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//? 3' /<$/ /state- m COLLEGE LIBRARY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU, No. 104 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 [Public—No. 259—66th Congress.] [H. R. 13229.J An Act To establish in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the Women’s Bureau Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States oj America in Congress assembled, That there shall be established in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the Women’s Bureau. Sec. 2. That the said bureau shall be in charge of a director, a woman, to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, who shall receive an annual compensation of $5,000. It shall be the duty of said bureau to formulate standards and policies which shall promote the welfare of wage-earning women, improve their working conditions, increase their efficiency, and ad vance their opportunities for profitable employment. The said bureau shall have authority to investigate and report to the said de partment upon all matters pertaining to the welfare of women in industry. The director of said bureau may from time to time publish the results of these investigations in such a manner and to such extent as the Secretary of Labor may prescribe. Sec. 3. That there shall be in said bureau an assistant director, to be appointed by the Secretary of Labor, who shall receive an annual compensation of $3,500 and shall perform such duties as shall be prescribed by the director and approved by the Secretary of Labor. Sec. 4. That there is hereby authorized to be employed by said bureau a chief clerk and such special agents, assistants, clerks, and other employees at such rates of compensation and in such numbers as Congress may from time to time provide by appropriations. Sec. 5. That the Secretary of Labor is hereby directed to furnish sufficient quarters, office furniture, and equipment for the work of this bureau. Sec. 6. That this act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. Approved, June 5, 1920. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR FRANCES PERKINS, SECRETARY WOMEN’S BUREAU MARY ANDERSON, Director BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU, No. 104 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 By MARY V. DEMPSEY UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON: 1933 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. Price 10 cents 4 £ CONTENTS a « Page Letter of transmittal v Introductionj Summary of findings 3 Changes in number and proportion of women in general divisions of occupations g Manufacturing and mechanical industries__________________________ 9 In general_____________________________ 9 Unusual trades for women 12 Women in factories 12 Manufacturing industries in which women predominate_________ 15 Industries in which women operatives have increased at least 5,000 since 1920 16 Transportation and communication 19 Trade _ 20 Public service (not elsewhere classified) 21 Professional service22 Professional women___________________________________________ 22 Semiprofessional pursuits 25 Attendants and helpers in professional service__________________ 25 Clerical occupations 25 Domestic and personal service 27 Servants and allied occupations 28 Other occupations in domestic and personal service____________ 30 Agriculture, forestry, and fishing 31 Changes in women’s status in large groups 33 Occupations with 50,000 or more women 34 Occupations with 1,000 or more women 36 Occupations in which no women were at work______________________ 38 Striking changes in occupations for women 39 Comparison with changes in the occupations of men____________________ 43 Changes in number of men per 100 women in selected occupations____ 46 Women in 10 major occupational groups 50 Appendixes: A—General tables_______________________________________ __________ 56 B—Classification and method; instructions to enumerators__________ 84 t TEXT TABLES 1. Number and per cent distribution of gainfully occupied women 10 years of age and over, by general division of occupations: 1930, 1920, and 1910___________________________________________________ 2. Number and per cent of increase or decrease among women engaged in each general division of occupations from 1920 to 1930, from 1910 to 1920, and from 1910 to 1930 3. Women engaged in manufacturing and mechanical industries, writh number and per cent of increase or decrease, according to occupa tion: 1930 and 1920 4. Number of women employed in the clothing industries and in the textile industries and in their component groups of factories: 1930, 1920, and 1910 5. Men and women employees in those manufacturing industries in which women predominated in 1930 and in 1920, with correspond ing figures for 1910 6. Manufacturing industries in each of which the number of women operatives increased 5,000 or more from 1920 to 1930, writh number and per cent of increase, and with corresponding increase from 1910 to 1920________________________________ 7. Manufacturing industries in each of wrhich the number of women operatives or laborers decreased 5,000 or more from 1920 to 1930, with number and per cent of decrease, and with corresponding in crease from 1910 to 1920 in 7 9 10 14 16 17 18 IV CONTENTS Page 8. Number and per cent distribution of women employed as servants, according to occupation and place of work: 1930, 1920, and 1910__ 9. Number and per cent that negro women formed of all women in certain selected occupations in domestic and personal service: 1930, 1920, and 1910------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10. Number of occupations in which the specified number of women were engaged: 1930, 1920, and 1910 11. Occupations in which 50,000 or more women were engaged and number engaged in each: 1930, 1920, and 1910----------------------------------------12. Number of occupations in which 1,000 or more women were engaged, according to general division of occupations: 1930, 1920, and 1910_ 13. Twelve occupations in each of which the number of women increased 50,000 or more from 1920 to 1930, with number and per cent of in crease, and with corresponding increase (or decrease) from 1910 to 1920_______________________________________ ________ _____________ 14. Occupations in each of which the number of women decreased 25,000 or more from 1920 to 1930, with number and per cent of decrease, and with corresponding decreases from 1910 to 1920 and from 1910 to 1930____________________________ 15. Occupations with 500 or more women each in 1930 in which the number of women had doubled since 1920; number of women occupied in 1930 and in 1920, -with the per cent of increase----------------------------16. Occupations with 1,000 or more women each in 1920 in which fewer than half as many women were engaged in 1930; number of women occupied in 1930 and in 1920, with the per cent of decrease----------17. Twelve occupations in each of which 50,000 or more women were en gaged in 1930 and in which the number occupied had more than doubled since 1910; number of women occupied in 1930 and in 1910, with the per cent of increase-.-------------------------------------------------------18. Men per 100 women in those selected occupations in which men have steadily advanced from 1910 to 1930-------------------------------------------19. Men per 100 women in those selected occupations in W'hich men have steadily lost ground from 1910 to 1930----------------------------------------20. Men per 100 women in each of 10 major occupational groups: 1930, 1920, and 1910______ 28 29 33 34 38 39 40 41 42 43 46 48 53 APPENDIX TABLES I.Gainful workers 10 years old and over, by occupation and sex, for the United States: 1930, 1920, and 1910______________________ _____ - 56-75 II. Number and per cent of increase or decrease from 1920 to 1930 and 1910 to 1930 among men and women engaged in certain selected occupations________________________________________ 76-79 III. Men per 100 women in selected occupations: 1930, 1920, and 1910-_ 80-81 IV. Number of women in each of 10 major occupational groups and their component occupations: 1930, 1920, and1910-------------------------------82-83 CHARTS I. II. III. IV. V. Occupational distribution of women: 1930, 1920, and 1910-------------Women in selected manufacturing industries: 1030, 1920, and 1910 . Women in selected professions: 1930, 1920, and 1910---------------------Distribution of 1,415,425 professional women: 1930-------------- - — _ Relative numerical rank in 1930, 1920, and 1910 of occupations in which 100,000 or more women were employed----------------------------VI. Women in 10 major occupational groups: 1930, 1920, and 1910------- 8 15 23 26 37 51 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL United States Department op Labor, Women’s Bureau, Washington, January 18, 1933. I have the honor to submit the second of this bureau’s reports of the occupational progress of women from one census date to another. The first such report, published in 1922, analyzed women’s status in 1920 as compared to that in 1910. The present report compares the figures for 1930 with those for 1920 and shows the still greater contrast to the findings of the census of 20 years before. These analyses of changes in women’s occupational distribution, a subject of profound significance whether from the point of view of workers, of employers, of students of social trends, or of any one of a number of other groups, are among the most important of the bureau’s publications. The cooperation of the Bureau of the Census in making available such detailed figures as would contribute to the report is gratefully acknowledged. The report is the work of Mary V. Dempsey. Respectfully submitted. Mary Anderson, Director. Secretary op Labor: THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 to 1930 INTRODUCTION Working women in the United States now total nearly 11,000,000, according to 1930 occupation statistics published by the Federal Bureau of the Census. The announcement of these figures that show the present-day trend in the occupations of American women has been eagerly awaited. Throughout the entire country the unusual conditions brought about by the World War, together with the phenomenal development and specialization of industry during that period, were responsible for overwhelming changes in the employment of women between 1910 and 1920. Since that time considerable speculation has existed as to the future of women in industry, upon which the 1930 census figures now throw some light. American women to the number of 10,752,116 told census enumer ators in April, 1930, that usually they were at work for a monetary consideration. These figures represent an advance of 25.8 per cent m a decade, while the number of all women 10 years of age and over in the United States increased 20.6 per cent during the same period. In other words, this signal rise in the number of working women has far outstripped the growth of the female population. A 10-year increase of 2,202,605 gainfully occupied women was scarcely to be expected in view of the fact that, with all the impetus given the employment of women by the industrial upheaval incident to w#r activities, the net gain between 1910 and 1920 was less than half a million, or but 6 per cent. Two or three reasons may be advanced to account for this unex pectedly large increase in the number of working women since 1920. Those men who were killed or incapacitated by the war made per manent gaps in the ranks of employable males that must ultimately have been filled by women, since practically all able-bodied men in the country were already at work prior to the war. The great influenza epidemic of 1918 caused a further shortage among employ able persons of both sexes. Then, too, the restriction of immigration shut off the continuously fresh supply of young adult men that pre viously had been available year after year throughout the entire history of the country. Inasmuch as the census of 1920 was taken on January 1 of that year, before the chaotic industrial conditions peculiar to war time had even partially subsided, the employment of women to fill the resultant gap had not yet been effected on a per manent basis. At the same time the war succeeded in. breaking down many imagi nary barriers that had existed since time immemorial in the minds of people of all classes. Even in parts of the country where the position of women has always been that of traditional conservatism, women 1 2 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 recently have been taking up trades, businesses, and professions formerly held sacred to men. The prevailing attitude of married women and of women with high social status regarding the subject of their own employment was not even dreamed of in this country 20 years ago. No picture of unemployment was intended by these census statistics on women’s occupations; rather, in conformity with ideas of the Bureau of the Census, this figure of 10,752,116 working women in the United States “represents all persons who usually work at a gainful occupa tion and includes such persons temporarily unemployed at the time the census was taken.”1 However, the census enumerator was left to decide what constituted temporary unemployment, and there is no positive assurance that he took time to explain to each person inter viewed that the usual occupation was what he wanted to know. Many women whose factory or mercantile employment had ceased around Christmas, 1929, and who saw no chance of reemployment in the immediate future, undoubtedly stated that they had no occupa tion when interviewed in April. Presumably the enumerator accepted this statement without question, in some instances at least. Especially would this be true when the enumerator found the temporarily un employed married woman busily engaged as a housewife at the time she was interviewed. In certain cases he no doubt assumed, without giving the matter serious thought, that she had always been so engaged, but the number of such instances is problematical. In other words, the enumerator may have obtained neither the usual occupa tion nor the fact of unemployment in the case of certain women who had been out of work for some time and who said off-hand that they had no occupation. It is not improbable that more unemployed women than men may thus have been entirely omitted from the number of gainful workers as listed by the census, and these omissions may include more married women than single women. If this be true, then the number of working women enumerated in 1930, large as it is, may even be a slight understatement of those usually engaged in gainful occupations, and the figure may reflect to a slight degree the extent of lessened industrial activity, though the bureau’s instructions 2 ruled otherwise. A difficult situation is encountered when one attempts to compare 1930 census occupation statistics with those for 1920. The difficulty has its root in the fact that the 1920 census was taken on January 1, less than 14 months after the signing of the armistice. By that time strenuous efforts were being made to bring the country back to its pre-war status, yet apparently little had been achieved except in the case of munitions plants and other factories that made war requisites. The use of 1920 statistics as a basis of comparison is made doubly difficult by the fact that progress toward return to a pre-war basis was by no means comparable in different types of industries, some of which had accomplished little or nothing while others had made considerable advance in this direction. Most of the soldiers had returned to their homes by January, 1920, but not all of these returned soldiers had found jobs by the census date, and many were admittedly at work in jobs taken as stop-gaps 1 Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930. United States Summary. Composition and Characteristics of the Population. Washington, 1931, p. 11. 2 See Appendix B, p. 86. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 3 only. Furthermore, in the year 1920 the cost of living (index based on 1913) as determined by the Bureau of Labor Statistics had reached its peak. All these facts combine to make 1920 not only an extremely unusual year on which to base a comparison of social trends, but possibly one of the most abnormal years the country has ever known. Nor is this year representative of any distinct period. If the census had been taken in 1918, the occupational data would have portrayed employ ment conditions when war activities were at their peak. In reality, however, 1920 was a year that typified neither ante-bellum nor postbellum conditions with any degree of fidelity; nor can this year be considered as illustrative of war activities at their zenith. For these reasons, comparisons between 1910 and 1930 are to be preferred in some respects to those made between 1920 and 1930; on the other hand, the 1930 occupation classification is much more comparable to that of 1920 than to that of 1910. The census of 1930 was taken on April 1, and this, too, has been considered an abnormal time, in that the early stages of the depression were evident, though at the moment nearly everyone thought the country would soon be back on the highroad to prosperity. After the inflated days of 1928 and 1929 the relatively poor spring season of 1930 seemed extremely inauspicious. In retrospect, however, the census date, now more than two years past, appears in the light of a fairly prosperous era. At any rate, conditions in the spring of 1930 probably attained as close an approach to a theoretical normal as is ever the case when a census is taken. According to the New York Times weekly business index, industrial activity in this coun try was approxi mately 96.5 per cent of normal on April 1, 1930, the census date, though this fact was realized with difficulty at the time because of the supernormal period of prosperity that immediately preceded it. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS The really significant deduction to be made from a study of 1930 occupation statistics is that an unexpectedly large increase has taken place among women usually at work, whether one considers merely the last decade or the 20-year period from 1910 to 1930. Moreover, if the comparison is confined to women in nonagricultural pursuits the increase in the number of gainfully occupied women is even greater. The numerical gain among women usually at work is accentuated further by the great reduction in child labor that becomes evident when one compares 1920 and 1930 occupation statistics. A decline of 40.5 per cent took place among employed girls 10 to 15 years of age, whereas in the larger group 10 to 17 years of age the decline was only 24.6 per cent. It is true that in 1930 only a very small proportion of all women who work for a monetary consideration were engaged in pursuits not followed by women for many years. In fact, the proportion of women in jobs considered unusual for them to pursue was apparently even smaller in 1930 than it was in 1920, when they had recently had the incentive to undertake a man’s work in order to release him for war duty. When the earlier censuses are adjusted to the 1930 classifica tion those occupations in which no women whatever were employed 4 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 declined in number from 39 in 1910 to 23 in 1920 and rose again to 30 in the decade following. To be sure, decided changes have occurred in the distribution of women among the various gainful pursuits. According to the latest census, 30 occupations employed each at least 50,000 women; the same was true of 1920, whereas in 1910 there were but 28 such pursuits. The census of 1910 listed 165 occupations in which 1,000 or more women were engaged; 10 years later the number had increased to 191, and in 1930 it was 208. It is evident that the occupational field for women has broadened since 1910 instead of concentrating on a few long-established occupations. Furthermore, this occupational field was slightly broader in 1920 than seems to have been the case in 1930, probably because of war conditions. . Servants ranked first as a woman-employing occupation both in 1920 and in 1930; in 1910, however, first place was held by farm laborers, the occupation that ranked sixth in 1930. Servants com prised the only pursuit to qualify with a million or more women at each of the last three censuses. School-teachers advanced from fourth place in 1910 to second place in 1930, while stenographers and typists, the third occupation in 1930 from a numerical standpoint, ranked eighth in 1910. Between 1920 and 1930 the greatest increases occurred among women in professional service, in domestic and personal service, in trade, and in the clerical occupations. Agricultural pursuits con tinued to decline, while women in the manufacturing and mechanical industries decreased somewhat from 1920 to 1930 after malting a relatively slight advance from 1910 to 1920. Inasmuch as an increase is recorded for women factory operatives, though not a very large one, the recent decline in the total number of women in the manufacturing and mechanical industries must be traced to the diminution among those women engaged in the various sewing trades. The three major sewing occupations—dressmaldng, millinery, and tailoring—decreased by 117,108 women between 1920 and 1930, whereas women operatives in clothing factories showed a net gain of 81,108. To a large extent these changes represent the development of factory production at the expense of home activities. The decade 1920 to 1930 saw increases of 200,000 or more women in the occupations of servant, office clerk, school-teacher, and stenog rapher and typist, while in each of eight other pursuits a gain of 50,000 or more women took place. Probably the greatest change in the past decade was the reversal in trend among servants, the occupation that scored an increase of 61.5 per cent from 1920 to 1930 compared with a 22.7 per cent decline during the preceding 10-year period. Four prominent occupations have waned in importance since 1910, though their decline was retarded somewhat during the second half of the period. Two major pursuits—dressmakers and farm laborers— had decreases of more than 50,000 women since 1920, but milliners and home laundresses as well suffered considerable losses. If the women employed as farm laborers, dressmakers, milliners, and home laun dresses had but held their own in number from 1910 to 1930, the increase among working women would have been 50.7 per cent instead of 33.1 per cent. To pursue the idea further, if the women in these four occupations had shown a gain in number commensurate with that of the female population from 1910 to 1930, the total number of gain SUMMARY OP FINDINGS 5 fully occupied women would have advanced 64 per cent during these two decades, practically double the increase that actually occurred. Changes in the employment of women in the manufacturing and mechanical industries were far less striking between 1920 and 1930 than during the preceding decade. Women operatives in factories of all kinds increased by 115,610 between 1920 and 1930, but even this small gain of 8.6 per cent was partially offset by a loss of 40,197 women classed as factory laborers. Only in the production of clothing, food, automobiles, chemicals (principally rayon), and electrical products did women operatives in the country’s industrial plants register a gain of at least 5,000 and a per cent increase commensurate with the growth of the female population. Inasmuch as the increase among female factory operatives reached the figure of 298,952, or 28.6 per cent, between 1910 and 1920, it is obvious that the advance in the employ ment of women as factory operatives has slowed up considerably since the war emergency subsided. With reference to factory operatives, by far the greatest numerical gains were made by the women in the clothing industries; this group increased by 81,000, while the second in rank—electrical machinery and supplies—increased by less than 18,000. In several industries women experienced appreciable declines between 1920 and 1930 after making marked gains during the earlier decade. Conspicuous among these were employees in cigar and to bacco factories, in candy factories, and in textile industries as a whole, though not in all their subdivisions. Many of these changes are indicative of changes within the indus tries themselves and show similar growth or decline for men. Further more, some part of these increases and decreases among industrial employees may hinge on the change in census date from January 1 in 1920 to April 1 in 1930. Ordinarily, January represents a dull point in industry, followed by a season of high activity in the spring. The greatest increase in any one occupation of importance, consid ered over a 20-year period, is shown for office clerks, as distinguished from stenographers and bookkeepers; since 1910 the number of women in this pursuit has increased nearly 600,000, or 476 per cent. In 1930 hairdressers and manicurists were five times as numerous as they were 20 years earlier. Trained nurses and stenographers and typists also made enormous numerical gains between 1910 and 1930, while eight other occupations, each with 50,000 or more women in 1930, more than doubled in number during these two decades. Women operatives and laborers outnumbered men in 12 manu facturing industries, not only in 1930 but in 1920. Among these were the clothing industries as a whole and four of their subdivisions, silk mills, knitting mills, cigar and tobacco factories, and candy factories. Although the increase among gainfully occupied women was greater between 1920 and 1930 than the gain in female population 10 years of age and over, the opposite is true of men. This decade saw an increase of 15.2 per cent among gainfully occupied men, compared to an 18.1 per cent advance in the male population 10 years of age or more. In 17 important occupations (exclusive of subtotals) men are increasing in number more rapidly than are women, whereas in 26 pursuits women are registering greater relative gains. This statement 6 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 is based on changes occurring between 1910 and 1930 in the number of men per 100 women in all occupations of numerical importance to both sexes. For example, men are taking the territory formerly held by women as compositors, linotypers, and typesetters; to a less degree they are increasing in number more rapidly than are women as textilemill operatives. In addition, men musicians and music teachers are now enjoying the numerical supremacy that women maintained in these professions for decades. On the other hand, women are registering relative gains as college presidents and professors, real-estate agents, automobile-factory operatives, telegraph operators, and barbers, hairdressers, and mani curists, though in each of these pursuits the number of men still is greatly in excess of the number of women. In most of these occupations the number of women, already large, is increasing with the growth of the pursuit. In the case of real-estate agents and officials, positions in which women have heretofore been represented to only a small extent, it is evident that women are enter ing these commercial pursuits in considerable numbers and are gaining ground to a marked degree. As stenographers and typists women are pressing the advantage they so long have held; as office clerks they have advanced to a remarkable extent; and as bookkeepers and cashiers they have taken away from men the superiority in numbers that the male sex had always held prior to 1920. American women have advanced by great strides in the clerical occupations, in the professions, and in the field of business—three great groups of pursuits that form the backbone of the so-called “white-collar” occupations. The vast number of women engaged in such occupations and the increases registered during the past two decades reflect among other things the extent of the educational advantages open to the women of this country. It is true that some of the pursuits discussed require initiative and ability rather than education, but the woman who succeeds is, after all,, the one who possesses these characteristics enhanced by education and by training. Students of social changes will watch carefully to see how American women in the higher-class occupations weather the depression. When the census of 1940 rolls around, will they still be holding their own in the professions, in clerical positions, and in the realm of business? CHANGES IN NUMBER AND PROPORTION OF WOMEN IN GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS In the general divisions of occupations all gainfully employed women are classified, with a fair degree of accuracy, according to industry or place of work. These general divisions may be assembled into three main groups: The extractive industries, wdiich include agriculture, forestry and fishing, and the extraction of minerals; industry proper, consisting of the manufacturing and mechanical industries, transportation and communication, and trade; and the service groups, in which belong professional service, domestic and personal service, and the residuary public-service group. In addition, clerical occupations are considered separately on the ground that these pursuits are carried on in each general division of occupations. 7 GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS The 10,752,116 women who told census enumerators on April 1, 1930, that usually they had gainful occupations, comprised 22 per cent of all American women 10 years of age and over. This proportion is somewhat higher than the corresponding percentage of women at work in 1920, but it is just as much lower than the proportion of women who were gainfully employed in 1910. Because of an admitted over statement in the number of women following agricultural pursuits in 1910, the extent of the general tendency toward the increasing employment of women in this country is obscured if women in all occupations are compared. In 1930 women engaged in nonagricultural pursuits comprised 20.2 per cent of all women 10 years of age and over, compared with 18.5 per cent in 1920 and 18.1 per cent in 1910. These figures demonstrate how much greater has been the increase between 1920 and 1930 in the number of women usually employed than was the case in the preceding 10-year period. Table 1 shows the proportion of all gainfully occupied women engaged in each general division of occupations in 1930, in 1920, and in 1910. Table 1.—Number and per cent distribution of gainfully occupied women 10 years of age and over, by general division of occupations: 1930, 1920f and 1910 Gainfully occupied women Number 1910 1920 1930 Per cent distri bution Number Per cent distri bution Number Per cent distri bution -------------------------- 10,752,116 100.0 8,549,511 100.0 8,075,772 100.0 Agriculture, forestry, and fishing............... ... 910,268 8.5 1,083,819 12.7 1,807,181 22.4 Nonagricultural pursuits....... ............ ........... 9,841,848 91.5 7,465,692 87.3 6,268, 591 Extraction of minerals ___ - - -------Manufacturing and mechanical indus- 759 All occupations Transportation and communication....... Public service (not elsewhere classified). Domestic and personal service................. Clerical occupations........................ .......... 1,886,307 281,204 962,680 17,583 1, 526,234 3,180,251 1, 986,830 « 17.5 2.6 9.0 .2 14.2 29.6 18.5 2,864 1,930, 352 224,270 671,983 10,586 1,017,030 2,186,682 1,421,925 (■) 22.6 2.6 7.9 .1 11.9 25.6 16.6 1,094 1,820,847 115,347 472, 703 4,836 734, 752 2,530,403 588,609 77.6 « 22.5 1.4 5.9 .1 9.1 31.3 7.3 i Less than 0.05 per cent. Because the number of women at work in the extraction of minerals is very small, this general division is not discussed in this report. The few women engaged in forestry and fishing, a general division shown separately by the Bureau of the Census, are combined with those in agriculture throughout this study. _ Between 1920 and 1930 the number of women increased in all general divisions of occupations with the exception of agriculture, forestry and fishing, the extraction of minerals, and the manufacturing and mechanical industries. (See Table 2.) In each of the other six general divisions of occupations the percentage of increase in the number of women outstripped the growth of the female population Chart I. OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF WOMEN: 1930, 1920, AND 1910 Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Manufacturing and mechanical industries 8.5 12.7 22.4 17.5 22.6 22.5 Transportation and communication 2.6 2.6 cent VATSSSSSSSj frssss/sj50 I r/vm 1.4 Trade Public service (not elsewhere classified) 9.0 7.9 5.9 VSSSSSSS/SSS/SSj .2 1930 1920 1910 .1 .1 Professional service 14.2 11.9 9.1 v/ssssss/sa Domestic and personal servioe 29.6 25.6 31.3 YSS/SSSS/SA Clerical occupations 18.5 16.6 7.3 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF W OMEN, 1910 TO 1930 Per 00 9 GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS 10 years of age and over. In fact, during this decade women, in four of the general divisions registered a rate of increase more than double that shown for the female population. Table 2.—Number and per cent of increase or decrease among women engaged in each general division of occupations from 1980 to 1980, from 1910 to 1920, and from 1910 to 1930 Increase or de Increase or de Increase or de crease, 1920 to 1930 crease, 1910 to 1920 crease, 1910 to 1930 General division of occupations Number Population 10 years of age and over ----All occupations___ ________ _ - Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Nonagricultural pursuits-----------------Extraction of minerals -------------------Manufacturing and mechanical indus tries------- --------------------------------Transportation and communication___ Trade------------------------------------------Public service (not elsewhere classified) Professional service- ______________ Domestic and personal service -------Clerical occupations____ Per cent Number +8,323,903 +20.6 +5,896,634 +473, 739 +2,202,605 +25.8 -173,551 -16.0 Per cent Number +17.1 +14,220,537 +5.9 +2,676,344 Per cent +41.2 +33.1 -723,362 -40.0 -896,913 -49.6 +2,376,156 +31.8 +1,197,101 +19.1 +3,573,257 +57.0 -2,105 -73.5 +1,770 +161.8 -335 -30.6 -2.3 +25.4 +43.3 +66.1 +50.1 +45.4 +39.7 +109,505 +6.0 +108,923 +94.4 +199,280 +42.2 +5, 750 + 118.9 +282,278 +38.4 -343,721 -13.6 +833,316 +141.6 +65,460 +165, 857 +489, 977 +12, 747 +791,482 +649,848 +1,398,221 +3.6 +143.8 +103.7 +263.6 +107. 7 +25.7 +237. 5 -44,045 +56,934 +290,697 +6, 997 +509,204 +993,569 +564,905 MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES In general. In 1930 the number of American women usually at work in the manufacturing and mechanical industries was 1,886,307, or 17.5 per cent of all gainfully occupied women. According to Table 1, the pro portion of working women engaged in this general division of occupa tions has decreased considerably since 1910. To be sure, an increase of 109,505 women was recorded in the manufacturing and mechanical industries between 1910 and 1920, but this gain was by no means commensurate with the growth of the female population 10 years of age and over. Later, from 1920 to 1930, an actual decline of 44,045, or 2.3 per cent, was experienced among women in this large industrial group. These facts are strikingly brought out in Table 2, which shows the actual increase or decrease in the number of women at work in each general division of occupations. A correlation of age and occupation shows that all of this decrease, and more, was among girls under 16, whose number declined by 47,921, while the number of women of 16 years and over increased by 3,876. Manufacturing and mechanical industries include not only all fac tory operatives and laborers, with their proprietors, officials, managers, and forewomen, but persons engaged in building and the other hand trades, together with their apprentices. Clerks in factories are listed with the clerical pursuits. It must not be assumed that all occupational groups classed under manufacturing and mechanical industries registered declines during the decade 1920 to 1930. In fact, the number of women factory oper atives increased by 115,610, or 8.6 per cent, during this period, while much smaller numerical gains were recorded for manufacturers, factory managers and officials, and women bakers. 10 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 Although women employed as factory laborers decreased by 40,197, or 26.1 per cent, the great bulk of the decline in the manufacturing and mechanical industries is confined to women in the various sewing trades, almost wholly nonfactory operations. The decrease among women in these sewing trades corresponds closely to the gain among women factory operatives, with the result that the decline noted for factory laborers remains practically a net loss to the manufacturing and mechanical industries. Table 3 shows in some detail the changes in the different main groups included in this general division of occupations. Table 3.— Women engaged in manufacturing and mechanical industries, with num ber and per cent of increase or decrease, according to occupation: 1930 and 1920 Women engaged in manufacturing and mechanical industries Occupation 1930 1920 Increase or de crease, 1920 to 1930 Number All occupations_________________________________ Per cejit 1,880, 307 1,930,352 -44,045 -2.3 Factory operatives 1___________________________________ Factory laborers 1_______ ______________________________ Forewomen and overseers (manufacturing) Manufacturers, managers, and officials (manufacturing) 1,458, 776 113,984 28, 467 16,133 1, 343,166 154,181 30,171 13,276 +115,610 -40,197 -1,704 +2,857 +8.6 -26. 1 -5.6 +21.5 Sewing trades............................................................... ............... . 219,837 336, 945 -117,108 -34.8 157, 928 40,102 21,807 235, 519 69, 598 31,828 -77, 591 -29,496 -10,021 -32.9 -42.4 -31.5 10, 269 8, 916 11,306 4,593 -1,037 +4,323 -9.2 +94.1 Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory) Milliners and millinery dealers.___ ________________ Tailoresses.......................... ........ _•___________ _________ Compositors, linotypers, and typesetters_______________ __ Bakers____________ _______ _____ Apprentices (manufacturing and mechanical) 3,897 9,433 -5,536 -58. 7 Dressmakers' and milliners’ apprentices____ ___________ Other apprentices____________ _____________________ 2,161 1,736 4,309 5,124 -2,148 -3, 388 -49.8 -66.1 Building operatives and laborers and general and not specified laborers____________ _______ _____ ______ ____________ All other occupations"IIIIII" 11,558 14,470 15,255 12, 026 -3, 697 +2,444 -24.2 +20.3 1 For definition see p. 12. In 1930 more than a quarter of a million women in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits were not classed as factory operatives, managers and forewomen, or laborers. They constituted 14.3 per cent of all women in the manufacturing and mechanical industries. Two hundred and twenty thousand of these were in trades in which women have been numerically prominent for generations, grouped for convenience in discussion as the sewing trades. Striking differ ences may be observed, however, among these occupations. Only those sewers who are not working in factories are classed as dressmakers and seamstresses, a group that necessarily includes some women not especially skilled. It is recognized that a very few of the milliners and millinery dealers may not even know how to sew, espe cially since the millinery business has in recent years become more a GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS 11 commercial pursuit than a hand trade. The tailoresses include skilled women who work in clothing factories as well as those who carry on their trade in old-fashioned tailor shops. So far as is practi cable, however, these three groups are confined to women who earn their living according to old-school methods and not by performing the repetitious processes common to clothing factoiies. These sew ing trades reached their heyday in 1910, when 611,020 women were engaged in them; in 1930 those at work in the same pursuits com prised only 36 per cent of this number. The decline in these sewing occupations coincides with certain changes in the industrial order in this country. Their lessened im portance gives point to the development of specialized manufactur ing processes at the expense of the skilled hand trades. Only among tailoresses may factory sewers be found, and in this group the dec'ine has been the least, not only in number but in per cent. If accurate figures covering three censuses were available for tailors outside of factories, probably a much greater decrease would be shown. It becomes increasingly evident that the average American woman prefers ready-made clothing to the product of the home dressmaker; in fact, the manufacture of ready-to-wear garments has now reached a stage of efficiency where their purchase represents a saving of time, energy, and money. The willingness of men to purchase ready-made clothing seems equally in evidence. It is no mere coincidence that the decrease of 117,108 among more or less skilled women in the sewing trades is met by an increase of 81,108 women operatives in clothing factories. Certain hand trades that women have followed to some extent in the past recorded numerical gains during the decade under considera tion. For example, the 8,916 women bakers almost doubled in num ber from 1920 to 1930, though a slight decline was recorded among women in this occupation during the preceding 10-year period. Enamelers, lacquerers, and japanners have evidenced a similar tendency toward a recent advance after a decline in the earlier decade. The number of women engravers, on the other hand, increased in both decades, though to no great extent. As compositors, linotypers, and typesetters, women are losing ground. Although their numerical decrease has not been great, the number of men in this trade has gained so rapidly that at the date of the last census 17 men were at work in this skilled pursuit for each woman so employed, whereas hi 1910 the ratio was 8 men per woman. Declines have been observed among women jewelers and lapidaries in factories since 1910, but the employment of men has fallen off at approximately the same rate, so that these figures seem merely to reflect the lack of advance in the manufacturing jewelry industry. As jewelers and watchmakers not in factory the employment of women changes but little. The hand trades enumerated combine lighter work and less rigid apprenticeship than do most other trades; no doubt these features explain their attraction for women. Nevertheless, if the sewing occupations be excepted, relatively few women are at work in all these hand trades in the aggregate. 155543°—33---- 2 12 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 Unusual trades for women. The building trades and certain of the hand trades constitute one of the last strongholds of which men have a monopoly. Although a few women may return their occupations as electricians, carpenters, or house painters, their numbers are extremely small, and each such return is challenged by the Bureau of the Census in an effort to elimi nate all obvious errors, such as entries on the wrong line. The widow who continues to run her husband’s plumbing or car penter shop after his death has a tendency to return her occupation as a plumber or carpenter, though she may never have had the tools of the trade in her hands. Likewise, the girl who becomes expert in the operation of a certain machine, may, after long experience in a factory, decide to return her occupation as a machinist. Largely because of such returns, the error in the number of women reported in the building and hand trades is believed to be high, though every practicable means has been used to insure the accuracy of figures showing women in unusual occupations. On April 1, 1930, no women were employed in the following building and hand trades: Boilermakers; coopers; mechanics in railroads and car shops; cement finishers; pressmen and plate printers (printing); rollers and roll hands (metal); roofers and slaters, and structural iron workers (building). Fewer than 10 women were reported in each of the following occupations: Blacksmiths, forgemen, and hammermen; brick and stone masons and tile layers; cabinetmakers; machinists; millwrights; mechanics in air transportation; brass molders, founders, and casters; iron molders, founders, and casters; plasterers; plumbers and gas and steam fitters; stonecutters; and tinsmiths and copper smiths. In 1930 women to the number of 2,336 were employed as metal filers, grinders, buffers, and polishers; this group has declined slightly in number since 1910. Of these 2,336 women, 1,581 earned their living as metal buffers and polishers. Forty-one women were at work as oilers of machinery in factories. No women were employed in 1930 as metal rollers, fumacemen, smeltermen, pourers, or puddlers, but one gave her occupation as metal heater. Women in factories. Women factory operatives numbered 1,458,776 in 1930, an increase of 115,610, or 8.6 per cent, in a decade. Between 1910 and 1920, however, the increase among female operatives reached the figure of 298,952, or 28.6 per cent. In other words, the advance in the employ ment of women as factory operatives has slowed up considerably since the war emergency subsided. In the parlance of the Bureau of the Census, factory operatives are those persons engaged in the actual manufacture of the industry’s product, while the employees who fetch and carry materials to and from the operatives and who do other heavy, menial work are desig nated as laborers. Comparatively few women actually do laboring work in factories, but a number classified as laborers are in reality sweepers and scrubbers who come in at night to clean during the absence of the operatives. In fact, employers willing to hire women for genuine laboring work in factories are not numerous, probably because they find such employment unprofitable in the end. GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS 13 Though nearly all women who work in factories are operatives with out question, census enumerators returned 113,984 women as factory laborers in 1930, compared with 154,181 in 1920. It is impossible to determine what proportion of this 26 per cent decline actually took place in the employment of women as factory laborers and what proportion may he attributed to the superior enumeration and classi fication of census data that unquestionably existed in 1930. If operatives and laborers be combined, an increase of but 75,413, or 5 per cent, took place among female factory employees between 1920 and 1930. In 1930, textile mills, with 452,007 women employed as operatives and laborers, ranked first among the woman-employing industries of this country, while clothing industries, with 353,486 women workers, were second. Food and allied industries were third in numerical importance, with 106,670 women employees, and the 97,348 women workers in leather industries caused that group of manufacturing plants to rank fourth. A number of different kinds of industrial plants form the component parts of each of these large groups of industries, however, making the inclusive figures less significant. For example, 89 per cent of the women in the leather industries are employed in shoe factories, one of five kinds of plants in this industrial category. More than half the women operatives and laborers in factories in the United States are at work in textile mills or clothing factories. But the traditions of these two great groups of industries are widely at variance. As long as women have worked in factories, for that length of time have vast numbers of them toiled in textile mills; in fact, even this group of 452,007 textile-mill employees represents a slight decline from 1920 to 1930 and an increase of but 12 per cent since 1910. On the other hand, the employment of so many women in the clothing industries is a development of comparatively recent origin; in this group women have increased 30 per cent during the past 10 years, though between 1910 and 1920 the gain among women at work in the clothing industries was but 12 per cent. Women have always engaged in the making of clothing, but in the past they sewed at home. It may definitely be said that the increase among women in the factory production of clothing has taken place at the expense of women in the various sewing trades. Sixty-one per cent of all the women hi the clothing industries are at work in factories making chiefly women’s nontailored garments, and it is in this group that practically all the recent increase has occurred. 14 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 Table 4.—Number of women employed in the clothing industries and in the textile industries and in their component groups of factories: 1930, 1930, and 1910 Number of women em ployed in— Number of women em ployed in— Occupation and industry Occupation and industry 1930 1920 Clothing industries-. 353,486 272, 005 242, 086 Operatives______ ______ 346, ?51 265,643 237,270 Laborers.. __________ 6, 735 4,816 6,362 Corset factories 10, 286 12,104 12,246 Operatives Laborers 10,069 217 11,527 577 11,698 548 ___ 14,119 17,631 14,410 Operatives 13, 510 Laborers. ___ _____ 609 16,773 858 13,986 424 Glove factories.___ 1930 1920 1910 __________ 12,715 10, 959 20,024 12,123 592 10, 384 575 19,692 332 1910 Carpet mills Operatives Laborers._ Cotton mills_____ ___ 154,763 165,854 146,433 Laborers_______ Knitting mills 145,683 149,185 140,666 9,080 16,669 5, 767 ________ 93, 331 Operatives_________ Laborers. 86,022 68,878 89, 803 3,528 80,682 5,340 65, 338 3, 540 8,649 6,626 10, 536 Lace and embroidery mills. 7,321 13, 264 11, 928 Operatives______ . Laborers. _________ 8, 473 176 6,462 164 10, 318 218 Operatives____ _____ Laborers 7,196 125 12,997 267 11,691 237 Shirt, collar, and cuff factories. .. . ____ 75,848 47, 585 43,407 48, 221 75,498 51, 472 Operatives................ Laborers._ 45, 763 1,822 42,016 1, 391 46, 858 1, 363 Operatives. . ......... . 73,690 Laborers. ---- ---------- 2,158 72,768 2, 730 50, 360 1,112 Suit, coat, and overall factories ... .............. . .. 57,921 66, 280 63, 867 64, 515 1,765 62, 598 1,269 Other clothing factories. __ 214,926 125,957 92, 806 Operatives_________ 212, 353 124, 350 Laborers__ ._ 1,607 2,573 91, 812 994 Hat factories (felt) Operatives Laborers. .. Silk mills 56, 583 1, 338 Textile industries... 452,007 471, 332 401, 986 Operatives 432, 250 438,363 385, 947 19, 757 32,969 16,039 Textile dyeing, finishing, and printing mills.. 5,980 6. 302 5,799 Operatives............... . Laborers___________ 5,666 314 5, 582 720 5,203 596 Woolen and worsted mills. 50,858 65, 704 54,101 49,060 1, 798 61,715 3, 989 52,056 2,045 51,191 47, 729 43,351 Operatives....... ........... 49,029 Laborers_______ ____ 2,162 45, 050 2,679 40,941 2,410 Operatives. Laborers _ _ Other textile mills 1 _____ ____ 1 Included in this group are hemp, jute, and linen mills, rope and cordage factories, sail, awning, and tent factories, and other and not specified textile mills. Because of their importance as woman-employing industries, textile mills and clothing industries are shown in Table 4 with the number of female employees in each subdivision. It is interesting to observe that, despite changing styles in fabrics and all the recent vicissitudes of the cotton industry, no other single type of manufacturing plant employed so many women as did the cotton mills, with 154,763 female employees in 1930. And even this number represents a decline of 11,091 since 1920. Emitting mills, with 93,331 women operatives and laborers, ranked numerically as the second textile industry of importance, followed by silk mills with 75,848 women, and woolen and worsted mills with 50,858. _ Chart II illustrates the change since 1910 in the employment of women in those branches of industry having 50,000 or more women operatives and laborers in 1930. Because of their vast numbers, employees in textile industries as a whole could not be included in this chart. 15 GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS Manufacturing industries in which women predominate. Women outnumbered men in 12 manufacturing industries, not only in 1930 but in 1920. Among these were the clothing industries as a whole, in addition to four of their six subdivisions; also silk mills, •s 'H 2 0 0)14 © ® Li © Li h*2 2 © oO o oO) O O © -5 at U -P to o W *s X rH to in to to to to to co fr» CO -M* to CM CM ID t> t" to CM CM to in to O O to C~ t- CM to ■M' CD ID CO «* CO CO to CM C— to O CO to CO i-I CD tf -M* ■«* 0> IflN H to CM O ■M* CD CO r- o c~ tO cO id cn CO to to to CO CD t- tO ffl rt CD t- tO ID tO n* •# t~ tO t* cn t> O O OS t- t" CM co to to to t- to O in in to in CM t» t- m ©R "HLi X <0 •H© f—l© V TiO ■P P © U +> knitting mills, cigar and tobacco factories, candy factories, and three kinds of industrial plants that are of slight importance numerically. The number of men and women at work in these 12 industries is shown in Table 5. 16 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 Table 5.—Men and women employees 1 in those manufacturing industries in which women predominated in 1980 and in 1980, with corresponding figures for 1910 1920 1930 1910 Industry Men Women Men Women Men Women Blank-book, envelope, tag, paper-bag, etc., factories____ _____ _____ Candy factories. _______ ___ ______ Cigar and tobacco factories. _ ____ ____ 9, 560 21,484 49,861 11, 493 28, 538 74, 435 7, 763 25,311 82, 557 9,386 33, 554 97,822 4, 518 15, 453 91, 392 7,071 18, 468 76,801 Clothing industries 2 ....... ..................... 150, 716 353,486 150,132 272,005 154, 290 242,086 Corset factories Glove factories __________________ Shirt, collar, and cuff factories Other clothing factories 3 985 5, 505 12,022 60, 611 10, 286 14,119 47, 585 214,926 1, 309 7, 483 11,678 32,545 12,104 17, 631 43, 407 125,957 1,661 5,799 14,132 31,360 12, 246 14, 410 48, 221 92,806 50,087 4,665 7, 753 61,000 93, 331 7, 321 9,118 75,848 33, 525 6,763 9,478 50, 303 86,022 13, 264 14,358 75,498 26, 792 4, 804 5,653 31, 705 68,878 11,928 13,667 51, 472 Knitting mills Lace and embroidery mills .... ----Paper-box factories..------- . -------------Silk mills 1 Includes operatives and laborers. 2 Includes felt-bat factories and suit, coat, and overall factories, as well as the four kinds of clothing fac tories listed. ■ 2 Exclusive of felt-hat factories and suit, coat, and overall factories. Cigar and tobacco factories represent the only instance of an in dustry where women gained in 1920 and held in 1930 the numerical supremacy that they lacked in 1910. According to the last census, 74,435 women were employed in this industry, which has experienced an enormous decline since 1920 in the number both of men and of women operatives and laborers. In the textile industries as a whole women operatives have been more numerous than men at each of the last three censuses, but these industries employ so many men as laborers that only in 1910 have women employees as a whole predominated. Women were in the majority in straw and straw-hat factories, both in 1930 and in 1910, but not in 1920; at the date of the last census this industry had very few employees of either sex, straw hats not being worn to any great extent. _ Apparently, women are holding their own better than men are in suit, coat, and overall factories, that branch of the clothing industry in which most tailoring processes are carried on. Both sexes have decreased greatly in numbers, but women were more numerous than men in 1930, though men were enormously in the lead in 1920 and 1910. Industries in which women operatives have increased at least 5,000 since 1920. An interesting study is afforded by those manufacturing industries in which the decade 1920 to 1930 has seen an increase of 5,000 or more women operatives, though the gain in per cent is not large in every instance. These changes appear in Table 6. 17 GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS Table 6.—Manufacturing industries in each of which the number of women opera tives increased 5,000 or more from 1920 to 1930, with number and per cent of increase, and with corresponding increase from 1910 to 1920 Increase, 1920 to 1930 Increase, 1910 to 1920 Occupation and industry Number Per cent Number Per cent Operatives: Rayon factories 2_____ _______ 30.5 65.4 28,373 16,348 12.0 148.1 15,489 21.2 34,658 90.2 7,246 114.9 3,143 99.4 9,734 50.9 5,453 81,108 17,926 _.. 10,853 « « 39.9 (>) 8,956 10.8 17, 287 26.4 8,139 11.1 14,146 23.9 9,121 6,244 11.3 48.8 15, 344 11,940 23.5 1,408.0 1 The number of women operatives in “other clothing factories” increased 88,003 from 1920 to 1930; these factories produce women’s dresses, blouses, underwear, and other nontailored garments. The increase among women operatives in clothing industries of other kinds was negligible or else there was an actual decrease. 2 Inasmuch as rayon factories were not included among the industries listed by the Bureau of the Census in 1920 and in 1910, the number of women operatives given as the increase between 1920 and 1930 equals the entire number so employed in 1930. Except in clothing industries, great numerical increases did not occur between 1920 and 1930 to the extent that they did during the preceding decade. On the whole, however, healthy gains were re corded in 10 classes, not only from 1920 to 1930 but during the earlier 10-year period. Among these are clothing industries as a whole, electri cal machinery and supply factories, food and allied industries, chemical and allied industries, knitting mills, leather industries, automobile factories, and certain subdivisions of these major groups. But only in the production of electrical supplies, chemicals, automobiles, cloth ing, and food have women in the country’s industrial plants registered gains in the last decade at least commensurate with the 20.6 per cent growth in the female population 10 years of age and over. The numerical increase among women operatives in clothing in dustries overshadows all other gains between 1920 and 1930. Con sidering specific types of manufacturing plants rather than groups of related industries, it is apparent from Table 6 that during the last decade women operatives increased most in those clothing factories other than glove, corset, felt-hat, shirt, suit, coat, and overall facto ries ; in other words, the greatest increase was found among women in the plants that manufacture women’s dresses, blouses, underwear, and similar nontailored garments. Likewise, nearly half the increase recorded among women operatives in the food industries occurred among those at work in fruit and vegetable canneries, just as the major gain among factory hands in the leather industries is attributa ble to shoe-factory operatives. (Table 6.) Rayon factories comprise a new industry for which no data were available in 1920. At that time the Bureau of the Census classed such artificial silk-mill operatives as were returned with textile mills not specified. Because of the many chemical processes involved in 18 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 the manufacture of rayon these factories are classed with chemical and allied industries. On the other hand, plants that produce rayon fabrics after the chemical processes have been completed are classed with knitting mills or with “other textile” mills, according to whether the rayon yarn is knitted or woven. Were it not for the inclusion of these rayon-factory operatives, the number of women employed as operatives in the chemical and allied industries would show a decline from 1920 to 1930. In the chemical phases of this new rayon industry the operatives of each sex number approximately 10,000. Although women employed as knitting-mill operatives and as shoefactory operatives show large numerical increases, the per cent of advance has been too slight since 1920 to keep pace with the growth of the female population. During the past two decades the greates’t percentage increases in industries employing at least 10,000 women in 1930 have been scored by women operatives in automobile facto ries, in fruit and vegetable canneries, in slaughtering and meat-packing plants, and in electrical machinery and supply factories. A further idea of the changes in the various manufacturing indus tries is afforded by Table 7, which shows those industrial occupations in which the number of women has decreased by 5,000 or more since 1920, although in each instance an increase, sometimes a large one, was recorded between 1910 and 1920. Probably no table shows more clearly the reversal in industrial trend with regard to certain industries during the two decades in question. Evidently women operatives in cigar and tobacco factories have diminished most in number, though the drop of 16,012, or 19 per cent, represents a smaller percentage decrease than appears for certain other industries. As is true of candy and paper-box manufacturing, for example, this decline has been charged to the increasing installa tion of labor-saving machinery that has displaced both men and women operatives during the past decade. Table 7.—Manufacturing industries in each of which the number of women opera tives or laborers decreased 5,000 or more from 1920 to 1930, with number and per cent of decrease, and with corresponding increase from 1910 to 1920 Decrease, 1920 to 1930 Increase, 1910 to 1920 Occupation and industry Number Per cent Number Per cent Operatives—cigar and tobacco factories------------------------------- 16,012 19.1 12,115 16.9 Laborers—textile industries -------- 13,212 40.1 16,930 105.6 ------------ 7,689 45.5 10,902 189.0 ________ 6,113 1.4 52, 416 13.6 Operatives—woolen and worsted mills.................................. Operatives—lace and embroidery mills__________ ____— 12, 655 5, 801 20.5 44.6 9,659 1,306 18.6 11.2 Operatives—suit, coat, anc’ overall factories_______ ______ Laborers—cigar and tobacco factories.......... . .. -------- 7,932 7, 375 12.3 53.2 1,917 8, 906 3.1 179.7 16.4 ---- ---------- ---------------- Laborers—cotton mills------------ ------------------Operatives—textile industries________________ 5,167 7.0 10, 416 Employees 1—paper-box factories---------- ------- --------------- 5,240 36.5 691 5.1 Operatives—straw factories------------------------------------ ------Employees i—candy factories--------------- ------- -------------------- 5,117 5, 016 80.6 14.9 2,381 15,086 60.0 81. 7 Employees 1—paper, printing, and allied industries----- ___ i Includes operatives and laborers. GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS 19 In certain cases the increases and decreases in Table 7 are merely indicative of changes within the industries themselves and are taking place among all workers regardless of sex. For example, the per centage of decline in the number of men operatives was approximately the same as for women operatives in candy factories, woolen and worsted mills, and straw factories. As in every other decade, changing styles have played an important part in the industrial development between 1920 and 1930, if the number of factory hands be any criterion. Operatives in felt-hat factories, for example, have gained in number at the expense of those in straw-hat factories, where the operatives have been nearly wiped out, with a decline of 87 per cent. Knitting mills were fairly pros perous, probably because of the continued popularity of the sweater and of so-called knitted underwear. On the other hand, women em ployees registered a decline of more than 10,000 both in cotton and in woolen mills, while silk mills little more than held their own. The number of gainful workers reported by the Bureau of the Census unquestionably reflects in some slight degree the extent of lessened industrial activity that existed in April, 1930, even though the bureau's instructions 3 to its enumerators ruled otherwise. TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION In 1930 the number of women engaged in the general division of occupations known as “transportation and communication” was 281,204, according to the census. Women in this industrial group showed an increase of 25.4 per cent from 1920 to 1930, compared with a gain of 94.4 per cent in the preceding decade. (See Table 2.) Under transportation and communication are listed pursuits con nected with water transportation; road and street transportation (including the building, repair, and cleaning of streets); railroad transportation, as well as its construction, maintenance, and repair; transportation by air, express, and pipe lines; and communication by post, radio, telegraph, and telephone. Although women pioneered in the field of transportation quite ex tensively during the war days when men had to leave their posts, there is little or no evidence to indicate that this tendency continued after the emergency had passed. Few pursuits in this general division of occupations show an increase in the number of women between 1920 and 1930. Among those that do so are chauffeurs; garage laborers; garage owners, managers, and officials; owners and managers, truck, transfer, and cab companies; postmasters; inspectors, tele graph and telephone; and proprietors, managers, and officials, tele graph and telephone. On the other hand, these groups are all very small, and the slight numerical increases recorded are offset by declines among conductors, street railway; switchmen and flagmen, steam railroad; laborers, steam and street railroad; ticket and station agents; mail carriers; telegraph messengers; telegraph operators; longshoremen and steve dores; and draymen, teamsters, and carriage drivers. Some of these declines are due to changing times, though the gradual elimination of horse-drawn vehicles, for example, has re sulted in much vaster change among men’s occupations than among 3 See Appendix B, p. 86. 20 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OP WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 those of women. Other decreases, such as that among women railroad laborers, probably are attributable to improved census enumera tion. But when it comes to street-car conductors and to switch men and flagmen on steam railroads, it is evident that, although women threw themselves into the gap during the war days, they gave up these activities when the excitement had subsided. For example, 253 women were employed as street-car conductors in 1920, though not a single one held such a job in 1910, and when 1930 rolled around only 17 women were at work in this occupation. Census returns for 1930 indicate that no women were working as bus conductors; locomotive engineers or firemen; brakemen, steam railroad; steam-railroad conductors or motormen; foremen and over seers, air transportation; hostlers or stable hands; baggagemen; boiler washers and engine hostlers; yardmen, steam railroad; switch men or flagmen, street railroad. In each of the last five pursuits mentioned a few women were at work in 1920. Sixty-six women were earning their living as aviators in 1930, as against eight in 1920. Apparently, most American girls able to fly regard this activity as an avocation, inasmuch as 197 women had been licensed as pitots by the Department of Commerce at the time of the taking of the census. Notwithstanding the fact that there were small numbers of women in many occupations under transportation and communication, the numerical increase among telephone operators alone is equivalent to the entire increment in this general division of occupations. In fact, 84 per cent of all women in transportation and communication were employed in this one job of telephone operator in 1930, as were 80 per cent in 1920. TRADE In 1930 nearly a million women were engaged in trade, whereas 20 years earlier fewer than half that number were so classed. (Table 1.) In this general division of occupations women are maintaining a steady rate of progress, inasmuch as their number increased by 43.3 per cent from 1920 to 1930, compared with an advance of 42.2 per cent during the preceding decade. (Table 2.) Wholesale and retail dealers, with most of their employees, are listed under trade. This group of pursuits includes bankers, brokers, and money lenders; real estate and insurance agents and officials; undertakers; and those engaged in coal and lumber yards, grain elevators, stockyards, employment agencies, advertising agencies, and warehouses. In 1920 and again in 1930 each of the pursuits listed under trade was followed by some women. Of the 962,680 women engaged in trade in 1930, the majority (705,793, or 73 per cent) were employed in two occupations that women have long pursued: Saleswomen and clerks in stores. More over, 62 per cent of the increase among women in commercial pursuits from 1920 to 1930 is attributable to these two occupations. Though most of these so-called clerks in stores probably are engaged in selling goods over the counter, just as are the saleswomen, a small proportion may actually be doing clerical work in the offices of department stores and other large mercantile establishments. For this reason the Bureau of the Census tabulates saleswomen and clerks in stores separately, but in the present report, mainly intended GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS 21 for popular consumption, these two closely allied occupations are discussed as a single group. Women who earn their living as retail dealers numbered 110,166 in 1930, a 39.5 per cent increase in the last decade. The 1,688 wholesale dealers, importers, and exporters are more than twice the number reported in 1920. Women undertakers scored a gain of 72.1 per cent during the decade in question, the number so occupied in the last census being 1,940. The 31,787 women real-estate agents and officials are more than three times the number indicated by the census of 1920, while since 1910 women in this occupation have increased tenfold. Western women have long been interested in handling the sale and rental of property, but in the South and East the attraction of this pursuit for large numbers of women is of comparatively recent date. In fact, in 1920 Los Angeles, San Francisco, and New York were the only cities with as many as 600 women real-estate agents. Likewise, the 14,705 women insurance agents and officials in 1930 had nearly trebled their number in the past decade, and bankers and brokers had maintained a substantial increase. The country’s stock brokers include 1,793 feminine representatives, nearly five times the number so recorded in 1920, while 632 women gave their occupation in 1930 as pawn or loan broker. The occupation of advertising agent, shown separately for the first time in the census of 1930, is followed by 5,656 women, while 768 others stated that they were proprietors or officials of advertising agencies. Large increases are listed for certain other commercial pursuits of a proprietary and managerial nature that are included under “business women” in Table IY, page 82. The number of women decorators, drapers, and window aressers has advanced from 1,155 in 1920 to 6,238 in 1930. Some part of this great increase is due to the fact that many interior decorators in the employ of mercantile establishments of different kinds are classed here. No occupation is more difficult to classify than that of interior decorator. PUBLIC SERVICE (NOT ELSEWHERE CLASSIFIED) Only 17,583 women were listed in the general division of occupa tions known as public service (not elsewhere classified), according to the census of 1930. Even so, the number of women in this category increased 66 per cent between 1920 and 1930, compared with a gain of 119 per cent during the decade just preceding. In fact, among the general divisions of occupations this service group shows the greatest increase in percentage over a 20-year period, though very small numbers are involved. This general division of occupations is in reality a residuary publicservice group, since persons who work for Federal, State, county, or municipal governments are classed according to the actual work they are doing, whenever such a course is possible. For example, all government clerks, bookkeepers, stenographers, and accountants are included with clerical occupations; navy-yard machinists are grouped with other machinists hi the manufacturing and mechanical indus tries; press feeders in the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and in the Government Printing Office are classed with printing-office opera tives, rather than with government employees; and physicians and 22 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 lawyers in the government service are considered with their respec tive professions. In other words, the Bureau of the Census groups under “public service” only those government employees who are engaged in peculiarly public-service pursuits, such as mayors of cities, sheriffs, policemen, firemen, and allied occupations, which can not be classified satisfactorily under any other general division of occupations. Between 1920 and 1930 women occupied as probation and truant officers and as city officials and inspectors practically doubled in number; large increases were noted also among county and State officials and inspectors and among women detectives. Policewomen numbered 849, three and one-half times those so reported in 1920. All these groups are small, however, and since the total number of women engaged in public-service pursuits as defined by the Bureau of the Census was but 17,583 in 1930, it is obvious that only a small number can be at work in each. Neither in 1930 nor in 1920 were any women at work as firemen for city fire departments; nor were any enlisted as soldiers, sailors, or marines. PROFESSIONAL SERVICE One and one-half million American women are classed in profes sional service, according to Table 1. This group, which has more than doubled in number since 1910, registered the substantial increase of half a million women in a single decade. (See Table 2.) In fact, the 1,526,234 women in professional service comprised 14.2 per cent of all gainfully occupied women in 1930, as against 11.9 per cent in 1920 and 9.1 per cent in 1910. This point is illustrated in Chart I. Women in professional service are in reality subdivided into three main classes: Professional women proper; those engaged in semi professional pursuits; and women employed as attendants and helpers to professional persons. Professional women. American women who have the right to call themselves profes sional persons numbered 1,415,425 in 1930, or 93 per cent of all women classed in professional service. These professional women are approximately as numerous as are professional men,listed at 1,469,526. Naturally, this groiip of professional women includes all those who by reason of a superior education are equipped to engage in one of the recognized professions, such as teaching, nursing, law, or medicine; in addition, this group includes those women possessing gifts that enable them to earn their living in some artistic, musical, literary, or histrionic capacity. Chart III shows the changes that have occurred since 1910 in those professions that claimed the attention of 5,000 or more women in 1930. Because of their enormous size, the teaching and nursing professions have been omitted from this chart. School-teaching, the dominant profession of American women, ranks as the second occupation for the female sex, being exceeded numerically only by servants. In 1920 school-teachers ranked third, following servants and farm laborers. This group of 853,967 women, which recorded an increase of 218,760 between 1920 and 1930, repre sents the rank and file of high-school and grade teachers in public 23 GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS and private schools, but obviously it does not include certain special ized teachers, such as supervisors of music, art, and physical training, nor does it include college professors and instructors. Trained nurses, with 288,737 women in their profession, doubled in number between 1920 and 1930. The recognition accorded nurses during the war, together with the prominence recently given the public-health movement in this country and the development of to P T3 V •o -P c -h a Q » ® 4 Z O Q <a < «H U U >» O O «sU Oa *-< a «s O a> P0) ww © o o o S ri O to © o at w O oU £1o E w at u Vi a© op o co 55 b in cn LU U_ O ce CL CJ LjJ LU CO LU 2 o c- c~ to to •#* cn cm t- tf CO t- o> to CO 1—a:< X (J o to o o to to CM ft «*• t- a> ft to CO •2 £ a> riO® * 12 OON CM ft O C- CM cn to cn to cn c~ to to »K}H C- CO tt> o> C- to 4 O to k c to ft h MO P 4 to®# CD CD cn CO ©5 © o ft o CD CM to t- CM TJ © •D P O. T3 c •#* 4) O rj +> 4 •> O *0 nursing schools, is largely responsible for the fact that the United States now has almost four times as many professionally trained nurses as it had in 1910. Just prior to the census date in 1930, appeals were made to trained nurses, through their professional magazines and at meetings of their national associations, requesting them to return their occupations in such a way as to make their professional status clear. Inasmuch as infinitely less difficulty was experienced in classifying nursing 24 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OP WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 occupations in 1930 than was the case in 1920, it is believed that these appeals met with a whole-hearted response. Since the Bureau of the Census classes in this group only persons who make it clear that they are registered, graduate, trained, student, or professional nurses, those whose occupations were reported simply as “nurse” or as “nurse, private family,” a practice common in the past, were relegated to the group of practical nurses, among whom an increase of 6,918, or 5.2 per cent, was recorded for the decade 1920 to 1930. These practical nurses are listed under domestic and per sonal service. Other professions in which the number of women practically doubled between 1920 and 1930 are librarians; authors, editors, and reporters; college presidents and professors; and lawyers, judges, and justices. Manifestly, in these pursuits much smaller numbers are involved. Social and welfare workers, with 24,592 feminine representatives, are recognized as professional for the first time in the census of 1930; they are now listed apart from the 19,951 religious workers, who remain in the semiprofessional category. The number of women in these two groups combined has increased 65.4 per cent since 1920. The 79,611 women musicians4 include a 10 per cent increase since 1920, and artists have advanced to the 20,000 class. Although these groups include teachers of music and art, the number of men per 100 women has increased in each of these professions, especially during the decade 1920 to 1930. Men so engaged may have relinquished artistic callings for more essential occupations during the war that held over until 1920; and the radio may have had something to do with it. Nearly half a million women are working in the medical, dental, and nursing professions, or directly or indirectly connected with the art of healing. In addition to the 6,825 ethical physicians and sur geons, 1,287 dentists, 1,563 osteopaths, and the 2,713 chiropractors, the country has 9,774 women classified as “other healers.” The last group includes all lands of quasi-medical persons, such as chiropodists, masseuses, naturopaths, and mechanotherapists, as wTell as herb doctors, practical bonesetters, and faith healers of all kinds. The medical and dental professions are aided by 7,700 technicians and laboratory assistants and by 26,298 assistants and attendants in physicians’ and dentists’ offices, a group that has more than doubled in number since 1920. Then, besides the 288,737 trained nurses, there are 139,576 practical nurses and 3,566 midwives. Moreover, this entire group is somewhat understated because certain publichealth workers and hospital attendants are classed elsewhere. In spite of this fact, women in this entire category have more than doubled in number since 1910. American women physicians and surgeons have experienced a 6 per cent decline in number since 1920, as have women osteopaths. The 1920 figures for women physicians may have been swollen slightly by the inclusion of a few electrotherapists and hydrotherapists, groups classified with “other healers” in 1930 but with physicians in 1920. Yet it is an established fact that somewhat more women physicians are being graduated from medical colleges today than was the case 10 or 20 years ago. * See p. 34. GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS 25 Architecture still is followed by relatively few women. However, their number increased from 137 in 1920 to 379 in 1930. Each of the various professions listed by the Bureau of the Census was followed by at least a few women in 1930, even to four in mining engineering, the one professional pursuit without feminine representa tion in 1920. One may be surprised to learn that 3,276 women gave their occupation as clergyman and 1,905 as chemist, assayer, or metallurgist. Among other unusual professions for women are noted 21 inventors and 11 veterinary surgeons. In spite of the fact that in each of the many professions some women are engaged, slightly more than four out of five professional women still are occupied in school-teaching or trained nursing, those time-honored feminine pursuits. Chart IV illustrates the fact that 60 per cent of all professional women are teachers and 20 per cent are trained nurses. Semiprofessional pursuits. Among the 55,184 women classed in semiprofessional pursuits in 1930 are. those more or less technically trained to assist in the pro fessions of law, medicine, theology, and social service, together with a number engaged in theatrical and recreational activities. For example: Abstracters, notaries, and justices of the peace; technicians and laboratory assistants; chiropractors and other healers; religious workers; and keepers of charitable and penal institutions all belong in this category. Here, too, belong officials of lodges and societies; owners and managers of theaters and of motion-picture production; radio announcers, directors, managers and officials; keepers of pleasure resorts, race tracks, and dance halls; as well as other allied occupations. Attendants and helpers in professional service. Women employed as attendants and helpers in professional service numbered 55,625 in 1930, approximately the same as those engaged in semiprofessional pursuits. Nearly half of this group were assist ants in physicians’ and dentists’ offices, while such occupations as librarians’ assistants and attendants and theater ushers also are included. CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS Clerical occupations now claim the attention of nearly 2,000,000 women, a group three and one-third times as large as it was 20 years ago, while the gain since 1920 is represented by half a million women. In 1930, clerical occupations, with 18.5 per cent of all gainfully occu pied women, displaced manufacturing and mechanical industries as the second great group of pursuits for women, whereas in 1910 clerical occupations ranked fifth. (See Table 1.) Practically all clerical workers are included in this general division of occupations, regardless of the industry in which they are employed. Although during the last decade the number of women in clerical occupations increased by 564,905, or 39.7 per cent, it nevertheless is a fact that the number reported as engaged in clerical pursuits may have been slightly understated at each of the three censuses in ques tion, because of the unfortunate tendency to refer to saleswomen in stores as “clerks.”5 s See discussion of this occupation, p. 20. 26 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 The war gave great impetus to the employment of women in clerical positions, and they seem disposed to hold the advantage that accrued during that period. In fact, a steady increase has been noted among •.SICD © (U O CO CM to tto CT> to COCM CO CM tO CJ>to O C'CM CM 0> CO CO <o rs ► PIaJ w +> u u O at • rl T) : 3 o ca I w p, ! © l co o -J < o V. P. < 1II -H-Pco +>aJ© r 2. ,Q > -P » Pi I <rj C to © ■cat CO * •P (DOW Tj rH -P © ■gj a © « <^c S,Pat ©* to3 o © >-✓ to © Pi ©p. § W *Hp ••H© -P co O © U _ P. Pi p (X •p u •, rt •O Pi O • al •• *Hcoco S3 *rl •'“■». -P • •> co •H O P« © T3 O P! » P. CO -P ^ P. © -P •H X «i O 3 O £££ * < / CO O T3 >» TO >? Ctf • women in these occupations since 1910, when but 7.3 per cent of all gainfully occupied women were engaged in clerical work, compared with 16.6 per cent in 1920 and 18.5 per cent in 1930. (See Chart I.) GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS 27 Even so, the 1,986,830 women classed in this group, according to the census of 1930, were fewer than two-thirds the number in domestic and personal service. The largest single group of clerical workers, 775,140, are the ste nographers and typists, but the occupation of office clerk, which keeps 706,553 women busy, must be considered a close runner-up. Each of these groups was augmented by more than 200,000 women in the past decade, while the 465,697 bookkeepers and cashiers include 119,951 new recruits since 1920. Of the 706,553 office clerks listed in the cen sus of 1930, women to the number of 32,718 stated that they operated recording or computing machines or other office appliances. In the field of accountancy women have to some extent lost the temporary advantage gained during the war when large numbers of men accountants were absent from their regular posts. Accountancy is more a profession than a clerical occupation and would be so con sidered if the Bureau of the Census had any assurance that only bona fide accountants so returned their occupation. DOMESTIC AND PERSONAL SERVICE At each of the last three censuses, domestic and personal service was the general division of occupations in which the largest number of women were engaged. Of all gainfully employed women, 29.6 per cent were at work in this group in 1930, compared with 25.6 per cent in 1920 and 31.3 per cent in 1910. This general division of occupations includes not only private and public housekeeping, charwomen and day workers, and laundry work in and out of laundries, as one might expect, but all catering directly to the personal needs of the public except the medical and nursing groups, naturally classed with professional service. Among the occupations that one might not anticipate finding under domestic and personal service are barbers, hairdressers, and manicurists; midwives and practical nurses; bootblacks; porters; janitors and sextons; and eleva tor tenders. The Bureau of the Census also includes under domestic and personal service all employees of steam laundries and of cleaning, dyemg, and pressing shops, together with their owners and managers’ Although the work carried on in these establishments may closely resemble factory operations, laundries and dry-cleaning shops are not classed with manufacturing and mechanical industries because they create no product. The designation “domestic and personal service” thus includes a much larger class than so-called “servants,” though in 1930 the latter occupation was followed by more than half the women engaged in this large service group. Domestic and personal service is the only general division of occu pations in which an increase in the number of women was recorded from 1920 to 1930 after a decline had taken place in the preceding decade. In this group the number of women increased 45.4 per cent between 1920 and 1930, whereas in the preceding decade there was a decline of 13.6 per cent. (See Table 2.) This change has largely been effected by a similar trend in one pursuit—that of servant, the controlling occupation of this entire group in that it comprises more than half the women engaged in domestic and personal service. 155543°—33------ 3 28 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 Servants and allied occupations. The number of women employed as servants in this country advanced from 1,012,133 in 1920 to 1,634,959 in 1930. These figures include chambermaids, cooks, ladies’ maids, nursemaids, and all gen eral servants, whether employed in private homes, hotels, restaurants, or boarding houses. They do not, however, include waitresses, home laundresses, or charwomen. . The number of negro servants increased 81 per cent, compared with a gain of 49 per cent among all others, the majority of whom are white. The recent migration of negroes toward the cities of the North and the Middle West, a phenomenon of the 1920’s, tended to relieve the labor market in rural sections of the South so far as domes tic service was concerned; at the same time this influx made available great numbers of household workers in northern cities that previously had had an insufficient supply to meet the demand, especially since the curtailment of immigration. Table 8 indicates that 203,376, or one-eighth, of the 1,634,959 servants were employees of hotels, restaurants,. boarding houses, col lege dormitories, hospitals, and other kindred institutions, while the remainder presumably were at work in private homes.. Nearly half of these employees in hotels, restaurants, etc., gave their occupations as cooks, a pursuit requiring considerable skill under such conditions. Table 8.—Number and per cent distribution of women employed as servants, according to occupation and place of work: 1930, 1920, and 1910 Per cent distri bution Number 1,012,133 o) 0) 100.0 1,309,549 268, 618 26.5 333, 436 Number Per cent distri bution Number Servants.-. ---------------------------------- 1,634,959 203, 376 Hotels, restaurants, boarding houses, etc----Other domestic and personal service 2---------- 1, 431, 583 100.0 12.4 87.6 371,095 22.7 Occupation and place of work Cooks......... ..................... ........................... 94,252 276,843 5.8 16.9 Other servants------------ ----------- ---------- 1,263,864 109,124 Hotels, restaurants, boarding houses, etc-----Other domestic and personal service 2--------- 1,154, 740 77.3 6.7 70.6 Hotels, restaurants, boarding houses, etc....... Other domestic and personal service 2............. i Data not available. 1910 1920 1930 100.0 0) 2575 (') (9 0) 0) 743,615 («) (>) Per cent distri bution 73.5 976,113 0) (') 74.5 1 Practically all in this group work in private homes. This pronounced gain among servants is the more remarkable because their number decreased 23 per cent between 1910 and 1920, a decline that has been explained in various ways. Inasmuch as the wages of servants advanced enormously and more or less continuously throughout the war era, household employees had come to be regarded as a distinct luxury by 1920. Furthermore, with the trend toward urbanization came an increasing preference for apartment-house life and the rather general adoption of mechanical household equipment. At the same time higher wages and superior working conditions, especially hours, attracted large numbers of domestic workers to other jobs, principally in factories. The decline in this occupation between 1910 and 1920 has been fur ther explained by the curtailment of immigration, and the shrinkage 29 GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS in the number of negro servants in the South during that period has been attributed partially to the fact that during and directly after the war men of their families found it easy to secure work at good wages, and, as a result, the women were inclined to remain at home without seeking employment. Yet the more recent decade saw an increase of 62 per cent in the number of women servants. Moreover, with the exception of home laundresses, all allied occupations, such as waitress, charwoman, and janitress, also showed large gains. It is evident that many women who held other jobs during the war must have since returned to the field of domestic service, while some have sought employment of this kind who did not find it necessary to work at all during that period. In view of the practical cessation of immigration since 1914, a rather thorough adjustment of postwar conditions is indicated with regard to domestic service. The second largest occupation among women in domestic and personal service is that of laundress not in laundry. This kind of work was carried on in 1930 by 356,468 women, a group that has been decreasing since 1910, though the rate of decline has been greatly lessened during the last decade. This decrease of 163,536 home laundresses since 1910 may be explained in three ways: (1) The more or less general installation of electrical washing and ironing machines in private homes; (2) the supplanting of the old-time laundress by steam laundries and by dry-cleaning establishments; and (3) drastic changes in the style and quantity of women’s clothing. With the aid of electricity many housewives are doing their own laundry nowadays with an ease not even dreamed of a decade or two ago; moreover, except in those communities where unskilled domestic labor is plentiful and cheap, each year sees more and more oldfashioned washerwomen supplanted" by steam-laundry operatives, one of whom can accomplish as much with the aid of machinery as several women washing at home by means of the old back-breaking methods. In 1930 women operatives in steam laundries numbered 149,414, twice as many as in 1920. Women workers in cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shops to-day number nearly five times the 4,573 so occupied in 1920. Table 9.—Number and per cent that negro women formed of all women in certain selected occupations in domestic and personal service: 1930, 1920, and 1910 Occupation All women 1930 1920 1910 Negro women Negro women Negro women Per All Per All Per women Number cent women Number cent Number cent of of of total total total All occupations_______ 10,752,116 1,840,642 17.1 8,549,511 1,571,289 Domestic and personal service _ 3,180,251 1,152,560 36.2 2,186,682 790,592 Servants............................... 1,634,959 727,342 44.5 1,012,133 401,381 Cooks_________ 371,095 232,004 62.5 268,618 168, 710 Other servants............. 1, 263,864 495, 338 39.2 743,515 232,671 Laundresses (not in laun dry) — 356,468 269,098 75.5 385,874 283, 557 Waitresses_____________ 231,973 17,628 7.6 116,921 14,155 18.4 8,075, 772 2,013,981 24.9 36.2 2, 530,403 853,302 33.7 39.7 1, 309, 549 62.8 333, 436 31.3 976,113 415,416 31. 7 205,939 61.8 209,477 21.5 73.5 12.1 361,551 69.5 7,434 8.7 520,004 85, 798 30 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 The growing practice of dining away from home is reflected in the 88 per cent increase between 1920 and 1930 among men and women restaurant, cafe, and lunch-room keepers. Furthermore, waitresses almost doubled in number during the past decade, the gain being 98 per cent; 231,973 women were employed in this capacity in 1930, and it is surprising to learn that only 7.6 per cent of their number were negroes. In the final analysis the future prospect of adequate domestic service in this country is not particularly rosy. By going back 20 years and skipping the war epoch that so upset the traditions of women’s employment, the gain between 1910 and 1930 in the number of servants proves to be considerably less than the corresponding increase in population, to say nothing of the concomitant increase in wealth. Since immigration is likely to remain at its present low ebb, the still wider geographical distribution of household workers from sections of the country oversupplied with such labor seems to offer the only solution to meet the shortage of household employees in the future. Other occupations in domestic and personal service. Hairdressers and manicurists have increased enormously since 1920, both in number and in percentage. In fact, this group, which includes all women engaged in any phase of beauty culture, is nearly three and one-half times as large as it was in 1920. Undoubtedly, the permanent wave and the various styles of wearing the hair short have played an important part in the rapid development of this occupation. Increases were noted among practical nurses, a group that includes most attendants in hospitals and other large institutions, and also among housekeepers 6 and stewardesses; in neither of these occupa tions, however, has the advance been commensurate with the 21 per cent growth in the female population since 1920. Boarding and lodging house keepers registered a gain of 11 per cent between 1920 and 1930; as in the case of servants, this occupation declined between 1910 and 1920 and then reversed its trend in the more recent decade. Each of these three occupations—housekeepers and stewardesses, practical nurses, and boarding and lodging house keepers—is followed by more than 100,000 women. One prominent outgrowth of war conditions is typified by the 12,359 women at work as elevator operators in 1930; such a change was undreamed of prior to 1917; in fact, only 25 women in the entire country held such jobs in 1910. . Healthy increases occurred among women in certain proprietary and managerial pursuits that likewise are included in the category of domestic and personal service. Among these occupations are hotel and restaurant keepers and managers, and the owners, managers, and officials of laundries. The 40,008 women restaurateurs have much more than doubled in number during the past 10 years and more than trebled in the past 20 years. Occupations in the field of hotel and restaurant manage ment are unique in that women of mature age, provided they have the proper training and equipment, are preferred to those who are younger. 6 See Appendix B, p. 85, GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS 31 AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, AND FISHING American women engaged in agricultural pursuits numbered 910,268 in 1930, a decline of 16 per cent in a decade. According to Table 1, this group at the date of the last census represented but 8.5 per cent of all gainfully occupied women, compared with 12.7 per cent in 1920 and 22.4 per cent in 1910. A sensational decrease among women working on farms occurred between 1910 and 1920. (Table 2.) Moreover, in 1930 the number of women m agricultural pursuits was just half what it was in 1910. Inasmuch as but 329 women were at work in pursuits classed as forestry and fishing, the only occupations of importance in the entire agricultural group were those of farmers, farm managers or fore women, and farm laborers. As farmers, women have held their own pretty well, the decline among them bemg but 1.1 per cent since 1920. This group includes all women who own and operate their farms, as well as those who are tenant farmers and those who work farms on shares. The drop among farm managers and forewomen from 14,340 in 1920 to 963 in 1930 appears startling, but much of this decrease may be attributed to the more rigid scrutiny of census returns and the resultant superior classification. Unless the woman who owns and operates her farm actually tills the soil herself, the average census enumerator has an inclination to refer to her as a farm manager in stead of as a farmer. Perhaps he has a vague distinction in mind somewhat like that made between a “gentleman farmer” and a “dirt farmer.” But the woman who owns her farm, rents it, or works it on shares, and who herself operates it to the extent of deciding on the crops and the various steps that shall be taken in their cultivation, must be considered a farmer, regardless of whether she runs her own plough and hayrake or has such work done by a farm hand. The 1930 returns for all farm managers and forewomen were care fully looked over in an effort to see whether these women owned their farms, rented them, or worked them on shares, information that is available on the schedules. As a result, many women eventually were classed as farmers whom the enumerators had returned as farm managers or forewomen. . Women farm laborers numbered 1,525,707 in 1910 and but 646,331 m 1930. This 57.6 per cent decline in a period of 20 years is common to both wage workers and unpaid family workers on home farms. The decrease was much greater from 1910 to 1920 than during the more recent decade. What has caused this tremendous drop among women in agricul tural pursuits extending over a 20-year period? In the first place, the Bureau of the Census has estimated7 that the number of women farm laborers in 1910 represented an overenumeration of almost half a million, while the continued decline indicates that the overstatement at that time may in reality have been even greater. The bureau suggests that this excessive number may have been largely the result of an instruction issued to census enumerators, directing them to return every woman working regularly at outdoor farm work as a farm laborer. In compliance with this direction many women who regu ' U. S. Bureau of the Census. Thirteenth Census, 1910. Vol. 4, Population, Occupation Statistics, p. 28. 32 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 larly fed their chickens or who did other farm chores for an hour or so each morning undoubtedly were returned as farm laborers. _ To correct this tendency toward overstatement, more explicit instructions were issued in 1920, requiring that only those women who worked regularly and most of the time at farm activities should be considered as farm laborers. This change in directions, which served to eliminate the woman who worked occasionally or only a short time each day at outdoor farm or garden work, naturally resulted in the return of relatively fewer women in agricultural pursuits. _ Then there has been, likewise, a tremendous drop since 1910 in the number of children at work on farms, though even at the date of the last census 126,410, or 14 per cent, of the 910,268 women agricul turally employed were girls under 16 years of age. Nearly one-third (31.6 per cent) of the huge decline since 1910 among women working on farms occurred among girls under 16; as in the case with women at all ages, however, some of this decline is more apparent than real, due to the tightening of instructions to enumerators in 1920 and again in 1930. . In accounting for the decline between 1910 and 1920 in the number of women working on farms, considerable importance was attached to the change in census date from April 15 in 1910 to January 1 in 1920—a change, in other words, from a very busy farming season to a time of year when all farming activities were at their lowest ebb. In 1930 the census was taken on April 1, a date comparable with that of 1910; yet a still further decline has been recorded in the number of women at work on farms. It seems probable, therefore, that the change in census date between 1910 and 1920 exerted less influence in reducing the number of women returned in agricultural pursuits than appeared to be the case when the decline in that decade was studied originally. _ _ Among other influences that may account for an actual diminution in the number of women working on farms is the practical cessation of immigration. The census of 1930 was taken 16 years after immigrants had ceased coming to the United States in large numbers. To-day there is no annually recurring supply of young Polish and Bohemian women, accustomed in their homelands to outdoor work on farms. The older members of these nationality groups are dying off and their daughters born in this country evince less enthusiasm for the heavier farm activities. In the South hundreds of thousands of rural negroes have moved to cities in their own States or to metropolitan centers of the North and the Middle West. In fact, between 1920 and 1930 the number of negroes declined 8.2 per cent in the rural farm districts of the United States, compared with a shrinkage of 3.8 per cent in the entire rural farm population. Practically all negro women and children living on farms work in the fields at cotton-picking time, and in the past these have helped to swell unduly the numbers of farm laborers. Therefore, the exodus of nearly half a million negroes from the rural districts has resulted in a disproportionate decline in the number of women and children reported as working on farms. In days gone by the housewife on the farm earned extra money by keeping chickens, making butter, or raising vegetables, fruit, and flowrers. As already stated, too many of such part-time workers have CHANGES IN WOMEN’S STATUS IN LARGE GROUPS 33 been enumerated as farm laborers in the past. To-day, moreover, the number of those who do such lighter forms of farm work may have been reduced because certain of them are meeting the same need by running homes for tourists, an activity classed occupationally with the keeping of boarding and lodging houses. Although farms in every State have been abandoned because of heavy taxes, worn-out soil, or the desire of the younger generation to live where life is less arduous and where they can go to the movies, it nevertheless is a fact that among men in all agricultural pursuits the decline from 1920 to 1930 has been negligible. In fact, the number of men working as farm laborers for wages increased by nearly half a million (21.4 per cent) during this decade, though as farmers, farm managers, and unpaid workers on home farms the number of men decreased by an even larger number. From census returns alone it is clear that agricultural activities in this country are undergoing a radical change. The farming syndicate that operates a tract of 50,000 acres under a single management still is a rarity, but with the tractor and other improved farm machinery has come a definite tendency to carry on the cultivation of the soil on a very large scale. In 1930 such occupations as presidents, treasurers, accountants, and stenographers of farming corporations were by no means unheard of on census schedules from certain sections of the West. This inclination toward large-scale farming tends of itself to eliminate the employment of women. So long as there are berries to pick, onions to weed, and beans to snip, women and children will be in demand on farms. But the labor of women and children is less likely to be used in connection with large-scale agricultural operations. CHANGES IN WOMEN’S STATUS IN LARGE GROUPS A study of those occupations in which large numbers of women were engaged in 1930, comparing such numbers with the 1920 and 1910 figures, brings out some of the most striking changes in the occupa tional status of women. Table 10, for example, shows the number of' occupations in which feminine groups of specified size were at work in 1930,in 1920, and in 1910. Table 10.—Number of occupations 1 in which the specified number of women were engaged: 1930, 1920, and 1910 Size of group 500,000 or more women....................... Number of occupations1 in which the specified number of women were engaged in— 1930 1920 1910 1 6 14 21 30 46 86 208 30 1 5 12 18 30 41 76 191 23 2 3 9 16 28 33 60 165 39 ’Includes new occupations, listed in the census for the first time in 1920 or in 1930, as the case may be, but excludes indefinite residuary groups. (See Appendix B, p. 85).) These occupations were counted after the 1920 and 1910 data had been fitted into the 1930 scheme of occupation classification. 34 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OP WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 In general, it is obvious that the number of occupations in which are engaged any specific number of persons—whether 1,000 or 100,000— should grow with each succeeding decade. This finding is to be expected in a steadily increasing population, even if each pursuit had merely retained its relative proportion. Furthermore, it does not seem that the increase from 1920 to 1930 among occupations employ ing specified numbers of women has been out of proportion to the growth of the population. OCCUPATIONS WITH 50,000 OR MORE WOMEN A study of Table 10 arouses curiosity as to which pursuits fall within the larger groups. It is interesting to learn, for example, that the only occupation to qualify with a million women at each of the last three censuses is that of servant. Table 11 lists those pursuits in each of which 50,000 or more women were at work in 1930, in 1920, or in 1910, together with the number engaged in each such occupation. Table 11.—Occupations in which 50,000 or more women were engaged and numhef engaged in each: 1930, 1920, and 1910 Women occupied inOccupation Servants.......... ................................. ............................................. School-teachers_______________________ _____ __________ Stenographers and typists______________________________ Clerks (except “clerks” in stores)_______ _____ _______ Saleswomen and “clerks” in stores______________________ Farm laborers-------- ---------- ------------------- ------- --------------Bookkeepers and cashiers....... ........... ........................................ Laundresses (not in laundry) Operatives—clothing industries__________________________ Trained nurses__________________________ _____________ Farmers (owners and tenants)---------------------------------------Housekeepers and stewardesses____ ___________ _________ Telephone operators----------------------------------------------------Waitresses__ _______ ________________ ______ __________ Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory)_____________ Laundry operatives-------------------------- ------ -----------------Cotton-mill operatives...................... ............. ........... ........... ...... Nurses (not trained)___________ __________ ___ _________ Boarding and lodging house keepers--------------------------------Hairdressers and manicurists___________________________ Retail dealers................... ......................... —......................-........ Knitting-mill operatives---- ------ ------------------------------------Operatives—food and allied industries-----------------------------Shoe-factory operatives...................................................... .......... Musicians and teachers of music-------------------------------------Silk-mill operatives------------------------------------------- ----------Operatives—cigar and tobacco factories.......... ............. ............ Operatives—paper, printing, and allied industries--------------Operatives—iron and steel, machinery, and vehicle industries. Hotel and restaurant keepers and managers............. ................ Operatives—woolen and worsted mills-----------------------------Milliners and millinery dealers---------------- ------- --------------- 1930 1920 1,634,959 853,967 775,140 706,553 705,793 646,331 465,697 356,468 346, 751 288, 737 262,645 236,363 235,259 231,973 157,928 149,414 145,683 139, 576 127, 278 113,194 110,166 89,803 88, 586 81,551 79,611 73,690 67,948 63,490 60, 763 57,318 49,060 40,102 1,012,133 635, 207 564, 744 472,163 526, 718 803, 229 345, 746 385,874 265,643 143, 664 265, 577 201,350 178,379 116,921 235,519 72,675 149,185 132,658 114,740 33,246 78,980 80,682 73,097 73,412 72,678 72, 768 83,960 67,845 57,819 29, 778 61, 715 69,598 1910 1,309,549 476,864 263,315 122,665 362,081 1, 525, 707 183,569 520,004 237, 270 76,508 273,142 173,333 88, 262 85,798 447, 760 71,604 140, 666 110,912 142,400 22, 298 67,103 65,338 38,439 59,266 84,478 50, 360 71, 845 59, 574 23,557 24, 751 52, 056 122,447 During the past 20 years but little change has taken place in the number of occupations giving employment to as many as 50,000 women. In fact, such pursuits numbered 30 at the date of the last census as well as in 1920, though the occupational groups so included are not identical. In 1920 milliners and woolen-mill operatives were among the 30 occupations having 50,000 or more women, but the census of 1930 CHANGES IN WOMEN’S STATUS IN LARGE GROUPS 35 indicated that the former occupation, long considered the most fem inine of pursuits, was followed by but 40,102 women, and that the number of woolen-mill operatives had declined to 49,060. In numer ical importance these time-honored occupations for women were replaced by the following two: Hairdressers and manicurists and hotel and restaurant keepers and managers, groups in which the 50,000 mark was achieved for the first time in 1930. In fact, hairdressers and manicurists reached the 100,000 class, having increased in number from 33,246 in 1920 to 113,194 in 1930. This numerical gain, more striking than almost any other, may be attributed largely to the changing attitude of American women toward the matter of beauty culture. The increase in hotel and restaurant keeping or management, where women have practically doubled in number since 1920, is in keeping with the tendency to enter the field of business that may be observed among women in all sections of the country. About half the 30 occupations with as many as 50,000 women are traditionally feminine callings, such as servants, school-teachers, stenographers, laundresses, clothing-factory operatives, nurses (both trained and untrained), housekeepers and stewardesses, telephone operators, dressmakers, cotton, silk, and knitting mill operatives, and boarding and lodging house keepers. Certain other pursuits, such as saleswomen, office clerks, bookkeepers, waitresses, steam-laundry operatives, and cigar-factory operatives have come to be recognized as occupations just as suitable for women as for men. In 1920 it was freely prophesied that iron and steel would no longer figure as a prominent woman-employing industry after the hangover from the war had subsided. This forecast is disproved by the census of 1930. Although the gain since 1920 has not been large among women operatives in the iron and steel group as a whole (only 5.1 per cent), in one branch, automobile manufacturing, a pronounced increase has been recorded in the number of women employees. At the date of the last census women operatives in automobile fac tories numbered 19,032, compared with 12,788 in 1920 and 848 in 1910. These figures represent an advance of 48-8 per cent during the 10 years from 1920 to 1930. Moreover, women classed as laborers in automobile factories have scored a similar increase. The production of automobiles represents one branch of manufacturing in which the employment of women has outlasted the exceptional conditions that led to their being taken on in increased numbers during the war. A general decline has occurred among women at work in other branches of the iron and steel group, however, such as agricultural-implement factories, blast furnaces, car and railroad shops, ship and boat build ing, wagon and carriage factories, machine shops, and iron foundries. The 28 occupational groups that employed 50,000 or more women in 1910 comprised 89.7 per cent of all working women 10 years of age and over. Although the number of such groups increased to 30 in 1920 and was 30 at the latest census, the proportion they formed of all gainfully occupied women decreased to 86.8 per cent in 1920 and was practically the same (87 per cent) in 1930. These percentages indicate that the occupational field for women has broadened since 1910 instead of concentrating in a few long-established occupations. 36 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 Nine of the 28 occupations in which such large numbers of women were engaged in 1910 showed decreases in 1930—farm laborers, farm owners and tenants, musicians and teachers of music, boarding and lodging house keepers, cigar and tobacco factory operatives, laun dresses, dressmakers, milliners, and woolen-mill operatives—yet, with the exception of the last two, all retained in the census of 1930 their standing as employing 50,000 or more women. Considering only those occupations that qualified in 1930 with at least 100,000 women, a net gain of five occurred between 1910 and 1930. There are six new groups in this category, however, as the 122,447 milliners listed in 1910 had declined to only 40,102 by 1930. The six new groups mentioned are trained nurses, telephone operators, waitresses, steam-laundry operatives, hairdressers and manicurists, and retail dealers. Chart V shows the relative numerical rank of the occupations having 100,000 or more women in 1930, in 1920, or in 1910. Occupations that have forged steadily to the front as employers of women during the past 20 years, so far as numerical prominence is concerned, are school-teachers, stenographers and typists, sales women and clerks in stores, bookkeepers and cashiers, telephone operators, and waitresses. Even more pronounced gains have been recorded by office clerks, trained nurses, and hairdressers and mani curists. Farm labor, the most common occupation for women in 1910, ranked second in 1920 and sixth in 1930. This indicates a radical change, though the extent of the decline is considerably minimized when it is realized that in 1910 the numbers of women and children employed as farm laborers were grossly overstated, the result of loose interpretation of the instructions to enumerators.8 Neverthe less, even if the census data for 20 years ago are definitely discounted in respect to agricultural employment of women, it still is evident that farm labor as an occupation for women has experienced a significant decline. . Few people are aware that, next to servants, farm labor has con sistently figured in the past as the occupation in which the largest numbers of American women have been at work. Census figures indicate that this condition prevailed in the United States for at least 40 years prior to 1910. If farm laborers dropped from first to sixth place between 1910 and 1930, an equally significant change is observed in the relative rank of dressmakers, who were fifth in 1910 and fifteenth in 1930. Likewise, home laundresses occupied eighth place in 1930 though they were third in 1910. J OCCUPATIONS WITH 1,000 OR MORE WOMEN The number of pursuits in each of which 1,000 or more women were engaged in 1930, in 1920, and in 1910 is shown for each general division of occupations in Table 12. See pp. 31=32 for explanation. 37 CHANGES IN WOMEN’S STATUS IN LARGE GROUPS Chart V. RELATIVE NUMERICAL RANK IN 1930, 1920, AND 1910 OF OCCU PATIONS IN WHICH 100,000 OR MORE WOMEN WERE EMPLOYED ‘ Occupation 1930 1920 1910 Servants ................................ ....................... School teaohers. . . ........................... Stenographers and typists.................. « Clerks (except "clerks" in stores) . Saleswomen and "clerks" in stores. . Farm laborers.................. .... Bookkeepers and cashiers ...... Laundresses (not in laundry) .... Operatives, clothing industries. . . Trained nurses ........... Farmers (owners and tenants) .... Housekeepers and stewardesses. ... Telephone operators. ........ Waitresses ........................................ .... Dressmakers and seamstresses .... (not in factory) Laundry operatives ... .................. . Cotton-mill operatives ........................... Nurses (not trained) ... .................. Boarding and lodging house keepers . Hairdressers and manicurists. ♦ ♦ • Retail dealers............................... .... . . Milliners and millinery dealers. . . 1/ 2 ! 3 j Based on data in Table 11. Fewer than 100,000 but more than 50,000 women were engaged in this occupation at this census. Fewer than 50,000 women were engaged in this occupation at this census.. 38 THE ‘OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 Number of occupations 1 in which 1,000 or more women were engaged, according to general division of occupations: 1980, 1980, and 1910 Table 12. General division of occupations Number of occupations1 in which 1,000 or more women were engaged 1930 All occupations.. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing________ Extraction of minerals_________________ Manufacturing and mechanical industries _ Transportation and communication_____ Trade_______________________________ Public service (not elsewhere classified)___ Professional service_______________ ____ Domestic and personal service__________ Clerical occupations______ ___________ 1920 1910 208 191 3 4 4 90 9 31 6 35 22 12 90 6 26 5 30 20 9 80 7 24 2 22 18 8 165 yiicmues new occupations, listed in tne census lor the first time in 1920 or in 1930, as the case may be. 5 G?n ^^duary^oups. (See Appendix B, p. 85.) These occupations were counted after the 1920 and 1910 data had been fitted into the 1930 scheme of occupation classification. Occupations with 1,000 or more women numbered 208 in 1930, compared with 191 in 1920 and 165 in 1910. The two general groups in which the pursuits employing 1,000 or more women increased most in the past decade are trade and professional service, with a gain of five occupations each in 1930. In the decade 1910 to 1920 the great est advances in occupations with 1,000 or more women were in the manufacturing and mechanical industries and professional service. In the manufacturing and mechanical industries such occupations num bered 90, both in 1920 and in 1930. Although the comparison afforded by Table 12 is interesting, it must be discounted somewhat because of the fact that the scheme of occupation classification has been improved slightly at each census and new occupations are added, necessarily, as conditions change. To illustrate, osteopaths were listed as a separate pursuit for the first time in the census of 1920, while in 1930 new occupations included rayon-factory operatives and laborers; chiropractors; technicians and laboratory assistants; advertising agents; county agents, farm demonstrators, etc.; and others. It seemed advisable to include in Table 12 the new pursuits that afforded employment to 1,000 or more women.9 OCCUPATIONS IN WHICH NO WOMEN WERE AT WORK Of the 534 separate occupations and occupation groups established by the census classification for 1930, women were at work in all but 30. Of the 572 such classes in 1920 no women were employed in 35, and of the 428 in 1910 no women were engaged in 43. From these figures it would appear that the occupational territory unexplored by women is narrowing, but if the occupational data for all three censuses are fitted into the 1930 classification, the number of occupations not followed by any woman declined from 39 in 1910 to 23 in 1920 and rose to 30 in 1930. While these figures do not give a strictly ac curate picture, because of changes in the method of classification at each census, they afford, nevertheless, the best available basis of comparison. The fact that occupations with no women at work were more num erous in 1930 than in 1920 implies that in the earlier year a few women ! See Appendix B, p, 8S, CHANGES IN WOMEN’S STATUS IN LARGE GROUPS 39 still were substituting, in unusual lines, for men who had gone to war. This finding was most noticeable in the field of transportation. In the last 3 censuses a number of occupations were inviolate so far as their invasion by women is concerned. These are boilermaker; puddler; roofer and slater; structural-iron worker; brakeman, steam railroad; locomotive engineer; locomotive fireman; motorman, steam railroad; conductor, steam railroad; fireman, fire department; and soldier, sailor, or marine. With the exception of roofer and slater it appears that none of these pursuits has been reported at any census as the occupation of a woman. STRIKING CHANGES IN OCCUPATIONS FOR WOMEN During the decade 1920 to 1930 striking changes occurred in the kind of work that American women have chosen to do. It is not altogether improbable that the great wave of prosperity that struck this country in the second half of the period in question may have been responsible for some of the advances. The acceleration of business, for example, made numerous openings for clerical workers and the generally prosperous feeling that prevailed until 1930 led to the continued employment of more servants than had formerly been the case. _ The nature of these changes is brought out by a study of the 12 occupations in each of which the number of women increased by at least 50,000 during the 10-year period. For purposes of comparison, Table 13 records as well the increase or decrease in these occupations between 1910 and 1920. Table 13.— Twelve occupations in each of which the number of women increased 50,000 or more from 1920 to 1930, with number and per cent of increase, and with corresponding increase (or decrease) from 1910 to 1920 Occupation Increase, 1920 to 1930 Increase (or de crease), 1910 to 1920 Number Per cent Number 61.5 49.6 34.4 37.3 34.0 101.0 34.7 98.4 30.5 240.5 105.6 31.9 -297, 416 +349, 498 +158, 343 +301, 429 +164, 637 +67,156 +162,177 +31.123 +28, 373 +10,948 +1, 071 +90,117 622,826 234,390 218, 760 210,396 179,075 145,073 119,951 115, 052 81,108 79,948 76, 739 56,880 Per cent -22.7 +284. 9 +33.2 +114. 5 +45.5 +87.8 +88.3 +36.3 +12.0 +49.1 +1.5 +102.1 The greatest numerical increases in the past decade were among certain occupations in domestic and personal service, in the various clerical pursuits, and in the professions. Here are servants, with a gain of 622,826 women since 1920 after an actual decline of considera ble extent during the 10 years previous; here are waitresses, with an increase of 115,052; also hairdressers and manicurists, and steamlaundry operatives, with a gain of nearly 80,000 each. The numeri cal advance in these four occupations alone is represented by 894,565 women. Yet not a single occupation in domestic and personal service qualified with an increase of 50,000 women between 1910 and 1920. Then the ranks of the three great clerical pursuits—office clerks, stenographers and typists, and bookkeepers and cashiers—were 40 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 augmented in the aggregate by 564,737 women between 1920 and 1930. Women have been prominent in clerical service for many years, though to a less overwhelming extent prior to 1920. As fast as war activities claimed men in clerical occupations, women filled their places, and from the census of 1930 it seems doubtful that they will ever relinquish the position they have won in this field. The third great increase is noted for two professions, teaching and nursing, in which the number of women has advanced 363,833 in the past decade. Although the numerical gain among teachers is much the greater, the expansion among trained nurses is extremely large, both in number and in percentage. The only occupation in manufacturing and mechanical industries to qualify with such a large increase between 1920 and 1930 is that of operatives in the clothing industries, for whom a numerical advance of 81,108 women was listed. In trade, saleswomen and clerks in stores have increased steadily, with a gain of 179,075 women from 1920 to 1930; and in transportation, telephone operators increased by 56,880. Relatively few occupations registered a shrinkage of 25,000 or more women during the decade 1920 to 1930. Such declines as did occur are shown in Table 14, with the corresponding change for these occu pations between 1910 and 1920 and between 1910 and 1930. Table 14.—Occupations in each of which the number of women decreased 25,000 or more from 1920 to 1930, with number and per cent of decrease, and with corre sponding decreases from 1910 to 1920 and from 1910 to 1930 Occupation Decrease, 1920 to 1930 Decrease, 1910 to 1920 Decrease, 1910 to 1930 Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Farm laborers________________ Wage workers___ ___ _ ___ Unpaid family workers__ Sewing trades *_____________ 156,898 19.5 722,478 47.4 879,376 57.6 55, 264 101, 634 24.4 17.6 122, 535 599,943 35.1 51.0 177, 799 701, 577 50.9 59.6 117,108 34.8 274,075 44.9 391,183 64.0 Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory)____________ __ _ _ Milliners and millinery dealers 77, 591 29,496 32.9 42.4 212,241 52,849 47.4 43.2 289,832 82,345 64.7 67.2 Laundresses (not in laundry)..................... 29,406 7.6 134,130 25.8 163, 536 31.4 1 Includes tailoresses also. For 20 years the occupations of dressmaker, milliner, and home laundress have been losing ground in this country, though the decline has been somewhat retarded since 1920, especially in the case of laundresses. With reference to these pursuits it has been said that "women are not leaving the occupation so much as the occupation is leaving them.” 10 From a sociological standpoint the decline in these three pursuits is highly significant. Most of the dressmakers and laundresses and a few of the milliners have worked at home. To a large extent these have been part-time pursuits that could be combined with the care of children and of a household. The high cost of living that accom panied the war, together with the tendency toward specialization in every line, led many women desiring employment to prefer full-time 1°IF,'1S-,mnrea,f tha Census- Monograph IX. Women in Gainful Occupations, 1870 to 1920, by Joseph A. Mill, lyj'j, p, oO, CHANGES IN WOMEN’S STATUS IN LARGE GROUPS 41 occupations, which, though taking them away from home, had the merit of compensating them far better. The increasing tendency on the part of women to buy ready-made clothing, together with the better-paid positions opened to the younger dressmakers and seamstresses when war activities were at their height, undoubtedly accounts for a large part of the great reduction in the number of women engaged in sewing outside of factories. For several years prior to 1930 a type of small felt hat with a ribbon band, which with slight variation could be worn both winter and summer, was popular with women. Inasmuch as these hats were made and trimmed in felt-hat factories, the employment of milliners was dispensed with to a great extent. Moreover, fabric hats with a variety of trimming are now made in factories and bought m large numbers. , , , Between 1920 and 1930 a decrease of 156,898 women took place among farm laborers, the job that held first rank among women s occupations in 1910 and second place in 1920. This great shrinkage in the number of women at work on farms has been discussed (page 28), together with some of the probable reasons for the decline. . From 1920 to 1930 the number of women more than doubled m 32 of the occupations having 500 or more women at the later date. (Table 15.) In 1920 there were 77 occupations in which the number of women had increased in 10 years by more than 100 per cent. Obviously, as the groups increase in size the probability ol doubling becomes less. Table 15 —Occupations with BOO or more women each m 1980 m which the number of women had doubled since 1920; number of women occupied in 1930 and in 1920, with the per cent of increase Women occupied in— Occupation Managers and officials, insurance companies.............. ............. Inspectors, gaugers, and samplers (trade)----- -----------------Decorators, drapers, and window dressers (tiade)-------Proprietors, managers, and officials, telegraph and telephone. Keepers of pleasure resorts, race tiacks, etc.-------- -----------Stockbrokers----------- --------------- ------- -------------------------Cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shop workers-------------------Loan brokers and pawnbrokers------------------------------------Laborers—domestic and professional service--------------------Retail dealers, automobiles and accessories------ ---------------Policewomen------------- -------- -------------------------------------Paper hangers---------------- —........... .........................-......... — Real estate agents and officials-------------------------------------Inspectors, telegraph and telephone--------- ------ ---------------Hairdressers and manicurists---- -------- ----------- ------ -------Canvassers----------------- -------- ----------------------------- ------ Retail dealers, furniture, carpets, and rugs--------- ------------Dentists’ assistants and attendants.-----------------------------Restaurant, caffe, and lunch-room keepers----------------------Insurance agents--------------- -------- ------- ----------------------Guards, watchmen, and doorkeepers---------- ------------- .---Owners and managers, truck, transfer, and cab companies.. Operatives—fruit and vegetable canning, etc------------------Operatives—brick, tile, and terra-cotta factories--------------Wholesale dealers, importers, and exporters........................... Physicians’ and surgeons’ attendants------------- --------------Editors and reporters............ ........ ........... ............................. Marshals, sheriffs, detectives, etc................................. -........ Laundry operatives------ -------------------- ----------- ------ -----Trained nurses........................—........... ................................... Librarians... ---------------------- ---------------- ------------------Employment-office keepers------------------------------- ------- - 1930 1920 1,752 5,820 6,238 2,873 977 I,793 21,603 632 6,406 516 849 1,456 31,787 1,133 113,194 II,813 I,865 12, 945 40, 008 12,953 306 1,031 1,155 644 197 376 4, 573 152 1,669 142 236 408 9,208 330 33,246 4,191 692 4,940 15,644 5,083 399 266 6, 306 630 794 6, 410 5, 730 1,246 72,675 143,664 13, 502 669 1,000 576 13, 552 1,349 1,688 13,353 II,924 2, 576 149,414 288, 737 27, 056 1,340 Per cent of in crease, 1920 to 1930 472.5 464. 5 440.1 428.1 395.9 376.9 372.4 315.8 283.8 263.4 259. 7 256.9 245.2 243.3 240.5 181.9 169.5 162.0 155.7 154.8 150.6 11C. 5 114.9 114.1 112.6 108 3 108.1 106.7 105.6 101.0 100.4 100.3 42 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 Except under extraordinary conditions, those pursuits with huge absolute gains are not the ones that register large percentage increases Yet four occupations listed in Table 13 (occupations with at least 50,000 increase) advanced enormously both in number and percentage between 1920 and 1930. These are trained nurses, hairdressers and manicurists, laundry operatives, and waitresses, the numbers em ployed having doubled in all but the last named and almost doubled m that. After studying those occupations in which the number of women has doubled in a decade, it is interesting to learn in which activities the number of women has been reduced by one-half during the same period. Table 16 lists nine occupations having 1,000 or more women in 1920 that had fewer than one-half as many in 1930. Occupations with 1,000 or more women each in 1920 in which fewer than half as many women were engaged in 1930; number of women occupied in 1930 and m 1920, with the per cent of decrease Table 16. Occupation Women occupied in— 1930 Farm managers and forewomen. __ . Operatives—straw factories. _ _. Operatives—piano and organ factories___ Sales agents________ _ _ Apprentices (total)________ Laborers—clock and watch factories__ Laborers—woolen and worsted mills. . Laborers—cigar and tobacco factories. Laborers—steam railroad........... 1920 Per cent of de1920 to 1930 963 642 628 1,798 6,487 3,111 6’ 586 52.8 The probable reason for the greatest shrinkage—that among farm managers and forewomen—has been discussed on page 27. Pre sumably, the falling off among women sales agents and women laborers on steam railroads may be attributed to better enumeration and better occupational classification in the Bureau of the Census; in other words, the 1920 figures for these two pursuits may have been overstated. In the case of each factory occupation listed in Table 16 there was a decline for both sexes, implying that certain changes have taken place within the industries themselves. Similarly, the number of appren tices is falling off at about the same rate among both men and women. In 12 outstanding occupations, each of which afforded employment to 50,000 or more women in 1930, the number of women had more than doubled since 1910; in fact, in three of these it had doubled since 1920, and it had practically doubled in two others. The development of these large occupational groups, as shown in Table 17, gives a vivid picture of the changing conditions in the occupational status of women over a period of two decades. Because of the large numbers of women in each of the pursuits listed, this table has great significance. COMPARISON WITH CHANGES IN THE OCCUPATIONS OF MEN 43 Table 17.— Twelve occupations in each of which 50,000 or more women were engaged in 1930 and in which the number occupied had more than doubled since 1910; number of women occupied in 1930 and in 1910, with the per cent of increase Women occupied in— Occupation Clerks (except “clerks” in stores)___ _____ ______________ Hairdressers and manicurists_______________ __ _______ Trained nurses_______________________________ II”””” Stenographers and typists___________________ Waitresses____________________________ __ ____________ Telephone operators___________________________ Operatives—iron and steel, machinery, and vehicle industries. Bookkeepers and cashiers______________________________ Hotel and restaurant keepers and managers____________ __ Operatives—food and allied industries____________________ Saleswomen (stores) 1______________________ ___________ Laundry operatives_________________________________ 1930 1910 706,553 113,194 288, 737 775, 140 231, 973 235, 259 60. 763 465,697 57, 318 88, 586 542, 646 149,414 122,665 22, 298 76, 508 263, 315 85, 798 88, 262 23, 557 183, 569 24, 751 38, 439 250,487 71,604 Per cent of in crease, 1910 to 1930 476.0 407.6 277.4 194.4 170.4 166.5 157.9 153.7 131.6 130.5 116.6 108.7 1 “Clerks” in stores could not be included with saleswomen in this table because saleswomen and “clerks” in stores together have increased but 94.9 per cent since 1910. Table 14 (page 40) shows several occupations which, having 100,000 or more women at work in 1910, showed a decline of more than 50 per cent in number at the census of 1930. In this table point is given to the enormity of certain reductions over the 20-year period from 1910 to 1930. COMPARISON WITH CHANGES IN THE OCCUPATIONS OF MEN A comparison of changes in the occupations of women with those observed among men’s pursuits is of interest from many different angles. The actual numbers at each of three censuses and the increases or decreases from 1920 to 1930 and from 1910 to 1930 in the employment of men and women are shown in Tables I and II, pages 56 to 79. Asa rule, only those occupations are listed in Table II which had 1,000 or more persons of each sex at work at each of the last two censuses, but for reasons of space not all the component groups are shown in the case of the manufacturing industries, even when this numerical prerequisite is met. In the first place, the female population 10 years of age and over increased 20.6 per cent from 1920 to 1930, corresponding to an advance of but 18.1 per cent in the male population. Between the increases in the numbers of gainfully occupied persons, however, a much greater difference appears. Among the women usually at work, a gain of 2,202,605, or 25.8 per cent, is in evidence, compared with an increase of 5,013,067, or 15.2 per cent, among the employed men. This pronounced expansion in the number of working women during the recent decade has lowered the ratio of 387 employed men per 100 employed women in 1920 to 354 men per 100 women in 1930. A study of Table II indicates that in the majority of the occupations listed the direction of change—increase or decrease—was the same for both sexes. In all, 121 occupations are shown (exclusive of subtotals), and only 33 of these indicate a decrease for one sex and an increase for the other; 17 of the 33 are in the manufacturing and mechanical 155543°—33—4 44 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 industries. In 20 of the 33 an advance is recorded for men, but not for women. No one is surprised to learn that men decreased in number and women increased as stenographers and typists and as nurses (both trained and untrained). But why should the number of men inspec tors, gaugers, and samplers, commercial pursuits, have declined slightly during these past 10 years, while the number of women so engaged became nearly six times what it was in 1920? On the other hand, why did the number of women physicians, dentists, and osteopaths decrease while men in the same professions were increasing in number? It is even more surprising to learn that male milliners and millinery dealers increased in number when the reduction among women in this group, as already shown, ran into the tens of thousands. Ap parently, millinery dealers selling more or less standardized hats are becoming more numerous, while the milliner who had her own shop and made, trimmed, and sold hats is passing into the discard, as are the hat maker, the millinery trimmer, and the apprentice whom she used to employ. In spite of the numerical loss noted among women milliners and millinery dealers and the gain among men in this class, women still outnumber men eight to one. From Tables II and III it appears that women are definitely sup planting men as operatives in the clothing industries. The enormous gain in the number of women employees in clothing factories since 1920 has been discussed, but its significance is not brought out unless one understands that there was a slight decrease among men in clothing factories. < Numerical advances among women operatives in leather industries, in rubber factories, and in the iron and steel industries are made conspicuous by decreases in the number of men employed as operatives in these factories. In the past the majority of these industrial plants have offered few or no inducements leading to the employment of women. Shoe factories monopolize nearly all the increase noted among women operatives in the leather industries, just as the gain among women in the iron and steel industries is limited to those in automobile factories. Table II lists 69 occupations with additions for both men and women, but the rates of increase in the various pursuits were by no means the same for the two sexes. In fact, from 1920 to 1930, 38 occupations had greater percentage gains for women than for men. With all due allowance for the smaller basic figures usually found in the case of women workers, it is nevertheless of interest to note that in each of 17 occupations the percentage of increase among women was more than 50 points higher than that shown for men. Conversely, women school-teachers registered a gain of 218,760, or 34.4 per cent, while the men in this profession, whose numbers have been augmented by 73,201 teachers since 1920, scored an increase of 62.6 per cent. Men school-teachers actually declined in number between 1910 and 1920, and it is not improbable that some of this group had not yet returned to their professional duties in 1920 after participation in war activities. Although the total number of men in the manufacturing and mechanical industries registered a gain of 12.1 per cent from 1920 to 1930, compared with a 2.3 per cent decline among women in this COMPARISON WITH CHANGES IN THE OCCUPATIONS OF MEN 45 general division of occupations, it is evident that additional workers in the building and hand trades account for most of this increase among men. At any rate, men factory operatives increased but 6.4 per cent, compared with an 8.6 per cent advance among women. The percentage of decline among factory laborers was much greater for women than for men. Between 1920 and 1930 the production of electrical machinery and supplies constituted the only manufacturing industry that showed unusual development common to both sexes; furthermore, the great enlargement in factories of this type has continued throughout two decades. On the other hand, the absolute increase from 1920 to 1930 among men and women operatives and laborers in electrical machinery and supply factories was but 62,582, compared with a net gain of 82,065 employees of both sexes in clothing factories. Even the chemical and allied industries, with 64,656 additional employees of both sexes, outstripped the numerical increase in elec trical machinery and supply factories, though in the case of the latter group the advance in percentage was much the greater. The inclu sion of rayon factories is entirely responsible for the gain among women operatives in chemical industries, but men registered consid erable increases in petroleum refineries, in gas works, and in paint and varnish factories. From 1920 to 1930 the numbers of both men and women operatives were augmented by groups of substantial size in clay, glass, and stone industries, in food and allied industries, and in knitting mills. Cigar and tobacco factories lost a total of 56,083 employees during the last decade, the decline being considerably the greater for men. Iron and steel industries as a whole had 106,521 fewer men employees in 1930 than in 1920, while the net gain among women in all factories of this type was but 457, inasmuch as the decline among laborers almost offset the advance among operatives. Fourteen occupations are listed under “trade” as having at least 1,000 persons of each sex both in 1920 and in 1930. Women recorded increases in each of these 14 occupations and most of the gains were fairly large. It is a matter of common knowledge that the increasing use of machinery has resulted in the employment of fewer factory opera tives; in candy, paper box, and cigar and tobacco factories, for example, where operatives of both sexes have been thrown out of employment by greater mechanical development So far as one is able to judge by a comparison of census figures for 1920 and 1930, the employment of women in important manufac turing pursuits has held its own as compared with the employment of men, but it has not registered an advance commensurate with the increase in population. For 119 of the same occupations as are compared for 1920 and 1930, the increase or decrease over the 20-year period 1910 to 1930 is shown. (Table II.)11 During this period the female population 10 years of age and over increased 41.2 per cent, in contrast to an advance of 34.9 per cent in the male population. Among women usually ii It must be explained in this connection that in a number of cases such use of the figures is not wholly justified, owing to the. indefiniteness of reclassifying the 1910 returns to conform to the classification of 1930. The reader is referred to Table I, the detailed footnotes of which (pp. 74 and 75) explain all irregulari ties in the table. 46 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 gainfully employed there was a gain of 33.1 per cent, compared to an increase of 26.5 per cent among employed men. The number of employed men per 100 employed women is found to have been 373 in 1910, 387 in 1920, and 354 in 1930. Of the 119 occupations, only 20 indicate a decrease for one sex and an increase for the other. Disregarding the relative importance of these pursuits, the 20 increases were evenly divided, each sex having 10. Table II lists 88 occupations that show increases for both men and women, but the rates of increase differ widely. From 1910 to 1930, 61 occupations had greater percentage gains for women than for men. In three of the group totals—professional service, domestic and personal service, and clerical occupations—women had increases in actual numbers greater than those of men. CHANGES IN NUMBER OF MEN PER 100 WOMEN IN SELECTED OCCUPATIONS A tabulation showing changes in the ratio of men to women in certain selected occupations for a 20-year period is of great interest. In Table III, page 80, changes in the number of men per 100 women from 1910 to 1930 are shown for those occupations in which 10,000 or more persons of each sex were engaged both in 1930 and in 1920. This general table indicates that in certain occupations, even among some of great numerical importance, such as servants and school teachers, no definite trend can be observed between 1910 and 1930 in the ratio of men to women. In an effort to clarify the extensive data assembled in this general table, those occupations in which the number of men per 100 women has increased steadily since 1910 are listed in Table 18. Table 18.—Men per 100 women in those selected occupations 1 in which men have steadily advanced from 1910 to 1930 Men per 100 women Occupation 1930 Farm laborers-------------------- ----------------------------------------------Unpaid family workers------------------------ ------------------------------ Operatives: 1920 1910 580 1,495 249 1,688 1,089 676 421 931 221 1,140 921 504 307 729 181 808 792 401 307 159 161 357 133 89 136 108 71 108 165 107 51 764 268 137 129 310 105 81 125 103 59 105 142 79 47 515. 191 124 107 244 100 79 90 99 58 102 121 65 27 427 - 1 This table is limited to those occupations in each of which 10,000 or more persons of each sex were engaged, both in 1930 and in 1920. (See Table III, general tables, p. 80.) COMPARISON WITH CHANGES IN THE OCCUPATIONS OF MEN 47 The past two decades have seen unexpected changes in the ratio of men to women in certain occupations of numerical importance to both sexes. In a word, men appear to be gaining the ascendancy in 17 occupations (exclusive of subtotals), whereas in 26 pursuits census figures indicate that women are making greater relative gains than are men. As a matter of fact, it rarely happens that a woman directly replaces a man in any occupation or that a woman is discharged solely to make place for a man. Rather, conditions in industry change in such a way as to make the employment of one sex prefer able to that of the other. The adoption of new types of machinery in certain factories has led to a preference for women in some cases; in cigar and tobacco factories, on the other hand, both men and women employees have lost their jobs because of the introduction of labor-saving machinery. During the past two decades the number of men per 100 women has doubled in but two occupational groups—paid farm laborers, and compositors, linotypers, and typesetters. One is forcibly struck by the rapidity with which men are succeeding women in the latter. Although the decline among women in this group has already been noted, no other table brings out the change so vividly as does Table 18. Supplementing this information is the accompanying advance made by men operatives in printing, publishing, and engraving. Another skilled trade in which women are declining is that of tailoring. Twenty years ago _ the country had four tailors per tailoress, but in 1930 the ratio in this occupation was seven men per woman. The census of 1930 listed 107 men musicians and music teachers for every 100 women in this profession, whereas 20 years earlier only 65 men were enumerated for every 100 women so engaged. Instructions to census enumerators were rather loose in 1910° as to the inclusion among the gainfully occupied of women who worked for a few hours a week. These directions were tightened in 1920, however, with the result that only women at work regularly and most of the time were included as having gainful occupations; this new instruction undoubtedly eliminated many music teachers who devoted veiy little of their time to their profession. Furthermore, the demand for music lessons has appreciably lessened since the victrola, the radio, and the sound-motion pictures reached their present stage of mechanical development. In other words, this country had in 1930 many more men than women musicians, though the opposite condition prevailed 20 years earlier, when more part time music teachers were included. As artists, sculptors, and teachers of art, likewise, men appear to be forging to the front at the expense of women, but the change is not so great as among musicians and teachers of music. If one did not foresee that men operatives were gaining more rapidly than women in the chemical and allied industries and in electrical machinery and supply factories, at least no one is amazed at these facts. On the other hand, it is rather a surprise to learn that in the textile industries as a whole, as well as in carpet, cotton, silk, and woolen mills, men are slowly but steadily gaining numerical ascendancy. 48 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 For 20 years the number of men farm laborers per 100 women so employed has continued to increase. While this finding was to be expected by those familiar with conditions in the field of agriculture, the overstatement in the number of women farm laborers in the census of 1910 obviously influences this ratio to a considerable degree. Table 19 assembles those pursuits in which the number of men per 100 women declined during the period 1910 to 1930, provided 10,000 or more persons of each sex were so engaged both in 1930 and in 1920. Table 19.—Men per 100 women in those selected occupations 1 in which men have steadily lost ground from 1910 to 1930 Men per 100 women Occupation 1930 Manufacturers, managers, and officials (manufacturing) _ Operatives: Cigar and tobacco factories ....... ........... . ... ______ ____ Clothing industries_________ ________ _ Food and allied industries Candy factories____ .. ._ _____ __ . ___ ... .. ---- . Iron and steel, machinery, and vehicle industries ________________ Automobile factories--------- ------ --------------------- ----------------Other metal industries------------- --------------------------------- ------- - . Shoe factories_____ _____ _______________________________ Laborers—food and allied industries. ... College presidents and professors .. ---------------------- -------- -- -------- Social and religious workers Barbers, hairdressers, and manicurists---- --------------- -------------------Hotel keepers and managers------- ------------------------- ----------------------Restaurant, caf6, and lunch-room keepers __________________________ Bookkeepers and cashiers _______________________________ Clerks (except “clerks” in stores)___ ______________ . ----------------Stenographers and typists _______________________ ______ _________ 1920 1910 3,127 3,166 5,762 53 513 41 153 64 972 751 198 192 157 756 153 321 6 1,032 1,446 669 97 208 40 231 13 228 313 70 59 183 5 73 549 54 180 67 1,093 847 200 237 181 939 185 371 7 1,846 1, 582 1,035 114 232 53 550 16 293 462 96 78 215 9 111 837 63 256 79 1, 467 2,387 235 287 205 1,365 219 751 11 3,905 1,681 1,113 136 430 80 776 16 353 478 119 144 487 20 i This table is limited to those occupations in each of which 10,000 or more persons of each sex were engaged, both in 1930 and in 1920. (See Table III, general tables, p. 80.) To the casual observer it would appear that women are taking the places of men in certain of the occupations listed in the foregoing table. Conspicuous among the pursuits indicating this are operatives in the clothing industries and in candy factories; telephone operators; social and religious workers; boarding and lodging house keepers; and stenographers and typists—all occupations in which women have had a majority for more than 20 years. Nor is one surprised to learn that in these two decades women have arrived at numerical supremacy as waiters, as actors, and as bookkeepers and cashiers. The phenomenal rise among women barbers, hairdressers, and manicurists has resulted in reducing the number of men per 100 women in this occupational group from 776 in 1910 to 231 in 1930. Causes of the sensational increase among women in this pursuit have been discussed. On the other hand, the small gain among men bar bers, which in reality constitutes a relative decline, may be attributed to the general adoption of safety razors. To-day few men are shaved COMPARISON WITH CHANGES IN THE OCCUPATIONS OF MEN 49 by barbers, compared with a generation ago, when that was the cus tomary procedure for men in comfortable circumstances. Although men still have a majority as telegraph operators, they are losing ground at a rapid rate. This statement is true likewise of college presidents and professors, among whom men have dropped from 430 per 100 women in 1910 to 208 per 100 women in 1930. Even as postmasters women are slowly gaining in comparison with men. The number of men per 100 women operatives has declined in the clay, glass, and stone industries, where detailed analysis indicates a decrease common to operatives in brickyards, in lime, cement, and artificial stone factories, in glass factories, and in potteries. And women are gaining ground as automobile-factory operatives at such a rate as to exert a reducing influence on the number of men per 100 women in the entire group of iron and steel industries. Relative gains have also been recorded by women in shoe factories and by those in the nonferrous metal industries, the latter a group of plants that includes brass mills and factories making tinware and enamelware, clocks and watches, jewelry, and gold and silver products. Table 19 depicts the substantial advances made by women in clerical occupations and in the field of business. In the stenographic realm women have been numerically preeminent for several decades, though in 1910 this country had but 5 women stenographers and typists for each man so occupied. Even during the days of the war the ratio was but 11 such women per man, -whereas in 1930 women stenographers numbered 22 for each man so occupied. Another occupation in which the number of men per 100 women has been reduced by more than one-half is that of office clerks; in this pursuit 487 men per 100 women were at work in 1910, compared with 183 in 1930. For bookkeepers and cashiers the figure dropped from 144 in 1910 to 59 in 1930. The census of 1930 showed 10 men to 1 woman at work as realestate and insurance agents and officials, compared with 39 men per woman in 1910—a striking difference. If this group be subdivided, the change is found to be much greater among real-estate agents than among insurance men and women. For example, the ratio of men insurance agents and officials has dropped from 36 per woman so engaged in 1910 to 18 in 1930; but among real-estate agents and officials men numbered 42 per woman in 1910 and only 7 per woman in 1930. In no other occupation are women advancing so speedily. Women have made great progress as hotel and restaurant keepers and managers and as retail dealers, but the change in ratio is not particularly pronounced. Likewise, as manufacturers, factory man agers, and officials, the number of men per woman has been almost cut in two since 1910, though the men in this group still number 31 for each woman so occupied. On the other hand, foremen in factories have made an appreciable gain at the expense of forewomen during the past 20 years. In four occupations, then, it is apparent that women are increasing much more rapidly in number than are men. Women have long been in the majority in one of these pursuits—stenographers and typists— though to a less degree in years gone by. Though the present rate of advance is high among women real-estate agents and officials; among barbers, hairdressers, and manicurists; and among office clerks, 50 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 men so occupied still are much more numerous than women in these particular occupations. According to Tables 18 and 19, men are advancing at the expense of women in 17 occupations (exclusive of subtotals), whereas in 26 pursuits the opposite is true. Since practically every able-bodied man in this country is at work in normal times, it is of course to be expected that women would register relative increases in a greater number of occupations than would be possible for men. Obviously, the vast numbers of the female sex not gainfully occupied comprise an almost inexhaustible source of labor supply. WOMEN IN TEN MAJOR OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS This report has already described the classification of women’s occu pations by general divisions, according to industry or place of work. Yet everyone recognizes the fact that the pursuits comprising any one general division of occupations are not at all homogeneous. Some times it is desirable, therefore, to have a brief classification of occu pations combining pursuits that are fairly similar in character for the reason that persons who have not mastered the intricacy of occupationclassification schemes are likely to want information regarding employed women in terms of a few large groups, such as factory operatives, clerical workers, professional women, or servants. With this idea in mind the gainfully occupied women have been assembled in 10 major occupational groups, the total of which forms more than 95 per cent of all women usually at work. These major groups of pursuits must not be confused with those occupations that form the component parts of each group, a point that is carefully defined by Table IV, page 82. This tabulation shows in detail just which occupations are included in each of the major groups and how many women were engaged in each such pursuit in 1930, in 1920, and in 1910. Each of these 10 major groups represents a distinct category that is comparatively homogeneous, not only as to occupation but as to economic and social status and as to educational qualifications. For most of the groups the inclusive names assigned are self-explanatory. Chart VI gives a vivid picture of the changes among women at work in each of these major occupational groups in 1910, 1920, and 1930. Declines of appreciable size are shown for all women engaged in sewing occupations, as well as for those in agricultural pursuits. Although women servants and allied workers increased enormously from an. absolute standpoint, their relative gain from 1910 to 1930 did not keep pace with the growth of the female population. In this major group the decline among home laundresses nullified some of the increase among servants proper. Neither did housekeepers,12 stew ardesses, and practical nurses—high-class occupations in the field of domestic service—score a gain commensurate with that of the population. The remaining sLx major occupational groups experienced increases that far surpassed the rise in population. Between 1910 and 1930 the greatest increase, whether considered absolutely or relatively, was that for women in clerical and kindred pursuits. Table IV demon strates the fact that this large group includes certain positions, such I* See Appendix B, p. 85. 51 WOMEN IN TEN MAJOR OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS as mail carriers, ticket and station agents, technicians and laboratory assistants, librarians’ assistants, and various allied positions not usually classified with clerical occupations. In addition, telephone and telegraph operators, jobs that might also be. considered as clerical occupations without too much stretch of the imagination, likewise registered a very large increase. o o o <£ Z o Hr* o * MillONico to to »o o> o* c- r- o» N » CO oo c- O co CO CO IO to IO a> fr» ow c- 00 to IQ to U3 •** ■* O at co co ->r co to to c- to co to to N M H rt •a o U V * ■jj a « o Factory and laundry employees, on the other hand, scored a gain of but 47.7 per cent during this 20-year period, whereas the population increase among women 10 years of age and over was 41.2 per cent. Laundry employees and those in cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shops are included with factory employees in this tabulation of 10 major occupational groups. Industrially, of course, laundries and cleaning shops can not be classed as factories'because they turn out no manu factured product; rather, they render a service. 52 THE OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESS OF WOMEN, 1910 TO 1930 Business women and professional women more than doubled in number between 1910 and 1930, while among saleswomen, clerks in stores, commercial travelers, demonstrators, and allied selling occu pations an increase of 93.3 per cent took place. The term “business women” is used in this report to connote those working in proprietary, official, and supervisory pursuits in the field of business. American women engaged in occupations of this type may roughly be grouped together as business women in the sense of being entrepreneurs. Unless narrowly defined, such terms as “busi ness women” are subject to very loose interpretation. It is quite true that the census scheme of occupation classification does not lend itself 100 per cent to the compilation of proprietors, officials, and supervisors as a group. For example, the millinery dealers who are classed with milliners and the proprietors of beauty shops who are lost in the great group of hairdressers and manicurists would be included with business women if information as to their numbers were available. Nevertheless, these minor omissions of women who in reality should be included are offset to a large extent by the inclusion of a few women who are not bona fide business women as herein defined. Women pharmacists, for example, are classed with druggists,_ as are embalmers with undertakers, with the result that the total includes a certain few who may have no responsibility for the management of the enterprise with which they are connected. On the whole, figures for business women represent the group with a reasonable degree of fidelity. Among the women operating or managing business concerns in 1930 were 110,166 retail dealers; 57,318 hotel and restaurant keepers and mangers; 46,492 real-estate and insurance agents and officials; 16,133 manufacturers, factory managers, and officials; 9,192 bankers and brokers; and 6,424 advertising women. The remainder owned or managed laundries, dry-cleaning establishments, theaters, small telephone companies, garages, transfer companies, undertaking estab lishments, wholesale stores, importing and exporting companies, and businesses of an allied nature. Between 1910 and 1930 these business women increased 130.4 per cent in number, or from 114,133 to 262,950. Numerical gains occurred in each of the large subdivisions noted just above. Changes in certain individual occupations included in this category have already been discussed in considerable detail in the section of the ratio of men to women. Only by considering the number of men per 100 women can one see the great advance made by women in certain of these proprietary and supervisory pursuits. Table 20 lists changes from 1910 to 1930 in the number of men per 100 women in each of these 10 major occupational groups. It is pertinent to add that in 1930 men in these 10 groups numbered but 65.8 per cent of all gainfully employed men, whereas women so classed comprised 95.3 per cent of all women at work. This great difference is due to the fact that five million men are employed in the heavier skilled building and hand trades—occupations in which women figure but slightly; in addition, three and one-half million men are at work on railroads and in other fields of transportation, over a million as building and general laborers, and almost a million in mining—all occupations in which few women are employed. 53 WOMEN IN TEN MAJOR OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS Table 20.—Men per 100 women in each of 10 major occupational groups:1 1980, 1920, and 1910 Men per 100 women Occupational group 1 1930 1920 1910 All occupations________________________ 354 387 373 Servants and allied occupations___ ___________ Clerical and kindred pursuits..... ............................ Factory and laundry employees----------------------Professional pursuits------- ----------------------------Agricultural pursuits-----------------------------------Saleswomen, “clerks” in stores, etc-----------------Housekeepers, stewardesses, and practical nurses^ Telephone and telegraph operators------------------Business men and business women------------------Sewing occupations--------------------------------------All other occupations------------------------------------ 36 112 271 104 1,078 270 9 28 1,384 69 2, 576 35 129 294 109 909 232 11 38 1, 773 48 3,183 24 214 282 128 599 296 11 74 2,044 27 3,074 i Table IV, general tables, p. 82, indicates what occupations have been included in each of these major occupational groups and the number of women in each. No table illustrates more vividly than the foregoing the com parative decline of women in agricultural pursuits. The reader may be surprised to learn that men have scored relative increases even as servants and in the sewing trades. Professional women have made a slow but steady advance since 1910, while as clerical workers the progress of women has been much more marked. It seems likely that the woman in business is here to stay. The gradual nature of the change is indicated by the fact that in 1930 this country had 14 business men for each woman in business, whereas 20 years earlier the ratio was 20 men for each woman in this occupa tional category. Changes in the number of men per 100 women are indicative of social trends operating throughout the country. Such ratios are much more significant than numerical increases or decreases in certain occupa tions, but all this information taken together gives a picture of the occupational progress of women in the United States that can not be gainsaid. APPENDIXES APPENDIX A—GENERAL TABLES APPENDIX B—CLASSIFICATION AND METHOD; INSTRUCTIONS TO ENUMERATORS 55 v Table I.—Gainful workers 10 years old and over, by occupation and sex, for the United States: 1930, 1920, and 1910 Ol Ci [Reproduced from Occupation Statistics, United States Summary: Fifteenth Census of the United States, 1930] 1930 1920 1910 Occupation Population 10 years old and over___ Male 98,723,047 49,949, 798 48,829, 920 38,077,804 Female Total Male Female Total Male Female 82, 739,315 42, 289,969 40,449,346 71, 580, 270 37, 027,558 34,552,712 10,752,116 41,614,248 33,064,737 8,549,511 38,167,336 30,091,564 8, 075,772 909,939 10,665,812 9,582, 666 1,083,146 12, 388,309 10,581,685 1, 806,624 5, 749,367 262,645 6,387, 360 6,121,783 77,984 265, 577 14,340 6,132,380 50,296 5,859, 238 42, 521 273,142 7,775 1,184, 784 646,331 171,323 475,008 4,186,128 2,336, 009 1,850, 119 3, 382,899 2,109,422 1,273,477 803, 229 226, 587 576,642 6,205,633 2,895,099 3,310, 534 4,679,926 2, 545, 977 2,133,949 1,525,707 349,122 1,176, 585 241,249 557 GAINFUL WORKERS All occupations______ _______ Agriculture^........ ................................. 10,471,998 Farmers (owners and tenants).. Farm managers and foremen........ 6, 012,012 67, 222 Farm laborers__________ ... Wage workers 2 . ... Unpaid family workers 2_......... . 2, 732,972 1,659, 792 Forestry and fishing.............. . 250,469 270, 214 269,541 673 241,806 73,280 8,057 52,836 3,653 52,457 3,651 379 2 68, 275 4, 332 8,410 2,095 8, 397 6,307 2,090 13 8 7,931 6,206 1,725 7, 927 6,202 1, 725 4 4 205,315 6,090 2,344 17,106 179,775 205, 036 6,090 2,344 17,106 179,496 279 161,191 4,798 2,109 15,038 139,246 77 279 161,268 4, 798 2,110 15,038 139,322 76 Fishermen and oystermen______ _ Foresters, forest rangers, and timber cruisers Owners and managers of log and timber camps_____ Owners and proprietors____ _ Managers and officials______ ___ Lumbermen, raftsmen, and woodchoppers__ Foremen............. .......... Inspectors, scalers, and surveyors____ Teamsters and haulers______ Other lumbermen, raftsmen, and woodchoppers. . Extraction of minerals__________ 15 6,899 5,650 1,249 6,889 5,641 162,233 3,910 2,184 9,243 146, 896 162,138 3, 910 2,183 9,242 146,803 1 1 93 1,090,223 1,087,359 2,864 965,169 964,075 1,094 30, 755 141 34, 325 17, 334 16,991 34,143 17, 216 16, 927 182 118 64 25,234 14,287 10,947 25,127 14, 201 10,926 107 86 21 . 36,931 27,945 36,923 27,939 8,984 8 6 2 23,338 22,142 1,196 23,328 22,133 1,195 10 9 1 95 984, 323 Operators, managers, and officials_____ ^ Operators____ _ _______ Managers and officials______ , Foremen, overseers, and inspectors___ Foremen and overseers___ Inspectors______________ 8,042 30,896 15,511 15, 385 34,286 28,132 6,154 -4 67,799 ------------476 4, 332 1 APPENDIX A----GENERAL TABLES Total * Coal-mine operatives............................................................................. 621,661 621, 545 116 733,936 732,441 1,495 613, 924 613, 519 405 Other operatives in extraction of minerals.------------- ----------------Copper-mine operatives------------------------ ------ -----------------Gold and silver mine operatives--------------------------------------Iron-mine operatives--------------------- ------ ------ ------------------Lead and zinc mine operatives_____________________ _____ Other specified mine operatives---------------------------------------Not specified mine operatives............................................... ........ Quarry operat ives_______ ______________________________ Oil and gas well operatives------- -------------------------------------Salt well and works operatives------------------------------- ---------- 297,480 30,939 18,157 24,248 16,154 11,788 21,558 65,288 105,224 4,124 296,990 30,936 18,148 24, 245 16,153 11, 771 21,545 65, 263 105,212 3,717 490 3 9 3 1 17 13 25 12 407 285,031 36,054 32,700 38,704 20,798 11,320 9,271 45,162 85,550 5,472 283,852 35,918 32,666 38, 605 20,749 11, 271 ' 9,262 45,084 85, 303 4,994 1,179 136 34 99 49 49 9 78 247 478 302,673 39,270 55,436 49,948 19,486 7,945 19,821 80,840 25, 562 4,365 302,101 39, 251 55, 397 49, 909 19,471 7, 891 19, 807 80, 795 25,548 4, 032 572 19 39 39 15 54 14 45 14 333 14,110,652 12,224, 345 40,133 682 631 4,138 4,611 13,606 5,937 1,937 8,591 40,105 682 28 4,133 4,604 13,600 5 7 6 1,937 8,581 Apprentices (except to building and hand trades)?--------------------Dressmakers’ and milliners’ apprentices------- --------------------Jewelers’, watchmakers’, goldsmiths’, and silversmiths’ ap prentices--------------- ------ ---------- ------- -------------------------Printers’ and bookbinders’ apprentices------- ---------------------Other apprentices in manufacturing?.................................... — 37,319 2,181 (*) 3 2,814 (4) 3 6,061 3 2,660 c) 3 9,899 <*) 6, 565 w M (0 11,980 73,897 2,659 2, 005 4, 797 9,557 39,448 7,386 2; 815 5,230 56 2 10 73,953 2,661 2,005 4,805 9,562 39,463 7,386 2,816 5,255 1 25 5 9,903 (*) 6, 582 33,450 20 3,869 2,161 66,447 4,326 57, 070 17 9, 377 4, 309 « 12,011 1,177 10,928 23,033 1,041 10,575 21,814 136 353 1,219 2,633 11,603 47,885 2,247 10,366 44,440 386 1,237 3,445 5 1,839 « 12,395 (*> Bakers................................ -..........................................................-........ 140,800 131,884 8,916 97,940 93, 347 4,593 89, 531 84,752 4,779 Blacksmiths, forgemen, and hammermen-------------------------------Blacksmiths--------------------------- ------------------------------------Forgemen and hammermen__________ ______ ______ 147,469 124,373 23,096 147,460 124, 365 23,095 9 8 1 221,421 195,255 26,166 221,416 195,251 26,165 5 4 1 240,174 232,988 7,186 240,143 232, 957 7,186 31 31 Boilermakers........................... .................................................. ........... Brick and stone masons and tile layers............... ............................... Builders and building contractors------ ------------------------------------ 49,923 170^ 903 167,512 49,923 170; 896 167,310 7 202 74,088 131,264 90,109 74,088 131,257 90,030 7 79 44, 761 s 169,402 174,422 44, 761 8 169,387 173, 573 a 15 849 Cabinetmakers----------------- ----------- ------------------------------------Carpenters................................. ............... ............................................. Compositors, linotypers, and typesetters--------------------------------Coopers___________ ______________ ___________ -........ -........... Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory)------- ------- ----------Dyers------ ------ ---------------- ----------- ------- —-.................-............. Electricians............................................................................................. 57,897 929,426 183,632 11, 347 158, 380 17, 719 280, 317 57,890 929, 376 173,363 11,347 452 17,425 280,279 45, 511 887, 379 140,165 19, 066 235,855 15,109 212, 964 45,503 887, 208 128, 859 19,081 336 14,978 212, 945 8 171 11, 306 5 235, 519 131 19 41,892 817,120 127, 589 25, 299 449, 342 14, 050 9 120, 241 41, 884 817, 082 113, 538 25, 292 1, 582 13, 396 » 120,155 8 38 14,051 7 447,760 654 B86 For footnotes see pp. 74 and 75. 7 50 10, 269 157, 928 294 38 8 5 15 5 2,816 (4) 3 6,069 5 2,661 0 31 «1,770 s 11,454 (•> (4) (0 (<) (0 52 68 31 34 17 3 69 8 941 APPENDIX A----GENERAL TABLES 1,886,307 3 12,831,879 3 10,901, 527 3 1,930,352 3 10,656, 545 3 8,835,698 s 1,820,847 Manufacturing and mechanical industries-----------------------Apprentices to building and hand trades---------- ----------------------Blacksmiths’ apprentices-----------------------------------------------Boilermakers’ apprentices----------------- ------ --------- -----------Carpenters’ apprentices------ ------------------------------------------Electricians’ apprentices----------------------- ------------------------Machinists’ apprentices 6----------------------------------------------Plumbers’ apprentices_____________ ____ ____ ____-........ — Tinsmiths’ and coppersmiths’ apprentices-------------------------Apprentices to other building and hand trades-------------------- Or Table I.—Gainful workers 10 years old and over, by occupation and sex, for the United States: 1930, 1920, and 1910—Continued 1930 1920 Oi 00 1910 Occupation Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Manufacturing and mechanical—Continued. 16, 692 7, 824 8,868 16, 448 7,805 8, 643 244 19 225 13,716 5,494 8,222 13,530 5,484 8,046 186 10 176 12,506 4, 368 8,138 11,929 4,268 7,661 Engineers (stationary), cranemen, hoistmen, etc___ Engineers (stationary)______________________ Cranemen, derrickmen, hoistmen, etc_________ 316, 964 256, 078 60, 886 316, 942 256, 060 60,882 22 18 4 279,984 242,096 37,888 279, 940 242, 064 37, 876 44 32 12 (10) 231, 041 m (10) 231, 031 (10) Engravers..____________ ______________ _______ 19, 437 18, 747 690 15,053 14, 492 561 13, 967 13,429 538 Filers, grinders, buffers, and polishers (metal)_____ Buffers and polishers____________________ ... Filers________________________ ____________ Grinders__________________ ___________ ____ 78, 600 35, 206 16, 593 26,801 76, 264 33, 625 16, 358 26,281 2,336 1,581 235 520 59,785 30,511 10,959 18,315 57, 315 28,484 10, 893 17, 938 2,470 2,027 66 377 49,525 30, 496 10,236 8, 793 46, 679 28,191 10, 069 8,419 2,846 2,305 167 374 Firemen (except locomotive and fire department)__ Foremen and overseers (manufacturing) 11_________ 127, 294 338,504 127, 293 310, 037 1 28,467 143,875 308,137 143, 862 277, 966 13 30,171 111, 248 175,997 111, 248 156, 256 19, 741 Furnace men, smelter men, heaters, puddlers, etc__ Furnace men, smelter men, and pourers_______ Heaters___________________________________ Puddlers_______ _________ _________________ 35,166 18, 627 14, 942 1, 597 35,165 18, 627 14, 941 1, 597 1 40,806 19, 221 16', 470 5,115 40,800 19, 217 16^468 5,115 6 4 2 36,251 36, 226 25 10,120 5, 717 10, 111 5, 717 9 Glass blowers.._____________________ _________ Jewelers, watchmakers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths. Goldsmiths and silversmiths_________________ Jewelers and lapidaries (factory)_____ ________ Jewelers and watchmakers (not in factory)_____ 1 577 100 477 (i°) (10) 10 3,268 3,209 59 9,144 9,055 89 15, 564 15,474 90 38,662 4,018 7,519 27,125 37,408 3,937 6,898 26, 573 1, 254 81 621 552 39, 592 4,828 8, 757 26,007 37,914 4, 771 7,701 25,442 1,678 57 1,056 565 32, 574 5, 757 10, 631 16,186 30,037 5,553 8,783 15,701 2,537 204 1,848 485 Loom fixers____________________ _____ ________ 19,215 19,180 35 15,961 15,958 3 13, 254 13,254 Machinists, millwrights, and toolmakers__________ Machinists___________ _______ ____________ Millwrights________________________________ Toolmakers and die setters and sinkers......... ....... 761, 095 640, 289 42, 012 78, 794 761, 075 640, 285 42,006 78, 784 20 4 6 10 894,662 ' 801,901 37,669 55,092 894,654 801, 896 37, 669 55, 089 8 5 487,956 461, 271 17,442 9,243 93 73 3 488,049 461,344 17, 442 9^ 263 Managers and officials (manufacturing)11__________ Manufacturers11...................... ........................................ 312, 756 207, 901 302, 334 202,190 10,422 5, 711 249, 950 183, 695 241, 619 178, 750 8, 331 4,945 125, 694 235, 618 123, 831 231, 317 1,868 4,301 20 APPENDIX A---- GENERAL TABLES Electrotypers, stereotypers, and lithographers_____ Electrotypers and stereotypers_______ _______ Lithographers_______ ______ ______ ________ 155543°— 33- 40 40,102 23, 272 73,255 23, 265 3, 657 7 69,598 23,152 127, 906 23, 093 5,459 59 122, 447 105,139 6,284 63,287 35,568 19 3 2 14 123, 681 7,238 114,031 2,412 123, 668 7, 238 114,022 2, 408 13 120, 900 6, 512 112, 122 2,266 120, 783 6, 509 112, 070 2,204 117 3 52 62 31,169 41 24, 612 24,568 44 14,013 13, 990 23 319, 697 3,168 248, 394 68,135 3, 335 969 103 2,263 337, 355 2, 999 273, 441 60, 915 334,814 1, 968 273, 060 59, 786 2,541 1, 031 381 1,129 797 553 105 638,190 3,405 394,169 21,847 218,769 63 1 19 Millers (grain, flour, feed, etc.)-—----- ---------------Milliners and millinery dealers-------------------------- 15,946 44, 948 15,906 4,846 Molders, founders, and casters (metal)--------------Brass molders, founders, and casters------------Iron molders, founders, and casters--------------Other molders, founders, and casters------------- 105,158 6, 287 63, 289 35,582 31, 210 43 C") (13) (13) 9 4 (13) (13) (13) (13) (JO (13) (13) (IS) Painters, glaziers, varnishers, enamelers, etc-------Enamelers, lacquerers, and japanners-----------Painters, glaziers, and varnishers (building). _. Painters, glaziers, and varnishers (factory)----- 528, 931 5, 758 430,105 93,068 524,150 4,622 429,982 89,546 4,781 1, 136 123 3,522 323, 032 4,137 248,497 70,398 Paper hangers_______________________ _______ Pattern and model makers____________________ Piano and organ tuners__________________ _____ 28, 328 29, 750 6,823 26,872 29,711 6,799 1,456 39 24 18,746 27,720 7,047 18, 338 27, 663 7, 007 408 57 40 25,577 23, 559 6, 633 24, 780 23,006 6,528 Plasterers and cement finishers________________ Cement finishers_________________________ Plasterers____________*--------- ------------------- 85,480 15.427 70,053 85,477 15,427 70,050 3 45,876 7,621 38^ 255 45, 870 7, 621 38, 249 6 “ 47,682 6 47,682 u 47, 676 (“) 47, 676 Plumbers and gas and steam fitters-------------------Pressmen and plate printers (printing)--------------Rollers and roll hands (metal)-------------------------Roofers and slaters___________________ _______ Sawyers____________________________________ Shoemakers and cobblers (not in factory)-----------Skilled occupations (not elsewhere classified)------Stonecutters------------ ------ ------------------------------Structural-iron workers (building)-------------Tailors and tailoresses------------------- 237,814 31,215 30, 765 23,636 36,064 76, 388 12,258 1 21,807 206, 71S 18,683 25, 061 11,378 33,809 78,859 12, 348 22,099 18, 836 192, 232 206, 715 18, 683 25, 061 11, 378 33; 800 78, 599 12, 319 22, 096 18, 836 160; 404 3 28,966 169,283 237,813 31,215 30,765 23,636 35,984 76,127 12, 227 22,887 28,966 147, 476 31,828 148, 304 20, 084 18,407 14,078 43,276 69,570 10,175 35,731 11,427 204,608 148, 304 19, 892 18, 384 14, 078 43, 257 68, 788 10, 032 35, 726 11, 427 163, 795 Tinsmiths and coppersmiths----------------------------Coppersmiths.----------- ----------------------------Tinsmiths and sheet-metal workers_________ 83.427 3,027 80, 400 83,421 3, 026 80,395 6 1 5 74,968 5,233 69, 735 74,957 5,232 69, 725 11 1 10 59,833 3,410 56,423 59,809 3,410 56, 399 24 Upholsterers..... .............. — 51, 452 49,097 2,355 29,605 27,338 2,267 20,221 18,928 1, 293 Operatives (n. 0. s.12): Building industry____________ _______ ____ 18, 442 18, 419 23 7,003 6,983 20 11, 733 10, 212 1,521 22,888 3 80 261 31 1 9 260 29 3 (14) (u> »6 6 192 23 19 782 143 5 APPENDIX A— GENEBAL TABLES 01 ('•7 (13) (13) (13) (13) 638,253 3,406 394,188 21,847 218,812 Oilers of machinery--------------------------- ---------- (13) (IS) (IS) (IS) (13) (13) (IS) (18) (13) (IS) (13) (13) Mechanics (n. o. s.12)............. .............................. ...... Air transportation---------------- -------------------Automobile factories, garages, and repair shops. Railroads and car shops----- -----------------------Other industries__________________________ 40,813 24 For footnotes see pp. 74 and 75. Oi CO Table I.—Gainful workers 10 years old and over, by occupation and sex, for the United States: 1930, 1920, and 1910—Continued Os O 1930 1920 1910 Occupation Total Male Female Total Male Female is 51, 287 1,692 4,811 1, 352 9,294 4,686 8, 229 (15) 3, 239 17, 984 1519,129 30 2,568 55 168 835 662 (IS) 3, 049 11, 762 39,810 1, 634 5,263 635 5,732 3,920 1,739 (15) 4,443 16,444 26,134 1,618 2,858 622 5,689 3,292 1,669 (15j 2,516 7,870 13,676 16 2,405 13 43 628 70 (IS) 1,927 8, 574 Total Male Female Manufacturing and mechanical—Continued. Operatives—Continued. Chemical and allied industries... Charcoal and coke works___________________ __ Explosives, ammunition, and fireworks factories____ __ Fertilizer factories______ _______________________ ____ Gasworks____ ______________ ___ ____ __ _ Paint and varnish factories._ _________ - ___ _ . _ Petroleum refineries____________ Rayon factories _ . Soap factories__ ____ _ - ___ _____________ Other chemical factories. __ __ ___ _______ Cigar and tobacco factories. _ _____ _____ 117, 467 1, 587 5,904 1, 538 13, 896 8, 297 25, 274 20, 940 5, 289 34, 742 88,604 1, 572 3,322 1,484 13,873 7,266 24; 781 10, 087 3,405 22,814 28,863 15 2,582 54 23 1,031 493 10,853 1,884 11,928 15 70,416 1,722 7,379 1,407 9,462 5,521 8,891 (15) 6, 288 29,746 103, 715 35,767 67,948 145,222 61, 262 83,960 151,801 79, 956 71, 845 Clay, glass, and stone industries.......... ... ........................ ........ Brick, tile, and terra-cotta factories _ ______________ Glass factories___ ...____ _ ______ ... Lime, cement, and artificial-stone factories__ Marble and stone yards Potteries __________________________________ ___ 96, 342 12,884 40,853 11,395 7,963 23,247 80, 630 11, 535 33, 554 11,069 7,953 16, 519 15,712 1,349 7,299 326 10 6,728 85, 434 9, 987 44,831 7,633 5, 546 17,437 72, 269 9, 357 37, 636 7, 426 5, 478 12, 372 13,165 630 7,195 207 68 5,065 88, 691 13. 407 41, 877 8,609 8,539 16,259 79,230 12, 649 37,927 8, 480 8, 389 11, 785 9,461 758 3, 950 129 150 4,474 Clothing industries___ _ _______________ ... Corset factories. ____ _____ _________ ____ ___ Glove factories________ ____ _____ _ ___ Hat factories (felt) __ __ ____ ________ __ ... Shirt, collar, and cuff factories______ ______ _________ Suit, coat, and overall factories ________________ ____ Other clothing factories_____ ___ _____ . _ _ _ 488, 909 10, 921 18, 465 26,454 55,471 106, 773 270,825 142,158 852 4,955 17, 981 9, 708 50,190 58, 472 346,751 10,069 13,510 8,473 45, 763 56, 583 212, 353 409,361 12, 642 23, 357 21,178 52, 377 143, 872 155, 935 143, 718 1,115 6, 584 14, 716 10, 361 79, 357 31, 585 265, 643 11, 527 16, 773 6, 462 42,016 64, 515 124, 350 386,136 13,073 19, 339 33, 020 60,169 138, 042 122,493 148, 866 1,375 5,353 22, 702 13, 311 75, 444 30,681 237, 270 11, 698 13, 986 10, 318 46,858 62, 598 91,812 Food and allied industries_______ ____________ _______ Bakeries__ _ __ _ _____ _ _________ Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk factories........................ Candy factories______ ________ ______________________ Fish curing and packing______ _________ . _ _ Flour and grain mills____ ___ _ . . Fruit and vegetable canning, etc . ______ ___ Slaughter and packing houses__ _____ ____ ________ Sugar factories and refineries Other food factories_____ __________ _________ Liquor and beverage industries,___ ___ ___ _________ 224,416 27, 901 25, 707 44,470 6,796 6,872 18, 748 53, 059 3, 778 25, 898 11,187 135, 830 12, 602 21,331 17, 404 3, 699 6, 320 5,196 43, 052 3,070 12, 743 10,413 88, 586 15, 299 4, 376 27, 066 3, 097 552 13, 552 10,007 708 13,155 774 204, 550 20, 441 18, 841 52,281 7, 586 8,112 10, 204 49, 991 3,800 17, 633 15, 655 131,453 8,858 16,096 20,913 4, 363 7, 524 3,898 41, 906 3,144 9,791 14, 960 73, 097 11, 583 2, 745 31, 368 3, 223 588 6, 306 8,085 662 7, 842 695 136, 786 8, 938 11, 598 30, 943 2, 776 3,992 5, 290 25,897 1,871 13,978 31, 503 98, 347 3,008 11, 065 13, 608 1, 786 3, 750 2,127 23,492 1, 655 8,192 29,664 38, 439 5,930 533 17,335 990 242 3,163 2,405 216 5,786 1, 839 4 > tel qs tel M ► H Wt-1 w- 89,526 97, 003 97,175 8, 749 16 209,112 15,084 369,040 4,866 21, 091 (16) 70,273 47,783 14, 530 22, 339 16 154, 720 33, 438 345,483 4, 494 20, 243 (16) 67,889 47, 406 14,464 21, 255 16 138, 677 31,055 1,084 16 16, 043 2,383 91,291 17,482 18, 244 2,986 6,239 15,083 2,464 19, 356 9, 437 60,844 13, 576 10, 043 2,834 4, 432 8,946 2,186 12,167 6,660 30,447 3, 906 8,201 152 1,807 6,137 278 7,189 2, 777 69,815 16,885 15, 628 1, 968 5,831 10, 834 1,915 10, 611 6,143 48, 956 14, 350 9, 252 1, 915 4,141 6,334 1, 652 6, 674 4,638 20,859 2,535 6.376 53 1, 690 4, 500 263 3,937 1,505 91,750 274 5,453 81, 551 3, 598 874 279, 231 18,135 17,189 206, 225 32, 226 5, 456 196, 437 17, 573 12, 809 132, 813 28,598 4,644 82, 794 562 4, 380 73, 412 3, 628 812 253,809 22, 650 11, 553 181, 010 33, 652 4,944 188, 302 21, 958 8,473 121, 744 31, 746 4,381 65,507 692 3,080 59, 266 1,906 563 157,861 66,131 7,535 56, 389 27,806 19, 596 9,104 642 2,597 7,253 168, 719 55, 717 19,852 57, 320 35, 830 150,079 48,906 16,949 54, 016 30, 208 18, 640 6, 811 2, 903 3,304 5,622 168, 271 44,640 18, 953 66,060 38, 618 154,324 40,936 17, 400 63, 684 32, 304 13,947 3, 704 1,553 2.376 6,314 165, 911 17,127 63, 629 14, 284 70, 871 102,421 6, 488 49, 709 5,767 40, 457 63, 490 10, 639 13, 920 8,517 30,414 155, 524 13, 694 54, 669 20, 452 66,709 87, 679 5,117 41, 321 7,077 34,164 67, 845 8, 577 13, 348 13,375 32, 545 123,090 10,032 36, 383 17, 917 58, 758 63, 516 3,422 25,803 4,862 29, 429 59,574 6,610 10, 580 13, 055 29,329 302, 501 134, 006 125, 770 19, 613 101,821 I 156,818 44, 203 52,080 13,947 52,761 145, 683 89,803 73, 690 5, 666 49, 060 302, 454 107, 604 115,721 17, 736 126, 418 153, 269 26, 922 42, 953 12,154 64, 703 149,185 80, 682 72, 768 5,582 61, 715 280,149 87,866 79, 379 16, 371 105,186 139, 483 22, 528 29, 019 11,168 53,130 140, 666 65, 338 , 50, 360 5,203 52, 056 590,635 8,281 142, 925 9,407 103, 575 64, 573 19,904 2,517 213,952 25, 501 60, 763 501 19, 032 45 3, 089 435 65 249 34,959 2,388 689, 980 7, 722 121,164 632,161 7,136 108, 376 (16) 93, 627 97, 979 97,666 9, 430 » 245, 450 16,942 Metal industries (except iron and steel)--------------------Brass mills------------------------ ------ ---------------------Clock and watch factories--------------------------------Copper factories---------------------------------------------Gold and silver factories----------------------------Jewelry factories_________________________ — Lead and zinc factories------------------------------------Tinware, enamelware, etc., factories-------------------Other metal factories---------------------------------------- 91,852 14,834 15, 036 2, 950 5,902 13, 979 2, 014 23, 290 13,847 61,049 11, 606 8,492 2,824 3, 877 7, 766 1,840 15, 250 9,394 30,803 3,228 6,544 126 2,025 6,213 174 8,040 4,453 Leather industries________________________________ Harness and saddle factories____________________ Leather belt, leather goods, etc., factories 19----------Shoe factories------------------------------------------------Tanneries_________________________________ Trunk, suitcase, and bag factories 19-------------------- 267,518 7,164 16,533 209,928 28, 993 4, 900 175, 768 6,890 11,080 128, 377 25,395 4,026 Lumber and furniture industries-----------------------------Furniture factories------------------------------------Piano and organ factories---------------------------------Saw and planing mills ------------------------------Other woodworking factories----------------------------- 177,457 75, 235 8,177 58, 986 35, 059 Paper, printing, and allied industries-------- -----------7- Blank-book, envelope, tag, paper-bag, etc., factories. Paper and pulp mills___................ ........ ................. . Paper-box factories----------------------------- -----------Printing, publishing, and engraving. ....... —........ Textile industries— Cotton mills--------------------------------------------------Knitting mills------------ -----------------------------------Silk mills___________________ : ------- .------------Textile dyeing, finishing, and printing mills---------Woolen and worsted mills...... ............-------- ---------- (19) (16) 2,384 377 66 > '-d u X > -GENERAL TABLES 651,398 8, 782 161,957 9,452 106, 664 65,008 19, 969 2, 766 248, 911 27,889 For footnotes see pp. 74 and 75. 23, 557 372 848 57,819 586 12, 788 (16) 4,101 976 491 681 16 36, 338 1,858 Iron and steel, machinery, and vehicle industries--------Agricultural-implement factories-----------------------Automobile factories------------------------- ---------------Automobile repair shops-----------------------------------Blast furnaces and steel-rolling mills 17----------------Car and railroad shops----------------------- ------- ------Ship and boat building------------------------------------Wagon and carriage factories----------------------------Other iron and steel and machinery factories 18------Not specified metal industries------ ---------------------- Table I.—Gainful workers 10 years old and over, by occupation, and sex, for the United States: 1930, 1920, and 1910—Continued Cl to 1930 1920 1910 Occupation Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male 21 122,464 23, 387 6, 742 19,083 8,454 3, 543 21 61,255 21 54,033 13, 003 2,811 6, 086 4,714 2,538 21 24, 881 2i 68,431 10,384 3,931 12, 997 3,740 1, 005 21 36, 374 22 120,602 182, 364 22 536,832 1,899 12, 606 12, 977 3,069 15,949 51 45, 315 64,841 21,289 86, 204 1, 234 14,102 8 1,138 22 121,968 45, 511 63,988 | 207,047 22 344, 568 10, 219 7, 768 15, 610 37, 452 67, 370 7, 751 1,130 22 75, 772 22 192, 264 2, 387 5, 209 339 27, 389 18, 834 6, 351 8 22 46,196 121,496 Female Manufacturing and mechanical—Continued. Operatives—Continued. Textile industries—Continued. • Other textile mills____ _____ ____ Carpet mills.- ___ . ________ _ Hemp, jute, and linen mills Lace and embroidery mills_____ __________ ____ Itope and cordage factories__ ___ ______ . Sail, awning, and tent factories Other and not specified textile mills_____________ _ 65, 312 16, 486 2,074 4, 221 3,067 2, 566 36, 898 536,108 9, 521 7, 565 49, 269 117, 327 80,835 1,818 1, 368 129, 460 138,945 353, 744 7, 622 4, 496 49, 218 72, 012 59, 546 584 1, 360 83, 949 74,957 153,152 123,252 29,900 Laborers (n. o. s.12): Building, general, and not specified laborers____ . __ . . Laborers and helpers, building construction General and not specified laborers ___________________ 1,115,667 419,802 695,865 1,104,132 419,675 684,457 11,535 127 11,408 686, 722 (13) (13) 671,487 (13) Chemical and allied industries___________________ ______ _ Charcoal and coke works.. Explosives, ammunition, and fireworks factories. ...... Fertilizer factories____________ ___________ _____ ___ Gas works....................................... ................................ ...... Paint and varnish factories _ Petroleum refineries ___________ _______ .... ___ . Rayon factories___ _ _ . _ . Soap factories Other chemical factories............... ....................................... 151,918 4,783 5, 047 18, 243 28, 897 6,171 40, 816 4, 962 4,799 38, 200 148,507 4, 772 4,447 18,157 28,884 6, 017 40, 645 4, 451 4, 566 36, 568 3,411 11 600 86 13 154 171 511 233 1,632 23 134,313 9, 384 8,467 12,943 18, 845 4, 841 31,795 (”) 4, 715 43, 323 Miscellaneous manufacturing industries.. . Broom and brush factories_________ ________ _________ Button factories Electric light and power plants _____ ________ ____ Electrical machinery and supply factories Rubber factories______ ______________ _______ Straw factories_______ _____ . . Turpentine farms and distilleries.. ___ _____ ___ Other miscellaneous manufacturing industries Other not specified manufacturing industries_____ _____ s Not specified industries and services -4 68,348 12,123 2,429 7,196 2,402 1,709 42,489 22 48, 278 17, 655 2,710 4, 336 3, 022 2, 324 22 18, 231 22 72,324 22 259,675 11,163 11,461 8, 880 24, 677 31,593 5,915 1,449 22 71, 050 22 155, 543 9, 037 6, 682 8, 704 13,636 21,170 1, 945 1, 441 22 41, 244 22 104,132 85,551 93,487 51,684 41,803 15,235 (13) (13) 935,781 (13) (13) 919,901 (13) (13) 15,880 (13) 23 130, 699 9, 352 7, 821 12,808 18, 787 4,677 31, 566 (33) 23 3,614 32 646 135 58 164 229 (23) 78,827 11,431 3,947 9, 757 16, 534 2,842 11,151 (23) 2,124 15 330 90 15 117 64 (33) 4, 346 41, 342 369 1,981 80,951 11,446 4, 277 9,847 16, 549 2,959 11,215 (23) 3,433 21,225 *» 4 m 37,347 6,605 16,027 6,517 3, 365 22 50,741 3,173 19, 992 19,692 3,895 11,691 3,495 1,041 22 32, 510 2,126 4, 779 176 11,041 10, 423 3, 970 8 22 29, 806 m 260 1,233 %>-d B tel a ■GENEBAL TA B LES 133,6G0 28, 609 4, 503 11,417 5,469 4, 275 79, 387 x* 20,581 14, 094 6,487 35,157 21,295 13,862 16, 392 11,436 4,956 Clay, glass, and stone industries------------------ ----Brick, tile, and terra-cotta factories--------------Glass factories___________________________ Lime, cement, and artificial stone factories----Marble and stone yards—......... ■->----------------Potteries------------------------------------- ------- 145,665 59, 543 28,108 38, 634 11, 278 142, 095 58, 792 26,362 38, 475 8, 097 10, 369 3,570 751 1,746 159 5 909 124, 544 48,636 28,937 30,051 5,084 11,836 120, 215 48, 099 26. 461 29,884 5, 061 10,710 4,329 537 2,476 167 23 1,126 154,826 77, 954 24,634 36,083 6,915 9,240 152, 438 77, 333 23, 686 35, 931 6,847 8, 641 2,388 621 948 152 68 599 Clothing industries----------------------------------------Corset factories___________________________ Glove factories---------- ------- --------- ------------Hat factories (felt)-------------- ------ --------------Shirt, collar, and cuff factories....... ........... ........ Suit, coat, and overall factories-------------------Other clothing factories----- ------------------------ 15, 293 350 1,159 1,142 4.136 3,794 4, 712 8,558 133 550 966 2, 314 2,456 2,139 6, 735 217 609 176 1,822 1,338 2,573 12, 776 771 1,757 989 2, 708 3,984 2, 567 6,414 194 899 825 1,317 2, 219 960 6,362 577 858 164 1,391 1, 765 1,607 10,240 834 870 1,759 2,184 2,920 1,673 5, 424 286 446 1,541 821 1,651 679 4,816 548 424 218 1,363 1,269 994 Food and allied industries------------------------------Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk factories- _ Candy factories........ ---------- --------------—--- Fish curing and packing................. -.................. Flour and grain mills--------------------------------Fruit and vegetable canning, etc-----------------Slaughter and packing houses---------------------Sugar factories and refineries----------------------Other food factories------------------ ---------------Liquor and beverage industries-------- ----------- 154,886 12,362 17,433 5,552 6,172 15,997 19, 544 43,045 9, 298 16, 968 8, 515 136, 802 10, 786 16, 518 4, 080 4, 596 15, 839 14, 987 39, 384 9, 038 13,281 8, 293 18, 084 1, 576 915 1,472 1,576 158 4,557 3,661 260 3,687 222 170, 065 8, 315 15,190 6, 584 6, 300 18,121 13, 058 59, 548 15, 733 16, 686 10,530 153,692 6,869 14,174 4, 398 5,261 17, 983 9, 743 55, 436 15, 414 14,119 10, 295 16, 373 1,446 1,016 2,186 1,039 138 3, 315 4,112 319 2,567 235 100, 872 4, 510 4,816 2,978 4,870 9,243 4, 670 33, 903 8, 755 8,270 18, 857 93, 985 3, 755 4, 688 1, 845 4, 637 9,152 3, 683 32, 471 8, 647 6,813 18, 294 6,887 755 128 1,133 233 91 987 1,432 108 1,457 563 Iron and steel, machinery, and vehicle industries.. Agricultural-implement factories-----------------Automobile factories---------------------------------Automobile repair shops----------------------------Blast furnaces and steel-rolling mills 17----------Car and railroad shops--------- ------ ------- ------Ship and boat building-----------------------------Wagon and carriage factories----------------------Other iron and steel and machinery factories 18. Not specified metal industries---------------------- 662,131 10,873 123, 717 12, 653 235, 726 37, 789 17, 352 1,419 171,814 50, 788 652,027 10, 735 120,150 12,617 234, 524 37, 542 17, 325 1,406 167, 534 50,194 10,104 138 3, 567 36 1,202 247 27 13 4,280 594 729,613 11, 409 83,341 (16) 258,830 53,643 69,196 9,817 16 179,607 63, 770 717, 022 11,292 80,874 (16) 256, 548 53, 280 68, 917 9, 594 is 173, 734 62, 783 12, 591 117 2,467 (16) 2,282 363 279 223 16 5,873 987 482, 941 11, 067 15, 783 (16) 202, 392 48, 342 11, 983 12, 391 is 138, 059 42, 924 476,801 10, 953 15, 644 (16) 201, 030 48,114 11, 975 12, 232 16 134, 295 42, 558 6,140 114 139 (16) 1,362 228 8 159 is 3,764 366 Metal industries (except iron and steel)............... Brass mills______________________________ Clock and watch factories--------------------------Copper factories__________________________ Gold and silver factories----------------------------Jewelry factories....... ............. -...........................Lead and zinc factories------------ -----------------Tinware, enamelware, etc., factories-------------Other metal factories............................... -.......... 62,398 14, 809 1,546 8, 013 1,199 397 8,116 20,181 8.137 58,913 14, 411 1,018 7,950 1, 098 328 8, 093 18, 313 7, 702 3,485 398 528 63 101 69 23 1, 868 435 67,887 18, 485 3,108 10,963 2, 272 1,421 8, 927 17, 605 5,106 62, 771 17,614 1,929 10,908 2,061 1,255 8,859 15, 436 4, 709 5,116 871 1,179 55 211 166 68 2,169 397 44, 773 10,885 1,879 11,586 1,277 668 7,945 7, 587 2,946 42,134 10, 606 1,262 11, 532 1,101 528 7, 871 6,709 2,525 2,639 279 617 54 176 140 74 878 421 For footnotes see pp. 74 and 75. 8,102 APPENDIX Cigar and tobacco factories........................................ Otel tel Wt tr* > Fwtel m O CO Table I.—Gainful workers 10 years old and over, by occupation and sex, for the United States: 1930, 1920, and 1910—Continued 1930 1920 O 1910 Occupation Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Manufacturing and mechanical—Continued. 38,601 501 1,930 18, 389 16, 809 972 33,003 469 1, 701 13,647 16, 296 890 Lumber and furniture industries____ . ____________ Furniture factories____________________________ Piano and organ factories______________________ Saw and planing mills 20_______________________ Other woodworking factories_____________ ______ 333, 539 39, 802 1,664 251, 741 40,332 326,071 38, 321 1, 566 248, 803 37,381 7,468 1,481 98 2,938 2,951 320, 613 35, 272 5, 321 245, 683 34, 337 309, 874 32, 600 4, 596 241, 334 31, 344 10,739 2,672 725 4,349 2,993 317, 244 23,618 4,459 260,142 29,025 313, 228 23, 089 4,099 258, 361 27,679 4,016 529 360 1,781 1,346 Paper, printing, and allied industries_______________ Blank book, envelope, tag, paper bag, etc., factories. Paper and pulp mills________________ _________ Paper-box factories____ _______________________ Printing, publishing, and engraving_____________ 69, 373 3, 926 52, 038 2, 587 10,822 64,175 3, 072 49,677 1,986 9,440 5,198 854 2,361 601 1,382 67, 083 3,455 52, 263 3, 384 7,981 61, 073 2,646 49, 786 2,401 6,240 6,010 . 809 2,477 983 1,741 39,832 1,557 31,388 1,403 5,484 35,967 1,096 29,959 791 4,121 3,865 461 1,429 612 1, 363 Textile industries— Cotton mills...................... . ____________________ Knitting mills________________________________ Silk mills____________________________________ Textile dyeing, finishing, and printing mills______ Woolen and worsted mills______________________ 55, 519 9, 412 11, 078 7, 571 13, 753 46,439 5,884 8, 920 7, 257 11,955 9, 080 3, 528 2,158 314 1,798 76, 315 11, 943 10,080 10,605 22,227 59,646 6,603 7,350 9,885 18, 238 16,669 5, 340 2, 730 720 3,989 37,804 7,804 3, 798 9, 958 12, 290 32, 037 4,264 2,686 9,362 10,245 5,767 3, 540 1,112 596 2,045 Other textile mills............................... ......................... Carpet mills______________________________ Hemp, jute, and linen mills_________________ Lace and embroidery mills_________________ Rope and cordage factories__________________ Sail, awning, and tent factories______________ Other and not specified textile mills__________ 23,199 4,828 961 569 2,921 721 13,199 20, 320 4,236 863 444 2,632 661 11,484 2,879 592 98 125 289 60 1,715 25 22,140 3, 953 1,712 944 4, 268 283 w 10,980 23 18, 619 3, 378 1,474 677 3,805 237 25 9,048 25 3,521 575 238 267 463 46 25 1,932 26 15,492 3, 769 2, 200 705 3, 797 264 26 4, 757 2612, 513 3, 437 1, 774 468 3,131 234 26 3, 469 26 2,979 332 426 237 666 30 1,288 Miscellaneous manufacturing industries 27____________ Broom and brush factories_____________________ Button factories_______________________________ 322,696 2, 587 1,129 298, 609 2, 370 940 24,087 217 189 26 399, 988 2,800 1, 407 !6 364, 244 2,407 1,093 26 35,744 393 314 211,871 1,565 1,105 26 195,891 1,340 790 26 15,980 225 315 5,598 32 229 4,742 513 82 54,639 1,885 3, 578 19, 210 27, 480 2,486 48,167 1,727 3,274 14,194 26, 703 2,269 6,472 158 304 5,016 777 217 35,266 1,298 1,908 10, 277 20, 798 985 32,319 1,210 1,757 7, 952 20, 491 909 2,947 88 151 2,325 307 76 > tel e I—l > ■GENERAL TABLES Laborers (n. o. s.)—Continued. Leather industries______________ ______ ___________ Harness and saddle factories_______________ ____ Leather belt, leather goods, etc., factories 24_______ Shoe factories__________ _____ ________________ Tanneries_______________________________ ____ Trunk, suitcase, and bag factories 24_____________ Electric light and power plants___________________ Electrical machinery and supply factories__________ Rubber factories-----------------------------------------------Straw factories_________________________________ Turpentine farms and distilleries 27-----------------------Other miscellaneous manufacturing industries______ Other not specified manufacturing industries_______ 35,665 36,885 29,123 148 37,620 65,871 113, 668 35,650 33,345 25,980 136 37,313 61, 267 101,608 15 3, 540 3,143 12 307 4, 604 12, 060 15,417 26, 789 51,467 577 25,830 28 84, 337 191, 364 15,255 23, 562 47, 515 513 25, 395 26 77, 583 170, 921 162 3, 227 3,952 64 435 28 6, 754 20,443 8,176 11,434 13, 546 413 33, 962 28 32, 237 109, 433 8,011 10,053 12, 224 319 33, 595 29 29, 836 99, 723 165 1,381 1,322 94 367 28 2,401 9,710 Transportation and communication------------------------- 3,843,147 3, 561,943 281, 204 3,096,829 2, 872, 559 224, 270 2, 665, 269 2, 549, 922 115,347 Water transportation (selected occupations): Boatmen, canal men, and lock keepers_______________ Captains, masters, mates, and pilots__________________ Longshoremen and stevedores-----------------------------------Sailors and deck hands 5,643 24, 485 73,954 64, 700 5,603 24, 482 73,944 64,692 40 3 10 8 6, 319 26, 320 85,928 54,832 6,286 26,318 85,605 54, 800 33 2 323 32 5,304 24, 242 62, 857 46, 510 5,289 24, 242 62, 813 46, 498 44 12 Road and street transportation (selected occupations): Bus conductors____________________________________ Chauffeurs and truck and tractor drivers 29____________ Draymen, teamsters, and carriage drivers 29 30--------- ------ 1,002 972, 418 111, 224 1,002 970,916 111, 178 (2!) (28) 1, 502 46 285, 045 420,189 284, 096 419,450 Garage owners, managers, and officials-----------------------Garage owners and proprietors.____ ______________ Garage managers and officials----------------------- ------- - 69, 965 50, 718 19, 247 69, 543 50, 383 19,160 422 335 87 42,151 m m 41,944 (28) Garage laborers____________________________________ Hostlers and stable hands___________________________ Laborers, truck, transfer, and cab companies----------------- 66,693 6,654 40,970 66,536 6,654 40,920 157 Laborers, road and street---------------- ------ -------------------Road, street, etc., building and repairing---------------Street cleaning________ _________________________ 307,027 290,354 16,673 306,980 290,308 16,672 47 46 1 Owners and managers, truck, transfer, and cab companies. Owners and proprietors---------------------------------------Managers and officials........................................ ............ 41,084 30, 752 10,332 40, 508 30, 326 10,182 576 426 150 Railroad transportation (selected occupations): Baggagemen and freight agents----------------------------------Baggagemen Freight agents------------ ------- ------------------------------- 16, 377 9, 214 i; i63 16, 361 9, 214 7, 147 Boiler washers and engine hostlers____________________ Brakemen, steam railroad___________________________ Conductors, steam railroad__________________________ Conductors, street railroad____________________ __ ____ 18, 300 88^ 197 73, 332 35,697 Foremen and overseers................................... ..................... . Steam railroad Street railroad_______ _____________ _ 79, 737 73,910 8,827 50 31, 450 18, 976 (31) 127, 032 115, 836 11,196 23, 497 (28) 31, 339 18, 973 (31) (28) 949 739 (28) (28) (31) 126, 865 115,673 11,192 23, 231 5, 279 m 5, 256 (28) (28) (28) 111 3 4, 468 63, 388 (31) 167 163 4 190,414 180, 468 9,946 266 15, 598 (28) . 4,462 63, 382 m 33 110 (28) (28) (31) 23 6 6 190,414 180,468 9,946 15, 368 (28) (28) 16 16,819 11,878 4,941 16, 789 11, 875 4, 914 30 3 27 17,033 12, 273 4,760 17, 028 12, 273 4, 755 18, 300 88,197 73, 332 35; 680 25, 271 114,' 107 74, 539 63, 507 34 17 25, 305 114,107 74, 539 63, 760 253 10, 409 92' 572 65, 604 56, 932 10, 409 92, 572 65,604 56i 932 79,682 73,860 5,822 55 50 5 79, 294 73, 046 6,248 79, 216 72, 980 6,236 78 66 12 69, 933 65, 260 4, 673 69, 693 65, 038 4, 655 (28) (28) 45, 752 443, 735 (26) (28) 16 (2!) (28) 207 45, 785 443, 845 (28) (28) (28) (28) 230 APPENDIX A— GENERAL TABLES (28) 15 5 5 240 222 18 For footnotes see pp. 74 and 75. ca Table I.—Gainful workers 10 years old and over, by occupation and sex, for the United States: 1930, 1920, and 1910—Continued 1930 1920 O 1910 Occupation Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Transportation and communication—Continued. 462,474 435,058 27,416 459, 090 431, 947 27,143 101, 201 67,096 101, 201 67,096 Motormen Steam railroad Street railroad______________________ ______ ______ 60, 723 2,754 57,969 60, 718 2,754 57,964 5 Officials and superintendents Steam railroad Street railroad 37,989 34, 380 3, 609 Locomotive engineers 32 Locomotive firemen 32_____ __ Switchmen, flagmen, and yardmen________________ ____... Switchmen and flagmen, steam railroad________ ______ Switchmen and flagmen, street railroad Yardmen, steam railroad Ticket and station agents_____________________________ 495, 713 470,199 25, 514 488, 659 463, 613 25,046 109, 899 9li 345 109, 899 91' 345 66, 519 3, 560 62, 959 66, 499 3, 560 62,939 20 5 37, 963 34, 359 3, 604 26 21 5 35, 881 32,426 3,455 102, 773 92, 217 2,608 7,948 102, 484 91,928 2, 608 7,948 289 289 27,160 25, 370 1,790 3,384 3, 111 273 7,054 6,586 468 570,975 543,168 27,807 567,522 539, 920 27, 602 3,453 3,248 205 96, 229 76j 381 96, 229 76', 381 20 58, 705 2, 487 56, 218 58, 705 2, 487 56, 218 35,830 32, 385 3,445 51 41 10 22, 238 19, 805 2,433 22,236 19, 803 2,433 2 2 111,565 101, 917 2, 500 7,148 111,000 101, 359 2,496 7,145 565 558 4 3 85,147 73, 419 2,153 9'575 85, 095 73, 367 2,153 9', 575 52 52 26, 585 24,324 2,261 24,138 22, 930 1,208 Express, post, radio, telegraph, and telephone (selected occupa tions) : Agents, express companies________ ______________________ 4,176 4,102 74 5,293 5,193 100 5,875 5,804 71 Express messengers and railway mail clerks__________ ____ Express messengers Railway mail clerks________________________________ 25, 608 8, 211 17,397 25, 600 8, 207 17, 393 8 4 4 25,005 9,138 15, 867 24,996 9,129 15,867 9 9 22,021 6, 781 15, 240 22,018 6, 778 15, 240 3 3 Mail carriers_____________________ _________ __________ Postmasters 33............................................... _• Radio operators_________________ _____________________ Telegraph and telephone linemen.................................. ............ Telegraph messengers______________ _______ ______ _ Telegraph operators_______ _____ ______________________ Telephone operators__________________ ________ _________ 121, 333 34, 421 4,955 71. 625 16,176 67, 821 248,884 120, 204 20, 818 4,909 71, 624 15,997 51; 699 13,625 1,129 13, 603 46 1 179 16,122 235,259 91, 451 31,935 (3.) 37,917 9, 403 3< 79,434 190,160 90,131 20, 727 co 37, 905 8,969 34 62, 574 11, 781 1,320 11,208 (i,) 12 434 34 16, 860 178, 379 80, 678 27,849 (3.) 28, 350 9,152 34 69,953 97,893 79,667 19,127 (34) 28.347 9,074 34 61, 734 9,631 1,011 8, 722 (34) 3 78 34 8, 219 88,262 APPENDIX A---- GENERAL TABLES Railroad transportation (selected occupations)—Continued. Laborers (includes construction laborers)___ ____________ Steam railroad______________________ . Street railroad_____________________________ _____ _ Other transportation and communication pursuits: Apprentices........... .................. .................... ......................... Steam railroad_________________ _______________ Telegraph and telephone-----------------------------------Other transportation and communication_________ 6,151 1,323 502 4,326 6,097 1,323 451 4,323 54 51 3 09 Aviators................................................................................... 6,097 6,031 66 361,312 36 1, 304 36 8 Foremen and overseers (n. o. s.12)-----------------------------Air transportation--------------------------------------------Garages, greasing stations, and automobile laundries. Load, street, etc., building and repairing--------------Telegraph and telephone-----------------------------------Other transportation and communication_________ 52,135 181 6, 652 23, 250 11,172 10,880 52,061 181 6,650 23,249 11.112 10,869 74 29, 863 39 2 1 60 11 (37) 9, 558 6, 822 37 13,483 29, 824 m m 9, 557 6,797 37 13, 470 Inspectors------------ ---------------------------___________ - Steam railroad._____ ------ _____________________ Street railroad.......................... ................................... Telegraph and telephone-----------------------------------Other transportation and communication_________ 52,120 39,079 3,330 4,173 5,538 50,965 39, 066 3,325 3,040 • 5,534 1,155 13 5 1,133 4 50,233 42, 721 3,451 2,821 1, 240 49, 848 42, 675 3, 445 2,491 1, 237 Laborers (n. o. s.12)-----------------------------------------------Air transportation-------------------------------------------Express companies-------------------------------------------Pipe lines___________ _______ _________________ Telegraph and telephone-------------------- ------- ------Water transportation **-------------------------------------Other transportation and communication-------------- 51,063 1,609 7,086 13, 704 12, 674 11,329 4,661 50,998 1,602 7,085 13,700 12,647 11,327 4,637 65 7 1 4 27 2 24 Proprietors, managers, and officials (n. o. s.12)-------------Air transportation_____________________________ Telegraph and telephone-----------------------------------Other transportation and communication.................. 37,990 1,090 18, 957 17, 943 34,987 1,085 16,084 17,818 Other occupations_________________________________ Eoad, street, etc., building and repairing.............. . Steam railroad________________________________ Street railroad------------------------- -----------------------Other transportation and communication................. 85, 717 8, 565 42, 619 13, 375 21,158 Trade.................................................................. ................. 6, 081,467 m (33) (353 (2!) 33, 432 (2!) 09 09 33, 229 (3!) 9, 067 7, 362 5, Oil 5, 963 5, 826 3,003 5 2,873 125 30,197 (23) 29, 552 (28) 11, 603 18, 594 11, 059 18, 493 83,794 8, 524 42, Oil 13, 242 20, 017 1,923 41 608 133 1,141 48,124 4,435 28, 621 9, 259 5,809 46, 634 4, 331 27, 916 9,088 5,299 5,118,787 962,680 4,257, 684 3, 585,701 (39) (35) Advertising agents_______________________________ ____ Apprentices, wholesale and retail trade-------- ------ ------------ 49,020 2,444 43,364 2,337 5,656 107 Bankers, brokers, and money lenders____________________ Bankers and bank officials---------------- ------- -----------Commercial brokers and commission men......... ........... . Loan brokers and pawnbrokers_____________________ Stockbrokers_____________________________________ Brokers not specified and promoters....... .......................... 221, 504 93,356 23, 638 13, 562 70,950 19,998 212,312 87,429 23,352 12,930 69,157 19,444 9,192 5, 927 286 632 1,793 554 161, 613 82,375 27, 552 5, 473 29, 609 16, 604 09 (33) (33) 9,089 7,369 5,088 5,966 5,920 (»■) For footnotes see pp. 74 and 75. 09 (3!) (33) 156,309 78,149 27, 358 5, 321 29, 233 16,248 09 09 09 09 (“) 09 09 09 21, 344 09 09 09 09 09 09 09 20,939 09 07) 1 25 37 13 7,064 3,843 37 10, 437 7,064 3, 439 37 10, 436 385 46 6 330 3 33, 237 27, 661 2, 268 2,619 689 32,962 27, 525 2, 265 2, 485 687 09 203 22 7 77 3 94 645 26, 555 09 3,010 2,605 5, 312 14, 267 1,361 49, 634 26,300 09 2, 979 2, 605 5,251 14,177 1,288 48, 023 09 09 09 09 09 09 09 405 404 37 1 275 136 3 134 2 09 255 31 61 90 73 1,611 09 09 09 1, 490 104 705 171 510 38, 742 5,076 24, 424 5,187 4,055 37, 749 4, 726 24,125 5. 147 3,751 993 350 299 40 304 671,983 3, 633, 265 3,160, 562 472,703 09 09 09 09 105,804 56, 059 24,009 3,343 13, 729 8,664 103,170 54, 387 23, 690 3,180 13, 522 8,391 09 544 101 09 09 5,304 4, 226 194 152 376 356 10,089 39, 545 8, 680 39, 343 > ►dfcd * e 1,409 202 © F F “> F 1-3 > W F F 02 09 09 2,634 1,672 319 163 207 273 05 Table I.—Gainful workers 10 years old and over, by occupation and sex, for the United States: 1930, 1920, and 1910—Continued CS GO 1 1930 1920 1910 Occupation Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Trade—Continued. 401,991 223, 732 20,149 238,844 219, 790 13,911 163,147 3,942 6,238 413,918 179,320 8,853 243, 521 176, 514 7,698 170,397 2,806 1,155 387,183 163,620 5,341 275, 589 161, 027 4, 902 111, 594 2,593 439 Delivery men 41______________________________ Bakeries_____________________________ Stores________________________________ 159, 444 12,835 146, 609 159,328 12,821 146, 507 116 14 102 42 170, 235 42 20,888 149,347 42 170,039 42 20,858 149,181 42 196 42 30 166 42 229, 619 42 24, 030 205, 589 42 229,469 42 24,012 205,457 Floorwalkers, foremen, and overseers____________ Floorwalkers and foremen in stores__________ Foremen, warehouses, stockyards, etc_______ 42 150 42 18 132 38,163 32, 564 5,599 33, 368 27,928 5,440 4, 795 4, 636 159 26,437 20,604 5,833 22,367 16, 565 5, 802 4,070 4, 039 31 20, 724 17,946 2,778 17, 649 14,900 2,749 3,075 3,046 29 Inspectors, gaugers, and samplers_______________ 16,743 10, 923 5,820 13, 714 12, 683 1,031 13,446 11, 685 Insurance agents, managers, and officials_________ Insurance agents__________________________ Managers and officials, insurance companies__ 1, 761 286,235 256,927 29,308 271, 530 243,974 27, 556 14,705 12,953 1, 752 134,978 119,918 15,060 129,589 114, 835 14,754 5,389 5,083 306 97,964 88, 463 9, 501 95,302 85,926 9,376 Laborers in coal and lumber yards, warehouses, etc. Coal yards and lumber yards_______________ Grain elevators________________________ Stockyards____________________________ ’’ Warehouses______________________________ ’ Other and not specified trade_____________ I” 2,662 2,537 125 113, 669 73, 232 9, 212 8,735 18, 699 3,791 113,027 73, 211 9,141 8,733 18, 205 3,737 642 21 71 2 494 54 125,609 68,543 11,312 22,888 22, 866 (2S) 124, 713 68,454 11,244 22,859 22,156 (28) 896 89 68 29 710 81,123 60,061 6,346 5,998 8,718 (28) 80,450 60,044 6,335 5, 991 8,080 (28) 673 17 11 7 638 Laborers, porters, and helpers in stores_____ _ _ Newsboys_________________________________ 208,688 38,993 199, 296 38,576 9, 392 417 125,007 27,961 116,602 27, 635 102,333 29,708 Proprietors, managers, and officials (n. o. s.*2)_____ Employment office keepers_________________ Proprietors, etc., advertising agencies______II” Proprietors, etc., grain elevators_____________ Proprietors, etc., stockyards________________ Proprietors, etc., warehouses_________ __ Other proprietors, managers, and officials_____ 98,169 29,435 45,305 3, 765 10, 539 9, 505 421 7,389 13, 686 42,201 2,425 9, 771 9,484 420 7, 327 12, 774 3,104 1,340 768 21 1 62 912 Real estate agents and officials_________________ Managers and officials, real estate companies ___ Real estate agents____________ ___________ 240,030 5,603 234, 427 208, 243 5,124 203,119 31, 787 479 31,308 34, 776 3,026 (43) 8, 858 33, 715 2, 357 (43) 8,836 (43) (43) 6,353 16, 539 6,310 16,212 149,135 139,927 (28) m (28) m (28) 8,405 326 1, 061 669 (43) (43) 22 22,362 2,260 (43) 5,118 (43) 21, 352 1,540 (43) 5,105 (43) (28) 4,164 273 1,010 720 (43) (43) 13 43 327 4, 393 10, 591 4,368 10,339 25 252 9,208 125,862 (>8) (28) 122, 935 (28) 2,927 <“> (28) (28) (28) m APPENDIX A----GENERAL TABLES “ Clerks” in stores 4<>__________________________ Commercial travelers_____________________ ”” Decorators, drapers, and window dressers__ III”" • < 1, 703, 522 61, 507 36, 503 41, 784 62, 210 19, 952 29, 876 19, 361 148,837 104, 727 10,464 9,887 239, 436 35,884 89,190 81,187 313,086 52,138 56,610 19,648 23,864 27,478 34,070 14,385 113, 061 58,377 1, 593,356 60.991 32,909 41,684 51,766 19,044 29, 225 17, 751 129,486 100,123 9.035 9,781 233,166 34, 019 87,095 76. Oil 284, Oil 51,216 54,820 19,572 22,976 27,166 33,903 13, 769 101,377 52,460 110, 166 516 3, 594 100 10,444 908 651 1, 610 19,351 4,604 1,429 106 6,270 1,865 2,095 5,176 29,075 922 1, 790 76 888 312 167 616 11, 684 5,917 1,328, 275 28, 768 25,369 48,309 40, 091 19, 141 26, 556 11, 752 133,106 80,157 5,968 9, 309 202,444 27,145 (45) 1, 249,295 28,626 23,028 48,228 32,368 18,031 26.057 10,800 121,379 76,995 4, 899 9, 212 196,838 26,(45) 453 78,980 142 2,341 81 7,723 1,110 499 952 11,727 3,162 1,069 97 5,606 692 (45) 1,195,029 4, 597 21, 238 50,915 29, 538 17,728 24, 466 8,*970 119,902 67, 575 4, 331 9, 469 195, 763 23, 447 1.127,926 4, 545 19,429 50, 606 21, 601 16,375 23, 942 8, 564 110, 020 65, 414 3, 294 9, 363 190, 619 22, 891 80,026 239, 236 48,933 50,402 8, 203 21,433 24, 773 27,687 12,632 « 91,107 65,728 76, 317 216,059 48, 213 48, 493 8,166 20, 652 24, 581 27, 589 11, 743 « 85,085 59,483 3,709 23,177 720 1,909 37 781 192 98 889 « 6,022 6,245 88,059 195, 432 48, 181 80, 415 7, 361 29,962 17,194 27, 250 6, 284 « 71, 331 45, 621 84, 734 176, 993 47, 390 76, 630 7,220 29, 403 16, 884 26, 997 5,954 4® 67, 565 41, 493 67,103 52 1, 809 309 7,937 1,353 524 406 9,882 2,161 1,037 106 5,144 556 (45) 3,325 18, 439 791 3,785 141 559 310 253 330 <5 3, 766 4,128 Salesmen and saleswomen Auctioneers____________________ _____ _________________ Canvassers « Demonstrators Sales agents Salesmen and saleswomen____ __________________________ 2,069,003 4,281 63, 769 7,533 5,088 1,988,332 1, 508, 283 4,277 51, 956 1,793 4, 571 1,445,686 560, 720 4 11,813 5,740 517 542,646 1,192,199 5,048 14, 705 4, 823 41, 841 1,125,782 826,866 5, 045 10, 514 1, 639 40, 207 769, 461 365,333 3 4,191 3,184 1,634 356,321 939, 725 3,990 18, 595 4, 380 35, 522 877, 238 677,390 3,985 13,980 1, 250 31,424 626, 751 262,335 5 4,615 3,130 4,098 250,487 Undertakers,_______________________ _____________________ Wholesale dealers, importers, and exporters 34,132 83, 525 32,192 81,837 1,940 1,688 24,469 73, 574 23,342 72,780 1,127 794 20, 734 51, 048 19,921 50, 123 813 925 Other pursuits in trade Advertising agencies___________________________ _ Grain elevators.................................................. .............................. Stockyards Warehouses and cold-storage plants Wholesale trade, and retail trade (except automobile) : Fruit and vegetable graders and packers Meat cutters Other occupations___________________ ____ ___________ Other trade industries.................................................................... 125,175 5, 853 1, 611 482 5, 248 96,069 5,453 1,202 477 3,520 29,106 400 409 5 1,728 67, 611 (47) (47) (47) (47) 52,106 15,505 (47) 34,068 (47) (") (*7) 7, 572 (47) (47) (47) (47) 9,926 45,108 52,367 4,580 3, 784 45,025 32,870 3, 738 6,142 83 19, 497 } 842 8,074 22,884 36,653 4,988 22, 804 24,314 (47) (45) 41, 640 (46) (4-) (47) (47) (47) (47) (47) (47) (47) (47) 3,086 80 12,339 4,715 15,405 21, 520 2, 677 15,378 16,013 (47) (47) APPENDIX A---- GENERAL TABLES Retail dealers 44__________________ ________ _______ _________ Automobiles and accessories Books, music, news, and stationery______ ________________ Buyers and shippers of livestock and other farm products Candy and confectionery Cigars and tobacco------------ ----------------------------------------Coal and wood Department stores Dry goods, clothing, and boots and shoes Drugs and medicines (including druggists and pharmacists)__ Five and ten cent and variety stores.......................... ........... ...... Flour and feed______ __________________________________ Food (except groceries and hucksters’ goods) Furniture, carpets, and rugs Gasoline and oil filling stations_________ _______ ______ ___ General stores Groceries Hardware, implements, and wagons_____________________ _ Hucksters and peddlers Ice__________ _________________________________ _______ Jewelry Junk and rags Lumber Opticians Other specified dealers__________________________________ Not specified dealers 2,038 27 5,507 For footnotes see pp. 74 and 75. o> CO Table I.—Gainful workers 10 years old and over, by occupation and sex, for the United States: 1930, 1920, and 1910—Continued O 1920 1930 1910 Occupation Total Public service (not elsewhere classified)____ ___________ Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female 856,205 838,622 17,583 738,525 727,939 10,586 431,442 426,606 Firemen, fire department_______________ ________ Guards, watchmen, and doorkeepers__________ _______________ 73,008 148,115 73,008 147,115 1,000 50,771 115; 553 50,771 115,154 399 35,606 78i 271 35,606 78', 168 Laborers, public service 157,010 9,163 147; 847 155,903 9,150 146; 753 1,107 13 1,094 106,915 5, 481 10i; 434 105,385 5, 475 99,910 1,530 6 1,524 67,234 4,227 63,007 66,505 4,227 62, 278 729 Marshals, sheriffs, detectives, etc........... .......................................... . Detectives_____ ______ ____ ___ _________________ ______ Marshals and constables___ ____ __________ _______ Probation and truant officers____ ____________ _________ _ Sheriffs___________________________ _________________ 41,823 12,865 9.350 4,270 15,338 39,247 12,180 9,288 2,715 15,064 2,576 685 62 1,555 274 32,214 11,955 6, 897 2,679 10,683 30,968 11, 562 6,880 1,899 10, 627 1,246 393 17 780 56 23, 599 6,349 9,073 1,043 7,134 23,219 6,162 9,071 855 7,131 380 187 2 188 3 Officials and inspectors (city and county)... ____ ___________ Officials and inspectors (city)___________ ________________ Officials and inspectors (county)............................................... 78,395 48,309 30,086 69,431 45,200 24,231 8,964 3,109 5,855 55,597 33,505 22,092 50, 748 31,918 18,830 4,849 1,587 3, 262 52, 254 33,210 19,044 49,668 32,199 17,469 2,586 1,011 1,575 Officials and inspectors (State and United States)^........ .............. . Officials and inspectors (State)............... ......................... ......... . Officials and inspectors (United States) 51,700 15,236 36,464 49,881 14,256 35,625 1,819 980 839 48,399 9,126 39,273 47, 217 8, 596 38,621 1,182 530 652 25,077 7,202 17,875 24,262 6,662 17,600 815 540 275 131,687 132', 830 41,637 130,838 132,830 40,369 849 1,268 82,120 225; 503 2i; 453 81,884 225; 503 20; 309 236 Other public service pursuits________________________________ 1,144 61,980 77; 153 10; 268 61,980 77; 153 10; 045 Professional service___ _________ ______________________ Actors and showmen........ ...................................................... ...... Actors. _ _________ ________ ... Showmen.................................. ....................................................... Architects........................... ........................ ........................................ Artists, sculptors, and teachers of art...... ............................................ Authors, editors, and reporters_______________ _______________ Authors... _____________ _____ _______ _ _ Editors and reporters ............................ .................................... . Chemists, assayers, and metallurgists............ ......................... ......... . Clergymen _________________________ _____ College presidents and professors 50 Dentists...____ __________ _____ 3,253,884 75,296 37, 993 37, 303 22,000 57,265 64,293 12,449 51,844 47,068 148, 848 61,905 71,066 1,727, 650 54, 511 18, 703 35, 808 21,621 35, 621 46, 922 7,002 39,920 45,163 145, 572 41, 774 69,768 1,526, 234 20,785 19, 290 1,495 379 21,644 17,371 5,447 11,924 1,905 3, 276 20,131 1,287 2,171,251 48,172 28, 361 19,811 18,185 35,402 40,865 6, 668 34,197 32,941 127,270 33, 407 56,152 1,154, 221 33,818 15,124 18,694 18,048 20,785 32,129 3, 662 28, 467 31,227 125,483 23,332 54,323 1,017,030 14, 354 13, 237 1,117 137 14, 617 8, 736 3,006 5, 730 1, 714 1, 787 10, 075 1,829 1,711,275 48,393 28,297 20,096 16,613 34,104 38; 750 4, 368 34,382 16,273 118,018 15,668 39,997 976, 523 35,293 16,305 18,988 16,311 18,675 32, 511 2,310 30, 201 15,694 117,333 12,710 38,743 * < 4 103 729 223 734,752 13,100 11,992 1,108 302 15,429 6, 239 2,058 4,181 579 685 2,958 1, 254 APPENDIX A----GENERAL TABLES Other laborers.____ 4,836 to. r 3, 012 2, 577 391 44 Designers, draftsmen, and inventors--------------------------------------Designers Draftsmen Inventors 102,730 20,508 79,922 2,300 93,518 12, 780 78,459 2,279 9,212 7,728 l' 463 21 70, 651 15,410 52,865 2,376 62, 987 9,758 50,880 2,349 7,664 5,652 1,985 27 47,449 11, 788 33,314 2,347 44,437 9, 211 32,923 2, 303 Lawyers, judges, and justices------------------------------ ---------- ------Musicians and teachers of music---- ---------- --------------------- ------Osteopaths............................... -........ ...............-................................... Photographers........................................ ................................. ............... Physicians and surgeons51............................... -..........-......................- 160,605 165,128 6,117 39,529 153,803 157,220 85,517 4, 554 31,163 146,978 3,385 79,611 1, 563 8', 366 6,825 122, 519 130, 265 5,030 34,259 144,977 120, 781 57, 587 3, 367 27,140 137, 758 1,738 72,678 1,663 7,119 7,219 114, 704 139,310 114,146 54,832 (5!) 31, 775 151,132 26, 811 142,117 4,964 9,015 Teachers...... ................................................................................ -........Teachers (athletics, dancing, etc.)-............. ........ ........ ................ Teachers (school)___________ ____ ______________________ 1,062,615 18,599 1,044,016 202,337 12,288 190,049 860, 278 6i 311 853; 967 761,766 9,711 752,055 122, 525 5, 677 116, 848 639,241 4,034 635,207 599, 237 3, 931 595,306 121, 210 2,768 118,442 478,027 1,163 476,864 Technical engineers.................................... -..........-............................ Civil engineers and surveyors--------------- ---------------- ---------Electrical engineers----------------------------- ------ - ------------........ Mechanical engineers 52----------------- ------ -------------------------Mining engineers 63------------ ---------—-........... ............................ 226, 249 102,086 57,837 54,356 11,970 226,136 102,057 57, 775 54, 338 11,966 113 29 62 18 136,121 64,660 27,077 37, 689 136,080 64, 642 27, 065 37, 678 41 18 12 11 88,755 52,033 9 15,278 14,514 6,930 88,744 52,028 9 15,272 14,514 6,930 11 5 96 Trained nurses------------ ---------------------------- ------- -........—........ Veterinary surgeons--------------- ---------- ---------------------------------- 294,189 11,863 5,452 11,852 288,737 ' 11 149,128 13,494 5,464 13,493 143,664 1 82,327 11,652 5,819 11,652 76,508 Other professional pursuits 39............................ ....................... —........ County agents, farm demonstrators, etc_ -............................... Librarians................... .............. —................................. -............. Social and welfare workers----------------- -------- ------------ ------Other occupations_______________ __________ ___________ 114,393 5, 597 29, 613 31,241 47,942 43,847 4,500 2, 557 6,649 30,141 70,546 1,097 27,056 24,592 17,801 («) (51) (51) (54) (13) 198, 549 11, 756 2, 656 3,935 29,129 11,916 1,923 17, 640 15,020 10, 718 14,515 1,819 31,290 15,988 19,723 10,521 143,365 9,848 2,436 3,861 28,819 9, 203 7, 866 9, 468 9,741 11,513 1,639 11,339 8,288 18,691 8, 765 Attendants and helpers, professional service....................... ............... Attendants, pool rooms, bowling alleys, golf clubs, etc............ Dentists’ assistants and attendants----------------- ---------------- Helpers, motion-picture production................. ................ -........ - 170,384 16,168 13, 715 2,213 114,759 16,047 770 1,234 55,625 121 12,945 979 For footnotes see pp. 74 and 75. 1,888 15, 297 («> 18,409 10,071 3,777 (35) 24,897 (57) (58) 6? 14,774 12,884 3,360 11,736 (59) 99 41,078 (61) 5818,395 4,257 (13) (82) 6,708 («3) (51) (51) 1,795 (51) 12,646 (13) 8,588 3,479 (35) 24,655 (57) (Si) (513 (51) 13,502 (51) 5,763 (18) 1,483 298 (35) (57) (55) 242 (54) (13) (13) 7,445 1,153 (35) 16, 761 (57) (53) 6,872 7,953 3,163 9,574 67 7,902 4,931 197 2,162 (59) 67 6,834 7,491 2,929 8, 215 (59) eo 14,151 99 26,927 5817,138 3,187 58 1, 257 1,070 eo 15,970 («■) 58 11, 322 4, 720 (5«) (61) (13) (82) 1,768 (63) (61) (13) (6!) 4,940 (63) 5,991 6,660 1,110 15,943 (57) (58) 57 2,162 5, 246 2, 706 6, 245 (56) 99 7,081 (61) 58 11,027 3,405 (IS) m2, 048 (6!) (.3) 5,829 (54) 2,263 (13) (35) w (53) (5.) („4) 1,594 7,423 (*!) 8,254 558 84,478 (5i) (35) (57) (a8) 785 43 818 5* 4,672 2,245 223 1,970 (5P) 99 8,889 (61) 68 295 1,315 (13) (6!) 544 1, 504 (8!) APPENDIX A— GENERAL TABLES Semi professional and recreational pursuits------------------------------Abstracters, notaries, and justices of peace........ -.................. . Architects’, designers’, and draftsmen’s apprentices «-----------Apprentices to other professional persons.-------------------------Billiard room, dance hall, skating rink, etc., keepers 96............ Chiropractors------ ------------------------ ------------------ ------.----Directors, managers, and officials, motion-picture production.. Healers (not elsewhere classified)................. ............................... Keepers of charitable and penal institutions--------------- -------Keepers of pleasure resorts, race tracks, etc............................ . Officials of lodges, societies, etc----------------------------------------Radio announcers, directors, managers, and officials-------------Religious workers............................................................. -............. Technicians and laboratory assistants.................. ....................... Theatrical owners, managers, and officials............. ....................Other occupations............................................. -............... -........... 55,184 1,908 220 74 310 2,713 35 9, 774 5,552 '977 3,002 180 19,951 7, 700 1,032 1, 756 (M) (51) 1 able I. Gainful workers 10 years old and over, by occupation and sex, for the United States: 1930, 1920, and 1910—Continued 1930 1920 1910 Occupation Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female («) (6i) (“) Professional service—Continued. 25,383 29,893 1,865 14,042 4, 274 12, 461 50,370 Domestic and personal service 88 Boarding and lodging house keepers Bootblacks _ Charwomen and cleaners Cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shop workers.. Owners and proprietors___ Managers and officials___ Foremen and overseers____ Laborers__ Other operatives..... .......... Elevator tenders__ Hotel keepers and managers___ Housekeepers and stewards___ Hotels, restaurants, boarding houses, etc....... Other housekeepers and stewards. _ Janitors and sextons . Laborers, domestic and personal service Launderers and laundresses (not in laundry) Laundry owners, managers, and officials M Owners and proprietors. Managers and officials__ Laundry operatives 85. ____ Del ivery men 66__ Foremen and overseers__ Laborers_____ Other operatives.......... ............. 29,458 502 689 13,353 175 3,153 4,952,451 1, 772, 200 374,290 144, 371 261,096 17, 093 113,194 88,118 66, 515 21,603 819 42,313 12,359 30,626 226,120 71,687 361,033 24, 545 15,440 9,105 6’337 194,’ 501 ♦ < *v, uOu 22, 482 236,363 22,128 214,235 35,820 4,350 (64) (64) 2,972 w (»<) 3,299 4,140 6,836 2,278 0) 1,193,313 2,186, 682 216, 211 133, 392 15,175 36,803 21,667 182,965 18,652 15,142 11,848 17,094 33, 246 114, 740 33 24,955 4,573 (28) (28) (28) (28) (28) <2 ffl (28) (28) (28) (28) «J, oUu 5,221 4,650 40, 713 55,583 221,612 (28) 1,097 160, 475 178, 628 84 32,893 396, 756 13,692 9,027 4,665 120, 715 2, 754 . 8»292 3,611 13,107 2,063 (64) (®v 1,067 1,212 6,410 426 2,353 1,678 \ ) (67) o, 3 / / 33, 376 41,449 17, 262 (28) Q (28) 7,337 14,134 204,350 (28) (28) 149,590 84 31,224 10,882 12,239 8,158 4,081 39,968 (67) 29,038 64 1, 669 385,874 1,453 869 584 80, 747 6, 570 31, 322 1, 535 6,537 72, 675 (28) (67) (68) 507 689 6,444 2,131 « 2,792 3,451 392 147 3,755,798 1, 225,395 2, 530,403 195,275 165,452 14,020 34,034 14,860 (28) 172,977 23, 052 14,000 7,195 12, 215 22,298 142, 400 20 26,839 2,645 (25) (28) (28) (28) m (28) (28) (28) (28) (28) (28) (28) 25,035 64,504 189,273 a 25,010 50, 269 15,940 (28) h 113,081 64 53,480 533,697 18, 043 15, 441 2,602 112, 264 m 3,071 8, 786 100,407 91,629 50, 265 13, 693 17,057 14,695 2,362 35,909 21, 452 84 3, 215 520,004 986 746 240 76, 355 (67) 1,674 5,432 28,803 1 1,397 3,354 71,604 (28) (67) 25 14, 235 173,333 (25) (28) APPENDIX A----GENERAL TABLES Attendants and helpers, professional service—Continued Laborers, professional service. Laborers, recreation and amusement . Librarians’ assistants and attendants Physicians' and surgeons’ attendants Stage hands and circus helpers Theater ushers___ Other attendants and helpers 84,128 54,612 17,298 12, 218 84, 055 54,560 17,297 12,198 73 52 1 20 87,987 72,343 15,644 60,832 50,316 10,516 398,475 129, 857 268, 618 (28) 450,440 (28) 117,004 333,436 (28) 371,095 94, 252 276, 843 1, 433, 741 193, 655 1, 240, 086 ‘ 169,877 84,531 85,346 1,263,864 109,124 1,154,740 393, 288 161,315 231,973 Restaurant, caf6, and lunch-room keepers. 165,406 125,398 Hotels, restaurants, boarding houses, etc Other cooks........ -............. ...... ............— 565,392 243, 670 321, 722 Other servants.................. ................ .............. Hotels, restaurants, boarding houses, etc Other domestic and personal service 13,867 143,142 3,566 139,576 52 13 j16 1 22 Other pursuits------ ------ ---------------- ------Cemetery keepers---------- ----------------Hunters, trappers, and guides-----------Other occupations---------------------------- 33, 830 9,762 6, 219 17, 849 32,022 9, 705 6,132 16,185 1,808 57 87 1,664 Clerical occupations—...........-........... 4,025,324 2, 038,494 1,986,830 Agents, collectors, and credit men-----------Agents (not elsewhere classified)--------Collectors_________________________ Credit men-------------------------- ------- Purchasing agents (except for railroads) 196,107 101, 551 43,331 22,490 28,735 182,630 94,948 40,395 20,596 26,691 13,477 6,603 2, 936 1,894 2,044 Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants—....... Accountants and auditors-------------------Bookkeepers and cashiers------ -------------- 930, 648 191, 571 739, 077 447,937 174,557 273,380 482, 711 17,014 465,697 Clerks (except “clerks” in stores)--------------Office-appliance operators--------------------Shipping clerks---------------------------------Weighers................................. ...................... Other clerks_________________________ Messenger, errand, and office boys and girls 73 Stenographers and typists. 1,997, 000 38, 098 148, 678 14,307 1, 795,917 90,379 811,190 1,290,447 5, 380’ 144, 422 12,872 1,127, 773 81,430 36,050 (28) (28) (28) (28) (28) (28) (28) m (28) 88 128,956 m 743, 615 1,121, 785 «* 145, 672 «»976,113 228,985 112,064 116, 921 188,293 102,495 85, 798 63,300 5, 540 7,332 50,428 61,381 5, 496 7, 288 48, 597 1,919 44 44 1,831 184, 259 4,842 3,887 175,530 180, 716 4,811 3, 840 172, 065 3,543 31 47 3,465 3, 111, 836 69 1,689,911 69 1, 421,925 69 1, 718, 458 6« 1,129, 849 69 82,-345 69 86, 532 69 11, 640 69 149,427 89161, 067 69 50, 785 69 48, 495 69 8,910 66 121, 428 69 130, 338 33, 850 35, 747 2,730 27,999 30, 729 (70) (70) (70) (70) (70) (71) (71) (71) (71) (71) 69 588,609 «» 872, 471 (28) (28) (28) (28) (28) (28) (28) (28) (.8) (28) (28) 69 4, 187 69 2,290 1,897 (70) (71) 734, 688 118, 451 616, 237 375, 564 105, 073 270,491 359,124 13, 378 345, 746 486, 700 39,239 447,461 299, 545 35, 653 263,892 187,155 3,586 183, 569 1,487,905 706,553 (72) 32, 718 123, 684 4, 256 16, 229 1,435 668,144 72 1, 347,992 1,015, 742 472,163 720, 498 597,833 122, 665 118, 944 14, 730 73 882, 068 4,740 1,499 73 465,924 80,353 11, 564 73 628, 581 78,192 10, 984 > ■2 508, 657 2,161 580 73 119,924 113,022 615,154 98, 768 50,410 14, 2.54 564,744 108, 035 316, 693 96, 748 53, 378 11,287 263, 315 8,949 775,140 (72) (72) (72) (72) APPENDIX A----GENERAL TABLES 485 279 27 179 194,297 149,418 44,879 127,436 57, 599 7,750 27,647 34,440 87,683 42, 929 22, 486 22, 268 40,008 Porters (except in stores)........................ . Domestic and personal service--------Professional service-----------------------Steam railroad-----------------------------Other porters (except in stores)-------- 127,488 57, 612 7,766 27,648 34, 462 For footnotes see pp. 74 and 75. 117,117 6,205 110,912 88,168 43,208 22,513 22,447 13,867 Waiters............—.......... —..........-................. 15, 926 19,338 157,009 3, 566 153, 443 Servants: 68 133, 043 6,205 126, 838 15,926 19,338 137,431 4, 773 132,658 156, 769 4, 773 151, 996 Midwifes and nurses (not trained)-------Midwives-----------------------------------Nurses (not trained)----- ----------------- (72) CC Table l.—Gainful workers 10 years old and over, by occupation and sex, for the United States: 1930, 1920, and 1910—Footnotes *<I It isMieved6howe^tCthL^^of thldXSSStUr?hPWSUitS’ itJ?imp?^ibLe t0®r°uP,he 1920an<?the 1910 occupations exactly according to the 1530 classification. tne ??'ect,of the difference m grouping on the comparability of the figures here presented is negligible. In addition to the changes referred to proprietors foremen, and iaboreis on turpentine farms, classified in • Agriculture, forestry, etc " in 1920 and in 1910, were transferred to “ Manufacturing and mechanical industries” in 1930. track-fams noul^rwfrms1 etc wh, focf 2? B,™eral fa™!/*ere distinguished as working on the “home farm” or “working out,” farm laborers on dairy farms, stock farms, asheraCmnmM to?imnSldffc Min ThC S °“the dome farm as unpaid family workers ” were not included in the group “ Farm laborers (home farm).” Hence, workers”probably is^omewhat too°smaIl b of farm laborers classified as “Wageworkers” probably is somewhat too large, and the number classified as “Unpaid family with SorfgSesUde °CCUpation flgures <for 1620: Tota1’ 2S1-7i1’ male' 281.690; female, 51; for 1910: Total, 98,322; male, 95,750; female, 2,572) omitted in detail because not comparable APPENDIX A---- GENERAL TABLES ‘ Comparable figures for 1910 not available. 5 Figures for 1910 approximate only. J Many of the machinists’ apprentices probably are machine tenders. tirm onHmmmnniwiiii”' “a u“r—-assified m 1930. Apprentices, steam railroad ; Apprentices, telegraph and telephone”; “Apprentices, other transportaco^m!1Plc(f,1Jn », Apprentices, wholesale and retail trade ; Apprentices to other professional persons.” (The group “Architects’, designers’, and draftsmen’s appren tices, classified m Manufacturing and mechanical industries” in 1920 and in 1910, was transferred to “ Professional service” in 1930 ) 8 The 1910 figures include cement finishers; these numbered 7,621 in 1920. 9 Figures for 1910 estimated. 10 In 1910 most of the Cranemen, derrickmen, hoistmen, etc.,” were classified with the semiskilled operatives of the respective industries Proprietors, managers, and foremen on turpentine farms, classified as proprietors, managers, and foremen, respectively, in ““ Manufacturing Manufacturing and mechanical industries” in 1930, were classified m “Agriculture, forestry, etc.,” in 1920 and in 1910. 12 Not otherwise specified. 13 Comparable figures for 1920 and 1910 not available. 14 Cement finishers were included with “Brick and stone masons” in 1910. J® The few operatives in rayon factories in 1920 were classified with operatives in “Not specified textile mills.” None were returned in 1910 18 In 1920 and in 1910 automobile repair shops were included in the group “Other iron and steel factories.” 17 Includes tin-plate mills. 18 Includes iron foundries. 19 Operatives in leather bag factories, included in the group “Leather belt, leather case, etc., factories” in 1920 and in 1910, were transferred to the group “Trunk, suitcase, and nag iaciories in lyou. 20 Includes box factories (wood). 21 Includes the few operatives reported in rayon factories in 1920. None were returned in 1910. See, also, footnote 22. Operatives in bedding and quilt factories, hat and cap materials factories, and millinery factories, all included in the group “Other miscellaneous industries” in 1920 and in .19;% operatives m white-goods factory, included in the group “ Other clothing factories” in 1920 and in 1910, were classified in the group “ Other and not specified textile mills” •n ln m?tlon-picture production, included m the group Semiskilled operatives, other miscellaneous industries” in “Manufacturing and mechanical industries” in 1920 and in 1910, were transferred to Professional service” in 1930. 23 The few laborers in rayon factories in 1920 were classified with laborers in “Not specified textile mills.” None were reported in 1910 » Laborers m leather bag factories, included in the group “Leather belt, leather case, etc., factories” in 1920 and in 1910, were transferred to the group “Trunk, suitcase, and Dag iactones in tyoU. ■ 25 Includes the few laborers reported in rayon factories in 1920. See, also, footnote 26. 26 Laborers in bedding and quilt factories, hat and cap materials factories, and millinery factories, all included in the group “ Other miscellaneous industries” in 1920 and in 1910 and laborers m white-goods factories, included in the group “ Other clothing factories” in 1920 and in 1910, were classified in the group “Other and not specified textile mills” in 1930. Farm laborers (turpentine farm) ” were classified in “Agriculture” in 1920 and in 1910. See, also, footnote 26. 28 Not classified separately in 1920 or in 1910. !! ™eitheF 1910* m 1920, nor in 1930 was the attempt to distinguish chauffeurs and motor-truck drivers from draymen, teamsters, and carriage drivers very successful 88 teamsters in agriculture, forestry, and the extraction of minerals are classified with the other workers in those industries, respectively; drivers for bakeries and stores are classi fied as delivery men in trade; and drivers for laundries are classified as delivery men in domestic and personal service. See, also, footnote 31 31 Laborers, trucks, transfer, and cab companies” were included with “Draymen, teamsters, and expressmen” in 1920 and in 1910. 32 Because of indefinite returns by census enumerators, it is probable that at each census some stationary engineers were included with locomotive engineers, and that some firemen of stationary boilers were included with locomotive firemen. * «r 33 Postmasters were classified in “ Public service” in 1920 and in 1910. . . 2 Radio and wireless operators were included with telegraph operators m 1920 and m 1910. MS"?, a^Zte^oupunder “Other professional pursuits” in 1920, were transferred to 155543' .. ... . 1 1 __ _ J___ 1 _____ 1 VirtlrnTT nAllAflioto rQTlV 82 Includes, also, all technical engineers not elsewhere cJ S3 Includes, also, chemical and metallurgical engineers . ^ . _„tQ „ 84 In 1920 and in 1910 “ County agents, farm demonstrators, etc.,’ were included m the group Agents, in 4 Clerical occupations,” and “ Social and welfare workers” were included i the group “ Religious, charity, and welfare workers” in “ Semiprofessional pursuits. 88 Classified under “ Manufacturing and mechanical industries m 1920 and m 1910. oo *• Billiard room" dance halCskating rink, etc., keepers,” classified in “ Domestic and personal service in 1920 and in 1910, were transferred to “ Professional service” in 1930. f Chiropractors were included injhe group „ dealers owners managers, and officials” in 1920 and in 1910. ‘ Directors, managers, and officials, motion-picture production 86 Not shown prior to 1930. , , „ , tt n .. . , eo Includes two 1930 groups—“ Social and welfare workers and Religions workers. ‘Semiskilled operatives, other chemical factories”; “Other 61 Most of the “Technicians and laboratory assistants;" in 1920 and in 1910, were distributed among three groupsclerks” under “ Clerical occupations.” occupations” under “Semiprofessional pursuits”;, and Other ~ groups “Laborers, domestic and professional service.” . , , , „ 65 Some owners of hand laundries probably are included with laundry operatives. 88 Some delivery men probably were returned and classifiedas chauffeurs. .. „ Q_ j i„11T1Hrif»<i»»in “Trade ” 67 « Delivery men. laundries” were included in 1920 and m 1910 in the group Delivery men, Joon and 1910 group ' 6B “Attendants, pool rooms, bowling alleys, golf clubs, etc.” classified m “ Professional service m 1930, formed a part of the 1920 and 1910 group ‘Bell boys, chore boys, etc.,” in 1930, and “ County agents, farm demonstrators, etc. ” dassifiedta“ mo™” in W3°’ ^ ClaSSifled “ the ^ “Agents” in 1920 and in 1910 “ Canvassers,” classified in “Trad,e” in 1930, were classified in Clerical occupations m 1920 and m 1J 0. ^ ClasSfied in the^oup“AgSts^ta 1920? In 1910, those in stores were classified with “Salesmen and saleswomen (stores).” n Classified in the group“Agents” in 1920 and in 1910. . „ . 72 “ Office-appliance operators” were included in the group Other clerks m 1920 and in 1910. 73 Except telegraph messengers. APPENDIX A— GENERAL TABLES Tl5tForemen'inagar5S!Igreasiiig0s?ations! and automobile laundries were included in the group “Foremen and overseers, other transportation” in 1920 and in 1910. ss Most of these are constructing canals, docks, harbors, etc. _ ,, ■a Classified, in 1920 and in 1910, in the group “ Agents in Clerical occupations. .__ 10 This group was more strictly confined in 1930 than in 1920 or in 1910 to persons specifically returned as Clerks m stores. 41 Some delivery men probably were returned and classified as chauffeurs, and others as teamsters or truck drivers. 42 Includes delivery men for laundries, classified in “ Domestic and personal service” in 1930. <8 Included, in 1920 and in 1910, in the group “ Other proprietors, officials, and managers. 44 Includes, also, managers and superintendents of retail stores. , , .. , , ^ mm <5 “ Retail dealers, gasoline and oil filling stations” were included in the group Other specified retail dealers m 1920 and m 1910. <« “ Canvassers,” classified in “ Clerical occupations” m 1920 and in 1910, were transferred to Trade in 1930. 47 Included in the group “Other occupations” in 1920 and in 1910. „ . iOQn 48 In 1920 and in 1910 this group included “ Postmasters,” classified in Transportation and communication m 1930. 49 Includes only those resident in continental United States at date of enumeration. Cri Table II.—Number and per cent of increase or decrease from 1920 to 1980 and 1910 to 1930 among men and women engaged in certain selected 1 occupations Increase or decrease, 1920 to 1930 Occupation Men Number +7,659,829 +5,013,067 Agriculture, forestry, and fishing............................................... . -40,008 Farm laborers___ _______________ _ _ Wageworkers _ _ _ ___________________ Unpaid family workers___ ________________ _ Extraction of minerals ___ ____ ______ _____ Manufacturing and mechanical industries-. Apprentices. .. ___ _ Bakers.. __ ... . ____________ Buffers and polishers (metal)__________ . Compositors, linotypers, and typesetters....... ............. ...... Foremen and overseers (manufacturing). _ Jewelers, watchmakers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths__ Managers and officials (manufacturing)_____________ Manufacturers. ... _. .............. ............. . Painters, glaziers, and varnishers (factory)_____________ Tailors and tailoresses_______ _____ ___________ Upholsterers.. .......................... . Factory operatives......... ..................................... . Chemical and allied industries..................... ............. . Cigar and tobacco factories________ ______ . Clay, glass, and stone industries____ ________ Clothing industries___ _ ______ Electrical machinery and supply factories.................. I* * +18.1 +15.2 Number Men Per cent Number Women Per cent Number Per cent +8, 323,903 +2, 202, 605 +20.6 +25.8 +12, 922, 240 +7, 986, 240 +34.9 +26.5 +14, 220, 537 +2,676, 344 +41.2 +33.1 -173, 551 -16.0 -1,010, 735 -9.3 -896, 913 -49.6 -372, 416 +363, 534 -6.1 +10.7 -2, 932 -156,898 -1.1 -109,871 -933,493 -1.9 -10, 497 -879, 376 -3.8 -57.6 +452, 227 -88, 693 +21.4 -7.0 -lob 634 +15,672 -949,165 +.6 -177, 799 -701, 577 -50.9 -59.6 -103, 795 -9.5 -2,105 -73.5 +19,489 +2.0 -335 -30.6 +1, 322,818 +12.1 -44,045 -2.3 +38.4 -43.8 -5,536 -58. 7 +60, 715 +23, 440 +18.0 +34.5 +11.5 -1.3 +25.1 +13.1 -446 -1,037 -1,704 -424 +2, 091 +21,411 -12, 928 +21, 759 +31.4 -8.1 +79.6 +1, 259 +55.6 +88 +3.9 +29, 760 -16,319 +30,169 +49.8 -10.0 +159.4 -t-65,460 ~) +4,137 -724 -3, 782 +8, 726 -1,283 +8, 559 +1,410 -82,345 +2,393 -19,006 +1,062 +3.6 -57,412 +38, 537 +5,141 +44,504 +32, 071 +3,388, 647 V) +47,132 +5,434 +59,825 +153, 781 +7,371 +178, 503 +86.6 -31.4 -26.9 +44.2 -50.6 +459.4 +32.8 —67.2 +212. 0 -46.6 +82.1 +8.6 +740,577 +43.8 +414, 562 +39.7 +19.3 +30.5 +65.4 +62, 470 -44,189 +1,400 -6, 708 +58, 376 +239. 0 -55.3 +1.8 -4.5 +428.1 +15,187 -3, 897 +6, 251 +109, 481 +34, 274 +111.0 -5.4 +66.1 +46.1 +310. 4 +147,049 +6.4 +37,317 -25, 495 +8, 361 —1,560 +34, 560 +72.8 -41.6 +11.6 —1.1 +92.3 +9,734 -16,012 +2,547 +17, 926 -9.2 -5.6 -25.3 +25.1 +15.5 *. +55.6 +19.3 +52.7 +98.4 +24.5 +144. 2 -12.6 APPENDIX A----GENERAL TABLES Population 10 years of age and over______ All occupations________ ____________ Increase or decrease, 1910 to 1930 Women Per cent Os Food and allied industries............ ....— Iron and steel, machinery, and vehicle industries.. Other metal industries------------ ------ ---------------Leather industries----------------------------------------Lumber and furniture industries------------ ------ — Paper, printing, and allied industries---------------Rubber factories---------------- ----------- -------- ----Textile industries . Building, general, and not specified laborers.. Factory laborers........ ........... ............................ Textile industries. Cotton mills____________ Knitting mills---------------Silk mills----------- -------- Woolen and worsted mills.. Transportation and communication. . , . +38.1 +71.0 +24.7 -6.7 +2.3 +61.3 +181. 3 +50,147 +37,206 +9, 944 +26, 243 +5, 649 +3,916 +10,866 +130. 5 +157.9 +47.7 +40.1 +40.5 +6.6 +104. 3 -6,113 -1.4 +81,515 +26.8 +46, 303 +12.0 -1,169 +17, 335 +21,675 +23, 061 -369 -6.6 +12.4 +96.2 +79.5 -.7 -7, 569 +5,017 +24,465 +23,330 -2,996 +15,489 +2, 944 +356 +8, 956 +956 -4,355 +2,455 +31,087 +8.8 +26.8 +2.3 +64.2 +21.2 -18.5 +1, 739 -3, 502 +9,121 +922 -12,655 +432,645 +64.4 -3,700 -24.3 +184,231 +20.0 -4,345 -27.4 +474,072 +31.4 +51,187 +81.5 +69,680 +2,658 -10,343 +3,134 +23,292 +42,817 +175,226 +16,779 +684 +12,843 +28,208 +13, 756 +88.4 +23.2 -6.8 +57.8 +231. 7 +45.6 +36.8 +39.8 +2.1 +4.1 +78.4 +112. 5 +1,287 +1,531 +1,182 +1,919 +2,159 +11,197 +3, 964 +846 +2,651 +3,452 +1,333 +1,821 +60.6 +30.9 +49.5 +39.8 +156. 3 +162.6 +64.6 +32.1 +90.0 +86.0 +34.5 +137. 7 +41.7 +3,718 +23.2 +57.4 -.3 +94.1 -12.1 +143.8 -132,178 -6.2 -40,197 -26.1 +17,808 -7,201 +21,880 +2,144 +9,783 -16,890 -64,995 —3,858 -15,164 +16,197 +3,102 -21,535 +13.6 -33.8 +18.2 +33.4 +41.5 -11.0 -9.1 -6.1 -31.5 +5.2 +5.1 -45.3 -203 -7,375 -759 +373 +313 +1, 711 -2,487 -1,631 -874 -3,271 -812 -809 -5.6 -53.2 -17.5 +5.9 +9.7 +10.5 -19.8 -31.9 -13.5 -30.5 -13.5 -20.5 -19,566 -16.3 -13,212 +29,668 -40.1 -13,207 -719 +1,570 -6,283 -22.1 -10.9 +21.4 -34.5 -7, 589 -1,812 -572 -2,191 -45.5 -33.9 -21.0 -54.9 +14,402 +1,620 +6,234 +1,710 +45.0 +38.0 +232.1 +16.7 +3,313 -12 -1,046 -247 +689,384 +24.0 +56,934 +25.4 +1,012,021 +39.7 +165,857 -52.8 -3,475 -6.8 _ -31,666 Laborers, steam railroad......................... -...............-......................... -......... -14.5 -191 +33.4 . +30,073 Mail carriers_______________________________ ________ ____ +21.4 +2,395 +.4 . +91 Postmasters----- -----------------------------------------------------------------------4.4 -738 -17.4 . -10,875 Telegraph operators--------- ----------------------------- --------------------------+31.9 +56,880 +15.7 +1,844 Telephone operators-------------- ----------------------- -----------------------------20.8 -471 +4.3 +1,046 Ticket and station agents-----------------------------------------------------------1 This tnhlp is limited to those occupations in each of which 1,000 or more persons of each sex were engaged both in 1930 and in 1920, factory groups am\Zwn in “e case of the manufacturing industries, even when Urn numerical prerequisite was met. 21910 figures not available. -38.4 +3.6 +37.4 +46.3 -5.8 +3,483 +3,549 +17,281 +9,127 -11,942 +16.7 -2.3 +11.3 +1.3 -20.5 A- Chemical and allied industries------------------------Cigar and tobacco factories-----------------------------Clay, glass, and stone industries................ ............. Clothing industries--------------------------------Electrical machinery and supply factories---------Food and allied industries-------------------- Iron and steel, machinery, and vehicle industries . Other metal industries----------------------------------Leather industries----------------------------------------Lumber and furniture industries—.-----------------Paper, printing, and allied industries----- ------ — Rubber factories----------------- ------------------------- +37,483 +245,152 +12,093 -12, 534 +3, 537 +38, 905 +38, 376 +3.3 -6.6 +.3 -10.5 +5.2 +16.8 —11.6 APPENDIX Carpet mills------------------Cotton mills____________ Knitting mills------ ------Silk mills__________ - — Woolen and worsted mills.. +21.2 +5.1 +1.2 +10.8 +5.1 -6.4 +13.0 +4,377 -41,526 +205 -20,669 +7,782 +14,742 -7,824 * S 3 - ft) b> H3 s> w FS) O) -4.2 -137 -20.0 -107,973 +11.7 +118 +50.9 +40,537 +56.0 +4,881 +8.8 +1,691 +96.2 +7, 903 -16.3 -10,035 +166. 5 +146, 997 +41.5 +3,994 +48.2 +582 +10.6 +2,440 but for reasons of space not all the component -1 Table II.—Number and per cent of increase or decrease from 1920 to 1930 and 1910 to 1930 among men and women engaged in certain selected occupations—Continued Increase or decrease, 1920 to 1930 Occupation Men Number Number 00 Increase or decrease, 1910 to 1930 Women Per cent ■vr Men Per cent Number Women Per cent Number Per cent +1,533,086 +42.8 +290,697 +43.3 +1,958,225 +62.0 +489,977 +103.7 +56,003 +41,442 +43,276 +6,213 +154 +11, 363 — 1,204 — 1, 760 +141,941 +82, 694 +68,316 +344,061 +671,548 +8,85U +110,683 +50,518 +8, 279 +13,282 +5,401 +2, 664 +673, 429 +35.8 +394.2 +24.5 +80.7 +9.4 +68.6 -24.1 -13.9 +109.5 +70.9 +48.8 +27.5 +66.3 +37.9 +15.2 +47.9 +26.7 +41.6 +28.7 +5.6 +49.7 +3,888 +7,622 +1,136 +5,083 +2, 556 +697 +3,056 +4,789 +9,316 +987 +22, 579 +31,186 +179,075 +813 +6,997 -423 +1,330 +1,522 +2,593 +637 +509,204 +73.3 +181.9 +40.5 +440.1 +80.3 +14.8 +99.0 +464. 5 +172. 9 +11.7 +245.2 +39.5 +34,0 +72.1 +66.1 -27.6 +106. 7 +95.9 +79.5 +53.9 +50.1 +109,142 +37, 976 +58, 763 +9,009 +543 +13,028 +1,107 -762 +176,228 +101,127 +85,308 +465,430 +782,190 +12,271 +412,016 +89, 398 +16,028 +13,001 +6, 762 +25,619 +751,127 +105.8 +271.6 +36.5 +183.8 +43.4 +87.4 +41.4 -6.5 +184.9 +103. 0 +69.4 +41.3 +86.7 +61.6 +96.6 +134.4 +69.0 +40.4 +38.7 +105.6 +76.9 +6, 558 +7,198 +1,349 +5, 799 +2.610 +1,590 +4,104 +4,059 +12,043 +5,228 +28,860 +43,063 +343, 712 +1,127 +12, 747 +378 +2,196 +2,098 +4,280 +1,004 +791,482 +249.0 +156.0 +52.0 +1,321.0 +83.4 +52.2 +201.4 +230.5 +452.4 +125.6 +986.0 +64.2 +94.9 +138.6 +263.6 +51.9 +577.9 +207.5 +271. 7 +123.2 +107. 7 Professional persons_________________________ Actors and showmen___________ _______ _ Artists, sculptors, and teachers of art_______ Authors, editors, and reporters_____________ Chemists, assayers, and metallurgists______ Clergymen_______ ________ ______________ College presidents and professors___________ Dentists_____________ _______ __________ Designers, draftsmen, and inventors______II’ Lawyers, judges, and justices__________ Librarians.......... ............................ +428, 758 +20.693 +14, 836 +14, W6 +13, 936 +20, 089 + 18, 442 +15, 445 +30, 531 +36. 439 +762 +41.2 1-61.2 1-71.4 1-46-0 H44.6 (-16- 0 h79.0 - K28. 4 - -48.5 - -30.2 H-42.5 +461, 883 +6,431 +7,027 +8,635 +191 +1,489 +10,056 —542 +1, 548 +1,647 +13, 554 +48.4 +44.8 +48.1 +98.8 +ii.i +83.3 +99.8 -29.6 +20.2 +94.8 +100.4 +564, 903 +19, 218 +16, 946 +14, 411 +29, 469 +28,239 +29,064 +31,025 +49,081 +43,074 +963 +62.4 +54.5 +90.7 +44.3 +187.8 +24.1 +228.7 +80.1 +110.5 +37.7 +60.4 + 710, 214 +7,685 +6, 215 + 11,132 +1, 326 +2, 591 +17,173 +33 +6,200 +2,827 +21,227 +100.7 +58.7 +.40.3 +178.4 +229.0 +378.2 +580.6 +2.6 +205.8 +506.6 +364.2 APPENDIX A--- GENEBAL TABLES Trade.. ............................................................ Bankers, brokers, and money lenders__________ Canvassers______ _____ __________________ Commercial travelers_____________________ Decorators, drapers, and window dressers______ Demonstrators_____________________________ Floorwalkers and foremen in stores____________ Fruit and vegetable graders and packers_______ Inspectors, gaugers, and samplers_____________ Insurance agents, managers, and officials_______ Laborers, porters, and helpers in stores________ Beal estate agents and officials____________ Retail dealers____________ _________________ Salesmen and “clerks” in stores____ II...'ll”" Undertakers._____ ________________________ Public service (not elsewhere classified)___ Laborers (public service)_______ _____________ Marshals, sheriffs, detectives, etc_____________ Officials and inspectors (city)________________ Officials and inspectors (county)________IIIIII. Officials and inspectors (State and United States) Professional service________________ ____ J * +27,930 +1,187 +4,023 +9, 220 +6,611 +73,201 -12 +48.5 +35.3 +14.8 +6.7 +116. 5 +62.6 -.2 +6,933 —100 +1,247 -394 +2,277 +218,760 +145,073 +9.5 —6.0 +17.5 —5. 5 +56. 4 +34. 4 +101. 0 +30, 685 0 +4,352 +4,861 +9,520 +71,607 -367 +56.0 -4,867 -5.8 +16.2 +3.4 +343.9 +60.5 +5,148 +377,103 +79.1 +1,260 +10,197 +1,515 +1,939 +3,837 +1,553 +14.7 +148. 4 +19.0 +20.3 +27.1 +9.1 +425 +4,585 +621 +840 +17,616 -225 +28.7 +58.0 +12.6 +38.9 +65. 4 —17.9 +3,188 +14,907 +4.222 +5,268 +10,907 +7,664 +47.9 +689. 5 +80.5 +84.4 +154.0 +69.5 +1,123 +7,815 +3, 307 +1,032 +35,654 +143.1 + 167.3 +147. 3 -950 +6,440 -39.4 +224. 5 +14,948 +800 +131. 7 +34.0 +226 +7,177 +18.3 +336. 8 +21, 343 +3,006 +430. 7 +578,887 +48.5 +993, 569 +45.4 +546,805 +44.6 +649,848 +25.7 +88,119 —5,959 +13,748 +54,300 + 30,245 +50.9 -25.9 +191.1 +444.5 +120.9 +90,896 +407.6 +12. 334 +49, 336! 6 +4,443 +182,176 +70,292 -9,128 +5,425 +16, 284 -2.059 +75,082 +27.9 +198. 8 +139. 8 -66.7 +31.8 +56.5 -12.9 +149. 2 +38.6 +325,410 GENERAL TABLES +78,131 -1, 559 +9,095 +49, 421 +21,879 -1,911 +3,121 +124,215 +89,333 -6,317 +10,243 +13,765 -5,471 +53,055 + 105,361 +49, 251 +42.7 -8.4 +76.8 +289.1 +65.6 -4.6 +18.1 +83.0 +286.1 -58.1 +83.7 +43.9 -28.3 +73.3 +40.7 +43.9 +79,948 +12,538 +16,034 +17,030 +5,022 +3,176 +32,013 +6,782 +4, 737 -29,406 +610 +76, 739 +6, 918 +24,364 +622, 826 +115,052 +240.5 +10.9 +64. 3 +372. 4 +68. 4 5 +15. 7 +23.4 +283.8 -7.6 +42.0 +105. b +5.2 +155. 7 +bl. 5 +98.4 +348,683 +20.6 +564,905 +39.7 +908,645 +80.4 +1, 398, 221 +237.5 +66.1 +22.2 +i.i +27.0 -17.6 -28.5 +3,636 +1,837 +119,951 +234, 390 -5, 305 +210, 396 +27.2 +15. 8 +34.7 +49.6 -37.2 +37.3 +138,904 +100, 285 +9,488 +692,614 —15, 318 -17, 328 +389.6 +121.8 +3.6 +115.9 -15.8 +13, 428 +9,290 +282,128 +583, 888 -2, 338 +511,825 +374. 5 +69,484 +33, 203 +2.889 +274,705 -17,338 -14,360 +14,150 -163, 536 +1, 077 +77,810 +28,664 -K 4 +25! 8 APPENDIX Attendants and helpers (professfonal service): ^ A--- Semiprofessional persons: ^ +194. 4 __ In'th?eensus'of PMofsocial and religious workers were combined and were listed among semiprofessional pursuits, Therefore, in computing the increase, these two occupations, wnicb in 1930 were shown separately, must still be considered as one group. -I 80 APPENDIX A----GENERAL TABLES Table III.—Men per 100 women in selected occupations: ' 19SO, 1920, and 1910 Men per 100 women Occupation 1930 All occupations................................................... Agriculture, forestry, and fishing.... .................. . Farmers (owners and tenants)___ _________________ Farm laborers___________________________________ Wage workers__________ _____________________ Unpaid family woikers________________________ 1920 1910 354 387 373 1,078 909 599 2,189 580 1,495 249 2,305 421 931 221 2,145 307 729 181 Manufacturing and mechanical industries______ 648 565 485 Compositors, linotypers, and typesetters____________ Foremen and overseers (manufacturing)_____________ Manufacturers, managers, and officials (manufacturing) Tailors and tailoresses____________________________ 1, 688 1,089 3,127 676 1,140 921 3,166 504 808 792 5, 762 401 Factory operatives___ ________________ __ ________ Chemical and allied industries__________________ Cigar and tobacco factories_____ _____ _________ Clay, glass, and stone industiies______________ .... Clothing industries___________________________ Suit, coat, and overall factories______________ Electrical machinery and supply factories________ Food and allied industries_____________________ Candy factories_____ ______________________ Iron and steel, machinery, and vehicle industriesAutomobile factories_______________________ Other metal industries_________________________ Leather industries_____________________________ Shoe factories_____________________________ Lumber and furniture industries________________ Paper, printing, and allied industries_____________ Paper and pulp mills_________ ____ ________ Printing, publishing, and engraving__________ Rubber factories______________________________ Textile industries_____________________________ Carpet mills______________________________ Cotton mills..____________________________ Knitting mills_________________________ Silk mills_________________________________ Woolen and worsted mills____ ______ _______ 167 307 53 513 41 89 159 153 64 972 751 198 192 157 806 161 357 133 280 89 136 108 49 71 108 170 268 73 549 54 123 137 180 67 1, 093 847 200 237 181 805 129 310 105 358 81 125 103 33 59 105 162 191 111 837 63 121 124 256 79 1,467 2,387 235 287 205 1,107 107 244 100 203 79 90 99 34 58 102 Laborers—building, general, or not specified__________ Factory laborers__________________________________ Food and allied industries______________________ Iron and steel, machinery, and vehicle industries___ Textile industries____________ _________________ 9,572 1, 740 756 6, 453 510 4, 408 1,372 939 5, 695 365 5, 793 2,404 1, 365 7,765 443 Transportation and communication____________ 1,267 1,281 2,211 Postmasters............................................................ ............ Telegraph operators______________________________ Telephone operators_______________________________ 153 321 6 185 371 7 219 • 751 11 Trade...... ................................... ...... .................. ........ 532 534 669 Real estate and insurance agents and officials_________ Retail dealers___ ______ ___________ ____ __________ Dry goods, clothing, and boots and shoes_________ Groceries_____________________________________ Salesmen and “clerks” in stores___________ _________ 1,032 1,446 669 977 239 1,846 1, 582 1,035 932 192 3, 905 1,681 1,113 960 249 Public service (not elsewhere classified)_________ 4, 770 6,876 8,821 Professional service__________________________ 113 113 133 Actors and showmen______ _______________________ Actors___________________ ___________ "irrrmr Artists, sculptors, and teachers of art________________ College presidents and professors____________________ Musicians and teachers of music____________________ Social and religious workers____________________ """" Teachers (school)__________ _________________ ""' 262 236 269 97 114 136 165 142 121 208 232 430 107 79 65 40 53 80 22 | 18 1 25 • Manis ta,b!e i,Sr.Snlted to thos0 occuPatioDS in each of which 10,000 persons of each sex were engaged both m j ydu ana in 1920. 81 APPENDIX A----GENERAL TABLES Table III.—Men per 100 women in selected occupations: 1930, 1920, am! 1910—■ Continued Men per 100 women Occupation 1920 1930 1910 Domestic and personal service------- 56 55 48 Barbers, hairdressers, and manicurists---Boarding and lodging house keepers------Charwomen and cleaners--------------------Hotel keepers and managers----------------Housekeepers and stewards-----------------Janitors and sextons--------------------------Laundry operatives---------------------------Nurses (not trained) ----- ------------------Restaurant, caf6, and lunch-room keepers. Servants------------------- ----------------------Waiters----------------------- -------------------- 231 13 51 228 9 764 30 10 313 22 70 550 16 47 293 8 515 43 15 462 26 96 776 16 27 353 9 427 40 14 478 20 119 Clerical occupations-------------------- 103 119 192 Accountants and auditors-------------------Agents, collectors, and credit men---------Bookkeepers and cashiers_____________ Clerks (except “clerks” in stores)---------Stenographers and typists-------------------- 1,026 1,355 59 183 5 785 1,284 78 215 9 694 1,967 144 487 20 82 APPENDIX A---- GENERAL TABLES Table TV. Number of women in each of 10 major occupational groups and their component occupations: 1930, 1920, and 1910 Number of women occupied in— Major occupational groups and component occupations 1930 Servants and allied occupations___ Servants__________________ Laundresses (not in laundry) . Waitresses___________ __ Charwomen and cleaners___ J an i tresses____ _________ 1920 1910 2,300,209 ’ 356* 468 385, 874 4oj 989 85,798 Clerical and kindred pursuits______ Clerical occupations (proper)____ Technicians and laboratory assistants Ticket and station agents____ Librarians’ assistants and attendants _ Mail carriers____ _ Telegraph messengers________ Agents, express companies. ___ Express messengers and railway mail clerks Factory and laundry employees... _. Factory operatives ______ Factory laborers__ ___ _ Factory forewomen________ Laundry operatives______ Laundry laborers ____ Laundry forewomen________ Operatives—cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shops Laborers—cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shops.... Forewomen—cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shops 1,986,830 7, 700 >) ’ 1,208 ' 74 8 100 9 1,780, 996 1,612,838 1,205, 752 1,343,166 2, 754 18,321 1 639 1 349 1,397 4,573 2,645 1,083,819 1,807,181 Ucnl, I’ll) 1, otHI, 024 557 3,184 1,634 250,487 111, 594 4,615 3,130 2,593 4,098 375,939 337,008 284, 245 236, 363 204, 350 173, 333 110,912 251,427 195, 239 96, 481 Professional women 2_________ Agricultural pursuits__________ 910, 268 Agriculture________ Forestry and fishing________ Saleswomen, “clerks” in stores, etc Saleswomen (stores) ____ “ C lerks ” in stores____ _ _ Canvassers_____ ___ Demonstrators____ _____ Commercial travelers___ ___ Sales agents___ ___ _ Auctioneers ___ _ Housekeepers, stewardesses, and practical nurses Housekeepers and stewardesses. __ Practical nurses.. ______ Telephone and telegraph operators.. Telephone operators _____ Telegraph operators__ _ Radio operators_______ 727,809 5,740 46 o’ o ’ Business women__________ Retail dealers___________ 67,103 Restaurant, cafe, and lunch-room keepers 40,008 15,644 10, 516 Real estate agents and officials__ 31, 787 2, 927 Hotel keepers and managers___ Manufacturers, managers, and officials (manufacturing) 16,133 13, 276 6,164 Insurance agents, managers, and officials 14, 705 5,389 Bankers, brokers, and money lenders 9,192 5,304 2,634 Advertising agents____ (9 0) Proprietors, managers, and officials (trade) (n. o. s.3) 3,104 1,061 1,010 Proprietors, managers, and officials (transportation) (n. o. s3)__ 3,003 645 1,611 Owners and managers—cleaning, dyeing, and pressing shops.... (9 2,294 0) Laundry owners, managers, and officials 2,063 1,453 980 Undertakers__ _ _ 1,940 1,127 813 W holesale dealers, importers, and exporters 1,688 794 925 Theatrical owners, managers, and officials 1,032 1, 257 295 1 Data not available. 3 S° tal Professional service minus semiprofessional and recreational pursuits and attendants and helpers. 83 APPENDIX A---- GENERAL TABLES Table IV.—Number of women in each of 10 major occupational groups and their component occupations: 1930, 1920, and 1910—Continued Number of women occupied in— L Major occupational groups and component occupations Business women—Continued. Keepers of pleasure resorts, race tracks, etc----------------Owners and managers—truck, transfer, and cab companies-----Garage owners, managers, and officials— ------------ -Billiard room, dance hall, skating rink, keepers.------------------Builders and building contractors------------------------------------Radio announcers, directors, managers, and officials------Mine operators, managers, and officials----------- -----------------Directors, managers, and officials—motion-picture production. _ Officials and superintendents—steam and street railroads-------- Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory)--------------------Dressmakers' and milliners' apprentices----------- ------------------- Boarding and lodging house keepers----------------------------------Hairdressers and manicurists-------------------------- -----------------> Data not available. 1910 1920 1930 977 576 422 310 202 180 141 35 26 223 230 23 818 849 197 266 207 242 79 0) 0) 182 0) (1) 107 2 51 221,998 341,254 623,000 157,928 40,102 21,807 2,161 235, 519 69, 598 31,828 4, 309 447,760 122, 447 40,813 11,980 506, 022 341, 597 305, 833 127, 278 ■ 113,194 265, 550 114, 740 33, 246 193,611 142,400 22,298 141,135 APPENDIX B—CLASSIFICATION AND METHOD; INSTRUC TIONS TO ENUMERATORS The Women’s Bureau has based this interpretive report regarding the occupational progress of women principally on a bulletin of the Fifteenth Census, taken in 1930, entitled “Occupation Statistics: Abstract Summary for the United States.’’ This bulletin of 20 pages, published by the United States Bureau of the Census on June 28, 1932, has been followed by numerous other census publications that show, not only for the United States but for each State and large city, occu pation statistics according to sex, age, color or race, nativity, parentage, and marital condition. Changes in occupational classification schemes. In 1922 the Women’s Bureau published a similar report on the oc cupational progress of women from 1910 to 1920, known as Bulletin No. 27. Certain statements in that report are not strictly compara ble with those in this bulletin because of recent changes in the scheme of occupation classification of the Bureau of the Census. For ex ample, Tables 10 and 13 of this report are based on the 1930 classifica tion plan; hence, the data will not absolutely agree with those in Bulletin 27. In its abstract summary just published, the Bureau of the Census has this to say regarding changes in classifications: _ Comparative figures.—Since the Fifteenth Census occupation classification differs somewhat from that of the Fourteenth Census, it has been necessary, for comparison, to assign a few Fourteenth Census occupations to general divisions of occupations different from those under which they were presented in 1920. Further, a few of the occupational designations as returned by the enumerators were assigned, in 1930, to an occupation group different from that under which they would have been classified in 1920. Wherever sucn changes were made the figures for the two censuses will not be exactly comparable, tnough the differences are in most cases negligible. The. transfer of postmasters from public service in 1920 to trans portation and communication in 1930 is illustrative of numerous minor changes that slightly affect the number of persons in each gen eral division of occupations, as shown in 1920 census statistics or in reports based on these data. Certain methods of procedure. In assembling the number of occupations in which any given number of women are engaged, several difficulties are encountered because of the many groups that serve as subtotals, the residuary groups, and new occupations. The method used in counting the number of oc cupations in which 1,000 women are at work at each census is as fol lows: All such single occupations not comprising any group or sub group are counted; groups of occupations forming subtotals are not included among the pursuits with 1,000 women in each unless none of their component parts meets the numerical requirement. No occu pation group serving as a subtotal is omitted from this category unless it has at least one component occupation with 1,000 women 84 APPENDIX B—CLASSIFICATION AND METHOD 85 workers at each census. To illustrate, operatives in chemical in dustries and in clothing industries as a whole are omitted from the number of occupations with 1,000 or more women in each, but opera tives in several of their subdivisions are included. Residuary groups whose entity is indefinite have not been included in Tables 10 and 13 on the ground that they do not possess sufficient distinction to be considered as separate occupations. This decision has not been interpreted too literally, however. For example, “other healers,” “other laundry operatives,” and “other clerks” have been included among those occupations with 1,000 women in each, but such groups as “other occupations in professional service” or “other pursuits in public service” have been omitted. New occupations that afford employment to a given number of women have been included in Tables 10 and 13, but their inclusion or exclusion was a difficult matter to decide. For example, in 1920 social and religious workers were combined as one group, though each of these two occupations obviously was followed by more than 1,000 women. Inasmuch as these pursuits are shown separately in 1930, Table 13 includes two occupations in 1930 for what was necessarily but one occupation in 1920. On the other hand, it is probable that the country did not have 1,000 women rayon factory operatives in 1920; to omit this new occupation from such a table in 1930 would not represent conditions as they really arc. After considering these conflicting points, it was decided to include all the new occupations, but the 1930 figures should be discounted somewhat for the reason that the data for 14 occupations included among them were not so tabulated in 1920. It may seem inconsistent to show all factory operatives and all factory laborers as occupational groups in certain tables and not in others. Similarly, all textile-mill operatives are sometimes considered as an occupational group, while at other times operatives are shown only for those plants comprising the subdivisions of this industry. The usual criterion as to inclusion has been to list such total groups when it was not possible to include their component parts. Such decisions are admittedly arbitrary and constitute by no means the only method of procedure; yet some definite plan must be adopted, and the original data on which tins report is based do not lend them selves to simpler methods. Persons 10 years of age and over. Inasmuch as the Bureau of the Census excludes from tabulation the occupations of persons under 10 years of age, the bureau’s abstract summary on which this report is based confines its occupation sta tistics to persons 10 years of age and over. For reasons of ease and convenience this limitation is not mentioned in every table heading; nor is it constantly reverted to throughout the discussion, though the fact has always been borne in mind. Housekeepers and housewives. The Bureau of the Census has made every effort to include as house keepers only those who are in reality intrusted with the responsibility of a household, the supervision of servants, or the upbringing of chil dren. Inasmuch as housewives living at home have a tendency to return their occupations as housekeepers, the error in the statistics for 86 APPENDIX B—CLASSIFICATION AND METHOD this pursuit is thought to be large; moreover, it is not possible to eliminate this error entirely, though a careful and sustained effort in this direction has been made. Housewives are considered apart from gainful workers for the reason that they are not undertaking their positions with the idea of monetary gain; nor do they compete for their positions in the open labor market. Instructions to census enumerators. Certain sections of the instructions to enumerators, issued by the bureau in connection with the Fifteenth Census, have a bearing on this report and for this reason are reproduced here. * * * A “gainful occupation” in census usage is an occupation by which the person who pursues it earns money or a money equivalent, or in which he assists in the production of marketable goods. The term “gainful worker,” as interpreted for census purposes, does not include women doing housework in their own homes, without wages, and having no other employment, nor children work ing at home, merely on general household work, on chores, or at odd times on other work. Occasionally there will be doubt as to whether an occupation should be re turned for a person who works only a small part of the time at the occupation. In such cases the rule may generally be followed that, unless the person spends at least the equivalent of one day per week at the occupation, he or she should not be returned as a gainful worker. Occupation of persons unemployed.—* * * persons out of employment when visited by the enumerator may state that they have no occupation, when the fact is that they usually have an occupation but happen to be idle or unemployed at the time of the visit. In such cases the return should be the occupation followed when the person is employed or the occupation in which last regularly employed, and the fact that the person was not at work should be recorded * * *. Women doing housework.—In the case of a woman doing housework in her own home and having no other employment, the entry in column 25 [occupation] should be none. But a woman doing housework for wages should be returned * * * as housekeeper, servant, cook, or chambermaid, as the case may be; and the entry in column 26 [industry or place of work] should state the kind of place where she works, as private family, hotel, or boarding house. Where a woman not only looks after her own home but also has employment outside or does work at home for which she receives payment, the outside work or gainful employment should ordinarily be reported as her occupation, unless this takes only a very small fraction of the woman’s time. For instance, a woman who regularly takes in washing should be reported as laundress or washer woman, followed * * * by at home. Farm workers— Return a person in charge of a farm as a farmer, whether he [or she] owns it or operates it as a tenant, renter, or cropper; but a person who manages a farm for some one else for wages or a salary should be reported as a farm manager. A man who directs farm labor under the supervision of the owner or of a manager should be reported as a farm foreman or a, farm overseer; and a person who works on a farm for some one else, but not as a manager or foreman should be reported as a farm laborer. Women doing farm work.—A woman who works only occasionally, or only a short time each day at outdoor farm or garden work, or in the dairy, or in caring for livestock or poultry should not be returned as a farm laborer; but for a woman who works regularly and most of the time at such work, the return * * * should be farm laborer. Of course, a woman who herself operates or runs a farm or plantation should be reported as a farmer and not as a farm laborer. Unusual occupations for women.—There are many occupations, such as car penter and blacksmith, which women usually do not follow. Therefore, if you are told that a woman follows an occupation which is very peculiar or unusual for a woman, verify the statement. Children working for parents.—Children who work for their parents at home merely on general household work, at chores, or at odd times on other work, should be reported as having no occupation,. Those, however, who somewhat 4 1 j APPENDIX B—CLASSIFICATION AND METHOD 87 regularly assist their parents in the performance of work other than household work or chores should be reported as having the occupation represented by this work. Unusual occupations for children.—It is very unusual for a child to be a farm or other proprietor of any kind; to be an official, a manager, or a foreman; to follow a professional pursuit; or to pursue any of the skilled trades, such as black smith, carpenter, machinist, etc. Therefore, whenever you are told that a child is following an occupation usually followed only by adults, ask whether the child is not merely a helper or an apprentice in the occupation, and make the entry accordingly. Nurses.—In the case of a nurse, always specify whether she is a trained nurse, a practical nurse, or a child’s nurse. Cooks and general houseworkers.—Distinguish carefully between cooks and general houseworkers. Return a person who does general housework as a servant and not as a cook. Keeping hoarders.—Keeping boarders or lodgers should be returned as an occupation if the person engaged in it relies upon it as his [or her] principal means of support or principal source of income. In that case the return should be boarding-house keeper or lodging-house keeper. If, however, a family keeps a few boarders or roomers merely as a means of supplementing the earnings or income obtained from other occupations or from other sources, no one in the family should be returned as a boarding or lodging house keeper. PUBLICATIONS OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU [Any of these bulletins still available will be sent free of charge upon request] *No. 1. Proposed Employment of Women During the War in the Industries of Niagara Falls, N. Y. 16 pp. 1918. *No. 2. Labor Laws for Women in Industry in Indiana. 29 pp. 1919. No. 3. Standards for the Employment of Women in Industry. 8 pp. Fourth ed., 1928. No. 4. Wages of Candy Makers in Philadelphia in 1919. 46 pp. 1919. *No. 5. The Eight-Hour Day in Federal and State Legislation. 19 pp. 1919. No. 6. The Employment of Women in Hazardous Industries in the United States. 8 pp. 1921. *No. 7. Night-Work Laws in the United States. (1919) 4 pp. 1920. *No. 8. Women in the Government Service. 37 pp. 1920. *No. 9. Home Work in Bridgeport, Conn. 35 pp. 1920. *No. 10. Hours and Conditions of Work for Women in Industry in Virginia. 32 pp. 1920. No. 11. Women Street Car Conductors and Ticket Agents. 90 pp. 1921. *No. 12. The New Position of Women in American Industry. 158 pp. 1920. *No. 13. Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls. 48 pp. 1921. *No. 14. A Physiological Basis for the Shorter Working Day for Women. 20 pp. 1921. No. 15. Some Effects of Legislation Limiting Hours of Work for Women. 26 pp. 1921. No. 16. (See Bulletin 98.) No. 17. Women’s Wages in Kansas. 104 pp. 1921. No. 18. Health Problems of Women in Industry. 6 pp. Revised, 1931. No. 19. Iowa Women in Industry. 73 pp. 1922. *No. 20. Negro Women in Industry. 65 pp. 1922. No. 21. Women in Rhode Island Industries. 73 pp. 1922. *No. 22. Women in Georgia Industries. 89 p"J>. 1922. No. 23. The Family Status of Breadwinning Women. 43 pp. 1922. No. 24. Women in Maryland Industries. 96 pp. 1922. No. 25. Women in the Candy Industry in Chicago and St. Louis. 72 pp. 1923. No. 26. Women in Arkansas Industries. 86 pp. 1923. *No. 27. The Occupational Progress of Women. 37 pp. 1922. No. 28. Women’s Contributions in the Field of Invention. 51 pp. 1923. No. 29. Women in Kentucky Industries. 114 pp. 1923. No. 30. The Share of Wage-Earning Women in Family Support . 170 pp. 1923. No. 31. What Industry Means to Women Workers. 10 pp. 1923. No. 32. Women in South Carolina Industries. 128 pp. 1923. *No. 33. Proceedings of the Women’s Industrial Conference. 190 pp. 1923. No. 34. Women in Alabama Industries. 86 pp. 1924. No. 35. Women in Missouri Industries. 1?7 pp. 1924. No. 36. Radio Talks on Women in Industry. 34 pp. 1924. No. 37. Women in New Jersey Industries. 99 pp. 1924. No. 38. Married Women in Industry. 8 pp. 1924. No. 39. Domestic Workers and Their Employment Relations. 87 pp. 1924. No. 40. (See Bulletin 98.) _ No. 41. Family Status of Breadwinning Women in Four Selected Cities. 145 pp. 1925. _ No. 42. List of References on Minimum Wage for Women in the United States and Canada. 42 pp. 1925. No. 43. Standard and Scheduled Hours of Work for Women in Industry. 68 pp. 1925. No. 44. Women in Ohio Industries. 137 pp. 1925. No. 45. Home Environment and Employment Opportunities of Women in Coal-Mine Workers’ Families. 61 pp. 1925. ( No. 46. Facts about Working Women—A Graphic Presentation Based on Census Statistics. 64 pp. 1925. * Supply exhausted. 88 4 i * LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 89 No. 47. Women in the Fruit-Growing and Canning Industries in the State of Washington. 223 pp. 1926. *No. 48. Women in Oklahoma Industries. 118 pp. 1926. No. 49. Women Workers and Family Support. 10 pp. 1925. No. 50. Effects of Applied Research Upon the Employment Opportunities of American Women. 54 pp. 1926. No. 51. Women in Illinois Industries. 108 pp. 1926. No. 52. Lost Time and Labor Turnover in Cotton Mills. 203 pp. 1926. No. 53. The Status of Women in the Government Service in 1925. 103 pp. 1926. 1 *No. 54. Changing Jobs. 12 pp. 1926. No. 55. Women in Mississippi Industries. 89 pp. 1926. No. 56. Women in Tennessee Industries. 120 pp. 1927. No. 57. Women Workers and Industrial Poisons. 5 pp. 1926. No. 58. Women in Delaware Industries. 156 pp. 1927. No. 59. Short Talks About Working Women. 24 pp. 1927. No. 60. Industrial Accidents to Women in New Jersey. Ohio, and Wisconsin. 316 pp. 1927. No. 61. The Development of Minimum-Wage Laws in the United States, 1912 to 1927. 635 pp. 1928. No. 62. Women’s Employment in Vegetable Canneries in Delaware. 47 pp. 1927. No. 63. (See Bulletin 98.) No. 64. The Employment of Wromen at Night. 86 pp. 1928. *No. 65. The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Opportunities of Women. 498 pp. 1928. No. 66-1. History of Labor Legislation for Women in Three States. 133 pp. 1929. (Separated from No. 66-11 in reprint, 1932.) No. 66—11; Chronological Development of Labor Legislation for Women in the United States. 145 pp. 1929. (Revised and separated from No. 66-1 in 1932.) No. 67. Women Workers in Flint, Mich. 80 pp. 1929. No. 68. Summary: The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Oppor tunities of Women. (Reprint of Chapter II of Bulletin 65.) 22 pp 1928. No. 69. .Causes of Absence for Men and for Women in Four Cotton Mills. 24 pp. 1929. No. 70. Negro Women in Industry in 15 States. 74 pp. 1929. No. 71. Selected References on the Health of Women in Industry. 8 pp 1929. No. 72. Conditions of Work in Spin Rooms. 41 pp. 1929. No. 73. Variations in Employment Trends of Women and Men. 143 pp. 1930. y No. 74. The Immigrant Woman and Her Job. 179 pp. 1930. No. 75. What the Wage-Earning Woman Contributes to Family Support. 21 pp. 1929. No. 76. Women in 5-and-10-cent Stores and Limited-Price Chain Department Stores. 58 pp. 1930. No. 77. A Study of Two Groups of Denver Married Women Applying for Jobs 11 pp. 1929. No. 78. A Survey of Laundries and Their Women Workers in 23 Cities. 166 pp. 1930. No. 79. Industrial Home Work. 20 pp. 1930. No. 80. Women in Florida Industries. 115 pp. 1930. No. 81. Industrial Accidents to Men and Women. 48 pp. 1930. No. 82. The Employment of Women in the Pineapple Canneries of Hawaii. 30 pp. 1930. No. 83. Fluctuation of Employment in the Radio Industry. 66 pp. 1931. No. 84. Fact Finding with the Women’s Bureau. 37 pp/ 1931. No. 85. Wages of Women in 13 States. 213 pp. 1931. No. 86. Activities of the Women’s Bureau of the United States. 15 pp. 1931. No. 87. Sanitary Drinking Facilities, with Special Reference to Drinking Fountains. 28 pp. 1931. Supply exhausted. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 90 No. 88. The Employment of Women in Slaughtering and Meat Packing. 211 pp. 1932. nil No. 89. The Industrial Experience of Women Workers at the Summer Schools, 1928 to 1930. 62 pp. 1931. No. 90. Oregon Legislation for Women in Industry. 40 pp. 1931. No. 91. Women in Industry. A Series of Papers to Aid Study Groups. 79 No. 92. Wage-Earning Women and the Industrial Conditions of 1930 A Survey of South Bend. 84 pp. 1932. , No. 93. Household Employment in Philadelphia. 88 pp. 1932. No. 94. State Requirements for Industrial Lighting. _ A Handbook for the Protection of Women Workers, Showing Lighting Standards and Practices. 65 pp. 1932. No. 95. Bookkeepers, Stenographers, and Office Clerks in Ohio, 1914 to 1929. 34 pp. 1932. No. 96. Women Office Workers in Philadelphia. 17 pp. 1932. No. 97. The Employment of Women in the Sewing Trades of Connecticut— Preliminary Report. 13 pp. 1932. . . , No. 98. Labor Laws'for Women in the States and Territories. Revision ot Bui. 63. 71 pp. 1932. ^ , No. 99. The Installation and Maintenance of Toilet Facilities in Places of Employment. 89 pp. 1932. No. 100. The Effects on Women of Changing Conditions in the Cigar and Cigarette Industries. 187 pp. 1932. No. 101. The Employment of Women in Vitreous Enameling. 64 pp. 1932. No 102 Industrial Injuries to Women in 1928 and 1929 Compared with Injuries to Men. 36 pp. 1933. No. 103. Women Workers in the Third Year of the Depression. 16 pp. 1933. No. 104. The Occupational Progress of Women, 1910 to 1930. 90 pp. 1933. Pamphlet—Women’s Place in Industry in 10 Southern States. 14 pp. 11931. Annual Reports of the Director, 1919*, 1920*, 1921*, 1922, 1923*, 1924*, 1925, 1926, 1927*, 1928*, 1929*, 1930*, 1931, 1932. _____ Supply exhausted. O