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OUTLOOK
for
COMPUTER
PROCESS
CONTROL
Bulletin 1658
U S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
Bureau of Labor Statistics







OUTLOOK

for

COMPUTER
PROCESS
CONTROL:
Manpower
Implications
in
Process
Industries
Bulletin 1 658

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
George P Shultz, Secretary
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
Geoffrey H. Moore, Commissioner

1970

Digitized forFor
FRASER
Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 2 0 4 0 2 . Price 7 0 cents.





PREFACE

The Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 directs the Secretary of Labor to
establish techniques and methods for detecting in advance the potential manpower effect of
automation, technological change, and other innovations that may result in changes in the
structure of production. This type of early warning system could be of great assistance to
management and union leaders, educators, government officials, economists, and others in
planning policies to cushion the effects of change.
This bulletin focuses on effects of computer control of production processes. The number of
installations of process computers is expected to increase substantially over the next decade, and
this trend will have significant implications for productivity, occupational requirements, training
programs, employment, and industrial relations in many major industries.
This study is one of a series prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics on technological
developments and their effect in different industries. Our earlier studies include a survey on the
use of computers for business data processing in government and industry, and a study that
focused on the manpower implications of numerical control of machine tools in the metalworking
industries. This bulletin provides firsthand information on manpower and economic implications
of computer process control through study of applications in user plants.
The study focuses mainly on the effect of computer process control on employment,
occupations, skills, training, and labor-management relations. Emphasis also is placed on the
outlook for the future of this important innovation, the extent of its utilization by industry, and
its impact on production and productivity. An account of the procedures that some companies
used in planning and effecting changes may suggest to management and employee organizations
measures that might be useful elsewhere.
The primary source o f information presented in this study is data collected by BLS
representatives during field visits to plants with significant applications of computer control.
Additional information was obtained from discussions with union and government officials and
experts employed by major manufacturers of computers and related equipment, and by reviewing
secondary source materials, particularly trade and technical journals. The Bureau of Labor
Statistics is grateful to the many individuals who provided useful information and reviewed the
draft of this report. We also wish to thank American Cement Corporation, American Electric
Power Service Corporation, American Oil Company, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, F.L. Smidth
and Company, General Electric Company, International Business Machines Corporation, National
Steel Corporation, and Westinghouse Electric Corporation for providing us with photographs.
This bulletin was prepared by Arthur Herman and Robert Ball assisted by Richard Lyon, under
the direct supervision of Richard Riche. The study was made in the Office of Productivity,
Technology, and Growth under the general direction of John J. Macut, Chief of the Division of
Technological Studies. The report is part of the Bureau’s research program on productivity and
technological developments.




iii




CONTENTS

Chapter 1. Introduction .....................................................................................................................
Chapter 2. S um m ary............................................................................................................................
Chapter 3. Role of the computer in process c o n tro l....................................................................
Characteristics of control computer system s....................................................................................
Functions of the com puter...................................................................................................................
Advanced forms of control...................................................................................................................
Chapter 4. Status and applications of process computers ............................................................
Extent of u s e ......................................................................................................................................
Trends in installation.........................................................................................................................
Applications of process control computers in plants surveyed ...................................................
Applications of process computer in industries not studied.........................................................
Chapter 5. Costs and benefits of installing process control com puters......................................
Costs at survey p la n ts ..........................................................................................................................
Objectives...................................................................................................................................
Benefits of computer c o n tr o l.............................................................................................................
Problems at survey p la n ts ...................................................................................................................
Chapter 6. Manpower for planning and implementing computer process control....................
Characteristics and function of the project group.........................................................................
Manpower requirements by major installation phases ................................................................
Status of the user process control computer group......................................................................
Staffing p roblem s................................................................................................................................
Significance of prior EDP experience...............................................................................................
Chapter 7. Impact of employment and jo b s.................................................................................
Changes in em ploym ent.....................................................................................................................
Displacement .......................................................................................................................................
Changes in job duties and skills..........................................................................................................
Changes in grade statu s........................................................................................................................
Chapter 8. New jobs required for computer process control.......................................................
Type and description of new jo b s ....................................................................................................
Selecting employees for new jo b s ......................................................................................................
Extent of upgrading..............................................................................................................................
Characteristics of employees in new jobs...........................................................................................
Chapter 9. Training for computer process control...............................................................
Training provided by vendors..........................................................................................................
Training provided by u s e r s .................................................................................................................
Training provided by educational institutions and other groups................................... .............
Criteria and method of selecting employees for training..............................................................
Appraisal of training............................................................................................................................
Chapter 10. Labor-management adjustments.....................................................................................
Contract provisions relating to technological change.......................................................................
Informing employees about change....................................................................................................




v

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27
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33
34
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35
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40
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43
46
47
47
48
48
48

CONTENTS-Continued
Special negotiations and grievances.................................................................................................
Union comments about computer process c o n tro l.......................................................................
Chapter 11. Outlook for computer process control and m anpower............................................
Growth in number of computer control installations....................................................................
Factors affecting outlook for computer process co n tro l..............................................................
Outlook for employment and occupations in process industries.................................................

49
49
50
50
50
51

Tables:
1.
2.

Level of control for computer applications in survey p la n ts ............................................
Installations of digital process computers reported in the United States,
by major categories of users, cumulative totals, 1958-68 ............................................
3. Computer applications in survey p la n ts................................................................................
4. Costs of selected process computer systems in survey plants with
purchased computers ........................................................................................................
5. Costs of selected process computer systems in survey plants with
rented or leased com puters...............................................................................................
6 .
Management’s objectives in introducing computer process control....................................
7. Man-years required to implement computer process control at survey p la n ts ..............
8.
Personnel involved in planning and implementing process control
computer systems at selected survey plants.....................................................................
9. Employment in computerized units as a percent of total
employment in survey plants.............................................................................................
10. Distribution of modified jobs at survey p lan ts.....................................................................
11. Changes in major job duties of selected unit employees caused
by computer process control ...........................................................................................
12. Extent of job modifications in hot strip m ill.......................................................................
13. Types of job duties performed by computer in hot strip m ill..........................................
14. New computer jobs at survey plants......................................................................................
15. Description of duties of new computer process control
occupations at a paper m ill...............................................................................................
16. Extent of upgrading of employees selected to staff new computer jobs...........................
17. Age, education, and senority: Employees in new computer process
control positions and those in affected production units..............................................
18. Education of employees in new computer jobs, by category of jo b .................................
19. Training provided by computer m anufacturers..................................................................
20. Selected courses offered by the training school of a large vendor
of process control co m p u ters..........................................................................................
21. Training provided by user companies.....................................................................................
22. Type of courses for computer process control desired by
officials at selected survey plants......................................................................................
23. Outlook for further occupational changes at selected survey
plants because of computer process control....................................................................
VI




8
12
13
18
19
19
23
24
27
28
29
31
33
34
36
37
38
39
41
44
45
47
53

CONTENTS—Continued
Charts:
1.
2.
3.

A digital computer control system ......................................................................................
Basic relationships in open-loop and closed-loop control..................................................
Number of digital process computer installations reported in the United States
and the World, selected periods, 1958-68 ......................................................................

7
9
11

Appendixes:
A.
Scope and m ethod..................................................................................................................
A - l. Number of survey plants, process control computers, and employees
in operating units with process control computers.........................................................
B.
Tables:
B -l. Employment, output and output per man-hour, in manufacturing
and major process industries, selected years, 1957-69..................................................
B-2. Major applications of process control computers in survey industries
in the United States, July 1968........................................................................................
B-3. Major job duties of three occupations in an 80-inch hot strip mill
affected by process computer control.............................................................................
B-4. Suggested courses for process control systems engineers..................................................
B-5. Union comments on computer process control at survey plants.......................................
B-6. Outlook for installations and applications of computer process
control at selected survey p lan ts......................................................................................
B-7. Factors expected to accelerate and retard growth in process
computer installations .....................................................................................................
C.
Selected annotated bibliography..........................................................................................




54
55

56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63

VII




CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
within precise limits. The computer represents a signifi­
cant advance over conventional control devices since it
can receive and store information about process condi­
tions, perform calculations on this information to see if
process conditions should be changed, and send out
signals to process control equipment to make corrections
when necessary.
The application of computers to industrial process
control is growing rapidly in number and complexity. In
many early installations, process computers were used
primarily to accumulate and print out data on processing
conditions, which assisted the operator to control the
process using the same instrumentation and equipment
as before. As experience broadened and technology
improved, the operator increasingly was removed from
direct involvement, and in the frequently used “closedloop” mode of today, operators often only monitor
process equipment while many control actions are taken
automatically by the computer.
A significant segment of the Nation’s work force is
employed in process industries, which lead all other
major industry groups in the application of process con­
trol computers. About 2 million workers, approximately
1 0 percent of the total work force in manufacturing, are
employed in the six major process industries covered in
this report. (See appendix B-l.) Thousands of employees
in these industries work in production units with func­
tions that have potential for computer control.

One of the most significant technological develop­
ments in U.S. industry has been the introduction of
electronic computers. Their phenomenal speed, remark­
able versatility, and large storage capacity have trans­
form ed dramatically data processing operations in
offices, banks, research laboratories, engineering firms,
and other organizations, and have had widespread man­
power effects. Although much research has been con­
ducted into the employment effects of computers on
office employees, relatively little is known about these
effects on blue-collar and technical workers in factories
and plants where computers now are being introduced to
control production processes.
In an effort to assess the manpower impact of this
emerging technology, this study undertakes to provide
answers to the following questions: How extensively are
process computers being used, and how many will be
installed in the future? What factors, such as costs and
benefits, govern the rate of adoption? What type of
manpower is required to implement computer process
control? How has employment been affected by this
innovation?What changes in occupational requirements
are brought about? What are the training needs for
computer process control? What industrial relations
problems arise?
This bulletin deals with the use of the computer as
part of the operations of 12 plants in 6 process indus­
tries: electric power, industrial chemicals, steel, petro­
leum refining, paper, and cement.1 Plants in these
industries depend upon the monitoring of instrumenta­
tion and control devices to maintain process operations




d e ta iled information on scope and method is presented in
appendix A.

1

CHAPTER 2. SUMMARY
Most plants achieved the gains that they anticipated,
and benefits were substantial in some cases. Gains were
achieved by reducing fuel and raw material costs,
increasing output, producing products of higher dollar
value, reducing equipment and process malfunctions,
and decreasing labor costs.
Implementing computer process control required a
substantial amount o f technical manpower for a period
generally exceeding 2 years. At survey plants, engineers,
technicians, and supervisors from the plant staff were
assigned to project groups for the purpose of applying
computer process control. Working closely with this
staff were systems analysts, programers, and technicians
from the firm supplying the computer. In general, the
plant installing the computer provided staff who were
familiar with the process, while the firm manufacturing
the computer supplied personnel experienced in com­
puter operations, systems capabilities, and programing.
This computer group worked on the following four
major phases of implementing computer process control:
Feasibility study; planning, systems design, model build­
ing, and programing; installation; and operational and
system refinement. A range of from 2 to 21 man-years
were required to complete computer projects at indi­
vidual survey plants.
Impact upon plant employment has been slight,
although job duties o f employees working with com­
puter control have been altered significantly. Employ­
ment levels at survey plants were affected more by
factors other than computer process control, such as
shifts in market demand, changes in general economic
conditions, and adoption of other technological changes.
Within computerized units, relatively little employment
change occurred because most operating crews already
were at a minimum consistent with the safe operation of
the process. Although the computer assumed some of
the manual tasks of the operators, the crew size was
generally maintained at its previous level to cope with
emergencies that might arise or possible computer
failure. Consequently, no layoffs occurred and only 20
employess at 2 of the 12 plants visited were displaced
because of changes attributed to the computers. All of
the displaced employees who were available for work
were reassigned to other jobs within their plants at no
reduction in wages.

Current use o f process control computers is limited but
outlook is fo r significant growth. By mid-1968, nearly
1,700 process control computers were installed or on
order for a variety of applications in process and other
industries throughout the United States. Process control
computers were introduced first in industries with
processes that require precise control over many vari­
ables, such as in petroleum refining, steel, chemicals, and
electric power. Functions of process computers include
collecting and recording operating data, providing infor­
mation to guide operators in controlling the process,
warning in case of impending equipment malfunctions,
and undertaking automatic control of parts of the
production process. Specific applications observed at
survey plants included control of ammonia and ethylene
processes in chemical plants; catalytic reforming and
crude distillation units in petroleum refineries; electric
generating equipment in electric power plants; basic
oxygen and hot strip mill operations in steel mills; a
papermaking machine in a paper mill; and a rotary kiln
in a cement plant. Applications of process computers
already have spread to many other areas, including
a u t o m o b i l e manufacturing, mining, research, and
medicine. Advances in process computer technology,
such as more reliable and greater capacity computers,
specialized computer languages, and standardized pro­
grams and process models should accelerate computer
use, with an estimated 5,900 installations in the United
States forecast by 1975.
Adoption was encouraged by favorable cost benefit
balance. The costs of introducing process computers
were c o n si d er a bl e , ranging from $200,000 to
$1,500,000 at survey plants. Costs depended upon
numerous factors including the complexity of the
process to be controlled, the type of computer to be
used, the amount of auxiliary equipment purchased, the
amount of new instrumentation added, and the degree
of control desired.
The major management objectives for installing com­
puters were to decrease raw material and fuel costs and
to optimize or increase production. A reduction in man­
power requirements was a goal in only a few plants,
since labor costs in operations to be placed under com­
puter control at most survey plants were reported to be
a relatively small part of total production costs.




2

The most significant effect of the introduction of
process computers was changes in job duties. A total of
352 workers, based on information from 11 survey
plants, had their jobs modified. Operators in comput­
erized units made up the largest occupational group
affected. Job changes encompassed a shift from manual
to automatic data logging and manipulation of dials,
levers, and other control devices. Process operators
generally were trained to operate the computer console
and gained responsibility for the additional computer
equipment installed in the control room.
Another occupational group significantly affected was
instrument maintenance technicians. These employees
generally were trained to service the additional process
instrumentation needed for computer control and in
some cases also were trained to provide normal service
for the computer and auxiliary equipment.
The growing use of process computers probably will
reinforce a number of divergent employment trends
underway in the process industries. Employment of
workers such as control and systems engineers, elec­
tronic and instrument technicians, and programers, is
expected to increase. On the other hand, fewer operators
may be needed.
Occupational structure generally was upgraded. A
total of 68 new jobs were required to implement and
operate process computer systems in survey plants.
Systems analysis, programing, and related occupations
made up about two-thirds of the new jobs; the other
one-third consisted of supervisory, computer console
operation, and instrument development, installation and
maintenance occupations. Employees assigned to new
computer-oriented jobs generally were upgraded in title
and salary. Most of the new jobs were staffed by
employees who already were working for the user firm
in other positions and had a thorough knowledge of the
process to be put under computer control.
A large majority of the employees selected for the
new jobs were college graduates with a degree in engi­
neering or a related field. A small number of new jobs,
however, were staffed by personnel without college
degrees. Particularly noteworthy were the upgrading of
clerical workers and technicians to positions involving
computer programing. A technical assistant at a petro­
leum refinery and a powerhouse fireman at a papermill,
for example, received training and were advanced to
co m p u te r pro g ram in g positions with substantial
increases in salary.
Fairly extensive training was needed to introduce and
operate process control computers. A total of 638
survey plant employees, an average of 53 per plant
including supervisors, engineers, programers, operators,




and technicians, received classroom or on-the-job train­
ing. Computer manufacturers provided training both at
the plant and at schools located elsewhere. This training,
which consisted for the most part of formal classroom
instruction in computer concepts and theory, and pro­
graming and maintenance techniques, was provided
mainly to supervisors, process engineers, instrument
engineers, and electronic and instrument technicians.
The period of training depended greatly upon the type
of instruction provided; the average time was almost 5
weeks per employee and ranged from a 4 hour onsite
orientation session in computer basics and system usage,
given to dispatchers in a steel plant, to a 1-year course
combining onsite and offsite training in programing and
computer technology provided to a programing mainte­
nance technician in a chemical plant.
Process operators in computerized units received rela­
tively short periods of onsite instruction, generally from
plant engineers and supervisors. The training period for
operators ranged from 4 to 120 hours; about two-thirds
received 20 hours or less of formal training. Operator
training consisted mainly of on-the-job sessions dealing
with the operation of the computerized equipment,
although some classroom training was given at a few
plants. A small number of instrument maintenance
technicians also received short periods of onsite training
provided by user personnel.
The selection of persons to be trained for the new
computer-related programing and maintenance jobs most
often was determined by an individual’s educational
background, work experience, job performance, apti­
tude, and interest. Tests and interviews sometimes were
used as a screening device. On the other hand, operators
and supervisors working in the affected production unit
when the computer was installed automatically received
appropriate training.
Process computers were introduced in survey plants
with a minimum o f industrial relations problems. Special
union-management negotiations or grievances related to
the introduction of process computers were reported at
only two plants. At a petroleum refinery, a union negoti­
ated for jurisdiction over all computer maintenance and
gained jurisdiction for repair of minor difficulties. At a
power plant, a union unsuccessfully filed grievances
about the normal abolition of two extra operator’s jobs,
claiming that operation of the computerized unit was
unsafe without the extra workers.
Workers were represented by unions at 9 of the 12
plants. Collective bargaining agreements at survey plants
generally contained provisions which protected workers
against the adverse affects of technological change.
These provisions covered advance notice to employees,
3

procedures for staffing new jobs, establishment of wage
rates, eligibility for training, and procedures for layoffs,
downgrading, and transfers.
Formal advance notice of impending installation of
process computers was provided at most plants from 4
months to 2 years in advance of installation during meet­
ings between company and union officials. In addition,
employees learned about these pending changes through
articles published in company newspapers and announce­
ments placed on bulletin boards.

4




In general, local union officials interviewed felt that
the introduction of process computers was part of the
normal technological evolution in their industry and
indicated that workers faced no serious problems in their
adaption to computer control. Some officials were more
concerned with the manpower impacts of technological
changes other than computers. However, several union
representatives foresaw that the potential of computers
for adverse manpower effects would increase as the level
and scope of their control is extended.

CHAPTER 3. ROLE OF THE COMPUTER IN PROCESS CONTROL
Computers originally were developed for engineering
and scientific calculations and later were adapted to
business data processing and control functions. The
development of industrial process control computers
parallels that of scientific and business computers.
Modern computers are in their “third generation;” the
first used vacuum tubes, the second used transistors, and
the third uses integrated circuits. Process control com­
puters differ from business and scientific computers,
however, in that they are smaller, less expensive, more
rugged, and designed for trouble free operation under
adverse conditions. Moreover, they are capable of receiv­
ing input directly from the process. They depend on a
number of rapidly advancing technologies including
electronics, data processing, control engineering, opera­
tions research, and systems engineering, and, therefore,
require a great deal of advanced engineering and other
skills for design, installation, programing, and mainte­
nance.
Since 1958, when the first industrial control com­
puter was introduced, the price and size of these
machines have declined while their speed and reliability
have increased. Recently, computer manufacturers
introduced smaller and lower-priced models which
increase the prospective number and type of control
applications, since they can be used where large com­
puters would be uneconomical.
In the most elementary control applications, the
computer is not connected directly to the process and
functions as an extension of instrumentation, collecting
and recording data about the process which is entered
manually and interpreted by the operator. In its more
advanced functions, however, the control computer is
connected directly to the process and is part of a total
system of control. These advanced functions of com­
puter control range from printing out explicit instruc­
tions for an operator to follow, to complete automatic
control of the process.
Control computers are being applied to large sections
of plants as well as unit operations such as catalytic
cracking in petroleum refineries and hot strip mills in

The electronic digital computer is the culmination of
a series of major developments in process control allow­
ing more automatic control of many different types of
production processes. This chapter discusses the charac­
teristics of computer process control and describes some
of its technical forms.
Characteristics of Computer Control Systems
The adoption of electronic digital computers for proc­
ess control is part of the evolutionary trend toward more
continuous processing and less dependence on manual
control in the process industries.
Prior to the introduction of the digital computer,
equipment such as automatic controllers— which auto­
matically make adjustments to keep process variables
near preset values; automatic data loggers— which are
connected directly to the process to provide a perma­
nent record of operating conditions; and analog com­
puters— which provide automatic control over a limited
number of process variables, were in widespread use in
the process industries.
As processes became more complex and instruments
more numerous, operators frequently were inundated
with large volumes of information. The number of
instruments, the complexity of variable interactions,
process time lags, and the short time allotted for analysis
and decision making made it extremely difficult, even
with analog computers and advanced intrumentation, to
incorporate all the available information into accurate
and consistent control decisions. These problems, in
addition to anticipated economic gains, led to the appli­
cation of digital computers to industrial processes.
One eminent authority summarizes the potential of
electronic digital computers for process control in the
following statement:
Because of the key role of information in con­
trol. . . .the computer is a logical tool to be ap­
plied: the outstanding characteristic of a digital
computer control system is the ability to acquire,
assimilate, analyze, and disseminate large amounts
of information with great speed, accuracy, and
flexibility.2




2
Emanuel S. Savas, C o m p u ter C o n tro l o f In du strial Processes
(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965), p. 4.

5

steel plants. They may be used eventually in integrated,
companywide control and information systems, in
which economic decisionmaking as well a$ engineering
factors would be considered in controlling production.
When computers are linked together in a plantwide
system of control, those computers at the top of this
hierarchy determine the level of production of the
computers controlling individual processes. They also
coordinate many plant operations such as raw material
requirements, maintenance of the size of inventory,
scheduling of materials, future orders, and equipment
capacity. For the first time, the problems of operating
complicated and interrelated units and processes close to
optimum production and integrating their operation
with that of the entire plant can be resolved.
The components of a process control computer
system indicated in chart 1 are basically the same as
those of a business or scientific computer system: A
memory unit in which data are stored; a control unit
which directs computations and switching; an arithmetic
unit which calculates; and input-output units which pro­
vide communication with the computer (such as type­
writers, paper tape readers, manual keyboards, etc.). The
control and arithmetic units sometimes are called the
central processing unit.
Unlike a business and scientific computer system,
however, a control computer system is connected

directly to sensing devices which measure product quali­
ties, raw material characteristics, temperatures, flows,
pressures, and other process conditions. Various signal
converters change the signals from these sensing devices
into a digital form usable by the computer. Signals
from the computer are often relayed through analog
controllers to devices or positioners in the process. These
control devices regulate the temperatures, flows, or
other variables at the desired operating conditions.
In another form of process control, called direct
digital control (DDC), the analog controllers are
omitted, and the computer is connected directly to the
control devices or actuators.
The operator communicates with the computer
through input-output equipment. He can supply infor­
mation to the computer through pushbuttons, switches,
knobs, typewriter keyboards, and punched paper tape
or cards. The operator receives information from the
computer by alarm buzzers, horns or lights, digital indi­
cators, typewriter printouts, and video displays. How­
ever, he can bypass the computer entirely by taking
direct readings from sensors and entering changes in the
process through the analog controllers or by adjusting
control devices manually.

F unctions o f the Computer
Of the 24 applications surveyed, 7 involved the simple
form, called open-loop control, in which the computer
monitors instruments, gathers data, makes calculations
used by the operator in making control decisions, and
activates audio or visual alarms in case of malfunctions.
(See table 1.) Seventeen of the applications involved a
more advanced form, referred to as closed-loop control,
in which the computer calculates the exact control meas­
ures to be taken and performs the control automatically,
in addition to performing open-loop functions.
To undertake these automatic closed-loop control
functions, the computer is connected directly to process
instruments; this procedure allows the computer to
make control decisions and adjust controls automati­
cally, thereby assuming some functions which previously
were done by the operator. The interrelationship of the
operator to the process and the computer in these two
main categories of control is presented in chart 2.

Advanced Forms of Control
1. Components of a process computer sys­
tem, including main frame, disc memory,
card punch and reader, printer, printout
typewriters, and signal terminal cabinets.

6



Optimizing control, used at all five survey chemical
plants and petroleum refineries, is one of the most
advanced forms of computer control. This form of con­
trol can incorporate the functions of a closed-loop

chart

l.

A DIGITAL COMPUTER CONTROL S Y S TE M ^/

-i/A D A P T E D FROM THOMAS M. STOUT, “ MANPOWER IMPLICATIONS OF PROCESS
CONTROL COMPUTERS IN THE PROCESS INDUSTRIES,” THE OUTLOOK FOR TECHNOLOGICAL
CHANGE AND EMPLOYMENT, VO L.l, TECHNOLOGY AND THE AMERICAN ECONOMY,

THE NATIONAL COMMISSION ON TECHNOLOGY, AUTOMATION, AND ECONOMIC PROGRESS,
FEBRUARY 1966, p. 1-266.
NOTE: SOLID LINES INDICATE AUTOMATIC SIGNAL AND DATA TRANSMISSION; BROKEN
LINES INDICATE MANUAL OPERATIONS.




7

Table 1.

Level o f control for computer applications in survey plants
Highest level o f control attained *
Plant and application

Open-loop control (monitor,
log, calculate, alarm or
instruct operator)

Papermill:
Paper m a c h in e .................................................................................
Chemical plants:
Styrene plant .................................................................................
Ethanolamine ( D D C ) .....................................................................
Corporate research la b o ra to ry ....................................................
Multiplant production m o n ito rin g .............................................
Plant control (4 com puters).........................................................
Detergent (DD C ) (2 computers) ................................................
Analytical lab o rato ry.............. ......................................................
A m m o n ia..........................................................................................

Closed-loop control
(automatic control
o f variables)

X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

Petroleum refineries:
Crude d is tillatio n ............................................................................
Catalytic re fo rm in g ........................................................................
Polymerization.................................................................................
Catalytic cracking ..........................................................................

X
X
X
X

Hydraulic cement plant:
Rotary k iln ........................................................................................

X

Steel mills:
Multiplant fuel and utilities utilization and
power p re d ic tio n ..........................................................................
Basic oxygen fu rn a c e .....................................................................
Hot strip m i l l ....................................................................................
Tinning l i n e ......................................................................................
Tinning l i n e ......................................................................................
Continuous annealing line ............................................................
Electric powerplants:
Generating s ta tio n ..........................................................................
Generating s ta tio n ..........................................................................
Generating s ta tio n ..........................................................................
Generating s ta tio n ..........................................................................

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

* I f one or more process variables are controlled automatically by the computer, the application is classified as a closed-loop
system although the process is not necessarily fully controlled automatically. A ll systems so classified also perform functions
such as monitoring instruments, logging data, performing calculations, and alarming.

system while also controlling ultimate goals such as
production costs, yields, or efficiencies. The objective is
to achieve the best or most desirable operating condi­
tions. The computer takes into consideration all signifi­
cant variables, calculates the best process conditions, and
applies the integrated control changes necessary to
achieve the most desirable performance. This type of
control is particularly appropriate for continuous proc­
esses in which many variables interact simultaneously.
Optimizing control, for example, can be used to achieve
the most profitable product mix from a given input of
raw materials.
8



In direct digital control (DDC), another advanced
form of computer control studied at two survey plants,
analog controllers and other equipment used in conven­
tional control are eliminated, and the computer itself
receives instrument signals and produces control signals
which are sent directly to the process. An advantage of
this system is that, for some types of installations, the
cost of the computer control system can be offset by the
elimination of conventional instruments and control
equipment. A disadvantage, however, is the difficulty in
reverting to manual control in case of computer mal­
function.

BASIC RELATIONSHIPS IN
OPEN-LOOP A N D CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL -L/
chart

2.

OPEN-LOOP

IN OPEN-LOOP CONTROL, THE COMPUTER RECEIVES INFORMATION ON PROCESS
CONDITIONS DIRECTLY FROM PROCESS INSTRUMENTS. THE OPERATOR, HOWEVER, STILL
INTERPRETS COMPUTER COMPUTATIONS AND UNDERTAKES CONTROL ACTIONS MANUALLY.

CLOSED-LOOP

IN CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL, OPERATOR INTERVENTION THEORETICALLY IS ELIMINATED.
THE COMPUTER RECEIVES INFORMATION DIRECTLY FROM THE PROCESS INSTRUMENTS,
PERFORMS CALCULATIONS ON THE DATA, AND APPLIES THE RESULTING CONTROL DECISIONS
AUTOMATICALLY THROUGH INSTRUMENTS TO PROCESS EQUIPMENT. HOWEVER, AN OPERATOR
GENERALLY IS REQUIRED TO OVERSEE OPERATIONS AND TO MAKE SOME MANUAL
ADJUSTMENTS, PARTICULARLY IN THE EVENT OF MALFUNCTIONS.

U ADAPTED FROM EMANUELS.SAVAS, COMPUTER CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL
PROCESSES, NEW YORK: MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, 1965, pp. 4-6.
NOTE: BROKEN LINES INDICATE MANUAL HANDLING OF INFORMATION; SOLID LINES
AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION.




9

CHAPTER 4. STATUS AND APPLICATIONS OF PROCESS COMPUTERS
widely available, the number of installations expanded
rapidly. From September 1963 to July 1968, digital
process computers reported installed or on order in the
United States increased more than sevenfold.

Process computers have been introduced gradually,
but the outlook is for their more widespread adoption.
This chapter presents information on extent of use and
trends in installation, and includes examples of applica­
tions in survey plants.

Applications of Process Control Computers
in Plants Surveyed

Extent o f Use
As of July 1968, at least 1,674 digital process com­
puters were reported installed or on order in the United
States; this figure is based on information contained in
trade journals, technical publications, and survey field
visits. The number installed in the U.S. accounts for
more than 50 percent of the world total. (See chart 3.)
Installations counted encompass all applications of proc­
ess control computers, including those outside of process
industries, and those that are used for applications other
than for control of a production process.
The electric power industry, a process industry
included in the study, is the leading user of process con­
trol computers in the United States, with 292 installed
in this industry as of July 1968. Next in importance
among major categories of users, as indicated in table 2,
is aerospace with 252 installations; followed by discrete
manufacturing industries with 178; and research, medi­
cine, and education with 166 process computers. Indus­
trial chemicals and iron and steel, two process industries
also included in the study, reported 156 and 132 instal­
lations, respectively.

E lec tric p o w e r pla n ts. All of the electric power plants
visited for information were using process computers to
assist in the operation of electric generating equipment.
Computer functions included data logging, alarming, and
equipment performance monitoring; these operations
consisted of scanning numerous instrument readings,
recording process information periodically, preparing
performance reports, and alarming the operators when
problems are sensed. (See table 3 for a list of applica­
tions in survey plants and appendix B-2 for distribution
of computers by major applications in the six industries
surveyed.)

At a survey electric power plant, for example, the
computer logs all key variables and prints out a record of
plant equipment performance, such as boiler efficiencies,
heater and pump performance, and turbine operating
ratios. The system is designed to discover malfunctions
rapidly and can detect problems that, prior to computer
control, might not have been observed until equipment
failure.
In du strial ch em ica l plan ts. A large chemical plant,
whose major product is ethylene, uses a complex multi­
computer system to provide operator guide control over
almost all operations in the plant. The system monitors
and collects data on over 1,500 plant variables, alarms in
case of dangerous trends, and prepares calculations
which are used to economically balance operating condi­
tions.

Trends in Installation
The first on-line application of a digital process com­
puter was at an electric power generating station in
March 1958. This application, however, involved calcu­
lating station efficiency rather than actual process con­
trol. The first on-line process computer application to
incorporate a control function became operational in
March 1959 at a catalytic polymerization unit in a petro­
leum refinery. Since early process computer systems
were experimental and very costly, relatively few were
reported installed until about 1963. As information
about the technology and advantages of computer proc­
ess control and more reliable equipment became more




Another computer system application is control of
the operation of analytical instruments in production
control laboratories. In this type of system, a computer
is connected directly to chromatographs and other labo­
ratory instruments, and replaces tedious manual opera­
tions by preparing results of chemical analysis almost
instantaneously. In one survey chemical plant, for
10

NUMBER OF DIGITAL PROCESS COMPUTER INSTALLATIONS
REPORTED IN THE U.S. A N D THE WORLD, SELECTED PERIODS, 1 9 5 8 -6 8
CHART 3.

3,094
INSTALLATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES
LOCATION OF INSTALLATIONS UNIDENTIFIED,
COMPUTER MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES

INSTALLATIONS IN ALL OTHER AREAS OF THE WORLD

1
1958

16
1959

SOURCE: SEE TABLE 2.



1960

MARCH
1961

MARCH
1965

AUGUST
1965

MARCH
1967

JULY
V
1968

_1/ Includes computers installed and on order.

Table 2. Installations of digital process computers reported in the United States, by major categories of users, cumulative totals,
1958-68
Category

1958

1959

1960

Mar.
1961

Sept.
1963

Mar.
1965

Aug.
1965

15
15

37
37

238
175

409
293

518

792

907

340

445

496

1
5
3
6
0
0
0

10
8
9
10
0
0
0

78
31
24
29
10
3
63

110
60
62
36
17
8
116

130
72
69
43
17
9
178

169
90
102
51
19
14
347

171
120
104
68
19
14
411

936

Sept.
1966

Mar.
1967

July
19681

United States, total . .

1

Process industries studied . . .

1

Electric power..................
Industrial chemicals . . . .
Iron and s t e e l ..................
Petroleum refin in g .........
Pulp, paper, and board . .
Hydraulic c em en t...........
Other industry groups .........

1
0
0
0
0
0
0

7
7
1
0
1
5
0
0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

13
8

15
24

23
34

101
56

125
60

252
178

0

0

0

0

19

26

45

69

72

166

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

9
14

20
31

36
40

53
68

69
85

118
222

Aerospace.........................
Discrete manufacturing..
Research, medicine, and
ed u cation .......................
Oil and natural gas pro­
duction and pipelining..
M iscellaneous.................. •
1

1,674
738
292
156
132
110
28
20

Total includes computers installed and on order.

SOURCE: Basic data used to compile the totals were obtained from C o n tro l Engineering, “Process Computer Scorecards,”
1961-68. Dates used in the table, from March 1961 to July 1968, correspond to the dates of these “Scorecards.” The C o n tro l
E ngin eering data were supplemented and adjusted by using additional information from O il an d Gas Journal, “Computer Control
in the Oil Industry,” 1963-67; “Westinghouse, Installation List of Process Computers,” 1966; Iron an d S te e l E ngineer, “Process
Computers— Their Place in the Steel Industry,” 1965; “Manpower Implications of Process Control Computers in the Process
Industries,” a study prepared for the National Commission on Technology, Automation and Economic Progress, 1966; and in­
formation from survey field visits. (For more detail about most o f these sources, see the selected annotated bibliography p. 63.)

example, such a system is leading to better control over
operations in the total plant. Another survey plant is
planning to install a similar system with the addition of
remote stations connected to instruments in operating
units in the plant so that results of analysis could be
used immediately to adjust operating processes.
Control of ammonia production was another impor­
tant computer task illustrated at a survey plant, where a
computer provided closed-loop control over key por­
tions of the process. The computer is used to control
variables such as temperatures, pressures, flow rates, and
gas and catalyst activity. The system also adjusts instru­
ments to compensate for changes in weather and keeps
the process operating economically.
Direct digital control (DDC) was in use at two chem­
ical plants visited. In one facility, this advanced type of
computer control was being used on an experimental
basis for production of a detergent. The other facility,
however, was using DDC for a larger operating unit.
Both users reported significant improvement in control
with DDC.
Iron a n d steel. Computers have been applied to many
major operations in the cycle of making steel, from the
initial steps of preparation of raw materials for the blast
12



furnace to the final production of finished steel shapes.
The use of process control computers in the basic
oxygen steelmaking process, for example, is one of the
most important applications. At a survey steel plant, the
function of a computer system which is not connected
directly to the process is to calculate and transmit to the
furnace operator instructions about how much scrap,
molten iron, flux, and oxygen to use for a specific heat.
Another important application, control of significant
operations at a hot strip mill, was observed at a survey
plant. Functions of the computer system included track­
ing the location of steel slabs being processed through
the mill, controlling the rate of processing and the
temperature and dimensions of the slabs, and collecting
and recording production data. A different survey plant
was using computers for control of electrolytic tinning
lines. The system at this plant regulates the amount of
tin deposited, based upon manually entered order data,
and provides complete records for production, account­
ing, and quality control purposes.
P etro leu m refining. Computer control of catalytic
cracking, a refining operation that has numerous com­
puter installations, was observed at one survey plant.
The computer system is used to regulate temperature

Table 3. Computer applications in survey plants

Industry
Electric p ow er......................................
Industrial chemicals.............................

Iron and steel.........................................

Petroleum refining................................

Pulp, paper, and board.........................
Hydraulic cement rotary k iln ..............

Applications
Steam electric generating station
Styrene process
Ethanolamine process
Ammonia process
Multiplant production monitoring
Control of all major processes in plant including
manufacture o f ethylene, benzene, other
petrochemicals; steam generation; and
plant utilities
Soft detergent process
Laboratory instruments (chromatographs) in
production laboratory
Laboratory instruments (chromatographs) in
research laboratory
Fuel and utilities utilization and power demand
Basic oxygen furnace
Hot strip mill
Continuous annealing line
Electrolytic tinning line
Crude distillation process
Catalytic reforming process
Polymerization process
Catalytic cracking process
Papermaking machine
Rotary kiln

Number o f computer
systems in survey
4
1
1
1
1

h
21
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1

^ 4 computers.
2 computers.
SOURCE: Plant visits.

and flow rates, thereby allowing the unit to operate
closer to equipment limits. In addition, the system logs
automatically 130 instrument readings per minute, a
task that would be impossible to do manually.
Another primary application observed at a survey
plant was control of a crude distillation unit. The com­
puter, by means of an optimizing program, adjusts
process instruments automatically to increase the pro­
portion of high valued products in relation to low valued
products, taking into account variables such as changes
in raw materials, process balance, and external tempera­
ture. The system also logs data and alarms operators in
case of malfunctions.
P ulp, p a p er an d board. Control over a papermaking
machine, the major computer application in the paper
industry, was observed at a paper mill included in the
study. The computer control system informs the crew
when selected process variables are out of limits, and
automatically adjusts the settings of instruments for
changes in paper grade, weights, and moisture content.
Both operator guide functions and automatic control
functions are involved.




H ydrau lic ce m e n t in d u stry. Kiln control, which con­
sists of the operation of a long rotating tube in which
the blended raw materials for the manufacture of
cement are heated, the most widely used computer
application in the cement industry, was illustrated at a
survey plant. The computer at this plant maintains auto­
matic control over several key kiln variables, including
kiln speed, and logs separate readings from 58 instru­
ments in the kiln; over 500 readings are made every
minute.

Application of Process Computers
in Industries not Studied
Oil
field control is a major computer application in
the production of petroleum. A computer, linked to a
large number of operating oil wells in a field, provides
automatic pumping, sampling, and monitoring; prepares
production reports; and indicates problem wells. Similar
computer control systems are in use in natural gas fields.
13

Some Typical Control Rooms and Units Under
Computer Control in Industries Studies

3

2
Catalytic Reformer in a Petroleum
Refinery

Turbine - Generator in Electric
Generating Station

14






Some Typical Control Rooms and Units Under
Computer Control in Industries Studies

6

Basic Oxygen Furnace in
Steel Plant

8

7

9

Kiln in Cement Plant

15

In the gas transmission industry, the key computer appli­
cation is pipeline control.
The automobile industry is using an increasing
number of process computers for applications such as
quality control and parts matching on auto assembly
lines, testing of subassemblies and completed autos, and
control over drafting machines. Some computer applica­
tions in other durable goods industries are control over
the manufacture of electronic components and the
operation of banks of machine tools.




Process computers are used in the aerospace industry
for applications such as missile launch and tracking,
simulation studies of spacecraft and airplane operation,
and static firing tests of jet and rocket engines.
Other computer applications include patient moni­
toring in hospitals; control of aluminum and copper
refining operations and aluminum rolling mills; control
over dyeing processes in the textile industry; traffic
control; railroad car classification; and control of
bakeries, warehouses, and mining operations.

CHAPTER 5. COSTS AND BENEFITS OF INSTALLING
PROCESS CONTROL COMPUTERS
Management’s decisions to adopt the new technology
are affected greatly by the cost of installing process
computer systems and the expected benefits to be
gained. This chapter discusses the costs, benefits, and
problems reported at survey plants.

graming and plant instrumentation could be carried over
to the new system. Also, the cost of the replacement
computer usually was appreciably less than the original
unit, despite its increased speed, computing power, and
reliability.

Objectives

Costs at Survey Plants

The companies surveyed reported a number of major
objectives for introducing computer process control.
(See table 6.) Cost savings through lower raw material
and fuel requirements was the most frequently cited ob­
jective, followed by the desire to optimize product mix
and yield to produce a combination of products with the
greatest market value. Other goals included increased
production, expanded process knowledge, improved op­
erating efficiency, and more experience in computer
process control. Lowering manpower costs was an ob­
jective in only 4 of 12 survey plants, primarily because
labor costs in units to be placed under computer control
made up a relatively small proportion of total produc­
tion costs at most survey plants. (However, in several in­
stances, plants reported increased productivity, i.e., de­
creased unit labor requirements, as a result of increased
output with the same size labor force.)

The computer and auxiliary equipment in survey
plants were purchased, leased, or rented from system
vendors. Costs of process computer systems at survey
plants ranged from $200,000 to $1,500,000. (See tables
4 and 5 which provide information about the costs of
purchasing, leasing, or renting selected process com­
puters and other system costs.) One important factor
determining the amount expended was the stage of
development of the innovation. Early, pioneering instal­
lations had high costs due to the experimental nature of
the technology. Time and technical effort involved
tended to be greater than comparable, more recent
installations. Numerous equipment and programing
problems occurred with early installations. Some of the
costs of the earlier projects, however, were underwritten
by computer vendors in an effort to gain experience
with process control computers and to gain a foothold in
the industry.
A second factor affecting costs was the complexity of
the installation. A system designed specifically for con­
trol over a small portion of a simple process, for
example, especially one superimposed upon a preexist­
ing, highly instrumented analog control system, cost
much less than a highly complex, multicomputer system
designed specifically for complete control over a newlybuilt major facility.
The degree of control of the system was a third deter­
minant of its cost. Installations that were designed for
fairly simple control functions, such as data logging,
usually required less time, effort, and instrumentation
than more highly sophisticated computer operations,
such as automatic control, and therefore cost less to
implement.
Replacement systems tended to be lower in cost than
original installations largely because some of the pro­




Benefits o f Computer Control
Process control computers brought about significant
operating improvements; the result was that the objec­
tives cited in the preceding section generally were
realized. The nature and extent of these improvements
were influenced by factors such as market demand,
degree of computer control, efficiency of preexisting
conventional controls, and nature of the process con­
trolled. Since these factors may vary over time and
between and within plants, the case examples of achieve­
ments presented below should be considered as illustra­
tive only. They could be significantly different in plants
not surveyed or in survey plants at different times.
E x a m p les o f a ch ievem en ts a t su rvey plan ts. Although
computer installations at several survey plants were not
fully operational, significant operating economies and
17

Table 4. Costs of selected process computer systems in survey plants with purchased computers
Computer and auxiliary
equipment 1
Type of application

Multicomputer system controlling all
major processes in large chemical
plant......................................................
Complex system for control of an
electric generating station..................
Operator guide control over a
major process in a steel plant.............
Operator guide control of
electric generating station ..................
Direct digital control o f a
chemical process..................................
Control over a key portion of a
chemical process (early
installation)...........................................
Control o f analytical instruments
in chemical plant laboratory.............
Experimental direct digital
control system using 2 computers in a chemical p la n t..................
1
2
3
4
5




Total
cost

Amount

Percent of
total system
cost

Programing and systems
analysis 2

Amount

Percent of
total system
cost

Installation and additional
instrumentation 3

Amount

Percent of
total system
cost

Training 4

Amount

Percent of
total system
cost

$1,500,000

$1,125,000

75.0

5$225,000

15.0

$150,000

10.0

850,000

400,000

47.1

190,000

22.4

250,000

29.4

10,000

1.2

810,000

290,000

35.8

300,000

37.0

200,000

24.7

20,000

2.5

720,000

300,000

41.7

140,000

19.4

275,000

38.2

5,000

.7

500,000

275,000

55.0

75,000

15.0

150,000

30.0

453,000

258,000

57.0

75,000

16.6

110,000

24.3

10,000

2.2

235,290

160,000

68.0

58,820

25.0

16,470

7.0

222,000

157,000

70.7

50,000

22.5

10,000

4.5

5,000

2.3

Central processor, auxiliary memory, analog/digital signal converters, and input/output equipment such as operator console, typewriters, and tape equipment.
Analysis of process, preparation of process model, programing for process control, and system operation.
New instrumentation needed for process control installation o f computer equipment, and instrumentation including site preparation.
Instructing employees in programing, computer technology, maintenance, and system operation.
Includes training.

Table 5. Costs o f selected process computer systems in survey plants with rented or leased computers
Rental or lease
costs for
computer and
auxiliary
equipment 2

Type of application 1

Control over key process in a paper plant • • • •
Control of a petroleum refining process
(early installation).............................................
Control over a complex petroleum
refining process..................................................
Control over a key process in a paper
plant (replacement computer).........................
Control over major portions of a
cement manufacturing p rocess.......................

Programing and
systems
analysis 3

Installation and
additional
instrumentation 4

Training 5

$14,000/mo.

$150,000

$200,000

$100,000

7,500/mo.

250,000

100,000

2,000

7,500/mo.

250,000

200,000

5,000

7,000/mo.

80,000

30,000

30,000

5,750/mo.

170,000

65,000

-

1 These applications involve varying levels o f automatic control.
2 Rental or lease costs usually include costs o f maintenance.
3 Analysis o f process, preparation of process model, programing for process control, and system operation.
4 New instrumentation needed for process control, installation of computer equipment, and instrumentation including site
preparation.
5 Instructing employees in programing, computer technology, maintenance, and system operation.

Table 6. Management’s objectives in introducing computer
process control

Objective

Reduce raw material and fuel costs • • • •
Optimize production................................
Increase production..................................
Increase process knowledge....................
Improve plant or unit operating
efficiency................................................
Improve product quality.........................
Gain experience with computer
process control......................................
Reduce manpower requirements...........
Provide better or more rapid
analysis....................................................
Increase equipment availability..............
Other2 ......................................................

Number o f times
mentioned at
survey plant 1
9
6
5
4
4
4

A ste e l p la n t using process computers to optimize and
predict fuel and power needs lowered fuel oil require­
ments by 4 percent and purchased power consumption
by 6 percent.
A t a n o th e r ste e l p la n t , computer control of basic
oxygen furnace operations for charge calculations, anal­
ysis, and data logging lowered oxygen costs by 5 per­
cent, since fewer adjustments or corrections to the heats
were needed.

4
4

Labor savings were achieved at three plants and ex­
pected at two others:

3
2
5

A t a large p e tro c h e m ic a l c o m p le x , a process control
computer used for chemical anaylysis in an analytical
laboratory brought about savings of $20,000 a year and
displaced seven laboratory analysts due to more rapid
and more accurate analysis of samples.

1 Several objectives generally were given at each survey
plant.
2 These objectives include the desire to improve data
gathering procedures, reduce equipment damage, improve plant
safety, achieve process stability, and increase information
available to operators.

other benefits subject to measurement were reported at
most plants.
Fuel and raw material savings were achieved at seven
plants and anticipated at another; for example:




A ch em ical p la n t producing ammonia reduced raw
material and fuel costs by 2 percent each.

A t a ste e l p la n t, savings from computer control of a
hot strip mill resulted, in part, from lower unit labor
requirements as throughput tonnage increased while the
work staff increased proportionately much less. The
higher throughput rate was brought about by faster slab
processing and the ability to more quickly reset the mill
for processing different steel products, enabling an extra
20 to 30 slabs to be produced per shift.
19

A t th e s te e l m ill with the computer controlled basic
oxygen furnace, labor requirements were lower by 5 per­
cent because fewer manual operations were needed.

sistent control of mill operations, resulting in improved
metallurgical and dimensional uniformity, fewer rejects,
and higher quality end-products.

Production increased at 5 plants and was expected to
increase at two others, for example:

A t an elec tric g en eratin g sta tio n , operating savings as a
result of computer control were nebulous. Benefits such
as improved engineering knowledge of the steam powerplant cycle, more accurate and up-to-date records, and
better data to guide the operator in controlling the plant
could not be measured in dollar terms.

A t a p a p er p la n t, use of computer control and exten­
sive new instrumentation on a paper machine reduced
grade change time by 20 percent, increased speed by 15
percent, and improved machine efficiency 2 percent for
a net increase in production of 19 percent.
A p e tro le u m refin ery achieved a 3 percent increase in
the production of a polymerization unit with no increase
in the amount of raw material used.
A t a c e m e n t p la n t, computer control of a rotary kiln
greatly reduced fluctuations from desired values and
resulted in a more uniform product and 10 to 13 percent
greater output.

Savings from computer control were quite substantial
in some cases:
In a large n e w ch em ical p la n t, savings were estimated
to be about $400,000 annually, based on comparison
with an equivalent plant without computer control.
Reduction in initial staffing saved $224,000, process
improvements due to quicker access to data saved
$120,000, and increased engineer and technician pro­
ductivity saved $56,000.
A t a p e tro le u m refin ery, the computer adjusts the
control devices to compensate for sudden changes in the
process more rapidly than was possible under manual
control. Major sources of savings were higher yields of
more valuable products and lower raw material and fuel
costs. Another saving source was reduced maintenance
costs, since the computer alerts personnel to conditions
that could result in operating problems or malfunctions.
In general, the process operated closer to theoretical
optimum levels than under conventional control, and
product specifications were met more consistently. Net
annual savings were estimated at about $100,000 per
computer.

In some cases achievements could not be measured
precisely:
A t a ste e l p la n t, the computer system used in a hot
strip mill made possible more precise and more con­

20




A t an elec tric gen eratin g sta tio n , temperatures and
pressures were allowed to run slightly higher when using
the computer system for monitoring the process. This
permitted operating boilers and generators at the upper
limit of capacity and, in effect, increased capacity.

In many of the installations, unanticipated benefits
resulted from the introduction of a computer control
system:
In a p a p e r p la n t, the computer control system helped
engineers to track down process and instrument prob­
lems by pinpointing the malfunction and defining it
as one of production or instrument performance.
A t a ste e l m ill, use of computers on tinning lines
improved quality of finished product by a greater degree
than anticipated.
A t a ce m e n t p la n t, improvement in the performance
of the kiln operators was an unexpected benefit. During
computer control, the kiln speed increased from the
usual rate of 70 to 90 revolutions per hour. By working
under these conditions, the kiln operators gained con­
fidence in themselves and the equipment so that even
when the computer was not controlling the process, they
were able to operate the kiln at the higher speed.
In an elec tric gen eratin g sta tio n , engineers involved
with applying computer control acquired additional
knowledge about general plant engineering and operating
conditions, control mathematics, computer mainte­
nance, and trouble-shooting.
In a n o th e r elec tric gen eratin g sta tio n , data quality and
alarm system reliability were higher than anticipated,
and the computer proved useful to laboratory techni­
cians for precision testing and special analysis.

Problems at Survey Plants
Almost every installation reported some type of
equipment malfunction, but usually these problems were

relatively minor, such as an output typewriter not
operating properly. The less frequent serious problems
resulted from defective and unreliable instruments and
computer components. A problem found in a number of
early installations was the commercial unavailability of
specialized instruments that were needed for computer
control. Some of these devices, therefore, had to be
designed individually and custom made. At a steel mill,
for example, a special gage to measure continuously the
hardness of steel strip had to be developed before the
continuous annealing line operations could be controlled
by computer.
The kinds of equipment problems experienced by
survey plants are illustrated by the following examples.
At a pioneering installation in a petroleum refinery, a
substantial amount of instrumentation was found to be
unsuitable for computer control. All of this instrumen­
tation had to be replaced. Morever, numerous failures of
computer components caused complete, but temporary,
shutdown of the computer control system. Satisfactory
operation was attained only after much repair work by
the computer manufacturer.
A chemical plant that had installed a multicomputer
system also reported poor equipment reliability, espe­
cially during the first year of operation. Problems were




reported with components such as computer air condi­
tioners, magnetic tape circuitry, drum memory circuitry,
input/output equipment, paper tape reader, and type­
writers. Many of the problems with this installation were
attributed to the early state of technology, since the
system was designed around early model computers.
Plans are to replace the present computers with more
advanced and reliable equipment.
Programing difficulties were reported at a large
number of survey projects. Many of these problems were
due to insufficient technical knowledge of the process to
be placed under computer control. Since many of the
processes involved were very complex, programing effort
was extensive. Moreover, even when the technical
aspects of the process were understood, the problem of
translating this knowledge into a working set of instruc­
tions for the computer had to be resolved. In some early
installations, the vendor lacked sufficient technical
knowledge of the process, and the user had to perform
detailed investigations of the process to obtain suitable
data for programing. At a steel mill, where a computer
was installed to control a basic oxygen furnace, pro­
graming difficulties were reported and some aspects of
the programing, which were the responsibility of the
vendor, had to be assumed by user staff.

21

CHAPTER 6. MANPOWER FOR PLANNING AND
IMPLEMENTING COMPUTER PROCESS CONTROL

tasks that previously were performed by vendor per­
sonnel.
N u m b e r a n d ty p e o f e m p lo y e e s in volved. The size and
composition of the project group at a survey plant
depended upon the individual member’s experience in
process computer technology, the relative technical
sophistication of the computer system to be installed,
and the complexity of the computer application. At 23
installations surveyed, the project group varied in size
from 3 to 23 members. Frequently, a member was
involved in more than one stage of installation. Early
installations at survey plants tended to have large project
groups because vendor and user personnel lacked process
computer experience. As technical staff gained experi­
ence with computer control, the size of the project
group tended to reflect the complexity of the instal­
lation. Replacement systems at survey plants usually re­
quired a smaller project group than the original installa­
tion because some of the instrumentation and programs
were carried over from the old system. Within individual
projects, the size of the project group expanded or de­
clined according to the phase of the work and the need
for technical support. This point is illustrated in table 8,
which provides information about the type and num­
bers of workers involved in planning and implementing
coriputer applications at four survey plants.

Installation of computer process control required a
large amount of technical, administrative, and manpower
effort over a period generally exceeding 2 years and
usually required considerable participation of vendor
staff. This chapter discusses the characteristics of the
project group, the manpower required by major phases
of implementation, and the significance of prior EDP
experience.

Characteristics and Function
of the Project Group
C o m p o sitio n . Installation of computers at survey
plants usually required considerable technical staff work.
A project group consisting of managers, engineers, pro­
gramed, and technicians was set up at each plant to plan
and implement the installations. This group consisted of
joint user and vendor staff for most installations. How­
ever, for a few projects, technical assistance was acquired
from additional sources such as an outside consultant or
contractor. The number of man-years of technical effort
involved in implementing computer systems ranged from
less than 2 for a relatively simple project involving
replacement of an existing computer by a more powerful
unit, to about 21 for a complicated electric generating
application. (See table 7.)
User firms usually supplied the technical staff who
knew the process, and the computer manufacturer
usually supplied the personnel familiar with computer
equipment operation, system capabilities, and pro­
graming. User technical staff assigned to the project
group included managers, unit supervisors, process
engineers, chemical engineers, electrical engineers, instru­
m ent engineers, and instrument technicians. These
employees usually were drawn from process control and
instrumentation departments at the plant level, and
research and engineering departments at the corporate
level. The computer vendor assigned systems engineers,
statisticians, mathematicians, computer engineers, com­
puter technicians, and programers to assist user staff in
implementing the installations. As user technical per­
sonnel gained knowledge in computer operating tech­
nology, systems analysis, and programing, they assumed




Manpower Requirements by
Major Installation Phases
The major phases in the installation of process control
computer systems at survey plants and the manpower
required for each phase were found to be difficult to
enumerate and categorize, since project teams worked
on different aspects of an installation during the same
period and, therefore, steps overlapped. Despite this
limitation, identification of the four major phases is
possible at survey plants.
F ea sib ility stu d y . The feasibility study, the first phase
in most projects, usually was carried out by a relatively
small group of employees, sometimes working with one
of two computer vendor representatives. This step con­
sisted of making a detailed study of the technical and
22

Table 7. Man-years required to implement computer process control at survey plants

Type of facility

Papermill.........................
Chemical plant ..............

Chemical p la n t ..............

Chemical p la n t ..............
Petroleum refinery.........
Petroleum refinery.........
Cement p la n t ................
Steel mill .......................

Steel mill .......................
Steel mill .......................

Electric powerplant- • • •

Electric powerplant- • • •

Control application

Papermaking machine
Papermaking machine 2
Styrene process
Ethanolamine process
Multiplant production monitoring
Multicomputer operation o f most
of the processes in the plant
Biodegradable linear alkylate
Laboratory chromatograph analysis
Ammonia process
Ammonia process 2
Crude distillation process
Catalytic reforming process
Polymerization process
Catalytic cracking
Rotary kiln
Rotary kiln 2
Fuel utilities utilization and
power demand
Basic oxygen furnace
Hot strip mill
Continuous annealing line
Electrolytic tinning line
Electrolytic tinning line
Coal-fired steam-driven electric
generating station
Coal-fired steam-driven electric
generating station
Coal-fired steam-driven generating
station
Oil-fired steam-driven generating
station

Number o f man-years
required to reach
operational phase

Months elapsed
between installation
and operational phase *

14.4
9.5
3 12.0-15.0

21
36
3
1
36

15.8
13.3
6.1
7.5
8.0
20.0
20.0
13.4
12.9
3 17.8-18.8
1.6

6
11
5
7
6
4
4 l-5 l2
14
1
4

5.1
“

6
7
11
23
30

20.8

24

15.4

9

14.9

36

14.9

35

1 The relatively long period between installation and operational phases reported at some survey plants generally resulted
from unforeseen problems with computer components, programing, and instrumentation.
2 Replacement computer for preceding application.
3 Approximate.
4 Partial control.
5 Full control.

economic feasibility of applying computer control to a
particular process, which involved (1) a detailed analysis
of the process including material and energy flows, and
(2) an estimate of potential benefits and costs. At a
paper plant, for example, the feasibility study was
accomplished over a period of 5 months by three rel­
atively high-level employees-the managing director of
research, the associate director of research, and the
director of information services. In a chemical plant, the
feasibility study for the first of four computer installa­
tions was conducted by the section head of the process
laboratory and the section head of the computation lab.




These employees worked for 2 months on this phase of
the installation.
The time required to complete the feasibility study
ranged from 2 months at one plant to 12 at another.
However, a time span of 6 months or less was reported
for about 3 out of every 4 computer installations
studied.
S y ste m s design, m o d e l building, an d program ing. The
project group was expanded to accomplish system
design, preinstallation planning, model building, and
programing. At many installations, the group working on
these steps consisted of 8 to 10 persons and reached a
23

Table 8. Personnel involved in planning and implementing process control computer systems at selected survey plants
Employees involved (user and vendor)
Phase

Type of facility

Type
Chemical plant...........

Feasibility study
Planning (including systems engineering
and programing)

Installation

Operational
Petroleum refinery • • • Feasibility study
Systems engineering
Programing and program checkout
Installation and checkout of
computer equipment
Steel m ill....................

Electric generating
plant.




Checkout of system instrumentation
Systems planning
Preparation of mathematical model
Programing (including some training)
Installation
System refinement and modification
Planning and detailing specifications
including feasibility study
Basic programing
Application and support programing
Installation
Instrument calibration
Checkout of system

Systems engineer
Process engineer
Plant superintendent
Systems engineer
Process engineer
Instrument engineer
Rant programer
Rant superintendent
Systems engineer
Process engineer
Programer
Rant superintendent
Systems engineer
Plant superintendent
Process engineer (user)
Engineers (vendor)
Process engineer (user)
Instrument engineer (user)
Engineers (vendor)
Process engineer (user)
Engineer (vendor)
Process engineer (user)
Instrument engineer (user)
Engineer (vendor)
Instrument technician (user)
Process engineer
Systems engineer
Process engineer
Systems engineer
Electrical engineer
Systems engineers
Engineers (user)

Number
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2%
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
8

Programers
Engineers
Contractor personnel

5
7
10

Technicians
Engineer
Engineering assistant

3
1
1

Implemented
by

Duration of
phase

Total number
of man-months
worked

User and vendor

3 months

9 man-months

User and vendor

12 months

96 man-months

User and vendor

1 month

5 man-months

User

Continuing

User and vendor

6 months

24 man-months

User and vendor

6 months

33 man-months

User and vendor

12 months

36 man-months

User and vendor

4 months

20 man-months

User
User and vendor

24 months
6 months

48 man-months
9 man-months

User
User and vendor
User and vendor
User
User

18 months
11 months
6 months
Continuing
4 months

18 man-months
22 man-months
12 man-months
9 man-months

Vendor
User
Outside
contractor
User
User

6 months
20 months
4 months

30 man-months
82 man-months
40 man-months

4 months
3 months

12 man-months
6 man-months

-

-

high of 23 people at one plant. Vendor participation was
quite extensive, representing as much as half the project
team in one case.
These steps consisted of developing computer equip­
ment specifications, determining the type and degree of
control desired, and planning the computer site and
installation procedure. Specifications were determined
for items such as the central processor, computer
memory, and input/output equipment, and computer
site. Existing instrumentation was surveyed to determine
which instruments were suitable for computer control
and what modifications to instrumentation were needed.
R equirem ents for additional instrumentation were
developed and orders placed with vendor firms. Plans for
operating the computer, auxiliary equipment, and instru­
mentation as an integrated control unit were accom­
plished.
The necessary technical information about the process
was gathered and consolidated to prepare a mathe­
matical model of the process. Operating instructions for
computer equipment and process control strategies were
developed, and programs were written by translating the
process model, control strategies, and computer operat­
ing instructions into a series of discrete arithmetic and
logical statements. These programs were stored in the
computer memory and carefully tested for malfunctions.
The time required to complete this phase ranged from
12 to 43 months.
Installation. During the installation phase, the project
group declined in size; most often it averaged from
about 5 to 7 technicians and engineers. This phase con­
sisted of installing the computer and auxiliary equip­
ment at the process site. Existing instruments were
modified, new instruments installed, and system com­
ponents connected. The equipment, instrumentation,
and wiring were checked carefully to prevent malfunc­
tions. At a survey cement plant, for example, a process
engineer, two systems engineers, and two electrician/instrument technicians accomplished the installation. In
cases where problems arose, checkout of equipment
after installation required considerable technical effort.
At a petroleum refinery, for example, instrument check­
out required more than twice the number of manmonths than was needed to install the computer and
related equipment. Vendor employees were involved in
the installation of computer equipment in nearly all
survey plant systems. Installation in survey plants was
accomplished during a period of 1 to 6 months; equip­
ment check-out usually took longer, up to 24 months in
one case.
O peration al a n d sy ste m refin em en t. The size and
composition of the project group for the operational and
system refinement phase depended mainly upon the




10. Engineer checks computer circuitry dur­
ing installation at user plant.

degree of control desired. This phase consisted of the
shift from manual to computer control of the process
and lasted from 1 to 30 months after installation. (See
table 7.) In most cases, the shift was accomplished
gradually. Simple computer operations, such as data
monitoring, were undertaken first, and more complex
tasks, such as operator guide or closed-loop control,
were accomplished later. In a cement plant, the shift
from open-loop to closed-loop control involved eight
people; an engineer, a process engineer, a program/
systems engineer, and four electrician/instrument techni­
cians who were assisted by a systems engineer from the
vendor staff. Altogether, the project group spent 72
man-months in implementing a more advanced degree of
computer control. System refinement, a continuing task
at some survey plants, generally involved advancing the
degree of control.
Once a computer system was operating satisfactorily
and the desired degree of control was attained, one or
two engineers who were plant employees and members
of the project group usually remained with the system to
assure that it continued to function smoothly. In a
number of cases, however, the unit supervisor was the
only member of the project team assigned to work
permanently with the computer system. As a general
rule, after the computer system became operational,
vendor personnel were called upon only in emergency
situations.
25

Status o f the User Process
Control Computer Group
A permanent group of employees worked on process
computer applications in all but one survey plant. In
most cases, this group was formed at the plant level, and
its overall number fluctuated according to the com­
plexity and scope of the project. Each group, however,
contained a nucleus of technical employees who were
involved continuously with some aspect of computer
process control. In a plant with four systems, for
example, a high level engineer was assigned permanently
to the task of coordinating process control computers.
This engineer augmented the size of the project team for
each installation by borrowing personnel from relevant
plant departments; after the installation was completed,
these employees were reassigned.
A central process control computer group was formed
at the corporate level in a number of the larger firms
visited. In very large companies, as the number of instal­
lations in their plants increased, these companies often
brought together key personnel at the corporate level
who were experienced with computer control. These
centralized groups consisted of employees with a knowl­
edge of systems engineering, programing, computer
technology, and process operation. The functions of
these groups of employees were to develop new applica­
tions of process computers in corporate plants, to do
research into advanced forms of computer process con­
trol, and to serve as a source of primary members for
project teams in specific plant installations. At the two
survey electric power companies, for example, a
corporate computer group rather than a plant group was
involved directly with programing and implementing
process computers at company plants.

Staffing Problems
A lack of trained personnel experienced in applying
control computers to industrial processes was cited as a
serious problem by most survey plants. A number of
specific problems were attributed to this scarcity of
trained manpower. For example, at a cement plant, the
lack of trained engineers with process computer knowl­
edge was considered a handicap to its process control
projects. A petroleum refinery had a large turnover in
experienced technical personnel between the installation
of its first and second process computer systems. This
turnover necessitated using personnel inexperienced in
computer technology for the second installation and
required additional training sessions.

26



Significance of Prior EDP Experience
E x te n t o f experien ce. Ten of the 12 plants visited
either had been using business or scientific computers
prior to the installation of process control computers, or
had staff members with previous scientific or business
computer experience. Applications of scientific com­
puters at these plants included solving technical prob­
lems, performing simulation studies, and processing large
volumes of operating data. Business computers were
used for tasks such as accounting and payroll prepara­
tion. The two remaining plants had no computer experi­
ence prior to the installation of process control
computers.
T ran sferability o f skills. Six of the 10 plants that
reported prior business or scientific computer experience
indicated that personnel associated with these applica­
tions were of some help in the installation of process
computers. At a chemical plant, for example, a knowl­
edge of FORTRAN is considered useful in learning to
program process computers. A steel plant found that
prior experience with programing and systems design for
business computers was useful but not of significant
importance in its process computer projects. In a paper
plant, some corporate level personnel with prior EDP
experience were assigned to work on the process com­
puter project. In general, however, these and other
examples indicate that programing and computer skills
are transferable only to a limited extent.
At a petroleum refinery, however, work with tech­
nical computers led directly to one of the earliest com­
puter control installations in the industry. First, simula­
tion studies of the process were performed on a
technical computer, and then an offsite computer was
connected to the process via data transmission lines.
Finally, an onsite process computer was installed. The
project team for the computer installation was expanded
from a nucleus of employees who worked with the
technical computers.
The remaining four plants with prior computer experi­
ence indicated that no transferability of skills was
apparent between business or scientific computers and
process computers. Those interviewed at these plants
indicated that techniques needed for work with proc­
ess control computers differed completely from those
needed for work with business and scientific computers.
Moreover, management at a power company preferred
that project group engineers have no prior computer
programing experience that could interfere with learn­
ing the company’s special programing methods.

CHAPTER 7. IMPACT ON EMPLOYMENT AND JOBS

Although installation of process control computers
resulted in practically no change in employment or
displacement of individual workers, significant changes
in job duties of operators, technicians, and other
employees were reported at survey plants.

Table 9. Employment in computerized units as a percent of
total employment in survey plants 1
Unit employment
Total plant
Plant

employment

Total

Percent o f
total plant
employment

Changes in Employment
The installation of process computers had little
immediate effect on employment in survey plants. Over
the period that computers were installed, changes in
general economic conditions, product demand, and the
introduction of other forms of technology were the
major factors that influenced the level of total plant
employment. Except for one plant where all major
processes are under computer control, workers in units
using process computers made up a relatively small
proportion of total plant employment, ranging from 0.1
percent in a steel mill to about 6 percent in a chemical
plant. (See table 9.) The employment changes in survey
plants varied greatly. At 6 of the 11 survey plants that
provided data on employment, total plant employment
increased over the period 1 year prior to the first
computer installation to 1 year after the most recent
installation; at the five other plants, employment
declined.
Total employment in production units over the same
period also was relatively unaffected by the introduction
of process computers. Employment in 7 of the 12
computerized production units for which data were
provided remained unchanged; employment increased at
three other units, and declined at the remaining two
units.

740
8,004

35
42
16

4.7
.5
.2

Chemical facility..........
Chemical facility..........
Petroleum refinery • • •

727
470
2,775

Cement p la n t ..............
Steel m ill........................
Steel m ill........................
Steel m ill........................

359
18,945
12,375
13,973

( 2)
3 26
17
21
17
386
214
19
23
27

(2)
5.5
.6
.8
4.7
2.0
1.7
.1
.2
.2

1 Most recent year available was used for those units for
which employment data were provided.
Comparable employ­
ment data not available at 3 survey plants.
2 Since all major production units at this plant are com­
puter controlled workers in these units constitute a high but
unspecified proportion o f total employment.
3 Total for 2 units.

that operating crews in the highly instrumented control
rooms generally were at a minimum consistent with
efficient operations prior to the introduction of the
computer. Moreover, even though the computer elim­
inated some duties of these employees, the same size
crew generally was retained to cope with any emergency
arising from the malfunction of the computer or process
equipment. In some cases, for example, operators were
required to perform manual operations which duplicated
automatic computer operations to retain skills needed
for emergency manual control. In other instances, such
as the computerized hot strip mill, operations normally
shifted between manual and computer control, and,
therefore, crews of the same size were needed and
retained for both operations.
A few instances of displacement and reassignment to
other plant units were reported. At a large chemical
plant, for example, the jobs of 7 out of a total of 57

Displacement
According to management and union officials inter­
viewed, no layoffs and little displacement took place in
units with operations placed under computer control.
Since labor costs made up a small proportion of total
costs in most processes studied, the objectives for intro­
ducing computer control frequently were to increase or
optimize production rather than to reduce manpower.
Another reason for the relatively small displacement was




P a p e rm ill......................
Chemical facility..........

27

laboratory analysts were eliminated when a process
computer system was introduced in a control laboratory
to perform much of the computational, analytical, and
data-logging operations formerly done manually by the
analysts. The computer system automatically provides
quick and accurate chemical analysis of a large volume
of samples and produces finished laboratory reports. Of
the seven laboratory analysts displaced, five were trans­
ferred and upgraded to higher-paying technician jobs
elsewhere within the plant, one analyst died, and the
other analyst went on military leave.
In another example of displacement, the jobs of three
employees per shift at a petroleum refinery, a Stillman
and two Stillman helpers, were eliminated as a result of
the advanced forms of instrumentation installed as part
of two computer control systems. A total o f 13
employees in the two units were reassigned to jobs else­
where in the plant.
One technique for measuring the displacement effect
of computer process control is to compare manpower
requirements of new plants designed for computer
control with manpower requirements of plants of the
same type and capacity using conventional control.
Officials at a large survey chemical plant built with
computer control estimated that about 20 employees
more than the current complement of 300 production
Table 10.

workers probably would be needed if the plant were not
computer controlled. Fifteen of these employees would
have been operators needed to log information and
perform some control tasks; the other five would have
been accounting clerks required to prepare summaries of
operating data and other reports for management.

Changes in Job Duties and Skills
The single most important effect on employees in
production units was the change in job duties. As indi­
cated in table 10, process operator positions made up
the majority of modified positions. The changes in their
duties generally were caused by the shift from manual to
automatic computer adjustment of instruments and
related devices. The survey plants reported that the
computer generates information not previously available
on process conditions which the operator can use to
“fine tune” the process and performs many calculations
which were formerly done manually. Moreover, im­
proved alarm systems incorporated in computer systems
installed in survey plants in some instances greatly
assisted the operator to perform monitoring duties.
Some examples of changes in duties resulting from
computer control are presented in table 11.

Distribution o f modified jobs at survey plants
Modified jobs

Category

Total
number

Percent
of
total

In affected
production,
units

In
other
units

Example o f job titles
used at survey plants

Total, all categories............

352

100.0

249

103

Managing or supervising..........

27

7.7

11

16

Production superintendent,
general foreman, performance
supervisor, shift foreman.

Systems engineering and
related w o rk .............................

25

7.1

9

16

Process operation......................

216

61.4

216

0

Plant test engineer, control
engineer, results engineer, re­
search engineer, instrument
engineer.
Machine tender, head operator,
cracker operator, kiln burner,
BOF operator, annealing line
operator, boiler-turbine op­
erator, clerk.

Laboratory analysis and
related w o rk .............................

55

15.6

0

55

Laboratory technician,
laboratory analyst.

Instrument maintenance and
related w o rk .............................

29

8.2

13

16

Instrument technician, elec­
tronics repairman, electrician.

SOURCE:

Data from 11 survey plants.

28



Table 11.

Changes in major job duties o f selected unit employees caused by computer process control
Description o f major duties

Job title

Unit
Before computer control
Responsible for paper machine crew, and all
paper made on machine. Checks papermaking
equipment and customer order. Sets flows,
temperatures, pressures and speeds at own
discretion. Manually adjusts basis weight and
moisture controls. Prints samples and checks
paper for defects.
Calculates operating ratios, manually logs gage
readings, and prepares weekly plant reports.

Machine
tender

Paper machine
in papermill.

Clerk

Styrene unit
in chemical
plant.

Head
operator

Ethanolamine
unit in chem­
ical plant.

Controls unit by operating 40-foot control
panel on plant floor with 40 to 60 different
controls and gages. Manually adjusts analog
controllers, reads and logs data, and per­
forms simple chemical analysis.

Lab analyst

Control lab­
oratory in
chemical
plant.

Performs numerous calculations for interpret­
ing chromatograph charts to obtain chemical

Senior
operator

Ammonia
chemical
plant.

Operator

Polymeriza­
tion unit in
petroleum
refinery.

Makes adjustments to process set points using
manually-adjusted automatic controllers. Ad­
justments consist o f minor changes in instru­
ment settings to keep temperatures and gas
composition within predetermined limits,
and major changes to compensate for un­
controlled variables such as changes in
weather.
Manually adjusts set points and controls unit
using automatic controllers. Logs data man­
ually, filling out data sheets by hand every
2 hours. Not able to log all data needed
to run process at best levels.

Operator

Fluid cata­
lytic
cracking
unit in
petroleum
refinery.




composition o f process samples.
logs data and prepares reports.

Manually

Manually adjusts automatic analog controllers
at control console. Monitors automatic data
logging equipment.

A fter computer control
Computer sets flows, temperatures, pressures, and
speeds and monitors these operations. Com­
puter controls basis weight by changing stock
flow, and controls moisture by changing steam
flow. Machine tender performs some control
and monitor duties as before and is avail­
able in case o f emergency.
Operates computer console and input/output
equipment, translates information to and from
machine language, feeds data into computer,
operates off-line program to perform calcula­
tions, and interprets computer output. Com­
piles reports on a daily basis and calculates
more operating ratios than before because com­
puter makes more information available.
Computer monitors, records, alarms, and manipulates process control mechanisms auto­
matically. Operator sits in a minaturized con­
trol panel in air conditioned room and makes
only a few manual adjustments to process vari­
ables, performs chemical analysis, and manually
logs some data though the latter is not needed
except to keep alert and abreast o f process
conditions.
Puts samples into chromatograph and adjusts
setting on computer console while system
automatically carries out analysis. Computer
provides quick, accurate chemical analysis of
sample data and finished reports for manage­
ment use. The system eliminates human errors
in calculation, and relieves lab analyst o f moni­
toring functions. Lab analyst is free to perform
nonroutine analysis.
Computer now makes most adjustments automatically; however, if major upset occurs, com­
puter alarms operator and automatically shifts
to manual control. Operator still performs
many manual operations such as startup and
shutdown o f plant, and still writes out logging
reports though computer automatically logs
most important variables.
Computer controls key temperatures, pressures,
rates o f flow, and catalytic process. However,
it cannot cope with emergencies. Operator
determines extent o f problems, although com­
puter assists by alarming and takes each loop
or whole process o ff computer control if nec­
essary. He performs numerous manual control
operations.
The computer controls a large part o f process, al­
though the operator still performs much manual
control. The operator can take any part or the
whole process o ff computer control in case o f
emergencies. The computer does most logging.

29

Table 11.

Changes in major job duties o f selected unit employees caused by computer process control— Continued
Description o f major duties

Job title

Unit
Before computer control
Monitors and adjusts instruments manually or by
adjusting set points on automatic analog con­
troller to control variables such as kiln temp­
erature, speed, raw material feed rate, etc.,
relying mainly upon experience as guide.
Maintains records manually.

Kiln burner

Kiln depart­
ment in
cement
plant.

BOF
operator

Basic oxygen
furnace in
steel mill.

When computer not operating: 1 Operates and
monitors numerous levers, dials, and other de­
vices in controlling the furnace. Refers to set
o f charts to derive proper quantities o f scrap,
hot metal, lime, and oxygen to use for specific
heat.

Plater
operator

Tinning line
in steel
mill.

Annealing
line
operator

Continuous
annealing
line in
steel mill.

Boilerturbine
control
operator

Electric
generating
station.

Checks and makes corrections in process to
maintain strip quality. Selects group of
plating cells to be used for specific order,
uses efficiency formula to determine amount
o f current to be sent through plating cells for
specific line speed and coating weight, and
manually adjusts plating current accordingly.
Responsible for production equipment; es­
tablishes plating, current, and line speed
practices; and all required records.
When computer not operating: 1 Manually set
dial to desired temperature for each o f eight
furnace zones based on formula which con­
siders strip thickness, line speed, and temp­
erature. Sets production schedules, maintains
line speed, furnace temperature, and related
variables, and monitors control panels.
When computer not operating: 1 Operates
boiler and turbine control panels to maintain
proper steam temperature and pressure, fuel
supply, and efficient combustion conditions.
Starts up and shuts down turbine-generator
unit, synchronizes generators, and regulates
load voltage and frequency. Performs switch­
ing operations by remote control to maintain
continuity o f service and keeps extensive man­
ual data logs.

Results
engineer

Electric
generating
station

When computer not operating: 1 Responsible
for overall operation and performance of
controls and instruments. Makes perform­
ance calculations, insures water purity, checks
coal quality, etc. Studies long-term trend
data and uses it to reduce losses and improve
equipment, raw material and fuel use, and
other operating efficiencies.

1 Unit built with computer control.

30



A fter computer control
Computer scans process and automatically makes
adjustments o f key variables, including kiln
speed. Computer monitors numerous other
variables, reads instruments, compares and ana­
lyzes data, and prints out reports. K iln burner
uses these reports to make changes manually or
to adjust set points on controllers.
When computer operating: 1 Operates computer
which calculates and transmits instructions on
amount o f scrap, molten iron, lime, and oxygen
to use in preparing specific heat. Adjusts con­
trol devices so that predetermined additives w ill
be fed into furnace. Prepares production re­
ports using computer-supplied data. Has op­
tion o f making adjustments to the computer­
generated instructions and occasionally verifies
computer instructions by manually making com­
putations based on data in sets o f charts.
Selects plating cells to be used in the same manner
as before, but computer automatically adjusts
current for specific line speed and coating weight
based on incoming order data and an efficiency
formula which are manually dialed into the com­
puter memory. Still monitors instruments and,
i f necessary, overrides system and adjusts current
flow manually. Relieved o f some monitoring
duties because computer monitors and alarms in
case o f trouble.
When computer operating: 1 Computer monitors
and operates some controls. Operator oversees
computer output equipment and modifies com­
puter program to improve control o f annealing
line. Other duties same as before.

When computer operating: 1 Operator performs
many o f the same duties as before, since com­
puter operates primarily as a data logger. With
the aid o f the computer, operator controls boiler
and turbine operations through dials and gages
located on central control console and decides
what pressures, temperatures, speeds, etc., should
be changed and to what degree. Keeps only
small log sheet since computer does most logging.
Previously teletyped information to load dis­
patching, but now computer sends data auto­
matically.
When computer operating: 1 Uses computer to
aid in making performance calculations more
frequently and more accurately. Computer,
though not fully operational, reduces time
spent on calculations and allows more time
for analyzing data and making recommenda­
tions for better plant performance.

remaining 24 were unaffected. Forty employees, or 19
percent of the total mill work force, were employed in
these nine occupations at the time of visit. The extent to
which the computer modifies each of the nine preexist­
ing positions is shown in table 12.

Table 12.

Extent o f job modifications in hot strip mill

Occupation title

11. Operator checks computer analysis of
crude oil distillation unit in a petroleum
refinery.

The installation of process computers, in addition to
resulting in a modification of existing jobs, required a
number of new positions as discussed in chapter 8.
How jobs are modified in a unit where computer con­
trol is installed is illustrated by the experiences at an
80-inch hot strip mill in a steel plant. This mill was
operating approximately 75 percent of scheduled pro­
duction runs under computer control when visited by
BLS staff, and conventional control the remaining 25
percent of the time. Computer control will be extended,
however, when programs are written to handle certain
types of steel which presently are processed under
conventional control.
The most distinguishing advantage of the computerrun 80-inch mill is its greater speed in producing uniform
products within specifications. Under conventional con­
trol, operators make settings from reference tables based
on standard width and rolling resistance specifications of
various steel grades. Operators need about 2 minutes
under normal conditions to reset a mill for processing a
slab order that varies from the preceding slab rolled; the
computer resetting time is only 6-8 seconds for the
entire mill. During rolling operations under manual
control, operators make adjustments to the standard
settings, but the speed of the mill is limited by the
ability of the operators to react to changing mill condi­
tions. In comparison, the computer reacts almost instan­
taneously.
Of 33 existing occupations in the hot strip mill, duties
of only 9 were modified by computer control while the




Total
number
o f major
duties

Major duties automated
by computer 1
Number

Percent

T o t a l ......................

84

26

31.0

Recorder ......................
Assistant r o l l e r ..........
Coiler o p e ra to r..........
No. 1 rougher
operator......................
No. 2 rougher
operator ...................
Speed o p e ra to r..........
Crop shearman............
Roll hand......................
Assistant speed
operator......................

10
12
8

5
5
3

50.0
41.7
37.5

13

4

30.8

12
8
9
6

3
2
2
1

25.0
25.0
22.2
16.7

6

1

16.7

1 Performed automatically when mill is under computer
control.
SOURCE:

Company records.

Job duties of the three positions affected most by
computer control— recorder, assistant roller, and coder
operator— are shown in appendix B-3. This informa­
tion, taken from company job descriptions, shows that
the duties performed automatically by the computer are
crucial to the operation of the mill. Consequently, in
many computer installations, operators continue to log
data and adjust variables even after the computer
assumes these functions. If the computer should fail or
prove inadequate to cope with certain situations, the
operator is called on to perform these duties. Therefore,
he must retain his proficiency at controlling the process.
A list of the 26 major job duties performed auto­
matically under computer control, by functions, is
provided in table 13.
A number of employees outside of units using process
computers also experienced changes in job duties and
skills in survey plants, as indicated in table 11.
At a petroleum refinery, for example, nine instrument
men were given training in computer and instrument
maintenance and were assigned to perform normal
maintenance and repairs on the computers and related
instrumentation installed in two units. These workers
31

Computer Process Control System in a Hot Strip Mill in a Steel Plant

13. Control Pulpit
32



Table 13.
strip mill

Type o f job duties performed by computer in hot

Function

Number o f major job duties
involving this function performed
automatically under computer
control

Number

Percent of
total 1

T o t a l ..................................

26

100.0

Operate or set controls • • • .
Record data.............................
Receive and/or communicate in fo rm a tio n .................
Operate eq u ip m e n t...............

14
5

53.8
19.2

5
2

19.2
7.7

1 Because o f rounding, the sums o f individual items may not
equal 100.

required greater skill and ability than instrument men
working on conventional equipment. These men were
selected from employees who had received additonal
electronics training previously; however, their job classi­
fications and wages were not changed.




Changes in Grade Status
Most of the production workers in the affected units
did not experience a change in grade status due to com­
puter process control. Although some jobs were modi­
fied, these changes, for the most part, encompassed only
a portion of the total duties of these positions and were
not sufficient to result in a higher wage classification. In
at least one instance, changes in job duties which may
have resulted in upgrading were offset by substantially
improved working conditions, a factor also considered in
wage determination. Moreover, job descriptions were
general in content, allowing considerable changes in jobs
without reclassification.
In a few instances, however, employees were upgraded
because of the change. The installation of a process
computer at a large chemical plant, for example, resulted
in the upgrading of four operators by one rate step. A
formal job evaluation study indicated that these opera­
tors had assumed additional responsibilities. In the new
system, operators had to interpret a significant amount
of data provided by the computer and, as a result, were
expected to run the plant closer to operating limits.
However, physical working conditions, a factor in the
job evaluation system, remained essentially the same.

33

CHAPTER 8. NEW JOBS REQUIRED FOR
COMPUTER PROCESS CONTROL
New occupations are required as a result of the intro­
duction of computers. In the survey plants, most of
these occupations were professional and technical posi­
tions requiring persons with a college degree in engi­
neering and related fields and a knowledge of the process
to be controlled.

Type and Description of New Jobs
Substantial technical manpower is required to ac­
complish the various tasks involved in introducing
computer process control. A total of 68 new jobs were
needed in survey plants to plan, program, operate, and
maintain the new computer control systems.
The new computer jobs can be classified into five
major occupational categories. As shown in table 14,
programing and systems analysis, design, or related work
constituted about two-thirds of all new jobs; each of
these two occupational groups included about the same
number of jobs. The operation and maintenance of the
computer equipment provided relatively small propor­
tions of the new jobs, since these were among the func­
tions that were included in existing jobs without changes
in job title.
Table 14.

15. Systems engineer programing a process
control computer system.

New computer jobs at survey plants
New jobs
Category

Percent
o f total

Number

Example o f job titles
used in survey plant

Total, all categories ......................................

68

100.0

Managing or supervising...........................................

12

17.6

Systems analysis, design, or related w o r k ............

24

35.3

Program ing...................................................................

22

32.4

5

7.4

Computer console operator.

5

7.4

Instrument technician, electronic spec­
ia lis t, assistant test engineer.

Operating computer consoles and related
equipm ent...................................................................
Instrument development, installation,
maintenance, or related w o r k ...............................




34

Coordinator o f refinery computer sys­
tem, technical superintendent, chief
systems analyst, senior process
engineer.
Senior design engineer, project scientist,
systems analyst, process control engi­
neer, senior research engineer.
Programer, programing technician, tech­
nical analyst, procedures analyst.

B e c a u se c o m p u te r c o n tr o l is a r ela tiv ely n e w and

sim ilar t o th o s e u se d in a b u sin e ss data p r o c e ssin g c o m ­

em erg in g t e c h n o lo g y , th e title and c o n te n t o f n e w jo b s

p u te r

w ith in th e m ajor fu n c tio n a l jo b c a teg o ries vary sig n ifi­

in v o lv e d w ith p r o c e ss c o n tr o l u su a lly m u st h ave a h ig h

s y s te m ,

th e

sy s te m s

a n a ly st

an d

program er

c a n tly b e tw e e n su rvey p la n ts. A n e m p lo y e e w h o s e m ajor

d egree o f sp e c ia liz e d te c h n ic a l k n o w le d g e (en g in e e r in g ,

jo b d u ty is p rogram in g is cla ssifie d as a te c h n ic a l a n a ly st

c h e m istr y , and p h y sic s, fo r e x a m p le ) w h ic h is sig n ifi­

at a p e tr o le u m r e fin e r y , a p ro ced u res an a ly st at a ste e l

c a n tly d iffe r e n t th a n th e sk ill and k n o w le d g e n e e d e d to

m ill, and an en g in eerin g a ssista n t a t an e le c tr ic p o w e r

im p le m e n t b u sin e ss data p r o c e ssin g sy ste m s.

p la n t. J ob title s u se d t o d esig n a te th e p rogram in g fu n c ­

T h e criteria m o s t fr e q u e n tly co n sid e r e d in se le c tin g

tio n at o th e r p la n ts are: P rogram er a n a ly st at a p e tr o ­

e m p lo y e e s

le u m r e fin e r y , p rogram er at a c e m e n t p la n t, and p r o ­

e x p e r ie n c e , e d u c a tio n , and in te r e st. (M o st o f th e n e w

fo r

n ew

c o m p u te r jo b s w e r e p rior w o r k

gram in g te c h n ic ia n at a c h e m ic a l p la n t.

c o m p u te r jo b s w e r e n o t u n d er u n io n ju r isd ic tio n and

T h e d egree o f sp e c ia liz a tio n in th e va rio u s j o b s also

th e r e fo r e th e s e le c tio n m e th o d s w ere n o t g o v ern ed b y

d iffe r s sig n ific a n tly in su rvey p la n ts. In so m e p la n ts, o n e

fo rm a l p r o c e d u r e s sp elled o u t in c o lle c tiv e b argain in g

or m o re m ajor fu n c tio n s are m erged in to o n e jo b classi­

a g r e e m e n ts.) F o rm a l a p titu d e te s ts as a m e a n s o f s e le c t­

fic a tio n . A t a pap er m ill, fo r e x a m p le , th e sam e jo b

in g e m p lo y e e s fo r n e w jo b s w ere u se d in o n ly a fe w

fo r sy s te m s an alyst-p rogram er an d pro-

in sta n c e s. H o w e v e r , t h e y so m e tim e s carried co n sid e r a b le

g ram er-com p u ter o p e r a to r is u se d . E ven w h e r e jo b title s

w e ig h t in th e se le c tio n p ro cess. T h e fo u r n e w c o m p u te r

c la s sific a tio n

in o n e su rvey p la n t are a p p r o x im a te ly th e sam e as in

c o n so le

a n o th e r , su b sta n tia l v ariation in jo b c o n te n t is so m e ­

te r iz e d h o t strip m ill, m e n tio n e d earlier, w ere sta ffe d

tim e s

fro m a m o n g a grou p o f a b o u t 6 6 cler k s w h o a p p lied fo r

fo u n d .

M o reo v er, in a fe w

p la n ts, e m p lo y e e s

in v o lv e d w ith c o m p u te r p r o c e ss c o n tr o l a lso w o r k on

o p e r a to r p o s itio n s a sso c ia te d w ith a c o m p u ­

an d c o m p le te d a series o f t e s ts .4
T h e fo u r a p p lica n ts w ith th e h ig h e st te s t sc o r e s w ere

sc ie n tific and rela ted c o m p u te r a p p lic a tio n s .3
S o m e in sig h t in to th e jo b d u tie s o f e m p lo y e e s in n ew

c h o se n fo r th e n e w c o m p u te r c o n s o le o p e r a to r p o s itio n s .

c o m p u te r o c c u p a tio n s can b e o b ta in e d b y e x a m in in g th e

H o w e v e r , at o th e r su rvey p la n ts, a p titu d e te s ts o n ly

c o n te n t o f sev en n e w p o s itio n s at a pap er m ill. (S e e tab le

su p p le m e n te d o th e r te c h n iq u e s o f s e le c tio n . E m p lo y e e s

1 5 .) E x a m p le s fro m e a c h o f th e fiv e b road fu n c tio n a l

b e in g c o n sid e r e d for p rogram er p o s itio n s at a c h e m ic a l

o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s c o n ta in e d in ta b le 1 4 are p r e se n te d .

p lan t and p ap er m ill t o o k a p rogram er a p titu d e te st
w h ic h w a s c o n sid e r e d a lo n g w ith w o r k e x p e r ie n c e and
e d u c a tio n in d ete r m in in g w h o w o u ld s t a ff th e se n e w

Selecting Employees for New Jobs

program er jo b s .

T h e d u tie s o f a sig n ifica n t n u m b er o f n e w c o m p u te r
jo b s req u ired th a t th e in c u m b e n t h ave a h ig h ly sp e­

Extent of Upgrading

cia liz e d te c h n ic a l k n o w le d g e o f th e p r o c e ss to b e c o n ­
tr o lle d , p articu larly th e en g in eers and te c h n ic ia n s w h o
w e r e en gaged in sy s te m
w ork

and

th e

e m p lo y e e s se le c te d

a n a ly sis, d e sig n , and rela ted

p rogram ers.
for n e w

C o n se q u e n tly ,

m ost

c o m p u te r jo b s w e r e re­

E m p lo y e e s assign ed to n ew c o m p u te r jo b s g en era lly
w ere u p g ra d ed . T ab le 16 in d ic a te s th a t tw o -th ir d s o f 2 7
e m p lo y e e s s e le c te d t o s ta ff n e w jo b s r eceiv ed a w age
in crease o f 2 0

p e rcen t or m o r e . T h ese in c r e a se s fre­

cr u ite d fro m a m o n g th e e x is tin g w o r k fo rce in su rvey

q u e n tly

p la n ts. O f th e 6 0 e m p lo y e e s in n e w c o m p u te r o c c u p a ­

e m p lo y e e s acq u ired n e w sk ills th r o u g h train in g an d th u s

tio n s fo r w h o m data o n p rior w o rk e x p e r ie n c e w ere

w ere ab le to p erfo rm th e d u tie s o f th e m o re r e sp o n sib le

a vailab le, a b o u t 8 8 p ercen t w ere w o r k in g in th e su rvey

and

p la n ts prior to in s ta lla tio n o f th e c o m p u te r sy s te m s,

a ssista n t at a su rvey p e tr o le u m r e fin e r y , for e x a m p le ,

a b o u t 8 p e r c e n t w ere fo r m e r ly w ith a n o th er p lan t o f th e

w h o se

sam e c o m p a n y , and o n ly slig h tly over 3 p e rcen t w ere
h ired fro m th e o u ts id e .
T h e p ro ced u re in m o s t su rvey p la n ts w a s to train en g i­
n eers and o th e r te c h n ic a l s t a ff in sy ste m s a n a ly sis and
p rogram in g rather th a n to u se sy ste m s a n a ly sts an d p r o ­
gram ers w ith b u sin e ss data p ro cessin g e x p e r ie n c e and
e x p e c t th e m to acq u ire a k n o w le d g e o f a c o m p le x in d u s­
trial p r o c e ss. A lth o u g h th e te c h n iq u e s req u ired t o per­
form sy ste m s a n a ly sis and p rogram in g fu n c tio n s fo r a
p ro cess c o n tr o l c o m p u te r sy ste m w ere in m a n y resp ects




r e su lte d

h ig h er-p a y in g
m ajor

b e c a u se

p r o fe ssio n a l

c o m p u te r

d u tie s

in v o lv e d

p o s itio n s .
gen eral

and

A

te c h n ic a l

te c h n ic a l

cler ica l

task s,

3

This lack of standardization of job content and title also
existed for occupations associated with the early stages of use of
electronic computers for business data processing. See Adjust­
ments to the Introduction o f Office Automation (BLS Bulletin
1276) May 1960.
4
These tests included the Watson-Glaser test o f syllogistic
problems which is designed to appraise ability to reason analy­
tically and logically; and the Wonderlic personnel test of prob­
lem solving ability consisting of verbal, arithmetic, geometric,
and vocabulary problems.
35

Table 15. Description of duties of new computer process control occupations at a papermill
Job title

Description of major duties

Manager, computer systems and programing • • • • Supervises the development and implementation o f digital computer programs
and procedures designed to control papermaking process. Acts as consultant
to corporate research staff in the development and implementation o f com­
puter programs and systems. Some major duties include defining programs into
specific computer requirements, recommending computer equipment to be
purchased or leased, developing or supervising the development of computer
programs and procedural systems, and overseeing testing, debugging, and
implementation of the approved program. The manager of computer sys­
tems and programing also has responsibility for training personnel in the use
of process control computers and programing techniques, and for providing
technical assistance on matters pertaining to process control computers. He
works under the direction of the associate director, process control.
Systems analyst-programer.................................... Investigates and analyzes operational problems and prepares and carries out
proposals for new systems, procedures, or computer programs. He pre­
pares operating procedures; draws flow charts and diagrams to define pro­
graming problems and procedures to be followed; checks programs for
completeness and accuracy; evaluates and modifies existing programs; trans­
lates flow chart information into coded machine instructions and prepares
other guides for use by the machine operator; and performs related duties.
He also does a limited amount o f programing work. The systems-analyst
programer is under the supervision o f the manager, computer systems and
programing.
Senior process control engineer.............................. Supervises process control of papermaking operations. This function encom­
passes problem analysis, data collection, standards development, programing ,
and computer operation. He has complete responsibility for the effective
use o f an electronic computer and related equipment to control selected
papermaking operations. Some specific duties include applying guidance
to the process engineer and the computer programer; planning and im­
plementing process control activities to assure optimum utilization of
equipment; acting as liaison between the mill (where the computer is used)
and corporate research (where research on process control in undertaken)
to assure coordination o f computer process control activities; providing
technical assistance to other company staff engaged in computer process
control activities; and performing related duties pertaining to the imple­
mentation and maintenance o f computer process control. The senior proc­
ess control engineer works under the direction of the assistant division
manager.
Computer programer ................................................ Develops, prepares, and tests programs which will solve scientific, mathema­
tical, and technical problems associated with computer process control of
selected papermaking processes. He develops and designs formulas, flow
charts, and other descriptive material; designs programs which directs the
computer to produce the desired production results; checks computer
equipment to verify proper operating condition and notifies computer
manufacturer technical staff when maintenance or repair work in needed;
provides programing assistance in collection o f data for research projects
and performs related duties. The computer programer works under the
direction of the senior process engineer.
Programer-computer operator................................ Assists in the development and preparation o f new programs and the modi­
fication of those already prepared. He is responsible for the less complex
programs or segments o f larger programs. Specific duties include program­
ing in a computer language, converting the computer language to machine
language through a processor program, and testing and debugging the pro­
gram. He also may operate computer equipment to run programs when
requested. He receives technical advice from other staff members on as­
pects of programing which involve instrumentation, engineering, etc. The
programer-computer operator is supervised by the manager, computer sys­
tems and programing.

36



Table 15. Description of duties o f new computer process control occupations at a papermill— Continued
Description of major duties

Job title

Prepares digital computer programs necessary to solve scientific, mathematical
and technical problems related to the control o f papermaking processes. He
prepares flow charts for less complex programs; codes flow chart information
into FORTRAN, symbolic language, or machine instructions; checks programs for
completeness and accuracy during test runs; makes a diagnosis o f problems and
corrects them as they occur; and performs related duties. The junior programer
works under the direction o f a systems analyst or senior programer.
Develops and refines laboratory and process instruments and control systems;
operates, calibrates, adjusts, and checks instrument and control systems; con­
ducts instrument and control evaluations and reports the results; and performs
related duties. Work assignments sometimes involve mill trials and startups,
pilot plant trials, and laboratory experimentation. Requires a background in
advanced mathematics, physics, and electron theory; a high school diploma; and
a passing grade on a special qualifying examination.

Junior programer

Electronic specialist

c o m p le te d p rogram in g train in g and w as up grad ed to a

w ill c o n tin u e to be rela tiv e ly h ig h , an d th ere w ill b e

t e c h n ic a l

p r o m o tio n a l o p p o r tu n itie s fo r q u a lifie d e m p lo y e e s .

a n a ly st

p o s itio n

in v o lv in g

c o m p u te r

pro­

gram in g. H is n e w jo b p a y s n early on e-th ird m o re th an
h is fo rm er p o s itio n . A t a pap er m ill, a p o w e r h o u se fir e ­
m an w ith som e c o lle g e e d u c a tio n p assed a p rogram er
a p titu d e te s t and d id w e ll in a series o f in te r v ie w s, c o m ­
p le te d

p rogram er

tra in in g , and

is

now

Characteristics of Employees in New Jobs

a c o m p u te r

p rogram er m a k in g 5 0 p ercen t m o re th a n b e fo r e . M ore­

S o m e in sigh t in to th e m a n p o w e r im p lic a tio n s o f c o m ­

o v e r , so m e m a in te n a n c e w o rk ers and c o m p u te r c o n so le

p u ter p ro cess c o n tr o l can b e a ssessed b y e x a m in in g th e

o p era to rs receiv e m o re m o n e y in th eir n e w j o b s b eca u se

age, s e x , e d u c a tio n , and se n io r ity o f e m p lo y e e s se le c te d

r e sp o n s ib ility fo r e q u ip m e n t and p r o d u c t is greater th an

for n e w c o m p u te r jo b s . C o m p a riso n o f th e se ch arac­
ter istic s w ith th o s e o f e m p lo y e e s w o r k in g in th e p r o d u c ­

b e fo r e .
B eca u se o f th e e x p e c te d c o n tin u e d sh ortage o f te c h ­

tio n u n its w h ere c o m p u te r s w ere in sta lled is o f in te r e st.

n ica l e m p lo y e e s w ith c o m p u te r p r o c e ss c o n tr o l e x p e r i­

T h e data fo r b o th o f th e se grou p s are p r e se n te d in ta b le s

e n c e , th e w a g e le v e l fo r th e s e n e w o c c u p a tio n s p r o b a b ly

17 an d 1 8 .

Table 16. Extent of upgrading o f employees selected to staff new computer jobs 1

Category

Total number
of employees
for whom data
were available

Number of employees whose wage increase was—
Less than
10 percent

T o t a l....................................................

27

2

Managing or supervising................................
Systems analysis, design, and related
work ...............................................................
Programing......................................................
Operating computer consoles and
related equipment.........................................
Instrument development, installation,
maintenance, or related w ork ....................

2

1

8
11
4
2

1

10 to 19
percent
7

20 to 29
percent
4

30 to 39
percent
5

40 percent
or over
9

1
2
2

2

1

2

1
3

5
4

2

1 Data were available for 27 of the 68 employees in new positions. The amount o f wage increase is based on a comparison be­
tween the rate applicable to an employee’s former position, just prior to installation o f the process control system, and the rate
assigned the new computer job. Several officials interviewed stressed that factors other than the new computer control systems,
such as normal professional advancement, account for a portion of the increases. No employee moving into a new computer job for
whom information on job status was available received a wage lower than his prior position.




37

Table 17. Age, education, and seniority: Employees in new
computer process control positions and those in affected
production units
Employees in affected
Employees in new production units
process control
where process
control computers
computer jobs
were installed 1

Characteristic

Number

Percent
of
total 2

Number

Percent
of
total 2

visors and th o s e p erfo rm in g sy s te m s a n a ly sis, d e sig n , and
related w o r k w e r e so m e w h a t o ld e r th a n th o s e in th e
o th e r c a te g o r ie s o f n e w c o m p u te r o c c u p a tio n s sh o w n in
tab le 1 8 .
E m p lo y e e s in p r o d u c tio n u n its w h ere c o m p u te r s are
b e in g u sed w ere a lso m e n . H o w ev er, in c o n tr a st to
e m p lo y e e s in n e w c o m p u te r jo b s , a b o u t tw o -th ir d s o f
th is g rou p w ere u n d er age 4 5 .

Education.

A lth o u g h

several im p o r ta n t jo b s

w ere

fille d b y train in g e m p lo y e e s w ith a h ig h s c h o o l e d u c a ­
tio n , m o s t o f th e n e w c o m p u te r jo b s w e r e fille d b y
c o lle g e gra d u a tes, m a n y w ith d egrees in en g in eerin g ,
m a th e m a tic s, and rela ted fie ld s. (S e e tab le 1 8 .) J o b s

Age

in v o lv in g su p erv isio n , s y s te m s a n a ly sis, p ro cess c o n tr o l

Total, all ages..............

68

100.0

223

100.0

Under age 25.........
Age 25-44..............
Age 45 and over • •
U nknown..............

6
50
10
2

8.8
73.5
14.7
2.9

6
142
74
1

2.7
63.7
33.2
.4

en g in eerin g , and h ig h -lev el p rogram in g requ ired c o lle g e
train in g.
A h ig h s c h o o l d ip lo m a , or at lea st so m e h ig h s c h o o l
e d u c a tio n , w a s su ffic ie n t fo r so m e jo b s . A t a p ap er m ill,
a lab te c h n ic ia n w h o w a s a h ig h sc h o o l grad u ate receiv ed
train in g and w a s u p grad ed to a ju n io r p rogram er p o si­

Education

tio n . A t a ste e l m ill, fo u r c ler k s, in c lu d in g tw o w ith o n ly

Total, all groups.........
Less than high
school graduate..
High school
graduate..............
Some college.........
College graduate • •
Unknown..............

68

100.0

223

100.0

1

1.5

72

32.3

3 years o f h ig h s c h o o l, a ch iev ed th e h ig h e st sc o r e s in a
series o f a p titu d e te s ts an d w ere s e le c te d and tra in ed as

9
16
42
0

13.2
23.5
61.8
-

132
6
5
8

59.2
2.7
2.2
3.6

c o m p u te r

c o n s o le

o p e r a to r s. M o reo v er, m o s t

o f th e

in str u m e n t in s ta lla tio n and m a in te n a n c e jo b s in su rvey
p la n ts, su ch as e le c tr o n ic sp ecia list p o sitio n s in a paper
m ill, w ere sta ffe d b y h ig h s c h o o l grad u ates.
E m p lo y e e s in p r o d u c tio n u n its u sin g p r o c e ss c o m ­
p u ters h ad sig n ific a n tly le ss fo rm a l e d u c a tio n th an th o s e

Seniority

in n e w c o m p u te r jo b s . A b o u t 5 9 p e rcen t o f th is grou p

Total, all groups.........
With company:
Less than 10
years..................
10-19 years.........
20 years or more.
U nknown...........
Total, all groups.........
Present jobs:
Less than 5 years •
5-9 years..............
10 years or moreUnknown............

68

100.0

223

100.0

less th a n a h ig h s c h o o l e d u c a tio n .
T he sig n ific a n tly h igh er e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t o f

15.7
45.3
39.0

38
18
4
8
68

55.9
26.5
5.9
11.8
100.0

35
101
87
223

100.0

55
5
0
8

80.9
7.4
11.8

75
87
61
-

33.6
39.0
27.4
-

-

1 Data were available for only 223 out of the more than 1,600
employees working in affected production units. Of these 223 em­
ployees, about 78 percent were operators and assistants, 11 per­
cent were supervisors, 9 percent were technicians and technicians
assistants, and 2 percent were clerks, materials handlers, and re­
lated employees.
2 Because of rounding, sum of individual percentages may not
equal 100.0.

Sex and age.

A ll e m p lo y e e s in n ew c o m p u te r jo b s

w ere m e n , an d a b o u t 8 2 p ercen t w ere un d er 4 5 yea rs o ld
at th e tim e o f th e p lan t surveys.5

38



w ere h ig h sc h o o l grad u ates, and a b o u t 3 2 p e r c e n t h a d

M anagers and su p er­

m a n y o f th e e m p lo y e e s in c o m p u te r an d rela ted jo b s is
n o t surprising. T h e sk ill, k n o w le d g e , and e x p e r ie n c e
requ ired

to

plan

and

im p le m e n t

a p r o c e ss

c o n tr o l

c o m p u te r in sta lla tio n is far d iffe r e n t fro m th a t req u ired
to p erform th e d u tie s o f a p r o d u c tio n jo b in th e a ffe c te d
u n its. E n g in eers, m a th e m a tic ia n s, and o th e r p r o fe ssio n a l
e m p lo y e e s w ith c o lle g e train in g are e sse n tia l, a n d , as
sh o w n a b o v e , fr e q u e n tly m a k e u p a large seg m en t o f th e

5 These finding differ significantly from an earlier BLS study
which presented age and sex data for employees in offices using
electronic computers for business data processing. In offices
surveyed for this study, women staffed 11 percent o f the new
computer occupations and 53 percent o f all jobs in affected
office units. The variation in composition o f the work force, by
sex, reflects primarily the difference between an industrial
environment, predominated by men, and a business office where
women make up a significant segment of the staff. Employees in
the new business data processing computer occupations were
also somewhat younger than those in the new process control
computer occupations. See Adjustments to the Introduction o f
Office Automation, (BLS Bulletin 1276) May 1960, 86 pp.

Table 18. Education of employees in new computer jobs, by category o f job
Education

Total in new jobs

Percent of employees
Occupational group

Total, all groups.............................................
Employees whose major duties involve:
Managing or supervising.......................................
System analysis, design, or related
work ....................................................................
Programing...........................................................
Operating computer consoles and
related equipment.............................................
Instrument development, installation,
maintenance, or related work .........................

Number

Percent

Less than
high school
graduate

68

100.0

1.5

13.2

23.5

61.8

12

100.0

0

0

0

100.0

24
22

100.0
100.0

0
0

0
13.6

4.2
59.1

95.8
27.3

5

100.0

20.0

40.0

40.0

0

5

100.0

0

80.0

0

20.0

High school
graduate

Some
college

College
graduate

p ro ject s ta ff. A lth o u g h p r o d u c tio n w o rk ers in th e h ig h ly

b e e n e m p lo y e d

in str u m e n te d en v ir o n m e n t o f a m o d e r n p r o c e ss p lan t

p r o d u c tio n u n its, th e p r o p o r tio n in th e se c a te g o r ie s w ere

also n e e d sk ills and k n o w le d g e o f a h ig h d eg ree, th is skill

1 6 , 4 5 , an d 3 9 p e r c e n t, r e sp e c tiv e ly .

and

k n o w le d g e

g en era lly

is

a cq u ired

th r o u g h

jo b

o r ie n te d c la ssro o m an d o n -th e-jo b train in g rather th a n in
a c o lle g e or u n iv e r sity .

Seniority.

E m p lo y e e s in n e w c o m p u te r jo b s h ad sign i­

2 0 years or m o r e . F or e m p lo y e e s in

E m p lo y e e s in th e tw o

gro u p s d iffe r e d ev en m o re

sh arp ly in term s o f le n g th o f service in th eir p r e se n t jo b s .
B ecau se th e c o m p u te r u n its w ere rela tiv e ly n e w , m o s t o f
th e e m p lo y e e s h a d less th a n

5 y ears o f c o n tin u o u s

fic a n tly less c o m p a n y se n io r ity th an th o s e w o r k in g in

service in th eir p resen t p o s itio n s . O n th e o th e r h a n d ,

a ffe c te d p r o d u c tio n u n its. A b o u t 5 6 p e rcen t o f th o se

m o s t o f th e e m p lo y e e s in p r o d u c tio n u n its h a d m ore

e m p lo y e d in c o m p u te r o c c u p a tio n s at th e tim e o f th e

th a n 5 years o f service in th eir p resen t p o s itio n s . A b o u t

p lan t su rvey h a d less th a n 10 years o f c o m p a n y service;

o n e -fo u r th o f th e p r o d u c tio n u n it e m p lo y e e s h ad 10 or

2 7 p ercen t h ad 10 to 19 yea rs, and o n ly 6 p e r c e n t h ad

m o re y ears o f service in th eir cu rren t jo b s .




39

CHAPTER 9. TRAINING FOR COMPUTER PROCESS CONTROL
T raining

to

p ro v id e

e m p lo y e e s

w ith

p rogram in g,

e le c tr o n ic s

m a in te n a n c e , an d o p e r a tin g sk ills is a k e y req u irem en t to

te c h n ic ia n s

an d

a

program

m a in te n a n c e

te c h n ic ia n also receiv ed tra in in g at v e n d o r sc h o o ls.

th e su c c e ssfu l in tr o d u c tio n and u se o f c o m p u te r p r o c e ss

C ou rses o f in s tr u c tio n o ffe r e d at v e n d o r sc h o o ls are

c o n tr o l. T h is train in g u su a lly c o n sists o f in te n siv e on-

d esig n ed prim arily fo r train in g m an agerial an d te c h n ic a l

th e-jo b and c la ssro o m program s c o n d u c te d b y v en d o rs

p e r s o n n e l.

and u sers o f p ro cess c o m p u te r s.

sc h o o ls , all o f th e m p rovid e c o u r se s w h ic h fa ll in to th e

A lth o u g h

th e

cu rricula

vary

at

vendor

b road c a te g o r ie s o f m a in te n a n c e an d p rogram in g. In
a d d itio n , so m e v e n d o r sc h o o ls o ffe r sp e c ia liz e d c o m ­

Training Provided by Vendors

p u ter

C o m p u ter m a n u fa ctu rers p ro v id ed a v a riety o f train ­
in g

services

to

su rvey p la n ts w h ic h p u rch a sed

c o n c e p ts

c o u r se s

fo r

m an agerial p e r so n n e l. A

d e sc r ip tio n o f s e le c te d c o u r se s o ffe r e d b y o n e v e n d o r is

th eir

sh o w n in ta b le 2 0 . P rogram ing co u rses u su a lly are fr o m

c o m p u te r s. (S e e ta b le 1 9 .) T raining in v o lv e d cla ssr o o m

2

and o n -th e -jo b in str u c tio n at th e site o f th e c o m p u te r

co u r se s m a y last fr o m 8 to 12 w e e k s. C o n c e p ts c o u r se s,

in s ta lla tio n , an d c la ssr o o m and w o r k sh o p or la b o r a to r y

to

4 w e e k s in le n g th , w h ile gen eral m a in te n a n c e

in te n d e d p rim arily fo r su p ervisors, are c o m p a r a tiv e ly

se ssio n s at train in g fa c ilitie s m a in ta in e d b y th e c o m p u te r

b rief.

v e n d o r . E m p lo y e e s receiv ed fu ll w a g es and salaries a n d ,

O ne v e n d o r o ffe r s a u d io -ta p e d p rogram in g c o u r se s

w h ere a p p lic a b le , travel a llo w a n c e s w h ile u n d e r g o in g

th a t m a y b e c o m p le te d at th e train in g c e n te r o r at a

tra in in g . A to ta l o f 1 5 4 e m p lo y e e s at 11 su rvey p lan ts

lo c a tio n

r eceiv ed so m e fo r m o f v e n d o r train in g. P r o v isio n s for

lo w e r s th e c o s t o f in s tr u c tio n and p erm its th e stu d e n t to

th is train in g w ere in c lu d e d in several o f th e lea se or

progress at h is o w n p a c e . A n o th e r v e n d o r h as d e v e lo p e d

p u rch ase a g reem en ts w ith v en d o rs.

a p rogram in g co u rse in F O R T R A N to b e c o m p le te d b y

Onsite vendor training.

T h is fo rm o f train in g, o ft e n in

c o n v e n ie n t

to

th e

stu d e n t.

T h is p ro ced u re

th e train ee b e fo r e h is e n r o llm e n t in p rogram in g co u r se s

th e n atu re o f c o m p u te r o r ie n ta tio n , w a s rela tiv e ly b r ie f

at th e v e n d o r ’s sc h o o l.

an d ta ilo r e d to m e e t th e n eed s o f w o rk ers in d iffe r e n t
o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s. S p e c ia liz e d train in g o f lo n g er dura­
tio n also w a s p ro v id ed w h e n n ecessa ry .
V e n d o r s t a f f so m e tim e s jo in e d w ith p e r so n n e l o f user
c o m p a n ie s and w ith rep resen ta tiv es o f o th e r e q u ip m e n t
su p p liers in fu rn ish in g in str u c tio n . A t an e le c tr ic p o w e r
p la n t, fo r e x a m p le , rep resen ta tiv es o f th e c o m p u te r
v e n d o r , su p p liers o f related p lan t e q u ip m e n t, and in stru ­
m e n t m an u fa ctu rers p a rticip a ted w ith p lan t e n g in eers in
o r ie n ta tio n le c tu r e s fo r o p era to rs and te c h n ic ia n s.

Offsite vendor training.

F a c ilitie s fo r c u sto m e r train­

in g w ere m a in ta in e d b y fo u r su p p liers o f c o m p u te r s; a
f ifth v e n d o r p ro v id ed b r ie f e q u ip m e n t fa m ilia r iz a tio n at
o n e o f its o ff ic e s to a p lan t supervisor. O ffsite v e n d o r
train in g fa c ilitie s g en erally are m a in ta in ed at a single
lo c a t io n , a lth o u g h o n e v en d o r o ffe r e d

its c o u r se s at

c e n te r s in several lo c a tio n s .
T h ese s c h o o ls or train in g ce n te r s p ro v id ed in str u c tio n
in c o m p u te r c o n c e p ts and fu n d a m e n ta ls, p rogram in g,
an d

m a in te n a n c e .

T hey

w ere a tte n d e d

p rim arily b y

1 6 . In s tru c to r explains m a in te n a n c e p ro c e ­

c o n tr o l g ro u p m an agers, sy ste m s en g in eers, program ers,

dures f o r c o m p u te r e q u ip m e n t a t c o m p u te r

in str u m e n t en g in e e r s, and m a in te n a n c e fo r e m e n . Several

tra in in g school.




40

Table 19. Training provided by computer manufacturers 1
Recipient(s) of training

Number
trained

Type of trailing

Description o f training

Length o f training

Papermill
Instrument engineers..................
Project leader................................
Manager, computer systems
and programing...........................
Keypunch operator.......................
Process systems engineers...........
Programers....................................
Programer-operator.......................

2
1

Classroom
Classroom

1
1
6
4
1

Classroom
Classroom
Classroom
Qassroom
Classroom

Instrument engineer-.....................

1

Qassroom

Programer.......................................
Process engineers...........................

1
2

Onsite instruction in computer concepts
and FORTRAN provided jointly with
user company staff. Process systems
engineers and programers received
additional training in concepts, hardware, machine, and symbolic language,
FORTRAN programing, and executive systems at vendor facility.

2 weeks
2 weeks
2 weeks
2 weeks
6 weeks
6 weeks
6 weeks

Chemical plant
3 months

Qassroom
Qassroom

Computer technology, maintenance,
and programing.
Programing.
Computer concepts and programing.

1

Qassroom

Computer maintenance.

4. months

1

Qassroom and
on-the-job

Programing and computer techniques
jointly with user staff onsite and at
vendor facility.

12 months

Project tea m ..................................

12

Qassroom

Not provided

Project engineer..............................

1

Qassroom

Process engineer...........................

1

Qassroom

Construction engineer..................

1

Qassroom

Maintenance forem an..................

2

Qassroom

General details o f computer system
onsite.
Programing and theory of computer
operation.
Programing and theory of computer
operation.
Programing and theory of computer
operation.
Computer technology and main­
tenance.

Electronic and instrument
mechanics....................................

2

Qassroom

Electrical engineer.......................

1

Qassroom

Engineers.......................................

4

Qassroom

7

Qassroom

Programing techniques and computer
operation.

1-4 weeks

2
1
1
1

Classroom
Classroom
Classroom
Qassroom

Programing techniques.
Computer maintenance and theory.
Computer maintenance and theory.
Computer maintenance and theory.

3 weeks
8 weeks
4 weeks
12 weeks

1 month
1 month

Chemical plant
Engineer.........................................
Program maintenance
technician....................................

Chemical plant

Computer technology and main­
tenance.
Computer technology and main­
tenance.
Programing techniques.

4-6 weeks
4-6 weeks
4-6 weeks
9 weeks

9 weeks
9 weeks
4-6 weeks

Petroleum refinery
Technical employees.....................

Petroleum refinery
Programers....................................
Instrument engineers....................
Instrument supervisors................
Instrument m e n ...........................
See footnote at end of table.




41

Table 19. Training provided by computer manufacturers 1 — Continued
Recipient(s) of training

Number
trained

Type of training

Petroleum refinery— Continued

Programers....................................

Description o f training

Length o f training

3 instrument engineers, 6 instru­
ment supervisors, and 6 instrument
men (including above 3 employees)
received 30 hours classroom instruc­
tion in computer theory onsite.
Programing techniques.

5 weeks

7

Classroom

4
4
2

Classroom
Classroom
Classroom and
workshop

Computer system and usage onsite.
Basic programing.
Programing maintenance.

4 hours
2 weeks
10 weeks

1

On-the-job

Computer terminology; location and
function of hardware components.
Information entry and retrieval; machanics of peripheral equipment.
Minimal training for minor mainte­
nance given jointly with electronics
foreman.
Use of computer to control mill setting
and produce reports. Modifying and
testing programs.

5-7 weeks

Steel plant
Dispatchers.....................................
Systems engineers.........................
Electrical engineers.......................

Steel plant
Electronics forem an.....................

Classroom
Electronics repairmen..................

12

On-the-job

Console operators.........................

5

On-the-job

1

Classroom

2 days
Ad hoc basis

3 months

Steel plant
Coordinator of control
computers....................................

Classroom
Classroom
Procedures a n a ly st.......................

1

Classroom
Classroom

Electronics maintenance foreman-

1

Electronics repairmen..................

2

Classroom
Classroom
Classroom
Classroom and
on-the-job
Classroom and
on-the-job

7

Classroom

Familiarization with program prepared
by vendor.
Familiarization with program prepared
by vendor onsite.
Programing for business data process­
ing computer.
Familiarization with program prepared
by vendor.
Programing for business data process­
ing computer.
Equipment wiring procedures.
Computer logic and maintenance onsite.
Programing onsite and at vendor facility.
Computer concepts, logic, and capabil­
ities.
Programing; functions of computer equip­
ment; computer logic, etc., onsite.

5 weeks
1 week
Not provided
5 weeks
Not provided
2 months
6 months
3 months
Class: 15 hours
OJT: Periodically
Class: 1 week
OJT: Periodically

Electric power plant
Senior design engineers................

See footnote at end of table.

42



Various courses including computer con­
cepts, programing, computer installa­
tion and checkout, and computer hard­
ware.

2-12 weeks

Table 19. Training provided by computer manufacturers 1— Continued
Recipient(s) of training

Number
trained

Type of training

Description o f training

Length of training

Electric power plant—
Continued
Assistant test engineer................
Electronic technicians................

1
2

Classroom
Qassroom

Hardware and programing.
Maintenance and some programing.

12 weeks
8-12 weeks

Electrical engineers......................

13

Qassroom

1-3 weeks

Performance supervisor..............

1

On-the-job

Technical foremen.......................
Operator supervisors..................
Operators and technicians.........

2
4
26

Classroom
Qassroom
Classroom

General orientation, programing, and
maintenance.
Employee worked with vendor person­
nel assigned to program computer.
General orientation.
General orientation
Vendor participated in familiariza­
tion lecture program with user and
equipment manufacturers onsite.

Electric power plant

3-6 weeks
2 weeks
3 weeks
80-120 hours

1 Provided at vendor facility unless otherwise noted.
C ourse prerequ isites. Requirements for enrollment in
courses vary among vendor schools. For programing
courses, an engineering or science degree generally is
desired, although one school accepts students with a
background in high school algebra. For maintenance
courses, a good understanding of basic electronics and
the ability to think logically are the basic requirements.
The knowledge of basic electronics usually was acquired
as a result of having an electrical engineering degree,
formal training in electronics, or on-the-job experience.

Training Provided by Users
All but one of the survey plants provided employee
training during conversion to computer control. The
exception was a steel mill which relied exclusively on
vendor staff for training. (See table 21.) The extent and
kind of training were determined largely by a company’s
computer system requirements, its capability to provide
training, and the type of training provided by the com­
puter vendor. A total of 484 employees at survey plants
received some form of classroom or on-the-job instruc­
tion.
O perators. Almost all training provided to operators
at survey plants was given by company personnel, who
usually had been trained by the vendor. The focus of
training was on the operating procedures for the com­
puterized system. The training was relatively brief, rang­
ing from 4 to 80 hours, although sometimes this training
was extended over a long period of time. Although most
training sessions were held on-the-job, some involved
classroom instruction.




Technicians. Most technicians also received their train­
ing from the user staff. The time spent in training varied
greatly, largely because of differing job requirements for
technicians among survey plants. Instrument mainte­
nance men at a paper mill, for example, received 2 weeks
of classroom instruction, whereas those with the same
job title at a petroleum refinery were given 300 hours of
on-the-job training. Two technicians at a chemical plant
were trained for programing maintenance, one for 6
months and the other (jointly with vendor staff) for a year.
Supervisors. Several plants also provided training,
including both computer orientation sessions and spe­
cialized instruction to supervisory and professional
personnel. At a paper mill, for example, company staff
joined with vendor representatives to familiarize the
computer project group with the functions and program­
ing of the planned computer installation; at a chemical
plant, 10 chemical engineers were given 7 months train­
ing in programing.
T y p e o f in stru ctors, fa cilities, a n d m e th o d s. Training
instructors from plant staff included engineers with a
knowledge of computer programing, maintenance, and
technology, and production supervisors who had under­
gone training either at their plants or at vendor schools.
Training aids were used extensively to facilitate both
classroom and on-the-job instruction. These included
blackboards, manuals prepared by both the user and
vendor staff, and, at one plant, a console mockup and
templates which fitted over the dials of the operator
console. At a papermill, a taped series of closed—
circuit TV lectures on digital computers is being pre­
pared for presentation to selected plant employee groups.

43

Table 20. Selected courses offered by the training school of a large vendor of process control computers
Title of course

Content of course

Process computer concepts......... Fundamentals of digital computers and their place in auto­
matic control, introduction to process computer program­
ing, and descriptions of typical systems.
Programing courses:
Standard programing
course.................................... Computer concepts, number systems, flow charting,
FORTRAN, and computer process assembly language.
Audio taped programing
course.................................... Specially prepared audio tape lectures and accompanying
workbooks. (Can be taken at customer’s locations and
may be supplemented by 2 weeks “live” course at com­
puter school.)
Maintenance courses:
Programed instruction
course.................................... Number systems, digital computer theory, core memory
theory, and basic machine-language programing. (De­
signed to prepare students for maintenance courses
taught at computer school.)
Central processor
maintenance......................... Detailed theory of operation of the computer system.
Study and practice of preventive and corrective main­
tenance procedures.
Basic peripheral
maintenance......................... Extensive theory and practical work on peripheral devices.
Disc memory maintenance.................................. Theory of operation of the device and preventive and cor­
rective maintenance procedures.
Teletype printer
Same
maintenance.........................
Card reader and card
punch maintenance..............
Same
Line printer mainteSame
nance ....................................
Remote scanner mainSame
tenance..................................
SOURCE: Training brochures of computer vendor.




Prerequisites

Length of course

Interest in process computers.

2 days

Bachelor’s degree in science or engineering and a work­
ing knowledge of process to be monitored or controlled.

4 weeks

Bachelor’s degree in science or engineering and a working knowledge of process to be monitored or controlled.

Determined by
student

Electrical engineering degree or 2 years of formal electronic training, plus 2 years’ maintenance of major
electronic equipment.

1 week
(approximate)

Successful completion o f examination covering mate­
rial contained in programed instruction course.

11 weeks

Successful completion of control processor mainte­
nance course.

2 weeks

Same

3 weeks

Same

2 weeks

Same

1 week

Same

1 week

Same

2 weeks

Table 21. Training provided by user companies
Recipient(s) o f training

Number
trained

Type of training

Description o f training

Length o f training

Papermill
Task force employees
(See table 2 4 ) ...........................
Paper machine crew s..................
Instrument maintenance men- • •

16
35
33

Classroom
On-the-job
Classroom

(See table 24.)
Instrument functions and capabilities.
Instrument maintenance.

2 weeks
6 hours
2 weeks

Instrument technician................
Plant superintendent..................

1
1

On-the-job
On-the-job

Periodic
Periodic

Cracker operators.......................
Clerk.............................................

4
1

On-the-job
On-the-job

Operators.......................................
Process engineers.........................

4
2

On-the-job
On-the-job

Clerks; operators.........................

30

On-the-job

Computer and instrument maintenance.
Computer technology. Use o f com­
puter technology.
Operating techniques.
Computational techniques. Use of
input-output equipment.
Plant operation using computer.
Computer system familiarization;
programing.
Operation of computerized system.

Chemical engineers.....................

10

Programing technician................

1

Classroom and
on-the-job
Qassroom and
on-the-job

Program maintenance
technician..................................

1

Laboratory technicians..............
Laboratory analysts....................

2
50

Chemical plant

Periodic
Periodic
8 hours
4 months

Chemical plant
Programing.

7 months

Programing.

6 months

Classroom and
on-the-job
On-the-job
Qassroom and
on-the-job

Programing and computer techniques,
jointly with vendor.
Computer applications to lab operations.
Computer utilization.

1 year
50 hours
16 hours

32
32

On-the-job
Qassroom and
on-the-job

Operations of computer equipment.
Operations o f computer equipment.

Periodic
12 hours

Foreman, stillmen, operators • • •

30

Computer programs and operations.

40 hours

Foremen, stillmen, operators. . .

2530

Qassroom and
on-the-job
Qassroom and
on-the-job

Computer programs and operations.

12 hours

72
1
1
3

On-the-job
On-the-job
On-the-job
On-the-job

Operating techniques.
Computer and instrument maintenance.
Instrument maintenance.
Instrument maintenance.

80 hours
150 hours
300 hours
300 hours

50

Qassroom

Basic operating procedures.

4 hours

Chemical plant
Operators ....................................
Operators ....................................

Petroleum refinery

Petroleum refinery
Stillmen and controlmen............
Instrument m an...........................
Instrument engineer ..................
Instrument m en ...........................
Steel mill
Melter foreman, operators,
and h elp ers................................




45

Table 21. Training provided by user companies— Continued
Recipient(s) of training

Number
trained

Type o f training

Description o f training

Length of training

Steel mill
Electronics repairmen................

12

On-the-job

Minor maintenance o f computer system
jointly with vendor staff.

29
2

On-the-job
On-the-job

Operating procedures.
Programing.

26

Classroom

Familiarization lectures jointly with
computer and equipment vendors.

3

On-the-job

Basic operating procedures.

Periodic

Electric power plant
Operators.......................................
Control group engineers..............

3 weeks

Electric power plant
Operators and technicians.........

16-24 hours

Cement plant
Kiln burners..................................

Training has been formalized at many survey plants,
some of which maintain permanent programs for devel­
oping employee skills. One large chemical plant, for
example, has a continuing program that consists of three
sequential courses. The basic course consists of mathe­
matics, process flow, and chemical technology, which is
followed by two advanced courses pertaining to plant
operations and process technology. After completing the
two advanced courses, employees receive a pay increase.
Training generally was provided during working hours.
In at least two survey plants, however, training sessions
were conducted after regular working hours, and the
trainees earned overtime pay.
As plants gain experience in computer process con­
trol, evidence from this study suggests they will rely
increasingly on their own staffs for the training o f new
personnel in computer tasks. The two newest engineers
at an electric power plant, for instance, were assimilated
into the control group with only 3 weeks’ training that
consisted of reading a programing manual and experi­
menting with control problems. This power company
believes that outside training for this control group will
not be necessary as long as it maintains an experienced
group of engineers.

Training Provided by Educational
Institutions and Other Groups
As a general rule, technical schools and colleges were
not found to be important sources of training for com­
puter process control. A cement plant included in the
survey, however, sent four electricians to a local junior
46




college at its expense for 16 weeks’ instruction in elec­
tronics to prepare them for work as instrumentation
technicians.
Technical schools and junior colleges may be used
more extensively as their curriculums are broadened to
meet the needs of companies in process industries. The
major training tasks of these institutions, however,
probably will be to provide the necessary skills needed
to qualify for entry positions as technicians and
operators. An important source of training for managers
and technical personnel will continue to be the relatively
brief (often 1 to 2 weeks in duration) courses in com­
puter concepts and techniques which are offered by
universities, industry technical associations, and private
consulting firms.
Schools also have been established for the develop­
ment of computer technicians by some computer manu­
fa c tu re rs . Com puter technology (40 weeks) and
programing (20 weeks) are among the courses offered at
one of these schools. A high school education or its
equivalent is required for entrance.
Some experts foresee that training of engineers,
systems analysts, and related technical staff involved in
implementing computer process control may increas­
ingly involve postgraduate instruction, since presently
most undergraduate curriculums do not include some
e sse n tia l specialized technical subjects related to
computer control. It is significant, however, that a few
schools reportedly have initiated undergraduate BS
degree programs and others now offer selected courses in
the field of systems engineering. Some idea of the educa­
tional requirements for computer process control is
indicated in appendix B-4, which lists some of the

suggested courses for process control systems engineers
in the chemical and petroleum industries. With slight
modification, this list would be appropriate for process
computer applications, regardless of industry.

Criteria and Methods of Selecting
Employees for Training
E m p lo y e e s w h o receiv ed train in g as a resu lt o f th e
c o n v e r sio n s to c o m p u te r c o n tr o l in c lu d e d th o s e in e x is t­
in g jo b s w h o se d u tie s w ere t o b e a ffe c te d b y th e in tr o ­
d u c tio n o f th e c o m p u te r , and th o s e assign ed t o th e n e w
p rogram in g, m a in te n a n c e , an d o p era tin g task s crea ted
b y th e c o m p u te r . E m p lo y e e s in th e first g r o u p , prim ar­
ily o p e r a tin g p e r so n n e l an d th eir su p erv iso rs, a u to m a ­
tic a lly re c e iv e d th e train in g n e e d e d t o p e r fo r m th eir
d u tie s u n d er th e m o d ifie d
la tte r

g rou p

c o m p r ise d

o p era tin g c o n d itio n s . T h e

e m p lo y e e s

s e le c te d

fo r n e w

initiative, patience, persistence, adaptability, capacity
for logical thinking, and interest in pursuing education.
Methods used by plants to appraise qualifications for
training ranged from management judgment of em­
ployees’ records to reliance on standard aptitude tests.
Both tests and interviews were employed in several
plants to screen candidates. Seniority lists were used at
one plant to select instrument men for training in com­
puter maintenance from among employees who had
completed outside courses in electronics.
A high school diploma represents the preferred
minimum educational requirement for operator and
technician jobs. Applicants for technician jobs at a
power plant, however, were required to have 2 years of
technical school training in mathematics and electronics.
Moreover, officials at several plants expressed a prefer­
ence for applicants with technical training equivalent to
the junior college level for operator jobs.

p o s itio n s an d o th e r s a ssign ed fr o m e n g in eerin g sta ffs
t o w o r k in c o m p u te r o c c u p a tio n s.

Appraisal o f Training

S e le c tio n criteria m o s t fr e q u e n tly c o n sid e r e d b y sur­
v e y p la n ts fo r c o m p u te r -r e la te d train in g a ssig n m en ts in ­
c lu d e d w o r k e x p e r ie n c e , a b ility , in te r e st, and a p titu d e .
J ob p erfo rm a n ce an d a m o u n t and k in d o f e d u c a tio n
also w ere c o n sid e r e d .

In a d d itio n , w o r k e x p e r ie n c e

and k n o w le d g e o f a given p ro cess w ere c ite d b y several
c o m p a n ie s as im p o r ta n t rea so n s fo r r ecru itin g program er train ees fr o m w ith in th e c o m p a n y .

Particular personal temperaments and aptitudes were
looked for by various companies in screening applicants
for training. Those most often cited were dedication,

Although few problems involving training were re­
ported, officials at all survey plants expressed a need for
greater preparatory training for work with computer
control. Some courses considered useful are presented in
table 22. The desirability of a more thorough prepara­
tion in mathematics and the physical sciences in high
school was mentioned repeatedly. The importance of
technical schools and junior colleges in providing instruc­
tion in these subject areas and in electronics also was
stressed.

Table 22. Type of courses for computer process control desired by officials at selected survey plants
Plant
Papermill..................
Chemical plant

Cement p la n t.........
Steel m ill..................
Electric power plant

Electric power plant




Suggested courses
Education oriented toward the development of logical thinking would be desirable, including
high school courses in geometry and algebra.
More high school training in mathematics is needed for operators. Junior colleges are begin­
ning to offer 2-year courses in processing technology, and a graduate o f such a course would
be preferred to a high school graduate for operator jobs.
More formal education in electronics, instrumentation, and mathematics would be useful in
preparing operating employees for computer control.
Technical school training, courses in mathematics, and electrical training would be helpful in
preparing operating employees for computer control.
Technicians, technical assistants, and helpers should have a high school education, with courses
in physics, chemistry, and electronics. Training courses offered by the computer
manufacturer will continue to be used for systems engineers and programers.
Courses useful for computer process control engineers include Boolean algebra, basic to logical
thinking and to understanding computers; discrete sampling techniques; linear programing;
and digital techniques for solution of practical differential equations.

47

CHAPTER 10. LABOR-MANAGEMENT ADJUSTMENTS
The introduction of process computers has caused
minimal adverse manpower impact at most survey plants
and has resulted in only a few major problems affecting
labor-management relations. Most of the survey plants
had existing collective bargaining contracts which con­
tained provisions to facilitate the adjustment of workers
to technological change. These provisons provide the
mechanism for giving advance notice, setting wage rates,
reassigning workers, and providing benefits for workers
laid off.

th is su rvey p la n t w ere n o tifie d w e ll in ad van ce o f

Contract Provisions Relating
to Technological Change

w ere assign ed a n u m b er o f p o in ts d e p e n d in g u p o n

th e ch a n g es.
A fo rm a l jo b e v a lu a tio n p la n p ro v id e d fo r in th e
u n io n a g reem en t w as u se d t o ad ju st th e w age rates
o f w o rk ers a ffe c te d b y p r o c e ss c o m p u te r s. Job
ev a lu a tio n s w ere r e q u e ste d b y th e u n io n fo r e ig h t
o p era to rs w o r k in g in tw o o f th e u n its u sin g c o m ­
p u ter c o n tr o l. F a cto rs su c h as sk ill, p h y sic a l and
m e n ta l d e m a n d , w o r k in g c o n d itio n s , an d r e sp o n ­
sib ility

fo r

e q u ip m e n t, p r o d u c t,

and m aterials

th eir relative im p o r ta n c e . T h e p o in t to ta l fo r ea c h
jo b c a te g o r y w as agreed u p o n b y u n io n and m a n ­

Workers were represented by unions at 9 of 12 plants
visited. Major unions at survey plants are the Oil, Chemi­
cal and Atomic Workers International Union; the Inter­
national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; the United
Steelworkers of America; the International Union of
Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers; the International
Union, District 50, United Mine Workers of America; and
the Independent Petroleum Workers of America.
All of the collective bargaining contracts at the survey
plants have broad general provisions that protect
workers affected by technological change. These provi­
sions cover topics such as job security, advance notice of
technological and other changes, displacement and
downgrading, procedures for manning new jobs, sev­
erance pay, and layoff benefit plans. In a few plants,
contracts contain a clause that ensures the use of these
provisions in instances of technological change. The
following are examples of two such union contract pro­
visions at a survey chemical plant.
The collective bargaining contract contains a state­
ment of intent pertaining to job security. Its pur­
pose is to minimize “ .. . .adverse effects on em­
ployees. . .elimination or downgrading of jobs
arising from automation, restructuring of work, and
operations improvement. . ” The company is obli­
gated to “ . . .inform employees directly affected
when changes or improvements are proposed and
are to be studied, as soon as such advance informa­
tion may be feasible, and in any case before the
proposals are instituted. . .” Workers affected by
the three process control computer installations at




a g em en t rep resen ta tiv es an d w a s u se d t o se t th e
w a g e rate. A s a resu lt o f th e s e jo b ev a lu a tio n
stu d ie s,

fo u r o p era to rs re c e iv e d an in crea se in

w a g es, b u t th e o th e r fo u r o p era to rs reta in ed th eir
fo rm er rate.

Informing Employees About Change
Employees in the affected units were notified in
advance of the actual installation of the process com­
puter system at 10 of the 12 plants visited. The period
of advance notice ranged from 4 months to 2 years at
survey plants. The most usual way of informing workers
about the pending installation of computer process con­
trol was a special meeting held by supervisors with
workers in the affected unit. Other communication
techniques included a description of the forthcoming
change in the company newspaper or bulletin, discus­
sions during regular union-management meetings, noti­
fication of the union by letter, and notification through
the local press to the public.
Prior to the installation of the computer, a description
of the system was provided the workers, and its probable
effect on their employment was discussed with them. In
a paper plant, for example, the possibility that workers
might be displaced and the changes in job content of
workers in the affected unit were the subjects discussed
at a meeting of company and union representatives.
Other topics of discussion between company and worker
representatives at survey plants were training programs
and job evaluation studies for affected workers.
48

Special Negotiations and Grievances
Union-management negotiations or specific grievances
related to the introduction of process computers
occurred in only two plants. At a petroleum refinery,
one of the unions became concerned about who would
have jurisdiction over the maintenance of the process
control computer that was to be installed. The union
brought this matter up during a regular union-manage­
ment meeting and indicated that union members were
qualified and should maintain the computer. The
company’s position was that it had a contract with the
computer manufacturer for maintenance of the com­
puter. The result of the negotations was that union
members would repair minor difficulties, and the manu­
facturer’s representative would be called to repair major
equipment malfunctions.
At a power plant, formal grievances were filed con­
cerning the abolition of two extra operator jobs per shift
in a new plant using a process computer. A specific griev­
ance was filed for each job abolished. These jobs were
added to the operating crew of the plant to assist with
additional tasks required during the shakedown period
when the plant was being brought into operation.
Following past procedure, the company wanted to
abolish the extra jobs after the shakedown period was
over. The union’s position in contesting the job reduc­
tions was that the computerized plant could not be
operated safely without the additional workers. A major
union complaint was that the workers in the contested
jobs were needed to check out the numerous alarms
about plant operations given by the computer. The arbi­
trator, however, ruled in favor of the company on both
jobs and they were abolished. Employees in these
abolished jobs were transferred to other positions.




Union Comments About Computer
Process Control
The effects of the introduction of process control
computers on workers were discussed with local union
representatives at the nine unionized plants visited. Since
the majority of the survey plants were already highly
instrumented, process computers were felt to be merely
a further extension of instrumentation for use in control
over plant processes. Such changes had been introduced
frequently in these plants in the past, and the union
officials accepted these changes as part of the techno­
logical evolution of the industry. Most union officials
indicated that worker adaptation to computer process
control created no serious problems. In some cases,
union representatives felt more concern about other
kinds of technological changes that might have a greater
effect on employment at their plants. At steel mills, for
example, the basic oxygen furnaces being introduced are
expected to have a greater effect upon workers than
computer process control.
A number of officials, however, felt that adverse
effects upon union members were possible in the future.
At two petroleum refineries, for example, the increasing
use of process computers is expected to accelerate the
declining employment of operators and maintenance
workers. At one electric power plant, computer process
control is expected to reinforce the adverse effect on the
work force brought about by other recent technological
changes. At another electric power plant, more auto­
matic computer control operations may lead to future
reductions in manpower. (See appendix B-5 for more
extensive comments by union representatives about the
introduction of process computers at specific survey
plants.)

49

CHAPTER 11. OUTLOOK FOR COMPUTER PROCESS
CONTROL AND MANPOWER
Process computer installations are expected to in­
crease greatly in number and complexity over the next
decade, and probably will result in significant increases
in employment of engineers, programers, and techni­
cians. However, fewer operators may be needed as com­
puter control is improved and centralized further.

Growth in Number of Computer
Control Installations
Continued growth in the total number of process con­
trol computer installations is expected though the future
growth rate is difficult to estimate because of diverse
factors such as changing computer technology, the
expansion of process computer applications to many
areas outside of process industries, the economic condi­
tions in the industries involved, and the changing
economic conditions of the Nation. From 1963, the first
year that a significant number of process computers
were reported, to 1968, process computer installations
in the United States have been increasing at an average
annual rate of 48 percent, and worldwide at an average
annual rate of 55 percent. Although these rates may not
be sustained, a continued high rate of growth can be
expected. Some industry experts suggest that the in­
crease in process computer installations may be about 20
percent a year in the near future. Projecting the 1968
estimated total of 1,647 process computers in the U.S.
and 3,094 in the world at this 20 percent rate to 1975
results in totals of about 5,900 U.S. and 11,100 world­
wide installations.
O u tlo o k f o r c o m p u te r c o n tro l in p ro cess in dustries.

Most experts at survey plants foresee expansion in the
number of computers and the ways they will be applied
in the process industries. The paper industry will be
using process computers for control of nearly all major
processes by 1975. In the chemical industry, officials
interviewed estimated that all large chemical plants and
90 percent of the major production processes will be
using process computers by 1975. In addition, all petro­
leum refineries with capacities of 50,000 barrels a day
and all major refining processes should be using some
form of digital process computer control by the




50

mid-1970’s. Laboratory computer systems are expected
to become important in both the chemical and petro­
leum refining industries. The key steps of raw materials
blending and kiln control in the cement industry are
expected to account for the largest number of future
applications. By the early 1970’s, in the iron and steel
industry, all new hot strip mills and basic oxygen
furnaces are expected to be using process computers.
Continuous casting also is expected to be a prime
candidate for computer control. Main applications of
process computers in the electric power industry will be
for startup, shutdown, normal operations and perform­
ance calculations for conventional plants, and eco­
nomic dispatch for power systems. Nuclear plants also
probably will be computer controlled. An increase in
process computer installations is expected in many
sectors of the economy outside of the process industries.
Specific forecasts of future installations and applications
by officials at survey plants are presented in appendix
B-6.

Factors Affecting Outlook for
Computer Process Control
Changes in process computer control technology and
programing techniques are expected to be a particularly
important determinant of growth in the number of
process computer installations and the type and scope of
application in the near future. Specific factors affecting
the future of computer process control mentioned by
officials at survey plants are presented in appendix B-7.
Two trends in computer equipment are underway.
One trend is toward small, relatively low cost computers
which are economically feasible for control of a single
small process, or if used in multiples, for control of a
large process. The other trend is toward large, expensive
computers with time sharing, priority interrupt features.
At present the calculating power of these large com­
puters is such that many complex processes in a plant
can be run by a single unit. Systems are being set up
with the computer in a central location. By using data
transmission lines, many plant processes can be placed
under continuous control. Time sharing capabilities of

these computer systems allow a number of different
type process operations to be interwoven into their
operating functions, and it is expected that this type of
computer system will have even greater capability in the
future.
Both of these trends are leading to lower cost com­
puter control operations. Small computers will allow
applications in areas that were previously uneconomical;
large computers will lower the cost of control over
individual processes in a large plant. In addition, the
growing production of process computers and con­
tinuing competition among computer manufacturers also
are leading to decreased computer costs. In a paper plant
visited, for example, a process computer installed in
December 1962 was leased for $14,000 a month. A
replacement computer installed in January 1967, how­
ever, cost only $7,000 a month, despite the fact that it
has 10 times the computing capability of the former
unit.
Computer reliability also has increased greatly since
process computers were introduced. As reliability of
equipment increases, more dependence will be placed on
the computer system and less on human control.
New and more advanced instrumentation, including
more accurate on-line analyzers, are being developed for
process control. Much emphasis is being placed by
instrument manufacturers on making equipment com­
p a tib le with computer control. These trends are
expected to lead to more precise control, and the ability
to operate the process closer to equipment limits.
Direct digital control has proved successful and can be
expected to increase in application in the future. One of
the major advantages of DDC is that the conventional
analog controllers, used for most existing process control
applications, are replaced by a digital computer con­
nected directly to the process. Some of the gains are a
reduction in the cost of large projects, improvement in
control performance, and greater flexibility in changing
control strategy. DDC is expected to have its greatest use
in new plants where the control systems can be designed
specifically for this advanced technique rather than in
existing plants which already have analog controllers
installed. Use of DDC for control of batch processes
probably will lead to increased process computer appli­
cations in many industries.
The use of computer hierarchy systems, consisting of
interconnected computers at different levels of a plant
or a company, is expected to increase in the future. A
small number of these systems are planned or in use at
present, and the early stages of such a system were
observed at a survey paper plant and a petroleum
refinery. Many of the operating decisions of a large
multiprocess plant, or a complete company, could be




assumed by a computer hierarchy system. DDC can be
expected to find a major application in such systems.
Specialized computer languages designed to assist
engineers in programing for process control applications
are being developed. These languages will relieve the
programer from directly writing machine instructions
and will allow him to set up a program package with the
best operating procedures for the computer system being
used with a minimum of effort.
In addition, a number o f standardized program
packages for process control applications have been
developed by computer manufacturers and by firms that
anticipate many process computer applications. They
consist of a set of general programs that can be modified
easily to fit individual control projects and are designed
to be used by engineers with a minimum of computer
training. Much o f the cost, time, and effort of pro­
graming will be reduced by the use of these standardized
programs.
Another recent and important development has been
th e licensing of standardized process models for
commonly used industrial processes. Process models for
catalytic cracking have been developed, for example,
that can be used by units at different locations with a
minimum of adjustment.

Outlook for Employment and Occupations
in Process Industries
Employment trends are expected to vary in the dif­
ferent process industries surveyed because of factors
such as changes in general economic conditions, pro­
ductivity, demand, and technology, including computer
process control. In three industries— pulp and paper,
industrial chemicals, and iron and steel— employment is
expected to increase slightly; in two— petroleum
re fin in g and hydraulic cement— employment is
ex p e c te d to d eclin e slightly; in the remaining
industry— electric power— little or no change in
employment is anticipated. Employment in total manu­
facturing, on the other hand, is expected to increase
gradually through the 1970’s.
P ro sp ects f o r m a jo r o cc u p a tio n s a ffe c te d b y c o m p u te r

An increased demand for systems, control,
instrument, and process engineers can be expected
because of the growing emphasis on advanced control
techniques and equipment and the expanding output in
the process industries. The expanding number of process
computer installations and applications is expected to be
a key factor in accelerating the demand for these highly
skilled engineers who will be needed to plan, develop,

co n tro l.

51

install, and repair computer equipment and instrumenta­
tion. This trend can be expected to continue despite
factors such as growing experience in process computer
technology and the introduction of standardized process
models, which serve to reduce engineering effort.
(Specific occupational trends forecast by officials at
survey plants are presented in table 23.)
Employment opportunities for programers in the
process industries also are expected to increase, but not
as rapidly as for engineers. This is due in part to the
practice of training engineers to perform programing
tasks for process computers and the increasing use of
standardized program packages. More programing techni­
cians and assistants also will continue to be needed to
update and maintain computer programs. Demand for
process computer programers can be expected to
increase in firms outside of the process industries, such
as computer manufacturers and consulting firms who are
expected to continue to supply much of the programing
effort needed for process computer installations.
The demand for operators in the process industries is
expected to continue to decline, due mainly to the
continuing shift to large capacity production units,
centralized control rooms, and more automatic controls.
This decline in demand for operators is likely to be
reinforced by the growing use of process computers.

52




Older plants may centralize control rooms at the same
time as they introduce computer control, thereby
reducing the need for operators. New plants, designed
and built to encompass computer control, probably will
require fewer operators than similar plants without
computers. However, electronic and instrument techni­
cians, who are needed to install and repair complex
computer equipment and sophisticated electronic instru­
mentation, can be expected to increase in number.
Other types of occupations also are expected to be
affected by computer control. Demand for laboratory
analysts in analytical and production control labora­
tories, for example, may be reduced by the increasing
use of computer systems for routine analysis and calcula­
tions. Employment of record and production accounting
clerks also may be reduced, since much of the data
logging and report preparation done by these workers
can be carried out automatically by process computers.
Multiprocess, plant, and company control, advanced
forms of computer control that are now receiving much
emphasis, may have adverse manpower implications in
the future. A complete plant, for example, could be
operated with a crew no greater in size than is presently
required to operate a single control room; this situation
obviously would result in a significant decrease in
operating manpower.

Table 23. Outlook for further occupational changes at selected survey plants because o f computer process control
Outlook

Survey plant
Papermill...........................................

Chemical plant..................................

Chemical plant..................................

Petroleum refinery...........................

Petroleum refinery...........................

Steel m i l l .........................................

Steel m i l l .........................................

Electric power plant.......................
Electric power plant.......................

As paper machines come increasingly under computer control, the duties presently performed
by crews will be reduced. Possibly within 10 years, a single crew, perhaps larger than a cur­
rent single crew today, will be able to operate 2 paper machines. Within 10 years, less labor
probably will be required in the operations o f threading the machine, changing paper grades,
and cleaning the machines than at present. The quality control capability o f the computer
probably will eliminate the present occupations involved with testing and inspection. Also,
instrument maintenance will become much more systematic and demand a higher level of
technical skill.
Labor costs as a percentage o f total costs in large chemical plants are very low. Emphasis,
therefore, is on improving control and reducing raw material costs rather than reducing man­
power requirements. In analytical laboratories, labor costs are the largest expense. Conse­
quently, use o f computers is expected to have a great impact on manpower in laboratories.
Computers in the analytical control labs will affect both supervisors and technicians. Through
the use o f computer systems which include data transmission lines and remote chromato­
graph stations, laboratories may be able to double present loads. Although this chemical
plant does not yet have a permanent computer control group for systems design and pro­
graming, it probably will have one in the future because applications are growing so rapidly
that the company cannot afford the loss of programing skills and computer knowledge which
occurs when computer project groups breakup.
The size o f the computer systems engineering group is expected to increase from 3 to between
6 and 9 workers, including systems engineers, programers, and technicians. Computer sys­
tems, however, are not expected to have much impact on the employment o f operating per­
sonnel since operators will be employed to assure operation of the plant during emergencies
with which the computer cannot cope.
Training o f programers and technicians will become more important, since the adverse effects
o f lack of training in computer technology only are beginning to be felt. The shortage of
trained process computer personnel is likely to retard more widespread use o f computer proc­
ess control in the petrochemical industry.
Most units at this refinery have been utilizing automatic controllers for some time; therefore,
the operating staff is small and not much change is anticipated. Maintenance employment,
which has been declining due to a continuing consolidation o f small units into larger and
more efficient ones, is expected to continue to decline slightly because of the utilization of
computers which allows equipment to operate for longer periods between shutdowns for
maintenance.
The computer applications group is not expected to grow much larger. If more technical man­
power is needed, the companies’ policy will continue to be to borrow personnel from other
parts of the corporation to work on specific projects.
Lack o f qualified technical manpower for new key positions is a fairly universal problem. For
the industry as a whole, more process engineers with chemical engineering backgrounds and
computer knowledge will be needed. Standardized process computer programs, however,
could reduce the need for programers.
The company can foresee complete automatic control in the future. Such installations would
have a computer in complete control of all process operations. The operator would remain
only as a monitor. If this plant is to increase utilization o f process computers, however, it
needs more skilled programers and instrument men who are trained in electronics.
Engineers and maintenance workers will need to acquire some knowledge o f computer control
systems and the capabilities and methods to maintain them. More maintenance workers and
systems engineers will be needed. Additional programing skills also may be required.
Further use of process control computers is not expected to lead to any notable labor displace­
ment. Operators will continue to be needed at least as backup men to run production proc­
esses manually in the event o f computer system failure. More maintenance personnel may be
required, and maintenance job skills will have to be extended and upgraded.
The amount o f time spent calculating performance requirements and testing is expected to be
reduced because of computer control.
Nuclear power plants may tend to decrease the number o f plant personnel due to increased
automation, including computer process control, less maintenance, and elimination o f coal
handling. Skill levels in nuclear plants probably will be higher.

SOURCE: Based on interviews with officials at 9 survey plants.




53

APPENDIX A.

SCOPE AND METHOD

Coverage of Survey
This study is limited to the use of digital process con­
trol computers in the highly instrumented process
industries where computer control was first adopted
beginning in the late 1950’s. Twelve plants in six major
process industries were visited by BLS staff for informa­
tion for the study. These industries are paper, industrial
chemicals, petroleum refining, hydraulic cement, iron
and steel, and electric power. Table A provides detail on
the number of plants, process control computers, and
employees in the survey. A total of 28 separate process
control computer installations were surveyed.
Plants included in the survey varied in size from
several hundred employees at an electric power station
to nearly 19,000 employees at a large steel mill. Total
employment at the time of visit in the operating units
w here p ro cess c o m p u te rs were introduced was
1,644— about 3 percent of the total employment of
63,687 at these plants.
Survey plants were located in 10 different States in
the East, South, and Midwest. Most plants were in or
near major population centers. However, several were in
communities with fewer than 50,000 people.

Method
The first phase of research involved a comprehensive
review of trade journals, technical magazines and books,
corporate annual reports, and other secondary source
materials to determine in which industries process con­
trol computers were being applied. Articles describing
specific plant installations were helpful in selecting
representative and illustrative plants to include in the
field survey. A listing of secondary source material is
included in the bibliography.
Next, the major producers of process control com­
puters were visited by BLS staff to discuss in depth the
outlook and implications of computer procees control.
Company technical staff provided expert judgment on
the possible future rate of adoption of computer process
control in the various industries and applications.
Prospects for further refinements and advancements in




computer technology also were discussed. The brochures
describing the various systems obtained during the visits
were helpful in acquiring a better understanding of the
capability and functions of computer process control
systems.
The next step was to select the plants to be included
in the study. Substantial effort was made to include
plants in the major process industries which would be
representative of processes being put under computer
control. Twelve plants in six major process industries
were selected for study on the basis of the secondary
sources described above and interviews with experts.
These 12 plants represent a wide range of applications
and levels of computer control. Only plants with systems
in operation for at least 1 year were included in the
survey so that effects on employment could be
examined more readily. Plants also were chosen that had
replaced early process control systems with more
advanced systems. Most plants contacted had more than
one computer system functioning when visited.
A questionnaire was developed for use as an aid in
gathering data during informal discussions with manage­
ment and union officials. The prior steps of reviewing
secondary source materials and visits to computer manu­
facturers were very helpful in developing a draft form.
This questionnaire was reviewed by government,
industry, and labor experts, and their suggested revisions
were incorporated.
The plant visits were undertaken by BLS staff who
spent an average of about 2 days at each plant inter­
viewing company officials who had direct knowledge of
the installation. Administrators, managers of production
units, industrial relations experts, engineers, computer
technicians, and maintenance staff were among typical
company employees interviewed. In addition, the local
officials of the unions representing the employees at the
plants were interviewed. Information was obtained on
topics such as the nature of the computer control system
and process application, reasons for installation and
economic benefits that resulted, extent of worker dis­
p lace m en t and re assig n m e n t, characteristics of
employees in jobs created and abolished, and training
programs and other techniques to prepare employees for
new duties relating to computer process control systems.
54

Table A -l. Number of survey plants, process control computers, and employees in operating units with process control computers

Process industry

SIC code 1

Pulp, paper, and board....................... 261,262,263,266
Industrial chemicals 2 .........................
281
Petroleum refining................................
291
324
Hydraulic cem ent................................
Iron and steel 4 ....................................
331
491.493
Electric power.......................................
T o ta l.........................................
1
2
3
4
5

Number of process
control computers
covered in survey

Total number of em­
ployees in operating
units with process
control computers

1
3
2
1
3
2

1
12
4
1
6
54

35
3 220
38
17
3 669
665

12

28

1,644

Number of plants
in survey

U.S. Bureau of the Budget, Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1967.
Includes inorganic and organic chemicals.
Employment for some units unavailable and therefore not included in total.
Blast furnaces, steelworks, and rolling mills.
Includes two computers in survey plants and two in other plants of companies surveyed for whom extensive data were obtained.

A draft report was prepared based primarily on data
obtained during these field visits, supplemented by
analysis of government statistics, trade and technical
publications, and other secondary sources. It then was
sent to company and union officials, industry and
government experts, technical journal editors, and others
for comment on the validity and accuracy of findings.
Their suggested changes were evaluated and the neces­
sary revisions incorporated.

Limitations
In assessing the results of this study, consideration of
several limitations is important.
First, not all applications of computer process control
were covered. This study focuses on the use of com­
puters to control operations in process industries and
does not cover their limited but growing use in discrete
product manufacturing industries for functions such as
industrial testing and production control. Process com­




puters used in research, educational, or medical institu­
tions are not covered by the survey. The study also
excludes analog computers which are being used for
control applications involving only a few variables.
Second, the study focuses on the manpower and
economic effects of computer process control at user
plants only. Indirect effects on manpower at plants
where computers are manufactured were outside the
scope of the study. Also excluded was an evaluation of
possible employment and other manpower problems at
competing plants which had not yet adopted digital
process control computers.
Third, data on certain aspects of the study, such as on
the type and extent of manpower and economic savings,
were classified as confidential by a few companies and
therefore were unavailable.
Finally, the experiences of plants included in the
study may not be representative of the manpower
impacts that might occur at a later stage of use of proc­
ess control computers when advanced types are devel­
oped and installed.

55

*




APPENDIX B.

TABLES

(Tables B-l through B-7.)

56

Table B-l. Employment, output, and output per man-hour, in manufacturing and major process industries, selected years, 1957-69
Employment

Industry

SIC
code*

Number o f employees
1969 annual average
(in thousands)

Output and output per man-hour

Average annual
percent change
1957-692

Average annual percent
change 1957-68 2
Output per man-hour

Total

Manufacturing.................................................................
Pulp, paper, and board...............................................................
Industrial chemicals....................................................................
Petroleum refining......................................................................
Hydraulic cement........................................................................
Iron and steel2 ...........................................................................
Electric power and gas ®.............................................................

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

261,262,
263,266
281
291
324
331
491,492,
493

20,121

Production
workers

14,735

Total

Production
workers

1.8

1.5

Output

All
employees

3 5.4

3 3.4

5 4.7

Production
workers

-

5 5.0

297.8

233.0

4 .2

4 - .2

5 5.1

314.2
146.3
35.1
643.9

172.8
86.1
26.9
513.8

4 1.3
-2 .5
-2 .1
.1

4 .5
-3 .3
-2 .9
-.1

6 10.2
5 3.2
5 2.1
3.1

5 7.2
5 4.8
2.6

5 7.4
5 5.5
2.6

616.1

529.0

.4

0

7.0

6.5

6.9

-

-

U.S. Bureau of the Budget, Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1967.
Based on the linear least squares trends of the logarithms of the index number.
Output is gross product originating and is not strictly comparable with output and output per all employee man-hour measures for individual industries.
Rates are for period 1958-69.
Rates are for period 1957-67.
Federal Reserve Board. Not strictly comparable with output measures for manufacturing and other process industries.
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling and finishing mills.
Not strictly comparable with definition of survey industry used elsewhere in the report. Includes SIC 492, gas companies and systems.

SOURCE: Average annual percent change in output for industrial chemicals is based on Federal Reserve Board data. All other data are from U.S. Department of Labor,
Bureau of Labor Statistics.

ui
vi




Table B-2. Major applications o f process control computers in
survey industries in the United States, July 19681

Industries and applications
Electric power:
Electric generating stations.......................
Scan, log, and performance
calculations.......................................
Nuclear plants.......................................
Operator guide control.......................
Start, stop c o n tr o l..............................
Power system s...........................................
Economic dispatch and
load control.......................................
Industrial chemicals:
Ethylene production................................
Analytical laboratory and
chromatograph control...........................
Ammonia production................................
Iron and Steel:
Basic oxygen furnace . — .......................
Electric arc furnace.....................................
Hot strip m ill..............................................
Plate m ill....................................................
Tinning li n e ................................................
Power dem and...........................................
Blast furnace................................................
Petroleum refining:
Refinery control and
optimization ...........................................
Catalytic cracking.......................................
Gasoline blending.......................................
Crude distillation.......................................
Analytical laboratory and
chromatograph control...........................

Number of
applications

199
51
12
11
10
43
34

16
14
6

22
19
18
7
6
5
4

17
15
6
4
4

Pulp, paper, and board:
Papermaking machine................................

13

Hydraulic cement:
Rotary kiln control.....................................
Cement blending .......................................

14
5

1 Applications that were reported less than four times were ex­
cluded.
SOURCE:

58



See footnote on table 2, p. 12.

Table B-3. Major job duties of three occupations in an 80-inch hot strip mill affected by process computer control
Primary function

Job title
Recorder

To compile complete record of 80-inch mill
operations.

Assistant roller

To control settings for guides, loopers, and
four finishing stands; assists roller and directs
crew in mill set-up and roll changes.

Coiler operator

To operate table rolls, guides, pinch rolls, and
coiler to coil strip steel.

Major duties
Copies rolling schedule. *
Checks charging tally for weight o f material rolled. 1
Maintains hourly production report. 1
Compiles production data such as steel rolled, rolls
changed, delays and runbacks. 1
Notifies concerned personnel on rolling schedule
changes such as runbacks, cobbles, rejects, blow­
out, etc. 1
Assists computer operator, as directed.
Picks up charging tallies from order stocker and gives
copies to coil marker and computer operators.
Picks up and checks roll data card against record and
delivers to roll shop.
Picks up and delivers rolling schedule to concerned
mill personnel.
Maintains working area clean and orderly.
Operates various controls to make necessary adjust­
ments to mill and guide settings. 1
Operates controls for run-out table water spray. 1
Synchronizes speed for a section of run-out table. 1
Sets thickness and width gage indicators to order
requirements and sets the decode system for auto­
matic gage control. 1
Receives, records, and signals notice o f last slab on
order. 1
Operates controls for roll cooling system.
Observes passage o f strip for possible correction of
mill screw down.
Requests and/or makes necessary gage and width
corrections.
Directs the roll hand to make necessary mill stand
adjustments.
Directs and assists roll changes, mill adjustments,
and removal of cobbles.
Checks whether lubrication system light is on.
Maintains equipment and work area clean and orderly.
Sets guides to proper width of strip. 1
Operates controls for coiler water sprays. 1
Operates stripper car and downender to deposit coils
on conveyor. 1
Operates controls to synchronize table rolls, pinch
rolls, and coiler speeds with mill delivery speed to
insure proper coiling o f strip.
Works with mill crew to make roll changes, remove
cobbles, and perform other miscellaneous operational
functions.
Turns on stop signal in event of trouble or as directed
by Ganger.
Checks whether lubrication system light is on.
Maintains equipment and work area clean and orderly.

1 Performed automatically when mill is on computer control.
SOURCE: Rant records.




59

Table B-4. Suggested courses for process control systems engineers
Engineering management

Chemical engineering— Continued

Personnel supervision
Industrial organization
Elementary accounting
Evaluation o f investments
Scheduling (PERT, CPM)
Contracts and specifications

Mass and energy transfer
Thermodynamics
Reaction kinetics
Unit operations
Process dynamics
Instrumentation (measurements)

Mathematics
Calculus
Differential equations
Ordinary
Partial
Operational calculus
Matrix Algebra
Numerical methods
Probability and statistics
Fourier Analysis
Optimization
Linear programing
Gradient methods
Variational calculus
Dynamic programing
Computer programing
Analog
Digital
Boolean (logical) algebra
Chemical engineering
Inorganic and organic chemistry
Stoichiometry
Material and energy balances

Control engineering
Basic control theory
Time-domain analysis
Frequency-domain analysis
Stability
Synthesis
Sample-data systems
Multivariable systems
Nonlinear systems
Adaptive systems
Electrical engineering
Network analysis
Field theory
Electronics
Logic devices
Other fields
System concepts
Economics
Operations research
Information theory
Psychology
Human engineering

SOURCE: T. M. Stout and J. H. Hiestand, “Process Computers and Chemical Engineering Education. ” Paper presented at the
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 61st Annual Meeting, Los Angeles, Calif., Dec. 1-5, 1968.

60



Table B-5. Union comments on computer process control at survey plants
Type of plant

Comments o f union representatives

Paper p la n t................................................ Unionized workers were not affected adversely by the introduction of the process compu­
ter. The computer provided increased jobs for nonunion workers such as programers and process engineers.
Chemical p la n t......................................... The workers did not find adaptation to computer process control difficult, because
a continual change in technology had taken place at this plant. The company job
security plan offers valuable protection against displacement caused by technological
change. No major problems related to computer process control are expected in
the future.
Petroleum refinery.................................. Workers selected to operate the computer controlled units did not find adjustment to
the changed jobs difficult.
However, they feared that as computer use increases an
accelerated decline in maintenance workers will occur. Computer control allows
units to operate closer to physical limits with less equipment breakdown and there­
fore less regularly scheduled shutdowns for maintenance. Moreover, marginal units,
which cannot be computer controlled, are expected to be terminated and the oper­
ating and maintenance crews cut back.
Petroleum refinery.................................. Electrical workers union— because the amount of plant instrumentation required for
process control computers and other technologies has increased, the number of
union members who install and maintain these instruments has risen, despite the
general downtrend in total plant employment. Therefore, process computers are
felt to be advantageous to union members. However, job classifications and wage
rates for instrument men working on computerized units have remained unchanged,
despite the union position that these workers require greater ability than those
working on noncomputerized units.
Operating and maintenance workers union— a major decline in the number of union
members at this plant has taken place due to a continuing modernization program.
The operating staff at the computerized units was cut back at about the time the
computers became operational. This employment decline was attributable to the
instrumentation needed for putting the units under computer control.
An increas­
ing number o f process computers probably will be used to control older units at
this plant. The instrumentation needed for these computers and the laborsaving
potential of computer control are expected to lead to large reductions in operat­
ing and maintenance manpower.
Steel p la n t ................................................ New technologies, such as basic oxygen furnaces, will continue to have a substan­
tially greater impact on manpower than installations of process control computers.
However,
Steel p la n t ................................................ Employees adapted to computer process control with little difficulty.
major changes in employment, occupations, and job skills are expected because
o f other innovations, such as continuous casting.
Steel p la n t ............................................... Worker adjustment to computer control presented no problems. More concern
was felt about other innovations, such as the basic oxygen furnace.
Power com pany....................................... Technological changes, such as automated substations and centralized controls, are
expected to have more effect on the work force than process computers. How­
ever, computers are expected to accelerate the changes brought about by the other
innovations.
Power com pany....................................... Process computers are not expected to affect operating workers to any significant ex­
tent.
However, innovations such as substation automation, plant automation, and
interconnected switching systems are expected to have major impact upon union
workers. Computer control over automatic startup and continuous operations of
power plants may cause future reductions in employment.

SOURCE:

Based on interviews with local union officials.




61

Table B-6.

Outlook for installations and applications of computer process control at selected survey plants
Survey plant

Paper company....................................

Chemical p la n t....................................

Chemical p la n t....................................

Petroleum refin ery..............................

Cement plant .......................................

Steel plant.............................................

Steel plant.............................................

Outlook
The paper machine at the survey mill will be placed under a more advanced form of
computer control. Other papermaking machines presently under conventional con­
trol in this mill also will be placed under computer control. Within the corpora­
tion, 14 major papermaking steps with potential for process computer applications
were mentioned.
Among these are the bleach plant, where computer control of
primary bleaching may save $600 a day; batch and continuous pulping mills; elec­
trical and steam distribution facilities; chemical recovery; paper and board machines;
woodyards and woodrooms; and the finishing department. These applications are
being studied by an outside consultant to set up a 3 to 5 year program of computer
usage. If found to be technically and economically feasible, they could be placed
under computer control by 1975. The company is in the process o f setting up a
computer-based planning and control system that will encompass all aspects of the
company’s operations— accounting, shipping, inventory, manufacturing, scheduling,
and marketing. Data transmission lines will connect both general purpose and proc­
ess computers in different company plants and areas to provide an integrated man­
agement control system.
Applications of the computerized plantwide production control system will be in­
creased to include more units and more advanced control techniques. A computer
system to be installed in an analytical control laboratory will operate all chromato­
graphs in the lab and at least one chromatograph station in an operating unit. Other
laboratory instruments may be connected to the system. Based on a detailed feasi­
bility study, the laboratory computer is expected to save $60,000 a year in labor
and instrument costs and produce a major increase in speed and accuracy of analysis.
An estimated 10 to 20 percent o f major plant operations may be under full closedloop control by 1975. The computer system in the analytical control laboratory
has been successful, and its applications will be increased through further program­
ing effort.
A centralized computer control system, designed to replace the two existing control
computer systems and control other major plant units, is being installed. This
system may be connected, via data transmission lines, to a large scale computer at
company headquarters as part of a total management information and control sys­
tem.
Many of the major units in the plant are expected to be computer monitored
or controlled by 1975. The alkylation unit and the heavy oils sections may be
under computer control by 1972. Catalytic cracking, vapor recovery, gasoline
blending, the desulfurizer, the lube oils extraction unit, and the hydrofinisher are
other process units that have major potential for computer control.
Two raw mills, material blending, and kiln control— most of the major steps in
cement making at this plant— are expected to be put under automatic control by
1970.
Possible future applications of computer control include the hot strip mill, cold mill
reduction, machine shop numerical control, blast furnace burdening, and hot saw
cutting of commercial beams.
A computer will be applied to the electric arc furnace, for at least control of the elec­
trical load, and if billet continuous casting is introduced, for coordinating the pro­
duction of electric furnace steel with casting. A computer also may be applied to
basic oxygen furnace operations.

SOURCE: Based on interviews with officials at seven survey plants.

62



Table B-7.

Factors expected to accelerate and retard growth in process computer installations
Factors expected to retard use

Factors expected to accelerate use
Success of present systems
Competitive pressure and its emphasis on cost
reduction.
Demand for a better quality product
Trend toward larger production facilities.
Larger proportion of plant cost being spent for
control instrumentation
Declining computer costs and continuing development of low cost, reliable computers.
Development of computer time-sharing ability
which allows one computer to control a
number of processes
Development of universal programs and process
models

Lack of trained personnel, especially in the areas of process engi­
neering, programing, and computer systems analysis.

Absence of full management support, especially when savings due
to computer control are difficult to quantify.

Difficulty in justifying computer control in plants or processes
with low volume production.
Unsuccessful attempts to control a unit.

Computer equipment that does not perform to specifications.
Difficulties in developing the mathematical models and program­
ing for complex processes.

Development of direct digital control.
Increasing complexity of processes which require
more sophisticated control systems.

SOURCE: Based on interviews with officials at survey plants.




63

APPENDIX C. SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Nature and Scope; Impacts; Outlook
Aldrich, Keith. “The Boom is Just Beginning,” C o n tro l Engineering, January 1965, pp. 67-70.
Expenditures for automatic control as a proportion of total new plant and equipment expenditures—
present and planned; computer control factor in growing investment. Results of survey of 60 companies
in 7 user and equipment industries.
Bailey, S.J. “On-line Computer Users Polled,” C o n tro l Engineering, January 1969, pp. 86-94.
Report of user survey regarding system functions, benefits, project staffing, problems with hardware and
and software, etc.
Berendsen, Raymond C.
pp. 20, 21.

“Berendsen Looks Ahead at Process Computers,” A u to m a tio n , February 1967,

Growth potential for process computer market. New applications and industry trends.
Brown, John A. C o m p u ters a n d A u to m a tio n , (New York: ARCO, 1968). 245 pp.
Functions, applications, and programing of industry and business computers. Planned primarily for use
by students, instructors, and management personnel. Study questions.
“Chemical Unions to Fight for Automation’s Benefits,” C h em ical Engineering, August 1, 1966, pp. 30, 32.
Problems faced by unions. Efforts to gain greater job security and approaches to increasing bargaining
power.
Cornish, Harry L., Jr. and William L. Horton. C o m p u te rize d P rocess C o n tro l— A M an agem en t D ecision .
(New York: Hobbs, Dorman and Company, Inc., 1968). 212 pp.
Discussion of technology and economics of process control computers with emphasis on factors involved in
management’s decision to introduce them.
DeChristofaro, Ron R. “Upgrading Job Skills— Recruit or Retrain?” A u to m a tio n , April 1967, pp. 70-73.
Advantages and disadvantages of alternative approaches.
Review of a successfull industrial retraining program.

Problems for management consideration.

“Digital Computers in Industry,” C o n tro l Engineering, September 1966, pp. 83-142. A special report
comprised of 14 articles by authorities in the field.
Economics of computer control. Evaluation of potential. Techniques and problems of process computer
control. Some case histories.
Faveret, Andrew G. In tro d u c tio n to D ig ita l C o m p u te r A p p lic a tio n s, (New York: Reinhold, 1965), pp.
161-167.
Use of digital computers for industrial process control. Experience with application in an oil refinery:
problems and benefits.




64

Fox, Edward. “Nature and Purpose of Computer Process Control,” A u to m a tio n , October 1963, pp. 48-54.
Role of computer in improving manufacturing efficiency. Methods of computerizing process control.
Factors influencing feasibility of a process control computer. Some existing applications.
Freilich, Arthur. “What’s Doing in Computer Control?” ISA J ou rn al, September 1961.
Status report based on ISA Journal survey of digital computer makers. Comparisons of computers avail­
able for process control. Summary of known process control computer installations.
Hollander, Arthur. “Manufacturing Control Computer Concept,” Tappi, November 1964, pp. 62A ff.
Integration of data processing and process control into a common system. Objectives and features of
such a system.
“How Computers Control Process Operations,” P la n t Engineering, March 1965, pp. 151-152.
Characteristics of open-loop and closed-loop systems. Supervisory compared with direct digital control.
Potential of process computers and requirements for use.
Jakubik, Robert F., Don Kader, and Louis B. Perillo. “Justifying Process Control Computers,” A u to m a tio n ,
March 1964, pp. 81-84.
Direct and indirect or hidden benefits of process control computer systems. Examples of savings.
Kirsh, Benjamin S. “Changing Character of Production Jobs Will Test Labor-Management Relations,” A u to ­
m ation , February 1965, pp. 62-65.
Effects of factory automation on skill requirements, job classifications, wage determination systems, and
make-work rules. Implications for collective bargaining.
Lex, Roland G., Jr. and William P. Hamilton.
June 1964, pp. 73-75.

“Computer Impact on Control Technology,” A u to m a tio n ,

Requirements for improved accuracy and reliability of instrumentation and control equipment. Increas­
ing need for systems engineering.
Lombardo, J. M. “The Case for Digital Backup in Direct Digital Control Systems,” C h em ical Engineering,
July 3, 1967, pp. 79-84.
Parallel digital control system compared with analog backup units.
and batch processes.

Control requirements of continuous

Lytel, Allan. D igital C o m p u ters in A u to m a tio n , (Indianapolis; New York: Howard W. Sams & Co.; BobbsMerrill, 1966). 224 pp.
Nature and scope of computer control of manufacturing processes. Elements of control systems; computer
functions and techniques. Applications in steelmaking, food and chemical processing, and materials handling.
McDevitt, Dan B. “Will the Computer Make Specialized Experience Obsolete?” O il a n d Gas Journal, May 31,
1965,p p .117-119.
Predicted impact of the computer and modern data systems on business management. Implications for
corporate organization, management skills and employee and labor relations.
Miller, William E., editor. D igital C o m p u te r A p p lica tio n s to P rocess C o n tro l; Proceedings, First International
Conference sponsored by the International Federation for Automatic Control and the International
Federation for Information Processing, September 21 - 23, 1964, Stockholm, (New York: Instrument
Society of America; distributed by Plenum Press, 1965). 593 pp.




65

Twenty-three papers with accompanying discussions dealing with industrial applications, worldwide, in iron
and steel, chemicals and petroleum, public utilities, gas pipelines, paper, cement, and railways.
Moore, Joe F. and Nicholas F. Gardner. “Process Control in the 1970’s,” C h em ical Engineering, June 2, 1969,
pp. 94-137.
Special report on trends in process control systems and computers consisting of 8 articles by industry
authorities.
Murphy, Bates H. “Understanding Digital Computer Process Control,” A u to m a tio n , January 1965, pp. 71-76.
Basic functions of digital computers. Application to industrial control problems.
“Process Computers Shrink in Size and Price,” C o n tro l Engineering, February 1966, pp. 47, 49.
Emerging uses of new, smaller process computer.
“Process Computer Scorecard,” C o n tro l Engineering, July 1968, pp. 79-90.
Worldwide count of digital process computer installations. Tabulation of computer makers and users,
industry areas, and applications. (Updating of series. Previous listings: March 1967, September 1963, March 1966,
August 1965, September 1966.)
Raach, Fred R.

“More Training Programs Needed at All Levels to Avert Personnel Shortage,” C o m p u te rs an d

A u to m a tio n , September 1966, pp. 12-13.

Present and proposed efforts to meet the growing demand for EDP personnel. Types of training required.
Rudisill, Edward L.

“DDC— Steppingstone to Process Optimization " A u to m a tio n , May 1965, pp. 84-87.

Direct digital control approach to process control.
vantages over analog control.
Savas, Emanuel S.

Types of DDC, cost considerations, reliability. Ad­

C o m p u te r C o n tro l o f In du strial P rocesses (New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1965), 400 pp.

Concepts, equipment, and applications with dominant emphasis on digital computer control.
for process and applications engineers, managers, and engineering students.

Written

Stout, Thomas M. “Economics of Computers in Process Control,” A u to m a tio n , Part 1, October 1966, pp.
82-90; Part 2, December 1966, pp. 91-98.
Part 1: Guidelines for preliminary justification. Postinstallation evaluation. References.
Part 2: Applications in petroleum, iron and steel, paper, cement, and pipeline transportation industries.
Benefits claimed by users. References.
Stout, Thomas M.

“Manpower Implications of Process Control Computers in the Process Industries,” The
O u tlo o k f o r Techn ological Change a n d E m p lo y m e n t, Washington, D.C.,U.S. Government Printing Office 1966,
pp. 1-253-289 (Appendix, Volume I, to Technology and the American Economy, report of the National
Commission on Technology, Automation and Economic Progress).

Evaluation and objectives of process control and the growing use of digital computers. Experiences of
major users with respect to manpower effects. Future trends.
“Two or Three-Year Payback,” A u to m a tio n , September 1965, p. 36. Findings from a report in Technoeco n o m ic Trends (published by Equity Research Association and Midwest Research Institute).
Factors underlying predicted continued growth in the use of computers for control of industrial processes.
“Where Computers are Taking Over Process Control— and Why,” S teel, September 20, 1965, pp. 68, 69.
Market outlook for process control computers. Industry trends in computer use.
66



B. Application in Some Leading Industries.
Cement
Bedworth, David D. and James R. Faillace.
June 1964, pp. 26-29.

“Applying a Digital Control Computer,” M inerals Processing,

Industrial functions applicable to digital computer process control in a cement plant.
“Cement Strives to Pour the Proper Profit Mix,” Business Week, July 17,1965, pp. 144-150.
Modernization of cement plant operations. Effect on industry capacity and production costs. Computer
applications.
“Closing the Loop at Northwestern States,” P it an d Q uarry, May 1967, pp. 84-87.
Benefits from computer control of rotary cement kiln. Operation of control system.
Phillips, R. A. “Automation of a Portland Cement Plant Using a Digital Computer,” M inerals Processing,
December 1964, pp. 32-36.
Functions of computer in closed-loop control of kiln department.
tasks in single online computer.

Coordination of offline and online

Rich, E. A. E. “Cement Automation— 1 9 6 5 M inerals Processing, December 1965, pp. 16-24.
“Systems approach” to process control of cement manufacturing. Steps in attaining completely controlled
plant.
Chemicals
Bernard, J. W. and J. W. Wujkowski. “Direct Digital Control Experiences in a Chemical Process,” IS A Journal,
December 1965.
Comparison of DDC with analog control relative to control performance, reliability, and acceptance by plant
personnel.
Brown, James E. “Onstream Process Analyzers,” C h em ical Engineering, May 6,1968, pp. 164-176.
Classification of process analyzers. Operating principles, applications and costs. Role of process computer in
monitoring and controlling continuous chemical operations.
“Computer Processes Data from 40 Chromatographs,” C h em ical an d E n gineering N ew s, May 15, 1967,
pp. 63-64.
System hardware and software. Cost savings and other laboratory benefits.
Eisenhardt, R. D. and Theodore J. Williams. “Closed-loop Computer Control at Luling,” C o n tro l Engineering,
November 1960, pp. 103-114.
Case history of installation of computer control system for chemical manufacturing process: Economic
justification; process description; computer applications; installation; testing and placing on line of computer.
Giusti, A. L., R. E. Otto, and Theodore J. Williams. “Direct Digital Computer Control,” C o n tro l Engineering,
June 1962, pp. 104-108.
Demonstrated practical feasibility of direct digital computer control system in operating chemical plant.
Potential for reduced capital expenditures and improved control performance.
Morello, V. S. “Digital Computer Applied to Styrene Cracking,” The O il a n d Gas Journal, February 24, 1964,
pp. 90-93.




67

Successful use of process computer in data logging, calculating process conditions, and partial closed-loop
control of reaction system.
“Sixth Process Control Report,” C h em ical Engineering, June 7,1965, pp. 142-204.
Ten articles by chemical and control engineers constituting a comprehensive analysis and review of process
control developments and consideration of various aspects of measurement and control.
Steyman, E. H. “Justifying Process Computer Control,” C h em ical Engineering, February 12, 1968, pp. 124-129.
Evaluation o f physical and economic factors in considering application of computer control to chemical proc­
esses: suitability of process; costs and potential benefits.
Williams, Theodore J. “Computers and Process Control,” In d u stria l a n d E n gineering C h em istry, December 1967,
pp. 53-68.
Annual review. Systems engineering of process control projects. Computer-directed analytical instrumenta­
tion systems. Mathematical models in industrial control applications. Bibliography.
Petroleum Refining
Ewing, R. W., G. L. Glahn, R. P. Larkings, and W. N. Zartman.“Humble’s Simplified Computer Control Program,”
paper presented at the 1966 Computer Conference, December 6-8, 1966, San Francisco, California. (Wash­
ington, D.C., National Petroleum Refiners Association.) 11 pp. plus figures and tables.
Characteristics, processing features, and system processors and forms of “Generalized Process Control Pro­
graming System” developed to permit implementation of control programs through standardized information
forms and processing procedures.
Farrar, Gerald L. “Computer Control in the Oil Industry,” O il a n d Gas Journal, December 11,1967, pp. 95-117.
Special report on process automation in the oil industry.
Survey of digital control computers in refining, petrochemical, production, and pipelining applications.
Suppliers and models of digital control computers. Analog computer development. Ninth in a series. Previous
reports: February 18, 1957; October 5, 1959; October 23,1961; October 22,1962; October 28,1963; October
26,1964; October 25, 1965; October 24,1966.
International Business Machines Corporation, Data Processing Division. 1 7 1 0 C o n tro l S y s te m f o r P etro leu m
R efinin g, General information manual, 1961. 22 pp.
Functions of petroleum processing. Concepts of computer control and application to distillation process.
Stevenson, W.R. and R.F. Jukubik. “The Intangibles of Computer Process Control,” O il a n d Gas Jo u rn a l Septem­
ber 12, 1966, pp. 94-97.
Derivation and value of intangible benefits from closed-loop control. Importance of as planning consideration.

Paper
“Making Paper with Machine Designed for Computer Use ,” A u to m a tio n , December 1966, pp. 70-71.
Features of installation. Computer functions. Training of personnel.
Maloney, J. D., Jr. “Papermaking by the Numbers,” Tappi, October 1966, pp. 59-61 A.
Systems engineering approach to computer control of a paper machine. Prerequisites to successful application.
“Mead’s Computer Control System on Paper Machine Working Well,” S o u th ern P u lp a n d P aper M anufacturer,
July 10, 1965, pp. 76 ff.
68




Preparation for computer control and operation of system. Gains realized. Planned integration into total
management information system.
Smith, William E. and E.C. Fox. “Computer Controls Continuous Digester in Manufacture of Paper Pulp,”
A u to m a tio n , February 1964, pp. 82-86.
Control of continuous digestion process as first step toward complete computer control of plant. Instru­
mentation, control, and program considerations.
Stout, Thomas M. “Is Papermaking Ready for Computer Control?” P aper Trade Journal, January 20, 1964,
pp. 29-31 ff.
Circumventing deficiences in instrumentation and incomplete process knowledge. Value of system study.
Successes in papermaking and other industries.
Electric Power
Evans, R. K. “Computer Control:
pp. 189-193.

Power Plants Join Industry-Wide Advance,” P ow er, September 1964,

Computer control system applications in power plant:
case histories.

developments and trends. Two central stations’

Huse, R. A., J. E. Tangel, and J. R. Andres. “Operating Experience with Control Systems No. 1 Unit— Hudson
Generating Station,” paper presented at meeting of the American Society of Mechnical Engineers, November
7-11, 1965, Chicago, Illinois. 9 pp.
Actual performance of various controls in a computer-controlled electric generating station.
Kompass, E. J. “Startup at Riverside,” C o n tro l Engineering, January 1964, pp. 69-73.
Report on computer-controlled daily startup and shutdown at power company’s steam-electric peaking
station.
Maurnin, L. V. and J. A. Calvo. “Computing Control at Little Gypsy Generating Station,” ISA Journal, May
1966, pp. 34-38.
Report on present and planned digital control computer systems at utility company’s steam-electric gen­
erating units. Factors retarding achievement of full computer control.
Summers, William A.
“Starting an Electric Generating Station— Automatically,”
September 1960, pp. 154-157.

C o n tro l Engineering,

Hypothetical computer process control system and procedures used for cold startup and coal-fired electric
generating unit.

Steel
Binning, J. E. and D. R. Berg. “Computer Control of Oxygen Steelmaking,” Jou rnal o f M etals, July 1965,
pp. 725-727. Paper presented at International Conference on Iron and Steelmaking, 1965, Amsterdam.
Elements and function of oxygen furnace digital computer control system. Operating experiences.
Brower, Allen S.

“Controlling a Complete Hot Strip Mill,” C o n tro l Engineering, October 1963, pp. 57-63.

Planned integration of mill control sub-system through digital process computer. Projected quality and
efficiency gains.
Brower, Allen S. “Digital Control Computers for the Metals Industry,” ISA Journal, pp. 51-63.




69

Capabilities and limitations of digital process control computers. Applications to steel mill processes.
Hanning of control computer systems. Installation of equipment and implementation of on-line control
programs.
Dickinson, Lee I. “Computers in Utilities and Fuel Dispatching,” Iron an d S te e l E n gin eer Year B o o k , 1 9 6 2 ,
pp. 747-753.
Experience of an integrated steel works. Use of computer in the centralized monitoring of plant utilities
systems. Features and operation of system. Possible future applications.
Keenon, D. L., N. R. Carlson, and L. F. Martz. “Dynamic Control of Basic Oxygen Steel Process," In strum ents
a n d C o n tro l S yste m s, May 1967, pp. 139-144.
Integrated instrumentation and control system. Operation in a typical heat. Duties of computer.
Kirkland, R. W. “Process Computers— Their Place in the Steel Industry,” Iron a n d S te e l Engineer, February
1965, pp. 115-124.
Survey of on-line process computer systems in world steel industry. Areas of application. Criteria for eval­
uating computer needs.
Malim, T. H.

“Process Computers,” Iron A ge, March 2, 1967, pp. 61-68.

Extension of computer control from hot rolling to other steelmaking operations and nonferrous mills. User
experiences and reactions to computer control. Changing view of computer role in process control.
Stout, Thomas M. and S. M. Roberts. “Some Applications of Computer Control in the Iron and Steel Industry,”
Iron a n d S te e l Engineer, March 1960, pp. 101-110.
Kinds of computer control systems. Technical and economic justification. Possible applications in iron and
steelmaking processes.
Talbot, James E. “Instruments and Computer: Focal Point of Basic Oxygen Furnaces at Sparrows Point,” ISA
Journal, June 1966, pp. 61-63.
Digital computer functions in the control of basic oxygen steelmaking.

70




O T H E R B L S P U B L IC A T IO N S ON T E C H N O L O G IC A L C H AN G E

T e c h n o lo g y and M a n p o w e r in the T e x t ile In d u s tr y o f the 1970*8 (B u lle tin
1578, 1 9 6 8 ), 79 p p . , 60 c e n t s .
D e s c r i b e s c h a n g e s in t e c h n o lo g y and t h e ir im p a c t on p r o d u c t iv it y ,
e m p lo y m e n t , o c c u p a t io n a l r e q u ir e m e n t s , and la b o r -m a n a g e m e n t r e la t io n s .
M a n p o w e r P la n n in g f o r T e c h n o lo g ic a l C h a n g e: C a s e S tu d ies o f T e le p h o n e
O p e r a t o r s (B u lle tin 1574, 19 6 8 ), 34 p p . , 30 c e n t s .
P o l i c i e s and e x p e r ie n c e s o f fo u r o f f i c e s in a d ju s tin g to t e c h n o lo g ic a l
ch a n g e .
J o b R e d e s ig n f o r O ld e r W o r k e r s : T e n C a s e S tu d ies (B u lle tin 152 3, 1 9 6 6 ),
63 p p . , 40 c e n t s .
E x a m p le s o f r e d e s ig n o f jo b s to r e t a in o ld e r w o r k e r s in e m p lo y m e n t .
T e c h n o lo g ic a l T r e nds in M a jo r A m e r ic a n In d u s t r ie s (B u lle tin 147 4, 19 6 6 ),
269 p p . , $ 1 .5 0 .
*
A p p r a is e s t e c h n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t s in 40 in d u s t r ie s and the e f f e c t s
on output, p r o d u c t iv it y , and e m p lo y m e n t .
Im p a c t o f O ff ic e A u to m a tio n in the In s u r a n c e In d u str y (B u lle tin 146 8, 19 6 5 ),
71 p p . , 45 c e n t s .
S u r v e y o f ex ten t and fu tu r e d ir e c t io n s o f E D P , m a n p o w e r im p a c t , and
im p lic a t io n s .
M a n p o w e r P la n n in g to A d a p t to N ew T e c h n o lo g y at an E l e c t r i c and G as
U tility (R e p o r t 2 93 , 19 6 5 ), 25 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s .
D e s c r i b e s p e r s o n n e l p r o c e d u r e s and p r a c t i c e s u s e d to m in im iz e h a r d ­
s h ip s on e m p lo y e e s .
O u tlo o k f o r N u m e r ic a l C o n t r o l o f M a ch in e T o o ls (B u lle tin 143 7, 19 6 5 ),
63 p p . , 40 c e n t s .
O u tlo o k f o r th is k e y t e c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n in the m e t a lw o r k in g in d u s ­
t r y and im p lic a t io n s f o r p r o d u c t iv it y , o c c u p a t io n a l r e q u ir e m e n t s , tr a in in g
p r o g r a m s , e m p lo y m e n t , and in d u s t r ia l r e la t io n s .
C a s e S tu d ies o f D is p la c e d W o r k e r s (B u lle tin 140 8, 196 4), 94 p p . Out o f
p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s .
C a s e s tu d ie s o f the p o s t la y o ff e x p e r ie n c e s o f n e a r ly 3, 000 w o r k e r s
f o r m e r l y e m p lo y e d in the p e t r o le u m r e fin in g , a u to m o tiv e e q u ip m e n t, g la s s
j a r , f l o o r c o v e r in g , and ir o n fo u n d r y in d u s t r ie s .
I m p lic a t io n s o f A u to m a tio n and O th e r T e c h n o lo g ic a l D e v e lo p m e n t s : A
S e le c t e d A n n o ta te d B ib lio g r a p h y (B u lle tin 1 3 1 9 -1 , 1 9 6 3 ), 90 p p . Out o f
p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s .
D e s c r i b e s o v e r 300 b o o k s , a r t i c l e s , r e p o r t s , s p e e c h e s , c o n f e r e n c e
p r o c e e d in g s , and o th e r r e a d ily a v a ila b le m a t e r ia ls .




In d u s t r ia l R e tr a in in g P r o g r a m s f o r T e c h n o lo g ic a l C h an ge (B u lle tin 1368,
1 9 6 3 ), 34 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s .
A stu d y o f the p e r fo r m a n c e o f o ld e r w o r k e r s b a s e d on fo u r c a s e
s tu d ie s o f in d u s t r ia l p la n ts .
Im p a c t o f O ff ic e A u to m a tio n in the In te r n a l R e v e n u e S e r v ic e (B u lle tin 1364,
1 9 6 3 ), 74 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s .
A c a s e stu dy h ig h lig h tin g m a n p o w e r p la n n in g and e m p lo y m e n t im p a c t s
d u rin g a m a jo r c o n v e r s io n .
Im p a c t o f T e c h n o lo g ic a l C h ange and A u to m a tio n in the P u lp and P a p e r In d u s ­
t r y (B u lle tin 134 7, 196 2), 92 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s .
G e n e r a l in d u s t r y s u r v e y and th r e e c a s e s tu d ie s h ig h lig h tin g im p lic a t io n s
o f t e c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e .
T e c h n o lo g ic a l C hange and P r o d u c t iv it y in the B itu m in o u s C o a l In d u s t r y ,
1 9 2 0 -6 0 (B u lle tin 1305, 1^ 6 1), 136 p p . , 65 c e n t s .
T r e n d s in t e c h n o lo g y and p r o d u c t iv it y and im p lic a t io n s f o r e m p lo y m e n t ,
u n e m p lo y m e n t, and w a g e s .
A d ju s t m e n t s to the In tr o d u c tio n o f O ffic e A u to m a tio n (B u lle tin 1276, I 9 6 0 ),
86 p p . Out o f p r in t , a v a ila b le in l i b r a r i e s .
A stu d y o f s o m e im p lic a t io n s o f the in s t a lla t io n o f e l e c t r o n i c data
p r o c e s s i n g in 20 o f f i c e s in p r iv a t e in d u s t r y , w ith s p e c ia l r e f e r e n c e to
o ld e r w o r k e r s .
S a le s p u b lic a t io n s m a y b e p u r c h a s e d f r o m the S u p erin ten d en t o f D o c u ­
m e n t s , W a s h in g to n , D . C . 2 0 4 0 2 , o r f r o m r e g io n a l o f f i c e s o f the B u re a u o f
L a b o r S t a t is t ic s at the a d d r e s s e s sh ow n b e lo w . F r e e p u b lic a t io n s a r e
a v a ila b le as lo n g a s the su p p ly la s t s , f r o m the B u re a u o f L a b o r S t a t is t ic s ,
U. S. D e p a rtm e n t o f L a b o r , W a s h in g to n , D . C . 20212.
R e g io n a l O ff ic e s
R e g io n III
P e n n S qu a re B u ild in g
R o o m 406
1317 F i lb e r t S tr e e t
P h ila d e lp h ia , P a . 19107

R e g io n I
F e d e r a l B u ild in g
R o o m 1 6 0 3 -A
G o v e r n m e n t C e n te r
B o s t o n , M a s s . 02203

R e g io n II
341 Ninth A v e n u e
N ew Y o r k , N. Y .

R e g io n IV
1317 P e a c h t r e e S tr e e t, NE
A tla n ta , G a . 30309

R e g io n V
219 S. D e a r b o r n S tre e t
C h ic a g o , 111. 606 04

R e g io n s V II and VIII
911 W alnut S tr e e t
K a n s a s C ity , M o . 64106

R e g io n s IX and X
450 G o ld e n G ate A v e n u e
B o x 36017
San F r a n c i s c o , C a lif. 94102




10001

*

U . S.

R e g io n V I
411 N. A k a r d S tr e e t
D a lla s , T e x . 75201

GOVERNM ENT

P R IN T IN G O F F IC E : 1 9 7 0

O - 3 & 8 -9 6 0




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