upgrading of clerical workers and technicians to positions involving computer programing. A technical assistant at a petro leum refinery and a powerhouse fireman at a papermill, for example, received training and were advanced to co m p u te r pro g ram in g positions with substantial increases in salary. Fairly extensive training was needed to introduce and operate process control computers. A total of 638 survey plant employees, an average of 53 per plant including supervisors, engineers, programers, operators, and technicians, received classroom or on-the-job train ing. Computer manufacturers provided training both at the plant and at schools located elsewhere. This training, which consisted for the most part of formal classroom instruction in computer concepts and theory, and pro graming and maintenance techniques, was provided mainly to supervisors, process engineers, instrument engineers, and electronic and instrument technicians. The period of training depended greatly upon the type of instruction provided; the average time was almost 5 weeks per employee and ranged from a 4 hour onsite orientation session in computer basics and system usage, given to dispatchers in a steel plant, to a 1-year course combining onsite and offsite training in programing and computer technology provided to a programing mainte nance technician in a chemical plant. Process operators in computerized units received rela tively short periods of onsite instruction, generally from plant engineers and supervisors. The training period for operators ranged from 4 to 120 hours; about two-thirds received 20 hours or less of formal training. Operator training consisted mainly of on-the-job sessions dealing with the operation of the computerized equipment, although some classroom training was given at a few plants. A small number of instrument maintenance technicians also received short periods of onsite training provided by user personnel. The selection of persons to be trained for the new computer-related programing and maintenance jobs most often was determined by an individual’s educational background, work experience, job performance, apti tude, and interest. Tests and interviews sometimes were used as a screening device. On the other hand, operators and supervisors working in the affected production unit when the computer was installed automatically received appropriate training. Process computers were introduced in survey plants with a minimum o f industrial relations problems. Special union-management negotiations or grievances related to the introduction of process computers were reported at only two plants. At a petroleum refinery, a union negoti ated for jurisdiction over all computer maintenance and gained jurisdiction for repair of minor difficulties. At a power plant, a union unsuccessfully filed grievances about the normal abolition of two extra operator’s jobs, claiming that operation of the computerized unit was unsafe without the extra workers. Workers were represented by unions at 9 of the 12 plants. Collective bargaining agreements at survey plants generally contained provisions which protected workers against the adverse affects of technological change. These provisions covered advance notice to employees, 3 procedures for staffing new jobs, establishment of wage rates, eligibility for training, and procedures for layoffs, downgrading, and transfers. Formal advance notice of impending installation of process computers was provided at most plants from 4 months to 2 years in advance of installation during meet ings between company and union officials. In addition, employees learned about these pending changes through articles published in company newspapers and announce ments placed on bulletin boards. 4 In general, local union officials interviewed felt that the introduction of process computers was part of the normal technological evolution in their industry and indicated that workers faced no serious problems in their adaption to computer control. Some officials were more concerned with the manpower impacts of technological changes other than computers. However, several union representatives foresaw that the potential of computers for adverse manpower effects would increase as the level and scope of their control is extended. CHAPTER 3. ROLE OF THE COMPUTER IN PROCESS CONTROL Computers originally were developed for engineering and scientific calculations and later were adapted to business data processing and control functions. The development of industrial process control computers parallels that of scientific and business computers. Modern computers are in their “third generation;” the first used vacuum tubes, the second used transistors, and the third uses integrated circuits. Process control com puters differ from business and scientific computers, however, in that they are smaller, less expensive, more rugged, and designed for trouble free operation under adverse conditions. Moreover, they are capable of receiv ing input directly from the process. They depend on a number of rapidly advancing technologies including electronics, data processing, control engineering, opera tions research, and systems engineering, and, therefore, require a great deal of advanced engineering and other skills for design, installation, programing, and mainte nance. Since 1958, when the first industrial control com puter was introduced, the price and size of these machines have declined while their speed and reliability have increased. Recently, computer manufacturers introduced smaller and lower-priced models which increase the prospective number and type of control applications, since they can be used where large com puters would be uneconomical. In the most elementary control applications, the computer is not connected directly to the process and functions as an extension of instrumentation, collecting and recording data about the process which is entered manually and interpreted by the operator. In its more advanced functions, however, the control computer is connected directly to the process and is part of a total system of control. These advanced functions of com puter control range from printing out explicit instruc tions for an operator to follow, to complete automatic control of the process. Control computers are being applied to large sections of plants as well as unit operations such as catalytic cracking in petroleum refineries and hot strip mills in The electronic digital computer is the culmination of a series of major developments in process control allow ing more automatic control of many different types of production processes. This chapter discusses the charac teristics of computer process control and describes some of its technical forms. Characteristics of Computer Control Systems The adoption of electronic digital computers for proc ess control is part of the evolutionary trend toward more continuous processing and less dependence on manual control in the process industries. Prior to the introduction of the digital computer, equipment such as automatic controllers— which auto matically make adjustments to keep process variables near preset values; automatic data loggers— which are connected directly to the process to provide a perma nent record of operating conditions; and analog com puters— which provide automatic control over a limited number of process variables, were in widespread use in the process industries. As processes became more complex and instruments more numerous, operators frequently were inundated with large volumes of information. The number of instruments, the complexity of variable interactions, process time lags, and the short time allotted for analysis and decision making made it extremely difficult, even with analog computers and advanced intrumentation, to incorporate all the available information into accurate and consistent control decisions. These problems, in addition to anticipated economic gains, led to the appli cation of digital computers to industrial processes. One eminent authority summarizes the potential of electronic digital computers for process control in the following statement: Because of the key role of information in con trol. . . .the computer is a logical tool to be ap plied: the outstanding characteristic of a digital computer control system is the ability to acquire, assimilate, analyze, and disseminate large amounts of information with great speed, accuracy, and flexibility.2 2 Emanuel S. Savas, C o m p u ter C o n tro l o f In du strial Processes (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965), p. 4. 5 steel plants. They may be used eventually in integrated, companywide control and information systems, in which economic decisionmaking as well a$ engineering factors would be considered in controlling production. When computers are linked together in a plantwide system of control, those computers at the top of this hierarchy determine the level of production of the computers controlling individual processes. They also coordinate many plant operations such as raw material requirements, maintenance of the size of inventory, scheduling of materials, future orders, and equipment capacity. For the first time, the problems of operating complicated and interrelated units and processes close to optimum production and integrating their operation with that of the entire plant can be resolved. The components of a process control computer system indicated in chart 1 are basically the same as those of a business or scientific computer system: A memory unit in which data are stored; a control unit which directs computations and switching; an arithmetic unit which calculates; and input-output units which pro vide communication with the computer (such as type writers, paper tape readers, manual keyboards, etc.). The control and arithmetic units sometimes are called the central processing unit. Unlike a business and scientific computer system, however, a control computer system is connected directly to sensing devices which measure product quali ties, raw material characteristics, temperatures, flows, pressures, and other process conditions. Various signal converters change the signals from these sensing devices into a digital form usable by the computer. Signals from the computer are often relayed through analog controllers to devices or positioners in the process. These control devices regulate the temperatures, flows, or other variables at the desired operating conditions. In another form of process control, called direct digital control (DDC), the analog controllers are omitted, and the computer is connected directly to the control devices or actuators. The operator communicates with the computer through input-output equipment. He can supply infor mation to the computer through pushbuttons, switches, knobs, typewriter keyboards, and punched paper tape or cards. The operator receives information from the computer by alarm buzzers, horns or lights, digital indi cators, typewriter printouts, and video displays. How ever, he can bypass the computer entirely by taking direct readings from sensors and entering changes in the process through the analog controllers or by adjusting control devices manually. F unctions o f the Computer Of the 24 applications surveyed, 7 involved the simple form, called open-loop control, in which the computer monitors instruments, gathers data, makes calculations used by the operator in making control decisions, and activates audio or visual alarms in case of malfunctions. (See table 1.) Seventeen of the applications involved a more advanced form, referred to as closed-loop control, in which the computer calculates the exact control meas ures to be taken and performs the control automatically, in addition to performing open-loop functions. To undertake these automatic closed-loop control functions, the computer is connected directly to process instruments; this procedure allows the computer to make control decisions and adjust controls automati cally, thereby assuming some functions which previously were done by the operator. The interrelationship of the operator to the process and the computer in these two main categories of control is presented in chart 2. Advanced Forms of Control 1. Components of a process computer sys tem, including main frame, disc memory, card punch and reader, printer, printout typewriters, and signal terminal cabinets. 6 Optimizing control, used at all five survey chemical plants and petroleum refineries, is one of the most advanced forms of computer control. This form of con trol can incorporate the functions of a closed-loop chart l. A DIGITAL COMPUTER CONTROL S Y S TE M ^/ -i/A D A P T E D FROM THOMAS M. STOUT, “ MANPOWER IMPLICATIONS OF PROCESS CONTROL COMPUTERS IN THE PROCESS INDUSTRIES,” THE OUTLOOK FOR TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE AND EMPLOYMENT, VO L.l, TECHNOLOGY AND THE AMERICAN ECONOMY, THE NATIONAL COMMISSION ON TECHNOLOGY, AUTOMATION, AND ECONOMIC PROGRESS, FEBRUARY 1966, p. 1-266. NOTE: SOLID LINES INDICATE AUTOMATIC SIGNAL AND DATA TRANSMISSION; BROKEN LINES INDICATE MANUAL OPERATIONS. 7 Table 1. Level o f control for computer applications in survey plants Highest level o f control attained * Plant and application Open-loop control (monitor, log, calculate, alarm or instruct operator) Papermill: Paper m a c h in e ................................................................................. Chemical plants: Styrene plant ................................................................................. Ethanolamine ( D D C ) ..................................................................... Corporate research la b o ra to ry .................................................... Multiplant production m o n ito rin g ............................................. Plant control (4 com puters)......................................................... Detergent (DD C ) (2 computers) ................................................ Analytical lab o rato ry.............. ...................................................... A m m o n ia.......................................................................................... Closed-loop control (automatic control o f variables) X X X X X X X X X Petroleum refineries: Crude d is tillatio n ............................................................................ Catalytic re fo rm in g ........................................................................ Polymerization................................................................................. Catalytic cracking .......................................................................... X X X X Hydraulic cement plant: Rotary k iln ........................................................................................ X Steel mills: Multiplant fuel and utilities utilization and power p re d ic tio n .......................................................................... Basic oxygen fu rn a c e ..................................................................... Hot strip m i l l .................................................................................... Tinning l i n e ...................................................................................... Tinning l i n e ...................................................................................... Continuous annealing line ............................................................ Electric powerplants: Generating s ta tio n .......................................................................... Generating s ta tio n .......................................................................... Generating s ta tio n .......................................................................... Generating s ta tio n .......................................................................... X X X X X X X X X X * I f one or more process variables are controlled automatically by the computer, the application is classified as a closed-loop system although the process is not necessarily fully controlled automatically. A ll systems so classified also perform functions such as monitoring instruments, logging data, performing calculations, and alarming. system while also controlling ultimate goals such as production costs, yields, or efficiencies. The objective is to achieve the best or most desirable operating condi tions. The computer takes into consideration all signifi cant variables, calculates the best process conditions, and applies the integrated control changes necessary to achieve the most desirable performance. This type of control is particularly appropriate for continuous proc esses in which many variables interact simultaneously. Optimizing control, for example, can be used to achieve the most profitable product mix from a given input of raw materials. 8 In direct digital control (DDC), another advanced form of computer control studied at two survey plants, analog controllers and other equipment used in conven tional control are eliminated, and the computer itself receives instrument signals and produces control signals which are sent directly to the process. An advantage of this system is that, for some types of installations, the cost of the computer control system can be offset by the elimination of conventional instruments and control equipment. A disadvantage, however, is the difficulty in reverting to manual control in case of computer mal function. BASIC RELATIONSHIPS IN OPEN-LOOP A N D CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL -L/ chart 2. OPEN-LOOP IN OPEN-LOOP CONTROL, THE COMPUTER RECEIVES INFORMATION ON PROCESS CONDITIONS DIRECTLY FROM PROCESS INSTRUMENTS. THE OPERATOR, HOWEVER, STILL INTERPRETS COMPUTER COMPUTATIONS AND UNDERTAKES CONTROL ACTIONS MANUALLY. CLOSED-LOOP IN CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL, OPERATOR INTERVENTION THEORETICALLY IS ELIMINATED. THE COMPUTER RECEIVES INFORMATION DIRECTLY FROM THE PROCESS INSTRUMENTS, PERFORMS CALCULATIONS ON THE DATA, AND APPLIES THE RESULTING CONTROL DECISIONS AUTOMATICALLY THROUGH INSTRUMENTS TO PROCESS EQUIPMENT. HOWEVER, AN OPERATOR GENERALLY IS REQUIRED TO OVERSEE OPERATIONS AND TO MAKE SOME MANUAL ADJUSTMENTS, PARTICULARLY IN THE EVENT OF MALFUNCTIONS. U ADAPTED FROM EMANUELS.SAVAS, COMPUTER CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES, NEW YORK: MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, 1965, pp. 4-6. NOTE: BROKEN LINES INDICATE MANUAL HANDLING OF INFORMATION; SOLID LINES AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION. 9 CHAPTER 4. STATUS AND APPLICATIONS OF PROCESS COMPUTERS widely available, the number of installations expanded rapidly. From September 1963 to July 1968, digital process computers reported installed or on order in the United States increased more than sevenfold. Process computers have been introduced gradually, but the outlook is for their more widespread adoption. This chapter presents information on extent of use and trends in installation, and includes examples of applica tions in survey plants. Applications of Process Control Computers in Plants Surveyed Extent o f Use As of July 1968, at least 1,674 digital process com puters were reported installed or on order in the United States; this figure is based on information contained in trade journals, technical publications, and survey field visits. The number installed in the U.S. accounts for more than 50 percent of the world total. (See chart 3.) Installations counted encompass all applications of proc ess control computers, including those outside of process industries, and those that are used for applications other than for control of a production process. The electric power industry, a process industry included in the study, is the leading user of process con trol computers in the United States, with 292 installed in this industry as of July 1968. Next in importance among major categories of users, as indicated in table 2, is aerospace with 252 installations; followed by discrete manufacturing industries with 178; and research, medi cine, and education with 166 process computers. Indus trial chemicals and iron and steel, two process industries also included in the study, reported 156 and 132 instal lations, respectively. E lec tric p o w e r pla n ts. All of the electric power plants visited for information were using process computers to assist in the operation of electric generating equipment. Computer functions included data logging, alarming, and equipment performance monitoring; these operations consisted of scanning numerous instrument readings, recording process information periodically, preparing performance reports, and alarming the operators when problems are sensed. (See table 3 for a list of applica tions in survey plants and appendix B-2 for distribution of computers by major applications in the six industries surveyed.) At a survey electric power plant, for example, the computer logs all key variables and prints out a record of plant equipment performance, such as boiler efficiencies, heater and pump performance, and turbine operating ratios. The system is designed to discover malfunctions rapidly and can detect problems that, prior to computer control, might not have been observed until equipment failure. In du strial ch em ica l plan ts. A large chemical plant, whose major product is ethylene, uses a complex multi computer system to provide operator guide control over almost all operations in the plant. The system monitors and collects data on over 1,500 plant variables, alarms in case of dangerous trends, and prepares calculations which are used to economically balance operating condi tions. Trends in Installation The first on-line application of a digital process com puter was at an electric power generating station in March 1958. This application, however, involved calcu lating station efficiency rather than actual process con trol. The first on-line process computer application to incorporate a control function became operational in March 1959 at a catalytic polymerization unit in a petro leum refinery. Since early process computer systems were experimental and very costly, relatively few were reported installed until about 1963. As information about the technology and advantages of computer proc ess control and more reliable equipment became more Another computer system application is control of the operation of analytical instruments in production control laboratories. In this type of system, a computer is connected directly to chromatographs and other labo ratory instruments, and replaces tedious manual opera tions by preparing results of chemical analysis almost instantaneously. In one survey chemical plant, for 10 NUMBER OF DIGITAL PROCESS COMPUTER INSTALLATIONS REPORTED IN THE U.S. A N D THE WORLD, SELECTED PERIODS, 1 9 5 8 -6 8 CHART 3. 3,094 INSTALLATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES LOCATION OF INSTALLATIONS UNIDENTIFIED, COMPUTER MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES INSTALLATIONS IN ALL OTHER AREAS OF THE WORLD 1 1958 16 1959 SOURCE: SEE TABLE 2. 1960 MARCH 1961 MARCH 1965 AUGUST 1965 MARCH 1967 JULY V 1968 _1/ Includes computers installed and on order. Table 2. Installations of digital process computers reported in the United States, by major categories of users, cumulative totals, 1958-68 Category 1958 1959 1960 Mar. 1961 Sept. 1963 Mar. 1965 Aug. 1965 15 15 37 37 238 175 409 293 518 792 907 340 445 496 1 5 3 6 0 0 0 10 8 9 10 0 0 0 78 31 24 29 10 3 63 110 60 62 36 17 8 116 130 72 69 43 17 9 178 169 90 102 51 19 14 347 171 120 104 68 19 14 411 936 Sept. 1966 Mar. 1967 July 19681 United States, total . . 1 Process industries studied . . . 1 Electric power.................. Industrial chemicals . . . . Iron and s t e e l .................. Petroleum refin in g ......... Pulp, paper, and board . . Hydraulic c em en t........... Other industry groups ......... 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 7 1 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 8 15 24 23 34 101 56 125 60 252 178 0 0 0 0 19 26 45 69 72 166 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 14 20 31 36 40 53 68 69 85 118 222 Aerospace......................... Discrete manufacturing.. Research, medicine, and ed u cation ....................... Oil and natural gas pro duction and pipelining.. M iscellaneous.................. • 1 1,674 738 292 156 132 110 28 20 Total includes computers installed and on order. SOURCE: Basic data used to compile the totals were obtained from C o n tro l Engineering, “Process Computer Scorecards,” 1961-68. Dates used in the table, from March 1961 to July 1968, correspond to the dates of these “Scorecards.” The C o n tro l E ngin eering data were supplemented and adjusted by using additional information from O il an d Gas Journal, “Computer Control in the Oil Industry,” 1963-67; “Westinghouse, Installation List of Process Computers,” 1966; Iron an d S te e l E ngineer, “Process Computers— Their Place in the Steel Industry,” 1965; “Manpower Implications of Process Control Computers in the Process Industries,” a study prepared for the National Commission on Technology, Automation and Economic Progress, 1966; and in formation from survey field visits. (For more detail about most o f these sources, see the selected annotated bibliography p. 63.) example, such a system is leading to better control over operations in the total plant. Another survey plant is planning to install a similar system with the addition of remote stations connected to instruments in operating units in the plant so that results of analysis could be used immediately to adjust operating processes. Control of ammonia production was another impor tant computer task illustrated at a survey plant, where a computer provided closed-loop control over key por tions of the process. The computer is used to control variables such as temperatures, pressures, flow rates, and gas and catalyst activity. The system also adjusts instru ments to compensate for changes in weather and keeps the process operating economically. Direct digital control (DDC) was in use at two chem ical plants visited. In one facility, this advanced type of computer control was being used on an experimental basis for production of a detergent. The other facility, however, was using DDC for a larger operating unit. Both users reported significant improvement in control with DDC. Iron a n d steel. Computers have been applied to many major operations in the cycle of making steel, from the initial steps of preparation of raw materials for the blast 12 furnace to the final production of finished steel shapes. The use of process control computers in the basic oxygen steelmaking process, for example, is one of the most important applications. At a survey steel plant, the function of a computer system which is not connected directly to the process is to calculate and transmit to the furnace operator instructions about how much scrap, molten iron, flux, and oxygen to use for a specific heat. Another important application, control of significant operations at a hot strip mill, was observed at a survey plant. Functions of the computer system included track ing the location of steel slabs being processed through the mill, controlling the rate of processing and the temperature and dimensions of the slabs, and collecting and recording production data. A different survey plant was using computers for control of electrolytic tinning lines. The system at this plant regulates the amount of tin deposited, based upon manually entered order data, and provides complete records for production, account ing, and quality control purposes. P etro leu m refining. Computer control of catalytic cracking, a refining operation that has numerous com puter installations, was observed at one survey plant. The computer system is used to regulate temperature Table 3. Computer applications in survey plants Industry Electric p ow er...................................... Industrial chemicals............................. Iron and steel......................................... Petroleum refining................................ Pulp, paper, and board......................... Hydraulic cement rotary k iln .............. Applications Steam electric generating station Styrene process Ethanolamine process Ammonia process Multiplant production monitoring Control of all major processes in plant including manufacture o f ethylene, benzene, other petrochemicals; steam generation; and plant utilities Soft detergent process Laboratory instruments (chromatographs) in production laboratory Laboratory instruments (chromatographs) in research laboratory Fuel and utilities utilization and power demand Basic oxygen furnace Hot strip mill Continuous annealing line Electrolytic tinning line Crude distillation process Catalytic reforming process Polymerization process Catalytic cracking process Papermaking machine Rotary kiln Number o f computer systems in survey 4 1 1 1 1 h 21 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^ 4 computers. 2 computers. SOURCE: Plant visits. and flow rates, thereby allowing the unit to operate closer to equipment limits. In addition, the system logs automatically 130 instrument readings per minute, a task that would be impossible to do manually. Another primary application observed at a survey plant was control of a crude distillation unit. The com puter, by means of an optimizing program, adjusts process instruments automatically to increase the pro portion of high valued products in relation to low valued products, taking into account variables such as changes in raw materials, process balance, and external tempera ture. The system also logs data and alarms operators in case of malfunctions. P ulp, p a p er an d board. Control over a papermaking machine, the major computer application in the paper industry, was observed at a paper mill included in the study. The computer control system informs the crew when selected process variables are out of limits, and automatically adjusts the settings of instruments for changes in paper grade, weights, and moisture content. Both operator guide functions and automatic control functions are involved. H ydrau lic ce m e n t in d u stry. Kiln control, which con sists of the operation of a long rotating tube in which the blended raw materials for the manufacture of cement are heated, the most widely used computer application in the cement industry, was illustrated at a survey plant. The computer at this plant maintains auto matic control over several key kiln variables, including kiln speed, and logs separate readings from 58 instru ments in the kiln; over 500 readings are made every minute. Application of Process Computers in Industries not Studied Oil field control is a major computer application in the production of petroleum. A computer, linked to a large number of operating oil wells in a field, provides automatic pumping, sampling, and monitoring; prepares production reports; and indicates problem wells. Similar computer control systems are in use in natural gas fields. 13 Some Typical Control Rooms and Units Under Computer Control in Industries Studies 3 2 Catalytic Reformer in a Petroleum Refinery Turbine - Generator in Electric Generating Station 14 Some Typical Control Rooms and Units Under Computer Control in Industries Studies 6 Basic Oxygen Furnace in Steel Plant 8 7 9 Kiln in Cement Plant 15 In the gas transmission industry, the key computer appli cation is pipeline control. The automobile industry is using an increasing number of process computers for applications such as quality control and parts matching on auto assembly lines, testing of subassemblies and completed autos, and control over drafting machines. Some computer applica tions in other durable goods industries are control over the manufacture of electronic components and the operation of banks of machine tools. Process computers are used in the aerospace industry for applications such as missile launch and tracking, simulation studies of spacecraft and airplane operation, and static firing tests of jet and rocket engines. Other computer applications include patient moni toring in hospitals; control of aluminum and copper refining operations and aluminum rolling mills; control over dyeing processes in the textile industry; traffic control; railroad car classification; and control of bakeries, warehouses, and mining operations. CHAPTER 5. COSTS AND BENEFITS OF INSTALLING PROCESS CONTROL COMPUTERS Management’s decisions to adopt the new technology are affected greatly by the cost of installing process computer systems and the expected benefits to be gained. This chapter discusses the costs, benefits, and problems reported at survey plants. graming and plant instrumentation could be carried over to the new system. Also, the cost of the replacement computer usually was appreciably less than the original unit, despite its increased speed, computing power, and reliability. Objectives Costs at Survey Plants The companies surveyed reported a number of major objectives for introducing computer process control. (See table 6.) Cost savings through lower raw material and fuel requirements was the most frequently cited ob jective, followed by the desire to optimize product mix and yield to produce a combination of products with the greatest market value. Other goals included increased production, expanded process knowledge, improved op erating efficiency, and more experience in computer process control. Lowering manpower costs was an ob jective in only 4 of 12 survey plants, primarily because labor costs in units to be placed under computer control made up a relatively small proportion of total produc tion costs at most survey plants. (However, in several in stances, plants reported increased productivity, i.e., de creased unit labor requirements, as a result of increased output with the same size labor force.) The computer and auxiliary equipment in survey plants were purchased, leased, or rented from system vendors. Costs of process computer systems at survey plants ranged from $200,000 to $1,500,000. (See tables 4 and 5 which provide information about the costs of purchasing, leasing, or renting selected process com puters and other system costs.) One important factor determining the amount expended was the stage of development of the innovation. Early, pioneering instal lations had high costs due to the experimental nature of the technology. Time and technical effort involved tended to be greater than comparable, more recent installations. Numerous equipment and programing problems occurred with early installations. Some of the costs of the earlier projects, however, were underwritten by computer vendors in an effort to gain experience with process control computers and to gain a foothold in the industry. A second factor affecting costs was the complexity of the installation. A system designed specifically for con trol over a small portion of a simple process, for example, especially one superimposed upon a preexist ing, highly instrumented analog control system, cost much less than a highly complex, multicomputer system designed specifically for complete control over a newlybuilt major facility. The degree of control of the system was a third deter minant of its cost. Installations that were designed for fairly simple control functions, such as data logging, usually required less time, effort, and instrumentation than more highly sophisticated computer operations, such as automatic control, and therefore cost less to implement. Replacement systems tended to be lower in cost than original installations largely because some of the pro Benefits o f Computer Control Process control computers brought about significant operating improvements; the result was that the objec tives cited in the preceding section generally were realized. The nature and extent of these improvements were influenced by factors such as market demand, degree of computer control, efficiency of preexisting conventional controls, and nature of the process con trolled. Since these factors may vary over time and between and within plants, the case examples of achieve ments presented below should be considered as illustra tive only. They could be significantly different in plants not surveyed or in survey plants at different times. E x a m p les o f a ch ievem en ts a t su rvey plan ts. Although computer installations at several survey plants were not fully operational, significant operating economies and 17 Table 4. Costs of selected process computer systems in survey plants with purchased computers Computer and auxiliary equipment 1 Type of application Multicomputer system controlling all major processes in large chemical plant...................................................... Complex system for control of an electric generating station.................. Operator guide control over a major process in a steel plant............. Operator guide control of electric generating station .................. Direct digital control o f a chemical process.................................. Control over a key portion of a chemical process (early installation)........................................... Control o f analytical instruments in chemical plant laboratory............. Experimental direct digital control system using 2 computers in a chemical p la n t.................. 1 2 3 4 5 Total cost Amount Percent of total system cost Programing and systems analysis 2 Amount Percent of total system cost Installation and additional instrumentation 3 Amount Percent of total system cost Training 4 Amount Percent of total system cost $1,500,000 $1,125,000 75.0 5$225,000 15.0 $150,000 10.0 850,000 400,000 47.1 190,000 22.4 250,000 29.4 10,000 1.2 810,000 290,000 35.8 300,000 37.0 200,000 24.7 20,000 2.5 720,000 300,000 41.7 140,000 19.4 275,000 38.2 5,000 .7 500,000 275,000 55.0 75,000 15.0 150,000 30.0 453,000 258,000 57.0 75,000 16.6 110,000 24.3 10,000 2.2 235,290 160,000 68.0 58,820 25.0 16,470 7.0 222,000 157,000 70.7 50,000 22.5 10,000 4.5 5,000 2.3 Central processor, auxiliary memory, analog/digital signal converters, and input/output equipment such as operator console, typewriters, and tape equipment. Analysis of process, preparation of process model, programing for process control, and system operation. New instrumentation needed for process control installation o f computer equipment, and instrumentation including site preparation. Instructing employees in programing, computer technology, maintenance, and system operation. Includes training. Table 5. Costs o f selected process computer systems in survey plants with rented or leased computers Rental or lease costs for computer and auxiliary equipment 2 Type of application 1 Control over key process in a paper plant • • • • Control of a petroleum refining process (early installation)............................................. Control over a complex petroleum refining process.................................................. Control over a key process in a paper plant (replacement computer)......................... Control over major portions of a cement manufacturing p rocess....................... Programing and systems analysis 3 Installation and additional instrumentation 4 Training 5 $14,000/mo. $150,000 $200,000 $100,000 7,500/mo. 250,000 100,000 2,000 7,500/mo. 250,000 200,000 5,000 7,000/mo. 80,000 30,000 30,000 5,750/mo. 170,000 65,000 - 1 These applications involve varying levels o f automatic control. 2 Rental or lease costs usually include costs o f maintenance. 3 Analysis o f process, preparation of process model, programing for process control, and system operation. 4 New instrumentation needed for process control, installation of computer equipment, and instrumentation including site preparation. 5 Instructing employees in programing, computer technology, maintenance, and system operation. Table 6. Management’s objectives in introducing computer process control Objective Reduce raw material and fuel costs • • • • Optimize production................................ Increase production.................................. Increase process knowledge.................... Improve plant or unit operating efficiency................................................ Improve product quality......................... Gain experience with computer process control...................................... Reduce manpower requirements........... Provide better or more rapid analysis.................................................... Increase equipment availability.............. Other2 ...................................................... Number o f times mentioned at survey plant 1 9 6 5 4 4 4 A ste e l p la n t using process computers to optimize and predict fuel and power needs lowered fuel oil require ments by 4 percent and purchased power consumption by 6 percent. A t a n o th e r ste e l p la n t , computer control of basic oxygen furnace operations for charge calculations, anal ysis, and data logging lowered oxygen costs by 5 per cent, since fewer adjustments or corrections to the heats were needed. 4 4 Labor savings were achieved at three plants and ex pected at two others: 3 2 5 A t a large p e tro c h e m ic a l c o m p le x , a process control computer used for chemical anaylysis in an analytical laboratory brought about savings of $20,000 a year and displaced seven laboratory analysts due to more rapid and more accurate analysis of samples. 1 Several objectives generally were given at each survey plant. 2 These objectives include the desire to improve data gathering procedures, reduce equipment damage, improve plant safety, achieve process stability, and increase information available to operators. other benefits subject to measurement were reported at most plants. Fuel and raw material savings were achieved at seven plants and anticipated at another; for example: A ch em ical p la n t producing ammonia reduced raw material and fuel costs by 2 percent each. A t a ste e l p la n t, savings from computer control of a hot strip mill resulted, in part, from lower unit labor requirements as throughput tonnage increased while the work staff increased proportionately much less. The higher throughput rate was brought about by faster slab processing and the ability to more quickly reset the mill for processing different steel products, enabling an extra 20 to 30 slabs to be produced per shift. 19 A t th e s te e l m ill with the computer controlled basic oxygen furnace, labor requirements were lower by 5 per cent because fewer manual operations were needed. sistent control of mill operations, resulting in improved metallurgical and dimensional uniformity, fewer rejects, and higher quality end-products. Production increased at 5 plants and was expected to increase at two others, for example: A t an elec tric g en eratin g sta tio n , operating savings as a result of computer control were nebulous. Benefits such as improved engineering knowledge of the steam powerplant cycle, more accurate and up-to-date records, and better data to guide the operator in controlling the plant could not be measured in dollar terms. A t a p a p er p la n t, use of computer control and exten sive new instrumentation on a paper machine reduced grade change time by 20 percent, increased speed by 15 percent, and improved machine efficiency 2 percent for a net increase in production of 19 percent. A p e tro le u m refin ery achieved a 3 percent increase in the production of a polymerization unit with no increase in the amount of raw material used. A t a c e m e n t p la n t, computer control of a rotary kiln greatly reduced fluctuations from desired values and resulted in a more uniform product and 10 to 13 percent greater output. Savings from computer control were quite substantial in some cases: In a large n e w ch em ical p la n t, savings were estimated to be about $400,000 annually, based on comparison with an equivalent plant without computer control. Reduction in initial staffing saved $224,000, process improvements due to quicker access to data saved $120,000, and increased engineer and technician pro ductivity saved $56,000. A t a p e tro le u m refin ery, the computer adjusts the control devices to compensate for sudden changes in the process more rapidly than was possible under manual control. Major sources of savings were higher yields of more valuable products and lower raw material and fuel costs. Another saving source was reduced maintenance costs, since the computer alerts personnel to conditions that could result in operating problems or malfunctions. In general, the process operated closer to theoretical optimum levels than under conventional control, and product specifications were met more consistently. Net annual savings were estimated at about $100,000 per computer. In some cases achievements could not be measured precisely: A t a ste e l p la n t, the computer system used in a hot strip mill made possible more precise and more con 20 A t an elec tric gen eratin g sta tio n , temperatures and pressures were allowed to run slightly higher when using the computer system for monitoring the process. This permitted operating boilers and generators at the upper limit of capacity and, in effect, increased capacity. In many of the installations, unanticipated benefits resulted from the introduction of a computer control system: In a p a p e r p la n t, the computer control system helped engineers to track down process and instrument prob lems by pinpointing the malfunction and defining it as one of production or instrument performance. A t a ste e l m ill, use of computers on tinning lines improved quality of finished product by a greater degree than anticipated. A t a ce m e n t p la n t, improvement in the performance of the kiln operators was an unexpected benefit. During computer control, the kiln speed increased from the usual rate of 70 to 90 revolutions per hour. By working under these conditions, the kiln operators gained con fidence in themselves and the equipment so that even when the computer was not controlling the process, they were able to operate the kiln at the higher speed. In an elec tric gen eratin g sta tio n , engineers involved with applying computer control acquired additional knowledge about general plant engineering and operating conditions, control mathematics, computer mainte nance, and trouble-shooting. In a n o th e r elec tric gen eratin g sta tio n , data quality and alarm system reliability were higher than anticipated, and the computer proved useful to laboratory techni cians for precision testing and special analysis. Problems at Survey Plants Almost every installation reported some type of equipment malfunction, but usually these problems were relatively minor, such as an output typewriter not operating properly. The less frequent serious problems resulted from defective and unreliable instruments and computer components. A problem found in a number of early installations was the commercial unavailability of specialized instruments that were needed for computer control. Some of these devices, therefore, had to be designed individually and custom made. At a steel mill, for example, a special gage to measure continuously the hardness of steel strip had to be developed before the continuous annealing line operations could be controlled by computer. The kinds of equipment problems experienced by survey plants are illustrated by the following examples. At a pioneering installation in a petroleum refinery, a substantial amount of instrumentation was found to be unsuitable for computer control. All of this instrumen tation had to be replaced. Morever, numerous failures of computer components caused complete, but temporary, shutdown of the computer control system. Satisfactory operation was attained only after much repair work by the computer manufacturer. A chemical plant that had installed a multicomputer system also reported poor equipment reliability, espe cially during the first year of operation. Problems were reported with components such as computer air condi tioners, magnetic tape circuitry, drum memory circuitry, input/output equipment, paper tape reader, and type writers. Many of the problems with this installation were attributed to the early state of technology, since the system was designed around early model computers. Plans are to replace the present computers with more advanced and reliable equipment. Programing difficulties were reported at a large number of survey projects. Many of these problems were due to insufficient technical knowledge of the process to be placed under computer control. Since many of the processes involved were very complex, programing effort was extensive. Moreover, even when the technical aspects of the process were understood, the problem of translating this knowledge into a working set of instruc tions for the computer had to be resolved. In some early installations, the vendor lacked sufficient technical knowledge of the process, and the user had to perform detailed investigations of the process to obtain suitable data for programing. At a steel mill, where a computer was installed to control a basic oxygen furnace, pro graming difficulties were reported and some aspects of the programing, which were the responsibility of the vendor, had to be assumed by user staff. 21 CHAPTER 6. MANPOWER FOR PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING COMPUTER PROCESS CONTROL tasks that previously were performed by vendor per sonnel. N u m b e r a n d ty p e o f e m p lo y e e s in volved. The size and composition of the project group at a survey plant depended upon the individual member’s experience in process computer technology, the relative technical sophistication of the computer system to be installed, and the complexity of the computer application. At 23 installations surveyed, the project group varied in size from 3 to 23 members. Frequently, a member was involved in more than one stage of installation. Early installations at survey plants tended to have large project groups because vendor and user personnel lacked process computer experience. As technical staff gained experi ence with computer control, the size of the project group tended to reflect the complexity of the instal lation. Replacement systems at survey plants usually re quired a smaller project group than the original installa tion because some of the instrumentation and programs were carried over from the old system. Within individual projects, the size of the project group expanded or de clined according to the phase of the work and the need for technical support. This point is illustrated in table 8, which provides information about the type and num bers of workers involved in planning and implementing coriputer applications at four survey plants. Installation of computer process control required a large amount of technical, administrative, and manpower effort over a period generally exceeding 2 years and usually required considerable participation of vendor staff. This chapter discusses the characteristics of the project group, the manpower required by major phases of implementation, and the significance of prior EDP experience. Characteristics and Function of the Project Group C o m p o sitio n . Installation of computers at survey plants usually required considerable technical staff work. A project group consisting of managers, engineers, pro gramed, and technicians was set up at each plant to plan and implement the installations. This group consisted of joint user and vendor staff for most installations. How ever, for a few projects, technical assistance was acquired from additional sources such as an outside consultant or contractor. The number of man-years of technical effort involved in implementing computer systems ranged from less than 2 for a relatively simple project involving replacement of an existing computer by a more powerful unit, to about 21 for a complicated electric generating application. (See table 7.) User firms usually supplied the technical staff who knew the process, and the computer manufacturer usually supplied the personnel familiar with computer equipment operation, system capabilities, and pro graming. User technical staff assigned to the project group included managers, unit supervisors, process engineers, chemical engineers, electrical engineers, instru m ent engineers, and instrument technicians. These employees usually were drawn from process control and instrumentation departments at the plant level, and research and engineering departments at the corporate level. The computer vendor assigned systems engineers, statisticians, mathematicians, computer engineers, com puter technicians, and programers to assist user staff in implementing the installations. As user technical per sonnel gained knowledge in computer operating tech nology, systems analysis, and programing, they assumed Manpower Requirements by Major Installation Phases The major phases in the installation of process control computer systems at survey plants and the manpower required for each phase were found to be difficult to enumerate and categorize, since project teams worked on different aspects of an installation during the same period and, therefore, steps overlapped. Despite this limitation, identification of the four major phases is possible at survey plants. F ea sib ility stu d y . The feasibility study, the first phase in most projects, usually was carried out by a relatively small group of employees, sometimes working with one of two computer vendor representatives. This step con sisted of making a detailed study of the technical and 22 Table 7. Man-years required to implement computer process control at survey plants Type of facility Papermill......................... Chemical plant .............. Chemical p la n t .............. Chemical p la n t .............. Petroleum refinery......... Petroleum refinery......... Cement p la n t ................ Steel mill ....................... Steel mill ....................... Steel mill ....................... Electric powerplant- • • • Electric powerplant- • • • Control application Papermaking machine Papermaking machine 2 Styrene process Ethanolamine process Multiplant production monitoring Multicomputer operation o f most of the processes in the plant Biodegradable linear alkylate Laboratory chromatograph analysis Ammonia process Ammonia process 2 Crude distillation process Catalytic reforming process Polymerization process Catalytic cracking Rotary kiln Rotary kiln 2 Fuel utilities utilization and power demand Basic oxygen furnace Hot strip mill Continuous annealing line Electrolytic tinning line Electrolytic tinning line Coal-fired steam-driven electric generating station Coal-fired steam-driven electric generating station Coal-fired steam-driven generating station Oil-fired steam-driven generating station Number o f man-years required to reach operational phase Months elapsed between installation and operational phase * 14.4 9.5 3 12.0-15.0 21 36 3 1 36 15.8 13.3 6.1 7.5 8.0 20.0 20.0 13.4 12.9 3 17.8-18.8 1.6 6 11 5 7 6 4 4 l-5 l2 14 1 4 5.1 “ 6 7 11 23 30 20.8 24 15.4 9 14.9 36 14.9 35 1 The relatively long period between installation and operational phases reported at some survey plants generally resulted from unforeseen problems with computer components, programing, and instrumentation. 2 Replacement computer for preceding application. 3 Approximate. 4 Partial control. 5 Full control. economic feasibility of applying computer control to a particular process, which involved (1) a detailed analysis of the process including material and energy flows, and (2) an estimate of potential benefits and costs. At a paper plant, for example, the feasibility study was accomplished over a period of 5 months by three rel atively high-level employees-the managing director of research, the associate director of research, and the director of information services. In a chemical plant, the feasibility study for the first of four computer installa tions was conducted by the section head of the process laboratory and the section head of the computation lab. These employees worked for 2 months on this phase of the installation. The time required to complete the feasibility study ranged from 2 months at one plant to 12 at another. However, a time span of 6 months or less was reported for about 3 out of every 4 computer installations studied. S y ste m s design, m o d e l building, an d program ing. The project group was expanded to accomplish system design, preinstallation planning, model building, and programing. At many installations, the group working on these steps consisted of 8 to 10 persons and reached a 23 Table 8. Personnel involved in planning and implementing process control computer systems at selected survey plants Employees involved (user and vendor) Phase Type of facility Type Chemical plant........... Feasibility study Planning (including systems engineering and programing) Installation Operational Petroleum refinery • • • Feasibility study Systems engineering Programing and program checkout Installation and checkout of computer equipment Steel m ill.................... Electric generating plant. Checkout of system instrumentation Systems planning Preparation of mathematical model Programing (including some training) Installation System refinement and modification Planning and detailing specifications including feasibility study Basic programing Application and support programing Installation Instrument calibration Checkout of system Systems engineer Process engineer Plant superintendent Systems engineer Process engineer Instrument engineer Rant programer Rant superintendent Systems engineer Process engineer Programer Rant superintendent Systems engineer Plant superintendent Process engineer (user) Engineers (vendor) Process engineer (user) Instrument engineer (user) Engineers (vendor) Process engineer (user) Engineer (vendor) Process engineer (user) Instrument engineer (user) Engineer (vendor) Instrument technician (user) Process engineer Systems engineer Process engineer Systems engineer Electrical engineer Systems engineers Engineers (user) Number 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2% 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 8 Programers Engineers Contractor personnel 5 7 10 Technicians Engineer Engineering assistant 3 1 1 Implemented by Duration of phase Total number of man-months worked User and vendor 3 months 9 man-months User and vendor 12 months 96 man-months User and vendor 1 month 5 man-months User Continuing User and vendor 6 months 24 man-months User and vendor 6 months 33 man-months User and vendor 12 months 36 man-months User and vendor 4 months 20 man-months User User and vendor 24 months 6 months 48 man-months 9 man-months User User and vendor User and vendor User User 18 months 11 months 6 months Continuing 4 months 18 man-months 22 man-months 12 man-months 9 man-months Vendor User Outside contractor User User 6 months 20 months 4 months 30 man-months 82 man-months 40 man-months 4 months 3 months 12 man-months 6 man-months - - high of 23 people at one plant. Vendor participation was quite extensive, representing as much as half the project team in one case. These steps consisted of developing computer equip ment specifications, determining the type and degree of control desired, and planning the computer site and installation procedure. Specifications were determined for items such as the central processor, computer memory, and input/output equipment, and computer site. Existing instrumentation was surveyed to determine which instruments were suitable for computer control and what modifications to instrumentation were needed. R equirem ents for additional instrumentation were developed and orders placed with vendor firms. Plans for operating the computer, auxiliary equipment, and instru mentation as an integrated control unit were accom plished. The necessary technical information about the process was gathered and consolidated to prepare a mathe matical model of the process. Operating instructions for computer equipment and process control strategies were developed, and programs were written by translating the process model, control strategies, and computer operat ing instructions into a series of discrete arithmetic and logical statements. These programs were stored in the computer memory and carefully tested for malfunctions. The time required to complete this phase ranged from 12 to 43 months. Installation. During the installation phase, the project group declined in size; most often it averaged from about 5 to 7 technicians and engineers. This phase con sisted of installing the computer and auxiliary equip ment at the process site. Existing instruments were modified, new instruments installed, and system com ponents connected. The equipment, instrumentation, and wiring were checked carefully to prevent malfunc tions. At a survey cement plant, for example, a process engineer, two systems engineers, and two electrician/instrument technicians accomplished the installation. In cases where problems arose, checkout of equipment after installation required considerable technical effort. At a petroleum refinery, for example, instrument check out required more than twice the number of manmonths than was needed to install the computer and related equipment. Vendor employees were involved in the installation of computer equipment in nearly all survey plant systems. Installation in survey plants was accomplished during a period of 1 to 6 months; equip ment check-out usually took longer, up to 24 months in one case. O peration al a n d sy ste m refin em en t. The size and composition of the project group for the operational and system refinement phase depended mainly upon the 10. Engineer checks computer circuitry dur ing installation at user plant. degree of control desired. This phase consisted of the shift from manual to computer control of the process and lasted from 1 to 30 months after installation. (See table 7.) In most cases, the shift was accomplished gradually. Simple computer operations, such as data monitoring, were undertaken first, and more complex tasks, such as operator guide or closed-loop control, were accomplished later. In a cement plant, the shift from open-loop to closed-loop control involved eight people; an engineer, a process engineer, a program/ systems engineer, and four electrician/instrument techni cians who were assisted by a systems engineer from the vendor staff. Altogether, the project group spent 72 man-months in implementing a more advanced degree of computer control. System refinement, a continuing task at some survey plants, generally involved advancing the degree of control. Once a computer system was operating satisfactorily and the desired degree of control was attained, one or two engineers who were plant employees and members of the project group usually remained with the system to assure that it continued to function smoothly. In a number of cases, however, the unit supervisor was the only member of the project team assigned to work permanently with the computer system. As a general rule, after the computer system became operational, vendor personnel were called upon only in emergency situations. 25 Status o f the User Process Control Computer Group A permanent group of employees worked on process computer applications in all but one survey plant. In most cases, this group was formed at the plant level, and its overall number fluctuated according to the com plexity and scope of the project. Each group, however, contained a nucleus of technical employees who were involved continuously with some aspect of computer process control. In a plant with four systems, for example, a high level engineer was assigned permanently to the task of coordinating process control computers. This engineer augmented the size of the project team for each installation by borrowing personnel from relevant plant departments; after the installation was completed, these employees were reassigned. A central process control computer group was formed at the corporate level in a number of the larger firms visited. In very large companies, as the number of instal lations in their plants increased, these companies often brought together key personnel at the corporate level who were experienced with computer control. These centralized groups consisted of employees with a knowl edge of systems engineering, programing, computer technology, and process operation. The functions of these groups of employees were to develop new applica tions of process computers in corporate plants, to do research into advanced forms of computer process con trol, and to serve as a source of primary members for project teams in specific plant installations. At the two survey electric power companies, for example, a corporate computer group rather than a plant group was involved directly with programing and implementing process computers at company plants. Staffing Problems A lack of trained personnel experienced in applying control computers to industrial processes was cited as a serious problem by most survey plants. A number of specific problems were attributed to this scarcity of trained manpower. For example, at a cement plant, the lack of trained engineers with process computer knowl edge was considered a handicap to its process control projects. A petroleum refinery had a large turnover in experienced technical personnel between the installation of its first and second process computer systems. This turnover necessitated using personnel inexperienced in computer technology for the second installation and required additional training sessions. 26 Significance of Prior EDP Experience E x te n t o f experien ce. Ten of the 12 plants visited either had been using business or scientific computers prior to the installation of process control computers, or had staff members with previous scientific or business computer experience. Applications of scientific com puters at these plants included solving technical prob lems, performing simulation studies, and processing large volumes of operating data. Business computers were used for tasks such as accounting and payroll prepara tion. The two remaining plants had no computer experi ence prior to the installation of process control computers. T ran sferability o f skills. Six of the 10 plants that reported prior business or scientific computer experience indicated that personnel associated with these applica tions were of some help in the installation of process computers. At a chemical plant, for example, a knowl edge of FORTRAN is considered useful in learning to program process computers. A steel plant found that prior experience with programing and systems design for business computers was useful but not of significant importance in its process computer projects. In a paper plant, some corporate level personnel with prior EDP experience were assigned to work on the process com puter project. In general, however, these and other examples indicate that programing and computer skills are transferable only to a limited extent. At a petroleum refinery, however, work with tech nical computers led directly to one of the earliest com puter control installations in the industry. First, simula tion studies of the process were performed on a technical computer, and then an offsite computer was connected to the process via data transmission lines. Finally, an onsite process computer was installed. The project team for the computer installation was expanded from a nucleus of employees who worked with the technical computers. The remaining four plants with prior computer experi ence indicated that no transferability of skills was apparent between business or scientific computers and process computers. Those interviewed at these plants indicated that techniques needed for work with proc ess control computers differed completely from those needed for work with business and scientific computers. Moreover, management at a power company preferred that project group engineers have no prior computer programing experience that could interfere with learn ing the company’s special programing methods. CHAPTER 7. IMPACT ON EMPLOYMENT AND JOBS Although installation of process control computers resulted in practically no change in employment or displacement of individual workers, significant changes in job duties of operators, technicians, and other employees were reported at survey plants. Table 9. Employment in computerized units as a percent of total employment in survey plants 1 Unit employment Total plant Plant employment Total Percent o f total plant employment Changes in Employment The installation of process computers had little immediate effect on employment in survey plants. Over the period that computers were installed, changes in general economic conditions, product demand, and the introduction of other forms of technology were the major factors that influenced the level of total plant employment. Except for one plant where all major processes are under computer control, workers in units using process computers made up a relatively small proportion of total plant employment, ranging from 0.1 percent in a steel mill to about 6 percent in a chemical plant. (See table 9.) The employment changes in survey plants varied greatly. At 6 of the 11 survey plants that provided data on employment, total plant employment increased over the period 1 year prior to the first computer installation to 1 year after the most recent installation; at the five other plants, employment declined. Total employment in production units over the same period also was relatively unaffected by the introduction of process computers. Employment in 7 of the 12 computerized production units for which data were provided remained unchanged; employment increased at three other units, and declined at the remaining two units. 740 8,004 35 42 16 4.7 .5 .2 Chemical facility.......... Chemical facility.......... Petroleum refinery • • • 727 470 2,775 Cement p la n t .............. Steel m ill........................ Steel m ill........................ Steel m ill........................ 359 18,945 12,375 13,973 ( 2) 3 26 17 21 17 386 214 19 23 27 (2) 5.5 .6 .8 4.7 2.0 1.7 .1 .2 .2 1 Most recent year available was used for those units for which employment data were provided. Comparable employ ment data not available at 3 survey plants. 2 Since all major production units at this plant are com puter controlled workers in these units constitute a high but unspecified proportion o f total employment. 3 Total for 2 units. that operating crews in the highly instrumented control rooms generally were at a minimum consistent with efficient operations prior to the introduction of the computer. Moreover, even though the computer elim inated some duties of these employees, the same size crew generally was retained to cope with any emergency arising from the malfunction of the computer or process equipment. In some cases, for example, operators were required to perform manual operations which duplicated automatic computer operations to retain skills needed for emergency manual control. In other instances, such as the computerized hot strip mill, operations normally shifted between manual and computer control, and, therefore, crews of the same size were needed and retained for both operations. A few instances of displacement and reassignment to other plant units were reported. At a large chemical plant, for example, the jobs of 7 out of a total of 57 Displacement According to management and union officials inter viewed, no layoffs and little displacement took place in units with operations placed under computer control. Since labor costs made up a small proportion of total costs in most processes studied, the objectives for intro ducing computer control frequently were to increase or optimize production rather than to reduce manpower. Another reason for the relatively small displacement was P a p e rm ill...................... Chemical facility.......... 27 laboratory analysts were eliminated when a process computer system was introduced in a control laboratory to perform much of the computational, analytical, and data-logging operations formerly done manually by the analysts. The computer system automatically provides quick and accurate chemical analysis of a large volume of samples and produces finished laboratory reports. Of the seven laboratory analysts displaced, five were trans ferred and upgraded to higher-paying technician jobs elsewhere within the plant, one analyst died, and the other analyst went on military leave. In another example of displacement, the jobs of three employees per shift at a petroleum refinery, a Stillman and two Stillman helpers, were eliminated as a result of the advanced forms of instrumentation installed as part of two computer control systems. A total o f 13 employees in the two units were reassigned to jobs else where in the plant. One technique for measuring the displacement effect of computer process control is to compare manpower requirements of new plants designed for computer control with manpower requirements of plants of the same type and capacity using conventional control. Officials at a large survey chemical plant built with computer control estimated that about 20 employees more than the current complement of 300 production Table 10. workers probably would be needed if the plant were not computer controlled. Fifteen of these employees would have been operators needed to log information and perform some control tasks; the other five would have been accounting clerks required to prepare summaries of operating data and other reports for management. Changes in Job Duties and Skills The single most important effect on employees in production units was the change in job duties. As indi cated in table 10, process operator positions made up the majority of modified positions. The changes in their duties generally were caused by the shift from manual to automatic computer adjustment of instruments and related devices. The survey plants reported that the computer generates information not previously available on process conditions which the operator can use to “fine tune” the process and performs many calculations which were formerly done manually. Moreover, im proved alarm systems incorporated in computer systems installed in survey plants in some instances greatly assisted the operator to perform monitoring duties. Some examples of changes in duties resulting from computer control are presented in table 11. Distribution o f modified jobs at survey plants Modified jobs Category Total number Percent of total In affected production, units In other units Example o f job titles used at survey plants Total, all categories............ 352 100.0 249 103 Managing or supervising.......... 27 7.7 11 16 Production superintendent, general foreman, performance supervisor, shift foreman. Systems engineering and related w o rk ............................. 25 7.1 9 16 Process operation...................... 216 61.4 216 0 Plant test engineer, control engineer, results engineer, re search engineer, instrument engineer. Machine tender, head operator, cracker operator, kiln burner, BOF operator, annealing line operator, boiler-turbine op erator, clerk. Laboratory analysis and related w o rk ............................. 55 15.6 0 55 Laboratory technician, laboratory analyst. Instrument maintenance and related w o rk ............................. 29 8.2 13 16 Instrument technician, elec tronics repairman, electrician. SOURCE: Data from 11 survey plants. 28 Table 11. Changes in major job duties o f selected unit employees caused by computer process control Description o f major duties Job title Unit Before computer control Responsible for paper machine crew, and all paper made on machine. Checks papermaking equipment and customer order. Sets flows, temperatures, pressures and speeds at own discretion. Manually adjusts basis weight and moisture controls. Prints samples and checks paper for defects. Calculates operating ratios, manually logs gage readings, and prepares weekly plant reports. Machine tender Paper machine in papermill. Clerk Styrene unit in chemical plant. Head operator Ethanolamine unit in chem ical plant. Controls unit by operating 40-foot control panel on plant floor with 40 to 60 different controls and gages. Manually adjusts analog controllers, reads and logs data, and per forms simple chemical analysis. Lab analyst Control lab oratory in chemical plant. Performs numerous calculations for interpret ing chromatograph charts to obtain chemical Senior operator Ammonia chemical plant. Operator Polymeriza tion unit in petroleum refinery. Makes adjustments to process set points using manually-adjusted automatic controllers. Ad justments consist o f minor changes in instru ment settings to keep temperatures and gas composition within predetermined limits, and major changes to compensate for un controlled variables such as changes in weather. Manually adjusts set points and controls unit using automatic controllers. Logs data man ually, filling out data sheets by hand every 2 hours. Not able to log all data needed to run process at best levels. Operator Fluid cata lytic cracking unit in petroleum refinery. composition o f process samples. logs data and prepares reports. Manually Manually adjusts automatic analog controllers at control console. Monitors automatic data logging equipment. A fter computer control Computer sets flows, temperatures, pressures, and speeds and monitors these operations. Com puter controls basis weight by changing stock flow, and controls moisture by changing steam flow. Machine tender performs some control and monitor duties as before and is avail able in case o f emergency. Operates computer console and input/output equipment, translates information to and from machine language, feeds data into computer, operates off-line program to perform calcula tions, and interprets computer output. Com piles reports on a daily basis and calculates more operating ratios than before because com puter makes more information available. Computer monitors, records, alarms, and manipulates process control mechanisms auto matically. Operator sits in a minaturized con trol panel in air conditioned room and makes only a few manual adjustments to process vari ables, performs chemical analysis, and manually logs some data though the latter is not needed except to keep alert and abreast o f process conditions. Puts samples into chromatograph and adjusts setting on computer console while system automatically carries out analysis. Computer provides quick, accurate chemical analysis of sample data and finished reports for manage ment use. The system eliminates human errors in calculation, and relieves lab analyst o f moni toring functions. Lab analyst is free to perform nonroutine analysis. Computer now makes most adjustments automatically; however, if major upset occurs, com puter alarms operator and automatically shifts to manual control. Operator still performs many manual operations such as startup and shutdown o f plant, and still writes out logging reports though computer automatically logs most important variables. Computer controls key temperatures, pressures, rates o f flow, and catalytic process. However, it cannot cope with emergencies. Operator determines extent o f problems, although com puter assists by alarming and takes each loop or whole process o ff computer control if nec essary. He performs numerous manual control operations. The computer controls a large part o f process, al though the operator still performs much manual control. The operator can take any part or the whole process o ff computer control in case o f emergencies. The computer does most logging. 29 Table 11. Changes in major job duties o f selected unit employees caused by computer process control— Continued Description o f major duties Job title Unit Before computer control Monitors and adjusts instruments manually or by adjusting set points on automatic analog con troller to control variables such as kiln temp erature, speed, raw material feed rate, etc., relying mainly upon experience as guide. Maintains records manually. Kiln burner Kiln depart ment in cement plant. BOF operator Basic oxygen furnace in steel mill. When computer not operating: 1 Operates and monitors numerous levers, dials, and other de vices in controlling the furnace. Refers to set o f charts to derive proper quantities o f scrap, hot metal, lime, and oxygen to use for specific heat. Plater operator Tinning line in steel mill. Annealing line operator Continuous annealing line in steel mill. Boilerturbine control operator Electric generating station. Checks and makes corrections in process to maintain strip quality. Selects group of plating cells to be used for specific order, uses efficiency formula to determine amount o f current to be sent through plating cells for specific line speed and coating weight, and manually adjusts plating current accordingly. Responsible for production equipment; es tablishes plating, current, and line speed practices; and all required records. When computer not operating: 1 Manually set dial to desired temperature for each o f eight furnace zones based on formula which con siders strip thickness, line speed, and temp erature. Sets production schedules, maintains line speed, furnace temperature, and related variables, and monitors control panels. When computer not operating: 1 Operates boiler and turbine control panels to maintain proper steam temperature and pressure, fuel supply, and efficient combustion conditions. Starts up and shuts down turbine-generator unit, synchronizes generators, and regulates load voltage and frequency. Performs switch ing operations by remote control to maintain continuity o f service and keeps extensive man ual data logs. Results engineer Electric generating station When computer not operating: 1 Responsible for overall operation and performance of controls and instruments. Makes perform ance calculations, insures water purity, checks coal quality, etc. Studies long-term trend data and uses it to reduce losses and improve equipment, raw material and fuel use, and other operating efficiencies. 1 Unit built with computer control. 30 A fter computer control Computer scans process and automatically makes adjustments o f key variables, including kiln speed. Computer monitors numerous other variables, reads instruments, compares and ana lyzes data, and prints out reports. K iln burner uses these reports to make changes manually or to adjust set points on controllers. When computer operating: 1 Operates computer which calculates and transmits instructions on amount o f scrap, molten iron, lime, and oxygen to use in preparing specific heat. Adjusts con trol devices so that predetermined additives w ill be fed into furnace. Prepares production re ports using computer-supplied data. Has op tion o f making adjustments to the computer generated instructions and occasionally verifies computer instructions by manually making com putations based on data in sets o f charts. Selects plating cells to be used in the same manner as before, but computer automatically adjusts current for specific line speed and coating weight based on incoming order data and an efficiency formula which are manually dialed into the com puter memory. Still monitors instruments and, i f necessary, overrides system and adjusts current flow manually. Relieved o f some monitoring duties because computer monitors and alarms in case o f trouble. When computer operating: 1 Computer monitors and operates some controls. Operator oversees computer output equipment and modifies com puter program to improve control o f annealing line. Other duties same as before. When computer operating: 1 Operator performs many o f the same duties as before, since com puter operates primarily as a data logger. With the aid o f the computer, operator controls boiler and turbine operations through dials and gages located on central control console and decides what pressures, temperatures, speeds, etc., should be changed and to what degree. Keeps only small log sheet since computer does most logging. Previously teletyped information to load dis patching, but now computer sends data auto matically. When computer operating: 1 Uses computer to aid in making performance calculations more frequently and more accurately. Computer, though not fully operational, reduces time spent on calculations and allows more time for analyzing data and making recommenda tions for better plant performance. remaining 24 were unaffected. Forty employees, or 19 percent of the total mill work force, were employed in these nine occupations at the time of visit. The extent to which the computer modifies each of the nine preexist ing positions is shown in table 12. Table 12. Extent o f job modifications in hot strip mill Occupation title 11. Operator checks computer analysis of crude oil distillation unit in a petroleum refinery. The installation of process computers, in addition to resulting in a modification of existing jobs, required a number of new positions as discussed in chapter 8. How jobs are modified in a unit where computer con trol is installed is illustrated by the experiences at an 80-inch hot strip mill in a steel plant. This mill was operating approximately 75 percent of scheduled pro duction runs under computer control when visited by BLS staff, and conventional control the remaining 25 percent of the time. Computer control will be extended, however, when programs are written to handle certain types of steel which presently are processed under conventional control. The most distinguishing advantage of the computerrun 80-inch mill is its greater speed in producing uniform products within specifications. Under conventional con trol, operators make settings from reference tables based on standard width and rolling resistance specifications of various steel grades. Operators need about 2 minutes under normal conditions to reset a mill for processing a slab order that varies from the preceding slab rolled; the computer resetting time is only 6-8 seconds for the entire mill. During rolling operations under manual control, operators make adjustments to the standard settings, but the speed of the mill is limited by the ability of the operators to react to changing mill condi tions. In comparison, the computer reacts almost instan taneously. Of 33 existing occupations in the hot strip mill, duties of only 9 were modified by computer control while the Total number o f major duties Major duties automated by computer 1 Number Percent T o t a l ...................... 84 26 31.0 Recorder ...................... Assistant r o l l e r .......... Coiler o p e ra to r.......... No. 1 rougher operator...................... No. 2 rougher operator ................... Speed o p e ra to r.......... Crop shearman............ Roll hand...................... Assistant speed operator...................... 10 12 8 5 5 3 50.0 41.7 37.5 13 4 30.8 12 8 9 6 3 2 2 1 25.0 25.0 22.2 16.7 6 1 16.7 1 Performed automatically when mill is under computer control. SOURCE: Company records. Job duties of the three positions affected most by computer control— recorder, assistant roller, and coder operator— are shown in appendix B-3. This informa tion, taken from company job descriptions, shows that the duties performed automatically by the computer are crucial to the operation of the mill. Consequently, in many computer installations, operators continue to log data and adjust variables even after the computer assumes these functions. If the computer should fail or prove inadequate to cope with certain situations, the operator is called on to perform these duties. Therefore, he must retain his proficiency at controlling the process. A list of the 26 major job duties performed auto matically under computer control, by functions, is provided in table 13. A number of employees outside of units using process computers also experienced changes in job duties and skills in survey plants, as indicated in table 11. At a petroleum refinery, for example, nine instrument men were given training in computer and instrument maintenance and were assigned to perform normal maintenance and repairs on the computers and related instrumentation installed in two units. These workers 31 Computer Process Control System in a Hot Strip Mill in a Steel Plant 13. Control Pulpit 32 Table 13. strip mill Type o f job duties performed by computer in hot Function Number o f major job duties involving this function performed automatically under computer control Number Percent of total 1 T o t a l .................................. 26 100.0 Operate or set controls • • • . Record data............................. Receive and/or communicate in fo rm a tio n ................. Operate eq u ip m e n t............... 14 5 53.8 19.2 5 2 19.2 7.7 1 Because o f rounding, the sums o f individual items may not equal 100. required greater skill and ability than instrument men working on conventional equipment. These men were selected from employees who had received additonal electronics training previously; however, their job classi fications and wages were not changed. Changes in Grade Status Most of the production workers in the affected units did not experience a change in grade status due to com puter process control. Although some jobs were modi fied, these changes, for the most part, encompassed only a portion of the total duties of these positions and were not sufficient to result in a higher wage classification. In at least one instance, changes in job duties which may have resulted in upgrading were offset by substantially improved working conditions, a factor also considered in wage determination. Moreover, job descriptions were general in content, allowing considerable changes in jobs without reclassification. In a few instances, however, employees were upgraded because of the change. The installation of a process computer at a large chemical plant, for example, resulted in the upgrading of four operators by one rate step. A formal job evaluation study indicated that these opera tors had assumed additional responsibilities. In the new system, operators had to interpret a significant amount of data provided by the computer and, as a result, were expected to run the plant closer to operating limits. However, physical working conditions, a factor in the job evaluation system, remained essentially the same. 33 CHAPTER 8. NEW JOBS REQUIRED FOR COMPUTER PROCESS CONTROL New occupations are required as a result of the intro duction of computers. In the survey plants, most of these occupations were professional and technical posi tions requiring persons with a college degree in engi neering and related fields and a knowledge of the process to be controlled. Type and Description of New Jobs Substantial technical manpower is required to ac complish the various tasks involved in introducing computer process control. A total of 68 new jobs were needed in survey plants to plan, program, operate, and maintain the new computer control systems. The new computer jobs can be classified into five major occupational categories. As shown in table 14, programing and systems analysis, design, or related work constituted about two-thirds of all new jobs; each of these two occupational groups included about the same number of jobs. The operation and maintenance of the computer equipment provided relatively small propor tions of the new jobs, since these were among the func tions that were included in existing jobs without changes in job title. Table 14. 15. Systems engineer programing a process control computer system. New computer jobs at survey plants New jobs Category Percent o f total Number Example o f job titles used in survey plant Total, all categories ...................................... 68 100.0 Managing or supervising........................................... 12 17.6 Systems analysis, design, or related w o r k ............ 24 35.3 Program ing................................................................... 22 32.4 5 7.4 Computer console operator. 5 7.4 Instrument technician, electronic spec ia lis t, assistant test engineer. Operating computer consoles and related equipm ent................................................................... Instrument development, installation, maintenance, or related w o r k ............................... 34 Coordinator o f refinery computer sys tem, technical superintendent, chief systems analyst, senior process engineer. Senior design engineer, project scientist, systems analyst, process control engi neer, senior research engineer. Programer, programing technician, tech nical analyst, procedures analyst. B e c a u se c o m p u te r c o n tr o l is a r ela tiv ely n e w and sim ilar t o th o s e u se d in a b u sin e ss data p r o c e ssin g c o m em erg in g t e c h n o lo g y , th e title and c o n te n t o f n e w jo b s p u te r w ith in th e m ajor fu n c tio n a l jo b c a teg o ries vary sig n ifi in v o lv e d w ith p r o c e ss c o n tr o l u su a lly m u st h ave a h ig h s y s te m , th e sy s te m s a n a ly st an d program er c a n tly b e tw e e n su rvey p la n ts. A n e m p lo y e e w h o s e m ajor d egree o f sp e c ia liz e d te c h n ic a l k n o w le d g e (en g in e e r in g , jo b d u ty is p rogram in g is cla ssifie d as a te c h n ic a l a n a ly st c h e m istr y , and p h y sic s, fo r e x a m p le ) w h ic h is sig n ifi at a p e tr o le u m r e fin e r y , a p ro ced u res an a ly st at a ste e l c a n tly d iffe r e n t th a n th e sk ill and k n o w le d g e n e e d e d to m ill, and an en g in eerin g a ssista n t a t an e le c tr ic p o w e r im p le m e n t b u sin e ss data p r o c e ssin g sy ste m s. p la n t. J ob title s u se d t o d esig n a te th e p rogram in g fu n c T h e criteria m o s t fr e q u e n tly co n sid e r e d in se le c tin g tio n at o th e r p la n ts are: P rogram er a n a ly st at a p e tr o e m p lo y e e s le u m r e fin e r y , p rogram er at a c e m e n t p la n t, and p r o e x p e r ie n c e , e d u c a tio n , and in te r e st. (M o st o f th e n e w fo r n ew c o m p u te r jo b s w e r e p rior w o r k gram in g te c h n ic ia n at a c h e m ic a l p la n t. c o m p u te r jo b s w e r e n o t u n d er u n io n ju r isd ic tio n and T h e d egree o f sp e c ia liz a tio n in th e va rio u s j o b s also th e r e fo r e th e s e le c tio n m e th o d s w ere n o t g o v ern ed b y d iffe r s sig n ific a n tly in su rvey p la n ts. In so m e p la n ts, o n e fo rm a l p r o c e d u r e s sp elled o u t in c o lle c tiv e b argain in g or m o re m ajor fu n c tio n s are m erged in to o n e jo b classi a g r e e m e n ts.) F o rm a l a p titu d e te s ts as a m e a n s o f s e le c t fic a tio n . A t a pap er m ill, fo r e x a m p le , th e sam e jo b in g e m p lo y e e s fo r n e w jo b s w ere u se d in o n ly a fe w fo r sy s te m s an alyst-p rogram er an d pro- in sta n c e s. H o w e v e r , t h e y so m e tim e s carried co n sid e r a b le g ram er-com p u ter o p e r a to r is u se d . E ven w h e r e jo b title s w e ig h t in th e se le c tio n p ro cess. T h e fo u r n e w c o m p u te r c la s sific a tio n in o n e su rvey p la n t are a p p r o x im a te ly th e sam e as in c o n so le a n o th e r , su b sta n tia l v ariation in jo b c o n te n t is so m e te r iz e d h o t strip m ill, m e n tio n e d earlier, w ere sta ffe d tim e s fro m a m o n g a grou p o f a b o u t 6 6 cler k s w h o a p p lied fo r fo u n d . M o reo v er, in a fe w p la n ts, e m p lo y e e s in v o lv e d w ith c o m p u te r p r o c e ss c o n tr o l a lso w o r k on o p e r a to r p o s itio n s a sso c ia te d w ith a c o m p u an d c o m p le te d a series o f t e s ts .4 T h e fo u r a p p lica n ts w ith th e h ig h e st te s t sc o r e s w ere sc ie n tific and rela ted c o m p u te r a p p lic a tio n s .3 S o m e in sig h t in to th e jo b d u tie s o f e m p lo y e e s in n ew c h o se n fo r th e n e w c o m p u te r c o n s o le o p e r a to r p o s itio n s . c o m p u te r o c c u p a tio n s can b e o b ta in e d b y e x a m in in g th e H o w e v e r , at o th e r su rvey p la n ts, a p titu d e te s ts o n ly c o n te n t o f sev en n e w p o s itio n s at a pap er m ill. (S e e tab le su p p le m e n te d o th e r te c h n iq u e s o f s e le c tio n . E m p lo y e e s 1 5 .) E x a m p le s fro m e a c h o f th e fiv e b road fu n c tio n a l b e in g c o n sid e r e d for p rogram er p o s itio n s at a c h e m ic a l o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s c o n ta in e d in ta b le 1 4 are p r e se n te d . p lan t and p ap er m ill t o o k a p rogram er a p titu d e te st w h ic h w a s c o n sid e r e d a lo n g w ith w o r k e x p e r ie n c e and e d u c a tio n in d ete r m in in g w h o w o u ld s t a ff th e se n e w Selecting Employees for New Jobs program er jo b s . T h e d u tie s o f a sig n ifica n t n u m b er o f n e w c o m p u te r jo b s req u ired th a t th e in c u m b e n t h ave a h ig h ly sp e Extent of Upgrading cia liz e d te c h n ic a l k n o w le d g e o f th e p r o c e ss to b e c o n tr o lle d , p articu larly th e en g in eers and te c h n ic ia n s w h o w e r e en gaged in sy s te m w ork and th e e m p lo y e e s se le c te d a n a ly sis, d e sig n , and rela ted p rogram ers. for n e w C o n se q u e n tly , m ost c o m p u te r jo b s w e r e re E m p lo y e e s assign ed to n ew c o m p u te r jo b s g en era lly w ere u p g ra d ed . T ab le 16 in d ic a te s th a t tw o -th ir d s o f 2 7 e m p lo y e e s s e le c te d t o s ta ff n e w jo b s r eceiv ed a w age in crease o f 2 0 p e rcen t or m o r e . T h ese in c r e a se s fre cr u ite d fro m a m o n g th e e x is tin g w o r k fo rce in su rvey q u e n tly p la n ts. O f th e 6 0 e m p lo y e e s in n e w c o m p u te r o c c u p a e m p lo y e e s acq u ired n e w sk ills th r o u g h train in g an d th u s tio n s fo r w h o m data o n p rior w o rk e x p e r ie n c e w ere w ere ab le to p erfo rm th e d u tie s o f th e m o re r e sp o n sib le a vailab le, a b o u t 8 8 p ercen t w ere w o r k in g in th e su rvey and p la n ts prior to in s ta lla tio n o f th e c o m p u te r sy s te m s, a ssista n t at a su rvey p e tr o le u m r e fin e r y , for e x a m p le , a b o u t 8 p e r c e n t w ere fo r m e r ly w ith a n o th er p lan t o f th e w h o se sam e c o m p a n y , and o n ly slig h tly over 3 p e rcen t w ere h ired fro m th e o u ts id e . T h e p ro ced u re in m o s t su rvey p la n ts w a s to train en g i n eers and o th e r te c h n ic a l s t a ff in sy ste m s a n a ly sis and p rogram in g rather th a n to u se sy ste m s a n a ly sts an d p r o gram ers w ith b u sin e ss data p ro cessin g e x p e r ie n c e and e x p e c t th e m to acq u ire a k n o w le d g e o f a c o m p le x in d u s trial p r o c e ss. A lth o u g h th e te c h n iq u e s req u ired t o per form sy ste m s a n a ly sis and p rogram in g fu n c tio n s fo r a p ro cess c o n tr o l c o m p u te r sy ste m w ere in m a n y resp ects r e su lte d h ig h er-p a y in g m ajor b e c a u se p r o fe ssio n a l c o m p u te r d u tie s in v o lv e d p o s itio n s . gen eral and A te c h n ic a l te c h n ic a l cler ica l task s, 3 This lack of standardization of job content and title also existed for occupations associated with the early stages of use of electronic computers for business data processing. See Adjust ments to the Introduction o f Office Automation (BLS Bulletin 1276) May 1960. 4 These tests included the Watson-Glaser test o f syllogistic problems which is designed to appraise ability to reason analy tically and logically; and the Wonderlic personnel test of prob lem solving ability consisting of verbal, arithmetic, geometric, and vocabulary problems. 35 Table 15. Description of duties of new computer process control occupations at a papermill Job title Description of major duties Manager, computer systems and programing • • • • Supervises the development and implementation o f digital computer programs and procedures designed to control papermaking process. Acts as consultant to corporate research staff in the development and implementation o f com puter programs and systems. Some major duties include defining programs into specific computer requirements, recommending computer equipment to be purchased or leased, developing or supervising the development of computer programs and procedural systems, and overseeing testing, debugging, and implementation of the approved program. The manager of computer sys tems and programing also has responsibility for training personnel in the use of process control computers and programing techniques, and for providing technical assistance on matters pertaining to process control computers. He works under the direction of the associate director, process control. Systems analyst-programer.................................... Investigates and analyzes operational problems and prepares and carries out proposals for new systems, procedures, or computer programs. He pre pares operating procedures; draws flow charts and diagrams to define pro graming problems and procedures to be followed; checks programs for completeness and accuracy; evaluates and modifies existing programs; trans lates flow chart information into coded machine instructions and prepares other guides for use by the machine operator; and performs related duties. He also does a limited amount o f programing work. The systems-analyst programer is under the supervision o f the manager, computer systems and programing. Senior process control engineer.............................. Supervises process control of papermaking operations. This function encom passes problem analysis, data collection, standards development, programing , and computer operation. He has complete responsibility for the effective use o f an electronic computer and related equipment to control selected papermaking operations. Some specific duties include applying guidance to the process engineer and the computer programer; planning and im plementing process control activities to assure optimum utilization of equipment; acting as liaison between the mill (where the computer is used) and corporate research (where research on process control in undertaken) to assure coordination o f computer process control activities; providing technical assistance to other company staff engaged in computer process control activities; and performing related duties pertaining to the imple mentation and maintenance o f computer process control. The senior proc ess control engineer works under the direction of the assistant division manager. Computer programer ................................................ Develops, prepares, and tests programs which will solve scientific, mathema tical, and technical problems associated with computer process control of selected papermaking processes. He develops and designs formulas, flow charts, and other descriptive material; designs programs which directs the computer to produce the desired production results; checks computer equipment to verify proper operating condition and notifies computer manufacturer technical staff when maintenance or repair work in needed; provides programing assistance in collection o f data for research projects and performs related duties. The computer programer works under the direction of the senior process engineer. Programer-computer operator................................ Assists in the development and preparation o f new programs and the modi fication of those already prepared. He is responsible for the less complex programs or segments o f larger programs. Specific duties include program ing in a computer language, converting the computer language to machine language through a processor program, and testing and debugging the pro gram. He also may operate computer equipment to run programs when requested. He receives technical advice from other staff members on as pects of programing which involve instrumentation, engineering, etc. The programer-computer operator is supervised by the manager, computer sys tems and programing. 36 Table 15. Description of duties o f new computer process control occupations at a papermill— Continued Description of major duties Job title Prepares digital computer programs necessary to solve scientific, mathematical and technical problems related to the control o f papermaking processes. He prepares flow charts for less complex programs; codes flow chart information into FORTRAN, symbolic language, or machine instructions; checks programs for completeness and accuracy during test runs; makes a diagnosis o f problems and corrects them as they occur; and performs related duties. The junior programer works under the direction o f a systems analyst or senior programer. Develops and refines laboratory and process instruments and control systems; operates, calibrates, adjusts, and checks instrument and control systems; con ducts instrument and control evaluations and reports the results; and performs related duties. Work assignments sometimes involve mill trials and startups, pilot plant trials, and laboratory experimentation. Requires a background in advanced mathematics, physics, and electron theory; a high school diploma; and a passing grade on a special qualifying examination. Junior programer Electronic specialist c o m p le te d p rogram in g train in g and w as up grad ed to a w ill c o n tin u e to be rela tiv e ly h ig h , an d th ere w ill b e t e c h n ic a l p r o m o tio n a l o p p o r tu n itie s fo r q u a lifie d e m p lo y e e s . a n a ly st p o s itio n in v o lv in g c o m p u te r pro gram in g. H is n e w jo b p a y s n early on e-th ird m o re th an h is fo rm er p o s itio n . A t a pap er m ill, a p o w e r h o u se fir e m an w ith som e c o lle g e e d u c a tio n p assed a p rogram er a p titu d e te s t and d id w e ll in a series o f in te r v ie w s, c o m p le te d p rogram er tra in in g , and is now Characteristics of Employees in New Jobs a c o m p u te r p rogram er m a k in g 5 0 p ercen t m o re th a n b e fo r e . M ore S o m e in sigh t in to th e m a n p o w e r im p lic a tio n s o f c o m o v e r , so m e m a in te n a n c e w o rk ers and c o m p u te r c o n so le p u ter p ro cess c o n tr o l can b e a ssessed b y e x a m in in g th e o p era to rs receiv e m o re m o n e y in th eir n e w j o b s b eca u se age, s e x , e d u c a tio n , and se n io r ity o f e m p lo y e e s se le c te d r e sp o n s ib ility fo r e q u ip m e n t and p r o d u c t is greater th an for n e w c o m p u te r jo b s . C o m p a riso n o f th e se ch arac ter istic s w ith th o s e o f e m p lo y e e s w o r k in g in th e p r o d u c b e fo r e . B eca u se o f th e e x p e c te d c o n tin u e d sh ortage o f te c h tio n u n its w h ere c o m p u te r s w ere in sta lled is o f in te r e st. n ica l e m p lo y e e s w ith c o m p u te r p r o c e ss c o n tr o l e x p e r i T h e data fo r b o th o f th e se grou p s are p r e se n te d in ta b le s e n c e , th e w a g e le v e l fo r th e s e n e w o c c u p a tio n s p r o b a b ly 17 an d 1 8 . Table 16. Extent of upgrading o f employees selected to staff new computer jobs 1 Category Total number of employees for whom data were available Number of employees whose wage increase was— Less than 10 percent T o t a l.................................................... 27 2 Managing or supervising................................ Systems analysis, design, and related work ............................................................... Programing...................................................... Operating computer consoles and related equipment......................................... Instrument development, installation, maintenance, or related w ork .................... 2 1 8 11 4 2 1 10 to 19 percent 7 20 to 29 percent 4 30 to 39 percent 5 40 percent or over 9 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 5 4 2 1 Data were available for 27 of the 68 employees in new positions. The amount o f wage increase is based on a comparison be tween the rate applicable to an employee’s former position, just prior to installation o f the process control system, and the rate assigned the new computer job. Several officials interviewed stressed that factors other than the new computer control systems, such as normal professional advancement, account for a portion of the increases. No employee moving into a new computer job for whom information on job status was available received a wage lower than his prior position. 37 Table 17. Age, education, and seniority: Employees in new computer process control positions and those in affected production units Employees in affected Employees in new production units process control where process control computers computer jobs were installed 1 Characteristic Number Percent of total 2 Number Percent of total 2 visors and th o s e p erfo rm in g sy s te m s a n a ly sis, d e sig n , and related w o r k w e r e so m e w h a t o ld e r th a n th o s e in th e o th e r c a te g o r ie s o f n e w c o m p u te r o c c u p a tio n s sh o w n in tab le 1 8 . E m p lo y e e s in p r o d u c tio n u n its w h ere c o m p u te r s are b e in g u sed w ere a lso m e n . H o w ev er, in c o n tr a st to e m p lo y e e s in n e w c o m p u te r jo b s , a b o u t tw o -th ir d s o f th is g rou p w ere u n d er age 4 5 . Education. A lth o u g h several im p o r ta n t jo b s w ere fille d b y train in g e m p lo y e e s w ith a h ig h s c h o o l e d u c a tio n , m o s t o f th e n e w c o m p u te r jo b s w e r e fille d b y c o lle g e gra d u a tes, m a n y w ith d egrees in en g in eerin g , m a th e m a tic s, and rela ted fie ld s. (S e e tab le 1 8 .) J o b s Age in v o lv in g su p erv isio n , s y s te m s a n a ly sis, p ro cess c o n tr o l Total, all ages.............. 68 100.0 223 100.0 Under age 25......... Age 25-44.............. Age 45 and over • • U nknown.............. 6 50 10 2 8.8 73.5 14.7 2.9 6 142 74 1 2.7 63.7 33.2 .4 en g in eerin g , and h ig h -lev el p rogram in g requ ired c o lle g e train in g. A h ig h s c h o o l d ip lo m a , or at lea st so m e h ig h s c h o o l e d u c a tio n , w a s su ffic ie n t fo r so m e jo b s . A t a p ap er m ill, a lab te c h n ic ia n w h o w a s a h ig h sc h o o l grad u ate receiv ed train in g and w a s u p grad ed to a ju n io r p rogram er p o si Education tio n . A t a ste e l m ill, fo u r c ler k s, in c lu d in g tw o w ith o n ly Total, all groups......... Less than high school graduate.. High school graduate.............. Some college......... College graduate • • Unknown.............. 68 100.0 223 100.0 1 1.5 72 32.3 3 years o f h ig h s c h o o l, a ch iev ed th e h ig h e st sc o r e s in a series o f a p titu d e te s ts an d w ere s e le c te d and tra in ed as 9 16 42 0 13.2 23.5 61.8 - 132 6 5 8 59.2 2.7 2.2 3.6 c o m p u te r c o n s o le o p e r a to r s. M o reo v er, m o s t o f th e in str u m e n t in s ta lla tio n and m a in te n a n c e jo b s in su rvey p la n ts, su ch as e le c tr o n ic sp ecia list p o sitio n s in a paper m ill, w ere sta ffe d b y h ig h s c h o o l grad u ates. E m p lo y e e s in p r o d u c tio n u n its u sin g p r o c e ss c o m p u ters h ad sig n ific a n tly le ss fo rm a l e d u c a tio n th an th o s e Seniority in n e w c o m p u te r jo b s . A b o u t 5 9 p e rcen t o f th is grou p Total, all groups......... With company: Less than 10 years.................. 10-19 years......... 20 years or more. U nknown........... Total, all groups......... Present jobs: Less than 5 years • 5-9 years.............. 10 years or moreUnknown............ 68 100.0 223 100.0 less th a n a h ig h s c h o o l e d u c a tio n . T he sig n ific a n tly h igh er e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t o f 15.7 45.3 39.0 38 18 4 8 68 55.9 26.5 5.9 11.8 100.0 35 101 87 223 100.0 55 5 0 8 80.9 7.4 11.8 75 87 61 - 33.6 39.0 27.4 - - 1 Data were available for only 223 out of the more than 1,600 employees working in affected production units. Of these 223 em ployees, about 78 percent were operators and assistants, 11 per cent were supervisors, 9 percent were technicians and technicians assistants, and 2 percent were clerks, materials handlers, and re lated employees. 2 Because of rounding, sum of individual percentages may not equal 100.0. Sex and age. A ll e m p lo y e e s in n ew c o m p u te r jo b s w ere m e n , an d a b o u t 8 2 p ercen t w ere un d er 4 5 yea rs o ld at th e tim e o f th e p lan t surveys.5 38 w ere h ig h sc h o o l grad u ates, and a b o u t 3 2 p e r c e n t h a d M anagers and su p er m a n y o f th e e m p lo y e e s in c o m p u te r an d rela ted jo b s is n o t surprising. T h e sk ill, k n o w le d g e , and e x p e r ie n c e requ ired to plan and im p le m e n t a p r o c e ss c o n tr o l c o m p u te r in sta lla tio n is far d iffe r e n t fro m th a t req u ired to p erform th e d u tie s o f a p r o d u c tio n jo b in th e a ffe c te d u n its. E n g in eers, m a th e m a tic ia n s, and o th e r p r o fe ssio n a l e m p lo y e e s w ith c o lle g e train in g are e sse n tia l, a n d , as sh o w n a b o v e , fr e q u e n tly m a k e u p a large seg m en t o f th e 5 These finding differ significantly from an earlier BLS study which presented age and sex data for employees in offices using electronic computers for business data processing. In offices surveyed for this study, women staffed 11 percent o f the new computer occupations and 53 percent o f all jobs in affected office units. The variation in composition o f the work force, by sex, reflects primarily the difference between an industrial environment, predominated by men, and a business office where women make up a significant segment of the staff. Employees in the new business data processing computer occupations were also somewhat younger than those in the new process control computer occupations. See Adjustments to the Introduction o f Office Automation, (BLS Bulletin 1276) May 1960, 86 pp. Table 18. Education of employees in new computer jobs, by category o f job Education Total in new jobs Percent of employees Occupational group Total, all groups............................................. Employees whose major duties involve: Managing or supervising....................................... System analysis, design, or related work .................................................................... Programing........................................................... Operating computer consoles and related equipment............................................. Instrument development, installation, maintenance, or related work ......................... Number Percent Less than high school graduate 68 100.0 1.5 13.2 23.5 61.8 12 100.0 0 0 0 100.0 24 22 100.0 100.0 0 0 0 13.6 4.2 59.1 95.8 27.3 5 100.0 20.0 40.0 40.0 0 5 100.0 0 80.0 0 20.0 High school graduate Some college College graduate p ro ject s ta ff. A lth o u g h p r o d u c tio n w o rk ers in th e h ig h ly b e e n e m p lo y e d in str u m e n te d en v ir o n m e n t o f a m o d e r n p r o c e ss p lan t p r o d u c tio n u n its, th e p r o p o r tio n in th e se c a te g o r ie s w ere also n e e d sk ills and k n o w le d g e o f a h ig h d eg ree, th is skill 1 6 , 4 5 , an d 3 9 p e r c e n t, r e sp e c tiv e ly . and k n o w le d g e g en era lly is a cq u ired th r o u g h jo b o r ie n te d c la ssro o m an d o n -th e-jo b train in g rather th a n in a c o lle g e or u n iv e r sity . Seniority. E m p lo y e e s in n e w c o m p u te r jo b s h ad sign i 2 0 years or m o r e . F or e m p lo y e e s in E m p lo y e e s in th e tw o gro u p s d iffe r e d ev en m o re sh arp ly in term s o f le n g th o f service in th eir p r e se n t jo b s . B ecau se th e c o m p u te r u n its w ere rela tiv e ly n e w , m o s t o f th e e m p lo y e e s h a d less th a n 5 y ears o f c o n tin u o u s fic a n tly less c o m p a n y se n io r ity th an th o s e w o r k in g in service in th eir p resen t p o s itio n s . O n th e o th e r h a n d , a ffe c te d p r o d u c tio n u n its. A b o u t 5 6 p e rcen t o f th o se m o s t o f th e e m p lo y e e s in p r o d u c tio n u n its h a d m ore e m p lo y e d in c o m p u te r o c c u p a tio n s at th e tim e o f th e th a n 5 years o f service in th eir p resen t p o s itio n s . A b o u t p lan t su rvey h a d less th a n 10 years o f c o m p a n y service; o n e -fo u r th o f th e p r o d u c tio n u n it e m p lo y e e s h ad 10 or 2 7 p ercen t h ad 10 to 19 yea rs, and o n ly 6 p e r c e n t h ad m o re y ears o f service in th eir cu rren t jo b s . 39 CHAPTER 9. TRAINING FOR COMPUTER PROCESS CONTROL T raining to p ro v id e e m p lo y e e s w ith p rogram in g, e le c tr o n ic s m a in te n a n c e , an d o p e r a tin g sk ills is a k e y req u irem en t to te c h n ic ia n s an d a program m a in te n a n c e te c h n ic ia n also receiv ed tra in in g at v e n d o r sc h o o ls. th e su c c e ssfu l in tr o d u c tio n and u se o f c o m p u te r p r o c e ss C ou rses o f in s tr u c tio n o ffe r e d at v e n d o r sc h o o ls are c o n tr o l. T h is train in g u su a lly c o n sists o f in te n siv e on- d esig n ed prim arily fo r train in g m an agerial an d te c h n ic a l th e-jo b and c la ssro o m program s c o n d u c te d b y v en d o rs p e r s o n n e l. and u sers o f p ro cess c o m p u te r s. sc h o o ls , all o f th e m p rovid e c o u r se s w h ic h fa ll in to th e A lth o u g h th e cu rricula vary at vendor b road c a te g o r ie s o f m a in te n a n c e an d p rogram in g. In a d d itio n , so m e v e n d o r sc h o o ls o ffe r sp e c ia liz e d c o m Training Provided by Vendors p u ter C o m p u ter m a n u fa ctu rers p ro v id ed a v a riety o f train in g services to su rvey p la n ts w h ic h p u rch a sed c o n c e p ts c o u r se s fo r m an agerial p e r so n n e l. A d e sc r ip tio n o f s e le c te d c o u r se s o ffe r e d b y o n e v e n d o r is th eir sh o w n in ta b le 2 0 . P rogram ing co u rses u su a lly are fr o m c o m p u te r s. (S e e ta b le 1 9 .) T raining in v o lv e d cla ssr o o m 2 and o n -th e -jo b in str u c tio n at th e site o f th e c o m p u te r co u r se s m a y last fr o m 8 to 12 w e e k s. C o n c e p ts c o u r se s, in s ta lla tio n , an d c la ssr o o m and w o r k sh o p or la b o r a to r y to 4 w e e k s in le n g th , w h ile gen eral m a in te n a n c e in te n d e d p rim arily fo r su p ervisors, are c o m p a r a tiv e ly se ssio n s at train in g fa c ilitie s m a in ta in e d b y th e c o m p u te r b rief. v e n d o r . E m p lo y e e s receiv ed fu ll w a g es and salaries a n d , O ne v e n d o r o ffe r s a u d io -ta p e d p rogram in g c o u r se s w h ere a p p lic a b le , travel a llo w a n c e s w h ile u n d e r g o in g th a t m a y b e c o m p le te d at th e train in g c e n te r o r at a tra in in g . A to ta l o f 1 5 4 e m p lo y e e s at 11 su rvey p lan ts lo c a tio n r eceiv ed so m e fo r m o f v e n d o r train in g. P r o v isio n s for lo w e r s th e c o s t o f in s tr u c tio n and p erm its th e stu d e n t to th is train in g w ere in c lu d e d in several o f th e lea se or progress at h is o w n p a c e . A n o th e r v e n d o r h as d e v e lo p e d p u rch ase a g reem en ts w ith v en d o rs. a p rogram in g co u rse in F O R T R A N to b e c o m p le te d b y Onsite vendor training. T h is fo rm o f train in g, o ft e n in c o n v e n ie n t to th e stu d e n t. T h is p ro ced u re th e train ee b e fo r e h is e n r o llm e n t in p rogram in g co u r se s th e n atu re o f c o m p u te r o r ie n ta tio n , w a s rela tiv e ly b r ie f at th e v e n d o r ’s sc h o o l. an d ta ilo r e d to m e e t th e n eed s o f w o rk ers in d iffe r e n t o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s. S p e c ia liz e d train in g o f lo n g er dura tio n also w a s p ro v id ed w h e n n ecessa ry . V e n d o r s t a f f so m e tim e s jo in e d w ith p e r so n n e l o f user c o m p a n ie s and w ith rep resen ta tiv es o f o th e r e q u ip m e n t su p p liers in fu rn ish in g in str u c tio n . A t an e le c tr ic p o w e r p la n t, fo r e x a m p le , rep resen ta tiv es o f th e c o m p u te r v e n d o r , su p p liers o f related p lan t e q u ip m e n t, and in stru m e n t m an u fa ctu rers p a rticip a ted w ith p lan t e n g in eers in o r ie n ta tio n le c tu r e s fo r o p era to rs and te c h n ic ia n s. Offsite vendor training. F a c ilitie s fo r c u sto m e r train in g w ere m a in ta in e d b y fo u r su p p liers o f c o m p u te r s; a f ifth v e n d o r p ro v id ed b r ie f e q u ip m e n t fa m ilia r iz a tio n at o n e o f its o ff ic e s to a p lan t supervisor. O ffsite v e n d o r train in g fa c ilitie s g en erally are m a in ta in ed at a single lo c a t io n , a lth o u g h o n e v en d o r o ffe r e d its c o u r se s at c e n te r s in several lo c a tio n s . T h ese s c h o o ls or train in g ce n te r s p ro v id ed in str u c tio n in c o m p u te r c o n c e p ts and fu n d a m e n ta ls, p rogram in g, an d m a in te n a n c e . T hey w ere a tte n d e d p rim arily b y 1 6 . In s tru c to r explains m a in te n a n c e p ro c e c o n tr o l g ro u p m an agers, sy ste m s en g in eers, program ers, dures f o r c o m p u te r e q u ip m e n t a t c o m p u te r in str u m e n t en g in e e r s, and m a in te n a n c e fo r e m e n . Several tra in in g school. 40 Table 19. Training provided by computer manufacturers 1 Recipient(s) of training Number trained Type of trailing Description o f training Length o f training Papermill Instrument engineers.................. Project leader................................ Manager, computer systems and programing........................... Keypunch operator....................... Process systems engineers........... Programers.................................... Programer-operator....................... 2 1 Classroom Classroom 1 1 6 4 1 Classroom Classroom Classroom Qassroom Classroom Instrument engineer-..................... 1 Qassroom Programer....................................... Process engineers........................... 1 2 Onsite instruction in computer concepts and FORTRAN provided jointly with user company staff. Process systems engineers and programers received additional training in concepts, hardware, machine, and symbolic language, FORTRAN programing, and executive systems at vendor facility. 2 weeks 2 weeks 2 weeks 2 weeks 6 weeks 6 weeks 6 weeks Chemical plant 3 months Qassroom Qassroom Computer technology, maintenance, and programing. Programing. Computer concepts and programing. 1 Qassroom Computer maintenance. 4. months 1 Qassroom and on-the-job Programing and computer techniques jointly with user staff onsite and at vendor facility. 12 months Project tea m .................................. 12 Qassroom Not provided Project engineer.............................. 1 Qassroom Process engineer........................... 1 Qassroom Construction engineer.................. 1 Qassroom Maintenance forem an.................. 2 Qassroom General details o f computer system onsite. Programing and theory of computer operation. Programing and theory of computer operation. Programing and theory of computer operation. Computer technology and main tenance. Electronic and instrument mechanics.................................... 2 Qassroom Electrical engineer....................... 1 Qassroom Engineers....................................... 4 Qassroom 7 Qassroom Programing techniques and computer operation. 1-4 weeks 2 1 1 1 Classroom Classroom Classroom Qassroom Programing techniques. Computer maintenance and theory. Computer maintenance and theory. Computer maintenance and theory. 3 weeks 8 weeks 4 weeks 12 weeks 1 month 1 month Chemical plant Engineer......................................... Program maintenance technician.................................... Chemical plant Computer technology and main tenance. Computer technology and main tenance. Programing techniques. 4-6 weeks 4-6 weeks 4-6 weeks 9 weeks 9 weeks 9 weeks 4-6 weeks Petroleum refinery Technical employees..................... Petroleum refinery Programers.................................... Instrument engineers.................... Instrument supervisors................ Instrument m e n ........................... See footnote at end of table. 41 Table 19. Training provided by computer manufacturers 1 — Continued Recipient(s) of training Number trained Type of training Petroleum refinery— Continued Programers.................................... Description o f training Length o f training 3 instrument engineers, 6 instru ment supervisors, and 6 instrument men (including above 3 employees) received 30 hours classroom instruc tion in computer theory onsite. Programing techniques. 5 weeks 7 Classroom 4 4 2 Classroom Classroom Classroom and workshop Computer system and usage onsite. Basic programing. Programing maintenance. 4 hours 2 weeks 10 weeks 1 On-the-job Computer terminology; location and function of hardware components. Information entry and retrieval; machanics of peripheral equipment. Minimal training for minor mainte nance given jointly with electronics foreman. Use of computer to control mill setting and produce reports. Modifying and testing programs. 5-7 weeks Steel plant Dispatchers..................................... Systems engineers......................... Electrical engineers....................... Steel plant Electronics forem an..................... Classroom Electronics repairmen.................. 12 On-the-job Console operators......................... 5 On-the-job 1 Classroom 2 days Ad hoc basis 3 months Steel plant Coordinator of control computers.................................... Classroom Classroom Procedures a n a ly st....................... 1 Classroom Classroom Electronics maintenance foreman- 1 Electronics repairmen.................. 2 Classroom Classroom Classroom Classroom and on-the-job Classroom and on-the-job 7 Classroom Familiarization with program prepared by vendor. Familiarization with program prepared by vendor onsite. Programing for business data process ing computer. Familiarization with program prepared by vendor. Programing for business data process ing computer. Equipment wiring procedures. Computer logic and maintenance onsite. Programing onsite and at vendor facility. Computer concepts, logic, and capabil ities. Programing; functions of computer equip ment; computer logic, etc., onsite. 5 weeks 1 week Not provided 5 weeks Not provided 2 months 6 months 3 months Class: 15 hours OJT: Periodically Class: 1 week OJT: Periodically Electric power plant Senior design engineers................ See footnote at end of table. 42 Various courses including computer con cepts, programing, computer installa tion and checkout, and computer hard ware. 2-12 weeks Table 19. Training provided by computer manufacturers 1— Continued Recipient(s) of training Number trained Type of training Description o f training Length of training Electric power plant— Continued Assistant test engineer................ Electronic technicians................ 1 2 Classroom Qassroom Hardware and programing. Maintenance and some programing. 12 weeks 8-12 weeks Electrical engineers...................... 13 Qassroom 1-3 weeks Performance supervisor.............. 1 On-the-job Technical foremen....................... Operator supervisors.................. Operators and technicians......... 2 4 26 Classroom Qassroom Classroom General orientation, programing, and maintenance. Employee worked with vendor person nel assigned to program computer. General orientation. General orientation Vendor participated in familiariza tion lecture program with user and equipment manufacturers onsite. Electric power plant 3-6 weeks 2 weeks 3 weeks 80-120 hours 1 Provided at vendor facility unless otherwise noted. C ourse prerequ isites. Requirements for enrollment in courses vary among vendor schools. For programing courses, an engineering or science degree generally is desired, although one school accepts students with a background in high school algebra. For maintenance courses, a good understanding of basic electronics and the ability to think logically are the basic requirements. The knowledge of basic electronics usually was acquired as a result of having an electrical engineering degree, formal training in electronics, or on-the-job experience. Training Provided by Users All but one of the survey plants provided employee training during conversion to computer control. The exception was a steel mill which relied exclusively on vendor staff for training. (See table 21.) The extent and kind of training were determined largely by a company’s computer system requirements, its capability to provide training, and the type of training provided by the com puter vendor. A total of 484 employees at survey plants received some form of classroom or on-the-job instruc tion. O perators. Almost all training provided to operators at survey plants was given by company personnel, who usually had been trained by the vendor. The focus of training was on the operating procedures for the com puterized system. The training was relatively brief, rang ing from 4 to 80 hours, although sometimes this training was extended over a long period of time. Although most training sessions were held on-the-job, some involved classroom instruction. Technicians. Most technicians also received their train ing from the user staff. The time spent in training varied greatly, largely because of differing job requirements for technicians among survey plants. Instrument mainte nance men at a paper mill, for example, received 2 weeks of classroom instruction, whereas those with the same job title at a petroleum refinery were given 300 hours of on-the-job training. Two technicians at a chemical plant were trained for programing maintenance, one for 6 months and the other (jointly with vendor staff) for a year. Supervisors. Several plants also provided training, including both computer orientation sessions and spe cialized instruction to supervisory and professional personnel. At a paper mill, for example, company staff joined with vendor representatives to familiarize the computer project group with the functions and program ing of the planned computer installation; at a chemical plant, 10 chemical engineers were given 7 months train ing in programing. T y p e o f in stru ctors, fa cilities, a n d m e th o d s. Training instructors from plant staff included engineers with a knowledge of computer programing, maintenance, and technology, and production supervisors who had under gone training either at their plants or at vendor schools. Training aids were used extensively to facilitate both classroom and on-the-job instruction. These included blackboards, manuals prepared by both the user and vendor staff, and, at one plant, a console mockup and templates which fitted over the dials of the operator console. At a papermill, a taped series of closed— circuit TV lectures on digital computers is being pre pared for presentation to selected plant employee groups. 43 Table 20. Selected courses offered by the training school of a large vendor of process control computers Title of course Content of course Process computer concepts......... Fundamentals of digital computers and their place in auto matic control, introduction to process computer program ing, and descriptions of typical systems. Programing courses: Standard programing course.................................... Computer concepts, number systems, flow charting, FORTRAN, and computer process assembly language. Audio taped programing course.................................... Specially prepared audio tape lectures and accompanying workbooks. (Can be taken at customer’s locations and may be supplemented by 2 weeks “live” course at com puter school.) Maintenance courses: Programed instruction course.................................... Number systems, digital computer theory, core memory theory, and basic machine-language programing. (De signed to prepare students for maintenance courses taught at computer school.) Central processor maintenance......................... Detailed theory of operation of the computer system. Study and practice of preventive and corrective main tenance procedures. Basic peripheral maintenance......................... Extensive theory and practical work on peripheral devices. Disc memory maintenance.................................. Theory of operation of the device and preventive and cor rective maintenance procedures. Teletype printer Same maintenance......................... Card reader and card punch maintenance.............. Same Line printer mainteSame nance .................................... Remote scanner mainSame tenance.................................. SOURCE: Training brochures of computer vendor. Prerequisites Length of course Interest in process computers. 2 days Bachelor’s degree in science or engineering and a work ing knowledge of process to be monitored or controlled. 4 weeks Bachelor’s degree in science or engineering and a working knowledge of process to be monitored or controlled. Determined by student Electrical engineering degree or 2 years of formal electronic training, plus 2 years’ maintenance of major electronic equipment. 1 week (approximate) Successful completion o f examination covering mate rial contained in programed instruction course. 11 weeks Successful completion of control processor mainte nance course. 2 weeks Same 3 weeks Same 2 weeks Same 1 week Same 1 week Same 2 weeks Table 21. Training provided by user companies Recipient(s) o f training Number trained Type of training Description o f training Length o f training Papermill Task force employees (See table 2 4 ) ........................... Paper machine crew s.................. Instrument maintenance men- • • 16 35 33 Classroom On-the-job Classroom (See table 24.) Instrument functions and capabilities. Instrument maintenance. 2 weeks 6 hours 2 weeks Instrument technician................ Plant superintendent.................. 1 1 On-the-job On-the-job Periodic Periodic Cracker operators....................... Clerk............................................. 4 1 On-the-job On-the-job Operators....................................... Process engineers......................... 4 2 On-the-job On-the-job Clerks; operators......................... 30 On-the-job Computer and instrument maintenance. Computer technology. Use o f com puter technology. Operating techniques. Computational techniques. Use of input-output equipment. Plant operation using computer. Computer system familiarization; programing. Operation of computerized system. Chemical engineers..................... 10 Programing technician................ 1 Classroom and on-the-job Qassroom and on-the-job Program maintenance technician.................................. 1 Laboratory technicians.............. Laboratory analysts.................... 2 50 Chemical plant Periodic Periodic 8 hours 4 months Chemical plant Programing. 7 months Programing. 6 months Classroom and on-the-job On-the-job Qassroom and on-the-job Programing and computer techniques, jointly with vendor. Computer applications to lab operations. Computer utilization. 1 year 50 hours 16 hours 32 32 On-the-job Qassroom and on-the-job Operations of computer equipment. Operations o f computer equipment. Periodic 12 hours Foreman, stillmen, operators • • • 30 Computer programs and operations. 40 hours Foremen, stillmen, operators. . . 2530 Qassroom and on-the-job Qassroom and on-the-job Computer programs and operations. 12 hours 72 1 1 3 On-the-job On-the-job On-the-job On-the-job Operating techniques. Computer and instrument maintenance. Instrument maintenance. Instrument maintenance. 80 hours 150 hours 300 hours 300 hours 50 Qassroom Basic operating procedures. 4 hours Chemical plant Operators .................................... Operators .................................... Petroleum refinery Petroleum refinery Stillmen and controlmen............ Instrument m an........................... Instrument engineer .................. Instrument m en ........................... Steel mill Melter foreman, operators, and h elp ers................................ 45 Table 21. Training provided by user companies— Continued Recipient(s) of training Number trained Type o f training Description o f training Length of training Steel mill Electronics repairmen................ 12 On-the-job Minor maintenance o f computer system jointly with vendor staff. 29 2 On-the-job On-the-job Operating procedures. Programing. 26 Classroom Familiarization lectures jointly with computer and equipment vendors. 3 On-the-job Basic operating procedures. Periodic Electric power plant Operators....................................... Control group engineers.............. 3 weeks Electric power plant Operators and technicians......... 16-24 hours Cement plant Kiln burners.................................. Training has been formalized at many survey plants, some of which maintain permanent programs for devel oping employee skills. One large chemical plant, for example, has a continuing program that consists of three sequential courses. The basic course consists of mathe matics, process flow, and chemical technology, which is followed by two advanced courses pertaining to plant operations and process technology. After completing the two advanced courses, employees receive a pay increase. Training generally was provided during working hours. In at least two survey plants, however, training sessions were conducted after regular working hours, and the trainees earned overtime pay. As plants gain experience in computer process con trol, evidence from this study suggests they will rely increasingly on their own staffs for the training o f new personnel in computer tasks. The two newest engineers at an electric power plant, for instance, were assimilated into the control group with only 3 weeks’ training that consisted of reading a programing manual and experi menting with control problems. This power company believes that outside training for this control group will not be necessary as long as it maintains an experienced group of engineers. Training Provided by Educational Institutions and Other Groups As a general rule, technical schools and colleges were not found to be important sources of training for com puter process control. A cement plant included in the survey, however, sent four electricians to a local junior 46 college at its expense for 16 weeks’ instruction in elec tronics to prepare them for work as instrumentation technicians. Technical schools and junior colleges may be used more extensively as their curriculums are broadened to meet the needs of companies in process industries. The major training tasks of these institutions, however, probably will be to provide the necessary skills needed to qualify for entry positions as technicians and operators. An important source of training for managers and technical personnel will continue to be the relatively brief (often 1 to 2 weeks in duration) courses in com puter concepts and techniques which are offered by universities, industry technical associations, and private consulting firms. Schools also have been established for the develop ment of computer technicians by some computer manu fa c tu re rs . Com puter technology (40 weeks) and programing (20 weeks) are among the courses offered at one of these schools. A high school education or its equivalent is required for entrance. Some experts foresee that training of engineers, systems analysts, and related technical staff involved in implementing computer process control may increas ingly involve postgraduate instruction, since presently most undergraduate curriculums do not include some e sse n tia l specialized technical subjects related to computer control. It is significant, however, that a few schools reportedly have initiated undergraduate BS degree programs and others now offer selected courses in the field of systems engineering. Some idea of the educa tional requirements for computer process control is indicated in appendix B-4, which lists some of the suggested courses for process control systems engineers in the chemical and petroleum industries. With slight modification, this list would be appropriate for process computer applications, regardless of industry. Criteria and Methods of Selecting Employees for Training E m p lo y e e s w h o receiv ed train in g as a resu lt o f th e c o n v e r sio n s to c o m p u te r c o n tr o l in c lu d e d th o s e in e x is t in g jo b s w h o se d u tie s w ere t o b e a ffe c te d b y th e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e c o m p u te r , and th o s e assign ed t o th e n e w p rogram in g, m a in te n a n c e , an d o p era tin g task s crea ted b y th e c o m p u te r . E m p lo y e e s in th e first g r o u p , prim ar ily o p e r a tin g p e r so n n e l an d th eir su p erv iso rs, a u to m a tic a lly re c e iv e d th e train in g n e e d e d t o p e r fo r m th eir d u tie s u n d er th e m o d ifie d la tte r g rou p c o m p r ise d o p era tin g c o n d itio n s . T h e e m p lo y e e s s e le c te d fo r n e w initiative, patience, persistence, adaptability, capacity for logical thinking, and interest in pursuing education. Methods used by plants to appraise qualifications for training ranged from management judgment of em ployees’ records to reliance on standard aptitude tests. Both tests and interviews were employed in several plants to screen candidates. Seniority lists were used at one plant to select instrument men for training in com puter maintenance from among employees who had completed outside courses in electronics. A high school diploma represents the preferred minimum educational requirement for operator and technician jobs. Applicants for technician jobs at a power plant, however, were required to have 2 years of technical school training in mathematics and electronics. Moreover, officials at several plants expressed a prefer ence for applicants with technical training equivalent to the junior college level for operator jobs. p o s itio n s an d o th e r s a ssign ed fr o m e n g in eerin g sta ffs t o w o r k in c o m p u te r o c c u p a tio n s. Appraisal o f Training S e le c tio n criteria m o s t fr e q u e n tly c o n sid e r e d b y sur v e y p la n ts fo r c o m p u te r -r e la te d train in g a ssig n m en ts in c lu d e d w o r k e x p e r ie n c e , a b ility , in te r e st, and a p titu d e . J ob p erfo rm a n ce an d a m o u n t and k in d o f e d u c a tio n also w ere c o n sid e r e d . In a d d itio n , w o r k e x p e r ie n c e and k n o w le d g e o f a given p ro cess w ere c ite d b y several c o m p a n ie s as im p o r ta n t rea so n s fo r r ecru itin g program er train ees fr o m w ith in th e c o m p a n y . Particular personal temperaments and aptitudes were looked for by various companies in screening applicants for training. Those most often cited were dedication, Although few problems involving training were re ported, officials at all survey plants expressed a need for greater preparatory training for work with computer control. Some courses considered useful are presented in table 22. The desirability of a more thorough prepara tion in mathematics and the physical sciences in high school was mentioned repeatedly. The importance of technical schools and junior colleges in providing instruc tion in these subject areas and in electronics also was stressed. Table 22. Type of courses for computer process control desired by officials at selected survey plants Plant Papermill.................. Chemical plant Cement p la n t......... Steel m ill.................. Electric power plant Electric power plant Suggested courses Education oriented toward the development of logical thinking would be desirable, including high school courses in geometry and algebra. More high school training in mathematics is needed for operators. Junior colleges are begin ning to offer 2-year courses in processing technology, and a graduate o f such a course would be preferred to a high school graduate for operator jobs. More formal education in electronics, instrumentation, and mathematics would be useful in preparing operating employees for computer control. Technical school training, courses in mathematics, and electrical training would be helpful in preparing operating employees for computer control. Technicians, technical assistants, and helpers should have a high school education, with courses in physics, chemistry, and electronics. Training courses offered by the computer manufacturer will continue to be used for systems engineers and programers. Courses useful for computer process control engineers include Boolean algebra, basic to logical thinking and to understanding computers; discrete sampling techniques; linear programing; and digital techniques for solution of practical differential equations. 47 CHAPTER 10. LABOR-MANAGEMENT ADJUSTMENTS The introduction of process computers has caused minimal adverse manpower impact at most survey plants and has resulted in only a few major problems affecting labor-management relations. Most of the survey plants had existing collective bargaining contracts which con tained provisions to facilitate the adjustment of workers to technological change. These provisons provide the mechanism for giving advance notice, setting wage rates, reassigning workers, and providing benefits for workers laid off. th is su rvey p la n t w ere n o tifie d w e ll in ad van ce o f Contract Provisions Relating to Technological Change w ere assign ed a n u m b er o f p o in ts d e p e n d in g u p o n th e ch a n g es. A fo rm a l jo b e v a lu a tio n p la n p ro v id e d fo r in th e u n io n a g reem en t w as u se d t o ad ju st th e w age rates o f w o rk ers a ffe c te d b y p r o c e ss c o m p u te r s. Job ev a lu a tio n s w ere r e q u e ste d b y th e u n io n fo r e ig h t o p era to rs w o r k in g in tw o o f th e u n its u sin g c o m p u ter c o n tr o l. F a cto rs su c h as sk ill, p h y sic a l and m e n ta l d e m a n d , w o r k in g c o n d itio n s , an d r e sp o n sib ility fo r e q u ip m e n t, p r o d u c t, and m aterials th eir relative im p o r ta n c e . T h e p o in t to ta l fo r ea c h jo b c a te g o r y w as agreed u p o n b y u n io n and m a n Workers were represented by unions at 9 of 12 plants visited. Major unions at survey plants are the Oil, Chemi cal and Atomic Workers International Union; the Inter national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; the United Steelworkers of America; the International Union of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers; the International Union, District 50, United Mine Workers of America; and the Independent Petroleum Workers of America. All of the collective bargaining contracts at the survey plants have broad general provisions that protect workers affected by technological change. These provi sions cover topics such as job security, advance notice of technological and other changes, displacement and downgrading, procedures for manning new jobs, sev erance pay, and layoff benefit plans. In a few plants, contracts contain a clause that ensures the use of these provisions in instances of technological change. The following are examples of two such union contract pro visions at a survey chemical plant. The collective bargaining contract contains a state ment of intent pertaining to job security. Its pur pose is to minimize “ .. . .adverse effects on em ployees. . .elimination or downgrading of jobs arising from automation, restructuring of work, and operations improvement. . ” The company is obli gated to “ . . .inform employees directly affected when changes or improvements are proposed and are to be studied, as soon as such advance informa tion may be feasible, and in any case before the proposals are instituted. . .” Workers affected by the three process control computer installations at a g em en t rep resen ta tiv es an d w a s u se d t o se t th e w a g e rate. A s a resu lt o f th e s e jo b ev a lu a tio n stu d ie s, fo u r o p era to rs re c e iv e d an in crea se in w a g es, b u t th e o th e r fo u r o p era to rs reta in ed th eir fo rm er rate. Informing Employees About Change Employees in the affected units were notified in advance of the actual installation of the process com puter system at 10 of the 12 plants visited. The period of advance notice ranged from 4 months to 2 years at survey plants. The most usual way of informing workers about the pending installation of computer process con trol was a special meeting held by supervisors with workers in the affected unit. Other communication techniques included a description of the forthcoming change in the company newspaper or bulletin, discus sions during regular union-management meetings, noti fication of the union by letter, and notification through the local press to the public. Prior to the installation of the computer, a description of the system was provided the workers, and its probable effect on their employment was discussed with them. In a paper plant, for example, the possibility that workers might be displaced and the changes in job content of workers in the affected unit were the subjects discussed at a meeting of company and union representatives. Other topics of discussion between company and worker representatives at survey plants were training programs and job evaluation studies for affected workers. 48 Special Negotiations and Grievances Union-management negotiations or specific grievances related to the introduction of process computers occurred in only two plants. At a petroleum refinery, one of the unions became concerned about who would have jurisdiction over the maintenance of the process control computer that was to be installed. The union brought this matter up during a regular union-manage ment meeting and indicated that union members were qualified and should maintain the computer. The company’s position was that it had a contract with the computer manufacturer for maintenance of the com puter. The result of the negotations was that union members would repair minor difficulties, and the manu facturer’s representative would be called to repair major equipment malfunctions. At a power plant, formal grievances were filed con cerning the abolition of two extra operator jobs per shift in a new plant using a process computer. A specific griev ance was filed for each job abolished. These jobs were added to the operating crew of the plant to assist with additional tasks required during the shakedown period when the plant was being brought into operation. Following past procedure, the company wanted to abolish the extra jobs after the shakedown period was over. The union’s position in contesting the job reduc tions was that the computerized plant could not be operated safely without the additional workers. A major union complaint was that the workers in the contested jobs were needed to check out the numerous alarms about plant operations given by the computer. The arbi trator, however, ruled in favor of the company on both jobs and they were abolished. Employees in these abolished jobs were transferred to other positions. Union Comments About Computer Process Control The effects of the introduction of process control computers on workers were discussed with local union representatives at the nine unionized plants visited. Since the majority of the survey plants were already highly instrumented, process computers were felt to be merely a further extension of instrumentation for use in control over plant processes. Such changes had been introduced frequently in these plants in the past, and the union officials accepted these changes as part of the techno logical evolution of the industry. Most union officials indicated that worker adaptation to computer process control created no serious problems. In some cases, union representatives felt more concern about other kinds of technological changes that might have a greater effect on employment at their plants. At steel mills, for example, the basic oxygen furnaces being introduced are expected to have a greater effect upon workers than computer process control. A number of officials, however, felt that adverse effects upon union members were possible in the future. At two petroleum refineries, for example, the increasing use of process computers is expected to accelerate the declining employment of operators and maintenance workers. At one electric power plant, computer process control is expected to reinforce the adverse effect on the work force brought about by other recent technological changes. At another electric power plant, more auto matic computer control operations may lead to future reductions in manpower. (See appendix B-5 for more extensive comments by union representatives about the introduction of process computers at specific survey plants.) 49 CHAPTER 11. OUTLOOK FOR COMPUTER PROCESS CONTROL AND MANPOWER Process computer installations are expected to in crease greatly in number and complexity over the next decade, and probably will result in significant increases in employment of engineers, programers, and techni cians. However, fewer operators may be needed as com puter control is improved and centralized further. Growth in Number of Computer Control Installations Continued growth in the total number of process con trol computer installations is expected though the future growth rate is difficult to estimate because of diverse factors such as changing computer technology, the expansion of process computer applications to many areas outside of process industries, the economic condi tions in the industries involved, and the changing economic conditions of the Nation. From 1963, the first year that a significant number of process computers were reported, to 1968, process computer installations in the United States have been increasing at an average annual rate of 48 percent, and worldwide at an average annual rate of 55 percent. Although these rates may not be sustained, a continued high rate of growth can be expected. Some industry experts suggest that the in crease in process computer installations may be about 20 percent a year in the near future. Projecting the 1968 estimated total of 1,647 process computers in the U.S. and 3,094 in the world at this 20 percent rate to 1975 results in totals of about 5,900 U.S. and 11,100 world wide installations. O u tlo o k f o r c o m p u te r c o n tro l in p ro cess in dustries. Most experts at survey plants foresee expansion in the number of computers and the ways they will be applied in the process industries. The paper industry will be using process computers for control of nearly all major processes by 1975. In the chemical industry, officials interviewed estimated that all large chemical plants and 90 percent of the major production processes will be using process computers by 1975. In addition, all petro leum refineries with capacities of 50,000 barrels a day and all major refining processes should be using some form of digital process computer control by the 50 mid-1970’s. Laboratory computer systems are expected to become important in both the chemical and petro leum refining industries. The key steps of raw materials blending and kiln control in the cement industry are expected to account for the largest number of future applications. By the early 1970’s, in the iron and steel industry, all new hot strip mills and basic oxygen furnaces are expected to be using process computers. Continuous casting also is expected to be a prime candidate for computer control. Main applications of process computers in the electric power industry will be for startup, shutdown, normal operations and perform ance calculations for conventional plants, and eco nomic dispatch for power systems. Nuclear plants also probably will be computer controlled. An increase in process computer installations is expected in many sectors of the economy outside of the process industries. Specific forecasts of future installations and applications by officials at survey plants are presented in appendix B-6. Factors Affecting Outlook for Computer Process Control Changes in process computer control technology and programing techniques are expected to be a particularly important determinant of growth in the number of process computer installations and the type and scope of application in the near future. Specific factors affecting the future of computer process control mentioned by officials at survey plants are presented in appendix B-7. Two trends in computer equipment are underway. One trend is toward small, relatively low cost computers which are economically feasible for control of a single small process, or if used in multiples, for control of a large process. The other trend is toward large, expensive computers with time sharing, priority interrupt features. At present the calculating power of these large com puters is such that many complex processes in a plant can be run by a single unit. Systems are being set up with the computer in a central location. By using data transmission lines, many plant processes can be placed under continuous control. Time sharing capabilities of these computer systems allow a number of different type process operations to be interwoven into their operating functions, and it is expected that this type of computer system will have even greater capability in the future. Both of these trends are leading to lower cost com puter control operations. Small computers will allow applications in areas that were previously uneconomical; large computers will lower the cost of control over individual processes in a large plant. In addition, the growing production of process computers and con tinuing competition among computer manufacturers also are leading to decreased computer costs. In a paper plant visited, for example, a process computer installed in December 1962 was leased for $14,000 a month. A replacement computer installed in January 1967, how ever, cost only $7,000 a month, despite the fact that it has 10 times the computing capability of the former unit. Computer reliability also has increased greatly since process computers were introduced. As reliability of equipment increases, more dependence will be placed on the computer system and less on human control. New and more advanced instrumentation, including more accurate on-line analyzers, are being developed for process control. Much emphasis is being placed by instrument manufacturers on making equipment com p a tib le with computer control. These trends are expected to lead to more precise control, and the ability to operate the process closer to equipment limits. Direct digital control has proved successful and can be expected to increase in application in the future. One of the major advantages of DDC is that the conventional analog controllers, used for most existing process control applications, are replaced by a digital computer con nected directly to the process. Some of the gains are a reduction in the cost of large projects, improvement in control performance, and greater flexibility in changing control strategy. DDC is expected to have its greatest use in new plants where the control systems can be designed specifically for this advanced technique rather than in existing plants which already have analog controllers installed. Use of DDC for control of batch processes probably will lead to increased process computer appli cations in many industries. The use of computer hierarchy systems, consisting of interconnected computers at different levels of a plant or a company, is expected to increase in the future. A small number of these systems are planned or in use at present, and the early stages of such a system were observed at a survey paper plant and a petroleum refinery. Many of the operating decisions of a large multiprocess plant, or a complete company, could be assumed by a computer hierarchy system. DDC can be expected to find a major application in such systems. Specialized computer languages designed to assist engineers in programing for process control applications are being developed. These languages will relieve the programer from directly writing machine instructions and will allow him to set up a program package with the best operating procedures for the computer system being used with a minimum of effort. In addition, a number o f standardized program packages for process control applications have been developed by computer manufacturers and by firms that anticipate many process computer applications. They consist of a set of general programs that can be modified easily to fit individual control projects and are designed to be used by engineers with a minimum of computer training. Much o f the cost, time, and effort of pro graming will be reduced by the use of these standardized programs. Another recent and important development has been th e licensing of standardized process models for commonly used industrial processes. Process models for catalytic cracking have been developed, for example, that can be used by units at different locations with a minimum of adjustment. Outlook for Employment and Occupations in Process Industries Employment trends are expected to vary in the dif ferent process industries surveyed because of factors such as changes in general economic conditions, pro ductivity, demand, and technology, including computer process control. In three industries— pulp and paper, industrial chemicals, and iron and steel— employment is expected to increase slightly; in two— petroleum re fin in g and hydraulic cement— employment is ex p e c te d to d eclin e slightly; in the remaining industry— electric power— little or no change in employment is anticipated. Employment in total manu facturing, on the other hand, is expected to increase gradually through the 1970’s. P ro sp ects f o r m a jo r o cc u p a tio n s a ffe c te d b y c o m p u te r An increased demand for systems, control, instrument, and process engineers can be expected because of the growing emphasis on advanced control techniques and equipment and the expanding output in the process industries. The expanding number of process computer installations and applications is expected to be a key factor in accelerating the demand for these highly skilled engineers who will be needed to plan, develop, co n tro l. 51 install, and repair computer equipment and instrumenta tion. This trend can be expected to continue despite factors such as growing experience in process computer technology and the introduction of standardized process models, which serve to reduce engineering effort. (Specific occupational trends forecast by officials at survey plants are presented in table 23.) Employment opportunities for programers in the process industries also are expected to increase, but not as rapidly as for engineers. This is due in part to the practice of training engineers to perform programing tasks for process computers and the increasing use of standardized program packages. More programing techni cians and assistants also will continue to be needed to update and maintain computer programs. Demand for process computer programers can be expected to increase in firms outside of the process industries, such as computer manufacturers and consulting firms who are expected to continue to supply much of the programing effort needed for process computer installations. The demand for operators in the process industries is expected to continue to decline, due mainly to the continuing shift to large capacity production units, centralized control rooms, and more automatic controls. This decline in demand for operators is likely to be reinforced by the growing use of process computers. 52 Older plants may centralize control rooms at the same time as they introduce computer control, thereby reducing the need for operators. New plants, designed and built to encompass computer control, probably will require fewer operators than similar plants without computers. However, electronic and instrument techni cians, who are needed to install and repair complex computer equipment and sophisticated electronic instru mentation, can be expected to increase in number. Other types of occupations also are expected to be affected by computer control. Demand for laboratory analysts in analytical and production control labora tories, for example, may be reduced by the increasing use of computer systems for routine analysis and calcula tions. Employment of record and production accounting clerks also may be reduced, since much of the data logging and report preparation done by these workers can be carried out automatically by process computers. Multiprocess, plant, and company control, advanced forms of computer control that are now receiving much emphasis, may have adverse manpower implications in the future. A complete plant, for example, could be operated with a crew no greater in size than is presently required to operate a single control room; this situation obviously would result in a significant decrease in operating manpower. Table 23. Outlook for further occupational changes at selected survey plants because o f computer process control Outlook Survey plant Papermill........................................... Chemical plant.................................. Chemical plant.................................. Petroleum refinery........................... Petroleum refinery........................... Steel m i l l ......................................... Steel m i l l ......................................... Electric power plant....................... Electric power plant....................... As paper machines come increasingly under computer control, the duties presently performed by crews will be reduced. Possibly within 10 years, a single crew, perhaps larger than a cur rent single crew today, will be able to operate 2 paper machines. Within 10 years, less labor probably will be required in the operations o f threading the machine, changing paper grades, and cleaning the machines than at present. The quality control capability o f the computer probably will eliminate the present occupations involved with testing and inspection. Also, instrument maintenance will become much more systematic and demand a higher level of technical skill. Labor costs as a percentage o f total costs in large chemical plants are very low. Emphasis, therefore, is on improving control and reducing raw material costs rather than reducing man power requirements. In analytical laboratories, labor costs are the largest expense. Conse quently, use o f computers is expected to have a great impact on manpower in laboratories. Computers in the analytical control labs will affect both supervisors and technicians. Through the use o f computer systems which include data transmission lines and remote chromato graph stations, laboratories may be able to double present loads. Although this chemical plant does not yet have a permanent computer control group for systems design and pro graming, it probably will have one in the future because applications are growing so rapidly that the company cannot afford the loss of programing skills and computer knowledge which occurs when computer project groups breakup. The size o f the computer systems engineering group is expected to increase from 3 to between 6 and 9 workers, including systems engineers, programers, and technicians. Computer sys tems, however, are not expected to have much impact on the employment o f operating per sonnel since operators will be employed to assure operation of the plant during emergencies with which the computer cannot cope. Training o f programers and technicians will become more important, since the adverse effects o f lack of training in computer technology only are beginning to be felt. The shortage of trained process computer personnel is likely to retard more widespread use o f computer proc ess control in the petrochemical industry. Most units at this refinery have been utilizing automatic controllers for some time; therefore, the operating staff is small and not much change is anticipated. Maintenance employment, which has been declining due to a continuing consolidation o f small units into larger and more efficient ones, is expected to continue to decline slightly because of the utilization of computers which allows equipment to operate for longer periods between shutdowns for maintenance. The computer applications group is not expected to grow much larger. If more technical man power is needed, the companies’ policy will continue to be to borrow personnel from other parts of the corporation to work on specific projects. Lack o f qualified technical manpower for new key positions is a fairly universal problem. For the industry as a whole, more process engineers with chemical engineering backgrounds and computer knowledge will be needed. Standardized process computer programs, however, could reduce the need for programers. The company can foresee complete automatic control in the future. Such installations would have a computer in complete control of all process operations. The operator would remain only as a monitor. If this plant is to increase utilization o f process computers, however, it needs more skilled programers and instrument men who are trained in electronics. Engineers and maintenance workers will need to acquire some knowledge o f computer control systems and the capabilities and methods to maintain them. More maintenance workers and systems engineers will be needed. Additional programing skills also may be required. Further use of process control computers is not expected to lead to any notable labor displace ment. Operators will continue to be needed at least as backup men to run production proc esses manually in the event o f computer system failure. More maintenance personnel may be required, and maintenance job skills will have to be extended and upgraded. The amount o f time spent calculating performance requirements and testing is expected to be reduced because of computer control. Nuclear power plants may tend to decrease the number o f plant personnel due to increased automation, including computer process control, less maintenance, and elimination o f coal handling. Skill levels in nuclear plants probably will be higher. SOURCE: Based on interviews with officials at 9 survey plants. 53 APPENDIX A. SCOPE AND METHOD Coverage of Survey This study is limited to the use of digital process con trol computers in the highly instrumented process industries where computer control was first adopted beginning in the late 1950’s. Twelve plants in six major process industries were visited by BLS staff for informa tion for the study. These industries are paper, industrial chemicals, petroleum refining, hydraulic cement, iron and steel, and electric power. Table A provides detail on the number of plants, process control computers, and employees in the survey. A total of 28 separate process control computer installations were surveyed. Plants included in the survey varied in size from several hundred employees at an electric power station to nearly 19,000 employees at a large steel mill. Total employment at the time of visit in the operating units w here p ro cess c o m p u te rs were introduced was 1,644— about 3 percent of the total employment of 63,687 at these plants. Survey plants were located in 10 different States in the East, South, and Midwest. Most plants were in or near major population centers. However, several were in communities with fewer than 50,000 people. Method The first phase of research involved a comprehensive review of trade journals, technical magazines and books, corporate annual reports, and other secondary source materials to determine in which industries process con trol computers were being applied. Articles describing specific plant installations were helpful in selecting representative and illustrative plants to include in the field survey. A listing of secondary source material is included in the bibliography. Next, the major producers of process control com puters were visited by BLS staff to discuss in depth the outlook and implications of computer procees control. Company technical staff provided expert judgment on the possible future rate of adoption of computer process control in the various industries and applications. Prospects for further refinements and advancements in computer technology also were discussed. The brochures describing the various systems obtained during the visits were helpful in acquiring a better understanding of the capability and functions of computer process control systems. The next step was to select the plants to be included in the study. Substantial effort was made to include plants in the major process industries which would be representative of processes being put under computer control. Twelve plants in six major process industries were selected for study on the basis of the secondary sources described above and interviews with experts. These 12 plants represent a wide range of applications and levels of computer control. Only plants with systems in operation for at least 1 year were included in the survey so that effects on employment could be examined more readily. Plants also were chosen that had replaced early process control systems with more advanced systems. Most plants contacted had more than one computer system functioning when visited. A questionnaire was developed for use as an aid in gathering data during informal discussions with manage ment and union officials. The prior steps of reviewing secondary source materials and visits to computer manu facturers were very helpful in developing a draft form. This questionnaire was reviewed by government, industry, and labor experts, and their suggested revisions were incorporated. The plant visits were undertaken by BLS staff who spent an average of about 2 days at each plant inter viewing company officials who had direct knowledge of the installation. Administrators, managers of production units, industrial relations experts, engineers, computer technicians, and maintenance staff were among typical company employees interviewed. In addition, the local officials of the unions representing the employees at the plants were interviewed. Information was obtained on topics such as the nature of the computer control system and process application, reasons for installation and economic benefits that resulted, extent of worker dis p lace m en t and re assig n m e n t, characteristics of employees in jobs created and abolished, and training programs and other techniques to prepare employees for new duties relating to computer process control systems. 54 Table A -l. Number of survey plants, process control computers, and employees in operating units with process control computers Process industry SIC code 1 Pulp, paper, and board....................... 261,262,263,266 Industrial chemicals 2 ......................... 281 Petroleum refining................................ 291 324 Hydraulic cem ent................................ Iron and steel 4 .................................... 331 491.493 Electric power....................................... T o ta l......................................... 1 2 3 4 5 Number of process control computers covered in survey Total number of em ployees in operating units with process control computers 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 12 4 1 6 54 35 3 220 38 17 3 669 665 12 28 1,644 Number of plants in survey U.S. Bureau of the Budget, Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1967. Includes inorganic and organic chemicals. Employment for some units unavailable and therefore not included in total. Blast furnaces, steelworks, and rolling mills. Includes two computers in survey plants and two in other plants of companies surveyed for whom extensive data were obtained. A draft report was prepared based primarily on data obtained during these field visits, supplemented by analysis of government statistics, trade and technical publications, and other secondary sources. It then was sent to company and union officials, industry and government experts, technical journal editors, and others for comment on the validity and accuracy of findings. Their suggested changes were evaluated and the neces sary revisions incorporated. Limitations In assessing the results of this study, consideration of several limitations is important. First, not all applications of computer process control were covered. This study focuses on the use of com puters to control operations in process industries and does not cover their limited but growing use in discrete product manufacturing industries for functions such as industrial testing and production control. Process com puters used in research, educational, or medical institu tions are not covered by the survey. The study also excludes analog computers which are being used for control applications involving only a few variables. Second, the study focuses on the manpower and economic effects of computer process control at user plants only. Indirect effects on manpower at plants where computers are manufactured were outside the scope of the study. Also excluded was an evaluation of possible employment and other manpower problems at competing plants which had not yet adopted digital process control computers. Third, data on certain aspects of the study, such as on the type and extent of manpower and economic savings, were classified as confidential by a few companies and therefore were unavailable. Finally, the experiences of plants included in the study may not be representative of the manpower impacts that might occur at a later stage of use of proc ess control computers when advanced types are devel oped and installed. 55 * APPENDIX B. TABLES (Tables B-l through B-7.) 56 Table B-l. Employment, output, and output per man-hour, in manufacturing and major process industries, selected years, 1957-69 Employment Industry SIC code* Number o f employees 1969 annual average (in thousands) Output and output per man-hour Average annual percent change 1957-692 Average annual percent change 1957-68 2 Output per man-hour Total Manufacturing................................................................. Pulp, paper, and board............................................................... Industrial chemicals.................................................................... Petroleum refining...................................................................... Hydraulic cement........................................................................ Iron and steel2 ........................................................................... Electric power and gas ®............................................................. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 261,262, 263,266 281 291 324 331 491,492, 493 20,121 Production workers 14,735 Total Production workers 1.8 1.5 Output All employees 3 5.4 3 3.4 5 4.7 Production workers - 5 5.0 297.8 233.0 4 .2 4 - .2 5 5.1 314.2 146.3 35.1 643.9 172.8 86.1 26.9 513.8 4 1.3 -2 .5 -2 .1 .1 4 .5 -3 .3 -2 .9 -.1 6 10.2 5 3.2 5 2.1 3.1 5 7.2 5 4.8 2.6 5 7.4 5 5.5 2.6 616.1 529.0 .4 0 7.0 6.5 6.9 - - U.S. Bureau of the Budget, Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1967. Based on the linear least squares trends of the logarithms of the index number. Output is gross product originating and is not strictly comparable with output and output per all employee man-hour measures for individual industries. Rates are for period 1958-69. Rates are for period 1957-67. Federal Reserve Board. Not strictly comparable with output measures for manufacturing and other process industries. Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling and finishing mills. Not strictly comparable with definition of survey industry used elsewhere in the report. Includes SIC 492, gas companies and systems. SOURCE: Average annual percent change in output for industrial chemicals is based on Federal Reserve Board data. All other data are from U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. ui vi Table B-2. Major applications o f process control computers in survey industries in the United States, July 19681 Industries and applications Electric power: Electric generating stations....................... Scan, log, and performance calculations....................................... Nuclear plants....................................... Operator guide control....................... Start, stop c o n tr o l.............................. Power system s........................................... Economic dispatch and load control....................................... Industrial chemicals: Ethylene production................................ Analytical laboratory and chromatograph control........................... Ammonia production................................ Iron and Steel: Basic oxygen furnace . — ....................... Electric arc furnace..................................... Hot strip m ill.............................................. Plate m ill.................................................... Tinning li n e ................................................ Power dem and........................................... Blast furnace................................................ Petroleum refining: Refinery control and optimization ........................................... Catalytic cracking....................................... Gasoline blending....................................... Crude distillation....................................... Analytical laboratory and chromatograph control........................... Number of applications 199 51 12 11 10 43 34 16 14 6 22 19 18 7 6 5 4 17 15 6 4 4 Pulp, paper, and board: Papermaking machine................................ 13 Hydraulic cement: Rotary kiln control..................................... Cement blending ....................................... 14 5 1 Applications that were reported less than four times were ex cluded. SOURCE: 58 See footnote on table 2, p. 12. Table B-3. Major job duties of three occupations in an 80-inch hot strip mill affected by process computer control Primary function Job title Recorder To compile complete record of 80-inch mill operations. Assistant roller To control settings for guides, loopers, and four finishing stands; assists roller and directs crew in mill set-up and roll changes. Coiler operator To operate table rolls, guides, pinch rolls, and coiler to coil strip steel. Major duties Copies rolling schedule. * Checks charging tally for weight o f material rolled. 1 Maintains hourly production report. 1 Compiles production data such as steel rolled, rolls changed, delays and runbacks. 1 Notifies concerned personnel on rolling schedule changes such as runbacks, cobbles, rejects, blow out, etc. 1 Assists computer operator, as directed. Picks up charging tallies from order stocker and gives copies to coil marker and computer operators. Picks up and checks roll data card against record and delivers to roll shop. Picks up and delivers rolling schedule to concerned mill personnel. Maintains working area clean and orderly. Operates various controls to make necessary adjust ments to mill and guide settings. 1 Operates controls for run-out table water spray. 1 Synchronizes speed for a section of run-out table. 1 Sets thickness and width gage indicators to order requirements and sets the decode system for auto matic gage control. 1 Receives, records, and signals notice o f last slab on order. 1 Operates controls for roll cooling system. Observes passage o f strip for possible correction of mill screw down. Requests and/or makes necessary gage and width corrections. Directs the roll hand to make necessary mill stand adjustments. Directs and assists roll changes, mill adjustments, and removal of cobbles. Checks whether lubrication system light is on. Maintains equipment and work area clean and orderly. Sets guides to proper width of strip. 1 Operates controls for coiler water sprays. 1 Operates stripper car and downender to deposit coils on conveyor. 1 Operates controls to synchronize table rolls, pinch rolls, and coiler speeds with mill delivery speed to insure proper coiling o f strip. Works with mill crew to make roll changes, remove cobbles, and perform other miscellaneous operational functions. Turns on stop signal in event of trouble or as directed by Ganger. Checks whether lubrication system light is on. Maintains equipment and work area clean and orderly. 1 Performed automatically when mill is on computer control. SOURCE: Rant records. 59 Table B-4. Suggested courses for process control systems engineers Engineering management Chemical engineering— Continued Personnel supervision Industrial organization Elementary accounting Evaluation o f investments Scheduling (PERT, CPM) Contracts and specifications Mass and energy transfer Thermodynamics Reaction kinetics Unit operations Process dynamics Instrumentation (measurements) Mathematics Calculus Differential equations Ordinary Partial Operational calculus Matrix Algebra Numerical methods Probability and statistics Fourier Analysis Optimization Linear programing Gradient methods Variational calculus Dynamic programing Computer programing Analog Digital Boolean (logical) algebra Chemical engineering Inorganic and organic chemistry Stoichiometry Material and energy balances Control engineering Basic control theory Time-domain analysis Frequency-domain analysis Stability Synthesis Sample-data systems Multivariable systems Nonlinear systems Adaptive systems Electrical engineering Network analysis Field theory Electronics Logic devices Other fields System concepts Economics Operations research Information theory Psychology Human engineering SOURCE: T. M. Stout and J. H. Hiestand, “Process Computers and Chemical Engineering Education. ” Paper presented at the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 61st Annual Meeting, Los Angeles, Calif., Dec. 1-5, 1968. 60 Table B-5. Union comments on computer process control at survey plants Type of plant Comments o f union representatives Paper p la n t................................................ Unionized workers were not affected adversely by the introduction of the process compu ter. The computer provided increased jobs for nonunion workers such as programers and process engineers. Chemical p la n t......................................... The workers did not find adaptation to computer process control difficult, because a continual change in technology had taken place at this plant. The company job security plan offers valuable protection against displacement caused by technological change. No major problems related to computer process control are expected in the future. Petroleum refinery.................................. Workers selected to operate the computer controlled units did not find adjustment to the changed jobs difficult. However, they feared that as computer use increases an accelerated decline in maintenance workers will occur. Computer control allows units to operate closer to physical limits with less equipment breakdown and there fore less regularly scheduled shutdowns for maintenance. Moreover, marginal units, which cannot be computer controlled, are expected to be terminated and the oper ating and maintenance crews cut back. Petroleum refinery.................................. Electrical workers union— because the amount of plant instrumentation required for process control computers and other technologies has increased, the number of union members who install and maintain these instruments has risen, despite the general downtrend in total plant employment. Therefore, process computers are felt to be advantageous to union members. However, job classifications and wage rates for instrument men working on computerized units have remained unchanged, despite the union position that these workers require greater ability than those working on noncomputerized units. Operating and maintenance workers union— a major decline in the number of union members at this plant has taken place due to a continuing modernization program. The operating staff at the computerized units was cut back at about the time the computers became operational. This employment decline was attributable to the instrumentation needed for putting the units under computer control. An increas ing number o f process computers probably will be used to control older units at this plant. The instrumentation needed for these computers and the laborsaving potential of computer control are expected to lead to large reductions in operat ing and maintenance manpower. Steel p la n t ................................................ New technologies, such as basic oxygen furnaces, will continue to have a substan tially greater impact on manpower than installations of process control computers. However, Steel p la n t ................................................ Employees adapted to computer process control with little difficulty. major changes in employment, occupations, and job skills are expected because o f other innovations, such as continuous casting. Steel p la n t ............................................... Worker adjustment to computer control presented no problems. More concern was felt about other innovations, such as the basic oxygen furnace. Power com pany....................................... Technological changes, such as automated substations and centralized controls, are expected to have more effect on the work force than process computers. How ever, computers are expected to accelerate the changes brought about by the other innovations. Power com pany....................................... Process computers are not expected to affect operating workers to any significant ex tent. However, innovations such as substation automation, plant automation, and interconnected switching systems are expected to have major impact upon union workers. Computer control over automatic startup and continuous operations of power plants may cause future reductions in employment. SOURCE: Based on interviews with local union officials. 61 Table B-6. Outlook for installations and applications of computer process control at selected survey plants Survey plant Paper company.................................... Chemical p la n t.................................... Chemical p la n t.................................... Petroleum refin ery.............................. Cement plant ....................................... Steel plant............................................. Steel plant............................................. Outlook The paper machine at the survey mill will be placed under a more advanced form of computer control. Other papermaking machines presently under conventional con trol in this mill also will be placed under computer control. Within the corpora tion, 14 major papermaking steps with potential for process computer applications were mentioned. Among these are the bleach plant, where computer control of primary bleaching may save $600 a day; batch and continuous pulping mills; elec trical and steam distribution facilities; chemical recovery; paper and board machines; woodyards and woodrooms; and the finishing department. These applications are being studied by an outside consultant to set up a 3 to 5 year program of computer usage. If found to be technically and economically feasible, they could be placed under computer control by 1975. The company is in the process o f setting up a computer-based planning and control system that will encompass all aspects of the company’s operations— accounting, shipping, inventory, manufacturing, scheduling, and marketing. Data transmission lines will connect both general purpose and proc ess computers in different company plants and areas to provide an integrated man agement control system. Applications of the computerized plantwide production control system will be in creased to include more units and more advanced control techniques. A computer system to be installed in an analytical control laboratory will operate all chromato graphs in the lab and at least one chromatograph station in an operating unit. Other laboratory instruments may be connected to the system. Based on a detailed feasi bility study, the laboratory computer is expected to save $60,000 a year in labor and instrument costs and produce a major increase in speed and accuracy of analysis. An estimated 10 to 20 percent o f major plant operations may be under full closedloop control by 1975. The computer system in the analytical control laboratory has been successful, and its applications will be increased through further program ing effort. A centralized computer control system, designed to replace the two existing control computer systems and control other major plant units, is being installed. This system may be connected, via data transmission lines, to a large scale computer at company headquarters as part of a total management information and control sys tem. Many of the major units in the plant are expected to be computer monitored or controlled by 1975. The alkylation unit and the heavy oils sections may be under computer control by 1972. Catalytic cracking, vapor recovery, gasoline blending, the desulfurizer, the lube oils extraction unit, and the hydrofinisher are other process units that have major potential for computer control. Two raw mills, material blending, and kiln control— most of the major steps in cement making at this plant— are expected to be put under automatic control by 1970. Possible future applications of computer control include the hot strip mill, cold mill reduction, machine shop numerical control, blast furnace burdening, and hot saw cutting of commercial beams. A computer will be applied to the electric arc furnace, for at least control of the elec trical load, and if billet continuous casting is introduced, for coordinating the pro duction of electric furnace steel with casting. A computer also may be applied to basic oxygen furnace operations. SOURCE: Based on interviews with officials at seven survey plants. 62 Table B-7. Factors expected to accelerate and retard growth in process computer installations Factors expected to retard use Factors expected to accelerate use Success of present systems Competitive pressure and its emphasis on cost reduction. Demand for a better quality product Trend toward larger production facilities. Larger proportion of plant cost being spent for control instrumentation Declining computer costs and continuing development of low cost, reliable computers. Development of computer time-sharing ability which allows one computer to control a number of processes Development of universal programs and process models Lack of trained personnel, especially in the areas of process engi neering, programing, and computer systems analysis. Absence of full management support, especially when savings due to computer control are difficult to quantify. Difficulty in justifying computer control in plants or processes with low volume production. Unsuccessful attempts to control a unit. Computer equipment that does not perform to specifications. Difficulties in developing the mathematical models and program ing for complex processes. Development of direct digital control. Increasing complexity of processes which require more sophisticated control systems. SOURCE: Based on interviews with officials at survey plants. 63 APPENDIX C. SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Nature and Scope; Impacts; Outlook Aldrich, Keith. “The Boom is Just Beginning,” C o n tro l Engineering, January 1965, pp. 67-70. Expenditures for automatic control as a proportion of total new plant and equipment expenditures— present and planned; computer control factor in growing investment. Results of survey of 60 companies in 7 user and equipment industries. Bailey, S.J. “On-line Computer Users Polled,” C o n tro l Engineering, January 1969, pp. 86-94. Report of user survey regarding system functions, benefits, project staffing, problems with hardware and and software, etc. Berendsen, Raymond C. pp. 20, 21. “Berendsen Looks Ahead at Process Computers,” A u to m a tio n , February 1967, Growth potential for process computer market. New applications and industry trends. Brown, John A. C o m p u ters a n d A u to m a tio n , (New York: ARCO, 1968). 245 pp. Functions, applications, and programing of industry and business computers. Planned primarily for use by students, instructors, and management personnel. Study questions. “Chemical Unions to Fight for Automation’s Benefits,” C h em ical Engineering, August 1, 1966, pp. 30, 32. Problems faced by unions. Efforts to gain greater job security and approaches to increasing bargaining power. Cornish, Harry L., Jr. and William L. Horton. C o m p u te rize d P rocess C o n tro l— A M an agem en t D ecision . (New York: Hobbs, Dorman and Company, Inc., 1968). 212 pp. Discussion of technology and economics of process control computers with emphasis on factors involved in management’s decision to introduce them. DeChristofaro, Ron R. “Upgrading Job Skills— Recruit or Retrain?” A u to m a tio n , April 1967, pp. 70-73. Advantages and disadvantages of alternative approaches. Review of a successfull industrial retraining program. Problems for management consideration. “Digital Computers in Industry,” C o n tro l Engineering, September 1966, pp. 83-142. A special report comprised of 14 articles by authorities in the field. Economics of computer control. Evaluation of potential. Techniques and problems of process computer control. Some case histories. Faveret, Andrew G. In tro d u c tio n to D ig ita l C o m p u te r A p p lic a tio n s, (New York: Reinhold, 1965), pp. 161-167. Use of digital computers for industrial process control. Experience with application in an oil refinery: problems and benefits. 64 Fox, Edward. “Nature and Purpose of Computer Process Control,” A u to m a tio n , October 1963, pp. 48-54. Role of computer in improving manufacturing efficiency. Methods of computerizing process control. Factors influencing feasibility of a process control computer. Some existing applications. Freilich, Arthur. “What’s Doing in Computer Control?” ISA J ou rn al, September 1961. Status report based on ISA Journal survey of digital computer makers. Comparisons of computers avail able for process control. Summary of known process control computer installations. Hollander, Arthur. “Manufacturing Control Computer Concept,” Tappi, November 1964, pp. 62A ff. Integration of data processing and process control into a common system. Objectives and features of such a system. “How Computers Control Process Operations,” P la n t Engineering, March 1965, pp. 151-152. Characteristics of open-loop and closed-loop systems. Supervisory compared with direct digital control. Potential of process computers and requirements for use. Jakubik, Robert F., Don Kader, and Louis B. Perillo. “Justifying Process Control Computers,” A u to m a tio n , March 1964, pp. 81-84. Direct and indirect or hidden benefits of process control computer systems. Examples of savings. Kirsh, Benjamin S. “Changing Character of Production Jobs Will Test Labor-Management Relations,” A u to m ation , February 1965, pp. 62-65. Effects of factory automation on skill requirements, job classifications, wage determination systems, and make-work rules. Implications for collective bargaining. Lex, Roland G., Jr. and William P. Hamilton. June 1964, pp. 73-75. “Computer Impact on Control Technology,” A u to m a tio n , Requirements for improved accuracy and reliability of instrumentation and control equipment. Increas ing need for systems engineering. Lombardo, J. M. “The Case for Digital Backup in Direct Digital Control Systems,” C h em ical Engineering, July 3, 1967, pp. 79-84. Parallel digital control system compared with analog backup units. and batch processes. Control requirements of continuous Lytel, Allan. D igital C o m p u ters in A u to m a tio n , (Indianapolis; New York: Howard W. Sams & Co.; BobbsMerrill, 1966). 224 pp. Nature and scope of computer control of manufacturing processes. Elements of control systems; computer functions and techniques. Applications in steelmaking, food and chemical processing, and materials handling. McDevitt, Dan B. “Will the Computer Make Specialized Experience Obsolete?” O il a n d Gas Journal, May 31, 1965,p p .117-119. Predicted impact of the computer and modern data systems on business management. Implications for corporate organization, management skills and employee and labor relations. Miller, William E., editor. D igital C o m p u te r A p p lica tio n s to P rocess C o n tro l; Proceedings, First International Conference sponsored by the International Federation for Automatic Control and the International Federation for Information Processing, September 21 - 23, 1964, Stockholm, (New York: Instrument Society of America; distributed by Plenum Press, 1965). 593 pp. 65 Twenty-three papers with accompanying discussions dealing with industrial applications, worldwide, in iron and steel, chemicals and petroleum, public utilities, gas pipelines, paper, cement, and railways. Moore, Joe F. and Nicholas F. Gardner. “Process Control in the 1970’s,” C h em ical Engineering, June 2, 1969, pp. 94-137. Special report on trends in process control systems and computers consisting of 8 articles by industry authorities. Murphy, Bates H. “Understanding Digital Computer Process Control,” A u to m a tio n , January 1965, pp. 71-76. Basic functions of digital computers. Application to industrial control problems. “Process Computers Shrink in Size and Price,” C o n tro l Engineering, February 1966, pp. 47, 49. Emerging uses of new, smaller process computer. “Process Computer Scorecard,” C o n tro l Engineering, July 1968, pp. 79-90. Worldwide count of digital process computer installations. Tabulation of computer makers and users, industry areas, and applications. (Updating of series. Previous listings: March 1967, September 1963, March 1966, August 1965, September 1966.) Raach, Fred R. “More Training Programs Needed at All Levels to Avert Personnel Shortage,” C o m p u te rs an d A u to m a tio n , September 1966, pp. 12-13. Present and proposed efforts to meet the growing demand for EDP personnel. Types of training required. Rudisill, Edward L. “DDC— Steppingstone to Process Optimization " A u to m a tio n , May 1965, pp. 84-87. Direct digital control approach to process control. vantages over analog control. Savas, Emanuel S. Types of DDC, cost considerations, reliability. Ad C o m p u te r C o n tro l o f In du strial P rocesses (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), 400 pp. Concepts, equipment, and applications with dominant emphasis on digital computer control. for process and applications engineers, managers, and engineering students. Written Stout, Thomas M. “Economics of Computers in Process Control,” A u to m a tio n , Part 1, October 1966, pp. 82-90; Part 2, December 1966, pp. 91-98. Part 1: Guidelines for preliminary justification. Postinstallation evaluation. References. Part 2: Applications in petroleum, iron and steel, paper, cement, and pipeline transportation industries. Benefits claimed by users. References. Stout, Thomas M. “Manpower Implications of Process Control Computers in the Process Industries,” The O u tlo o k f o r Techn ological Change a n d E m p lo y m e n t, Washington, D.C.,U.S. Government Printing Office 1966, pp. 1-253-289 (Appendix, Volume I, to Technology and the American Economy, report of the National Commission on Technology, Automation and Economic Progress). Evaluation and objectives of process control and the growing use of digital computers. Experiences of major users with respect to manpower effects. Future trends. “Two or Three-Year Payback,” A u to m a tio n , September 1965, p. 36. Findings from a report in Technoeco n o m ic Trends (published by Equity Research Association and Midwest Research Institute). Factors underlying predicted continued growth in the use of computers for control of industrial processes. “Where Computers are Taking Over Process Control— and Why,” S teel, September 20, 1965, pp. 68, 69. Market outlook for process control computers. Industry trends in computer use. 66 B. Application in Some Leading Industries. Cement Bedworth, David D. and James R. Faillace. June 1964, pp. 26-29. “Applying a Digital Control Computer,” M inerals Processing, Industrial functions applicable to digital computer process control in a cement plant. “Cement Strives to Pour the Proper Profit Mix,” Business Week, July 17,1965, pp. 144-150. Modernization of cement plant operations. Effect on industry capacity and production costs. Computer applications. “Closing the Loop at Northwestern States,” P it an d Q uarry, May 1967, pp. 84-87. Benefits from computer control of rotary cement kiln. Operation of control system. Phillips, R. A. “Automation of a Portland Cement Plant Using a Digital Computer,” M inerals Processing, December 1964, pp. 32-36. Functions of computer in closed-loop control of kiln department. tasks in single online computer. Coordination of offline and online Rich, E. A. E. “Cement Automation— 1 9 6 5 M inerals Processing, December 1965, pp. 16-24. “Systems approach” to process control of cement manufacturing. Steps in attaining completely controlled plant. Chemicals Bernard, J. W. and J. W. Wujkowski. “Direct Digital Control Experiences in a Chemical Process,” IS A Journal, December 1965. Comparison of DDC with analog control relative to control performance, reliability, and acceptance by plant personnel. Brown, James E. “Onstream Process Analyzers,” C h em ical Engineering, May 6,1968, pp. 164-176. Classification of process analyzers. Operating principles, applications and costs. Role of process computer in monitoring and controlling continuous chemical operations. “Computer Processes Data from 40 Chromatographs,” C h em ical an d E n gineering N ew s, May 15, 1967, pp. 63-64. System hardware and software. Cost savings and other laboratory benefits. Eisenhardt, R. D. and Theodore J. Williams. “Closed-loop Computer Control at Luling,” C o n tro l Engineering, November 1960, pp. 103-114. Case history of installation of computer control system for chemical manufacturing process: Economic justification; process description; computer applications; installation; testing and placing on line of computer. Giusti, A. L., R. E. Otto, and Theodore J. Williams. “Direct Digital Computer Control,” C o n tro l Engineering, June 1962, pp. 104-108. Demonstrated practical feasibility of direct digital computer control system in operating chemical plant. Potential for reduced capital expenditures and improved control performance. Morello, V. S. “Digital Computer Applied to Styrene Cracking,” The O il a n d Gas Journal, February 24, 1964, pp. 90-93. 67 Successful use of process computer in data logging, calculating process conditions, and partial closed-loop control of reaction system. “Sixth Process Control Report,” C h em ical Engineering, June 7,1965, pp. 142-204. Ten articles by chemical and control engineers constituting a comprehensive analysis and review of process control developments and consideration of various aspects of measurement and control. Steyman, E. H. “Justifying Process Computer Control,” C h em ical Engineering, February 12, 1968, pp. 124-129. Evaluation o f physical and economic factors in considering application of computer control to chemical proc esses: suitability of process; costs and potential benefits. Williams, Theodore J. “Computers and Process Control,” In d u stria l a n d E n gineering C h em istry, December 1967, pp. 53-68. Annual review. Systems engineering of process control projects. Computer-directed analytical instrumenta tion systems. Mathematical models in industrial control applications. Bibliography. Petroleum Refining Ewing, R. W., G. L. Glahn, R. P. Larkings, and W. N. Zartman.“Humble’s Simplified Computer Control Program,” paper presented at the 1966 Computer Conference, December 6-8, 1966, San Francisco, California. (Wash ington, D.C., National Petroleum Refiners Association.) 11 pp. plus figures and tables. Characteristics, processing features, and system processors and forms of “Generalized Process Control Pro graming System” developed to permit implementation of control programs through standardized information forms and processing procedures. Farrar, Gerald L. “Computer Control in the Oil Industry,” O il a n d Gas Journal, December 11,1967, pp. 95-117. Special report on process automation in the oil industry. Survey of digital control computers in refining, petrochemical, production, and pipelining applications. Suppliers and models of digital control computers. Analog computer development. Ninth in a series. Previous reports: February 18, 1957; October 5, 1959; October 23,1961; October 22,1962; October 28,1963; October 26,1964; October 25, 1965; October 24,1966. International Business Machines Corporation, Data Processing Division. 1 7 1 0 C o n tro l S y s te m f o r P etro leu m R efinin g, General information manual, 1961. 22 pp. Functions of petroleum processing. Concepts of computer control and application to distillation process. Stevenson, W.R. and R.F. Jukubik. “The Intangibles of Computer Process Control,” O il a n d Gas Jo u rn a l Septem ber 12, 1966, pp. 94-97. Derivation and value of intangible benefits from closed-loop control. Importance of as planning consideration. Paper “Making Paper with Machine Designed for Computer Use ,” A u to m a tio n , December 1966, pp. 70-71. Features of installation. Computer functions. Training of personnel. Maloney, J. D., Jr. “Papermaking by the Numbers,” Tappi, October 1966, pp. 59-61 A. Systems engineering approach to computer control of a paper machine. Prerequisites to successful application. “Mead’s Computer Control System on Paper Machine Working Well,” S o u th ern P u lp a n d P aper M anufacturer, July 10, 1965, pp. 76 ff. 68 Preparation for computer control and operation of system. Gains realized. Planned integration into total management information system. Smith, William E. and E.C. Fox. “Computer Controls Continuous Digester in Manufacture of Paper Pulp,” A u to m a tio n , February 1964, pp. 82-86. Control of continuous digestion process as first step toward complete computer control of plant. Instru mentation, control, and program considerations. Stout, Thomas M. “Is Papermaking Ready for Computer Control?” P aper Trade Journal, January 20, 1964, pp. 29-31 ff. Circumventing deficiences in instrumentation and incomplete process knowledge. Value of system study. Successes in papermaking and other industries. Electric Power Evans, R. K. “Computer Control: pp. 189-193. Power Plants Join Industry-Wide Advance,” P ow er, September 1964, Computer control system applications in power plant: case histories. developments and trends. Two central stations’ Huse, R. A., J. E. Tangel, and J. R. Andres. “Operating Experience with Control Systems No. 1 Unit— Hudson Generating Station,” paper presented at meeting of the American Society of Mechnical Engineers, November 7-11, 1965, Chicago, Illinois. 9 pp. Actual performance of various controls in a computer-controlled electric generating station. Kompass, E. J. “Startup at Riverside,” C o n tro l Engineering, January 1964, pp. 69-73. Report on computer-controlled daily startup and shutdown at power company’s steam-electric peaking station. Maurnin, L. V. and J. A. Calvo. “Computing Control at Little Gypsy Generating Station,” ISA Journal, May 1966, pp. 34-38. Report on present and planned digital control computer systems at utility company’s steam-electric gen erating units. Factors retarding achievement of full computer control. Summers, William A. “Starting an Electric Generating Station— Automatically,” September 1960, pp. 154-157. C o n tro l Engineering, Hypothetical computer process control system and procedures used for cold startup and coal-fired electric generating unit. Steel Binning, J. E. and D. R. Berg. “Computer Control of Oxygen Steelmaking,” Jou rnal o f M etals, July 1965, pp. 725-727. Paper presented at International Conference on Iron and Steelmaking, 1965, Amsterdam. Elements and function of oxygen furnace digital computer control system. Operating experiences. Brower, Allen S. “Controlling a Complete Hot Strip Mill,” C o n tro l Engineering, October 1963, pp. 57-63. Planned integration of mill control sub-system through digital process computer. Projected quality and efficiency gains. Brower, Allen S. “Digital Control Computers for the Metals Industry,” ISA Journal, pp. 51-63. 69 Capabilities and limitations of digital process control computers. Applications to steel mill processes. Hanning of control computer systems. Installation of equipment and implementation of on-line control programs. Dickinson, Lee I. “Computers in Utilities and Fuel Dispatching,” Iron an d S te e l E n gin eer Year B o o k , 1 9 6 2 , pp. 747-753. Experience of an integrated steel works. Use of computer in the centralized monitoring of plant utilities systems. Features and operation of system. Possible future applications. Keenon, D. L., N. R. Carlson, and L. F. Martz. “Dynamic Control of Basic Oxygen Steel Process," In strum ents a n d C o n tro l S yste m s, May 1967, pp. 139-144. Integrated instrumentation and control system. Operation in a typical heat. Duties of computer. Kirkland, R. W. “Process Computers— Their Place in the Steel Industry,” Iron a n d S te e l Engineer, February 1965, pp. 115-124. Survey of on-line process computer systems in world steel industry. Areas of application. Criteria for eval uating computer needs. Malim, T. H. “Process Computers,” Iron A ge, March 2, 1967, pp. 61-68. Extension of computer control from hot rolling to other steelmaking operations and nonferrous mills. User experiences and reactions to computer control. Changing view of computer role in process control. Stout, Thomas M. and S. M. Roberts. “Some Applications of Computer Control in the Iron and Steel Industry,” Iron a n d S te e l Engineer, March 1960, pp. 101-110. Kinds of computer control systems. Technical and economic justification. Possible applications in iron and steelmaking processes. Talbot, James E. “Instruments and Computer: Focal Point of Basic Oxygen Furnaces at Sparrows Point,” ISA Journal, June 1966, pp. 61-63. Digital computer functions in the control of basic oxygen steelmaking. 70 O T H E R B L S P U B L IC A T IO N S ON T E C H N O L O G IC A L C H AN G E T e c h n o lo g y and M a n p o w e r in the T e x t ile In d u s tr y o f the 1970*8 (B u lle tin 1578, 1 9 6 8 ), 79 p p . , 60 c e n t s . D e s c r i b e s c h a n g e s in t e c h n o lo g y and t h e ir im p a c t on p r o d u c t iv it y , e m p lo y m e n t , o c c u p a t io n a l r e q u ir e m e n t s , and la b o r -m a n a g e m e n t r e la t io n s . M a n p o w e r P la n n in g f o r T e c h n o lo g ic a l C h a n g e: C a s e S tu d ies o f T e le p h o n e O p e r a t o r s (B u lle tin 1574, 19 6 8 ), 34 p p . , 30 c e n t s . P o l i c i e s and e x p e r ie n c e s o f fo u r o f f i c e s in a d ju s tin g to t e c h n o lo g ic a l ch a n g e . J o b R e d e s ig n f o r O ld e r W o r k e r s : T e n C a s e S tu d ies (B u lle tin 152 3, 1 9 6 6 ), 63 p p . , 40 c e n t s . E x a m p le s o f r e d e s ig n o f jo b s to r e t a in o ld e r w o r k e r s in e m p lo y m e n t . T e c h n o lo g ic a l T r e nds in M a jo r A m e r ic a n In d u s t r ie s (B u lle tin 147 4, 19 6 6 ), 269 p p . , $ 1 .5 0 . * A p p r a is e s t e c h n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t s in 40 in d u s t r ie s and the e f f e c t s on output, p r o d u c t iv it y , and e m p lo y m e n t . Im p a c t o f O ff ic e A u to m a tio n in the In s u r a n c e In d u str y (B u lle tin 146 8, 19 6 5 ), 71 p p . , 45 c e n t s . S u r v e y o f ex ten t and fu tu r e d ir e c t io n s o f E D P , m a n p o w e r im p a c t , and im p lic a t io n s . M a n p o w e r P la n n in g to A d a p t to N ew T e c h n o lo g y at an E l e c t r i c and G as U tility (R e p o r t 2 93 , 19 6 5 ), 25 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s . D e s c r i b e s p e r s o n n e l p r o c e d u r e s and p r a c t i c e s u s e d to m in im iz e h a r d s h ip s on e m p lo y e e s . O u tlo o k f o r N u m e r ic a l C o n t r o l o f M a ch in e T o o ls (B u lle tin 143 7, 19 6 5 ), 63 p p . , 40 c e n t s . O u tlo o k f o r th is k e y t e c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n in the m e t a lw o r k in g in d u s t r y and im p lic a t io n s f o r p r o d u c t iv it y , o c c u p a t io n a l r e q u ir e m e n t s , tr a in in g p r o g r a m s , e m p lo y m e n t , and in d u s t r ia l r e la t io n s . C a s e S tu d ies o f D is p la c e d W o r k e r s (B u lle tin 140 8, 196 4), 94 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s . C a s e s tu d ie s o f the p o s t la y o ff e x p e r ie n c e s o f n e a r ly 3, 000 w o r k e r s f o r m e r l y e m p lo y e d in the p e t r o le u m r e fin in g , a u to m o tiv e e q u ip m e n t, g la s s j a r , f l o o r c o v e r in g , and ir o n fo u n d r y in d u s t r ie s . I m p lic a t io n s o f A u to m a tio n and O th e r T e c h n o lo g ic a l D e v e lo p m e n t s : A S e le c t e d A n n o ta te d B ib lio g r a p h y (B u lle tin 1 3 1 9 -1 , 1 9 6 3 ), 90 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s . D e s c r i b e s o v e r 300 b o o k s , a r t i c l e s , r e p o r t s , s p e e c h e s , c o n f e r e n c e p r o c e e d in g s , and o th e r r e a d ily a v a ila b le m a t e r ia ls . In d u s t r ia l R e tr a in in g P r o g r a m s f o r T e c h n o lo g ic a l C h an ge (B u lle tin 1368, 1 9 6 3 ), 34 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s . A stu d y o f the p e r fo r m a n c e o f o ld e r w o r k e r s b a s e d on fo u r c a s e s tu d ie s o f in d u s t r ia l p la n ts . Im p a c t o f O ff ic e A u to m a tio n in the In te r n a l R e v e n u e S e r v ic e (B u lle tin 1364, 1 9 6 3 ), 74 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s . A c a s e stu dy h ig h lig h tin g m a n p o w e r p la n n in g and e m p lo y m e n t im p a c t s d u rin g a m a jo r c o n v e r s io n . Im p a c t o f T e c h n o lo g ic a l C h ange and A u to m a tio n in the P u lp and P a p e r In d u s t r y (B u lle tin 134 7, 196 2), 92 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s . G e n e r a l in d u s t r y s u r v e y and th r e e c a s e s tu d ie s h ig h lig h tin g im p lic a t io n s o f t e c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e . T e c h n o lo g ic a l C hange and P r o d u c t iv it y in the B itu m in o u s C o a l In d u s t r y , 1 9 2 0 -6 0 (B u lle tin 1305, 1^ 6 1), 136 p p . , 65 c e n t s . T r e n d s in t e c h n o lo g y and p r o d u c t iv it y and im p lic a t io n s f o r e m p lo y m e n t , u n e m p lo y m e n t, and w a g e s . A d ju s t m e n t s to the In tr o d u c tio n o f O ffic e A u to m a tio n (B u lle tin 1276, I 9 6 0 ), 86 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s . A stu d y o f s o m e im p lic a t io n s o f the in s t a lla t io n o f e l e c t r o n i c data p r o c e s s i n g in 20 o f f i c e s in p r iv a t e in d u s t r y , w ith s p e c ia l r e f e r e n c e to o ld e r w o r k e r s . S a le s p u b lic a t io n s m a y b e p u r c h a s e d f r o m the S u p erin ten d en t o f D o c u m e n t s , W a s h in g to n , D . C . 2 0 4 0 2 , o r f r o m r e g io n a l o f f i c e s o f the B u re a u o f L a b o r S t a t is t ic s at the a d d r e s s e s sh ow n b e lo w . F r e e p u b lic a t io n s a r e a v a ila b le as lo n g a s the su p p ly la s t s , f r o m the B u re a u o f L a b o r S t a t is t ic s , U. S. D e p a rtm e n t o f L a b o r , W a s h in g to n , D . C . 20212. R e g io n a l O ff ic e s R e g io n III P e n n S qu a re B u ild in g R o o m 406 1317 F i lb e r t S tr e e t P h ila d e lp h ia , P a . 19107 R e g io n I F e d e r a l B u ild in g R o o m 1 6 0 3 -A G o v e r n m e n t C e n te r B o s t o n , M a s s . 02203 R e g io n II 341 Ninth A v e n u e N ew Y o r k , N. Y . R e g io n IV 1317 P e a c h t r e e S tr e e t, NE A tla n ta , G a . 30309 R e g io n V 219 S. D e a r b o r n S tre e t C h ic a g o , 111. 606 04 R e g io n s V II and VIII 911 W alnut S tr e e t K a n s a s C ity , M o . 64106 R e g io n s IX and X 450 G o ld e n G ate A v e n u e B o x 36017 San F r a n c i s c o , C a lif. 94102 10001 * U . S. R e g io n V I 411 N. A k a r d S tr e e t D a lla s , T e x . 75201 GOVERNM ENT P R IN T IN G O F F IC E : 1 9 7 0 O - 3 & 8 -9 6 0 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS WASHINGTON, D.C. 20212 OFF IC IA L BUSINESS POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR T H IR D CLASS M A IL I J
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