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: 9H0 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Information on m a j o r o c c u p a t i o n s f o r u s e in g u i d a n c e United States Department o f Labor • Bureau of Labor Statistics in cooperation with the Veterans Administration Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Information on Major Occupations for Use in Guidance prepared in cooperation with VETERANS ADMINISTRATION OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR FOR VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION AND EDUCATION Bulletin No. 940 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR Maurice J. Tobin, S e c r e ta r y BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Ewan Clague, C o m m i s s i o n e r For sale by the Superintendent o f Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price $1.75 Letter of Transmittal U nited S tates D epartment of L abor, B ureau of L abor S tatistics, Washington, I). G.,September 1 ,191^8. T he S ecretary of L abor: I have the honor to transmit herewith the Occupational Outlook Handbook, pre pared in the Bureau’s Occupational Outlook Branch, with contributions by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture, the Women’s Bureau of the United States Department of Labor, and the Office of Education, Federal Security Agency. Young people, veterans, or older workers who are choosing a career or course of training need current information on employment trends and outlook in the various occupations. Recognizing this need, the Congress, on a recommendation of the A dvi sory Committee on Education, provided for the establishment of an Occupational Outlook Service in the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1940. This handbook presents, in brief form, some of the major results of the Bureau’s first 7 years of research in occupational trends. The reports contained in this handbook were originally prepared at the request and with the financial support of the Veterans Administration, which, under the provisions of the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, was authorized to make available information respecting the need for general education and for trained per sonnel in the various trades, crafts, and professions. They were issued in August 1946 as V A Manual M7-1, “ Occupational Outlook Information.” With the continuing financial support of the Veterans Administration these reports have been brought up to date and expanded in the present volume, which accordingly supersedes V A Manual M7-1. The handbook is being published in its present form and is being made available through public sale in answer to many requests, including one from the National Vocational Guidance Association, expressed in a resolution adopted at its convention in March 1947. It is designed for use in schools, colleges, Veterans Administration regional offices and guidance centers, employment service offices, community organiza tions, and other agencies engaged in the vocational guidance of young people, veterans, and workers. The Bureau wishes to acknowledge with gratitude the cooperation of hundreds of industrial firms, unions, trade associations, and professional societies, whose officials gave freely o f their time in discussing employment trends in their respective fields in supplying information, and in reviewing and commenting upon drafts of the reports. In the selection of occupations to be studied and the preparation o f the reports to meet the needs of veterans, the Bureau wishes to acknowledge especially the guid ance of the office of the Assistant Administrator for Vocational Rehabilitation and Education, Veterans Administration, and Donald H. Davenport, consultant to the Administrator of Veterans’ Affairs. E w a n C lague, Commissioner. Hon. M aurice J. T obin, Secretary of Labor. ii Foreword The material contained in these excellent reports is of the greatest value to counselors, teachers of classes in occupations, and many other workers inter ested in factual data on our occupational life. The reports have been scientifi cally compiled and are well organized for counseling use. No agency except the Bureau of Labor Statistics could so well appraise the long-term trends, the cyclical fluctuations and their effects, and the influence of regional conditions and resources. The information presented will be of inestimable value to individuals con templating the investment o f time and money in vocational training courses and to training institutions planning or revising their curricular offerings. The publication of these reports marks a high level of achievement in a new and significant area. W arren K. L ayton , President, National Vocational Guidance Association. Contributors This handbook was prepared in the Bureau’s Occupational Outlook Branch under the direction o f Seymour L. Wolfbein, Branch Chief. Harold Goldstein prepared the introductory sections and was responsible for the general planning and organization o f the book. Helen Wood and Bich ard H. Lewis supervised the research on employ ment opportunities and the preparation of the occupational outlook reports. The following members of the staff contributed sections: Caiman R. Winegarden, Arthur W. Frazer, Cora E. Tay lor, Judith Grunfel, Samuel Vernoff, Harold Wool, Alexander C. Findlay, Robert W. Cain, Raymond D. Larson, Sol Swerdloff, Frank Dischel, John S. McCauley, Chester F. Schimmel, Herbert L. Gottlieb, Evelyn W. Farber, Josephine C. Solomon, Ruth B. Gordon, Cora S. Cronemeyer, Gloria H. Count, Bella D. Uranson, Claire L. Labbie, Hilda L. Pearlman, Vincent H. Arkell, Sylvia K. Lawrence, and Doris M. Graham. The section on Agricultural Occupations was prepared in the Bureau of Agricultural Econom ics, United States Department of Agriculture, by Robert C. Tetro, with the assistance of A. B. Genung. The reports were reviewed by C. P. Heisig, N. W. Johnson, E. L. Langsford, H. L. Stewart, C. R. Crickman, K. L. Bachman, O. L. Minuns, Merton S. Parsons, Wesley Middaugh, and W. D. Goodsell of the Bureau's staff. The reports credited to the Women’s Bureau, United States Department of Labor were pre pared by Marguerite W. Zapoleon and Mildred Dougherty. The chapter on Putting the Handbook to Work was prepared by Harry A. Jager, Chief, Occupa IV tional Information and Guidance Service, Office of Education, Federal Security Agency. The Occupational Analysis Branch, United States Employment Service, gave advice and as sistance in the preparation of the handbook, par ticularly on matters of occupational classification and descriptions of occupations. The photographs credited to the United States Department of Labor, most of which were taken by James B. Lindley of the Visual Services Sec tion, Labor Standards Bureau, are by courtesy of the Washington Institute of Mental Hygiene; Creel Brothers, Inc., Washington, p . C .; Abbott School of Fine and Commercial Art, Washington, D. C .; Washington Refrigeration Co., Washing ton, D. C.; Star Radio Co., Washington, D. C .; Pirrone & Wolter, Washington, D. C .; National Institute of Cleaning and Dyeing, Silver Spring, M d.; Kinsman Optical Co., Washington. D. C.; Hoffman Upholsterers and Interior Decorators, Washington, D. C.; Holzbeierlein & Sons. Inc., Washington, D. C .; Marcliant Calculating Machine C o.; National Cash Register C o.; Remington Rand, In c.; Judd & Detweiler, Inc.; Mercury Press, In c.; and George A. Simonds & Co. Photographs were also supplied by the Board of Education, City of New Y ork; Mellon Institute of Industrial Research. Pittsburgh, P a .; Trans World Airline; American Airlines; Reni Newsphoto Service; American Hotel Association; May flower Hotel, Washington, D. C.; Capital A ir lines; American Aviation Associates, Inc.; Nor folk & Western Railway; Santa Fe Railway; Southern Pacific Co.; Central High School of Needle Trades, New York City; and Common wealth Edison Co., Chicago, 111. Table of Contents P age Putting the handbook to w ork________________________________________________________________ 1 Guide to organization and use of han dbook____________________________________________________ H ow the information was obtain ed________________________________________________________ Grouping and definition of occupations____________________________________________________ Interpreting inform ation on number of workers in each occu pation _______________________ Interpreting inform ation on earnings______________________________________________________ H ow to obtain additional inform ation on local em ploym ent opportunities________________ Use of the index to occupational reports classified by broad fields of w ork_______________ H ow to obtain current inform ation______________________ Econom ic and occupational trends_____________________________________________________________ Population and labor fo rce _____________________________ : ___________________________________ Industrial and occupational trends_________________________________________________________ Occupational outlook reports: Professional, semiprofessional, and administrative occupations____________________________ Teaching field_________________________________________________________________________ M edical-service occu pation s___________________________________________________________ Engineering and other technical fields________________________________________________ Other professional, semiprofessional, and administrative occupations_________________ Clerical, sales, and service occupations____________________________________________________ H otel occupations_____________________________________________________________________ Restaurant occupations________________________________________________________________ Protective service occu pation s______________________________________ Other clerical, sales, and service occu pation s_________________________________________ Trades and industrial occupations_________________________________________________________ Construction trades___________________________________________________________________ Mechanics and repairmen_____________________________________________________________ M achine shop occupations________________________________ Foundry occupations__________________________________________________________________ Forge shop occupations________________________________________________________________ Other metalworking occupations______________________________________________________ Printing occupations___________________________________________________________________ Furniture manufacturing occupations_____________________________: ___________________ _ Fur m anufacturing occupations_______________________________________________________ Railroad occupations___________________ :______________________________________________ Other trades and industrial occupations_______________________________________________ Agricultural occupations: General outlook for farm ing___________________________________________________________ Northeast States__________________________________________________________________ Corn Belt States__________________________________________________________________ Lake States_______________________________________________________________________ Appalachian States_______________________________________________________________ Southeast States__________________________________________________________________ Mississippi Delta States__________________________________________________________ Oklahoma and Texas_____________________________________________________________ Northern Plains States___________________________________________________________ M ountain States__________________________________________________________________ Pacific States_____________________________________________________________________ Farm service job s_____________________________________________________________________ Index I — Occupational reports classified by broad fields of w ork _____________________________ Index II — Alphabetical index to occu pation s_________________________________________________ Occupations in the armed forces________________________________________________________________ 5 6 7 7 8 9 9 10 11 13 18 29 35 43 63 97 119 125 136 143 148 169 174 200 232 249 267 275 291 313 322 329 351 378 384 390 395 400 406 413 418 423 427 431 437 443 447 454 y List of Occupational Reports PROFESSION AL, SEM IPROFESSION AL, AND A D M IN ISTR A TIV E OCCUPATIONS Page T E A C H IN G F IE L D College and university teachers_______________ High school teachers__________________________ Kindergarten and elementary school teachersPhysical education instructors________________ M E D IC A L -S E R V IC E O C C U PA TIO N S Physicians_____________________________________ Dentists_______________________________________ Pharmacists___________________________________ Registered professional nurses-------------------------Veterinarians__________________________________ M edical laboratory technicians-----------------------Optom etrists__________________________________ Chiropractors__________________________________ M edical X -ra y technicians------------------------------Occupational therapists_______________________ Physical therapists____________________________ M edical record librarians______________________ Dental hygienists______________________________ E N G IN E E R IN G 35 37 38 40 AND OTHER 43 45 47 49 51 52 53 55 56 57 58 60 61 T E C H N IC AL FIELD S Civil engineers________________________________ Electrical engineers____________________________ M echanical engineers--------------------------------------Chemical engineers------------------------------------------M ining engineers---------------------------------------------Metallurgical engineers________________________ Industrial engineers-----------------------------------------Ceramic engineers-------------------------------------------Chemists______________________________________ A rchitects_____________________________________ Industrial designers-----------------------------------------T ool designers_________________________________ 63 65 67 68 69 71 . 72 73 74 77 78 79 E N G IN EE R IN G AND OTHER TE C H N IC AL Page F I E L D S — Continued D raftsm en_____________________________________ M eteorologists_________________________________ Weather observers_____________________________ R adio operators (telephone and telegraph industry)____________________________________ Ship radio operators___________________________ Radio operators (broadcasting)-----------------------Flight radio operators_________________________ Ground radio operators and teletypists (air transportation)______________________________ Airplane pilots________________________________ N avigators (air transportation)_______________ OTHER P R O FE SSIO N A L, S IO N A L, AND 80 82 84 85 86 87 88 90 92 94 S E M I PROFES A D M IN IS T R A T IV E OCCU P A T IO N S A ccou n tants___________________________________ Insurance underwriters________________________ Interior decorators____________________________ Photographers___________________________________ Com mercial artists______________________________ Furniture designers______________________________ Fur designers____________________________________ Lawyers_________________________________________ Social w orkers___________________________________ Personnel workers_____________________________ Librarians_______________________________________ Newspaper reporters and editors______________ Radio announcers_______________________________ Funeral directors and em balm ers_______________ Dispatchers and assistants (air transportation)Airport and air-route traffic controllers_________ 96 97 98 100 101 102 103 104 106 107 109 110 111 113 114 116 CLERICAL, SALES, AND SERVICE OCCUPATIONS HOTEL O C C U PA TIO N S Front-office clerks (hotels)_________ _ . __ Bellman and baggage porters--------------------------Bell captains and head baggage porters_______ Superintendents of service (hotels)-----------------H otel housekeepers and assistants------------------H otel managers and assistants________________ P R O T E C T IV E S E R V IC E O C C U PA TIO N S 127 128 130 131 132 133 R E S T A U R A N T O C C U PA TIO N S Restaurant and cafeteria managers----------------Cooks and chefs_______________________________ Waiters and waitresses________________________ Beverage-service workers______________________ 135 137 139 140 Policem en_____________________________________ D etectives_____________________________________ Federal police and detectives_________________ F B I agents____________________________________ OTHER C L E R IC A L , SALES, AND 142 143 144 145 SE R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S Secretaries, stenographers, and typists________ Bookkeepers___________________________________ Stock and stores clerks (air transportation)___ Traffic agents and clerks (air transportation)-, General-insurance agents and brokers_________ vn 147 148 150 151 152 O C C U P A T IO N A L VIII OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K List of Occupational Reports— Continued CLERICAL, SALES, AND SERVICE OCCUPATIONS— Continued OTHER CL E R IC A L , SALES, A N D S E R V IC E page Life-insurance agents____________________________ Autom obile parts salesmen______________________ Filling-station attendants, managers, and owners________________________________________ Barbers__________________________________________ SE R V IC E Page Beauty operators______________________________ Hospital attendants___________________________ Practical nurses_____________ Airplane hostesses_____________________________ Flight stewards________________________________ 159 160 162 163 165 OTHER C L E R IC A L , SALES, AND O C C U P A T I O N S — Continued O C C U P A T I O N S — C o n t in u e d 153 155 156 158 TRAD ES AND IN D U STR IA L OCCUPATIONS C O N STR U C T IO N M A C H I N E S H O P O C C U P A T I O N S — Con. TRADES Carpenters_____________________________________ Painters_______________________________________ Bricklayers____________________________________ Electricians, construction_____________________ Paperhangers__________________________________ Plumbers and pipe fitters_____________________ Plasterers______________________________________ Sheet-metal w orkers___________________________ Structural and ornamental metal workers_____ Construction machinery operators____________ Glaziers________________________________________ M E C H A N IC S A N D 175 177 179 180 183 185 188 190 192 195 196 R E P A IR M E N Autom obile mechanics________________________ Diesel mechanics______________________________ Industrial machinery repairm en_______________ Airplane mechanics____________________________ Flight engineers_______________________________ Electrical-household-appliance servicem en____ Electrical repairmen___________________________ Refrigerator servicemen and refrigeration and air-conditioning mechanics__________________ Radio servicemen______________________________ Electronic technicians (commercial and indus trial servicing)______________________________ Electronic technicians (electronics manufactur in g)_________________________________________ Radar technicians_____________________________ Typewriter servicemen________________________ Adding machine servicem en___________________ Calculating machine servicem en______________ Cash register servicem en______________________ Accounting-statistical machine servicemen____ Accounting-bookkeeping machine servicemen__ Gunsmiths_____________________________________ Shoe repairm en .______________________________ W atch repairmen______________________________ Jewelry repairmen_____________________________ 198 200 201 202 204 206 207 208 210 212 213 214 215 217 218 219 221 222 224 225 226 228 M A C H IN E SH O P O C C U PA TIO N S All-round machinists__________________________ T ool and die makers__________________________ Engine-lathe operators________________________ Turret-lathe operators________________________ Grinding-machine operators___________________ Milling-machine operators_____________________ 234 236 238 239 241 242 Shaper operators______________________________ Set-up men (machine sh op)______________ Lay-out men (machine sh op )__________________ 243 244 245 F O U N D R Y O C C U P A TIO N S Hand molders_________________________________ Machine molders______________________________ Hand coremakers______________________________ Machine coremakers__________________________ Patternmakers_________________________________ Chippers and grinders (fou ndry)______________ Castings inspectors____________________________ Melters (fou n dry)_____________________________ Foundry technicians___________________________ 251 253 255 257 258 260 261 262 264 FOR G E SH O P O C C U P A TIO N S D rop hammer operators_______________________ Hammersmiths________________________________ Forging-press operators___________________ Upsetters (forgin g)_______ Heaters, forge_________________________________ OTHER 266 267 269 270 271 M E T A L W O R K IN G O C C U PA TIO N S Assemblers, bench (machinery manufacturing) _ Assemblers, floor (machinery m anufacturing).. Inspectors, machinery parts___________________ Arc and gas welders___________________________ Resistance welders_____________________________ Acetylene burners_____________________________ Boilermakers________________ Riveters, pneumatic (m anufacturing)_________ Blacksmiths___________________________________ M illwrights____________________________________ 273 275 276 278 280 282 283 284 285 286 P R IN T IN G O C C U P A TIO N S Hand compositors and typesetters_____________ Linotype operators____________________________ M onotype keyboard operators________________ M onotype caster operators____________________ Proofreaders. __________________________________ Electrotypers and stereotypers__ _____________ Photoengravers________________________________ Rotogravure photoengravers__________________ Lithographic occupations______________________ Printing pressmen and assistants______________ Bookbinders___________________________________ Bindery workers_______________________________ 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 306 308 309 L IS T OF O C C U P A T IO N A L REPORTS IX List of Occupational Reports— Continued TRADES AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS— Continued F U R N IT U R E OCCUPA- Page TIONS Cabinetmakers________________________________ W ood turners (furniture)______________________ W ood carvers and spindle carvers_____________ Furniture woodworking machine operators___ Furniture assemblers__________________________ Furniture finishers_____________________________ Furniture finishing-room workers_____________ Upholsterers___________________________________ M A N U FA C T U R IN G 312 313 313 314 315 316 317 318 F U R M A N U F A C T U R I N G O C C U P A T IO N S Fleshers (fur dressing)-------------------------------------Fur blenders___________________________________ Fur craftsmen (manufacturing)_______________ Furriers, retail trade__________________________ 320 321 322 324 R A I L R O A D O C C U P A T IO N S Locom otive firemen and helpers_______________ Locom otive engineers_________________________ Brakemen (railroads)__________________________ Conductors (railroads)________________________ Train baggagemen_____i ______________________ Hostlers (railroads)____________________________ Switch tenders (railroads)_____________________ Telegraphers and telephoners (railroads)______ Towermen (railroads)_________________________ Station agents (railroads)--------------------------------Clerks (railroads)______________________________ 331 332 333 335 336 336 337 338 340 341 342 O C C U P A T I O N S — Continued Page Redcaps____________________________ 343 Carmen (railroads)______________________________ 344 Bridge and building mechanics (railroads)____ 346 Signalmen and signal maintainers (railroads) __ 347 R A IL R O A D OTHER TRADES AN D IN D U S T R IA L OCCU P A T IO N S Electroplaters_________________________________ Plastics molding machine operators_____________ Finishing jobs (plastics m oldin g)_______________ Bakers___________________________________________ Meat cutters__________________________________ M old makers (glass)____________________________ M old makers (structural clay produ cts)______ Painters, spray__________________________________ Blasters and pow derm en________________________ Chainmen, rodmen, and axmen_______________ D ry cleaners___________________________________ Spotters (dry cleaning)__________________________ Jewelry workers_______________________________ Dental m echanics_____________________________ Optical mechanics (ophthalm ic)_______________ Precision optical w orkers________________________ W atch and clock factory workers_____________ Linemen, electric light and pow er----------------------Telephone installers, repairmen, and linemen Central office equipment installers, telephone— Armature w inders_______________________________ 349 351 352 354 355 356 357 358 359 361 362 363 364 366 367 368 370 371 372 373 374 AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS NORTHEAST STATES Dairy farm s_____ - --------------------------------------Fruit and berry farm s_________________________ Poultry farm s_________________________________ T obacco farm s________________________________ Vegetable farm s_______________________________ Resort farm s__________________________________ Part-time farm s_______________________________ L A K E S T A T E S — Continue d 382 383 384 385 385 386 837 CORN B E L T S T A T E S Corn-livestock farm s__________________________ Cash grain farm s__________________ Dairy farm s___________________________________ Fruit and vegetable farm s------------------------------Poultry farm s________ . ------------------------------------General farm s--------------------Part-time farm s_______________________________ 388 388 389 390 391 391 392 LAK E STATES Dairy farm s___________________________________ Crop specialty farm s__________________________ Fruit farm s________________________ Livestock cash grain farm s-----------------------------Poultrv farm s_________________________________ 393 393 394 394 395 Vegetable farm s_______________________________ General farm s_________________________________ Part-time farm s_______________________________ 396 396 397 A P P A L A C H IA N STATES T obacco farm s________________________________ Fruit farm s____________________________________ Poultry farm s_________________________________ Livestock farm s_______________________________ Cotton farm s__________________________________ Peanut farm s__________________________ Vegetable farm s_______________________________ D airy farm s___________________________________ General farm s_________________________________ Part-time farm s_______________________________ 398 398 399 399 400 400 401 401 402 403 SOUTHEAST STATES Cotton farm s__________________________________ Peanut and pecan farms_________ General-livestock farm s_______________________ D airy farm s______________________ Fruit farm s____________________________________ Poultry farm s_________________________________ T obacco farm s________________________________ 404 405 406 407 408 408 409 O C C U P A T IO N A L X OUTLOOK HANDBOOK List of Occupational Reports— Continued AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS—Continued S O U T H E A S T S T A T E S — Continued Vegetable farms_______________________________ Part-time farm s_______________________________ Page 409 410 M IS S IS S IP P I D ELTA STA TE S Cotton farm s__________________________________ Fruit farm s____________________________________ Truck farm s___________________________________ D airy farm s___________________________________ Poultry farm s_________________________________ Rice farm s_____________________________________ Sugarcane farm s_______________________________ Pecan farm s___________________________________ Part-time farm s_______________________________ OKLAHOMA AND 411 411 412 413 413 414 414 415 415 TEXAS Cash grain farm s______________________________ C otton farm s__________________________________ Range livestock farm s_________________________ D airy farm s___________________________________ Fruit farm s____________________________________ Peanut and pecan farm s______________________ Poultry farm s_________________________________ Vegetable farm s_______________________________ Part-time farm s_______________________________ 416 416 417 418 418 419 419 420 420 N O RTH ERN P LA IN S ST A TE S Cash grain farm s______________________________ Cash grain-livestock farm s____________________ Range livestock farm s_________________________ D airy farm s___________________________________ General farm s_________________________________ Part-time farm s_______________________________ 421 421 422 423 423 424 M O U N T A IN STATES Cash grain farm s______________________________ Range livestock farm s_________________________ Irrigated farm s________________________________ D airy farm s___________________________________ Vegetable farm s_______________________________ Part-time farm s_______________________________ 425 426 427 427 428 428 PACIFIC STATES P age' Fruit farm s______________________________________ 429 Vegetable farm s_________________________________ 429 Irrigated farm s__________________________________ 431 Range livestock farm s___________________________ 431 Cash grain farm s______________________________ 432 D airy farm s_____________________________________ 432 Poultry farm s____________________________________ 433 Part-time farm s_________________________________ 434 F A R M S E R V I C E JOBS Whitewashing service___________________________ 435 Feed grinding____________________________________ 435 Fruit spraying___________________________________ 435 Fruit caretaker service__________________________ 435 Grain elevator jo b s ______________________________ 435 M obile blacksmith shop_____________________ 436 Garage and repair shop_________________________ 436 Electrical service________________________________ 436 Artificial insem ination___________________________ 436 Cow testers______________________________________ 436 Carpenters_______________________________________ 436 M obile repair sh op____________________________ 437 Custom machine w ork __________________________ 437 Livestock trucking______________________________ 437 Recreation jo b s__________________________________ 437 Well drilling_____________________________________ 437 Airplane dusting o f crops________________________ 437 M obile grocery store____________________________ 438 Chick hatchery__________________________________ 438 Small poultry dressing plant____________________ 438 Country butcher________________________________ 438 Sheep shearing__________________________________ 438 Salesman of farm supplies_______________________ 438 Livestock trader and bu yer_____________________ 438 Kennels__________________________________________ 438 Landscape gardening____________________________ 439 Farm appraisers_________________________________ 439 General farm service____________________________ 439 List of Charts Chart No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. Page Trends in tw o occupations, 1870 to 1940____________________________________ ___________________________________ 11 Population growth is slowing dow n______________________________________________________________________________ 14 Proportion of older people in population is increasing__________________________________________________________ 15 Differences in labor force participation by age and sex, M arch 1940___________________________________________ 16 Prospective labor force changes, by State, 1940-50_____________________________________________________________ 17 Rapid growth of nonfarn occupations__________________________________________________________________________ 19 Labor force, employm ent, and unemployment, 1929 to 1947___________________________________________________ 20 M ajor industries (em ploym ent, 1947)___________________________________________________________________________ 21 M ajor manufacturing industries (em ploym ent, 1947)___________________________________________________________ 22 Production workers in manufacturing (em ploym ent, 1929-47)_________________________________________________ 23 Employees in major nonmanufacturing industries (1 9 3 9 -4 7 )___________________________________________________ 24 M ajor occupation groups (em ploym ent, April 1947)____________________________________________________________ 25 Occupational trends, 1910-1940_________________________________________________________________________________ 27 M ajor professional occupations (em ploym ent, 1940)____________________________________________________________ 28 Growth of professional and semiprofessional occupations_______________________________________________________ 30 Em ploym ent in professional occupations (1 9 4 0 -4 7 )_____________________________________________________________ 30 M ajor semiprofessional occupations (em ploym ent, 1940)_______________________________________________________ 32 Em ploym ent in semiprofessional occupations (1 9 4 0 -4 7 )________________________________________________________ 33 Em ploym ent in administrative occupations (1 9 4 0 -4 7 )__________________________________________________________ 33 M ajor medical-service occupations (em ploym ent, 1947)________________________________________________________ 42 Em ploym ent in clerical occupations (1 9 4 0 -4 7 )__________________________________________________________________ 118 M ajor clerical occupations (em ploym ent, 1940)____________________________________________________________ ^___ 119 M ajor sales occupations (em ploym ent, 1940)___________________________________________________________________ 120 Em ploym ent in sales occupations (1 9 4 0 -4 7 )____________________________________________________________________ 121 M ajor service occupations (em ploym ent, 1940)_________________________________________________________________ 122 Em ploym ent in service occupations (except domestic) (1940-1947)____________________________________________ 123 Em ploym ent in domestic service occupations (1 9 4 0 -4 7 )____________________________________________________________ 123 M ost of the hotel workers are in the few large h otels___________________________________________________________ 124 Restaurant and housekeeping employees are largest groups of hotel workers____________________________________ 125 M ajor groups o f skilled workers (em ploym ent, 1940)-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------168 Em ploym ent in skilled occupations (1 9 4 0 -4 7 )-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------169 Em ploym ent in semiskilled occupations (1 9 4 0 -4 7 )---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------171 Em ploym ent in unskilled occupations (1 9 4 0 -4 7 )________________________________________________________________ 171 M ajor building trades occupations (em ploym ent, 1940)________________________________________________________ 172 Metalworking industries have most of the machine shop jobs (em ploym ent, 1947)______________________________ 231 Em ploym ent in metalworking is at a peacetime high-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------232 M ajor machine shop occupations (em ploym ent, 1947)___________________________________________________________ 232 Six states have three-fifths of the machine shop jo b s ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------233 The number of foundry jobs is far above prewar________________________________________________________________ 248 M ajor foundry occupations (em ploym ent, 1947)-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------249 Four States have nearly half of the foundry job s_______________________________________________________________ 250 Newspaper and jo b shops em ploy most printing workers_______________________________________________________ 288 A general picture of the flow of work in printing_______________________________________________________________ 290 M ajor printing occupations (employm ent, 1940)_______________________________________________________________ 294 Brakemen, clerks, and section men are largest groups of railroad workers_______________________________________ 328 Prices received and paid by farmers (1 9 10 -48)_________________________________________________________________ 376 State groupings for reports on agricultural occupations--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------377 XI Occupational Outlook Handbook Putting the Handbook to Work The counselor or teacher who examines this handbook for the first time may make enthusiastic plans for its use in his classroom or at his desk. Yet in employing the handbook primarily either as a text or as an immediate source of reference, the teacher, the counselor, or the counselor trainer may overlook its real value. Perhaps the two points about the occupational field which most readily elude the counselor or teacher concern the extremely fluid character of occupational factors and the relative nature of all occupational data. Many books detailing occupational facts are ob solete nearly from the time they appear in print. Individual occupations may be destroyed in the wake of a new invention. Whole areas may no longer offer certain types of opportunity because o f such unpredictable matters as a change in freight rates or the invention and promotion of a substi tute product. The ebb and flow of prosperity in 6 months can throw scores of thousands of persons engaged in a luxury trade out of work or can, on the other hand, create a demand for a skill hereto fore perhaps not even known. The relative nature of occupational information implies that no bald statement should be made about the characteristics of a particular job, or the opportunity presented by a group of occupations. Such statements are valid only when they have been related to geography, locale, and above all to the traits of the individual prospective worker. Mis takes arising from ignoring this principle have plagued the counselor and the counselee ever since counseling has been a profession. For these reasons the handbook can be of unique assistance to the person who is teaching occupations or who is counseling on vocational problems. The fact that it describes 288 specific occupations under diverse headings reveals the special nature of its occupational treatment. The details o f each occu pation must be filled in by the teacher or counselor from other sources of information about employ ment conditions, the local scene, and the individual who is studying his personal problems. The 288 occupations are keys to nearly 30,000 descriptive terms which fill the “ Dictionary of Occupational Titles” and which are representative of the great bulk of occupations in this country. The two fac tors of suggestiveness and comprehensiveness make the book valuable in helping to fill a known void. The main value of this handbook for the teacher or counselor lies in its orientation. For such users the most important parts of this publication in many respects are the preliminary chapters and the introduction to each of its main and subordin ate report sections. The brief statements on trends and interpretations contain the material most lack ing in the background of many potential users of the book, especially those who have not had the benefit of a comprehensive course in occupational information. From these statements emerges a concept o f the fluid nature o f occupational data. These trends are dependent on many factors in American life that require hard study if they are to be understood. At the same time the reader realizes that certain trends may be seen, and that a reasonable amount of confidence in the prediction as to the future of specific occupational fields may be justified. Because these trends are stated in guarded terms the reader is constantly referred to a study of local and specific conditions as a correc tive for jumping at conclusions. For the counselee the value of the handbook lies in its contribution to his long-term planning. A common problem for the pupil in high school or the student in college is that of looking ahead from 3 to 10 years in order to map out a career in which he can take full advantage of his personal traits 1 2 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK on the one hand and o f occupational opportunities on the other. For this purpose an occupational brief or description has relatively little value. It is perspective which counts. I f the individual, therefore, is trying to solve a vocational problem which includes such things as preliminary training, apprenticeship, college work, professional training, internship, an entry occupation, and perhaps mi gration, he must be concerned with trends. He must have an outlook which includes a reasonable prediction as to what the conditions of employment in a field of work may be 5 or 10 years ahead. Whether the handbook may be used directly for study by the counselee is a question which depends a good deal upon his maturity and ability to under stand abstract ideas. For the counselor who works with the individual, however, the handbook pro vides the basic material from which he can devise simpler means for presenting the facts. The com prehensive series o f charts may help. Some restatement in terms o f the interests o f young people in a specific school or the industries found in their locality may be devised by the counselor on the basis of the sound principles of the hand book. At least it may be said that for career plan ning the ideas in the handbook are indispensable. Such ideas must enter into the counseling interview or into the study which the counselee may pursue at the suggestion of the counselor who is helping him. The high-school class in occupations is another potential user of the handbook. Here again the teacher is limited by the range of ability in the class and the difficulty which abstract ideas present to perhaps the majority of high-school pupils. It it suggested that the principles contained in the study of trends may be taught best through the study of some specific problem. The town itself may be affected by a crucial trend which is upsetting its entire economy. It may be a northern city dependent on a textile industry which is steadily moving south. The high school may be in a region where some agricultural product such as cotton is the main source of revenue, and pupils may then study what is happening already to cotton-raising in specific communities because of new machinery, a change in markets, and the buying habits of the public. The prosperity o f another city may be tied up with mining or some HANDBOOK other industry threatened by depletion or new processes. A new plant which has the capacity o f employing a considerable portion of available labor in the community may come upon the scene. It may also attract many workers from elsewhere, with the inevitable effects of increasing the popula tion and the opportunities of every nature which a larger population creates. There may be excel lent examples locally of professional specialization in engineering, for instance, or in medicine. There can scarcely be any community in which the rapid increase in the use of deep-freeze cabinets and tele vision sets, for example, has not created new em ployment opportunities for men skilled in installa tion and maintenance. All of the projects suggested above exemplify one phase or another of the problems treated in the handbook. To the person teaching the class the handbook reveals the important aspects of out look information which must be illustrated in the occupations class if the pupils are to view their problems with sufficient perspective to get away from the immediate job and the oversimplified facts of a job description. The handbook, of course, also supplies specific resources. Among these are graphic charts which may be reproduced in wall size or which may be used as models for charts about local facts and trends secured by members of the class or from local sources. The 288 reports on separate occupa tions may serve the double purpose of providing a reference illustrative of almost every field o f work, and also a model for some similar attempt to study the occupational outlook in a phase of local com merce or industry. For the counselor trainer the handbook provides an indispensable tool. The new stress in counselor training is on competencies. Competency in the occupational phase of the counselor’s work includes his ability to move from the general to the partic ular or vice versa. He must be concerned with trends which are Nation-wide in their significance and their relationship to any immediate problem of a counselee. He must on the other hand be able to help interpret the counselee’s ambitions in terms of the long view. Brief treatments of such mat ters as the ratio of openings in a field of occupa tions, the effect of population gain or loss on jobs available to young people, the ascertainable flow P U T T IN G THE HANDBOOK of migration suggest projects to the counselor trainer for individual study. In the field of occu pational information it is important to encourage and develop the concepts that occupational data are always fluid and always relative in nature, con cepts which have already been mentioned as among the important but too often missing knowledges in the counselor’s equipment. On page 5 the handbook disclaims any treatment of a list of many topics commonly included in the general textbook on occupations. This fact alone calls attention to its concentration in the field o f outlook and enables the counselor trainer to give more definition to his study of a neglected area. Occupational data are composed of a fast chang TO W ORK 3 ing stream of facts. Invention, production, migra tion, war, peace, the role of women, prosperity, de pression, mechanization, obsolescence, legal enact ments, management and labor agreements, adver tising, birth rate, turnover, and most of all the ambitions, abilities, and the restless spirit of man— all those and more are among the elements in this ceaseless flow. The stream of facts must be ex pressed as trends, and the point of view of the observer as outlook. To these considerations this volume directs the attention of the professional guidance worker. H arry A. J ager, Chief Occupational Information and Guidance Service Office of Education, Federal Security Agency Guide to Organization and Use of Handbook This handbook is primarily a summary of the results and conclusions of recent studies of em ployment trends and long-range outlook in nearly 300 occupations of interest in vocational guidance. Following the introduction and a summary of trends in population, labor force, industries, and occupations, the major part of the book consists of individual reports on each occupation. The reports are grouped into four sections, each pref aced by a summary of the major occupation fields: Professional, semiprofessional, and administra tive occupations; clerical, sales, and service occu pations; trades and industrial occupations; and agricultural occupations. Within these sections, the occupations are fur ther grouped by industry or field, with a brief introduction to each which points out the major characteristics and significant trends in the in dustry. The chapters introducing each major group show the occupations in perspective and in relation to each other. The individual reports summarize recent trends and outlook, together with the latest available data on earnings, on the kind of training and preparation required, on the background of the occupation, on the nature of the work, and the places in which members of the occupation are employed. The reports on ag ricultural occupations describe the major types of farms in 10 geographic regions, the kind of work involved, and the outlook. The 288 occupations included in this first edi tion of the handbook are largely those found by the Veterans Administration to be o f major in terest to veterans requesting guidance. They are primarily occupations requiring relatively long periods of training—either formal education or training on the job— since to young people consid ering such occupations the need for information on the outlook is most acute. The occupations were selected also for their relative importance as a source o f employment opportunity. Some smaller fields are included, however, either be cause there was special interest in them among veterans, or because reports on them could readily be prepared in the course of the study of the larger occupations in the same industry. These 288 occupations represent about 80 per cent of the employment opportunities in profes sional and semiprofessional occupations in the United States; 75 percent of those in skilled oc cupations; 40 percent in clerical occupations; 30 percent in service occupations; smaller proportions o f those in administrative, sales, and semiskilled fields; and the major types o f farming. Thus, although they represent only a small part of the total number of different occupations in the United States, they cover some of the major areas of interest to veterans or students who are plan ning to undertake long courses of training or ap prenticeship. This handbook may therefore be of service as a guide to the bewildering array of occu pations in the United States. Inevitably, many significant occupations could not be included in the first edition. In future edi tions reports on other occupations will be incorpo rated as rapidly as studies can be made, and the original reports will be revised to keep them up to date. Certain types of information are not included in this handbook because they are readily avail able from other sources. There is a wealth of material on job descriptions, labor-market reports, occupational analysis, and relationships among oc cupations ( “ job families” ) in the publications of the United States Employment Service.1 Counse lors will find a description of opportunities for women and problems of women workers in the publications of the Women’s Bureau, United States 1 G u i d e t o C o u n s e l i n g M a t e r i a l s , prepared by the U. S. Employ ment Service of the U. S. Department of Labor in cooperation with the U. S. Office of Education of the Federal Security Agency, 30 pp. W ashington, 1946 (2d edition). 5 793996 ° — 49- -2 6 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK Department of Labor.2 Information on employ ment problems of youth is published by the Child Labor Branch of the Wage and Hour and Public Contracts Divisions, United States Department of Labor.3 Information on opportunities and earn ings in each locality may be obtained from regional offices o f the Bureau of Labor Statistics, commu nity occupational surveys, or from occupational and labor-market reports of local offices of the State employment services. Apprenticeship stand ards in different occupations are presented in pub lications of the Bureau of Apprenticeship, United States Department o f Labor.4 Directories and guides o f schools or colleges are listed in a recent publication of the United States Office of Educa tion.5 The United States Department of Agriculture and the various State departments of agriculture publish information on opportunities in farming.6 For those who are interested in opening a small business, the United States Department of Com merce has published a series of booklets describ ing the problems involved in establishing and operating various types of businesses.7 How the Information Was Obtained Anyone who is trying to provide information on which young people can make a decision about courses of training and lifetime careers must try to look forward at least several years, and if possi ble several decades. When the Advisory Committee on Education 2 C u rre n t P u b lica tio n s o f th e W o m e n ’ s B u rea u , may be obtained free of charge from the W om en’s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor, W ashington 25, D. C. 3 C hild L a b o r and Y o u th E m p lo y m en t p u b lica tio n s , 3 pp., mimeo. M ay be obtained free of charge from the Child Labor Branch, W age and Hour and Public Contracts Divisions, U. S. Department of Labor, W ashington 25, D. C. 4 P u b lica tio n s o f th e D e p a r tm e n t o f L a b o r, U. S. Department of Labor, Office of Publications, Washington 25, D. C., January 1, 1948. Free. B W h a t S ch o o l o r C olleg e f by W alter J. Greenleaf. Misc. 3276, 4 pp. May be obtained free of charge from the U. S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Washington 25, D. C. 8 See, for example, S u g g e stio n s to P r o s p e c tiv e F a rm ers and S ou rces o f I n fo r m a tio n , 22 pp., multilithed, which may be ob tained free from the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, W ashington 25, D. C. 7 A copy of a list of the “ Establishing and Operating” Series may be obtained from the nearest field office of the U. S. Department of Commerce or from the Department, Washington 25, D. C. The nearest field office will also be able to supply copies of a series of small business aids which give information on such subjects as window displays and other topics of interest to small business firms. HANDBOOK recommended in 1938 that an Occupational Out look Service be established, it was recognized that the analysis of occupational trends and outlook was a largely unexplored field. It was expected that it would be some years before results would be available; much basic work would first have to be done. Nevertheless, it was pointed out that the need for facts is great. Each year 1y2 mil lion young people enter the labor force. Many of them choose a vocation on the basis o f no infor mation or partial information or even seriously inaccurate information. I f we can give these young people the best we have, even though it is not perfect, it will be of some help to them. The problems of evaluating employment out look are far from solved. From the point of view of job placement, for example, it would be extremely useful to be able to forecast changes in the level o f employment in the course of the business cycle. Important as this is, it is ex tremely difficult and hazardous. However, the long-run trend is more important than short-run fluctuations for appraising employment oppor tunities in connection with the individual’s choice of a lifetime occupation. In the Occupational Outlook research program, emphasis has been placed on appraising the effect upon employment opportunities of long-run changes in the level of employment in each in dustry and occupation. For practical purposes in guidance, the assumption of favorable general business conditions was made in each case; at the same time, the effect o f a business depression upon employment opportunities in the occupation is brought out. Some occupations suffer severely in depressions, while others have greater stability. As a result of the first 7 years of research, the Bureau has found that it is possible in most cases to discern the major trends and suggest the outlook some years in advance. Conclusions are necessarily far from precise but often accurate enough to answer satisfactorily the questions in the minds o f those preparing for a career. The methods o f appraising future demand and supply in each occupation which have been worked out on the basis of present experience differ greatly among occupations, since the factors af fecting the outlook for one are often quite d if ferent from those which affect another. G U ID E TO U SE In general, a number of lines of research are fol lowed. Analysis is made of the growth and chang ing composition o f the population; trends in technology; shifts in marketing and in the public’s demand for different goods and services; the changing occupational patterns of industries; trends in employment in the various industries; developments in industrial relations; provisions of collective bargaining agreements; wage rates in various occupations; and industrial hazards. Trends in the supply of workers in each occupa tion are determined by analysis of statistics on the number of young people in training in colleges or vocational schools or by apprenticeship for each occupation, and by study of the losses of workers to each occupation resulting from death, retire ment, or transfer to other occupations. In the course of each study, trends are discussed with officials of industry, unions, trade associa tions, and professional societies, and the reports are checked and reviewed by them before publica tion, to insure accuracy and to obtain the benefit of their judgment and intimate knowledge of their fields. The field of agricultural occupations is so broad that only a series of general statements about major types was prepared by the United States Department of Agriculture. The Department points out that even these statements are subject to wide variations within the areas discussed. Rapid changes in agricultural technology make it highly desirable for readers interested in agricul ture to check further with county and township advisory committees, land-grant colleges, and farm associations. The studies yielded much information of value in guidance in addition to the appraisal of the outlook for employment opportunities—such as trends in the type of training required by em ployers, the relative job security of the craftsman and the semiskilled worker, trends in licensure re quirements, or the steps one must take to assure that he can practice his profession in more than one State. This information is incorporated in the reports. How can the results of such studies be inter preted in the guidance of individuals? Neces sarily, conclusions must be stated in general terms: Employment opportunities will be relatively fa OF H A N D B O O K 7 vorable or relatively poor. It is the task of the individual, aided by the counselor or teacher, to match his personal interests and abilities against the demands of the occupation and the competitive situation which may be expected. Grouping and Definition of Occupations The occupational reports in this handbook are grouped, for the most part, according to the classi fications used by the Bureau of the Census and in the Dictionary o f Occupational Titles. In some cases, however, an occupation was placed outside its major group so that it could be included with the other occupations to which it is most closely related in practice. For example, railroad con ductors are classified as a managerial or official oc cupation by both the Census Bureau and in the Dictionary; but in order to become a conductor one must be promoted from the occupation of railroad trainman, and it therefore seemed more suitable for the purpose of this handbook to place the re port on conductors with other railroad occupa tions. These departures from the Dictionary and Census classifications were made only when it helped to clarify the story from the point of view o f guidance. To define what is covered by each occupational report, the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (“ D. O. T.” ) code number is given under the title. In some instances the occupation as it is discussed here includes more than one occupation as defined in the Dictionary. This was found to be the best way to describe the field from the point of view of guidance because of the close relationship of the occupations in actual practice. Often it was found more meaningful to discuss the semiskilled and the skilled levels in a single type of occupation together because a worker de velops his skill gradually and the transition from one level to the other is not sudden or clear-cut. Interpreting Information on Number o f Workers in Each Occupation The handbook gives figures on employment in each field wherever possible, both in charts and text, because the most useful single clue to the prospective employment opportunities in each oc cupation is the number of workers employed in it. Some occupations are growing; but rarely does an occupation grow so rapidly that the number of 8 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK new positions opening up each year is as great as the number of vacancies which arise as workers leave the occupation. Even occupations which are declining in size offer employment opportunities to many young people each year because of this turn-over. The majority of the job openings are due to the deaths, retirements, and transfers of workers to other fields. Death and retirement rates vary among occupa tions, depending on many factors, including the nature of the occupation and the ages of workers employed in it. Carpenters, for example, are an older group of workers than automobile me chanics, on the average, because carpentry is an occupation of long standing, in which few young men were apprenticed in the depression years, whereas automobile repair work has existed for only a few decades and has grown rapidly, and has taken in many young men. As a result of this difference in the workers’ ages, the rate of death and retirement for carpenters (of whom there were 766,000 in 1940) is about 3 percent a year, while that for the automobile and other mechanics (of whom there were 974,000 in 1940) is only half as much; and therefore the number of mechanics and repairmen who die or retire each year is less than two-thirds as many as the number of car penters. For most occupations in which men are em ployed the death and retirement rate varies from 1 percent to 3y2 percent a year. The rate is usually somewhat higher in women’s occupations because so many women leave to get married; for ex ample, as many as 6 percent a year leave the nurs ing profession, according to a study by the Women’s Bureau. To make it possible to estimate the number of jobs which open up annually in each occupation because of deaths and retirements, the Occupa tional Outlook Service is developing tables of working life expectancy, similar to the actuarial life tables used by insurance companies as a basis for their premium and benefit rates. These tables have been used wherever possible in preparing the occupational reports in this handbook. Jobs in each occupation open up also as workers transfer to other types of work. Little is now known about the movement of workers among oc cupations, but research is continuing on the prob HANDBOOK lems of measuring this significant aspect of replacement needs. Interpreting Information on Earnings Few people make an occupational choice solely on the basis of how much money they may be able to earn, but most people do want to have some idea o f the earnings to be expected in the various occu pations they are considering. For this reason, earnings information is given, insofar as possible, for each occupation in this handbook. Most of the information on earnings comes from the surveys of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. In some occupational reports, other government or private sources were used. The most recent information available on each occupation is reported, and the date of the survey is given. Where the earnings given are on an hourly or weekly basis, the reader may want to estimate roughly what the amount would be on a yearly basis by taking into account the information given on seasonality or irregularity of work. Similarly, when the worker receives tips or wages in kind— such as meals or lodging— or has to pay for uni forms, these points are brought out. The significant thing to remember about the earnings information that can be given in so brief a report is that it reflects only an average and that, like every average, it conceals many variations. Earnings in an occupation may vary according to skill level, industry in which the worker is em ployed, size of plant, section of the country, and many other factors. Often earnings are different for men and women in the same occupation, or for workers in union shops and shops which do not have contracts with unions. Information on earnings in* a particular locality can often be obtained from the nearest regional office of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, or from employers, or union locals. The State employ ment service may have information on entry wages in some occupations. It is important to bear in mind that for guidance purposes an individual wishes to know what the earnings in each occupation will be several years from now, when he has completed his training and is ready to enter the occupation. This cannot be predicted, of course. Wage rates, salaries, and earnings change rapidly and so does the price level, which determines what a pay check will buy. The G U ID E TO USE earnings information we can give on each occupa tion is valuable, however, in suggesting the rela tive position of the occupation as compared to others: Is it a low-paying field, or one which pays about the average, or is it a field in which earnings have been consistently high? Wherever possible, trends in earnings are reported, so that the steadi ness or variability of earnings in the occupation is suggested. Ho w To Obtain Additional Information on Local Employment Opportunities While many veterans or students who are inter ested in choosing an occupation do not necessarily expect to find one in which they can work in their home community, there are some to whom this is an important consideration. Workers in certain occupations expect to move occasionally from one city to another to find employment or to get a better job. This is true, for example, of engineers, chemists, business executives, workers in the con struction trades and transportation industries, and many others. On the other hand, there are many occupations in which the workers are less attached to their field of work than to the city in which they live, and would choose an occupation only if they could be sure that there were local opportuni ties for employment. The occupational reports in this handbook give information on employment trends and outlook in the United States as a whole, and also briefly suggest the geographical distribution of employ ment opportunities. To get information on cur rent job opportunities and earnings for his own city or State the counselor should check with local sources. The local office of the State employment service regularly surveys employment opportunities in its area and often has available complete occupational briefs for important local jobs. For professional occupations the local branch of the national pro fessional society may be of some help. Similarly, the local office of a union will usually have infor mation on employment opportunities in its field. Through the chamber of commerce and the classi fied section of the telephone directory lists of spe cific firms in each type of business may be obtained. Finally, a more comprehensive source of infor mation on local opportunities would be a com OF H A N D B O O K 9 munity occupational survey. Information on how such surveys have been conducted in a number of cities is contained in a publication o f the United States Office of Education.8 Use of the Index to Occupational Reports Classi fied by Broad Fields o f Work Someone choosing an occupational field needs full knowledge o f the wide variety of occupations which may be open to a person with his specific interests and abilities. To widen the range of his choice, the counselor may want to call to his atten tion other occupations appropriate to his interests or abilities as shown in interest inventories, apti tude tests, hobbies, school grades, or in discussion with the counselor. For this purpose the counselor needs information on the occupations related to each broad type of work. As an aid in the counseling and placement of young workers, the United States Employment Service devised an Entry Occupational Classifica tion structure, published as part IV of the Dic tionary of Occupational Titles. This classifies fields of work, rather than specific occupations. For example, there are such fields as musical work, literary work, child care, metal machining, me chanical repairing, graphic art work, machine tending, and so forth. Specific occupations related to each field o f work are also shown. By using this information, it is possible to list a wide range of occupations which may be of interest to a per son with a given set of interests or aptitudes. The user of this handbook may identify the oc cupations described in the book which are related to each field by referring to the Index to Occupa tional Reports Classified by Broad Fields of Work, which begins on page 441. This index serves as a guide to the occupational reports included in the handbook, via the entry occupational classifica tions of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. For example, a person whose ability lies in the field o f artistic work may be interested in informa tion on the occupations of commercial artist, in dustrial designer, fur designer, furniture designer, interior decorator, or photographer. For addi tional occupations related to this field of work, the 8 Community Occupational Surveys by Marguerite Wykoff Zapoleon, U. S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Washington. (Out of print.) 10 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K counselor may wish to refer to part IY of the Dictionary. How To Obtain Current Information Revised editions o f the handbook will be issued from time to time to bring the information up to date and will include additional occupational re ports. Their publication will be announced by the Bureau o f Labor Statistics. The Bureau will be glad to place any user o f this handbook on its mail ing list to receive announcements of these and other publications in the Occupational Outlook series, and current releases summarizing the re sults of new studies. Anyone wishing to receive these announcements should send the request to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States De partment o f Labor, Washington 25, D. C. Persons living in a city in which postal zone numbers are in use are requested to include the number in the address. 1 Economic and Occupational Trends To the student learning about occupations, to the counselor engaged in explaining their intri cacies, or to the person seeking information on which to base his selection of a course of training or a career, it is important to understand one thing fu lly : the rapidly-changing nature of our eco nomic life. Constant change is the most significant aspect of the occupational and industrial world in which we live. Technological, industrial, and social changes increase the need for workers in some oc cupations, reduce the demand in others, sometimes create new occupations and throw old ones into the discard, and constantly alter the content and character of every line of work. The rapidity with which the occupational pic ture changes is illustrated in chart 1. In 1870 a young man may have considered the choice be tween apprenticing himself to a cooper or to a barber. Both were skilled trades, with long his torical traditions behind them. There were nearly twice as many coopers as barbers, indicating a somewhat broader choice of jobs and the need for more new workers each year. Yet, within the span of a man’s life, the number of people who made their living as barbers increased more than tenfold, while employment opportunities for coopers shrank to one-fifth of their previous number. What happened? With growth in population, a shift of population to cities, increases in aver age income, and changes in styles, the occupation of barber grew. On the other hand, the occupa tion of cooper declined as wooden barrels were dis placed for various uses by steel drums, aluminum C HAR T 1 TRENDS IN T W O O C C U P A T I O N S , 18 7 0 TO THOUSANDS I940 OF W O R K E R S 11 12 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK kegs, paper sacks, paperboard boxes, and other types of containers, and because of the introduc tion of factory methods in making wooden barrels. Thus, because of population growth, technologi cal improvements, social change, and the vagaries of fashion, one occupation grew tremendously, and the other fell into the discard. To the young person looking forward to a life time of work—and that means nearly half a cen tury—the fact that these changes occur is signifi cant. T o the best of our ability, we must try to anticipate the changes and provide as much infor mation on trends as is possible. Although we can not foresee nearly all that may happen, a real service will have been performed if young people are made aware o f the dynamic character of the economy, and if they are prepared to expect changes and to adjust to them. This means main taining the utmost flexibility and taking the broad est kind of training consistent with adequate preparation for a particular occupation. To emphasize the changing character of occupa tional life, as well as to provide background and context for the reports on trends and outlook in each occupation, the growth and changing com position of population and the labor force, the major trends in industry, and their effect on broad occupational trends will be reviewed in the next few pages. It should be noted first, however, that far greater than the changes shown by the growth of popula tion, the labor force, industries, and occupations are the changes in status of individuals. I f the labor force increases by one-half million in a HANDBOOK single year, it is because a million older workers died or retired and 1y2 million young people left the schools and went to work. But this is only a beginning. The number of changes made by in dividual workers from job to job within an indus try, between industries, from State to State, or from one occupation to another are much more numerous than the movements into and out of the labor force in any given year. In 1947 an average of about three-quarters o f a million manufacturing workers— 1 out of 20—left their jobs each month. In a 2^-year period during the war, over 7 mil lion civilian workers changed from one major occupation group to another. Between 1935 and 1940—in a peacetime period— more than 3 million workers had moved from one State to another, and another 4 million had moved from one county to another within a State. We have just begun in recent years to be able to measure the movements of individuals, and to appreciate the extent and significance of this type of economic change. These movements represent the adjustments people make to a changing en vironment. Without them the labor market could not function. It is likely that most young people in school now will want to make similar changes in the course of their working life, either to improve their posi tion, or because the change is forced upon them by loss of a job, poor health, or similar cause. This suggests once more the importance of flexibility in preparing for an occupation. P O P U L A T IO N AND LABOR FORCE 13 Population and Labor Force Population A basic factor underlying the occupational out look is the trend in population growth. Changes in the size and characteristics of the population in fluence the amount and types of goods which will be demanded at various times. They also have a direct bearing on the size of the labor force, and on the characteristics of the persons available for work. Until recent years, our history has been one of rapid population growth. The heavy influx of im migrants prior to World War I, the relatively high birth rate, and the constant reduction in mortality, all combined to increase our population rapidly from year to year. ( See chart 2.) Population growdh, in the past, was closely asso ciated with expanding economic opportunity. The growing size of our domestic market, com bined with the rapid gains in technology, provided the impetus for large-scale expansion of manufac turing, railroads, public utilities, construction, and other types of business. Employment opportuni ties grew apace. Although there were, of course, great differences in the rate of expansion among different occupations, there were very few trades or professions which did not record a substantial gain in number, from one decade to the next. In recent decades, however, there has been a slowing down in the rate of population growth. Restrictions on immigration as well as the long term down-trend in the birth rate have tended to reduce the net additions to the population. Dur ing the depression years of the 1930’s, in particular, there were sharp declines in the rates of marriages and births, reflecting the effect of unemployment and economic insecurity. As a result, the average annual rate of population increase dropped from 1.5 percent between 1920 and 1930, to only 0.7 percent in the following decade. The outbreak of World War II interrupted this down-trend. There was a sharp spurt in births during the early war years. After a brief slacken ing during 1944 and 1945, when millions of young men were overseas, the birth rate mounted to ex tremely high levels during the first two postwar years. A large part of the recent increase o f births is viewed as temporary, resulting from the consum mation of many marriages postponed by the de pression and the war, or moved ahead by favorable economic conditions. However, the marriage and baby “booms” have already had a significant im pact on employment trends, and will continue to influence the future occupational outlook. For example, the current high level of demand for con sumer goods of all sorts, has been due in no small part to the fact that many more families have had to be housed and more children fed and clothed. In the coming years, too, there will be a record demand for additional school facilities and teach ers, as the new generation moves through elemen tary schools, then high schools, and colleges. By 1953, the number of children of school-entry age (the 6-year olds) is expected to mount to 3,300.000, or two-fifths more than in 1945. The total ele mentary school population—those 6 to 13 years of age—will probably continue to grow till 1956, while the corresponding peak in high-school en tries is expected in the year 1961. Beyond the horizon of the next few years, the outlook is still, however, for a continuation of the long-term decline in population growth. Unless large-scale immigration is resumed, the size of the population is likely to level off within a few decades, and may even begin to decline. The transition from a period of rapid popula tion growth to a stable or even declining popula tion will carry with it very important implications for occupational outlook. It will tend to bring about significant shifts in our patterns of spend ing and saving, and in the distribution of workers among various industries and occupations. For example, with continued gains in productivity, a smaller proportion of our labor force will be needed for production of basic necessities, such as staple food items, and a greater proportion will be engaged in the production of those consumer goods and services which go with a higher stand ard of living. It will therefore become increas ingly important to assess the relative trends in different lines of work. A more stable population will also mean an 14 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K C HAR T 2 POPULATION GROWTH IS SLOWING DOWN M IL LIO N S OF P E R S O N S 1900 19 I 0 ' ’ 10'2 0 U N I T E D STATES D EP A RT ME NT OF L A BO R BU REA U OF L A BO R STATI STICS '20'3 0 '30'4 0 '4 0 '5 0 '5 0 ’ 60 '6 0 '7 0 '7 0 ‘ 80 '8 0 ‘ 90 !99020 00 Sourc*: U S. BU REA U OF THE C E N S U S P O P U L A T IO N AND older population. The long-run down-trend in the birth rate will reduce the relative influx of younger persons, while advances in medicine and sanitation will enable a greater proportion to live to older ages. The effect of these changes upon the composition of the population is shown in chart 3. By the end of this century more than 1 person out o f 8 will be 65 years or older, as com pared to 1 in 15 in 1940 and only 1 in 25 at the beginning of the century. As the aged become an increasingly large seg ment of the population, we can expect increasing demands for medical services, for institutions to care for the aged, and for those types of goods and services which meet their needs. Problems of social security and old age assistance will come more and more to the forefront. And, at the same time, we can expect increasing efforts to provide more ade quate employment opportunities for the older LABOR FORCE 15 worker, with emphasis on those occupations which are less exacting in their physical demands. The Labor Force Although the growth of total population has great importance in occupational outlook, we are more directly concerned with those persons in the population who work or seek employment. The “ labor force,” as we shall refer to it, includes not only employees, who work for wages or salaries, but also farmers, businessmen, the armed forces, and the unemployed. In the past, the growth of the labor force, from decade to decade, largely paralleled the increase of population. It expanded rapidly during the past half-century, from over 20 million in 1890 to 56 million in 1940. With the slowing down in population growth, there were corresponding de clines in the rate of increase of the labor force. Thus, during the decade 1920-30, the average an nual increase of the Nation’s work force was about 700.000, or 1.6 percent; in the decade of the thirties, the annual increase had dropped to less than 600.000, or 1.2 percent. Within the course of the next two decades, popu lation trends will play a decisive role in laborforce growth. Relatively small additions to the population of working age are expected until the late 1950’s because of the slump in marriages and births during the depression. In the following 10-year period, however, the very large generation of youths born during the war and the early post war years will join the working population, and there will be a sharp increase in labor-force growth. After the decade of the 1960’s the growth in the population of working age is again expected to slow down. The long-term slowing down in labor-force growth means that an increasing proportion of the new entrants into the labor market will repre sent replacements for those leaving because of death, retirement, or other reasons. In order to estimate prospective job openings in different oc cupations, the study of the age distribution of per sons at present in the occupation, and of other factors influencing the rate at which workers are likely to withdraw, will therefore become increas ingly important. Apart from over-all population trends, there have been significant changes in the extent to 16 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK which men and women of different ages have participated in the labor force. Almost all ablebodied adult men between the ages of 25 and 55 normally work or seek work. Over the years, there has, however, been a steady increase in the proportion of women working outside the home, while the proportion of workers among youth and among older persons has been declining. The proportion of workers in 1940 in the different age and sex groups of the population, 14 years o f age or over, is shown in chart 4. The movement o f women into gainful employ ment has resulted from a combination of forces. The shift of population to the cities and the in creased importance of the white-collar occupa tions, for example, resulted in a great expansion of employment opportunities for women. At the same time, the decline in the size of families and the introduction of labor-saving household devices made it possible for growing numbers of women to accept jobs outside the home. However, despite these gains in employment, we should note that only about one-third of all women aged 20 to 64 were actually in the labor force in 1947, and that the great majority of mar ried women, particularly those with small chil dren, still devote their full time to household work. With the increased application of science to house hold management and to child care, there is in HANDBOOK fact a growing need for adequate training in home economics and related fields, as well as along strictly vocational lines. In contrast to the trend for adult women work ers, the proportion of youth in the labor force has been declining. There has been a steady lengthen ing in the period of schooling, partly because of compulsory school-attendance laws, but mainly because our complex society has required a greater period of formal training. As a result of the war and of the high postwar level of job opportunities, there are currently relatively more teen-aged youth at work, and fewer in schools, than might be expected from prewar trends. On the other hand, large numbers of older veterans, who would normally be expected to be in the labor force, are currently attending schools and colleges under the provisions of the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (as amended), commonly known as the GI Bill of Rights. Within the next few years, as most of the veterans complete their courses, we can ex pect a renewal o f the trend toward longer school ing among the teen-age group. With the large po tential increase in the number of college gradu ates, advanced education will, in fact, become more important than ever before as a means of entry into the better-paid occupational fields. The proportion of older people, particularly those 65 and over, who were in the labor force C HART 4 D I F F E R E N C E S IN L A B O R F O R C E P A R T I C I P A T I O N BY AGE A ND SEX, M A R C H 1940 Women 100 25 0 0 P E R C E N T OF T O T A L P O P U L A T I O N In L o b o r Fo rc e U N I T E D STATES D E P A R TM E NT OF L A BO R BU REA U OF L A B O R STATI STI CS Men AGE G R O U P 25 1 00 IN E A C H AG E G R O U P EH Not in L a b o r Fo rc e > U S BU REAU OF T HE C E N SU S : P O P U L A T IO N AND liacl been declining before the war. Modern indus try, with its dilution of skills and emphasis on speed, offered very limited employment oppor tunities for the elderly. During periods of depres sion, the older workers were frequently the first to be laid off, and the last to be hired. Public and private programs for old age pensions and assist ance also had the effect of encouraging the retire ment of older workers. Although the number of older workers in the labor force was expected to increase with the aging of the population, the rise LABOR 17 FORCE Two important factors in the prospective labor force trends for the older wrnrker will therefore be, first, the general level of job opportunities and, second, the extent to which provision is made for more adequate old-age benefits. Regional Differences The national trends in population and laborforce growth may not, of course, be indicative of changes in a particular region or locality. In a Nation as large and diversified as the United PROSPECTIVE LABOR FORCE CHANGES, BY STATE 1 9 4 0 -1 9 5 0 INCREASE 25% OR MORE INCREASE 1 6 -2 4 % INCREASE 4 -1 5 % LESS THAN 4% OiRECTiON) \///\ was expected to be proportionately much less than for the population as a whole. The war, however, brought a sharp increase in employment opportunities for the older worker. Many elderly persons reentered the labor market, while others postponed their retirement. Even in the postwar period, the proportion of older workers has continued much higher than indicated by prewar trends. With jobs still available for them, large numbers of older men and women have preferred work to retirement. Moreover, in rela tion to current wage levels, old-age benefits pro vided under governmental or private pension pro grams now offer little financial incentive to retire. DECREASE 4% OR MORE States, there are bound to be geographic variations in the rates of population change, industrial de velopment, income levels, and in the many other factors which influence the growth of the labor force. The extent to which prospective labor-force growth, in each State, is likely to deviate from national trends for the period 1940-50 is shown in a recent study.9 It indicates that the working population on the Pacific Coast is growing at two or three times the national rate, whereas the labor 9 U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, State and Regional Variations in Prospective Labor Supply ; Bulletin No. 893. Price 15 cents. Washington : Superintendent of Docu ments, 1947. 18 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK force in the Great Plains area, stretching from North Dakota to Oklahoma, is actually beginning to decline (see chart 5). Between these two ex tremes are the South with a rate of growth about 25 percent above the national average and the great industrial region east of the Mississippi and north o f the Ohio where the labor force is grow ing at a rate about 25 percent below the national average. These regional variations are a product of a large volume of migration between the various States superimposed on great interstate differences in the rate of natural population growth. On the basis o f natural growth, the South with its pre dominance of rural areas and high birth rate, would have the fastest growing labor force in the Nation, but the actual growth is slowed down by movement of southerners to other regions where economic opportunities and income levels are more favorable. On the other hand, the Pacific Coast has by far the slowest rate of natural increase, but HANDBOOK the great inflow of migrants causes this area to have the fastest growing labor force. In the Great Plains States the natural rate of growth is about on a par with the national average, but the exodus of migrants from this area has halted labor-force growth and will probably cause a decline in the working population over the next few decades. The great interchange of population among the various regions of the country means that no one region, or locality, can attempt to evaluate its labor-supply prospects without regard to what is happening in the Nation as a whole. For example, a rapidly growing area such as the Pacific Coast must take into account the probability of a con tinued heavy in-migration of workers from other parts o f the country. Depressed conditions in other regions might accelerate this inflow; on the other hand, if the ability of the Pacific Coast area to absorb additional workers were reduced, and its unemployment increased relative to the national level, the inflow would probably slow down. Industrial and Occupational Trends Industrial Trends Seventy years ago more than half the people who worked for a living were employed in agri culture. The United States was mainly a country of farmers; its ways of living and habits of think ing were influenced by this fact. Indeed, today, in any group of students in a city school, there will very likely be some whose grandparents, or even parents, lived and worked on a farm. The significant change that occurred in the last 70 years—the rapid growth of industry, commerce, and other nonfarming employment—is shown in chart 6. The number of nonfarm workers grew from 6 million in 1870 to 51 million in 1947, while the number of farmers and farm workers increased from about 7 million in 1870 to a peak of 11% million around 1910, and since then has actually declined to about 7.7 million in 1947. On any farm today one can see some of the rea sons why this happened. The farmer has ma chinery which makes it possible for him to culti vate many more acres than could the farmer years ago. With tractor and trucks both on the farm and in the city, much less feed is needed for horses and mules. About 50 million acres that once grew feed for work stock is now in food crops or in feed for cattle, hogs, and poultry. Moreover, farmers use fertilizer and better seed. Science and experience have taught them how to get more out of their farms. In 1944, the average farmer produced nearly twice as much as did the average farmer just before W orld War I. With these improvements in farming and in storage and transportation of food—canning, re frigeration, and warehousing, for example—the farms of the United States were able to provide food and other farm products for more and more people. This made it possible for a larger pro portion of the population to take jobs in industry. The industrialization of the country resulted in an increasing productivity o f labor because of the wider use of machinery, better management of pro duction, and a better-trained labor force. As a result o f increased productivity, incomes and the standard o f living have been rising. With more purchasing power at their disposal, people have bought more and more goods and services, and many new industries have developed. Govern ment and private services in such fields as educa tion, medical care, public health, and welfare have IN D U S T R IA L AND O C C U P A T IO N A L T R E N D S expanded. These developments help to explain the changes in employment noted below. Recent trends in employment are shown in chart 7, which extends from 1929 through the depres sion, the war, and the postwar period. In the top line is seen the gradual growth of the labor force and its rapid increase during the war, as students, CHART 6 RAPID GROWTH OF N ON F A R M O C C U P A T I O N S 1870-1947 M IL LIO N S OF W O RKERS 60 1870 '80 '90 1900 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS ‘l 0 *20 '30 ‘40 *50 LABOR FORCE 1940 Sourc«.- U. S. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS women, and older workers came in to meet the de mands of the armed forces and civilian industry for manpower. The severe drop in employment in nonfarm in dustries that marked the onset of the depression— from 37 million in 1929 to a little less than 29 mil lion in 1933— is also shown. As a result of the drop in employment and the growth of the labor force, the number of unemployed increased from 19 about iy2 million in 1929 to nearly 13 million in 1933. Then began a slow recovery, temporarily set back by a recession toward the end of 1937. By 1939, the year the war began in Europe, nonfarm employment had increased by 714 million from the low in 1933, but was still a million below its average in 1929. Unemployment had been reduced by only 3% million from the peak of nearly 13 million, however, since the labor force had con tinued to grow. It was particularly difficult for younger workers and older wmrkers to get jobs. Those in school today may not remember the de pression years and their attitudes are influenced more by the conditions of relative prosperity since 1910. Yet the thinking of their parents, of their teachers, of the employers for whom they may work, of the unions they may join, and of the leaders in public life is strongly affected by the experiences of the thirties. It will help in under standing much of the information on occupations given in the reports in this handbook if one has a realization of the difficnlties of those years. Among the general effects of the depression decade upon occupations were these : 1. Young people found it particularly hard to get jobs. The rate of unemployment was high among them, despite the fact that many continued in school and were not classified as unemployed. Older workers also found it difficult to get jobs. 2. Employers, faced with many job applicants and the necessity to save money by having only the most efficient workers, raised their hiring stand ards. The best-trained or experienced workers got the jobs. This hastened a long-term trend toward a preference for applicants who had more education. Where grade-school graduation had been considered adequate, employers began to specify that they wanted only high-school gradu ates ; where high-school graduation had been a re quirement employers began to give preference to the college-trained person. 3. People got jobs where they could, and so there was a great deal of occupational shifting down the scale of skills. Many a professionally trained and experienced worker took a clerical, sales, or semi skilled job. Many a craftsman worked in semi skilled or laborer jobs. Their skills grew rusty from disuse. 20 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 4. To preserve the employment security of their members, and to prevent poorly trained people from entering their fields, some unions and profes sional societies took action to tighten up entrance requirements. Often this went hand in hand with the improvement of training. In the professional fields, particularly, it represented the continuation of a long-term trend towards raising the standards of education and training. 5. Earnings, of course, dropped in nearly every field of work. production of munitions, nonfarm employment rose rapidly from 36 million in 1939 to 45 million in 1944. The armed forces, which had averaged about 300,000 throughout the decade of the thirties, added 11 million more men and women within 4 years. As a result, the number of unemployed dropped from 9y 2 million in 1939 to about threequarters o f a million in 1944. Hiring standards which had been stiffened dur ing the depression were relaxed. Skilled jobs which had required a long period of training were 6. In an effort to share what work there was among as many people as possible, the workweek in industry was shortened. This was again a con tinuation o f a long-term trend. The Fair Labor Standards Act, which became law in 1938, re quired that workers covered by its provisions be paid time and one-half for work in excess of 40 hours in 1 week. In a number o f industries an even shorter workweek of 35 or 36 hours was agreed upon by unions and employers. Then came the war. As industry swung into broken down so that the work could be done by a number of quickly trained workers, often under the supervision of a skilled worker. Young people found it easy to get a job, and often at pay that made their father wonder why he had spent 25 3'ears learning and gaining experience in a trade. Older workers postponed their retirement because their skills were needed in industry and they could earn good pay. Women whose children no longer needed their care came into the labor market. IN D U S T R IA L AND O C C U P A T IO N A L As the war approached its end, many people, remembering the depression from which the war had pulled the country, were afraid of a postwar recession. They feared the number of unemployed would skyrocket when the millions of workers engaged in munitions production were laid off, and the more than 11 million men in the armed forces were demobilized, many of whom had had no experience in civilian occupations. Although there was a sudden drop in employ ment when munitions production stopped, other industries quickly hired the workers. Stimulated by rising demand for the products that had not been available during the war, such as new houses, automobiles, and washing machines, industry hired more and more workers until, at the end of 1947, with the armed forces demobilized from over 11 million to less than 2 million, about 60 million people were employed. The number of unem ployed did not rise above 3 million at any time, and toward the end of 1947 was less than 2 million. Thus, the country weathered the period of ad justment from war to peace better than many peo ple had expected. For the time being, at least, the Nation had attained, as it entered 1948, conditions close to a state of full employment. It was rela tively easy to get a job, the “ Help Wanted” signs were up, and most of the unemployed were per sons who were out of work for only short periods between jobs. This did not mean that everyone could get the job he wanted, but the fear of com plete unemployment for long periods was at least temporarily banished. Many young people who, according to previous custom and practice, would have been expected to be in school, were in the labor force. This may well continue as long as jobs are so easy to find; but these young people may later regret not having finished school. Older workers, too, have re mained at work because of the attraction of good pay, in preference to retirement on pensions that the increased cost of living has made inadequate, and because their services were wanted. In the first half of 1948, employment in the United States was higher than it had ever been before. The major industry fields and their rela tive importance as a source of employment are shown in chart 8. In studying this and the fol lowing charts, it would be well to bear in mind that 793990°—49 21 TRENDS the size of each industry or occupation is a clue to the employment opportunities. Manufacturing industries employ the largest number o f people, and offer jobs to many different kinds of workers—the unskilled laborer, the ma chinist, the engineer, the stenographer, the producCHART 8 MAJOR I N D U S T R I E S EM PLO YM EN T 1947 M IL L IO N S OF WORKERS 0 5 10 15 Factories Trade Farms* Services Transportation 8i U tilitie s Government, State S Local Government, Federal Construction Domestic Service * Finance Mining UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS EMPLOYEES ONLY. EXCEPT FOR FARMS. WHICH INCLUDES SELF-EM PLOYED *Soure«: U. S. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS tion manager, and, more than any other type of worker, the semiskilled machine operator. Four out o f 10 employees of manufacturing industry were semiskilled workers in 1940. The major manufacturing industries are shown in chart 9. About half the workers are employed in the durable goods manufacturing industries, the others in the nondurable goods industries. Largest among the durable goods industries are 22 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K CH AR T 9 MAJOR M ANUFACTURING IN D U S T R IE S A V E R A G E E M P L O Y M E N T 1947 M I L L I O N S OF W O R K E R S D U R A B L E GOODS 2.0 Iron and S te e l M achinery, except electrical Automobiles E le c t r ic a l M achinery Lum b er Transportation Equipment, except autos Furniture Stone, Clay and G lass Nonferrous M etals N O N D U R A B L E GOODS Food Textiles Apparel C hem icals Prin tin g and Publishing Pa p e r L e a th e r Rubber Petroleum Products Tobacco M iscellaneous U N I TE D STATES D EP A RT ME NT OF L A BOR BUREAU OF L A BO R STATI STICS WAGE AN D S A L A R IE D W O R K E R S IN D U S T R IA L AND O C C U P A T IO N A L the metalworking group. These plants make a great variety of products, such as steel beams and pencil sharpeners, automobiles, and hairpins, giant dynamos which generate electric power, and tiny incandescent lamps which put the electricity to work in our homes. During the war, plants mak ing consumer goods such as washing machines and lipstick holders shifted over to the manufacture of antiaircraft guns and cartridge cases, and the small aircraft and shipbuilding industries grew to enormous size. Though they now have fewer work ers than during the war, the metalworking indus tries are producing far above their prewar levels, in trying to meet the great demand for their prod ucts. This demand is sustained by the generally high income levels of the postwar period. CHART 10 PRODUCTION W O R K E R S IN MAN U F A C T U R I N G M ILLIO N S UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Employment in the woodworking and building materials industries follows closely that in the construction industry. More lumber, window glass, structural tile, and furniture are sold in years when a large volume of homes and other buildings are put up. The major nondurable goods manufacturing in dustries are those which make textiles, clothing, and food. The chemical industries and the print ing and publishing industries are also large. Employment in manufacturing drops severely during depressions and rises sharply during pe riods of good business conditions, as can be seen TRENDS 23 in chart 10. It is the durable goods industries which have the greatest ups and downs, because when people have no money they can postpone buying homes, automobiles, and washing machines much longer than they can put off buying food and clothing. Similarly, businessmen can put off buy ing new machinery. Manufacturing employment dropped by about 35 percent from 1929 to the bot tom of the depression, and then began to recover. During the war, employment shot up by 7 million, mostly because of the expansion of metalworking industries. The amount of goods produced in creased even more than this, because people worked longer hours during the war. Since the end of the war, employment has been lower, but still far above the prewar level. When the backlog of demand for automobiles and other durable goods that could not be bought during the war is worked through, manufacturing employment may not be as high as it is now. And if another depression should come, these indus tries and their workers will once again suffer as they did during the thirties. Retail and wholesale trade have more than 8 million employees, and in addition provide a liv ing to well over a million proprietors. Salesmen and saleswomen constitute the largest group of employees in trade, but there are also large num bers of clerical workers (who keep the records and send out the bills), truck drivers and delivery men, and service workers, such as elevator operators and porters. Employment in trade fell during the depression but recovered quickly and by 1937 was higher than in 1929 (chart 11). In this can be seen the effect of the long-term upward trend in this field of work. Employment increased further before the war, and since the war has risen to a level more than 2 million higher than the 1929 peak. One of the factors in the growth of this industry has been the increasing amount of services of all kinds pro vided for customers. Farming, though it has lost workers in recent years, is still one of the largest fields of work. In addition to nearly 6 million farmers who own and run their own farms, there are a large number of people who work as farm laborers. Their num ber fluctuates seasonally—about 2 million are em ployed in the winter, and well over 4 million farm laborers are employed in the summer. Many of 24 O C C U P A T IO N A L CHART 11 EMPLOYEES IN MAJOR NONMANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES MILLIO N S M N IT E D ST A T E S D E P A R T M E N T O F L A B O R B U R E A U OF L A B O R S T A T IS T IC S W AG E A N D S A L A R IE D W O R K E R S OU TLO OK HANDBOOK those who work during the peak season are stu dents and housewives or are in other occupations during the rest of the year. Government employment—local, State, and Fed eral—was over 5 million in 1947; more than twothirds of the workers were in local and State governments, employed largely as teachers, nurses, engineers, typists, and policemen. In shipyards, arsenals, and printing plants the Federal Govern ment employs many workers in industrial occupa tions. Although people often think of the clerical worker as the typical Government employee, only one-fifth of the Government workers were in this category in 1940. One of the largest Federal oc cupations is that o f mail carrier. In line with a long-term trend, employment in government has been rising fairly steadily since 1929, dropping back only slightly from 1931 to 1933, increasing in the thirties and rising sharply during the war. Government is providing in creased services through the schools, public health and sanitation, welfare work, and similar fields. A larger defense establishment, services to veterans, and a growing amount of research has also in creased the number of government employees. In addition to the civilians employed by the Federal Government, there were over 1.4 million men in the armed services at the end of 1947— a large increase when compared to an average of 345.000 in 1939. The largest branch is the Army, with a strength o f over 900.000 in December 1947. The Navy has over 400,000 men, the Marines 89,000 and the Coast Guard 20,000. These figures include 17.000 women who were in the services at the end of 1947. The armed forces use men and women with many different kinds of skills, such as ma chinists, airplane mechanics, or electricians, and give courses of training in these fields (see p. 454). Service industries employ more than 4 million people in such diverse fields as automobile and other repair shops, laundries, cleaning and dyeing establishments, hotels, barber shops, theaters, mo tion-picture production, advertising, and many other categories not commonly thought of as in the service field. There has been a long-term upward emplojunent trend which was interrupted for only a short time in the depression. Recovery was quick, however, and during the war, workers were recruited by drawing people partly from the do- IN D U S T R IA L AND O C C U P A T IO N A L mestic service field and from among persons out side the labor force. In the transportation and public utilities indus tries major fields are the railroads, trucking com panies, bus and transit lines, telephone and elec tric-power companies, and the merchant marine. Air lines and radio and television broadcasting are smaller fields, but are of considerable interest in vocational guidance. These industries employ about 41/2 million workers with many different kinds of skills, such as locomotive engineers, truck drivers, telephone operators, musicians, engineers, seamen, ticket agents, and pullman porters. The great majority of the workers are men. By far the greatest portion of the women employed in these industries are clerical workers. 25 TRENDS Employment dropped sharply in the early thirties, and did not return to the 1929 level until after the war. During the war, improvements in efficiency and longer hours o f work made it pos sible for the railroads to carry a record amount of freight with fewer workers than in 1929. The public utilities were able to reduce employment by cutting down their installation and service work; since the war they have expanded a great deal. The construction industry had an average of nearly 1% million employees in 1947. This indus try is noted for sharp variations in employment; between 1929 and 1933 employment dropped by nearly one-half. An unusually high proportion of this industry’s workers are skilled men (carpen ters, plumbers, e tc.); however, there are large CH AR T 12 MAJOR OCCUPATION G R O U P S EMPLOYMENT A P R I L 1947 C lerica l Service, except domestic S a le s Domestic S e rv ic e C raftsm en and Foremen O peratives, semiskilled La b o rers, except form Farmers ond Farm Managers Women Farm L a b o re rs and Foremen U NI TED STATES DEPA RTM EN T OF L A BOR BUREAU OF L A BOR STATI STICS iou /ce: us bureau or t h e census 26 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K numbers of laborers and of semiskilled workers such as truck drivers. The few women employed in this industry are mostly clerical workers. Finance, as a major field of work, includes prin cipally banking, insurance, and real estate. The most common occupations are clerical. There has been a long-term upward trend in these indus tries ; by 1941 employment had recovered to above the 1929 level, and, after dropping during the war, reached a new high in 1946 and advanced further in 1947. This increase reflects the activity in building and real estate, increases in the purchase of insurance, and the expanding use of banking facilities in the postwar period. In mining, which includes mainly coal mining, ore mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction, less than a million workers are employed. The largest occupation group is, of course, the miners who dig out the coal or ore by hand, or by machine, or blast it out by explosives. There are oppor tunities for large numbers of other workers in the industry too. The long-term employment trend has been down ward as machine mining methods have increas ingly supplanted pick-and-shovel mining. There are many mines, however, where hand methods are still in use because it does not pay to intro duce mechanical cutting and loading equipment. Occupational Trends While the industrial picture of the United States shows where people work, the occupational picture in chart 12 shows the kinds of work they do. It can be seen that by far the largest group is the semiskilled workers, of which machine oper ators in factories and truck drivers are typical examples. Skilled workers are the next largest group, and clerical workers the third largest. Many young people considering the choice of an occupation single out one of the professions as their goal. Not many will be able to enter these fields, however, for they give employment to only 7 percent of all workers. The whole group of “ white collar” occupations, which may be broadly interpreted to include the groups near the top of chart 12—professional and semiprofessional, ad ministrative (proprietors, managers, and offi cials), clerical, and sales workers—consisted of only about 35 percent of all workers. The principal occupations within each major group will be described in later sections of this handbook, together with the trends in eaph broad field. At this point, only the long-term trends in the size of each group relative to the others will be summarized. Since 1910 the farm, farm laborer, and nonfarm laborer occupations have been claiming a smaller and smaller proportion of the workers (chart 13). As machinery has been introduced in industry and on the farm, the machine operator who is a semi skilled or skilled worker has taken the place of the unskilled laborer. As a result, the semiskilled group has been growing rapidly while the laborer occupations declined. This trend has been further advanced by developments since 1940. The skilled occupations just about held their own over the three decades 1910 to 1940, but since 1940 have increased their share of all workers. The other fields—clerical, sales, administrative, professional, and service—have been increasing in relative size. However, this has not been true of domestic service (which is not shown separately in the chart). These occupational trends arise in part from the basic industrial changes described above: namely, the growth of nonfarm industries, and the expan sion of trade and service industries which employ large numbers of workers in clerical, professional, service, administrative, and sales occupations. Technological developments and changes in style or custom also affect the numbers of people em ployed in different occupations. IN D U S T R IA L AND O C C U P A T IO N A L 27 TRENDS OCCUPATIONAL TRENDS, 1910-1940 P E R C E N T OF TOTAL W O R K ER S ENGAGED IN EACH F IE L D FARM AND UNSKILLED LABOR OCCUPATIONS DECLINED ... SK IL L E D WORKERS HELD THEIR OWN... S K IL L E D W O RKERS AND FO R EM EN ALL OTHER F IE LD S IN CREASED ... W ORKERS (including salespeople) UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS LABOR AND O F F IC IA L S Source : U. S. B U R E A U O F T H E CEN S U S 28 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U T L O O K H A N D B O O K C HART 14 MAJOR P R O F E S S IO N A L OCCUPATIONS EM PLO YM EN T 1940 t h o u s a n d s 0 100 200 300 of workers 400 500 600 700 Teachers, elemenfary school Nurses Teachers, secondary school Engineers Lawyers Physicians Clergymen Musicians Pharmacists Teachers, college Dentists Social Workers Journalists Chemists Artists Librarians Accountants, C.P. A. Architects Authors Actors Veterinarians Chiropractors County Agents Osteopaths Others U N IT E D S T A T E S D E P A R T M E N T O F L A B O R B U R E A U O F L A B O R S T A T IS T IC S " N U M B E R O F W O M E N TOO FEW TO S H O W O N C H A R T Source: U. S. B U R E A U O F T H E C E N S U S Professional, Semiprofessional, and Administrative Occupations The three major occupation groups included in this section are related to each other in a number of ways. They are in some respects so similar that it is often difficult to determine whether a particular occupation falls in one class or the other. They all require a long period of training or experience, or both. And, although they some times involve manual skill—as, for example, the occupations of draftsman or surgeon—the out standing requirement is a great deal of basic knowledge and reliable judgment. It should be remembered, of course, that the qualities just ascribed to professional, semiprofessional, and ad ministrative occupations are not exclusive with them; many skilled trades and clerical and sales occupations are closely related to professions or administrative occupations, and also require abil ity, training, experience, and a high order of knowledge and judgment. The occupational outlook reports included in this section are grouped by fields of work repre senting areas of interest in vocational guidance. As soon as studies have been made of occupations in some of the other major fields of interest, such as the sciences, additional sections will be added to future editions of this publication. PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS What is a profession ? It is easier to list them— as in the accompanying chart—than to define them. Each profession has its societies, some of which attempt to set up standards for membership in the profession. Moreover, many professions are licensed—physicians, dentists, and pharmacists for example—and in these cases the licensing board determines the qualifications that a profes sional person in the field should have. Very often, however, there is no clear-cut line drawn between professional and other types of workers. not find it easy to enter these fields. They must complete long periods of training and grinding study in competition with the very brightest stu dents. They must take and pass difficult examina tions both in the colleges and professional schools and before State licensing boards. In many cases they are not accepted for professional training un less their school grades are high; and often em ployers will give preference to graduates whose grades in their professional schools were in the highest half or quarter of the class. Difficulty of Entering Many more young people want to get into pro fessional fields than there is room for, even though professions as a whole are growing in size. This is partly because the professions have glamour and prestige and partly because many young people do not know enough about the many opportunities for interesting jobs and good careers in nonpro fessional fields. Those who want to be professional workers will Past Trends The professions as a group have been growing rapidly and probably will continue to grow. From less than half a million workers in 1870, the pro fessional and semiprofessional occupations have grown to nearly 4 million today—a tenfold in crease within a lifetime (chart 15). Just after the Civil War, the leading professions were the tra ditional ones of teaching, medicine, the ministry, and law. Three out of four professional workers 29 30 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK H A N D B O O K were in these occupations. Many other occupations which now have full status and recognition as professions at that time included only a few hun dreds or thousands of people, many of whom had training which, by present standards, was far from adequate. CHART 19 GROWTH OF PROFESSIONAL AND SEMIPROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LA BO R BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTIC S Recent Developments During World War II we needed many more engineers, physicians, nurses, chemists, and other professional workers than ever before. The needs were greatest in the technical fields. Training programs were stepped up—medical training was accelerated, for example—but it was still not pos sible to train as many as were needed by the armed forces and civilian industries. The em ployment of professional workers in civilian jobs actually decreased during the war as many thou sands were taken into the armed forces (chart 16). An increase in the number of women professional workers was not enough to offset the loss of the men. There were shortages in almost every major professional field. G A IN FU L WORKERS 1 8 7 0 -1 9 3 0 LABOR FORCE 1940 C IV ILIA N LABOR FORCE 1947 Source U. S. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS Since that time other professions have grown greatly. For example, the number of engineers, draftsmen, designers, and chemists is 50 times greater than in 1870. O f the “big four” of 1870, on the other hand, only teaching has kept pace with the growth of professions as a whole. The number practicing law has increased to about 41/2 times its size in 1870, the ministry about 3y2 times, and the number practicing medicine only about threefold. The number of women in the profes sions has grown even more rapidly than that of men, and in April 1947, one woman in ten who worked was in this field ( primarily in teaching and nursing), as compared to only one in seventeen of the men. The growth of the professional group was fairly steady over the seven decades since 1870— some what more rapid in the especially prosperous decade of the twenties; somewhat slower in the thirties. As the armed forces were demobilized, the physi cians, engineers, lawyers, teachers, and others re turned to civilian life and civilian jobs. Employ ment of professional workers increased. Never theless, shortages continued in many fields. A peacetime economy of high employment levels de manded many more professional workers than were available. In some fields the shortages were made worse by the fact that college enrollments P R O F E S S IO N A L , S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L , had dropped during the war. Workers were drawn out of other fields such as teaching because of relatively poor pay or working conditions as compared with those offered by nonprofessional jobs which were open. How long will these shortages last? The col leges, stimulated by the educational benefits pro vided for veterans, enrolled a record number of students in the fall of 1946 and broke that record again in the fall of 1947. In some fields, then, the shortage situation will be alleviated in a few years, and it may even be hard for a graduate to find a job. In others, shortages will continue. In still others, there is no shortage now. This is brought out in the reports on individual occupa tions. From 1940 to 1947. despite the effect of the draft upon college enrollments, the average annual growth was slightly greater than in the previous decade; but increases in other occupations were even more rapid, and for the first time the profes sional fields declined slightly relative to the total of all occupations (chart 15). In view of the long term trend and the experience of the 1920’s, it seems likely that the professions will continue to increase in size in the coming decade. This con clusion is borne out by studies of the major in dividual professional fields. Increasing Training Requirements Young people interested in training for a pro fession should take into account a trend toward re quiring more and more educational preparation for professional jobs. In one occupation after another the history of training has moved in the same direction over the years: From informal on-the-job training or apprenticeship with an ex A D M IN IS T R A T IV E 31 perienced member of the profession to full-time institutional study (for a period of years which has grown longer and longer) followed by some form of on-the-job training. This trend has been more pronounced in some occupations than in others; perhaps in some it will never get very far. In chemistry, for ex ample, graduate training is necessary for a higher proportion o f the jobs than is the case in engi neering. A degree in business administration is still not the exclusive means of entrance into that field. Nevertheless as one examines different fields, the efforts of the professional societies to raise standards and improve the quality of training become evident. This extension of educational requirements has resulted from the increasing complexity of each field of science, from increasing emphasis on the desirability of a broad educational background as a preparation for work as well as for life, and from the fact that so many workers do have a col lege education, which makes a degree necessary merely to compete for employment in many fields. This trend was accelerated to some extent by the depression of the 1930’s, which gave employers a chance to raise their hiring standards, and which at the time induced more young people to go to college, simply because jobs were not available. It is believed that these trends will continue: That employers will require college education as a minimum qualification for more and more dif ferent occupations or, at least, will give preference to people with such education; and that an in creasing amount of education will be required by employers or State boards of licensure for occupa tions in which college education is already con sidered necessary. SEMIPROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS The line between professional and semiprofes sional occupations has never been sharply drawn, and the inclusion of an occupation in one or the other group is often arbitrary. In general, the word “semiprofessional” is intended to imply that the occupation, although similar to professions in that it demands knowledge, training, and judg ment, requires a shorter or more informal period of training of a more limited nature. Thus, the professional engineer is given basic training in higher mathematics and scientific prin ciples, which he applies to each new problem. 32 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK whereas the semiprofessional draftsman is re quired merely to have a practical knowledge of scientific methods and practices, so that he can translate the engineer’s sketches into blueprints. In actual practice, the distinctions are not so p a t: many a draftsman is required to know more than this implies, and, also, many draftsmen have ad vanced to jobs as professional engineers because o f personal ability and study. On the other hand, some firms start their new graduate engineers as draftsmen so that they can learn the work from the bottom up, and many of these men do not ad HANDBOOK vance beyond the draftsman’s job, particularly during depressions. The major semiprofessional occupations are shown in chart 17. Employment in some of them—for example, airplane pilots—has increased substantially since 1940, but draftsmen and labo ratory technicians are still the largest occupations in the group. The major semiprofessional groups have grown rapidly in recent years. Scientific and technical work has been more highly organized, particu larly in the laboratories and engineering depart- MAJOR S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L O C C U P A T IO N S E M P L O Y M E N T ,1940 T H O U S A N D S OF W O R K E R S 30 40 50 Draftsmen Laboratory Technicians Morticians Religious Workers Photographers Designers Sports Instructors Medical Service Workers, n.e.c. Surveyors Dancers Radio Operators Optom etrists Technicians, exc. lab. Athletes Airplane Pilots Showmen U N I TE D STATES D EP A RT ME NT OF L A BOR BUREAU OF L A B O R STATI STI CS •N U M B E R OF W OMEN TOO FEW TO SHOW ON CH AR T Source: U S BU R E AU OF TH E C E N SU S P R O F E S S IO N A L , S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L , A D M IN IS T R A T IV E 33 merits o f large firms, and more semiprofessional aids have been provided for the professional work ers. During the recent war, with a shortage of engineers and chemists, it was discovered that men with less training could perform parts of the work formerly done by engineers or chemists, freeing the latter for the more difficult tasks. The number of semiprofessional workers em ployed in civilian jobs did not decrease during the war, unlike the professions, and has increased sharply since the war (chart 18). Though still a small group among the major occupation fields, it has been growing rapidly, and this growth should continue. ADMINISTRATIVE OCCUPATIONS People usually reach administrative positions by promotion, and most workers in this field got their start in some other occupation such as en gineer, salesman, accountant, skilled worker, or laborer. Personal ability has been more impor tant than special training as a factor in getting an administrative job. In 1940, only 1 out of 5 administrative workers had any college training, and only 1 out of 10 had completed college. Nevertheless, the value of formal training for this type of job is increasingly recognized. There has been a marked trend toward the extension of educational requirements for administrative jobs and toward preference for college-trained men and women. The increasing complexity of business or ganizations and methods has created new fields of specialization in business and public adminis tration. Formal college-level courses have been organized in such subjects as business administra tion, management, public administration, person nel work, industrial relations, insurance, merchan dising, traffic management, and marketing—and these have been gaining acceptance on the part of employers. It is likely that this trend will con tinue, particularly because so many college grad uates with this type o f training will be available for employment, and because business organiza tion is likely to continue growing larger and more complex. The census group “ proprietors, managers, and officials, except farm” includes many diverse oc cupations : the proprietor of a peanut stand as well as the president of a large corporation. The small retail-store proprietor is the dominant occupation in the group. O f the 3,749,000 administrative workers employed in 1940,47 percent were in retail trade, 11 percent in manufacturing, 6 percent in wholesale trade, 6 percent in government, and 5 percent in finance, insurance, and real estate. More than half the total (2,082,000) were self-em ployed—the majority o f these being in retail trade. Between 1910 and 1940 the number of workers 34 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK in these occupations increased by 62 percent while the total number of workers in all fields rose only 40 percent. Throughout the three decades, whole sale and retail dealers constituted about half of the total in the group. Employment fell off somewhat early in the war as many small retail stores closed their doors, but has risen steadily since 1943, and advanced rapidly since the end of the war, partly because of the opening of many small businesses. In April 1947, 5.8 million were employed in these occupations, as compared to 3.7 million in 1940— an increase greater than the average for all major HANDBOOK occupation groups (chart 19). The growth of this field both before and since the war suggests a long-term upward trend which may well continue. Among the administrative occupations on which reports appear in other sections of this handbook are railroad conductors (in the section on railroad occupations), hotel managers (in the section on hotel occupations), restaurant and cafeteria man agers (in the section on restaurant occupations), and filling-station managers and owners (in the section on clerical, sales, and service occupations). Teaching Field Teaching is not only the largest single profes sional field, but it is also the parent field, in the sense that it is the teachers who educate and pre pare workers for all the other professions. Teach ing is also uniquely related in vocational terms to other professions and to nonprofessional occupa tions, since many persons who consider themselves members of a profession or a trade do part-time or full-time work as teachers. Thus, many a lead ing chemist, engineer, or physician is a teacher in a college or university, and in many vocational schools the crafts are taught by practicing mem bers of the trades. Teaching, then, is one of the types of work done by members of other profes sions, as well as being a profession in its own right. The great bulk of the teachers, however, par ticularly those in high schools, elementary schools, and kindergartens, are persons who prepared themselves primarily for the teaching profession. The broad divisions of the field are college and university teaching, high-school teaching, and kindergarten and elementary-school teaching. The belief is widespread that the level of ability required of the teacher increases with the age of the students; in many parts of the country both entrance requirements and salaries are greater for the high-school than for the elementary-school teacher. More recently, however, many members of the profession have come to believe that teach ers of young children should be as well prepared as those who teach older children, and to attract competent teachers to elementary schools, salaries should be equalized and credit toward higher salaries given for advanced training. By far the majority of teachers are public em ployees. This is true of 9 out of 10 teachers below the college level, but about half of the college teachers in 1940 were employed in private colleges and universities. Employment in the profession has been rising rapidly in the long run, having increased nearly tenfold since 1870. This reflects the growth of population, the tendency for young people to stay in school longer, and the increasing enrichment of the curriculum, particularly at the high-school and junior high-school level. College and University Teachers (D.O.T. 0-11.50) Outlook Summary Excellent immediate opportunities for qualified persons but openings vary considerably by sub ject fields. Considerable increase in number of positions is expected in the long run. Nature of Work In 1947-48, the more than 1,700 colleges and othdr institutions of higher education in the coun try had about 155,000 faculty members for 2.3 mil lion students. Besides teaching, these faculty members frequently do research. Some devote all or part of their time to administrative work. Most have specialized in a particular subject field. Where Employed The great majority of faculty members are in 4-year colleges, universities, and professional schools; before the war, 84 percent were employed by such institutions, about 7 percent by teachers’ colleges, 8 percent by junior colleges, and 1 per cent by normal schools. Largely because of dif ferences in population, the distribution of these institutions among the States is extremely un even. Some Western States have but one or two, with staffs totaling only a few hundred, while a few thickly populated States have over 100 col leges with more than 10,000 staff members. 35 36 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK H A N D B O O K Training and Other Qualifications In general, a doctor’s degree is required for the better college teaching positions, but requirements Aary considerably according to institution and T type of appointment. Instructors may be ap pointed directly from graduate training, especially when records are outstanding, or they may assist in teaching undergraduates while still taking ad vanced work. Assistant and associate professor ships are usually attained only after collegeteaching experience or extensive graduate train ing. To reach the position of professor usually requires 10 to 15 years of experience or outstand ing achievement. Outlook At present there is a shortage of college-level teachers. The number of positions has increased greatly owing to unprecedented enrollments; there has been an insufficient number of new entrants from war-depleted graduate schools; and compe tition from better-paid fields of employment has drawn people away from teaching. From 1941 to 1945, the number of men teachers employed dropped by about 12,000. Many of these men have not returned to teaching. Shortages are, therefore, greatest in the subjects for which men are usually preferred—for example, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, business administration, en gineering, the physical sciences, and certain spe cial and vocational subjects. Opportunities for women are particularly good in junior colleges and teacher-education institutions. However, there has been a long-term trend toward gradually in creasing the proportion of woman staff members in all institutions of higher learning, though the percent is still relatively low. While educational benefits granted to veterans have contributed greatly to present large college enrollments, it is expected that total enrollments will continue at high levels. There is a long-run trend for a larger proportion o f young people to complete high school and enter college; higher education is becoming more and more important both in meeting competition in the labor market and in social relationships. Growing interest in extending higher education, particularly at the junior-college level, is expected to result in a greater number of institutions, more widely dis tributed throughout the country. This will not only encourage enrollments but make it possible to have smaller classes than at present. Fur thermore, the higher birth rate of the past 10 years will begin to affect college-age population in the late fifties. All these factors, plus the trend toward lengthening the period o f college training, will tend to increase the number o f teachers needed. The President’s Commission on Higher Education recommended in 1948 that the num ber o f faculty members be increased to 300,000 by 1960. Earnings A study of faculty salaries in 158 institutions, which are considered reasonably typical, showed the following approximate median salaries in 1947: Professors, $4,000; associate professors, $3,500; assistant professors, $3,000; instructors, $2,500. That salaries in many institutions are higher is shown by the results of another survey of faculty personnel in 29 institutions in 1947, which showed the following approximate average salaries: Professors, $5,350; associate professors, $4,375; assistant professors, $3,500; instructors, $2,850. Salaries have risen considerably in the last few years, and there may be further marked in creases. In general, salaries are greatest in large universities and men’s colleges; somewhat lower in women’s, teachers’, and junior colleges, and in de nominational schools. Where To Go for More Information Federal Security Agency, Office o f Education, Washington 25, D. C. American Council on Education, 744 Jackson Place, Washington 6, D. C. T E A C H IN G F IE L D 37 High School Teachers (D.O.T. 0-31.01 and .10) Outlook Summary There are immediate employment opportunities, but openings vary considerably by locality and subject field. In the long run, new entrants with only minimum qualifications will have difficulty obtaining desirable positions. Nature o f Work About 315,000 classroom teachers are employed (in 1948) in the Nation’s 29,000 public secondary schools, to teach some 6 million pupils. Besides classroom instruction, most of these teachers have other duties, including supervision of extracur ricular activities, record keeping and preparation of reports. Maintenance of good relations with parents, the community, and fellow teachers are other important aspects of their jobs. Opportunities for advancement are by way of moderate salary increases within the same system, by moving to larger schools after a few years of experience, or by promotion to supervisory, ad ministrative, or other specialized positions. Training and Other Qualifications Typical requirements for teacher certificates are a bachelor’s degree, with about a half year of pro fessional education including student teaching. The requirements vary considerably from one State to another, however. A few States will grant cer tificates only to people with a year of graduate work. Many school systems, especially in large cities, require more preparation for employment than is needed for certification. The general trend is toward insisting on a master’s degree or at least 5 years o f college. The more desirable positions are usually filled by the highest qualified teachers. Many local school systems require previous suc cessful experience which often must be obtained in small towns or rural schools. Good teacher-training curricula are offered in universities with schools o f education; by colleges with strong education departments and satisfac tory practice teaching facilities; and by teachers’ 793996°—49 -4 colleges. A student who wishes to specialize in vocational agriculture, home economics, music, commercial work, or the like should choose an in stitution accredited for work in the specific field and should take enough hours of education and practice teaching to meet certification require ments. Although the trend is toward specializa tion, the greater the number of subjects a person can teach, the better are his chances for securing a position. Ability to handle extracurricular ac tivities will also improve chances for employment. Outlook Qualified teachers are in demand at the present time, but opportunities vary greatly by locality and subject field. In general, shortages are great est in rural schools, in special subjects such as music, in vocational subjects such as home eco nomics, and in the physical sciences. In most lo calities the need for teachers will be met most quickly in English, history, and foreign languages. Shortages during the war were partly the re sult of selective-service withdrawals, since about a third of the teachers in secondary schools are men. In addition, many people left the profes sion for higher paying jobs in other fields. The number taking teacher education also dropped sharply. There is now a trend toward increasing salaries; this will influence qualified teachers to remain in or return to the profession and will in terest more students in preparing for it. It is likely that competition for the more desirable jobs will gradually increase and that applicants will eventually outnumber openings. In this event, education and experience requirements will prob ably be raised, in line with the prewar trend. New entrants should plan to secure a master’s degree for best employment opportunities. Although the high school age population will decrease for the next several years, the increasing proportion attending school will probably prevent a drop in enrollment and in the need for teachers. About 1950, the rising birth rate of the past 10 38 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK H A N D B O O K years will begin to raise enrollments in the sec ondary school grades, and the number of high school teachers will need to be increased. In the next decade, the trend toward enriching the cur riculum and offering special subjects will also tend to create employment for more teachers. subjects. Salaries in rural schools are below those in small towns; highest salaries are usually in the largest cities. Constant increases in teachers’ sala ries are now taking place throughout the country. Earnings General information on teaching may be ob tained from : In 1946-47 high school teachers had a median salary of about $3,600 in cities of over 100,000 population; $2,775 in cities of 30,000 to 100,000; $2,600 in those of 10,000 to 30.000; $2,375 in towns of 5,000 to 10,000; and $2,275 in those of 2,500 to 5,000. Median salaries of principals in communi ties o f the above sizes were about $5,750, $4,700, $4,075, $3,500, and $3,200, respectively. Median salaries of superintendents ranged from $10,000 to $4,225, depending on size of city. Teachers in some special fields such as vocational education and physical education sometimes re ceive higher pay than classroom teachers of other Where To Go for More Information Federal Security Agency, Office o f Education, Washington 25, D. C. National Education Association, 1201 16th St. N W , Washington 6, D. C. Information on schools and requirements in a particular State may be obtained from any de partment of education at the State capital. /See also Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers, page 38; College and University Teach ers, page 35; Physical Education Instructors, page 40. Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers (D.O.T. 0-30.02 and .11) Outlook Summary Training and Other Qualifications Excellent immediate employment opportunities. Shortages of teachers for elementary grades will continue longer than at higher grade levels. In every State except Massachusetts, a State cer tificate is required for teaching in public schools. The educational qualifications needed for certifi cates vary considerably from one State to another. Fifteen States and the District of Columbia re quire 4 years o f college as minimum for the lowest regular certificate; 23 States require 2 or 3 years of college training; other States have even lower minimum requirements. During and since the war, many thousand emergency certificates were issued to persons unable to meet regular qualifi cation requirements. Since the general trend is toward raising requirements, all prospective teach ers should plan to secure the bachelor’s degree. There are about 1,200 institutions approved by different State departments of education from which graduates are granted State certificates without examination. However, some local dis tricts have their own standards and examinations, in addition to the State requirements. Prerequi Nature of Work Kindergarten and elementary school teachers make up over half the entire teaching profession. In the school year 1947-48, about 570,000 of them were employed in public schools. Teaching in the elementary grades usually in volves working with one group of pupils during the entire day, thus covering a wide range of sub jects and activities. Some schools have depart mentalized instruction in the upper elementary grades, in which case teachers usually handle two or three subjects with several different groups of pupils during the school day. Teachers in rural schools may have to teach all subjects in several grades. T E A C H IN G site for training is usually graduation from an ac credited high school. Most States have a mini mum age of 18 years, but appointing officials usu ally prefer somewhat older teachers. Some school systems do not employ married women; over half the States make proof of good health a prerequi site ; some have citizenship and other special stand ards. A prospective teacher should acquaint him self with the specific requirements in the State in which he plans to teach. F IE L D 39 or appointment to supervisory, administrative, or other type of specialized work. Many women hold principalsliips in elementary schools. Require ments were being raised before the war, and this trend can be expected to be resumed as soon as present shortages are relieved. The best oppor tunities will go to those having more than mini mum qualifications. Outlook There is a serious shortage of teachers at the present time. Generally, throughout the Nation, shortages are greatest in kindergartens and other primary grades in the cities and in rural elemen tary schools. The extent of the shortage varies considerably from one State to another and also within States; but it tends to be most acute in areas where teachers’ salaries are lowest or where there are better-paying employment opportunities. There are always many openings for new en trants due to the high rate of turn-over (prewar rate was about 10 percent), caused for the most part by young women leaving their jobs for mar riage. Replacements are needed for teachers holding emergency certificates; the great majority of the 100,000 with such certificates in 1947-48 are employed in elementary schools. Kindergarten and nursery school teachers will find an increasing demand for their services. Not only is there a trend toward extending public school training to the younger groups, but the rising birth rate of the past 10 years has already increased the number of teachers needed in kindergartens and primary grades. As the greater school population moves through the system, the need for teachers in the succeeding grades will be increased, especially since each year a higher proportion of children completes elementary school and high school. Shortages of teachers for elementary grades, especially in rural schools, are expected to con tinue longer than at higher grade levels. Propor tionately fewer trainees are specializing in this field of teaching, where the need is greatest. Opportunities for advancement are by way of small salary increases in the same position, shifting to larger school systems or better-paying localities, Shortages of teachers are greatest in kindergarten and primary grades Earnings In 1946-47 median salaries for elementary class room teachers were approximately as follow s: $2,900 in cities with populations of 100,000 or more; $2,300 in cities of 30,000 to 100,000. $2,125 in cities of 10,000 to 30,000; $1,950 in cities of 5,000 to 10,000; $1,875 in towns of 2,500 to 5,000. Supervising principals in elementary schools in cities of the sizes shown above received median salaries of about $4,325, $3,325, $3,025, $2,950, and $2,900, respectively. Rural school salaries, espe cially those in one-teacher schools, are consider ably below those in small towns. Constant in creases in salaries are now taking place throughout the country. There is a trend toward establish 40 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK ing salary scales for elementary teachers as high as those for secondary teachers. Wh ere To Go for More Information General information on teaching may be ob tained from : Federal Security Agency, Office o f Education, W ashington 25, D. C. HANDBOOK National Education Association, 1201 10th St. N W „ Washington 6, D. C. Information on schools and requirements in a particular State may be obtained from any depart ment of education at the State capital. See also High School Teachers, page 37; College and University Teachers, page 35; Physical Educa tion Instructors, page 40. Physical Education Instructors (D.O.T. 0-57.21 and .41) Outlook Summary Good opportunities at present, especially for women. In the long run, the field will probably continue to expand, but people with minimum qualifications will face increasing competition. Nature of Work Physical education instructors give individual or group instruction in a great variety of physical activities and games, and coach teams in various sports. They also teach classes in health educa tion, supervise school health-education programs, and direct school and community recreational ac tivities. In small high schools, the teaching of physical education is often combined with the teaching of other subjects. In elementary schools, it is usually done by the regular classroom teacher. How to Enter In most States, the minimum requirement for a high-school teaching certificate is a 4-year college course, including 15 to 24 semester hours in phys ical education and 15 to 20 hours in general pro fessional education, including teaching methods. The employment requirements of individual schools may be somewhat higher. Courses in bio logical sciences, social sciences, and health educa tion are helpful. Educational requirements for teaching in colleges or universities vary consider ably, but graduate training is generally preferred. Experience in physical education with the armed forces is valuable when combined with formal education. The usual method o f entry for people without graduate training is by way of a small school, though successful athletes sometimes start as as sistant coaches in colleges or universities. Posi tions in colleges or large high schools usually re quire several years’ experience or graduate train ing, or both. Experienced instructors may ad vance to physical- or health-education supervisor for a city school system or State department of education or transfer to related recreational and health activities. Outlook A t present there are good opportunities, espe cially for women, in this expanding field, which employs around 60,000 professional workers, ac cording to one estimate. A severe shortage de veloped in the occupation during the war, since many instructors went into the armed forces or war jobs and the number of new entrants coming into the field was small. The shortage of qualified instructors is no longer acute but has not been entirely relieved; some teachers have not returned to the field, and most of those whose training was interrupted or who have entered training since the war have not yet been graduated. Moreover, the demand for instructors is expanding. The need for greater emphasis on health and physical education was dramatized by selective service re jections. As a result, more communities are plan ning additional physical education and recreation facilities. Some of these plans are now being put into effect, but many are being held up—chiefly because of construction difficulties. There is a greater shortage of qualified women instructors than of men; many women have left the occupation T E A C H IN G to marry or for other reasons and there are not enough replacements. Employment will probably continue to rise in the long run. The number of school positions is expected to increase, especially in rural areas, ow ing to greater State support of health and physical fitness programs, the trend toward smaller classes, the increase in school-age population, the tendency for young people to stay in school longer, and other factors which are expected to raise enrollments in high schools. There will also be increased em ployment in such related fields as employeerecreation programs conducted by private business or Government departments, and recreational ac tivities and camps sponsored by churches and youth-serving agencies. Large numbers of open ings will also arise owing to turn-over. This is high among women instructors; it is also consid erable among men, since older men often have to transfer to other occupations. The supply of qualified workers is expected to increase more rapidly than the demand, however. At present the proportion of prospective teachers studying physical education is much larger than usual. The number of schools offering such train ing has increased considerably in the past few years. Current shortages are likely to be met in the near future. As soon as the supply permits, the prewar trend toward higher requirements will no doubt be resumed, and people with inadequate training will face stiff competition. New entrants F IE L D 41 should therefore plan to secure a year or two of graduate training. It will be advantageous to have both physical- and health-education training, since many combination jobs are opening up. Earnings Starting salaries ranged from about $1,600 to about $3,300 for high school instructors without experience in 1947-48, depending on individual qualifications, size of school, geographic location, and other factors. A man with a strong back ground in varsity athletics nearly always receives a larger beginning salary. Directors, assistant directors, and supervisors of physical education had median salaries of about $2,600 to $4,600, de pending on the size of the city or town. In many school systems, athletic coaches receive additional amounts above their regular salaries because of extra duties. It is often possible to supplement earnings for the school year by taking a position in a summer camp. Where To Go for More Information American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1201 16th St. N W „ Washington 6, D. C. Federal Security Agency, Office o f Education, Washington 25, D. C. /See also: High School Teachers, page 37; Kin dergarten and Elementary School Teachers, page 38; College and University Teachers, page 35. 42 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK HANDBOOK MAJOR MEDICAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS EMPLOYMENT IN 1947 THOUSANDS OF WORKERS P R O F E S S IO N A L AND STU D EN T N U R SES P R A C T IC A L N U R S E S AND H O S P IT A L ATTENDANTS-^ P H Y S IC IA N S P H A R M A C IS T S D E N T IS T S M EDICAL LA BO RA TO R Y T E C H N IC IA N S P H Y S IC IA N S ' A S S IS T A N T S ^ 7 X-RA Y TEC H N IC IA N S O P T O M E T R IS T S D E N T IS T S ' ASSISTANTS-^7 V E T E R IN A R IA N S C H IRO PR A C T O R S^7 f MEN t NUMBER OF MEN TOO FEW TO SHOW ON CHART WOMEN ^NUM BER OF WOMEN TOO FEW TO SHOW ON CHART D EN T A L H Y G IE N IS T S O STEO PATH S^7 P H Y S IC A L I T H E R A P IS T S M E D IC A L RECORD L IB R A R IA N S - 1 7 O C C U PA T IO N A L T H E R A P IS T S E M P L O Y M E N T IN 1946 ■ ^ E M P LO Y M E N T IN 194 0 Source-. U. S. WOMENS BUR EAU UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS U. S. B U R E AU O F L A B O R S TA TIST IC S U S . B U R E A U OF T H E CEN S U S Medical-Service Occupations' Engaging more than 1 million persons in 1940, medical and other health service is not only vital to public welfare, but important as a source of employment opportunity. With its more than half a million women workers, it ranks as a major voca tional field for women. It is second only to teach ing as a field of employment for professional and semiprofessional workers. Medical services of one kind or another are given in a wide variety of workplaces, including hospitals and sanitariums, clinics, laboratories, pharmacies, nursing homes, health and hygiene agencies, industrial plants, offices of physicians, dentists, osteopaths, chiropractors, veterinarians, and chiropodists, and in private homes. Work in these fields is to be found in every State, and in the smallest of towns— wherever there are people to be served—but of course employment oppor tunities are concentrated in the most populous and wealthy sections of the country. To some, occupations in the medical services present opportunities for independent profes sional practice and self-employment. More than half the men in these fields are self-employed, but less than one-tenth of the women are so engaged. About one-fiftli of the workers are employed by local, State, or Federal Government agencies. The major occupations in the field are shown in chart 20. Nursing, the largest field, is also the second largest profession for women. The occu pation of physician follows engineering, teaching, and law as a major profession for men. There is close working relationship among the occupations in the medical-service field; such semiprofessional persons as dental hygienists and medical X-ray technicians are often employed directly by the dentist and the physician. The trends in medical-service employment have been upward. The need for expansion in serv ices is a result of an increasing population, rising income levels, better education in the need for med ical care, the growth of preventive medicine, hos pitalization insurance plans, progress in medical science itself, and the provision of medical care for veterans. More hospitals are being built too, and there is growing interest in plans to make medical care more available to low-income groups. Therefore, there will be increasing employment opportunities in this large field. Moreover, be cause of the large number of women in some of these occupations, the replacement rate is high, and many new workers will have to be trained each year* 3 0 2 1This introductory section is based on The O utlook for W en om in O ccupations in the M edical and O ther Health Services: Trends and Their Effect U pon the D and for W en W em om orkers, Bulletin 203, N 12 (1946), published by the W en’s B o. om ureau, U S . . Departm of Labor, W ent ashington 25, D C . . Physicians (D.O.T. 0-26.10) Outlook Summary Excellent opportunities for those able to gain admission to medical school and complete require ments for practice. Nature of Work Most physicians are engaged in private practice, either as individuals or in a group of doctors. Others have full-time positions on hospital staffs, with private firms, or in governmental agencies such as the United States Public Health Service, the armed forces, and the Veterans Administra tion—caring for patients or giving medical exami nations. Some combine private practice with a part-time position in a hospital or industry. Physicians also teach in medical schools: do re search on causes of disease and development of new methods of treatment; hold administrative 43 44 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK H A N D B O O K positions in hospitals, clinics, laboratories, and other organizations; and write and edit medical books and magazines. A few devote their full time to these activities, but most care for patients as well. O f the 165,000 employed physicians reported by the census in 1940, about a half were general prac titioners ; nearly a third were general practitioners with an interest or training in a specialty; the re mainder (slightly over one-fifth) limited their practice to their specialty. The recognized spe cialties are, in descending order of numbers prac ticing : otolaryngology, internal medicine, surgery, ophthalmology, pediatrics, radiology, obstetrics and gynecology, neurology and psychiatry, pathol ogy, urology, orthopedic surgery, dermatology and syphilology, anesthesiology, plastic surgery, neu rosurgery, public health, industrial medicine, and physical medicine. cialized training and practice in the selected field. Residencies of varying lengths in approved insti tutions are required for most specialties as part of the training. In addition, physicians intending to become general practitioners often serve as resi dents for a year or two after completing their internship to obtain additional training and experience. Training and Qualifications For practice as a physician in any State or the District of Columbia, one must be licensed by a State board of medical examiners and register annually with this board. With rare exceptions, it takes 7 to 9 years after high school to complete the educational and experience requirements for licensure. Candidates must be graduates of ap proved medical schools, which give 4-year courses and require students to have completed 3 or more years of premedical study in college. A few schools require only 2’ years of premedical study, whereas others require a bachelor’s degree. At all schools, this degree is an advantage in competing for ad mission—an important consideration in view of the present waiting list for entrance into most schools. After completing medical school, grad uates generally serve at least a year’s internship in a hospital; 1 year is legally required in about half o f the States. Finally, they have to pass a licens ing examination given by the State board of mediical examiners. To be recognized as a specialist, a doctor must meet standards established by one of the 16 spe cialty boards set up by the American medical profession (except for public health or industrial medicine, for which there are no specialty boards as yet). These standards include: graduation from an approved medical school, completion of an approved internship, and generally 5 years of spe COURTESY OF U. S. P U B L IC H EALTH S E R V IC E Surgeon and assistant during a tense moment in an operating room of a hospital Outlook The demand for physicians’ services is much greater now than before the war. The rise in na tional income and the development of prepay ment plans for medical care and hospitalization are making it possible for many more people to obtain doctors’ services. Among the other factors which will tend to increase the demand for their services are the increase in population (particu larly of older persons) ; Government provision of medical care for veterans and for members of the armed forces and their families; and the planned large-scale program for construction of hospitals in areas which have no modern facilities. Under lying these factors is the general trend toward higher standards of medical care and public health. In addition, about 4,000 new physicians are needed M E D IC A L -S E R V IC E each year to meet replacement needs, owing to deaths, retirements, and lowered service capacity among the many older physicians. Acceleration of training during the war will make possible the graduation of nearly 60,000 med ical students from accredited schools between 1940 and 1950, more than in any previous decade. How ever. the total number of physicians is not ex pected to increase proportionately faster than the population over the decade. It is therefore likely that with the present level of output of medical graduates, the supply o f physicians will not be suf ficient to meet the increased demand. However, planned expansion of medical education facilities will probably provide an additional number of physicians in the future. The outlook is excellent for young persons who can gain admission to medical school and complete the requirements for practice. The need for physicians’ services is greater in some sections of the country than in others. Even before the war, over half of all the States did not get enough new physicians to replace those who died or retired. The greatest need exists in rural areas, since physicians naturally tend to concen O C C U P A T IO N S 45 trate in and around highly populated and highincome areas. Earnings The average physician was in the top 3 percent o f the population with respect to income in 1947— with an average net income (after business ex penses) of nearly $9,900, more than twice as much as in 1939, according to a survey by Medical Eco nomics Magazine. Average gross incomes over this same period also more than doubled, rising from about $7,400 in 1939 to nearly $17,500 in 1947. In 1947, there was a wide difference in the net income of the independent physician and the salaried phy sician; then the former averaged $11,300 and the latter about $7,900. Incomes tend to be higher in large cities than in smaller communities. It should be emphasized that earnings of individual doctors vary widely—with length of professional experience, field of specialization and personal ability, as well as size of community and region of the country. Where To Get More Information American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago 10, 111. Dentists (D.O.T. 0-13.10) Outlook Summary Excellent opportunities for persons able to obtain admission to dental school and complete the requirements for practice. Nature of Work Most dentists (about 85 percent) are engaged in general practice. Only about 15 percent spe cialize in some particular branch of dentistry; and of this small group, only a fourth specialize on a full-time basis, the rest spending part of their time in general practice. The recognized spe cialties are oral surgery, orthodontics (teeth straightening), periodontics (treatment of dis ease), prosthodontics (making of artificial teeth or plates), pedodontics (children’s dentistry), and radiodontics (taking X-ray pictures and making diagnoses from them). The vast majority of dentists are independent practitioners. However, sizable numbers are em ployed by the United States Public Health Serv ice, the Veterans Administration, the armed forces, and other Government agencies; some are assistants to other dentists; and some work for in dustrial plants and other private organizations. Training and Qualifications For practice as a dentist in any State or the District of Columbia one must be licensed by the State board of dental examiners and in some States must be registered annually. The main require ment for admission to the examination for licen sure is 4 years of professional dental training in 46 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK one of tlie 40 recognized schools of dentistry, lead ing to the degree of doctor of dental surgery or doctor of dental medicine. One State, Delaware, requires a year’s internship before a dental grad uate may be admitted to the licensing examination. At least 2 years of predental study in college is required for admission to dental school. COU RTESY OF U. S. P U B L IC H EALTH S E R V IC E Regular examinations by a dentist are recognized more and more as a necessity for maintenance of good health. Outlooh There is a current need for additional personnel in this profession. At the beginning of the war, there were about 70,000 employed dentists and a few hundred seeking work according to the 1940 census. The number available was not sufficient to care for the health needs of the American peo ple. During the war, a backlog of oral defects piled up, owing to an acute shortage of civilian dentists. Wartime conditions also helped to arouse a national interest in more and better dental care. In addition, the proportion of the population which can afford dental services has increased greatly, owing to higher income levels. The shortage of dentists is likely to continue and may even become more acute. The number needed to replace those who die or retire each year is be tween 1,700 and 1,900 yearly. Annual graduations from dental schools will be several hundred higher than this, on the basis of present enrollments. But net increase in the profession indicated by these figures will not be as rapid as the anticipated growth in population. The annual output of graduates must be raised, in order to maintain even the existing ratio of dentists to population. Fur thermore, there is a long-run trend toward better oral health care for the general population, par ticularly school children, and the Veterans A d ministration expects to need an increasing number of dentists for care o f ex-servicemen and women. For all these reasons, the outlook for young per sons having the proper qualifications and interest in the work is exceptionally bright. Dental schools, however, are at capacity now, and many have waiting lists. All parts of the country will need dentists, but the need is less in some sections than in others. Ten States (New York, Illinois, Pennsylvania, California, Ohio, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin) with half the Nation’s population had three-fifths of all ac tive dentists in 1940. In all States, dentists are concentrated to a great extent in and around highly populated sections, where earnings tend to be highest. Rural areas therefore have fewer dentists in relation to population than do urban ones. Earnings In 1941, average net income was $3,773. Inde pendent practitioners (the great majority) aver aged $3,782; salaried dentists averaged $3,493. By the end of the war, dentists’ average income had more than doubled, owing to the increased pa tient load. Individual earnings vary with length of experience, type of specialization, and size of community. Where To Find Out More About Dentistry Information on schools, requirements, practice, and earnings may be obtained from the Council on MEDICAL-SERVICE OCCUPATIOXS Dental Education of the American Dental Asso ciation, 222 East Superior Street, Chicago, 111. This Council has published an informative 47 pamphlet, Dentistry as a Professional Career, which may be obtained from local libraries or by writing directly to the Association. Pharmacists (D.O.T. 0-25.10) Outlook Summary How to Enter Very good employment prospects for several years. Possible overcrowding in some areas in long run if enrollments in pharmacy colleges con tinue at present high levels. Entrance into this profession is governed by State licensing requirements. Most State laws specify that applicants for licenses must be citizens of the United States and at least 21 years of age. In every State except Vermont, graduation from a college of pharmacy is a prerequisite for obtain ing a license, and most States require at least a year of practical experience under the supervision of a registered pharmacist. In a number of States, a specified amount of experience must be gained in retail pharmacy; however, most States allow full credit for hospital experience, and the number doing so may increase in the near future. All States except New York and California will grant a license without examination to a pharmacist al ready registered in another State, provided that at the time of original licensure he had the quali fications required by the State in which he is pres ently seeking a license. Nature of Work Pharmacy is the science of drugs. A qualified pharmacist must understand the composition, chemical properties, manufacture, and uses of drugs, and be able to test them for purity and strength. He must also be able to compound medi cines as called for by physicians' prescriptions and he may advise doctors concerning the use and availability of drugs. About 85,000 registered pharmacists were em ployed in the Nation’s 50,000 drug stores at the end of 1916, or about 90 percent of all those in the profession. Most State laws require that, in every pharmacy, there shall be a registered pharmacist in attendance at all times. The essential function performed by the pharmacist in drug stores is fill ing prescriptions; particularly in small stores, however, he may perform a variety of sales and managerial duties—such as purchasing supplies and goods, arranging window displays, and hiring employees. Many retail pharmacists own and manage their own stores. Drug manufacturing and wholesaling firms em ployed about 5,000 registered pharmacists at the end of 1946. Some of these men did research or supervised drug production or packaging. Others were sales representatives or detail men, who visit physicians and retail druggists to tell them about the merit of new medicinal preparations. There were only about 2,500 registered phar macists in the Nation's 6,282 hospitals at the end of 1946. Still smaller numbers teach in colleges of pharmacy, write for pharmaceutical publications, or are employed by State and Federal Govern ment agencies. Outlook The outlook for the entire pharmaceutical pro fession is dominated by the prospects in retail drug stores, where a moderate upward long-term trend in employment is expected. In view of the steady increase in drug sales and the trend toward shorter working hours in the profession, it seems probable that many drug stores will have to take on addi tional pharmacists. It is also expected that there will be some increase—though not a large one— in the number of drug stores in the country. In recent years the tendency in cities has been away from many small stores toward fewer and bigger ones, but some new stores will be needed, particu larly in new residential areas. Employment in hospital pharmacies is expected to increase rapidly during the next few years. There will also be increased opportunities in man ufacturing and wholesaling, in the armed forces and the public health services, and as teachers, law- 48 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK enforcement officials, and writers for pharmaceuti cal publications. In addition, around 2.500 pharmacists will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other fields of work. There is now a shortage of registered personnel in many parts of the country, because of the sharp drop in graduations during the war and the ex panding employment needs. Record numbers of students have enrolled in pharmacy colleges since VJ-day (approximately 18,000 in the 65 accredited colleges in the academic year 1947-48, compared with about 8,000 in the immediate prewar years). Several new colleges have been organized and are already admitting first- and second-year students. Nevertheless, the shortage will probably not be reThe pharmacist must exercise great care in filling a physician's prescription lieved before the 1950's. After that, there may be a tendency toward overcrowding in some areas, particularly big cities, if enrollments continue at the present high level. Earnings and Working Conditions Pharmacists working for others usually earned $70 to $80 per week during 1947, according to scattered reports from various parts of the coun try. Those in beginning positions with the Fed eral Government start at $2,974 per year, are usu ally raised to $3,727 after a year’s experience, and may advance still further thereafter. Owners of successful drug stores may have considerably higher net incomes. Hours of work are long in many drug stores, since such stores are usually open in the evenings and on Sundays. The work requires the phar macist to be on his feet a great deal. In drug manufacturing, teaching, publications work, and Government service hours tend to be shorter. Sales representatives spend a lot of their time going from one doctor’s office or retail drug store to another and may work irregular hours. Where To Go for More Information For general information on the profession, one may write t o : American Pharmaceutical Association, 2215 Constitution Are. NW., Washington 7, D. C. Information on schools and scholarships is avail able from the Dean of any college of pharmacy or from : American Association o f Colleges o f Pharmacy, College Station, Brookings, S. Dak. Current regulations on education, training, and other requirements for licensure in a particular State may be obtained from the board of pharmacy at the State capitol. Persons interested in entering the profession should find out about these regula tions before enrolling in pharmacy colleges or arranging to obtain practical experience. MEDICAL-SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 49 Registered Professional Nurses 2 (D.O.T. 0-33) Registered nurses (R. N.’s) are the second larg est group of professional women in the country. In 1947, there were over 300,000 registered pro fessional nurses, and over 100,000 student nurses. According to an estimate in 1946, about 60 percent of the employed nurses were in hospitals, schools o f nursing, or other institutions; about one-fourth were in private practice; the remainder were pub lic health, industrial, or office nurses. In 1940 only 2 percent were men; only 2 percent were Negroes. The opportunity for women to advance to posts of responsibility is good, because of the large number of supervisory positions in this large pro fession and the lack of competition from men. Teaching and administrative positions, particu larly in schools of nursing, usually go to those who have college degrees as well as the necessary pro fessional preparation and who combine success ful experience with aptitude for teaching or ad ministrative work. Advancement is also possible through specialization in such fields as anesthesia, midwifery, industrial hygiene, and orthopedic, pediatric, maternity, or psychiatric nursing, where the demand for nurses is expanding and pay tends to be higher. Public health nursing also offers many opportunities for advancement. Training and Other Qualifications Outlook To be a registered nurse, one must have a license issued by the State board of nurse examiners or other authorized agency. In practically all States, applicants for licenses must have high school diplomas and be graduates of schools of nursing approved by the State board. The basic course in nursing education usually consists of 3 years of combined study and supervised experience in one or more hospitals. Most States specify that applicants must be at least 21 years old, and all require them to pass an examination given by the board. Provision is made by most States for granting of licenses or certificates without exami nation to registered nurses from other States. Educational preparation beyond the minimum required for licensing is an asset in competing for professional advancement. Almost 2*00 schools offer college-level nursing programs leading to a degree. Nurses with the United States Public Health Service must have had at least a year of postgraduate study in public-health nursing at a college or university approved by the National Organization for Public Health Nursing. The present shortage of nurses, estimated to be somewhere between 40,000 and 60,000 is caused by an unprecedented demand for nursing service at a time when many nurses are leaving the field and insufficient numbers are entering nursing schools. Although the supply increased rapidly during the war, owing to Cadet Nurse Corps training, new en rollments decreased greatly after VJ-day, but were higher in 1947 than in 1946. At the same time, more nurses than usual have been dropping out be cause of marriage and family responsibilities, re tirement, desire for additional training, or trans fer to other lines of work. The need for nurses continues to increase. Civilian hospitals have larger patient loads. Meanwhile, the postwar drop in the number of volunteers who helped care for patients during the war has been very great. More private duty nurses are needed to take care of people who still cannot be accommodated in hos pitals. Additional public-health nurses are also needed. Because of the tendency of nurses to con centrate in large cities, the greatest shortages are in small towns and rural areas. In the long run, the shortage of nurses is ex pected to continue; it may become even more acute. Outlook Summary Excellent opportunities both in the immediate future and in the long run, but openings vary con siderably by locality. Nature of Work 2P repared by the B ureau of Labor Statistics in cooperation w the W en’s B ith om ureau. 50 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK H A N D B O O K The trend toward greater use of nursing service, which has been evident for the past quarter cen tury, has been accelerated by recent developments. The Federal Government has become more active in meeting health needs. Recently enacted bills and pending legislation will mean employment for many thousands of nurses. Veterans’ hospitals will have increasing numbers of patients, with the peak expected about 1975. Hospital insurance hand, a fourth earned more than $195. Median earnings in different fields of nursing ranged from $153 a month for private duty work to $207 for nurse educators. Because of differences in the number o f days worked during the month, earn ings of individual private-duty nurses varied widely; one out of four earned less than $95 and another fourth received at least $200. There was also variation by regions, from a median of $144 in New England to $202 in the Pacific States. An 8-hour day and a workweek of 40 to 48 hours has become the generally accepted schedule in nursing, but there are many deviations, especially in pri vate-duty nursing. Where To Go for More Information Additional information on the outlook for women as professional nurses is given in the fo l lowing publication: U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau— Professional Nurses. Bulletin 203, No. 3. 66 pp. Washington, 1946. Price 15 cents. Co urtesy of U. S. P u b l ic H ealth S e r v ic e During an operation the surgical nurse is depended upon for her alertness and coordination in assisting the surgeon plans are enlarging hospital patient loads. The field of public-health nursing is growing. The general growth in population, with a larger pro portion of older persons, will also increase the need for nursing service. Turn-over will continue to create many job openings each year. It is esti mated that about 500,000 nurses will be required by 1960 to maintain current standards of nursing. Earnings and Hours o f Work In October 1946, median monthly earnings of registered nurses who were not provided with liv ing quarters were between $170 and $175. About one in four earned less than $145; on the other Additional information on earnings and work ing conditions is given in the following publica tion : U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Economic Status of Registered Pro fessional Nurses. Bulletin No. 931. 69 pp. Su perintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C. (1947). Price 30 cents. Information may also be obtained from : American Nurses’ Association, 1790 Broadway, New York 19, N. Y. National Committee on Careers in Nursing, 11th Floor, 1790 Broadway, New York 19, N. Y. National League o f Nursing Education, 1790 Broadway, New York 19, N. Y. National Nursing Council, 1790 Broadway, New York 19, N. Y. Information on State registration requirements may be obtained from the board of nurse examin ers from any State capital or from the Counselor of any State Nurses’ Association (a directory of these counselors is available from the American Nurses’ Association). M E D IC A L -S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S 51 Veterinarians (D.O.T. 0-34.10) Outlook Summary Very good opportunities in immediate future. In the long run the greatly increasing number of new entrants may cause some overcrowding. Nature of Work Veterinarians study and treat diseases of ani mals, serve as counsel on matters relating to the care and breeding of animals, and inspect animal products intended for human consumption. Most of the 14,000 veterinarians in the United States are general practitioners; among those who specialize, the majority work with cattle or small animals. About 65 percent are in private practice; most of the remainder are employed on a salary basis by Federal and State agencies for meat in spection, disease control, and research. About 400 are now in the Army Veterinary Corps, in which 2,200 served during the war. Some are employed as teachers, and a few work for commercial manu facturers of products used in veterinary medicine. Where Employed Veterinarians are found chiefly in States where a large percentage of the Nation’s livestock is raised. States in which veterinary service is now in use on a large scale are New York, Illinois, Iowa, California, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Mich igan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Texas, Missouri, and Kansas. Most of the private practice, except pet practice, is in rural areas. Training and Other Qualifications A license is required to practice in all States and the District o f Columbia. Generally, applicants must be graduates of veterinary schools and must pass an examination to obtain a license. A few States accept diplomas from approved schools in lieu of the examination; some do not specify grad uation, but few except graduates could pass the required examinations. At least 1 year of preveterinary work and 4 years of professional study in a veterinary college are required for the doctor of veterinary medicine degree. Further training can be taken in specialized fields such as pathology or bacteriology. There are 10 accredited schools in the United States and 7 new schools not yet eligi ble for recognition. Only graduates of accredited veterinary colleges are admitted to examination for Federal civil-service employment. Outlook There is a current shortage of veterinarians for private practice work, due largely to the increased demand for their services as a result of the present high value of livestock. There are also many openings in salaried positions, particularly with the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture, for inspectors of meat products and for work in disease eradica tion and control. Teachers are needed to staff the several new schools which have opened. Be cause there are many men in this occupation who are at or nearing the retirement age, there will be above-normal replacement needs in the years im mediately ahead. In the long run, some growth in the field is ex pected. Principal fields for future expansion are public-health work and research on livestock dis eases, the former being concerned mainly with food inspection and control of diseases transmissible to man. Some expansion also is expected in oppor tunities in private practice. The trend is toward more scientific attention to the raising of livestock and poultry—to produce more and better meat, milk, wool, and other products with the same amount of feed and care. However, in this field the demand for veterinary service depends largely upon economic conditions, as the market value of an animal usually determines the professional care that can be afforded. Practice with pet animals has grown greatly in recent years and can be ex pected to make further gains. The increased need for replacements together with greater demand for veterinary services in 52 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK numerous fields will create job opportunities above the normal rate for a number of years. However, this is a small profession and the number of new entrants that can be accommodated is limited. Beginning in 1949, graduating classes will exceed prewar figures. New schools now being estab lished will make possible an even larger number of graduates. In the long run, it may become more and more difficult for new entrants to find desirable locations for establishing independent practices, and the competition for salaried jobs will increase. come of over $5,000 a year. However, most prac titioners live in rural areas where living costs are comparatively low. The two fields which usually bring highest incomes are pet practice in metro politan areas and specialized practice with thor oughbred horses and other purebred animals, such as fine dairy cattle. Veterinarians employed by the Federal Government earn $2,974 to $4,479 in most types of jobs; salaries of veterinarians em ployed by State and municipal governments are generally lower. Earnings Where To Go for More Information American Veterinary Medical Association, 600 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago 5, 111. Income from private practice varies greatly according to location and length of time in prac tice, with the range being about $2,500 to $10,000 or higher. Only a small percentage have a net in United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau o f Animal Industry, W ashington 25, D. C. Medical Laboratory Technicians 3 (D.O.T. 0-50.01) Outlook Summary Expanding demand and good employment op portunity for graduates from approved schools and for all-round experienced workers with col lege background. Higli-school graduates with laboratory experience as helpers or routine work ers will not have much chance in competition with well-trained personnel. Nature of Work About two-thirds of all medical laboratory technicians are employed in hospital laboratories, where they make blood and urine analyses on all patients and, as directed by a physician, special analyses and laboratory tests (metabolism, sputum, serology) on particular patients. Others work in physicians’ laboratories, in public-health laboratories, in clinics, and in medical schools. Training and Other Qualifications One may qualify for registration with the Registry^ o f Medical Technologists of the Amer ican Society of Clinical Pathologists by graduat ing from one of the 294 hospital schools for clinical 3 Prepared by the W omen’ s Bureau, U. S. Department o f Labor. laboratory technicians approved by the American Medical Association. The length of the course at an approved school ranges upward from the re quired minimum of 12 months. For entrance, 2 years of accredited college work, which may be raised to 3 years in the near future, are required. Certain credits in specified subjects, or graduation from a recognized school of nursing plus 30 semester hours of college work including chemistry and biology, are required. Painstaking accuracy, dependability, and ability to follow directions are some of the most important personal traits for advancement. The advancement opportunity for even thoroughly trained medical technicians also depends on the size of the organization. Outlook The demand for registered technologists and for adequately trained technicians will continue to increase with the extension of hospitals for vet erans and for the civilian population, and of pub lic-health services and clinics. With the spread of hospitalization insurance, the number of patients served in hospitals will continue to rise. Labora tories in public-health facilities are also gradually increasing in number. M E D IC A L -S E R V IC E Many practicing physicians are forming small groups, hiring a medical laboratory technician, and maintaining a laboratory to service the group. Most specialists in internal medicine employ a full-time technician because of the large number of routine and special laboratory tests involved in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the internal organs. Industrial medical laboratories are also growing in number with the emphasis on industrial hygiene. The growing use of powerful drugs such as the sulfa group, requiring labora tory checking, also tends to increase the need for the laboratory technician. Opportunities in re search are usually limited to those who have de grees in science or medicine. Poorly or partially trained technicians who entered the field because of wartime emergency will have difficulty in com peting with well-trained personnel because of high peacetime standards of skill and competence. In 1917 there were approximately 13,000 reg istered medical technologists and another group of about 12,000 to 13,000 without approved training who were working as technicians in medical lab oratories. According to the American Society of Medical Technologists, from 1,000 to 2,000 newly trained medical technologists should be available yearly to keep abreast of the demand for the next 15 years. About 1,000 were graduated in 1946 from approved schools. It is estimated that 45,000 will be needed by 1960. During the war approved hospitals employed nonregistered technicians, many of whom had been trained for only a few weeks or months in schools that offered substand O C C U P A T IO N S 53 ard courses. But poorly trained persons cannot obtain jobs when well-trained persons are avail able. The vast majority of medical technicians are women. Some of the men who had received laboratory training in the Army and Navy, how ever, may find opportunity as laboratory workers by acquiring additional skills required by peace time standards established in the profession. Earnings In 1946, a study of 1,153 technologists showed that 1 percent received less than $1,200 and 4 per cent received more than $3,600, in both cases with out maintenance. The largest group of medical technologists were paid from $2,400 to $2,700 with out maintenance. Medical laboratory technicians in hospital laboratories usually receive higher sala ries than those in university laboratories and in physicians’ offices; but their salaries are lower than those in public-health laboratories and commercial clinical laboratories. Where To Go for More Information Additional information on the outlook for women as medical laboratory technicians is given in the following publication: U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s B ureauMedical Laboratory Technicians. Bulletin 203, No. 4. 10 pp. Washington, 1945. Information may also be obtained from : American Society o f Medical Technologists, Medical Center Bldg., Lafayette, La. Optometrists (D.O.T. 0-53.10) Outlook Summary Good opportunities at present and in immediate future. Some expansion in field expected in long run, but increasing number of new entrants will create considerable competition for desirable lo cations. Nature of Work Optometrists specialize in examining the eyes and conserving and improving the vision. They administer a series of tests to determine visual effi 793996°—49- 5 ciency and prescribe lenses or corrective exercises when needed. They do not treat diseases of the eye but refer patients to doctors of medicine for such care. Some optometrists fill the prescrip tions for eyeglasses in their own laboratories. Optometrists use various instruments for eye measurement and examination. The ophthal mometer or keratometer may be used to measure the degree of astigmatism; the retinoscope and refractometer, to determine the degree of near sightedness or far-sightedness; the ophthalmo- 54 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK scope, to examine the interior of the eye. Op tometrists also give subjective examinations, using a series of lenses and prisms to assist in determining the one or combination which gives the patient greatest clearness, comfort, and efficiency of vision. Optometrists should not be confused with ocu lists or opticians. The oculist (or ophthalmol ogist) is a duly licensed doctor of medicine who is a specialist in the medical and surgical care of the eyes and is qualified to prescribe lenses or any other form of treatment. The optician fills pre scriptions for eyeglasses written by oculists or optometrists; he does not examine eyes nor pre scribe treatment. Where Employed Most optometrists are engaged in private prac tice,and maintain offices in professional buildings or in their homes. Many, especially new entrants, are employed by established practitioners or are associated with clinics or industrial organizations. The greatest number of optometrists are in urban areas. The ratio of practitioners to popu lation varies greatly from one State to another. For example, California, Oregon, and Illinois have 1 optometrist for about every 5,000 per sons, while in some Southern States the ratio is 1 to every 20,000 persons. Training and Other Qualifications A license is required in all States and the Dis trict of Columbia for the practice of optometry. Graduation from a 4- or 5-year course in a college of optometry which has been approved by the American Optometric Association is necessary for admittance to a State board examination. The 10 accredited schools and colleges of optometry, all of which require high-school graduation for admittance, award the degree of doctor of op tometry or the degree of bachelor of science in optometry. Young people planning to enter such colleges should take as many classes as possible in mathematics and science. Outlook Optometrists who are already trained or who enter practice in the near future will find good op portunities. There is room for new entrants to replace those lost because of death and retirement and to make up for curtailment of training during HANDBOOK the war. At present, there are only about 17,000 registered optometrists and only a relatively small number of physicians who are specialists in eye health, to take care of the visual requirements of the entire population. In the long run, there will be an increasing number of employment opportunities, owing to population increase and the extension of eye care. There is a growing awareness of the need for such care, brought about largely by school health ex aminations, expansion of health facilities in rural communities, emphasis on safety through proper vision, and the importance of vision in modern industry. However, the present number of stu dents of optometry is three times the prewar num ber. I f such increased enrollments continue for several years, it may become difficult for new en trants to find desirable opportunities for practice. The need for practitioners is greatest in rural communities and small towns. Those choosing a location should take into consideration the fact that the demand for optometric services depends not only on the number of people in the locality and their income level but also on the occupations in which they are employed. For example, the proportion of people using eyeglasses is less among farmers than office and factory workers. Earnings Self-employed optometrists had the following approximate median net incomes in 1944 according to a survey o f members of the American Optom etric Association : $1,720 for the first year o f prac tice; $2,825 for the third year; $3,675 for the fifth year; $4,970 for the tenth year. The median net incomes of optometrists with the same amount o f experience who were working for others were ap proximately $1,900, $2,510, $2,940, and $3,410 re spectively. In general, incomes were highest in cities with populations of from 10,000 to 50,000. Where To Go for Further Information General information on optometry may be ob tained from : American Optometric Association, 518 W ilm ac Bldg., Minneapolis 2, Minn. Information on State requirements for licensing optometrists is available from the State board of examiners in optometry in any State capital. M E D IC A L -S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S 55 Chiropractors (D.O.T. 0-42.10) Outlook Summary Employment opportunities vary widely from one part of the country to another. New entrants with the highest qualifications will have greatest opportunities. Nature of Work Chiropractic is a system of treatment based on the premise that the nerve system controls the physiological functions of the human body, and that interference with the nerve system impairs normal functions and induces disease by rendering the body less resistant to infection or other causes of disability. The chiropractor treats by specific adjustment and manipulation the structures of the body, especially those of the spinal column. He makes use of such supplementary measures as diet, rest, light, water, heat, and exercise. Most prac titioners enter independent private practice which is limited almost entirely to office calls. How To Enter High school graduation or its equivalent is pre requisite for training in all States issuing licenses, and one or more years of preparatory college work is required in some States. With the exception of a few States, 4 years of training in 1 of the 26 chiropractic colleges is necessary for admission to examinations; the degree of D. C. (doctor of chiropractic) is awarded upon completion o f this course. The make-up of the examining boards differs among the States; some are composed of medical members only, chiropractic members only, or basic science members only, while other boards have combinations of these. As a result, examina tions given bv some boards are considered much more difficult than those given by others. Chiropractic is licensed in 43 States, Hawaii, Alaska, and the District of Columbia, but is not legalized in Louisiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New York, and Texas. Outlook The success of the new entrant will depend in large part on proper selection of a location; since the principles of healing by chiropractic are not as yet universally accepted, community attitudes and State regulations vary widely. Employment opportunities will be greatest for new entrants who are able to meet the highest State licensing requirements, including gradua tion from a 4-year course of 3,600 or more hours. It will become increasingly important to be able to qualify for any State examination in order to have a wide choice of locations. Opportunities for women appear to be good, as many women prefer to go to members of their own sex for treatment. In 1940, 18 percent of the 11,000 chiropractors reported in the census wgre women. There are some opportunities for chiropractors as teachers and in X-ray work (taking and inter preting X-ray pictures for other chiropractors). Earnings As in other types of independent practice, in come of chiropractors varies according to such factors as ability, personality, length of experience, location, and economic conditions. Average net income before the depression was about $2,500. A survey made just before the war showed that aver age net income ranged from about $1,500 in the first year of practice to a peak of $7,500 after 10 to 15 years of practice. Incomes are known to have risen considerably in the last few years. Where To Find Out More About Chiropractic National Chiropractic Association, National Bldg., Webster City, Iowa. 56 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Medical X -R ay Technicians 4 (D.O.T. 0-50.04) Outlook Summary Good employment opportunities for registered technicians or those with comparable training and experience. Limited opportunities for those who have received only short, specialized training in the armed services. Nature of Work The medical X-ray technician operates X-ray equipment for the purpose of photographing parts of the body or treating patients by means of X - rays. He usually works under the direction of a physician. His job may include various related duties such as developing and drying the films, or office work of an unrelated nature. X-ray techni cians employed in industry for the examination of materials are not included in this discussion. X-rays for medical purposes. The technician may specialize in X-rays of certain parts of the body, such as the chest, abdomen, or feet. Outlook The general trend in the medical services is toward an increasing need for X-ray technicians. The total number of X-ray technicians in 1947 was estimated at 19,000 as compared to about 15,000 be fore the war. About 78 percent were women but the number of male technicians was increasing. Hospitals graduate from 500 to 700 X-ray tech nicians each year. Many others are trained in formally by the radiologists for whom they are working. Since X-ray work is still incidental in many medical services, there is often a preference for persons who have related training or experience Training and Other Qualifications X-ray technicians are trained principally in ap proved training courses at various hospitals. In general, high school graduation is required for entrance to a 12-month course of training. Prefer ence is given to graduate nurses, those with some training in nursing, and those with college work in science. In order to become registered by the American Registry o f X-ray Technicians, it is necessary to have completed high school or the equivalent, to have at least 2 years of experience and training under a recognized radiologist, and to pass an examination given by the board of trus tees. There were about 6,000 registered X-ray technicians in 1947. Good health is an important consideration in this occupation, since those who work with X-rays and radium are subject to the effects of radiation which may make them anemic. About half of all medical X-ray technicians are employed in hospitals; some work in the offices of radiologists and of dentists or in laboratories which serve physicians, dentists, and others using 4 Prepared by the Women’s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor. X-ray technician taking X-ray film in a hospital COU RTESY OF U. S. P U B L IC H EALTH S E R V IC E M E D IC A L -S E R V IC E in nursing, in medical laboratory work, or in secre tarial work. Originally used for diagnosis in bone work and in the location of foreign bodies, the X-ray is now employed widely in such fields as examination for detecting tuberculosis, and defects of the teeth and in the treatment of cancers, tumors, sinusitis, and certain skin conditions. Industrial establish ments, health departments, tuberculosis hospitals and associations in many parts of the country are organizing for the routine X-raying of large groups. Many insurance companies are beginning to include a chest X-ray as a part of the physical examination. Expansion in the use of X-ray should create ample opportunities for those who will be graduated from approved schools. But those who received only partial training in the armed services may have difficulty in qualifying for positions in civilian medical services. It is estimated that 35,000 medical X-ray technicians will be needed by 1960 to fill anticipated needs. O C C U P A T IO N S 57 Earnings Annual earnings of X-ray technicians ranged from $1,800 to $3,600 in 1947. Civil-Service sal aries for X-ray technicians begin at $2,498. Op portunities for advancement are relatively few but there are some supervisory jobs in large hospitals, institutions, laboratories, or public health agencies where a number of technicians are employed. Where To Go For More Information Additional information on the outlook for women as medical X-ray technicians is given in the following publication: U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau— X -R ay Technicians. Bnlletin 203, No. 8. 14 pp. Washington, 1945. Price 10 cents. Information may also be obtained from : The American Registry of X -R ay Technicians, Alfred B. Greene, B. Sc. It. T. 2900 E. Minnehaha Parkway, Minneapolis 6, Minn. Occupational Therapists 5 (D.O.T. 0-32.04) Outlook Summary Good employment opportunities for persons al ready trained and for a steady flow of new entrants. Nature o f Work The occupational therapist conducts programs for patients in hospitals and other institutions to provide them with directed activity which will help in their rehabilitation; he supervises workers who teach such activities as arts and crafts. Occu pational therapy is a type of treatment prescribed by a physician to hasten a patient’s recovery from disease or injury or to help him adjust to hospitali zation. Among the activities taught are: weav ing, leatherwork, woodwork, photography, metal work, ceramics, plastics, printing, and gardening. Most occupational therapists work with mental or orthopedic patients; many are employed in tuberculosis or children’s hospitals or wards; still others specialize in work with the blind or with 5 Prepared by the Women's Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor. patients who are chronically ill. Almost all the work done in the past has been in hospitals and institutions, but recently there has been a trend toward the development of community workshops to which those who need occupational therapy may come from their homes or places of employment. A t present the largest field is in the rehabilitation o f veterans. Most of the tuberculosis and neuro psychiatric veterans’ hospitals, as well as some of the general veterans’ hospitals caring for large numbers of chronic patients, have occupational therapy departments. Training and Other Qualifications Graduation from an accredited school of occu pational therapy is generally required to qualify as an occupational therapist. There are 26 such schools in the United States, 4 of which have not been in existence long enough to obtain accredita tion. Requirements for entrance vary with the course subsequently taken. A 5-year degree or a 4-year diploma course is available to high-school 58 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK graduates. A 3-year diploma course is offered persons with 1 year of college, and advanced stand ing is given for additional college work. Prefer ence is given to students interested in degree courses; enrollments in the diploma courses are decreasing and these courses may ultimately be dropped. To become a registered occupational therapist, it is necessary to graduate from an ac credited school and to pass the national registra tion examination given by the American Occu pational Therapy Association. HANDBOOK dictable future; however, at a later date the par tially trained wartime assistant and junior aide may find difficulty in competing with the more completely trained person. The greatest number of occupational therapists were formerly along the eastern seaboard and in the Midwest; however, future employment oppor tunities may tend to be more widespread, because veterans’ hospitals, where so many will be em ployed, are located in many States. Earnings Outlook There is an increasing need for capable persons in this small, but growing field. The American Occupational Therapy Association believes that a minimum total of 5,000 will be needed in this occupation by 1960. A t present there are short ages especially of those qualified for administra tive jobs. There will continue to be good oppor tunities for new entrants because of expansion of veterans’ hospitals, civilian health programs, and the increasing use of occupational therapy for mental patients, crippled children, tuberculous patients, and convalescents. There is likely to be considerable turn-over because of the retirement of the many young women in the occupation who marry. There were approximately 3,000 persons, mostly women, in the occupation in 1947, of whom about 2,500 were registered. In spite of the special war training programs, the need is so great that no oversupply in this field is anticipated in the pre Salaries for beginners range from $1,500 to $2,000. In institutional work, $75 to $100 per month, plus maintenance, is the usual salary. Heads of departments or of schools may earn as high as $3,500 to $5,000 a year, the average falling between $2,500 and $3,500. Federal civil service pays $2,974.80 per annum for qualified entrants as occupational therapists. Where To Go for More Information Additional information on the outlook for women as occupational therapists is given in the following publication: U. S. Department o f Labor, Women’s Bureau— Occupational Therapists. Bulletin 203, No. 2. 15 pp. Washington, 1945. Price 10 cents. Information may also be obtained from : American Occupational Therapy Association, 33 W. 42d St., New York 18, N. Y. Physical Therapists (D.O.T. 0-52.22) Outlook Summarg Excellent opportunities for persons already qualified. New entrants from approved schools should readily be absorbed for several years to come. Nature of Work The physical therapist administers treatment only as prescribed by a physician. Physical s Prepared by the W om en’ s Bureau, U. S. Department o f Labor. therapy includes treatment by means of massage, exercise, heat, light, water, and electricity, for poliomyelitis, arthritis, cerebral palsy, and for neuropsychiatric and other patients. Most physical therapists work in hospitals, but some are employed by orthopedic surgeons, by physiatrists (physicians specializing in physical medicine) or in public health or social service agencies serving crippled children, injured indus trial workers, and others who need physical therapy treatments. Those employed in hospitals M E D IC A L -S E R V IC E usually have access to a wider variety of equip ment and tend to be less specialized than those working with a particular physician or agency. Training and Other Qualifications Graduation from an approved school of physical therapy is requisite for registration with the Amer ican Registry of Physical Therapy Technicians; admission requires graduation from a school of nursing, a school of physical education, or 60 col lege semester hours, including courses in the phys ical and biological sciences. The American Physiotherapy Association reports that an in creasing percentage of the 25 training schools in this field will soon require 3 years of college edu cation. The length of the approved physical therapy course ranges upward from a minimum of 10 months. Good health is essential. More than 90 percent of physical therapists are women. Outlook There was an acute shortage o f trained physical therapists during the war and the demand is still greater than the supply. Although graduating classes increased from about 150 in 1941 to 507 in 1946 and there were approximately 250 addi tional graduates of emergency war courses, the needs still have not been met. The additional numbers trained under the Army program and those who will be graduated annually from ap proved schools will be absorbed for several years to come. Applications for training are now exceed ing training capacity so that only the best qualified are selected. Veterans’ hospitals will continue to need most of the physical therapists. A marked increase is expected in the number of veterans who need treat ment but do not require hospitalization. They will be given physical-therapy treatment as out patients. Expanding civilian rehabilitation and crippled-children programs, in which States are aided by Federal funds, also have encouraged the use of physical therapy in the rehabilitation of both adults and children. The clinical and lab oratory research of the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis has found that prompt physi cal-therapy treatment is of great value in polio O C C U P A T IO N S 59 myelitis. As techniques and equipment continue their development, more physicians will recom mend physical therapy for patients. There were 3,391 full-time physical therapists in 1946 in all hospitals in the United States. In 1947, there were 4.400 registered physical thera pists, of whom about 3,900 were working. A p proximately 1,100 additional workers were not registered. Six-month’s emergency courses in Army hospitals were given for selected college graduates during the war, and enlisted men and women in the Navy were trained to serve as assist ants under the supervision of a physical therapist or a medical officer. The assistants were not qual ified for registration as physical therapists and could not practice as such without additional train ing. The rate of withdrawal from the occupation may be high if many of the recently trained young women marry and retire fully or partially from practice after only a few years of service. It is estimated by the American Physiotherapy Asso ciation that altogether 15,000 physical therapists will be needed by 1960. Earnings Before the war beginners received about $1,500 annually, but in 1947 graduates of approved schools started at $2,200 to $2,400. Except for small annual increases, advancement is mainly through the addition of supervisory or instruc tional duties at salaries ranging upward to $4,000. Civil-service entrance salary for physical ther apists is $2,974. Allowance for maintenance is sometimes given by hospitals. Where To Go for More Information Additional information on the outlook for women as physical therapists is given in the fol lowing publication: U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau— Physical Therapists. Bulletin 203, No. 1. 14 pp. Washington, 1945. Price 10 cents. Information may also be obtained from: The American Physiotherapy Association, 1790 Broadway. New York 19, N. Y. 60 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Medical Record Librarians (D.O.T. 0-23.25) Outlook Summary Good employment opportunities for graduates of approved schools in this relatively small but growing occupation. New entrants will encounter considerable competition unless specially trained. Nature of Work The medical record librarian is in full charge of the medical or clinical reports o f a hospital. Duties consist of planning, organizing, and man aging the records department, as well as catalog ing, filing, and compiling medical and surgical statistics, and assisting physicians in using them for research. The medical record librarian should not be confused with medical librarians who have charge of a library in a hospital or medical institu tion and have nothing whatever to do with the patients’ records. Medical record librarians are employed in hos pitals or other medical institutions throughout the country. Both men and women are employed in this occupation, although women predominate. Training and Other Qualifications Only a small proportion of those engaged in this occupation at present are graduates of the 12 approved schools. Two years of college or graduation from a recognized school of nursing is usually required for entrance to an approved course, which lasts 12 months. Three schools whose courses lead to a degree require only a high school education. A ll students must be proficient in typing and shorthand. Regular courses include at least 208 hours on medical fundamentals and terminology. Because of insufficient personnel a short in-service training program, financed by the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, has been established by the American Association of Medical Record Librarians. Institutes are also being conducted jointly with the American Hos 7 Prepared by the W omen’s Bureau, U. S. Department o f Labor. pital Association. These two types of educational programs are being sponsored to assist those now working in medical record libraries who are un able to attend an approved school. Less than a third of the medical record librar ians employed full time in registered hospitals are registered by the Registry of the American Association of Medical Record Librarians. Re quirements for registration include: Graduation from an approved school or a high-school gradua tion plus 3 to 5 years’ experience in this work; minimum age o f 21 years; active employment in this occupation; the passing of an examination covering pertinent subject matter. Outlook There is a steadily increasing need for medical record librarians due to increases in the number o f hospitals for veterans and civilians. More and more persons are seeking hospital care during ill ness. As the science of medicine progresses, as new treatments develop, the record-keeping func tion becomes more significant. Hospital records supply much of the raw material on which medical research and further progress depend. They also furnish a basis for evaluating the effectiveness o f the hospital and its staff and the extent o f their progress. There were 3,819 persons employed in full-time work of this type in registered hospitals in 1946 and another group of more than 1,000 engaged in part-time work. The combined capacity enroll ment of the 12 schools approved by the American Medical Association is only 140 students. In 1946, 25 students were graduated from approved courses, and an additional 18 completed special courses for experienced but untrained librarians. The several thousand nonschooled workers em ployed should have no difficulty in retaining their posts, especially if they supplement their train ing by special short courses in approved schools. However, untrained persons will find it increas ingly difficult to enter this field. M E D IC A L -S E R V IC E Earnings Annual salaries for medical record librarians throughout the United States in 1947, ranged from $2,400 to $5,000, according to the American Asso ciation of Medical Record Librarians. Advance ment opportunities lie in supervisory work, espe cially in large hospitals. O C C U P A T IO N S 61 women as medical record librarians is given in the following publication: U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau— Medical Record Librarians. Bulletin 203, No. 6. 9 pp. Washington, 1945. Price 10 cents. Information may also be obtained from : Where To Go for More Information American Association o f Medical Record Librarians, 18 E. Division St., Chicago, 111. Additional information on the outlook for Dental Hygienists 8 (D.O.T. 0-50.07) Outlook Summary Good opportunities for those trained in ap proved schools. There are increasing opportuni ties in public-health work, where qualifications and requirements are comparatively high. Nature of Work The dental hygienist cleans teeth and performs other preventive services consistent with the respec tive State dental laws or promotes dental health through educational activities in schools, clinics, and institutions. Most dental hygienists are employed in dentists’ offices, but in 1941 there were only 4.2 hygienists for every 100 dentists. A large number are em ployed in public-health programs conducted by public-school systems or by State or local health departments. Hospitals, clinics, and dental hy giene training schools represent the other major employers in this field. This occupation should be distinguished from that of the dental assistant who performs X-ray and laboratory work and clerical duties. A dental hygienist may also be trained to perform these duties, but, for her, they are a secondary function. All persons in this oc cupation are women. Training and Other Qualifications A minimum requirement for entrance to a school for training dental hygienists is high-school grad uation in a college preparatory curriculum. Stu 8 Prepared by the Women's Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor. dents must be 18 years o f age and in good health. The length of the course in an approved school is 2 years. Graduation from an approved school of dental hygiene and the successful passing of an examination given by a State board of dental ex aminers are requirements for licensure in 39 States, the District of Columbia, and Hawaii. Dental hygienist gives treatment to aid in prevention of tooth decay C OU RTESY OF U. S. P U B L IC H EALTH S E R V IC E 62 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Outlook Earnings There is general agreement that the opportu nities for dental hygienists in public-health and institutional work are gradually increasing. There is a difference o f opinion about the future demand for those who work in dentists’ offices. This d if ference arises out of the fact that both the dental hygienist and the dental assistant who is essen tially a clerical worker are valuable to a dentist. In 1941 dental assistants outnumbered dental hy gienists more than 10 to 1. There is a definite trend toward the employment by dentists of at least one person, since it increases the number of patients a dentist can serve. There also has been more and more emphasis placed upon group prac tice by several dentists which often results in their joint employment of one dental hygienist. In 1945, the number of licensed dental hygienists in the United States totaled more than 7,000. In 1947 all schools were full and had to turn down applicants. Preference was given to those with previous college work. The number of dental hygienists graduating annually from the 14 ap proved schools was 350 in 1947. By 1950, with the opening of 3 additional schools, the output will be 450. It has been estimated that more than twice this number could be used annually. There is a wide range in salaries due to differ ences in the income levels of the dentists and to the sizes o f communities and, in part, to the wide variation in background and personal qualifica tions of those practicing dental hygiene. In 1945 most dental hygienists, however, were earning be tween $2,000 and $2,500 a year. The beginning yearly Federal civil-service salary for dental hy gienists in 1947 was $2,394. Only a small propor tion of the dental hygienists work for the Federal Government, however. There are very few oppor tunities for supervisory work except in very large institutions. Where To Go for More Information Additional information on the outlook for women as dental hygienists is given in the follow ing publication: U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau— Dental Hygienists. Bulletin 203, No. 10. 17 pp. Washington, 1945. Price 10 cents. Information may also be obtained from : American Dental Hygienists Association, 1704 N. Troy St., Apartment 824, Arlington, Va. Engineering and Other Technical Fields The dramatic economic and social changes re viewed in the introduction to this handbook have been caused mainly by technological develop ments—the invention of new machines and proc esses, o f more efficient ways of getting things done. At the forefront of economic change, therefore, are the engineer and the scientist. By far the largest technical group is the engi neering profession, in which a quarter of a million were employed before the war. Next largest is the profession of chemistry. Draftsmen constitute the largest semiprofessional occupation, with labora tory technicians close behind. Important, but rel atively small in size, are such occupations as phys icist and mathematician. Few occupational fields have grown as rapidly as the technical fields in the past few decades. In 1880 there were only about 7,000 engineers. The profession expanded rapidly, branching out into its major divisions—civil, mechanical, electrical, mining and metallurgical, and chemical engineer ing. By 1940 the number of engineers employed was 35 times higher than in 1880. A similar rapid expansion took place in some of the other fields in the physical sciences. During the war the need increased greatly for these technical men. for research and development of new products and weapons, and for supervision over production. After the war expenditures on research and development increased, and construc tion activity boomed. The number of engineers employed increased from about 245,000 in 1940 to well over 300.000 in 1947. Physicists, mathemati cians, and other scientists whose main work had been in the classroom and the university laboratory suddenly found themselves very much in demand in industry and government. At the same time, the number of scientists being trained was reduced by the withdrawal o f college students by selective service. In the war years, 1942 to 1945, the num ber of Ph. D. degrees granted was nearly onequarter less than in the preceding 4-year period. Since the war, however, enrollment in these courses in the engineering schools and the colleges has increased greatly, and it is likely that the shortages of trained men will be alleviated in a few years. This suggests that competition will become keener, and that the young man or woman who plans to enter one of the engineering, physical science, or technical fields should get the best pos sible preparation. Employment opportunities for women in the scientific and technical fields are described in Bul letin 223 of the Women’s Bureau, United States Department of Labor. The bulletin was pub lished in the latter half of 1948 in eight separate pamphlets. The bulletin numbers and the fields covered by each are as follows: No. 223-1, The Outlook for Women in Science—Introduction; No. 223-2, Chemistry; No. 223-3, Biological Sci ences; No. 223-4, Mathematics and Statistics; No. 223-5, Architecture and Engineering; No. 223-6, Physics and Astronomy; No. 223-7, Geology, Geography, and Meteorology; No. 223-8, Occu pations Related to Science. Information on this series may be obtained from the Women’s Bureau, United States Department of Labor, Washington 25, D. C. Civil Engineers (D.O.T. 0-16.01) Outlook Summary Nature o f Work Good prospects for the next several years for those already trained. Persons who start train ing now (early 1948) or in the near future may be confronted with keen competition for jobs. A civil engineer plans, designs, and supervises the construction o f roads, bridges, buildings, dams, tunnels, transportation facilities, and other proj ects for public, industrial, or commercial use. 63 64 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK M o st c iv il en g in eers w o rk in tech n ica l a d m in is tra tiv e-m a n a g em en t, d esig n , o r co n stru ctio n su p e r v ision . O th ers are e m p lo y e d as co n s u ltin g e n g i neers, co lle g e teach ers, in research o r d evelop m en t w o rk , o r in sellin g . T h e m a jo r sp ecia lized fields o f c iv il e n g in e e rin g a r e : stru ctu ra l, h ig h w a y , h y d ra u lic, ra ilr o a d , sa n ita ry and p u b lic h ea lth , and a g ricu ltu ra l. engineering—such as city engineering positions— in which there is virtually no traveling at all. Training and Qualifications A bachelor’s degree in civil engineering is usu ally the minimum requirement for new entrants. A better-than-average aptitude for mathematics, physics, and mechanics is indispensable for stu dents. A great many students admitted to engi neering schools fail to complete the course and many of those who complete their schooling take more than 4 years to do so. Registration is required in practically all States for the legal right to practice “ professional engi neering” if public welfare or safeguarding of health and property are concerned. Many civil engineers, however, are engaged in work which does not require registration. Requirements for registration as a professional engineer as a gen eral rule are: graduation from an approved engi neering college, plus 4 years of experience and passing a State board examination. Outlook Cou rtesy of Bureau of R e c l a m a t io n , U. S . D e p a r t m e n t of In t e r i o r Frequently, the civil engineer is called upon to supervise construction jobs on site— sometimes in remote locations Where Employed About half of all civil engineers are employed in local, State, or Federal Government agencies. The private construction industry is a large em ployer. Many are also employed in the railroad industry and public utilities. Some are found in the iron and steel industry, petroleum refinery, and other industries. Civil engineers are em ployed in all parts of the country; there are jobs in every State and city. Frequently the engineer is called upon to work at the construction site, which is sometimes in a remote location. Some civil engineers from the United States work in for eign countries. In general, the occupation may require a good deal of moving from one place to another, although there are many jobs in civil Growth in this branch of engineering has not been so rapid in general as in the other major engineering fields in recent decades, partly because the construction industry has not grown as rapidly as some of the newer industrial fields. Like the construction industry as a whole, this occupation has wide swings in employment opportunities be tween periods of prosperity and depression. In 1940, civil engineers were the largest group of engineers, numbering over 89,000. Nearly 10 percent were unemployed, and manj fnen with civil engineering degrees were unable to get any job better than a subprofessional position as drafts man or surveyor. The demand for civil engineers will be very high during the next several years, owing to the large backlog of civilian construction piled up during the war and the previous decade, when building activity was low. After this demand has been satisfied somewhat, the level of construction activity may drop. It will, however, remain sub stantially above prewar levels providing general business conditions remain high. Total enrollment in engineering schools is at record levels, about three times as high as prewar enrollments. Civil engineering enrollment is also 65 ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS very high. In a few years, the number of stu dents graduating will exceed those needed for the expected expansion in employment and for re placement needs owing to death and retirement (which average about 2,000 a year). Thus, al though the demand for civil gngineers will be unusually high for the next several years, keener competition may again be experienced in the pro fession in the next decade, unless there is careful counseling and selection of persons who start train ing now. Persons now in training and those entering in the future would be well advised to get the best possible, all-around training to meet this competi tion for jobs. $350; with 20 years’ experience, about $390. Sala ries have probably increased somewhat since 1946. Salaries of $10,000 per year and over are not un common in this field, especially in positions involv ing management in addition to technical functions. Individual earnings vary with length of experi ence, education, type of work, and personal com petence. Engineers with advanced degrees usually earn more than those at the same age and experi ence levels with less academic training. Where To Get More Information American Society o f Civil Engineers, 33 W. 39th St., New York 18, N. Y. I n fo r m a t io n on ea rn in g s is g iv e n in the f o ll o w in g p u b lic a t io n : Earnings In 1946. beginners had a median monthly salary o f around $240; those with 5 years’ experience made about $60 more. After 10 years in the pro fession, the median monthly salary was around The Engineering Profession in Transition. En gineers Joint Council, 33 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York 18, N. Y. 1947, price $1. Data are from a survey covering only members o f six professional societies. Electrical Engineers (D.O.T. 0-17.01) Outlook Summary Expanding field; good prospects for those al ready well trained. However, those completing training and those entering college will probably meet intense competition for jobs. Nature o f Work The electrical engineer is concerned with the generation, transmission, and utilization of elec tricity. Among the major branches of electrical engineering are: Power generation, transmission, and distribution; illuminating engineering; wire communications; radio and electronics engineer ing; transportation engineering; and electrical machinery and equipment. The most important fields of functional specialization are: Research and development, operation or application, design, teaching, and selling. Where Employed About two-thirds of all electrical engineers are employed in the following industries: Electrical machinery manufacturing, electric utilities (gen eration, transmission, or distribution), communi cations (telegraph, telephone, radio), or elec tronics manufacturing. While employment is heavily concentrated in the industrial centers where electrical equipment is manufactured, over 65 percent of the engineers are in the States of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, Massachusetts, and Cali fornia. There are jobs with electric light and power companies, telephone companies, and radio stations in every State and in small cities through out the country. Some American electrical engi neers are also employed in foreign countries. Training and Qualifications G r a d u a tio n f r o m a re c o g n iz e d e n g in e e rin g c o l lege is the m in im u m ed u ca tio n a l requ irem en t f o r e le ctrica l e n g in e e rin g w ork . P e rso n s con tem p la tin g an e le ctr ic a l e n g in e e rin g career sh ou ld rate w ell above a vera ge in m ath em atics a n d sci en ce cou rses in h ig h school. A la rg e p a r t o f those 66 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK who enter engineering schools fail to graduate, and successful engineers are mostly found among those with high scholastic records. A broad but intensive fundamental training is thought by many to be preferable to specialization for college students. Larger electrical manufacturing es tablishments have training courses of from 1 to 2 years for college graduates, thus supplementing college instruction by training within industry. Registration is required by practically all States for the legal right to practice “ professional en gineering” if public welfare or safeguarding of life, health, and property are concerned. Many electrical engineers, however, are engaged in work which does not require that they be registered. Those without certificates of registration may work under engineers who have such certificates and who thereby assume the public responsibility contemplated in the registration laws. Require ments for registration as professional engineer are: Graduation from an approved engineering college, plus 4 years o f experience and passing of a State examination. Examining boards may accept a longer period of experience as a substitute for a college degree. Advancement depends upon engineering ability, competence, and persistent hard work. After some years of accomplishment, an executive posi tion may be obtained. Outlook This field has grown rapidly in recent decades, and in 1940, with about 56,000 members, it was the third largest engineering field. Initial growth was caused by the development of the electric utility industry; more recently the development of radio and electronics has been the main cause of expansion. The demand for electrical engineers will in crease in the future because of the expanding use o f electricity in industry, transportation, commu nication, in homes, on farms, in therapeutic work, and because of new developments in the field of electronics, such as radar and television. Con templated public and private power developments should provide openings for additional men. In dustry also needs engineers who are familiar with the technology and possibilities of new materials to be used in the manufacture and use of electrical equipment. There will also be some opportunities in teaching and in other fields. However, total enrollment in engineering schools is more than three times as high as average prewar enrollment. The number of electrical engineering students is exceedingly high, probably more than enough to provide for replacement of deaths and retirements—estimated at 1,000 annually— and the expected expansion of the occupation. Due to the contacts many men in the services had with radar, radio, and other phases of electrical engineering, large numbers were attracted to this field. It is likely that many of the graduates within the next few years will be unable to find jobs in the field, particularly if enrollments continue at the present high levels. Therefore, persons entering school now would be well advised to get the best possible, all-round training. Earnings In 1946, beginners had a median monthly salary of about $235; those with 5 years’ experience made about $80 more. After 10 years in the profession, the median monthly salary was around $370, and, at 20 years’ experience, about $460. Salaries have probably increased generally since 1946. Salaries of $10,000 to $15,000 a year and over are not un common in electrical engineering. Individual earnings depend on length of expe rience, education, personal competence, and type of work. Electrical engineers with doctors’ de grees earn a great deal more than those at the same age and experience levels with only masters’ or bachelors’ degrees. Where To Get More Information Institute of Radio Engineers, 1 E. 79th St., New York, N. Y. American Institute o f Electrical Engineers, 29 W. 39th St., New York, N. Y. Information on earnings is given in the follow ing publication: The Engineering Profession in Transition. En gineers Joint Council, 33 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York 18, N. Y. 1947, price $1. Data are from a survey covering only members of six professional societies. ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS 67 Mechanical Engineers (D.O.T. 0-19.) Outlook Summary Good prospects for those already well trained. Increasing competition for new entrants within the near future. Nature of Work Mechanical engineers design and supervise the production of machinery and other equipment which produces, transmits, or uses mechanical energy. The major specialized fields are: Aero nautical, automotive, marine, railway, heating, ventilating and air-conditioning engineering, and power generation and production. Major func tions are design, development, construction, man ufacture, operation, or sales. Where Employed Many industries employ mechanical engineers. More than half are in the metalworking indus tries—principally in the manufacture of iron and steel and their products, machinery, and transpor tation equipment. Jobs are concentrated in the areas in which this type of manufacturing is lo cated. Though they may be found in all States, about 70 percent are employed in the following eight States: New York. Ohio, California, Penn sylvania, Illinois, New Jersey, Michigan, and Massachusetts. Training and Qualifications Graduation from a recognized engineering col lege is the minimum educational requirement. In troduction of a 5-year undergraduate course, or the establishment of professional engineering edu cation on a graduate basis is being discussed by some educational authorities. A better-thanaverage ability in mathematics and physics is es sential for graduation and advancement. Before the war, a high proportion of those who entered engineering school failed to graduate, and many took longer than the regular 4 years to graduate. Some industrial experience prior to graduation, supplementing formal work in college, is recom mended. Most large concerns have training pro grams where graduates are put in turn through various departments; drafting room, shop, engi neering department. Advancement depends on persistent study after graduation to keep abreast of new discoveries and methods. After several years of experience in positions of responsibility an executive position may be achieved. Registration is required in practically all States for the legal right to practice “ professional engi neering” if public welfare or safeguarding of life, health, and property are concerned. Many me chanical engineers, however, are engaged in work which does not require their registration. Outlook Prospects are good for persons already well trained and experienced. The second largest engi neering group before the war (with about 86,000 members in 1940), mechanical engineers are now the largest. Many persons entered the field during the war without engineering degrees. In addition, many o f those who were in the armed forces have returned to civilian jobs. Mechanical engineers are being used in increasing numbers by many varied industries. In addition, research oppor tunities are expanding, and there is great need in educational institutions. Employment in mechanical engineering will continue to expand over the long run, although at a slower rate than during the last 10 years. As mentioned above, a large proportion of mechani cal engineers are employed in the metalworking industries. These industries will probably expand for several years, although it will be some time before they reach the peaks attained during the war. New entrants, however, will soon meet increas ing competition. Enrollments in engineering schools are at record levels, mechanical engineer ing being the largest group. Within a few years, the number of graduates will exceed those needed each year for replacement needs (estimated at 68 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK about 2,000 annually) and for the expansion ex pected in employment. In some branches of me chanical engineering, such as aeronautical, new graduates are already having difficulty in obtain ing positions in their field. Persons who are able to get advanced schooling and a well-rounded background will have an advantage in securing positions. Individual earnings vary with education, length of experience, personal competence, and type of work. Where To Find Out More About Mechanical Engineering American Society o f Mechanical Engineers, 29 W. 39th St., New York, N. Y. Engineers Council fo r Professional Development, 29 W. 39th St., New York, N. Y. Earnings In 1946 beginners had a median monthly salary of about $225; those with 5 years’ experience made approximately $340. The median monthly salary of those with 10 years’ experience was about $405, and it was $495 for those with 20 years’ experience. Salaries have probably increased somewhat since that time. Monthly salaries of $800 to $1,000 and over are frequent in mechanical engineering. Information on earnings may be found in the following publication: The Engineering Profession in Transition. En gineers Joint Council, 33 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York 18, N. Y. 1947, price $1. Data are from a survey covering only members of six professional societies. Chemical Engineers (D.O.T. 0-15.01) Outlook Summary Training and Other Qualifications Expanding field, offering good employment prospects for those already trained or who will complete their training in immediate future. Competition will become increasingly keen as re sult of present record enrollments in engineering schools. Training in physics and mathematics, as well as in chemistry and engineering, is important. A bachelor’s degree is the minimum requirement for new entrants. Some universities require 5 or 6 years of study for a B. S. degree in chemical en gineering, but most require only 4. Graduate training is desirable. It is important to select a properly accredited school of engineering, since persons trained at such schools generally have the best employment opportunities. Extremely few chemical engineers (only a frac tion of 1 percent of all those employed) are women. Nature o f Work The chemical engineer is concerned mainly with carrying out chemical processes on an industrial scale. He may direct every step from the design of the plant and equipment to its actual operation. Largest numbers are engaged in technical admin istration, development, applied research, design, and production work. Where Employed A great many industries employ chemical engi neers, with the majority in production work. More than half are in the chemical industries and petroleum refining. The following States fur nish employment for about 60 percent of all these engineers: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, Illinois, and California. Outlook Prospects are very good for those already trained. The number o f chemical engineers (probably around 30,000 in 1948) has doubled since 1940. Despite this fact, there is a shortage in this field, owing to the growth of chemical in dustries over prewar size, the increasing use of chemical engineers in other industries, and ex panding research and teaching needs. Employment in the profession will probably continue to expand. However, new entrants will ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS soon meet increasing competition since enrollments are now at an all-time high. The numbers needed to replace those retiring or dying will be small, as tlie average age o f chemical engineers is low. Best opportunities will be for those with advanced training; the proportion of people with graduate training is higher among chemical engineers than in most other branches of engineering. Earnings In 1946, beginners had a median monthly salary of about $240; those with 5 years’ experience made about $100 more. After 10 years in the profession, the median salary was around $400, and about $500 at 20 years’ experience. There is some evidence that salaries have increased since 1946. Monthly salaries of $800 to $1,000 and over are not uncom mon in this field. Earnings depend not only on length of expe rience but on type of work done, amount of edu cation, and individual ability. In general, ad ministrative jobs pay the highest salaries; devel opment and testing jobs pay considerably less. Engineers with doctors’ degrees earn considerably more than those at the same age and experience levels with only masters’ or bachelors’ degrees. 69 Where To Find Out More About Chemical Engi neering Information on schools, scholarships, and other subjects may be obtained from : American Institute o f Chemical Engineers, 120 E. 41st St., New York 17, N. Y. Information on the general fields of chemistry and chemical engineering may be obtained from : American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. N W , W ashington 6, D. C. Information on earnings is given in the follow ing publications: Factors Affecting Earnings in Chemistry and Chemical Engineering. Bulletin No. 881. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1946. Price 10 cents. Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C. The Engineering Profession in Transition. En gineers Joint Council, 33 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York 18, N. Y. 1947, price $1. Data are from a survey covering only members of six professional societies. See also: Chemists, page 74. Mining- Engineers (D.O.T. 0-20.) Outlook Summary G o o d p rosp ects in n ext fe w yea rs f o r en gin eers a lrea d y tra in ed an d in tr a in in g . P erson s w h o start tra in in g m ay be c o n fr o n te d w ith difficulties in fin d in g p o sitio n s b y the tim e th ey enter the p ro fe ssio n . ment. and electric light and power facilities and are responsible for mine safety. Other major functions are: prospecting (search for deposits), development (opening the mine and extending it), and operations. Major specialties in the field are: coal, natural gas, petroleum, metal and min eral mining, and mine-safety engineering. Nature of Work M in in g en gin eers are re sp on sib le f o r lo c a tin g and m in in g coa l, p etroleu m , m eta llic ores, and n on m eta llic m a te r ia ls ; p la n n in g co n s tru ctio n o f sh a fts and tu n n els, d e v is in g the m eans o f e x tr a c tin g the m in erals, the m eth od s to be used in tr a n s p o r tin g them to the su rfa ce, an d , in the case o f ores, the m eth od s to be used in se p a ra tin g th em fr o m w o r th less earth, ro ck , o r oth er m in erals. T hey m ay also be con cern ed w ith the d esig n , co n stru ctio n , and in sta lla tio n o f w a ter su p p ly , v e n tila tio n e q u ip 793996°—49 -6 Training and Qualifications A bachelor’s degree for 4 years’ work in engi neering college (mining, petroleum, geological engineering) is the minimum requirement for new entrants. There is a trend toward requiring 5 years’ work for a bachelor’s degree. Before the war, a high proportion of those who entered engi neering school failed to graduate, and many took longer than the regular 4 years to graduate. In dustrial experience prior to graduation, supple- 70 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK meriting formal work in college, is recommended. Graduate degrees (master or doctor of engineer ing in mining, geology, geophysics, or other fields) may be obtained after a specified number of years of experience subsequent to earning a B. S. de gree, plus submission of an approved thesis. During the first years after graduation, prac tical experience in mining engineering is usually acquired at some simple work such as mine survey ing, elementary design work on mine construction, mine sampling, or as junior geologist. Registration is required in practically all States for the legal right to practice “ professional engineering” if public welfare or safeguarding of life, health, and property are concerned. Re quirements for registration as professional engi neer are: Graduation from an approved engineer ing college, plus 4 years of experience and passing of a State examination. Those without certifi cates of registration may work under engineers who have such certificates. After years of progressive experience, persons with administrative ability may achieve mana gerial positions. Research, teaching, and consult ing also provide advancement opportunities. careful counseling and selection of persons who start training now. Most opportunities are in metal mining, crude petroleum and natural gas production, while comparatively small numbers are engaged in coal mining and in nonmetallic mining and quarrying. Job opportunities for mining engineers are found at the location of mineral deposits—often in out-of-the-way places in mountains or deserts. Outlook Where To Find Out More About Mining Engineering Demand for mining and metallurgical engi neers will exceed prewar levels because of search for oil pools at greater depths, development of new scientific methods in order to reduce costs, and greatly increased research budgets. However, opportunities for new entrants are comparatively few, as mining and metallurgical engineers con stitute the smallest group among the major lines o f engineering. In 1940, they numbered about 10,000; nearly 10 percent were unemployed. A l though the demand for mining and metallurgical engineers will be higher for the next several years than before the war, keener competition may again be experienced in the profession, unless there is Earnings In 1946, beginners in mining and metallurgical engineering combined had a median monthly salary of about $240; those with 5 years’ experi ence made about $80 more. After 10 years in the profession, the median monthly salary for both fields was around $410, and with 20 years’ experi ence, about $520. Monthly salaries of $800 to $1,000 and more are frequent in this field. Individual earnings depend upon length of ex perience, education, ability, and type of work done. Engineers with advanced degrees earn consider ably more than those at the same age and experi ence levels with lesser training. American Institute Engineers, 29 W est 39tli St., New York 18, N. Y. of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers Council for Professional Development, 29 W est 39th St., New York 18, N. Y. Information on earnings may be found in the following publication: The Engineering Pro fession in Transition. En gineers Joint Council, 33 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York 18, N. Y. 1947, price $1. Data are from a survey covering only members of six professional societies. ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS 71 Metallurgical Engineers (D.O.T. 0-14.) Outlook Summary Outlook Good prospects for engineers already well trained. Those who start training now (early 1948) may be confronted with keen competition by the time they enter the profession. The demand for qualified metallurgical engi neers will exceed prewar levels because of indus trial expansion and new production lines which tend to increase the demand for metals or alloys to serve specific purposes. This requires metal lurgical work on problems concerning alloys and development of metals adaptable to various uses. While students with high scholastic records will be sought after, opportunities for new entrants are comparatively few, since the profession is relatively small. In 1940, mining and metallurgi cal engineers together numbered about 10,000, and nearly 10 percent were unemployed. Although the demand for metallurgical engineers will be higher for the next several years than before the war, keener competition may again be experienced in the profession, unless there is careful counseling and selection of persons who start training. In addition to the mining and basic metal industries, there are also some opportunities in other indus tries making finished products from metals which may require the special knowledge of metallurgists in solving manufacturing or marketing problems. Nature o f Work A metallurgical engineer analyzes ores; designs processes to eliminate worthless minerals before the ore goes to the smelter; directs industrial proc essing of ores and the treatment and alloying of metals; performs research in order to improve production methods or develop new products; as sumes responsibility for the design, construction, installation, and operation of pilot plants, and for coordination of research. The majority are em ployed in the following industries: Iron and steel and their products, machinery, transportation equipment, and mining. Training and Qualifications A bachelor’s degree for 4 years of work in an engineering college (metallurgical engineering, chemistry, or related branch of engineering), or a bachelor’s degree with a major in metallurgy, engi neering sciences, or chemistry is the minimum re quirement for new entrants. During the first years after graduation experi ence in metallurgical engineering is usually ac quired in assaying and analyzing samples of ore, or in assisting in the operation of furnaces or equipment. After years of progressive experience, persons with administrative ability and general metal lurgical knowledge may achieve managerial posi tions, while those with advanced knowledge of pure and applied science may achieve responsible research positions. Earnings In 1946, beginners in both metallurgical and mining engineering had a median monthly salary of about $240; those with 5 years’ experience made about $80 more. After 10 years in the profession, the median monthly salary for both fields of engi neering w as around $410, and at 20 years’ experi T ence, about $520. Monthly salaries of $800 to $1,000 and more are frequent in this field. Individual earnings depend upon length of ex perience, education, ability, and type o f work done. Engineers with advanced degrees earn consider ably more than those at the same age and experi ence levels with lesser training. 72 OCCUPATIOXAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 1Vh ere To Find Out More About Metallurgical Engineering American Institute Engineering, 29 W. 39th St., New York, N. Y. of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers Council for Professional Development, 29 W. 39th St., New York, N. Y. Information on earnings is given in the follow ing publication: The Engineering Profession in Transition. En gineers Joint Council, 33 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York 18, N. Y. 1947, price $1. Data are from a survey covering only members of six professional societies. Industrial Engineers (D.O.T. 0-18.01 and .03) Outlook Summary Expanding field. Good prospects for engineers already trained, but persons who start training now (early 1948) are likely to face keen competi tion by the time they enter the profession. Nature o f Work Industrial engineers are concerned with plan ning, organization, methods, and control of pro duction. They often specialize in one or more branches of the profession, such as factory lay-out;; time, motion, and incentive studies; or safety engi neering. Other major branches are: Production and material control, production cost control, training of production personnel, and develop ment of wage-payment plans. The terms “ indus trial engineering” and “ management engineering” are sometimes used interchangeably, but the ten dency is to apply the former to positions concerned with production problems only, the latter to posi tions of broader responsibility or to independent consultants dealing with problems of company or ganization and policy, marketing, finance, and per sonnel, as well as production. Training and Qualifications There is a trend toward requiring a bachelor's degree in industrial engineering for new entrants, though some men with mechanical engineering or other related training may be able to enter the profession. An industrial-engineering curriculum comprises not only engineering courses but also economics, statistics, marketing, production, man agement, accounting, and personnel administra tion. Courses in English composition and psy chology are also important. Industrial experience prior to graduation is recommended. Larger com panies put graduate engineers through training programs covering all aspects of the plant’s operations. Registration is required in practically all States for the right to practice professional engineering if public welfare or safeguarding of life, health, and property are concerned. Many industrial engineers, however, are engaged in work which does not require registration. Outlook The demand for industrial engineers will ex ceed prewar levels in the immediate future be cause of greater industrial activity and the need to speed up production and lower costs. There will also be expanding opportunity in the long run, owing to the increasing importance of scientific management and safety engineering. In 1940, industrial engineers numbered only about 10,000, of whom over 5 percent were unemployed. Dur ing the war, many persons with incomplete col lege education or with degrees in related fields were given some training in industrial engineer ing, to meet the shortage of qualified men. In addition, many students are enrolled in industrial engineering. After several years, when these students are graduated, keen competition may therefore be experienced in the profession, de spite the increased demand. There is need for careful counseling and selection of persons who start training. Good scholastic records and rec ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS ommendation by one’s college teachers will become increasingly important in securing a position, par ticularly with one of the larger companies. Earnings In 1946, beginners earned between $220 and $240 per month. After 5 years’ experience they re ceived around $350 and after 10 years’ experience around $410. Salaries have probably increased since 1946 to some extent. Monthly salaries of $800 to $1,000 are not uncommon, particularly in consulting and executive positions. 73 Wh ere To Find Out More About Industrial Engineering Society for the Advancement o f Management, Inc.. 84 W illiam St., New York, N. Y. American Society o f Safety Engineers, Engineering Section, National Safety Council, 20 North W acker Drive, Chicago 6, 111. Association o f Consulting Management Engineers, Inc., 347 Madison Ave., New York 17, N. Y. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 20 W. 30th St., New York, N. Y. Ceramic Engineers (D.O.T. 0-15.11) Outlook Summary Small but expanding field. Good prospects for persons already trained but those who start train ing may face keen competition by the time they enter the profession. Nature of Work vate firms, organizations or institutions, while only about one-tenth worked for some public au thority—primarily the Federal Government. Nearly two-thirds of all ceramic engineers are em ployed in five States—Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and Illinois. Almost onequarter are found in the State of Ohio. Training and Qualifications Ceramic engineers are concerned with the min ing and processing of clay, silicates, and other nonmetallic minerals and the manufacture of products from these raw materials; also with the design and construction of plant equipment and structures. They may work in research or sales. Specializa tion is usually by type of product—for example, structural materials (such as brick, tile, and terra cotta), pottery, glass, enameled metals, abrasives, refractories (fire and heat-resistant materials, such as fire brick), limes and plasters, cements, and many others. Trend is toward requiring a bachelor’s degree in ceramics or ceramic engineering or some related branch such as chemical, mechanical, or mining engineering, preferably from an accredited school of engineering. Some persons without formal engineering training may enter the profession by acquiring many years of progressive industrial ex perience. Courses in ceramics or ceramic engineer ing are offered by relatively few schools; they are usually of 4 years’ duration. Graduate train ing is desirable for some types of work. Where Employed Outlook More than half of all ceramic engineers are em ployed in the stone, clay, and glass industries. Others are found in iron and steel and their prod ucts, electrical machinery, chemicals and their products, and in other industries. Also, some are employed by educational institutions and by other organizations. More than three-quarters are employees of pri Employment will probably grow rapidly for several years and more slowly thereafter. At the present time (early 1948), it is estimated that around 3,000 ceramic engineers are employed. Many technological improvements are expected in the ceramics industries in the next few years; ad ditional engineers will be needed to bring about those improvements. Other factors which will 74 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tend to increase the number employed are the new uses to which nonmetallic minerals are being put and the trend toward expansion in industries using these materials. Greater use of glass, enameled metals, abrasives, and other ceramic products will require research and design for adaptation of products to various uses and thus will contribute to the increasing demand for engineers. In addi tion. the expected growth in construction, which— particularly in residential projects—is depending more and more on the use of cement and structural clay products, will provide for greater oppor tunity. Since the field is so small, however, open ings will be few in any one year. At present, the profession is not overcrowded but it may become so within the next few years. During the war, the shortage of engineers was acute, and many people entered the profession with incomplete college training or with degrees in re lated fields. Since VJ-clay, the shortage has de creased somewhat and more students are enrolled in ceramic engineering than before the war. This is also true in fields of engineering which are closely related. Enrollments are expected to be high also in the academic year 1948-49. There fore, keen competition may be experienced in the profession, despite the increased demand for ceramic engineers, unless there is careful selection and counseling of persons who start training now. Recommendation by one's college teachers and good scholastic records will become more and more important in getting jobs, as the supply of ceramic engineers overtakes the demand. Earnings A survey of members of the Institute of Ceramic Engineers for the year 1947 reports the following earnings data: Ceramic engineers with between 5 and 9 years’ experience had a median monthly sal ary of $390; those with 10 to 14 years’ experience made about $440; and those with between 15 and 19 years’ experience received nearly $510. Those with 25 or more years in the profession had a median monthly salary of $700. Many engineers in this field received considerably more—some making $1,000 per month or more. Individual earnings varied particularly with experience (increasing by an average of $15 per month each year) and to a lesser extent with amount of education. Earnings were not signifi cantly affected by field of specialization, industry in which engineers were employed, or geographical location. In general, administrative positions pay the highest salaries; production, research, and plant control pay less. Surveys of other professions indicate that the earnings of members of profesisonal societies tend to be higher than those for the profession as a whole. Therefore, the above earnings data do not represent the status of all ceramic engineers, al though they do reflect the general pattern in the profession. Where To Get More Information on Ceramic Engineering American Ceramic Society, 2525 N. High St., Columbus, Ohio. Chemists (D.O.T. 0-07.) Outlook Summary Good employment opportunities at present. In long run, opportunities will continue to be good for chemists with graduate training; those with only bachelor’s degree may have difficulty obtain ing professional jobs. Nature of Work ica l a n d p h y sica l ch a n ges in m a teria ls a n d p r o d ucts. T h o s e w h o g o in to g ra d u a te w o r k u su a lly sp e cia lize in one o f five m a in b ra n ch es o f ch e m is tr y and even in som e field w ith in a b ra n ch . O r g a n ic ch e m istry is th e b ra n ch e m p lo y in g m ost p e o p le in the p r o fe s s io n ; it is co n ce rn e d w ith th e b ro a d field o f th e ca rb o n co m p o u n d s. I n o r g a n ic ch e m istry deals w ith co m p o u n d s n o t c o n ta in in g ca rb o n , such as m ost o f the m in e ra ls a n d m etals. Chemists are trained primarily for laboratory research and development work relating to chem P h y s ic a l ch e m istry , w h ich d eals in re la tio n sh ip s b etw een ch em ica l a n d p h y sica l p ro p e rtie s in ch e m ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS ical compounds and mixtures, requires specific training also in physics and mathematics. Bio chemistry is chiefly concerned with the effects of foods, drugs, and chemicals on plant and animal tissue. Analytical chemistry is the study of the methods, and the practice, of analyzing chemical compounds. There are (in 1948) about 80,000 chemists in the country; 4 percent are women. The types of work in which the greatest numbers are engaged are analysis and testing, industrial research, teaching, and technical administration. Other major fields are production, development, research in basic science, and technical service. 75 ployed, there are good opportunities for those with advanced degrees or specialized experience. There are also employment opportunities at present for new entrants holding only the bache lor’s degree. Entrance jobs are mainly in analy sis, testing, and certain production jobs in manu facturing, and as laboratory assistants in research. Where Employed By far the largest number of chemists is em ployed in industry. Government, including Fed eral, State, and local, employs large numbers as do educational institutions, research institutes, public utilities, and consulting laboratory firms. Training A bachelor’s degree is usually the minimum re quirement for new entrants. Advanced degrees are held by more than 40 percent of all employed chemists and are almost essential for research. In the period 1940-45, more than two-tliirds of all the Ph. D. degrees granted in the physical sciences were awarded in chemistry. Over half the chem ists teaching in colleges and doing basic research have the doctor’s degree. Thorough training in a college or university o f recognized standing is important in securing desirable employment. Outlook Opportunities for properly trained chemists are very good. There. is a shortage of scientists for basic and background research, develop mental and applied research, and teaching. This shortage is chiefly the result of an increased de mand brought about by the shifting of the main center of basic research to this country from Eu rope, the backlog of projects postponed during the war, and the greatly increased enrollments in col leges and universities. In industrial laboratories, where chemists represent 38 percent of the total number of scientists and research engineers em The chemist usually qualifies for basic research only after specialized experience or graduate training There are good chances of advancement for those who take additional training or show unusual ap titude, but those without initiative often remain in routine jobs at low pay. There are some oppor tunities as graduate assistants in universities, where one may give part-time instruction to under graduates at a monthly stipend of about $100, while taking graduate work. Also numerous fel lowships are available for those who wish to en gage in graduate study. Owing to the large number of young people tak ing training in chemistry, it will become increas ingly difficult for those with only the bachelor’s degree to secure jobs at the professional level. Present enrollments indicate that the annual num ber of graduates with the bachelor’s degree in chemistry may be nearly double the prewar num 76 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ber during at least the next few years. While many of these graduates will go into other fields, such as the study of medicine, it still appears likely that competition for beginning positions as chem ists will be very great. In the long run, there will be expanding oppor tunities in the profession, particularly for chemists with advanced degrees or successful experience— assuming that general business activity continues at a high level. Industries have plans for further expansion of research facilities. National expend itures for research and development increased tremendously during the war and are still three times as high as prewar. There is evidence that there will be considerable further increase in Gov ernment-sponsored research. Total employment in the chemical manufacturing industries is also expected to remain well above prewar levels. Teachers will continue to be in demand, particu larly those qualified to direct graduate work. In addition, there will be some openings each year owing to deaths and retirements, though the num ber of such vacancies is not large in this profession (about 1,000 a year). The greatest number of employment opportuni ties will continue to be found in the Middle A t lantic and East North Central States where the chemical manufacturing industries are concen trated. New York employs the greatest number of chemists, with Pennsylvania and New Jersey next. Earnings Chemists’ income depends on the type of work in which they are engaged, the amount and quality of their educational background, and the amount of professional experience they have had, as well as their individual abilities. In general, adminis trative jobs pay the highest salaries; technical service and industrial research pay more than analysis and testing or secondary school teaching. In 1943, according to a survey, holders of doctors’ degrees typically earned 20 to 35 percent more than chemists with the same number of years in the pro fession who had only masters’ or bachelors’ de grees. Most beginners had monthly salaries of about $170 to $200 and earned about $30 to $50 extra for overtime work. Earnings of men with 10 to 12 years of experience averaged from $230 to $310 a month, depending on their educational background; earnings of those with 21 to 25 years in the field also varied widely with amount of education, averaging from $300 to $400 a month. Starting salaries in early 1948 were approximately as follows: With the bachelor’s degree, $200 to $250; master’s degree, $250 to $300; doctor’d degree, $350 to $500. Where To Go for More Information I n fo r m a t io n on sch ools, sch ola rsh ip s, a n d o th e r su b jects m a y be o b ta in e d f r o m : American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW., W ashington 6, D. C. I n fo r m a t io n on ea rn in g s is g iv e n in the f o ll o w in g p u b lic a t io n : U. S. Department o f Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Factors Affecting Earnings in Chem istry and Chemical Engineering. Bulletin No. 881, 1946. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price 10 cents. E m p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n itie s f o r w om en are d is cussed in the fo llo w in g p u b lic a t io n : U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau, The Outlook for Women in Chemistry. Bulletin 223, No. 2, 1948. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price 20 cents. See also: C h em ica l E n g in e e rs, p a g e 68. ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS 77 Architects (D.O.T. 0-03.10) Outlook Summary Training and Qualifications Good prospects for fully trained and experienced persons in near future. Also some openings for new entrants, though competition for beginning jobs is likely to increase. A bachelor’s degree from one of the recognized architectural schools is generally a minimum re quirement for entrance into the profession. Most of these schools have 5-year courses. After ob taining a degree, the beginner usually starts as a draftsman in an architectural office and works up as his ability becomes recognized. A few people without formal training may enter the profes sion by acquiring many years of experience in architectural offices. Licensure is required in practically all States for practice as an architect, where safety of life, health, and property is involved. Requirements for admission to the licensing examination vary from one State to another but generally include graduation from a recognized professional school followed by 3 or 4 years of practical experience (most States accept a very long period of experi ence as a substitute for graduation from an archi tectural school). Nature of Work Most architects plan and design all types of buildings. However, some specialize in one or more of the major fields of architecture: Domestic (private residences, apartments, group housing, farm buildings), industrial (factories, power houses), commercial (banks, hotels, office build ings, clubhouses), institutional and public, trans portation buildings, and miscellaneous structures. Before designing a building, the architect first consults with his client on the purpose to be served, general style, size, location, cost range, materials criteria, and other characteristics desired. In planning the building he takes into consideration economy of lay-out and construction as well as appearance and efficiency. After preliminary drawings have been made and approved by the client, he prepares detailed working plans, speci fications, and obtains estimates of cost. In addi tion, he usually arranges the construction contract, supervises the progress of the work, and certifies to the completion of the building. Where Employed Most architects are in business for themselves or are employed by architectural firms. A few work for government agencies, construction con tractors, and engineering firms, and teach in col leges and universities. Members of the profession are found in all regions of the country, mainly in large cities. In 1940. over one-lialf were employed in the follow ing seven States: New York, California, Illinois, Pennylvania, Ohio, New Jersey, and Massachu setts. Outlook The demand for architects’ services is much greater than before the war and will probably re main so in the near future—owing to the great amount of residential building and other construc tion which is being planned. In contrast, the sup ply of new graduates entering the field was far below the prewar level during and immediately after the war. Some of the large reserve of archi tects who left the profession before the war have re-entered since VJ-day, but not enough to fill the need. The outlook is therefore promising for trained personnel for some years to come. How ever, enrollments in architectural schools are now high. I f they continue at present levels, future graduates will be confronted with increasing com petition for jobs. New entrants should get the best possible training and experience to aid them in meeting the expected competition. 78 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The long-run employment trend in the profes sion appears to be slowly upward. However, the demand for architects’ services is dependent largely on the volume of building activity, and the construction industry has in the past been subject to marked ups and downs. In the thirties, when construction was at a low ebb, there was more un employment among architects than in many other professional groups. Where To Go for More Information American Institute of Architects, 1741 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D. C. Industrial Designers (D.O..T. 0-46.88) Outlook Summary Good employment opportunities for experienced and well-qualified persons; some openings for welltrained beginners. Field likely to expand in longrun, but competition for jobs may become keener. Nature o f Work Workers in this occupation design the form or structure of a great variety of products, so that they will appeal to consumers and meet their needs. Products designed include automobiles, furniture, machinery, electrical appliances, ash trays, fountain pens, and many others. The design is usually submitted in the form of a drawing or model, which is made according to a specific order or request. Most designers either are in business for them selves, doing work for several manufacturers, or are employed by independent designing firms. In either case, one man may design widely different products, ranging even from toothbrushes to loco motives. Industrial designers may also be em ployed by big manufacturing plants, and as mer chandising consultants or buyers for large retail or wholesale houses. Experienced persons can transfer fairly easily from one field or product to another. Personal Qualifications and Training The industrial designer must have artistic abil ity, a knowledge of merchandising, and the tech nical skill to create products suited to modern pro duction methods. A proper educational back ground, including training in applied art, the main branches of factory technology, mathematics and other technical subjects, business economics, and consumer psychology, is extremely important. A few universities and technical schools have com bined these courses into programs of study which may be completed in 3 or 4 years and lead to a degree or certificate in industrial designing. A less frequent method of entry is through onthe-job training with established designers. In addition, men enter the field by transfer from drafting, commercial art, commercial designing, engineering, or other allied fields. However, in view of the variety of skills and knowledge essen tial for success, an integrated course of study at a college level is recommended. Before the begin ner can get recognition as a full-fledged designer, he must have created design ideas that have proved successful. Outlook Employment opportunities are likely to be good for qualified and experienced persons for at least the next few years. There will also be more open ings than usual for beginners with good education and ability. One reason for this is that the num ber of well-trained persons entering the field de creased during the war; though the need for de signers in war industries was great and many new comers were therefore taken into the occupation, most of these had inadequate training and experi ence. In addition, the immediate future should bring an increased demand for the services of the industrial designer. Manufacturers are beginning to face a highly competitive market, and design will play an important part in this competitive selling. T h e field is also lik e ly to e x p a n d o v e r th e lo n g run. It has d e v e lo p e d as a sepa ra te o cc u p a tio n o n ly w ith in the p ast 20 yea rs, an d , d esp ite r a p id g r o w th , is s till ra th er sm all. A m o n g the fa c to r s ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS w h ich p o in t to con tin u e d g r o w th in o p p o r tu n itie s f o r in d u stria l d esig n ers is the p rosp ect that w a r tim e te ch n o lo g ica l d ev elop m en ts w ill be a d a p ted m ore and m ore to p eacetim e uses and th a t n ew in d u stries w ill s p r in g up. E m p lo y m e n t o p p o r tunities, h ow ev er, v a ry co n s id e r a b ly w ith ch an ges in business a ctiv ity . A t the sam e tim e, co m p e ti tio n f o r jo b s m ay becom e keener i f , as exp ected , m ore an d m ore p e o p le take co lle g e tr a in in g in in d u stria l d esig n in g . E m p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n itie s w ill u su a lly be fo u n d in larg e m e tro p o lita n areas, w h ere m ost d e s ig n in g firm s and in d u s tria l p la n ts are loca ted . 79 In 1940, the majority of industrial designers was employed in the Northeastern States. Earnings Beginners, after training and some experience, generally received around $50 per week in early 1947. A wide range of earnings exists among established designers; some working on a free lance basis make upward of $25,000 yearly. Where To Get More Information Society o f Industrial Designers, 48 E. 49th St., New York, N. Y. Tool Designers (See D.O.T. 0-48.41) Outlook Summary Favorable employment prospects both in the next several years and over a longer period for this relatively small occupation. Nature of Work The tool designer originates and prepares sketches of the designs for special fixtures, cutting tools, and other attachments used on machine tools. These sketches are made into detailed drawings by draftsmen under the direction of the tool designer. The tool designer must have a practical and detailed knowledge of machine-shop practice, drafting, and the characteristics of the materials of which tools and fixtures are made. His duties include the developing of new tools as well as the redesigning and improving of tools currently in use. Particularly in the smaller shops, often the tool and die makers and machin ists design and make new accessories for machine tools as part of their regular duties. Larger es tablishments, whose operations require frequent and complicated design of machine-tool acces sories, employ tool designers who specialize in preparing the specifications which are followed in the machine shop. Training and Qualifications There are several different ways in which to qualify as a tool designer. The most frequent practice has been for tool and die makers and machinists to supplement their experience by spe cial training in tool design, drafting, and mathe matics, and then advance into tool design work. To move from machine-shop and tool-room work to tool design requires the ability to conceive the idea for a new tool that will fill a definite need in the machining operations and the knowledge of how to prepare a working design for its construc tion. Another method of qualifying is to serve a 4-year apprenticeship in tool designing of which machine-shop training should comprise at least 2 years. Another way is the completion of a 4-year college course in mechanical engineering plus additional practical experience in machineshop work. Fewer persons have qualified by this method than by the other two. However, engi neering graduates, with specialization in subjects related to tool designing, are likely to have greater opportunities to advance to broader and more re sponsible jobs in the field of tool engineering, which includes the selection, planning, and pro duction of tools, as well as designing. S om e to o l d esign ers h a v e started as d ra ftsm en and a cq u ired sufficient k n o w le d g e o f m a ch in e-sh op p ra ctice to a d va n ce to to o l-d e s ig n w ork . Where Employed M o st jo b s f o r to o l d esign ers are in the e n g in e e r in g a n d d e sig n in g d epa rtm en ts o f la rg e m a n u fa c tu r in g p la n ts, e sp e cia lly those in the a u tom obile, 80 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK machine tool, machinery, electrical equipment, and aircraft industries. Many of the companies in these industries have entire sections of their engi neering departments devoted to tool design. An other frequent source of employment for tool de signers is in the tool and product engineering com panies which specialize in tool designing for other firms on a contract basis. These companies serv ice mainly the automobile industry. A third and less important field of employment is in the inde pendent tool and die shops. Many of these are relatively small and in them much of the designing may be performed by the tool and die makers or machinists. Where there is sufficient work to re quire specialized tool designers, only a small num ber of tool designers are usually employed in each shop. Tool designers are also employed in gov ernment-operated military and naval manufac turing establishments. which service them. During the next few years, the automobile, machinery, and other metal work ing industries are expected to increase their ma chining operations in order to satisfy the strong demand for their products. The high level of machine-shop activity and the general trend to ward more extensive tooling in machining opera tions will provide new opportunities for tool de signers over a long period. In addition to the long-range trend toward greater use of special tools, jigs, and fixtures in machining operations, more and more plants that did not previously hire specialized tool designers have recognized their value and are beginning to employ them. The in troduction of new products, as well as modification of older ones, frequently requires extensive retool ing. This operation will also contribute to the demand for tool designers in the coming years. Outlook No general recent data on the earnings of tool designers are available but earnings of fully quali fied tool designers usually start around the rates for class A tool and die makers and range upward depending on the degree of skill and responsibility. The employment outlook for tool designers is related mainly to trends in those metalworking industries which use mass production methods and in the tool and die shops and engineering firms Earnings Draftsmen (D.O.T. 0-48.) Outlook Summary Good prospects for well-trained and experienced persons; limited opportunities for beginners. Keen competition after several years, owing to large number in training. Nature of Work Draftsmen make working plans and detailed drawings for engineering, construction, or manu facturing purposes. They generally work from sketches, specifications, or field notes furnished by an engineer, architect, or designer. Many types of drafting instruments are used, including com passes, T-squares, triangles, scales, and special drafting pencils and lettering pens. A new draftsman usually starts as a tracer or copyist. From there, he may advance to detailer, junior draftsman, senior draftsman, and possibly head or chief draftsman. Workers in the higher grade positions are required to make calculations concerning the strength, quality, or cost of mate rials ; to use engineering handbooks and tables for computations; and to have still other skills. From top drafting jobs, it is possible to advance to design and engineering positions, especially for men who obtain additional training in mathe matics and science. Many graduates of engi neering and architectural schools start their ca reers in the drafting room and can advance rapidly because of superior training. However, some of these graduates never achieve professional status. Most draftsmen specialize in some particular field of work. The largest fields are architectural, structural, mechanical, aeronautical, electrical, marine, and topographical drafting. Where Employed In the main, draftsmen are employed in the con struction, machinery, iron and steel, automobile, ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS aircraft, and shipbuilding industries; by private engineering and architectural consulting firms; and in Federal, State, and local government agen cies. Draftsmen are to be found in every State, even in small cities, but the greatest number work in the Northeastern and North Central States where most of the above-mentioned industries are concentrated. Qualifications and Training Usually a person becomes a draftsman either by studying at a trade or vocational school and later acquiring practical experience, or by serving a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship, or by some other type of on-the-job training plus part-time schooling. In any case, the training received should include mathematics, physical sciences, mechanical draw ing, standard methods of lettering, and tracing. Many of the higher grade jobs require knowledge of the techniques of the particular industry involved. A draftsman must have certain personal quali fications, such as neatness, accuracy, good eyesight, manual skill, and a talent and liking for drawing in addition to technical knowledge. M any of the top drafting jobs require knowledge of the techniques of the particular industry involved 81 Outlook Employment of draftsmen is expected to remain above the prewar level indefinitely but will prob ably not go as high as during the war for some years. The number employed in war industries, such as aircraft, shipbuilding, and machinery, have dropped sharply since VJ-day, but the num ber in the construction industry and with engineer ing and architectural firms have been rising. Owing to the large demand for all types of build ings, construction activity will probably continue to expand for several years and then remain at or near the peak level, unless there is a severe busi ness depression. Prospects are good for well-trained and experi enced draftsmen in most parts of the country for the near future. Those with architectural or con struction experience will have the best opportuni ties. However, the occupation tends to be over crowded with inadequately trained workers. This is particularly true in war-production centers, where a great many sketchily trained workers were taken into drafting jobs during the war and laid off after YJ-day. The occupation will probably tend to become overcrowded during the next few years, as the large number of persons now in training complete their apprenticeship or other training programs. Enrollments in closely allied professional fields, such as engineering, are also very high; the ten dency toward overcrowding in these professional occupations will add to the competition for jobs over the long run. In addition, the construction industry has in the past been subject to marked ups and downs: I f repeated in the future, these fluc tuations will mean periods of reduced employment for draftsmen. Transfer to industries where op portunities exist will be easiest for persons with long experience and broad technical knowledge. Where To Go for More Information American Institute o f Architects, 1741 New York Are. NW., Washington, D. C. International Federation o f Technical Engineers, Architects, and Draftsm en’s Unions, A. F. o f L., 900 F St. NW., Washington, D. C. See also: Architects, page 77; Civil Engineers, page 63; Mechanical Engineers, page 67. 82 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Meteorologists (D.O.T. 0-35.68) Outlook Summary Current shortage of qualified meteorologists, which is likely to become less in next few years. Some expansion in employment in long run, but this will never be a large profession. Nature o f the Work Meteorologists study and prepare reports on weather conditions. They make weather fore casts covering particular localities or regions, for the use of aviation and other transportation in dustries, manufacturers, and farmers, as well as the general public. They may also do research on weather conditions in a particular area over a long period of time and on such problems as causes of thunderstorms or hurricanes, creating artificial rain or snow, long-range forecasting, or new types of recording instruments. Those men concentrat ing on forecasting work are frequently known as weather forecasters. In small stations, the meteor ologists may make the weather observations, be sides handling other duties. or two courses in meteorology, but there are only about half a dozen which offer the opportunity to major or obtain graduate degrees in meteorology. O f those men trained by the armed forces during the war, the ones who completed certain college courses (the “A ” course or its equivalent) as part of their training are generally considered best pre pared. For workers already employed by the Weather Bureau, there is an in-service training program which offers every year a few scholar ships at certain universities to help outstanding workers complete their professional education. In addition to academic training, practical work experience as a weather observer (see p. 84) will be valuable to the young meteorologist. Some promising meteorology students can obtain jobs with the United States Weather Bureau during the summer after their junior year under the stu dent-aid program; those accepted under this pro gram are guaranteed professional jobs with the Weather Bureau upon graduation. Outlook Where Employed The United States Weather Bureau is the prin cipal employer o f meteorologists in this country; about 1,200 of the total of 1,500 civilian meteor ologists employed at the beginning of 1948 were on its staff. Others are or work for private weather consultants, teach or do research in the universities, or work for the commercial air lines. In addition, a considerable number are in the armed forces. There are very few women in the profession. Training For a position as a professional meteorologist, a college degree in meteorology, along with con siderable work in mathematics and physics, is in creasingly important, though many present mete orologists gained their skill mainly through ex perience. Graduate work is also becoming more and more helpful. Many universities give one Job prospects for the trained men are good now. Although thousands of men received some train ing in meteorology while in the military service, only a small proportion continued in the field. Even so, hundreds applied for jobs immediately after the war, but most of them could not be absorbed immediately by either the Government or other employers. Those not hired generally turned to other kinds of work; some went to the universities for further training. As a result, the labor surplus dwindled away. By the end of 1947 there was some shortage of qualified workers. This shortage will be relieved to a considerable extent in the next few years as the 300 people now taking undergraduate or graduate training com plete their courses, but the profession does not anticipate any problem of overcrowding. In the long run, total employment will rise slowly, assuming a continuing high level of busi ness activity, though this will remain one of the ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS smaller professions. Tlie expected gradual ex pansion of civil aviation will tend to raise the number of meteorologists needed by the Weather Bureau and the air lines. In addition, the air lines will probably employ slowly increasing num bers of men with some meteorological training in dispatcher or other jobs. Private consultant serv ices furnishing weather data to meet the client’s particular business needs offer another new and growing field of opportunity for enterprising meteorologists. Other scientific fields—such as radio physics, particularly television— are requir ing more and more meteorological information. The expanding demand for meteorologists will in turn stimulate some slight growth in the teaching and research staffs at the universities. In the long run, there will be some openings owing to turn-over in personnel, but the main source of new jobs will result from expansion of the profession, since meteorology is relatively new as a formalized science and the people in the field are predomi nantly younger men. Opportunities for women in this work will prob ably continue to be rather limited. Best chances for employment are likely to continue to be at women’s colleges, teaching courses in meteorology Meteorologist interprets data which has been picked up by the receiving apparatus of the radiosonde Co u rtesy of u . S. w e a th e r bureau 83 along with other scientific subjects. A few posi tions in the Weather Bureau are especially suited to women. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Weather Bureau, salaries of professional meteorologist start at about $2,950 a year. Most experienced men earn between $3,730 and $5,230 a year. Those with supervisory, administrative, or executive duties get annual salaries ranging from $5,000 up to $10,000. Overseas jobs carry a 25percent bonus. Meteorologists working for the commercial air lines earn between $2,400 and $5,500; those work ing in overseas stations get additional bonuses; those who have advanced to executive positions may get anywhere from $4,000 to $10,000 a year. At the universities, salaries for teachers range from $2,400 to $7,000; administrative or executive officers earn from $5,000 to $10,000. Meteorolo gists who run their own consulting services appear to have the widest range of earnings— anywhere from $2,400 to $12,000 a year. Many Weather Bureau jobs involve night work, frequently on rotating shifts, since stations are operated on a 24-hour basis. Although most sta tions are located at airports or other places in or near large cities, there are some posts in very re mote and isolated spots. Some civilian jobs are located outside continental United States of Amer ica in such places as Alaska, Wake Island, Guam, Hawaii, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, or Iceland. These people have unusually steady employ ment and stable earnings, paid vacations, sick leave, better-than-average pensions, and other benefits. Where To Go for More Information For general information on the profession, one may write t o : American Meteorological Society, 5 Joy St., Boston 8, Mass. This organization has published a pamphlet, Weather Horizons, which gives a detailed sum mary of job opportunities. The United States Weather Bureau, Washing ton 25, D. C., should be consulted directly for in formation on positions with that agency, as well as on the student-aid program. 84 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Weather Observers (D.O.T. 0-66.88) Outlook Summary Employment prospects good for next few years. Some expansion in employment likely in long run. Nature o f Work These workers’ main job is to make weather observations, using instruments which measure temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind direction, or wind velocity. They may also plot the data on weather maps, draw weather charts, and keep weather records. Often they an swer inquiries as to the weather and handle other duties, under the direction of the professional meteorologists at the station. O f the 2,700 weather observers employed at the end of 1947, about 2,300 were in the United States Weather Bureau. The others worked for uni versities and private forecasting services. A few employees of the Civil Aeronautics Administra tion take weather observations in addition to their other duties; these people must pass an examina tion in meteorology given by the Weather Bureau. How To Enter High school graduation, with courses in mathe matics and science, or 1 year of experience in weather observing is the minimum requirement for jobs in the Weather Bureau. Some college train ing in the physical sciences is desirable. Some newly graduated persons with degrees in meteorol ogy take weather-observer jobs at first, to gain valuable practical experience. Veterans who have had weather-observer training in the armed forces receive special preference for jobs. The United States Weather Bureau operates an in-service training program for its employees and also offers a few scholarships each year at leading universities to help outstanding workers complete their professional education. Outlook Job opportunities are good in this occupation at the present time (early 1948) and are expected to remain so in the near future. For some months after VJ-day, there were a tremendous number of veterans and others seeking work, trying to make use of the weather training they had received dur ing the war. At that time, there was room for only a few of these people in civilian weather-observer jobs. The rejected applicants soon went into other types of work, and by late 1947, a labor shortage had developed which is expected to continue for a short time. A considerable number of openings have arisen owing to expansion in Weather Bureau employment and to turn-over, which has been higher than usual because of the termination of temporary wartime appointments. Over the long run, there will be a moderate in crease in employment, reflecting expansion of Weather Bureau services, especially to aviation. This will never be a large occupation, however. Opportunities for women in this occupation are not numerous. During the war a good many were employed by the Weather Bureau, but the num ber has dropped considerably since then. Earnings In the Weather Bureau, observers with minimum qualifications start at about $2,500 per year. People with more training or experience may begin at somewhat higher rates. Overseas jobs carry a 25-percent bonus. Many of the Weather Bureau jobs are located in or near large cities, often at the local airport. However, some of the weather observatories are in remote and isolated spots; a few are outside con tinental United States in such places as Alaska, Iceland, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Wake Island, Guam, or the Philippines. Since weather stations operate on a 24-hour basis, observers often have to do night w ork; frequently they are on rotating shifts. These people have unusually steady employment and stable earnings, paid vacations, sick leave, better-than-average pensions, and other benefits. ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS Where To Go for More Information For general information write to: Am erican M eteorological Society, 5 Joy St., Boston 8, Mass. This organization has published a pamphlet en titled “Weather Horizons,” which gives a detailed resume of job opportunities in both the Federal Government and private industry. People interested in employment with the United States Weather Bureau should get in touch 85 with the nearest of the seven Weather Bureau regional offices, which are located in New York, N. Y . ; Atlanta, G a.; Chicago, 111.; Kansas City, Mo.; Fort Worth, Tex.; Los Angeles, Calif.; and Seattle, Wash. For employment outside conti nental United States, the Weather Bureau office in Washington, D. C., should be consulted. Infor mation on employment opportunities for meteor ology students, through the Student Aid Program, may also be obtained from the United States Weather Bureau in Washington. Radio Operators (Telephone and Telegraph Industry) (D.O.T. 0-61.25, .33, and .36) Outlook Summary Small field of employment. ings expected. Very few job open Nature of IFork A few major companies which specialize in pro viding the public with radiotelegraph and radio telephone service and which operate shore stations for communicating with ships at sea employ most o f the workers covered in this statement. There are also a number of smaller companies in this field. There are two main groups of workers, radio op erators and radio operating technicians. The radio operators transmit and receive radiotele graph messages in continental Morse international code, mostly to and from overseas points and ships at sea. They use both semiautomatic and manu ally operated equipment and must meet the com pany’s minimum requirements with regard to speed in receiving and transmitting messages. They need little technical knowledge of radio. The Federal Communications Commission does not require licenses for this group. The radio operating technicians adjust, main tain, and repair the actual transmitting and re ceiving equipment. Their jobs are similar to those of transmitter operators in the radio broadcasting industry. They must have first or second class radiotelephone or radiotelegraph licenses issued by the FCC. ^Requirements for licenses include 793996°—49- -7 United States citizenship; passing a written ex amination on communications law, radio theory, and related subjects; and, for radiotelegraph li censes, passing a speed test in receiving and send ing code messages. Outlook This is a small field, offering extremely limited employment opportunities. About 1,000 radio operators and about 500 radio operating techni cians were employed in early 1917, including those working outside the continental United States. Employment of high-speed manual operators will probably decline. The volume of radiotele graph and radiotelephone traffic is increasing, but teletype, multiplex, and other automatic machines are gradually replacing manually operated equip ment. With the shift to automatic equipment, fewer and less-skilled workers will be needed to handle the same amount of traffic. Opportunities for radio operating technicians will be somewhat better than for high-speed man ual operators. Even for technicians, however, there will be little expansion in employment and few openings owing to turn-over. Earnings and Working Conditions For radio operators in continental United States hourly wage rates in late 1947 ranged roughly be tween $1.20 and $2. The range was even wider 86 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK for radio operating technicians—$1.20 to $2.25 per hour. Hours of work for both groups averaged a little less than 40 per week. Most workers in these occupations are members of the American Communications Association, CIO. Ship Radio Operators (D.O.T. 0-61.33) Outlook Summary Job prospects poor. Employment higher than prewar but far below wartime levels and still de clining. Nature o f Work Ship operators stand watch in the radio room, to receive incoming messages in Morse code and transmit any outgoing ones. They keep records of messages handled and must be familiar with code books and radio channels. They also make adjustments in the receiving and transmitting equipment to give the clearest possible reception, and take care of routine repairs. In addition, operators are responsible for other types of elec tronic equipment aboard, such as radio direction finders. On a minority of ships and for extra pay, they perform clerical tasks not related to their regular duties. Like other members of the crew, they take part in shipboard emergency drills. • Where Employed Oceangoing vessels of more than 1,600 tons, in cluding those engaged in coastwise traffic, all carry radio operators. The great majority of ship op erators are on cargo vessels, but a hundred or so are on oceangoing passenger ships. A much smaller number still are on Great Lakes passenger vessels. Cargo vessels operating exclusively on the Great Lakes do not usually have radio op erators ; these ships have only radiotelephone equipment, which is usually operated by the cap tain or other ship’s officer. Qualifications Men serving as ship operators must hold firstor second-class radio telegraph licenses issued by the Federal Communications Commission. Ik) qualify for a second-class license, an appli cant must pass a written examination covering basic communications law and radiotelegraph theory and practice, and must demonstrate ability to transmit and receive Morse Code at the rate of 16 code groups per minute. For a first-class li cense, an applicant must have more advanced knowledge and be able to transmit and receive 20 code groups per minute and 25 words per minute, plain language. In addition, to obtain a firstclass license, one must be at least 21 years of age and have had at least 1 year of experience. To serve on a ship carrying only one operator or act as chief operator, holders of second-class li censes must have had at least 6 months’ experi ence. Occasionally, when men qualified to be sole operators are not available at certain ports for ships ready to sail, the Federal Communications Commission waives the latter requirement. Hiring is most often done through the Marine Engineers Beneficial Association (C IO ) or the Radio Officers Union (A F L ) ; practically all ship operators belong to one of these two unions. Outlook Employment prospects are poor. At the peak during the war, there were about 3,900 ships with radiotelegraph licenses, most of which carried at least two radio operators. In early 1948 there were fewer ships (around 2,200), and the large majority carried only one operator (passenger ships carried enough to maintain a continuous watch). It is expected that the number of opera tors employed will continue to decline as the num ber of active ships decreases, unless measures are taken to maintain or enlarge the merchant ma rine. Eventually, many men who consider them selves ship radio operators will have to seek other fields of employment. ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS Earnings and Hours o f Work Operators on cargo ships, by far the largest group, receive base pay of around $280 per month, plus overtime for holiday and Sunday work. Additional overtime work is common, so most operators earn more than the base rate. In gen eral, operators on the relatively few passenger 87 ships are paid higher base rates. Operators re ceive board and room free of charge aboard ship and are given paid vacations. See also: Flight Radio Operators, page 88; Ground Radio Operators (Aviation), page 90; Radio Operators (Broadcasting), page 87; Radio Operators (Telephone and Telegraph Industry), page 85. Radio Operators (Broadcasting) (D.O.T. 0-61.10, .16, .17, .30, .40, aud .50) Outlook Summary Expanding field of employment; many openings expected in near future. More licensed personnel seeking work than there are jobs in many urban areas. Best chances for jobs in small communities. Excellent prospects for men especially trained in television. * Nature of Work Groups covered are (1) transmitter operators employed by radio networks and individual broad casting stations to operate and maintain trans mitters and related equipment; (2) studio opera tors who are responsible for the arrangement and operation of studio equipment, including operation of volume controls during broadcasts; and (3) maintenance men. Training and Qualifications Transmitter operators and maintenance men are required to have first-class radio-telephone licenses from the Federal Communications Commission. No license is needed for studio-operator work, but many men in this job have licenses, since they often have to handle transmitter or maintenance work. To obtain a license, one must be a citizen and must pass an examination requiring knowledge of mathematics, basic radio theory, advanced radio telephony, and FCC regulations. Employers often set up additional requirements with regard to experience and formal education. Television operators must have an unusually high degree of skill and technical knowledge and must undergo on-the-job training. Some trainees are selected from among the AM and FM men; others come directly from the better radio and television schools. Outlook By early 1948 about 2,000 AM and FM stations were operating and around 1,000 more had been authorized. When the authorized stations are completed it is estimated employment of licensed operators will be around 15,000, as compared with around 10,000 presently employed. This means that there will be several thousand job openings at new stations in the near future, in addition to open ings at established stations. Operators custom arily move from low-power to high-power stations as they gain experience, thus creating openings for new men at the small stations. Men will also tend to move from AM-FM to television jobs. Television is in its infancy but appears to be entering a period of rapid growth. In early January 1948 only 17 television stations were operating, but about 60 more had been authorized and this number was expected to increase steadily. Since a station of this type required a sizable number of operators (many more than the average AM or FM station), hundreds of specially trained tele vision men are likely to be needed within the next year or two. Over the long run, a continued upward trend in employment of technicians is expected. The number of television and FM stations will go on rising for many years. In urban areas, AM broad casting will probably give way increasingly to FM. But sparsely settled regions will no doubt con tinue to be served by AM stations, unless methods are discovered for extending television and FM reception beyond the present limit of about 50 88 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK miles (the distance from the antennae to the hori zon). In any case, losses in employment which may occur as AM channels go off the air will prob ably be offset by gains in television and FM. unless there should be a depression. Even in that event, employment would be likely to decline less in this occupation than many others. Despite expanding employment, the number of licensed men seeking work is greater than the num ber of openings in many areas, especially large cities. At the same time, there are good oppor tunities in other areas, particularly in small com munities. Highly skilled television men are needed in cities with television stations and will be in demand in many additional cities in the near future. The number of men seeking operator jobs may be further increased if the FCC should make cer tain proposed changes in its licensing require ments. These changes would permit many small AM and FM stations to hire operators for lionsupervisory jobs who had passed a less difficult ex amination than is now required for licenses. Earnings and Working Conditions Average earnings of full-time transmitter oper ators at stations with 15 or more employees were about $66 a week in October 1947, according to an FCC survey. Studio operators without licenses averaged about $77 a week; those with licenses about $80; chief engineers and supervisors of en gineers $101. Supervisory and nonsupervisory technical employees of stations with less than 15 employees averaged $54 per week, much less than any of the groups employed by the bigger stations. Operators and engineers were scheduled to work an average of between 40 and 41 hours per week in the stations with 15 or more employees. Aver- Left, radio operator controls television transmission; right, sound operator age hours of work in the smaller stations were longer, about 43 per week. Principal unions or ganizing operators are the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers (A F L ), the National Association of Broadcast Engineers and Techni cians (independent), and the American Com munications Association (C IO ). Where To Go for More Information Local unions of radio operators can provide in formation on employment opportunities, wages, and working conditions. Some broadcasting trade magazines carry advertisements asking for radio operators. See also Flight Radio Operators, page 88; Ground Radio Operators (Aviation), page 90; Ship Radio Operators, page 86; Radio Operators (Telephone and Telegraph), page 85. Flight Radio Operators (D.O.T. 0-61.32) Outlook Summary Duties Few job opportunities expected in this small occupation. Oversupply of experienced workers is great and will continue to be so indefinitely. Flight radio operators (also known as flight communications officers or flight radio officers) are now employed almost exclusively in airline opera ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS tions over international routes. Their duties may include obtaining radio bearings, sending and re ceiving weather information and other messages in International Morse Code, operating radionavigational equipment, and listening in on the international distress-signal frequency twice an hour at the prescribed times. They make all needed adjustments and emergency repairs on radio equipment while in flight or at stops where no radio maintenance man is available. They also inspect and test the equipment between flights. Qualifications Every flight radio operator is legally required to have a Federal Communications Commission radiotelegraph operator license of second class or higher and a Civil Aeronautics Administration airman certificate. To obtain the former, one must show a comprehensive technical knowledge of radio and meet other requirements. The latter certificate is issued to persons demonstrating ability to perform the duties of the occupation. As in the case o f other members of flight crews, appearance and personal characteristics of appli cants are emphasized in filling vacancies, and strict physical examinations must be passed to enter and stay in the occupation. Frequently, job openings are filled by promotion of ground radio operators. Outlook This is a very small occupation. No more than two or three hundred were employed in early 1918. Expanding overseas air-line operations and other developments may lead to some openings, especially if general business activity remains at a high level. Under the most favorable condi tions, however, employment is not likely to in crease by much between now and 1950 and open ings due to turn-over will be very few. In the long run, the numbers employed will not rise as fast in this occupation as air-line jobs generally; they may even decrease. Among the factors which will tend to keep down the number of flight radio operators are the prospective establishments of more and more international airways with radio range beams and other aids to navigation like those now used in this country and the increasing appli cation of radar to civilian air transportation. On 89 the favorable side is the fact that the utmost con sideration will always have to be given to adequate ground maintenance, servicing, and repair of whatever electronic equipment is used on planes. However, it is more accurate to view this as a factor in providing substitute employment rather than one affecting employment of flight radio operators as such. First in line for any vacancies which may oc cur in the near future are the experienced operators whom the air lines have had to lay off during the past year and who are now on furlough. Next come the ground radio operators who are eligible for promotion. In addition, some of the great number of men who were flight radio operators in the armed services continue to seek comparable civilian jobs. Persons trained for other kinds of radio operator work make up a still greater num ber of potential eligibles. All in all, there tend to be more interested and qualified men available than there are job opportunities; newcomers have practically no chance for employment. This will continue to be the picture for some time to come, despite the planned Air Force expansion. But men qualified for this work may be able to com pete successfully for jobs in a great variety of expanding fields involving their basic skills. Working Conditions Flight radio operators are paid monthly sal aries. A very rough estimate suggests that their annual take-home pay averages in the neighbor hood of $5,000; that most men are paid between $300 and $500 monthly. Factors affecting earn ings include length of service and whether the employee is a junior or senior operator. Flight-time averages under 85 hours a month and probably never exceeds 255 hours a quarter. However, a few additional hours monthly must always be spent in ground duties. A month’s vaca tion with pay is commonly given. As a rule, flight radio operators are on duty away from base about half the time. When they are working away from home their living expenses) are paid by the employing air line. Where To Get More Information Additional information on the occupation of flight radio operator is given in : OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 90 U. S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Opportunities in Avia tion Occupations, Part I—Postwar Employment Outlook; Part 2—Duties, Qualifications, Earnings, and Working Conditions. Bulletins Nos. 837-1 and 837-2. (1945 and 1946.) U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price 10 cents and 20 cents. Inquiries in regard to job openings should be sent to the personnel managers of the lines. A d dresses are listed in part II of the bulletin just mentioned, or may be obtained from the Air Trans port Association of America, 1107 Sixteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C. See also Ground Radio Operators, page 90; Ship Radio Operators, page 86. Ground Radio Operators and Teletypists (Air Transportation) (See D.O.T. 0-61.33 and 1-37.33) Outlook Summary Only limited numbers of openings each year for some time to come; total new hires will probably not exceed a few thousand between 1948 and the early 1950’s. Marked competition for jobs in some areas. Long-run employment trend upward for group as a whole. Nature of Work Ground radio operators and teletypists are em ployed both by air lines, domestic and interna tional, and by the Federal Airways Service of the Civil Aeronautics Administration. Radio operators working for air lines send and receive messages between flight crews and ground personnel and between different points on the ground, using radiotelephone, radiotelegraph, or both. Air-line ground communications are also handled by teletypists, who operate a machine with a keyboard much like that of a typewriter. The radio operators and teletypists employed as air craft communicators by CAA collect and relay information on weather conditions and other mat ters affecting flights. The jobs are widespread geographically, with some workers located in the Territories and for eign countries. Air-line personnel work mostly at airports near metropolitan areas; CAA com municators are at stations scattered along the air ways, often in remote places. Qualifications and Advancement For radio-operator positions with air lines, ap plicants must usually have at least a second-class radio-telephone or -telegraph license from the Fed eral Communications Commission, be able to type, and have specified educational and other quali fications. To qualify for trainee positions as C A A aircraft communicators, applicants must meet Civil Service requirements, including at least 1 year in aero nautical communications work or other specified experience. A ll permanent appointments to CAA jobs are made on the basis of competitive civil-service examinations. Pending the holding of such examinations, hiring is done directly by CAA, and successful applicants are given only temporary appointments. Outlook Radiomen and teletypists together make up a fairly large occupational group, as aviation occu pations go. The number on public or private pay rolls may now (early 1948) be as high as 10,000 or more. Gains in air-line employment were heavy during 1946 and early 1947, but there was a “ shake-down” in domestic operations during the rest of the latter year. Only moderate rises in private employment may be expected for the im mediate future at least; even such growth depends upon continued vigor in the economy as a whole. CAA communications activity has increased sharply in the postwar period, but employment has not risen proportionately. At the end of the war, August 1945, there were about 3,700 aircraft com municators working for C A A ; a year later, 4,500 or thereabouts; in early 1948 only 4,200 or so. Future employment levels will depend on congres sional appropriations for this activity; there is ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS reason to believe that more communicator jobs may be authorized. At present, job chances are par ticularly good for persons willing to work in Alaska and other places outside continental United States. In the field as a whole, both public and private, job openings are not expected to exceed a few thousand through the early 1950’s, including va cancies arising from quits, discharges, retire ments, and deaths. Longer-run prospects differ as between radiomen and teletypists. Although great strides have already been made in the substitution of teletype and related types of automatic equipment for radio facilities, this tendency is likely to continue, as are efforts at other technological improvements. One of the resulting developments is to decrease the need for radio op erators (generally men) and increase the relative need for teletypists (usually women). On the other hand, the best of the former tend to gain in opportunities for promotion (to supervisory posi tions, for example) as communications activity and staffs grow and spread out from the present centers. Another factor favorable to the pros pects for advancement of radiomen is the increas ing complexity of communications systems, tech niques, and equipment and the vital role which communication development— for instance, ra dar—plays in the drive for all-weather flying, safety, and economy. On the labor-supply side, the potential surplus of qualified applicants, especially radio operators, is large, and hiring of newcomers is very spotty. During the war, well over 100,000 men and some women had varying amounts of radio-operator training and experience in the military and naval air forces alone. Relatively few of the wartime trainees have applied for jobs in this field. Nevertheless, the number of interested eligibles has been great enough to make for marked com petition, at least in some parts of the country. This situation is likely to persist indefinitely de spite the planned Air Force expansion. But some o f the more skilled and experienced radiomen may be able to compete successfully for jobs in a great 91 variety of expanding fields involving their basic skills. Earnings and Working Conditions For air-line radio operators, typical earnings range from $170 to $270 a month; for teletypists, about $145 to $215 a month. The salaries of CAA aircraft communicators range from $2,498 to $4,480 and better a year. Air-line personnel usually get 2 weeks’ paid vacation. CAA employees receive 26 days o f paid annual leave. The basic work week is 40 hours both with the air lines and with CAA. A number o f lines have union agreements cover ing radio operators and teletypists. Organiza tions involved include the Air Line Communica tions Employees Association (American Commu nications Association, C IO ), and the Radio Offi cers Union (Commercial Telegraphers Union, A F L ). Where To Get More Information Additional information on the occupations of ground radio operators and teletypists is given in : U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Opportunities in Avia tion Occupations, Part I—Postwar Employment Outlook and Part 2—Duties, Qualifications, Earn ings, and Working Conditions. Bulletins No. 837-1 and 837— (1945 and 1946). U. S. Govern 2. ment Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price 10 cents and 20 cents. Inquiries in regard to job openings on air lines should be sent to the personnel managers of the lines. Addresses are listed in part II of the bul letin just mentioned, or may be obtained from the A ir Transport Association of America, 1107 Six teenth Street NW., Washington, D. C. For information regarding CAA positions, ad dress the Civil Aeronautics Administration or the Civil Service Commission, Washington 25, D. C., or any regional office of either agency. See also Flight Radio Operators, page 88; Ship Radio Operators, page 86. 92 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Airplane Pilots (D.O.T. 0-41.10) Outlook Summary Qualifications and Advancement Overcrowded occupation; only most highly ex perienced and qualified men likely to get jobs for some years. Continued growth in employment ex pected in long run. Every person who pilots a plane for pay is legally required to hold a CAA pilot certificate with a rating of commercial grade or higher. A pilot doing instrument flying must have an instru ment rating. To operate a voice radio transmitter, he must ordinarily have an FCC aircraft radio telephone operator authorization. Finally, an air line captain must have a CAA air-line transport pilot rating. For all ratings, there are strict re quirements regarding physical condition, which is checked periodically. Pilots serving also as flight engineers must meet the separate standards set for this position (see p. 204). In hiring pilots, employers—especially the air lines— insist on far more flying time than is speci fied in the legal requirements. They generally de mand a liigh-school education or better (heavy preference is given men with college credits), and will hire only young men. Personality, tempera ment, appearance, and height (tall men are pre ferred) are also considered. For CAA positions, long and varied flying experience, as well as speci fied pilot ratings, is required. The scheduled air lines hire only men as co pilots. Those who make good are given a chance, on a seniority basis, to qualify for promotion to captain. A t least 2 years’ experience is generally needed to qualify for such upgrading; it may be 4 or 5 years or longer before a copilot is actually reached for promotion. Men failing to qualify as captains within a reasonable time are not re tained as copilots. Captains may be promoted to chief pilot, assistant superintendent of flight operations, and other executive positions on up the ladder. A ll C A A positions are civil-service jobs. At present (early 1948), they are being filled on a temporary basis only, without competitive exam inations. Nature o f Work Practically all pilots work either for the sched uled air lines or in general flight operations (nonscheduled flying and related activities). Those with the air lines fall into twT main groups, cap o tains and copilots. Besides operating the controls of the plane, air line pilots have to keep close watch on a multitude o f instruments, operate the voice radio, and handle other flight duties. They also have extensive ground duties—among them, studying weather reports, preparing flight plans, making a preflight check of the condition of plane, and filling out reports. The captain decides how work shall be divided between himself and the copilot, who acts as his assistant, and is regarded as a “ captain in training.” On a small but growing number of flights, particularly on international routes, two pilots are carried in addition to the captain. In creasingly, pilots, are also serving as flight engi neers (see p. 204). Outside the air lines, pilots have a wide variety of jobs. Large numbers work for flying schools and commercial flying businesses (charter trans portation, aerial photography and advertising, crop dusting and spraying, demonstration selling, and other activities). Some are employed by oil companies and other firms using planes for busi ness purposes; a few by Government agencies (chiefly the Civil Aeronautics Administration) and by aircraft manufacturers. Many operate their own businesses, with or without paid help. Air-line pilots are stationed at a limited number of “ division” points throughout the United States; a few are based in foreign countries. Other pilots are located in all parts of the country where there are airports. Outlook Employment of pilots is likely to rise moderately both in the near future and over the long run. ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS Around 10,000 pilots held jobs at VJ-day or about the same number as in 1940. A sharp war time increase in the number on air-line pay rolls (from 2,300 at the end of 1940 to 4,500 or more by mid-1945) was offset by declining employment in other aviation services. During the first year after the war, employment increased rapidly on the air lines and elsewhere, only to fall off in 1947, particularly in scheduled domestic operations. The scheduled air lines started 1948 with a staff of about 7,000 pilots and copilots; the number em ployed in other fields was maybe half again as great. 93 be handled by fewer planes and pilots. In both the short and long run, growth in air traffic and em ployment will depend on continued high levels of general business activity. Considerable competition for any pilot jobs (but not necessarily pilot-engineer positions) that arise is anticipated for some years. There were many pilots on furlough as 1947 came to a close. Although only a small proportion of the host of pilot veterans have sought flying jobs, the number doing so has been much greater than the number of openings—and there are other men with flight training and experience in the market for jobs. CAA commercial license approvals have dropped sharply since the first postwar year, but the num ber of men getting these ratings is still much greater than the number of openings. Even highly qualified applicants will be more numerous than vacancies for a year or two, and probably longer. Men with no flying history will have great diffi culty getting into the field for several years. The 70-group Air Force program will scarcely affect the picture. Earnings and Working Conditions Captain and copilot making a preflight cockpit check on a fourengine plane. Continued growth in air-line traffic, notably freight traffic, and in a great variety of other avia tion businesses— some already established, some new and untried— may be expected to lift employ ment only moderately in the immediate future. The net increase is not likely to be more than sev eral hundred, at best, during any one year through 1950. The really great expansion in air-line em ployment would appear to be still some years ahead, waiting on the development of regular, allweather flying. On the other hand, the increased size and speed of new planes, used as replacements and additions, permit given volumes of traffic to Highest paid are air-line captains, with monthly earnings ranging from about $700 to $1,000 or more, depending on flight time, size of plane, length of service, and whether the flying done is domestic or overseas. Air-line copilots make about half that much. At least one line pursues a policy, by union agreement, which tends to set a floor on pilot earnings; it guarantees 70 hours of flight time a month. The average flight time of pilots with the sched uled air lines is somewhat greater than this mini mum, though not more than 80 hours or so a month. The permissible maximum is 85 hours a month in domestic flying, 255 per quarter in international. Many hours of ground time substantially lengthen these work schedules. The Air Line Pilots Association, A F L (the only collective-bargaining agency for pilots) states that “ while earnings are in upper-earnings brackets, the earning period of an air-line pilot is compara tively short.” This it attributes to “the slowing up of physical and mental reflexes, coupled with stringent periodic physical examinations” which tends to ground most men before they reach the age of 45 years. 94 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Pilots in other types of private employment have earnings nearer to those of copilots than to those of captains. They tend to have many more flight hours and irregular work schedules. CAA inspectors start at an annual salary of $4,855, for a 6-month training period. After several promo tions and many years of service, their salaries may reach as high as $6,200 or more. The basic work week is 40 hours, but actual work time is irregular. In domestic air-line flying, a 2 weeks’ vacation with pay is generally allowed; in international operations, a month’s paid vacation. CAA pilots, like most other Federal employees, receive 26 days of paid annual leave per year. As a rule, air-line pilots are on duty away from their base about half the time. When away, they have their living expenses paid by the air line. Virtually all air-line—but few, if any, other— pilots belong to the Air Line Pilots Association. Where To Get More Information Additional information on the occupation of pi lots is given in : U. S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Opportunities in Avia tion Occupations, Part I—Postwar Employment Outlook: Part 2— Duties, Qualifications, Earn ings, and Working Conditions. Bulletins Nos. 837-1 and 837-2 (1945 and 1946). Price 10 cents and 20 cents. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. To find out about openings with air lines and the exact qualifications needed, one should write to the personnel managers o f the lines. Addresses are listed in part II of the bulletin just mentioned or may be obtained from the Air Transport Asso ciation of America, 1107 Sixteenth Street NW,, Washington, D. C. Men interested in setting up their own aviation businesses should consult State aviation commis sions and local chambers of commerce; also the following publication: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Opportunities for Es tablishing New Businesses in Aviation, Superin tendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C. (1948). Price 40 cents. Information as to locations of air fields, repair stations, and flying schools can be obtained from the Office of Aviation Information, Civil Aeronau tics Administration, Washington 25, D. C. For information regarding Federal Government posi tions, address the United States Civil Service Commission, Washington 25, D. C., or any re gional office of this agency. /See also Dispatchers and Assistants, page 114; Airport and Airway Traffic Controllers, page 116. Navigators (Air Transportation) (D.O.T. 0-41.60) Outlook Summary Few opportunities expected in this small oc cupation. Oversupply of experienced workers is great and will continue indefinitely. Nature o f W ork A navigator is carried only on international commercial air-line flights. Before each flight, he prepares the flight plan for the captain’s approval and sees to it that all needed navigational equip ment is in good condition and aboard the plane. In the air, he is responsible for knowing at all times whether the flight is progressing according to plan and advising the captain as to revisions in routing made necessary by changing weather con ditions or other unforseen circumstances. He uses all available navigational methods— dead reckon ing, celestial navigation, radio bearings, and pi lotage. Another of his duties is keeping the flight log. Navigators are stationed mainly in coastal cities, where activities employing them are commonly based. Qualifications Every navigator is legally required to have a Civil Aeronautics Administration certificate. Among the qualifications which an applicant must have to be certified is a comprehensive knowledge ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNICAL FIELDS o f air navigation and related subjects. This train ing has been obtainable so far mainly in the mili tary and naval air services. Employers greatly prefer men with college education; a higli-school diploma is virtually always a minimum require ment. Flight experience as a navigator and per sonal characteristics, such as height, appearance, and personality, are emphasized in hiring. Strict physical examinations must be passed to enter and stay in the occupation. Outlook This is a very small field; in early 1948 employ ment was no more than 200 or 300. Expanding overseas air-line operations and other develop ments may lead to some openings, especially if general business activity remains at high levels. However, employment is not likely to increase as fast in this occupation as in most other air-line jobs. In the long run, employment of navigators will probably decline; technological and other factors may cause the elimination of these flight-crew members on a number of routes. There is, for example, continued striving for international air ways with radio-range beams and other aids in navigation like those used on domestic airways, though the establishment of such airways on a scale comparable with our own Federal Airways System is probably still a long way off. The in creasing application of radar to civilian aviation may also make navigators unnecessary on a grow ing number of flights. The chances for continued and accelerated advancement along these lines have been enhanced by the interest in these matters shown by the President’s Air Policy Commission, the Congressional Aviation Policy Board, and other bodies. Under the best conditions foreseeable, it is likely to be difficult even for experienced men to obtain navigator positions. At the beginning of 1948, the air lines had many furloughed navigators with first claim on any openings. In addition, applicants with navigator experience in the armed forces have tended to outnumber openings, though only a very small percentage of the host of former military and naval Air Force navigators have sought civilian jobs in the occupation. Newcom ers have practically no chance for positions. This 95 will almost certainly continue to be the case for several years at least—the oversupply may even grow—despite the Air Force expansion (the 70group program) legislated in May 1948. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries are on a monthly basis. A very rough estimate suggests that average annual pay in early 1948 was in the neighborhood of $5,000, with some men earning as low as $3,000 and others making as much as $6,000 and more. How much an indi vidual navigator actually makes is dependent upon his grade (junior or higher), his length of service, and other factors. When navigators are away from base on duty (as they are about half of the time), their living expenses are paid by their employer. Often they also get $1 or more a day while on land for inci dental expenses. Flight time is generally not more than 255 hours a quarter, more or less equally divided between the 3 months. However, a few additional hours each month must always be spent in ground duties. One month’s vacation with pay is usually given. Navigators are covered by union contracts on almost all lines where they are employed. They are represented by the Air Line Navigators Asso ciation (a branch of the Transport Workers Union o f America, CIO) on most of these lines, and by the Association of Airline Navigators (independ ent) on one. Where To Get More Information Additional information on the occupation of navigator is given in : U. S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Opportunities in Avia tion Occupations, Part I—Postwar Employment Outlook; Part 2—Duties, Qualifications, Earn ings, and Working Conditions. Bulletins Nos. 837-1 and 837-2. (1945 and 1946.) U. S. Gov ernment Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price, 10 cents and 20 cents. Inquiries in regard to to job openings should be sent to the personnel managers of the lines. Addresses are listed in part II of the bulletin just mentioned, or may be obtained from the Air Transport Association of America, 1107 Sixteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C. Other Professional, Semiprofessional, and Administrative Occupations Accountants (D.O.T. 0-01.) Outlook Summary Good employment prospects for Certified Pub lic Accountants (C. P. A.) and others with con siderable experience, at least in next few years; keen competition among the inexperienced. Con tinued upward trend in employment in long run. Fields of Employment There are many types of accounting work, rang ing from partnerships in accounting firms and controllerships in corporations to jobs at the cleri cal level. Accountants may engage in either pub lic or private practice. Public accounting firms are usually headed by C. P. A .’s although they often employ other accountants; they render serv ice to a number of clients on a fee basis. Private accountants work on a salary basis either for a single business establishment, keeping accounts* of that business, or for Government agencies in such jobs as auditor, bank examiner, or tax examiner. In early 1948 there were about 30,000 C. P. A .’s, but altogether probably eight or nine times that number of persons were engaged in accounting work. Less than 10 percent were women, and many of these were in teaching positions; about 400 women were C. P. A .’s. How To Enter Employment requirements vary with the type of work. A bachelor’s degree with a major in ac counting or a related field, or a diploma from a school of accounting is usually required for the better jobs, though experience may be substituted for part of the formal education. To qualify as a 96 certified public accountant and receive the certifi cate from a .State board, one must meet certain educational and experience requirements and pass a rigid examination. Eighteen States have regu latory accountancy laws under which only regis tered accountants or certified public accountants can practice public accounting. Only one of these now allows registration of noncertified public ac countants, although the other IT formerly did so. The accountant usually begins in a minor job— compiling data, preparing invoices, or as a junior assistant on the staff of a C. P. A. Advancement may be rapid for able accountants with sufficient educational preparation, but inadequate training often results in routine jobs with little opportunity for promotion—except in cases of unusual ability. Experience in accounting is an excellent back ground for many types of jobs such as credit manager, controller, purchasing agent, budget officer, and many executive positions. Outlook There is a shortage o f qualified accountants (early 1948), which is more pronounced in some localities than in others. Employment oppor tunities have increased in recent years because o f such factors as complex tax systems and a growing emphasis on scientific management in industry. The war greatly increased the demand for ac counting services, especially in the Government. While Government personnel requirements have fallen off, the upward trend in private industry still continues. Many employers, newly intro duced to the value of accounting services during the war, now see the advantage of maintaining OTHER P R O F E S S IO N A L , S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L , production control systems, regular auditing serv ices, and a variety of other accounting practices. Teachers are now badly needed to instruct the greatly increased number of students in schools of business administration and accounting. Public accounting firms in some areas are now obliged to turn away business because o f a shortage of experienced accountants. This in turn has created surpluses of inexperienced workers, who cannot be employed without senior accountants to supervise them. The shortage of experienced ac countants will soon be relieved, since many of the veterans now being trained are mature enough to be given responsibilities after a relatively short period of experience. Even so, the surplus of in experienced workers is likely to become greater because of the large number now in training. There are some employment opportunities for accountants in every community and in nearly all industries, but the greatest number of jobs, as well as the keenest competition, will continue to be in industrial centers such as New York and Chicago. However, the decentralization of industry has in creased the demand for accountants in the smaller industrial communities. Throughout the country, the trend toward increased use of accounting serv ices can be expected to persist over the long run, provided that general business activity remains at a high level. A D M IN IS T R A T IV E 97 Earnings Salaries for beginners were typically from $1,800 to $2,400 in 1947, according to one estimate. Salaries of staff employees of public accounting firms ranged from $1,800 to $10,000 per year, with a very few running higher. Incomes of partners or heads of firms may be much greater. Prewar average net annual income of those in independent practice was about $5,300 for C. P. A .’s and about $3,000 for others; present incomes are probably considerably higher. Federal civil-service entrance salary for junior accountants and auditors is $2,724; assistant ac countants and bank examiners begin at $2,974; accountants and auditors, who must meet higher qualifications, start at $3,351 a year. More re sponsible positions at higher pay are usually filled through promotion. Where To Go for Further Information Information, particularly on C. P. A .’s, may be obtained from : Am erican Institute o f Accountants, 13 E. 41st St., New York 17, N. Y. Information on the field of cost accounting may be obtained from : National Association o f Cost Accountants, 385 Madison Ave., New York 17, N. Y. Insurance Underwriters (D .O .T . 1-57.30) Outlook Summary Openings in this small occupation almost always filled by promotion of experienced personnel. Op portunities for such advancement somewhat lim ited. reports on applicants by doctors and other inves tigators. The work often involves considerable responsibility and judgment, especially in general insurance. Most underwriters are employed in the home offices of companies writing policies. A few work for large agencies. Nature of Work How to Enter Underwriters decide on the insurability o f ap plicants for life or other insurance, in line with company policy. They usually specialize in life insurance, in some branch of general insurance (fire, casuality, marine, suretyship, or other), or in a subdivision of one of these branches. Duties include analyzing applications for insurance or The usual way of entering the occupation is through promotion from clerical jobs in under writing departments. A number o f colleges and special insurance schools offer helpful courses in insurance, but few if any give training in under writing. Even college-educated people must therefore obtain their skills largely through sev 98 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK eral years of practical experience in subordinate positions. Outlook There will be a number of openings in this oc cupation during the next year or two. Altogether, only a few thousand underwriters were employed in early 1947, most o f them men. An unusually large number o f promotions were made during the war, to fill vacancies due to the draft and other causes. Since YJ-day, a good many veterans and other former employees have come back to their jobs; some who were not previously full-fledged underwriters were advanced to this status on their return. Employment now exceeds the prewar level. In all likelihood, it will tend to increase somewhat over the long run, but not as fast as during the last year or two. Although insurance business is expected to expand, the number of un derwriters employed will not rise proportionately. It would be surprising if they numbered 5,000 by 1960, even assuming continued high levels of eco nomic activity. Competition for promotion is keen among the thousands of eligibles. Only those with the best qualifications are selected to fill the vacancies. Most openings in entry jobs and opportunities for advancement will be in the East, especially the New York City area and in Hartford, Conn., HANDBOOK where the home offices o f the major insurance com panies are concentrated. On the other hand, com petition for beginning jobs and promotions may well be less in other parts of the country. Earnings Underwriters are paid regular salaries. In gen eral, earnings are highest in the Middle Atlantic and Pacific regions. Men’s earnings tend to be considerably higher than women’s. In January 1947, male underwriters in home offices of lifeinsurance companies had average straight-time weekly earnings of about $72, as compared with $49 for female underwriters. Underwriter clerks, of course, had considerably lower earnings— about $41 a week for men and $33 for women. Where To Get More Information Questions on employment opportunities, how to prepare for underwriting work, earnings, and other matters may be addressed to home offices of the big insurance companies or trade associations in the insurance industry, including the follow ing: Life Insurance Agency Management Association, 115 Broad St., H artford, Conn. Life Office Management Association, 110 E. 42d St., New York 17, N. Y. See also Life Insurance Agents, page 153; Gen eral Insurance Agents and Brokers, page 152. Interior Decorators (D .O .T . 0-43.40) Outlook Summary Expanding field. Good employment prospects for well-qualified persons. Some openings for new entrants, especially in suburban areas. Nature o f Work Decorators design interiors for homes, hotels, ships, theaters, business offices, and other places. They estimate costs and, in most cases, purchase furnishings and supervise their installation. They may also plan displays and model rooms and pro mote current decorating fashions in other ways. A good many sell draperies, upholstered furniture, and other small furnishings and have their own w o rk sh o p s w h ere these a rticle s are m ade. M a n y are e m p lo y e d b y la r g e d e c o r a tin g firm s o r d e p a r t m ent stores o r are in business f o r them selves. p resen t, th e m a jo r it y are w om en . At Personal Qualifications and Training A g o o d in te r io r d e c o r a to r com b in es the a b ilitie s o f the a rch ite ct, d esig n er, a n d artist. H e m u st have a k n o w le d g e o f d r a w in g , m a teria ls, c o lo r , in te r io r co n str u c tio n , fu r n itu r e d e sig n a n d a r ra n gem en t, fine arts, lig h tin g , a n d e stim a tin g . S a lesm a n sh ip a n d a p le a sin g p e rs o n a lity a n d a p p ea ra n ce are a m o n g th e p e rso n a l q u a lifica tio n s needed. OTHER P R O F E S S IO N A L , S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L , A good educational background is very im portant. It is helpful to begin preparing while in high school by studying such subjects as mechan ical drawing, art, and business administration. Two years of college are considered desirable be fore entrance into one of the specialized schools o f interior decoration, which offer a 3- or 4-year professional course. Some persons get their train ing at trade and vocational schools, but they are likely to meet keen competition later on from per sons with more advanced training. A f t e r co m p le tio n o f s ch o o lin g , o n -th e -jo b tr a in in g w ith an establish ed d e c o r a tin g firm o r d e p a r t m en t store is in v alu ab le. A b e g in n e r m a y h a v e su ch d u ties as k e e p in g stock in o rd e r, s e llin g h om e fu r n is h in g s, o r a ctin g as assistant d ra fts m a n . F r o m these en try jo b s one m a y a d va n ce to d e c o r a to r ’s s h o p p e r ; th en to assistant d e c o r a to r ; and fin a lly to d ecora tion con su lta n t o r oth er to p p o s i tion . P r a c tic a l ex p erien ce is p a r tic u la r ly neces sary f o r person s p la n n in g to g o in to business f o r th em selves. Outlook Employment prospects are good for well-trained persons in this relatively small but expanding field. Opportunities have increased since the end of the war, as a greater amount and variety of dec orating materials have become available. Some additional openings are expected, in the near fu ture, provided that general business activity con tinues at a high level. The large number of new homes being built will tend to create an increased demand for the services of the interior decorator. There is also a large demand for redecoration, since interiors have grown worn and shabby in the past few years. Persons with insufficient training and experience are available, but the supply of new entrants who are qualified to advance to top positions has not kept up with the growing de mand. A D M IN IS T R A T IV E 99 Opportunities are likely to be very good in areas adjacent to large cities and in cities with popula tions between 50,000 and 150,000. However, per sons employed in these cities must usually be con tent with small businesses and may have difficulty in securing materials. In a few large cities, where most of the specialized schools of decoration are located and where furnishings are easiest to obtain, an oversupply of decorators may exist. Oppor tunities for beginners in these areas are therefore limited. The demand for interior decoration should tend to increase over the long run. Formerly, this was considered a luxury service, but in recent years, there has been more and more professional dec orating of moderately priced homes and offices. Construction of new houses, schools, hospitals, and other buildings should also provide an increasing demand for the service. However, this occupation is far more affected by declines in business activity than many others. Only if general economic con ditions continue to be good may the great majority of decorators look forward to continued employ ment over a long period of time. Earnings Typical earnings of beginners in entrance jobs were around $30 to $40 per week in some large cities at the beginning of 1947. A wide range of earnings existed among established decorators, de pending on size of establishment, size of city, in come o f clientele, and other factors; some earned upward of $10,000 or even $20,000 per year. Most of those in the upper income brackets were in business for themselves, although high salaries were often paid by large establishments to depart ment heads and others. Where To Get More Information American Institute o f Decorators, 41 E. 57th St., New York, N. Y. 100 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Photographers (D .O .T . 0 -5 6 .0 1 ; 0-56.31) Outlook Summary Limited number of openings for highly quali fied persons in next few years; keen competition among new entrants. Long-run trend in employ ment slowly upward. Nature o f Work Photographers usually specialize in portrait, commercial, news, or aerial work. They must be able to use cameras, lenses, filters, and other equip ment and have knowledge of lighting. They must also be able to do such work as developing, finish ing, printing, enlarging, and retouching, much of which requires the knowledge and use of chemicals. In small shops, the photographer himself may do all this work. Even in large studios employing photographic technicians, he often develops and prints his own pictures. Where Employed Most photographers are employed in studios handling portrait or commercial work. Others work for newspaper and magazine publishers, ad vertising agencies, manufacturing plants, and Fed eral, State, and local governments, Many are in business for themselves. There are photographers in all parts of the country, in small towns as well as large cities. However, in 1940, over half were employed in only six States—New York. Illinois, California, Penn sylvania, Ohio, and Michigan. How to Enter Usual method of entering the occupation is by training on the job. This usually takes 2 or 3 years and covers all phases of photography, the trainee advancing through the various operations. Some employers have formal apprenticeship programs. Persons may also enter the occupation by attend ing a school of photography. However, comple tion of a school course cannot substitute for onthe-job training,’ though it may shorten the training period. Selection of a reputable school is very important. Veterans whose only experience in photography was obtained in the armed forces will need additional training for civilian work. High-school education, with emphasis on chem istry, physics, and art, is recommended for all prospective photographers. They should also have artistic ability, a pleasing appearance and person ality, and a good business sense, if they expect to go into business for themselves. Outlook Openings will not be numerous in the next few years. In 1940, there were 37,600 photographers; 3,900 were unemployed. Employment rose sharp ly during the war, mainly because of increased de mand for portrait work. Since VJ-day, this de mand has fallen off. The number o f portrait studios and of photographers employed have therefore decreased. However, employment is likely to remain above the prewar level. There will be a limited number of openings for highly qualified persons, particularly in commercial work, but competition for training positions and beginning jobs is likely to be keen in the near fu ture. Veterans and others should be very cautious about taking over a portrait studio, in view of the drop in this type o f business. Employment will probably rise slowly in the long run, though it is not likely to reach the war time level for a number of years. In addition, there will be some openings because of deaths and retirements. Best opportunities may be expected in commercial work, owing to expanded use o f photography in advertising, record keeping, med icine, and other fields. Commercial photogra phers will also have a better chance of steady em ployment over a long period of time than those doing portrait work, which is the branch likely to be most affected by declines in business activity. Earnings and Working Conditions Typical salaries for experienced portrait pho tographers ranged from about $50 to $100 per week in some large cities in early 1947. Those OTHER P R O F E S S IO N A L , 101 S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L , A D M IN IS T R A T IV E with established reputations earned much more in many instances. Salaries of commercial pho tographers were about the same; many working on a job basis. News photographers usually aver aged about $40 per week, with some receiving as high as $90 or more, at the beginning of 1947, de pending on the circulation of the newspaper or magazine. Aerial photographers typically earned from $40 to $50 per week, plus any traveling ex penses they may have incurred. In Federal Gov ernment jobs, base salaries ranged from $2,284 to $4,480 per year depending on the grade of job. Commercial and news photographers often work nights and Sundays. Portrait photogra phers have rush seasons and may work long hours at these times. Where To Go for More Information The Photographers’ Association of America, 520 Caxton Bldg., Cleveland 15, Ohio. Commercial Artists (D .O .T . 0-44.11, 13, and 21) Outlook Summary Expanding field. Good prospects for welltrained and experienced persons in next few years, but keen competition among new entrants. Nature of Work Commercial artists design and draw illustra tions for advertising copy, books, magazines, and newspapers. They also create posters for bill boards and other uses. Preparation of charts and maps for exhibition or publication is another type of work handled. Experienced artists usually specialize in a particular product or field—for example, fashion or industrial illustrations, fur niture advertising, or story illustrations. Where Employed The largest employers of commercial artists are advertising concerns, department stores, news paper and magazine publishers, mail-order houses, and calendar and greeting-card companies. Some people work as free-lance artists on an independent basis or own a commercial art studio employing several other artists. Most are employed in or near metropolitan areas where the largest users of com mercial art are located. How To Enter Most commercial artists begin their training in high-school art classes or at vocational art schools and later acquire practical experience. However, some enter through on-the-job training periods of varying lengths, combined with part-time scliool793996°—49---- 8 P hotograph by u . S. D epartm ent of labor Experienced commercial artists usually specialize in a particular product or field— example, theater poster advertising. ing. Still others enter by obtaining certificates from schools of fine and applied arts; the courses of study offered by such schools usually take 3 years and cover all phases of art work. Selection of a reputable school is very impor tant. The basic education received should include 102 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK art courses, mathematics, science, and history. A knowledge of lettering and typography, as well as drawing, is essential. Beginners must be content to start at the bottom, performing routine jobs, and work up until their ability is recognized. Artistic talent, originality, resourcefulness, and salesmanship are among the personal qualifications needed for success. Outlook Good employment opportunities for welltrained and experienced persons are expected in the next few years. There will also be some open ings for new entrants possessing exceptional abil ity and good training. Highly qualified com mercial artists are needed because the number of such persons entering the field decreased during the war. Moreover, manufacturers and retailers are beginning to face or are looking forward to a highly competitive market for their goods; ad vertising and therefore commercial art will play an important part in this competitive selling. At present (early 1948), large numbers of partially trained persons with only average artistic ability are seeking work and enrolling in art schools, but many of these people who are attempting to enter HANDBOOK the occupation will never succeed because o f their lack of talent. The demand for commercial art is likely to ex pand over the long run also. The growth of this field has been rapid in the past and further growth is expected. Visual advertising, especially in magazines and newspapers, should continue to de velop rapidly, as it has in the past 10 years. Other forms of commercial art, such as poster and win dow displays, greeting cards, calendars, and use of visual aids in education should continue to employ an increasing number of artists. However, com petition for beginning jobs is usually rather keen. In depression periods even the experienced artists are likely to have less work and lower earnings, though the occupation tends to be less affected than many others by declines in general business activity. Earnings Beginners received about $30 or $40 per week in entrance jobs such as tracer or copyist in early 1947. Experienced artists had a wide range of earnings; those with established reputations made upwards o f $10,000 yearly—sometimes much more. See also Interior Decorator, page 98; Industrial Designers, page 78. Furniture Designers (D .O .T . 0-46.12) Outlook Summary Outlook good for those already in the field and for a very few new entrants who show exceptional talent. Nature o f W ork Furniture designers develop and sketch de signs— work requiring skill, originality, and good taste in addition to a knowledge of design, mate rials, and period styles. The furniture designer, though essentially an artist, must have the tech nical ability to create models adaptable to con sumer needs and to modern methods of factory production as well. After sketching the broad central idea, some designers build and finish their own models, often to full scale. Usually, however, their work is confined to making drawings and diagrams which are translated into working plans by draftsmen, patternmakers, and model makers. T raining Furniture design is one o f the specialized fields in the broader field of industrial designing. As part of their necessary formal training, designers study fine arts and industrial design in an art, trade, or technical school. The specialist in fur niture design acquires, in addition, a well-rounded knowledge of furniture history, architectural trends, and classical furniture style. Where Employed Furniture designers are employed by individual firms in furniture centers such as High Point, OTHER P R O F E S S IO N A L , S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L , N. C .; Jamestown, N. Y . ; Rockford, 111.; Grand Rapids, Mich.; and Gardner, Mass. But most in dustrial designers work in large industrial cities, such as New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. Outlook Current sales show that purchasers prefer fur niture which is original and attractive in design. Manufacturers are anxious to stimulate style con sciousness because it leads to the replacing of fur niture which, though not worn out, has an out moded appearance. To create models which will stimulate the buyer’s desires, manufacturers are A D M IN IS T R A T IV E 103 turning more and more to the designer for ideas. For the most part, furniture manufacturers ob tain their designs from consultants. These con sultants, members of industrial designing firms, develop such diverse products as chinaware, fur niture, vanity accessories, and department-store interiors. However, a small number of furniture manufacturers retain a full-time specialized de signer. Because so few manufacturers maintain their own designing departments, the profession of furniture designer is small and may easily be come overcrowxlecl. Although not entirely closed to the exceptionally talented specialist, opportuni ties for new entrants are very limited. Fur Designers (D .O .T . 0-46.06) Outlook Summary Only a few prospective designers with excep tional talent will be able to enter this field. A l though the occupation is a growing one, it is still very small. Nature o f Work Fur designers create original designs for fur garments and invent new variations in basic de signs. Since there is a limited number of things which can be done to a fur coat (such as attention to sleeves, collars, shoulders, etc.) there is really no such thing as a completely original design. Considerable imagination and ingenuity is neces sary to develop styles that appear noticeably d if ferent from last year's models. In addition to creating the styles, fur designers may make, or supervise the making of, canvas models from the patterns, and they often draw lay-outs showing how the skins are to be used in making a particu lar fur garment. The nature of a designer’s work varies some what depending on the place of employment. Some work in patternmaking houses, where ideas are sketched and drafted into patterns to sell to fur garment manufacturers and retail furriers. Others are employed by manufacturing firms and by a few of the larger retail fur shops which keep a designer on the staff to sketch models and draft patterns exclusively for them. There are furriers in retail shops all over the country who do some designing now and then as a part of their regular job of making or remodeling fur coats. But nearly all of the full-time design ers work in New York City, where most of the patternmaking and wholesale manufacturing houses are located. How To Qualify as a Designer Many fur designers break into the field by get ting experience in patternmaking houses. They advance from patterncutting and patternmaking to designing as they become more proficient. Fur riers in fur shops and designers of cloth coats and dresses occasionally take up fur designing. A l though courses in sketching, patternmaking, cos tume designing, and other related subjects are helpful to the would-be designer, probably no fur designer has ever come directly out of a school. There are no apprenticeship programs. Design ing requires artistic and creative ability which, while doubtless stimulated under supervised training, cannot be acquired. Outlook Even if the fur business should expand in the next few years—which at this point (early 1948) 104 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K does not seem likely—very few additional de signers would be needed. The occupation is very small; there are probably not over 200 full-fledged fur designers. As long as times are prosperous, however, those already in the field will be steadily employed. Designing is an occupation that has become in creasingly important to the fur industry. It is only within the past 20 years that manufacturers of fur garments have become style conscious. Formerly all fur coats were made over the same basic pattern. Now style is as essential to fur coats as it is to dresses, cloth coats, and other clothing. Earnings Designers employed in ready-made fur gar ment plants in New York City are guaranteed at least $90 per week by union contract. On the whole, designers regularly employed by a firm usually make anywhere between $5,000 and $10,000 a year if they have a steady job as a sal aried worker. Some are partners in designing and patternmaking houses which sell their pat terns to manufacturers on a fee basis. Pattern cutting and patternmaking, occupations through which many fur designers get their start, pay beties for new entrants are very limited. Lawyers (D .O .T . 0-22) Outlook Summary Profession somewhat overcrowded at the lower levels and likely to become more so in next few years. Continued expansion in demand for legal services likely in long run. Nature of IYork A large portion of lawyers’ work consists in ad vising clients on their legal rights and obligations and in negotiating settlement out of court. In addition, lawyers prosecute or defend both civil and criminal law suits in the courts. They also represent clients before semi judicial or adminis trative agencies o f the Government; draw up legal documents; often act as trustee, guardian, or ex ecutor, and do other legal work. It is roughly estimated that there are over 180,000 lawyers and judges in the United States, in cluding 4,000 women. About two-thirds are selfemployed. Most of the remainder are either in Government service or on the legal staffs of big corporations. IIow To Enter To be admitted to the bar, it is usually necessary to pass a State examination, besides meeting cer tain educational requirements. Most States re quire graduation from a law school approved by the State or the American Bar Association (about 110 of the Nation’s 163 schools are approved by the A. B. A .). A few States admit graduates of their own State university law schools and occa sionally o f other specified schools to the bar with out examinations. Several States require 6 to 12 months’ clerkship in a law office, in addition to the specified education and bar examinations. Reci procity arrangements which exempt persons with 3 to 5 years’ practice elsewhere from further ex aminations are in effect in most States. To be admitted to an approved law school 2 or more years o f pre-law college work are generally neces sary. Some States and many law schools have higher requirements and the trend is toward still higher ones. Young lawyers usually start as junior assistants in an established office. Many stay on with these firms and, in time, may become partners. After gaining some experience, others open their own offices and are then faced with a “ starvation pe riod” of several years. A ll States and bar asso ciations forbid lawyers to advertise or solicit busi ness; therefore, to become known, it is important to participate in community affairs and to get on national commercial law lists and on the lawyers reference list, if one exists in the area. A neigh borhood law office is often a good way of attract ing clients in large cities. OTHER P R O F E S S IO N A L , S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L , Outlook The legal profession is already somewhat over crowded at the lower levels and is likely to become much more so during the next few years. Enroll ment in law schools in the fall of 1947 was over 50,000, the highest ever reached. It will remain very high for several years, but will probably drop somewhat thereafter, as the great number of veterans now enrolled complete their training. Top-ranking students will continue to find jobs with little difficulty. The average graduate of the next few years may expect increasingly stiff competition, however, and will need the best prep aration possible. Opportunities for teaching are now exceptionally good. Prospects for Negro lawyers are relatively favorable, particularly in urban areas with a large Negro population (ex cept Chicago, Washington, and New Y ork). The profession is expected to go on expanding over the long run, owing to the growing popula tion and various economic and social trends which will increase the need for legal services. Deaths and retirements will also create a considerable number of openings. The tendency toward over crowding in the profession will probably continue, however, unless ways are found to make legal serv ices available to greater numbers of lower income people. Legal aid societies have for many years been offering free services to those who could not afford to pay anything; many people who can af ford small fees do not use the legal services they need, largely because the charges are beyond their means. Attempts have been made to provide com petent low-cost legal services through such plans as the Legal Service Bureau and neighborhood law offices. I f services of this nature become wide spread and well known, the new legal business opened up will help absorb the surplus of young lawyers. Opportunities for specialists are usually better than for lawyers in general practice; many of the larger law firms have such specialists on their staffs. Specialties with relatively good prospects in the long run are: Tax law (thorough knowledge of accounting is necessary and government experi ence helpful), patent law (scientific or engineer A D M IN IS T R A T IV E 105 ing training is often required), administrative law, admiralty law, and international law. Legal training is becoming increasingly useful for many types of business and is a great asset to people seeking public office. Best opportunities usually lie in medium-size and small cities, especially those with prospects of economic expansion. State capitals and county seats may also offer good opportunities. The pro fession is especially overcrowded in the very larg est cities and in Washington, D. C. Earnings According to a 1911 survey, average net income of lawyers in private practice was then around $4,800; half made under $3,000. In New York City, incomes averaged about $5,900, but half made under $2,800. In other cities of over 500,000, the average income was $6,700, with half making less than $3,300. Highest incomes were reported in the far West and the Middle Atlantic States. There have been substantial increases in earnings since 1941. Lawyers’ operating expenses are high, absorb ing, on the average, about one-tliird of gross earn ings. Frequently, two or more lawyers share the same offices to reduce overhead costs. Many of them, particularly in small towns, have to have some other source of income such as a farm, real estate, or other business. Where To Go for More Information Information on such matters as law schools, their entrance requirements, and employment op portunities in a particular locality may be ob tained from the main headquarters or from the local chapters o f : (1) American Bar Association, 1140 North Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. (2) National Lawyers Guild, 902 20th St. N W „ Washington, D. C. Specific information on requirements for admis sion to the bar may be obtained from the clerk of the State supreme court at any State capital. 106 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK HANDBOOK Social Workers (D .O .T . 0-27) Outlook Summary Excellent immediate opportunities in all types of positions. Long-run outlook good for work ers with graduate training; those with only under graduate training will face increasing competition. Nature of Work social service and the inability of the professional schools to keep pace with the demand. School enrollments have increased since VJ-clay, espe cially in the number of men students, and the schools have waiting lists of applicants. War services which used great numbers of social work ers are continuing, though on a smaller scale; the Principal types of social work are case work, including family social work, child-welfare work services, and work with delinquents; group w ork; community organization; social research; and social administration. The majority of social workers are employed by Federal, State, and local governments; most of the remainder by private social agencies; a few by private industry. They are to be found in all parts of the country, in both urban and rural areas. How To Enter There are 47 accredited schools which give grad uate training in social work. Such training is usually considered necessary for positions involv ing advanced case work and is desirable for all jobs. Qualifications for most Federal civil-service positions can be met either by certain types of social work experience or by a combination of training and experience. Entrance requirements for graduate schools include undergraduate courses in social and biological sciences and, usually, a certain level of scholastic achievement. For those who must enter the field with only a B. A. degree, some colleges and universities oiler preprofes sional courses in social work. Some positions, especially in public-assistance work, can be entered with still less academic training. It is roughly estimated that there are at least 100,000 social workers at present. The majority (approximately 65 percent in 1940) are women. The proportion of Negroes employed is small, but greater than before the war. Outlook There is an acute shortage of social workers (early 1948), due largely to the increased use of ph o to g raph by U. S. d e p a r t m e n t of l a b o r . Social work requires tact and understanding in helping people deal with their problems. Veterans Administration needs more trained workers than can be found in many areas; new projects, such as the Mental Health Act, also re quire trained workers; and older programs, such as child welfare and public assistance in the Social Security Administration, have increasing need for professionally trained workers. Experienced workers are advancing rapidly to better positions, leaving openings in the lower-paid jobs. Short ages are most severe in rural areas, though the greatest numbers are employed in cities. Workers with graduate training will probably find good employment opportunities in the long run, as well as in the immediate future. Only a small proportion of social workers now have this training. Before the war there was a definite trend OTHER P R O F E S S IO N A L , S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L , toward higher training requirements, which may be expected to be resumed as soon as shortages are less severe. Workers without graduate training will therefore find it increasingly difficult to meet the competition. How many people will be em ployed in the field as a whole will depend largely on the appropriations for public social work by Federal, State, and local governments; to a lesser extent on community support of private agencies. In any case, many openings will arise owing to turn-over, which is high because many women leave the field to marry (though marriage is not necessarily a barrier to employment). Opportunities for men will be particularly good. The number of administrative jobs is increasing and men are frequently preferred for these posi tions ; also, men have been entering other types of social-work positions in greater and greater num bers since the war, when many of them gained experience in medical and psychiatric services. Social workers are not likely to be as much affected by declines in business activity as are many other occupations, though there may be a A D M IN IS T R A T IV E 107 shift from specialized services to dispensing of relief. Earnings Salaries vary greatly according to type of work, size of agency, location, training, experience, sex of worker, and other factors. At the present time earnings are increasing rapidly. In the publicassistance field salaries in beginning positions ranged from about $900 to $2,200 per year in 1946. In large cities experienced case workers in most fields typically made from about $2,000 to $2,600; those in small cities and rural areas made some what less. Typical salaries for administrators varied from about $3,600 to $13,000, depending on the size of the agency. Entrance salary for most social-work jobs in the Veterans Adminis tration is $3,727. Where To Find Out More About Social Work American Association o f Social Workers, 130 E. 22d St., New York 10, N. Y. Personnel W orkers 1 (D .O .T . 0-39.82 and 8 3 ; 0-68.71, 72, and 73) Outlook Summary Field overcrowded at present. Long-run em ployment trend slowly upward, but keen competi tion for entry jobs likely to continue for several years. Nature of Work Personnel workers maintain personnel records, and assist in recruiting, placing, training, rating, disciplining, and discharging employees. They may also be responsible for job standardization and classification and wage setting; for employee welfare services, health, and safety; for compli ance with Federal and State labor laws; and for an employee-information service. Labor relations is becoming one of the most important parts of their work. In a small company, one man may handle all this work; in the largest ones, the per sonnel manager is a top-ranking executive who ad vises in setting of personnel policies and has under him hundreds o f personnel-department employees. Professional personnel workers in late 1946 totaled no more than 30,000, according to one rough estimate. Directors or managers make up only a small proportion of this total. Personnel workers are employed in all industries; about 5,000 work for Federal, State, and local govern ments ; some are employed by schools and colleges. Men with long and varied experience may work independently as private consultants or laborrelations experts. About three out o f every four people in the pro fession are men. Very few women have top managerial positions, but many are in technical personnel jobs such as classification and place ment, in interviewing and counseling, and in per sonnel research—particularly in government and industries with large numbers of women workers.1 1Excludes student personnel w orkers in schools and colleges. 108 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK IIow to Enter Requirements for positions usually include a bachelor’s degree, with courses in personnel and public administration, psychology, statistics, busi ness management, economics, sociology, and political science. Graduate study is becoming in creasingly useful. Work experience is very important, particularly for positions in private industry, which are usu ally filled from within. The best place to start out is in a production job. Other good places are subprofessional jobs in time study, job analysis, or wage setting, or, in the case of women, clerical work in the personnel department. Psychological testing is one o f the few branches of industrial personnel work which can be entered directly from college; it usually requires a graduate degree. Outlook At present (early 1948), there are a few open ings at top managerial levels for experienced men, but competition for lower-grade positions is very keen. During the war, many inadequately pre pared people gained some experience in personnel work in civilian industries and the armed forces. The number of these partly qualified workers who are seeking jobs now greatly exceeds the number o f available openings. Totally inexperienced per sons will find it very difficult to enter the field in the next few years. In the long run, the profession will probably grow slowly. Openings will not be many, how ever, because the field is still relatively small and turn-over is low. Not only is the profession staffed mainly by young men, but people who succeed in making headway in it seldom transfer to other occupations. In general, promotions will be slow. Best opportunities for jobs will be with small and middle-size companies. Fields in which increas ing employment is expected include wholesale and retail trade, especially department stores, insur ance and finance, and State and local govern ments. Employment in the Federal Government has dropped since the war but is expected to stabilize HANDBOOK at a point close to present levels; little expansion is likely in the near future. Nevertheless, many personnel workers will always be employed by the Federal Government. Veteran’s preference will be observed in any entry jobs that do arise. A very few outstanding men will continue to find opportunities as labor arbitrators or inde pendent personnel consultants. There will also continue to be numerous openings for people with graduate degrees to teach personnel administra tion. Most jobs, along with the keenest competition, will be in highly industrialized parts o f the coun try, principally New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl vania, Ohio, Illinois, and the west coast. Earnings Starting salaries for personnel clerks in the Federal Government are usually about $2,730 or $2,980 per year. Personnel specialists start at about $2,980 while personnel directors earn from $6,000 to $10,000. State and local governments pay salaries that are generally somewhat lower. In private industry, starting rates are lower than in the Federal Government but top salaries are much higher; earnings depend both on the gen eral salary level of the company and on the degree of recognition given to personnel work. Begin ning positions such as job analyst, time-study man, and interviewer generally pay from $1,800 to $2,600 per year. The most usual salary for a per sonnel manager is apparently between $6,000 and $8,000 per year. However, small companies may pay as little as $5,000 and giant corporations as high as $30,000 or more to a vice president in charge of personnel. Where To Go For Additional Information Society for the Advancement o f Management, 84 W illiam St., New York 7, N. Y. Information may also be obtained from the local chapters of this organization and from the deans of any of the major colleges of business adminis tration. OTHER P R O F E S S IO N A L , S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L , A D M IN IS T R A T IV E 109 Librarians (D . O. T. 0-23.20) Outlook Summary Immediate employment opportunities are very good for professionally trained librarians. New entrants should find employment readily for the next several years at least. rule, only large schools have specially trained li brarians. College and university libraries (num bering about 1.700) employ nearly 18 percent. The remainder work in approximately 1,500 special libraries and 230 Federal and State libraries. Nature o f Work Outlook The major divisions ol the work of every library, large or small, general or specialized, are adminis tration, book selection and order work, cataloging and classification, circulation work, and reference service. In a small library the librarian may per form the duties involved in all or several of these functions. In a large organization, different li brarians handle each function and there are addi tional positions such as children’s librarian, read ers’ adviser, public-relations director, subject spe cialists, personnel director, and positions of a strictly administrative nature. Employment opportunities for trained librari ans are very good (in 1948), and there will be good opportunities for new entrants for several years. Growth in this field has been rapid in the past and there are indications of further expan sion. Even before the war the annual placement of library-school graduates reached 100 percent. A shortage of librarians was intensified during the war when library-school enrollments dropped steadily. There is considerable turn-over in this field because many young women marry and leave their jobs, and both men and women find positions in other fields in which knowledge of librarianship is an asset. A return to library-school enrollments of prewar size (about 1,500 were graduated each year) will not meet the needs of libraries for re placements and new positions created by expand ing facilities in the next few years. The greatest number of opportunities will con tinue to be in positions now found in most librar ies—reference and circulation librarians, catalogers, librarians for service to children and young people, and school librarians. A smaller number of librarians will be needed for positions which require special competence and preparation—ad ministrators, subject specialists, extension librari ans, librarians in adult education, public-relations specialists, hospital librarians, and librarians to develop the use of audio-visual materials. There is need for librarians who can administer and at the same time perform most of the routine work in small libraries, since these libraries far outnum ber the large ones. Training To obtain a position as librarian, one must be a college graduate and have completed a year in one of the 34 accredited library schools either before or after obtaining the bachelor’s degree. Twothirds of these schools give graduate training only. The other third include the curriculum in library science within the undergraduate 4 years. Several library schools enroll students at the beginning of the third college year for 2 or more years of combined study in library science and subject fields. Undergraduate study should include his tory, literature, at least one modern foreign lan guage, and research methods. Considerable knowledge of the physical or the social sciences is particularly important in library service today. Where Employed There are about 30,000 trained librarians (early 1948), of whom 90 percent are women. The 7,400 public libraries employ slightly more than 40 per cent of these people. Centralized libraries in ele mentary and secondary schools (numbering some 20,000) employ about 30 percent, although, as a Earnings Inexperienced library-school graduates for 1947 had a minimum entrance salary of $2,300 with an 110 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK average of $2,500. Salaries vary considerably witli type of work, training, experience, and size and location of library. A survey of library personnel in 31 cities of over 200,000 population in 1947 showed that department heads had a median min imum salary of $2,967 and a median maximum sal ary of $3,870; branch librarians (not including sub-branch librarians) had median minimum and maximum salaries of $2,300 and $2,800, respec tively; and catalogers (exclusive of first assistants and department heads), $2,100 and $2,660. With the Federal Government, the basic entrance salary for qualified professional librarians is $2,974 a year. Salaries are usually somewhat higher in special libraries than in general libraries,. HANDBOOK Where To Go for Further Information Information, particularly on schools, require ments, and placement, may be obtained from : American Library Association, 50 E. Huron St., Chicago 11, 111. Information on special libraries may be obtained from : Special Libraries Association, 31 E. 10th St., New York City 3, N. Y. Statistics of library systems and other informa tion will be furnished b y : Federal Security Agency, Office o f Education, W ashington 25, D. C. Newspaper Reporters and Editors (D .O .T . 0-0G.43, .44, .45, .47, .48, .51, .52, and .71) Outlook Summary Occupation somewhat overcrowded at present.: In long run, opportunities in newspaper work will probably continue to be limited, but some expan sion in related fields is expected. Nature of Work Newspaper reporters gather facts for news stories which may be written either by them or by a rewrite man. There are many types of editors, with varying degrees of responsibility. Depart ment editors handle a particular kind of news such as sports or society. City editors assign reporters, photographers, and rewrite men to local news stories and may edit stories and headlines. Man aging editors have complete charge of the editorial department and, with the publisher, set the general policy of the paper. Editors are usually recruited from reporters. Taking both groups together, about 58,000 were employed in 1940; approxi mately one-fourth were women. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Talent for writing is essential and often out weighs academic training in getting jobs and pro motions. A general college education is desirable, however. More and more, employers are giving preference to people with formal training in jour nalism, history, and economics. People usually get into the occupation by start ing as a “ cub” reporter on a small newspaper or a trade-association paper or by working up from the job of copy boy (where they begin as messen gers and advance to routine reporting assign ments) . Small country and suburban papers pre fer local men who know the community and have related skills, such as photography or printing. Trade associations prefer people with a knowledge of their particular field. Many large papers and syndicates hire college graduates as copy boys and give them a chance at reporting after several months. Reporters may advance to positions as copy readers or to editorships, get reporting jobs on larger papers or with syndicates, or transfer to a variety of better paying, related jobs. They may also do free-lance reporting for more than one newspaper or magazine. Outlook The reporting field is now (in the early part of 1948) somewhat overcrowded, though the surplus o f reporters that followed the return of ex-news papermen from the armed forces is declining. Newspapers are making occasional lay-offs, to cut costs or for other reasons, but the workers dis placed are often able to find other reporting jobs. OTHER P R O F E S S IO N A L , S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L , A D M IN IS T R A T IV E Some men are also finding jobs in related fields. New entrants will probably continue to have a hard time obtaining positions in large cities, where there are generally experienced reporters and edi tors available for employment. The best chance of jobs for inexperienced people will be with small country papers. Employment of reporters and editors on news papers is not likely to increase much in the long run, though there will always be some openings owing to turn-over. The trend toward fewer papers will probably continue and lead to lay offs. Technological developments and the greater interest of the reading public in national and international affairs point toward increased use of syndicated material—which would mean less need for reporters on the papers using the service. Competition for reporting jobs will probably con tinue to be great since many young people are at tracted by the reputed glamour of the work; how ever, talented people with little formal training have a chance of breaking into this profession. There will be some opportunities, mainly for experienced workers, in fields related to newspaper work. There are plans to start many more new magazines as soon as enough paper is available. Book publication is increasing; so are the public relations and radio fields. Advertising agencies may also be able to use some additional newspaper men. Earnings American Newspaper Guild minimum rates for cub reporters with no previous experience were 111 $35 to $50 a week in early 1948. Minimums for experienced reporters ranged between $70 and $100 with actual going rates considerably higher. There are no set salary standards for editors; some may make as little as $60 a week, while the managing editor of a large metropolitan daily may earn as much as $50,000 a year. Salaries vary with size of the paper, type of job, experience, and other factors. Where To Go for Additional Information Information, especially on union wage rates, is available from : American Newspaper Guild, Research Department, 63 Park Row, Room 905, New York 7, N. Y. Information about opportunities with small town papers may be obtained from : American Press Association, 225 W. 39th St., New York, N. Y. Names and locations of all daily newspapers are published in the Editor and Publisher’s Interna tional Yearbook, available in most large news paper offices. People interested in operating a small news paper will find valuable information in the fol lowing publication: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. A Weekly Newspaper. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. 1946. Price 15 cents. Radio Announcers (D .O .T . 0-69.21) Outlook Summary A good many openings for announcers in the near future, but competition for openings likely to be keen, particularly in large cities. Opportunities for newcomers generally limited to small stations. Long-run employment trend upward. Nature of Work Announcers act as masters of ceremonies on radio programs of various kinds, read commercials and news flashes, give station identifications, de scribe sporting events, and do announcing of other types. Especially in small stations, they may also have a variety of other duties—playing phono graph records and other transcriptions which are being broadcast, operating some of the controls on the broadcasting equipment, writing script, even acting as station manager. - Most are on the staffs of single stations or radio networks; some work i for large advertising agencies. Others are not 112 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK connected with any company, but free-lance, hir ing themselves out for a single job or a series o f programs. A few have their own stations. How To Enter A well-rounded education, preferably including a college degree, is important for this occupation. Good knowledge of the English language is neces sary. Other essential qualifications are a good voice and ability to deal readily with unusual situ ations. For jobs in telecasting, announcers must meet particularly rigid standards as to personal appearance. Practically all new announcers begin at small radio stations. I f successful there, they have a good chance of being hired by a larger station or one o f the radio networks. Those who can also qualify as radio operators through holding Fed eral Communications Commission first-class radio telephone licenses have an advantage in getting jobs. A few announcers become well-known and highly paid radio personalities; some advance to executive positions in the broadcast industry. Outlook The broadcasting industry is growing rapidly. In April 1948, there were over 1,700 standard broadcasting stations on the air, as compared with about 900 in 1945. By the end of the year, this figure will have risen to more than 2,000, and hundreds of FM stations and perhaps 50 television stations will be on the air full-time. Around 7,000 announcers and staff program employees who did some announcing were em ployed in the spring of 1948. Many hundreds of additional announcers will be needed in the near future to man new stations and those established stations which are expanding their facilities, as well as to fill vacancies due to turn-over. E m p lo y m e n t o f an n ou n cers w ill n o t increase d i HANDBOOK rectly with growth of FM stations, however. Most FM stations are operated in conjunction with AM stations, and the same announcers can be used for both channels. In the long run, the number of announcers employed will continue to rise. It may reach a figure several thousand higher than the current one. The greatest expansion is expected in FM and television stations, though the number o f AM stations may continue to increase for at least a few more years. Although there will be a good many openings for announcers, there is likely to be a surplus of jobseekers. As in the past, broadcasting compan ies, particularly in large communities, will gener ally be able to choose the best of many applicants. In small communities, where most announcers get their first jobs, competition for openings is likely to be much less keen than in big cities. Earnings According to a survey made by FCC in October 1947 regular staff announcers at stations with 15 or more employees were paid an average of about $69 per week. Staff program employees at smaller stations (announcers were not listed separately) averaged much less, about $46 per week. Many announcers receive talent fees in addition to regu lar salaries. At larger stations average hours worked per week were 41, at smaller stations about 42. 1 here To Go for Additional Information 1 Employment offices of local broadcasting com panies may be able to furnish data on job pros pects, qualifications, and earnings. The magazine, Broadcasting, carries help-wanted and situationwanted classified advertisements for radio an nouncers. See also page 87. Radio Operators (Broadcasting), OTHER P R O F E S S IO N A L , S E M IP R O F E S S IO N A L , A D M IN IS T R A T IV E 113 Funeral Directors and Embalmers (D.O.T. 0-65) Outlook Summary N ew en tran ts seek in g a p p re n tice sh ip o p p o r t u n ities ou tn u m ber op en in g s. S lig h t e x p a n sion o f field ex p ected in lo n g run. Nature of 1Vork T h e fu n era l d ire cto r , w h o m a y also be r e fe r r e d to as m o rticia n o r u n d erta k er, m akes a rra n g e m ents f o r and con d u cts fu n erals. H e in terv iew s the fa m ily to ob tain data abou t the deceased, so that legal requ irem en ts can be m et, and h elp s p la n the details o f the fu n e ra l service. acts as em balm er. F re q u e n tly he T h e em balm er p rep ares b od ies f o r final d is p o s itio n , in c o n fo r m it y w ith State law s a n d lo ca l ord in an ces. P r e p a ra tio n in clu d es s te riliz in g and p reserv in g th e b o d y b y in je c tin g e m b a lm in g flu id o r b y oth er m eans. E m b a lm e r m a y also dress the b o d y , a p p ly cosm etics to g iv e a n a tu ra l a p p e a r ance, and restore m aim ed o r d isfig u re d bodies. In 1940, there were about 38,000 employed fu neral directors and embalmers; 2,000 were women. Mortuary establishments numbered about 18,000 in 1939; 1,500 were Negro-operated. Most were very small, nearly half having only one or two employees. Many funeral directors operate their own establishments with help only of family mem bers or part-time workers. How To Enter In all States embalmers must be licensed. Some States have a separate funeral director’s license while others have a common license for both em balming and funeral directing. Most people now entering these occupations obtain the licenses needed for both types of work. F o r em balm ers’ licenses, the usual req u irem en ts a r e : M in im u m age o f 2 1 ; g o o d m ora l c h a ra cte r ; residen ce in S tate f o r p re scrib e d n u m ber o f y e a r s ; h ig h -s ch o o l g ra d u a tio n (a n in cre a sin g n u m ber o f S tates requ ire co lle g e cr e d its ) ; c o m p le tin g an em before, after, or concurrently with the required school course) ; and passing an examination given by the State. Requirements for funeral directors’ licenses are about the same, except that the course in embalming is not required in most States and only 1 year o f apprenticeship is usually specified. There are about 25 schools of embalming, most of which give a 9- to 12-month course. Three uni versities offer courses in mortuary science. Outlook Employment opportunities will be limited in the immediate future. There will be some opportuni ties to replace those who retire, or to go into part nership with older men. 'However, more people are seeking apprenticeship opportunities than there are openings. Embalming schools have been filled to capacity since the end of the war; thou sands of veterans are taking training under the GI bill of rights. Many students have connections with established funeral homes run by friends or members of their families; those who do not are likely to have a hard time entering the field. In the long run, the volume of business handled by funeral homes is likely to increase slowly. The number of deaths is expected to go on rising slowly for about the next 40 years, owing to increasing population. A few men will find opportunities to start new funeral homes, though in most localities competition from established firms will be great. Openings with the older firms will be created mainly by retirements and deaths of proprietors or employees. Since embalming schools will prob ably be filled for at least the next few years, out siders may continue to have a hard time finding apprentice openings. Men who manage to find such openings and obtain licenses will have a good chance of holding their jobs over a long period of time, since declines in business activity tend to have less effect on these occupations than on many others. J o b s are to be fo u n d in sizable com m u n ities b a lm in g co u r se ; c o m p le tin g a p p re n tice sh ip (u s u th ro u g h o u t the co u n try . a lly a 2 -y ea r p e rio d , w h ich m a y have to be served business, sele ctio n o f a g o o d lo ca tio n is v ery im - F o r m en sta r tin g a new 114 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK portant. Factors to be considered include the number of people in the locality, death rates, per capital income, and competition from established businesses. In small establishments, earnings of owner-oper ators are often supplemented by income from other businesses such as furniture sales. Earnings Where to Get Additional Information Average earnings are not high. Nearly onethird o f all mortuary establishments in 1939 had annual receipts, before deduction of any expenses, of less than $5,000; only about 15 percent had receipts of $25,000 or more. Typical weekly earn ings o f licensed embalmers now range from about $35 to $100; those of apprentices from $17 to $50. National Funeral Directors Association, 111 W. W ashington St., Chicago 2, 111. National Selected Morticians, 520 N. Michigan Aye. Chicago 11, 111. The State Board o f Embalmers and Funeral Directors at any State capital. Dispatchers and Assistants (Air Transportation) (D .O .T . 0-61.61) Outlook Summary Where Employed No dispatcher opportunities for outsiders; va cancies filled only by promotions or transfers from within the company, and no change in this policy foreseen. Job chances for outsiders as assistants poor in both short and long run. Dispatchers and assistants are employed mainly by air lines certified by the Civil Aeronautics Board for scheduled operations. A few work for the largest nonscheduled lines. They are stationed principally at large airports in different parts of the United States. Some few are stationed abroad. Duties An air-line dispatcher (or flight superintend ent) has control over all of his company’s flights within his sector. He approves flight plans, au thorizes take-offs, follows the progress of flights as reported by radio, and keeps captains informed of changing weather conditions and other develop ments affecting their flights. In addition, the dis patcher is responsible for keeping records on the aircraft and engines available, on the amount of time logged by each, and on the number of hours flown by flight personnel based at his station. He also sees to it that crew members are notified when to report for duty. Assistant dispatchers and various grades of clerical employees aid in this work. Assistants as sume such duties as securing weather information, helping to keep track of the progress of aircraft in the sector, and handling communications with the planes. Qualifications A Civil Aeronautics Administration certificate is legally required for work as an aircraft dis patcher, though not for work as an assistant. To qualify for certification, an applicant must have been employed for at least 90 days in the 6 months prior to certification in work connected with dis patching of air-line planes under supervision of a certificated dispatcher and must meet other ex perience requirements. He has to pass a written examination on such subjects as the civil air regu lations, aircraft characteristics, weather data and weather analysis, air-navigation facilities and principles, and airport and airway traffic proce dures. He also has to demonstrate his skill in weather forecasting and certain other functions involved in dispatching. OTHER PROFESSIONAL, SEMIPROFESSIONAL, ADMINISTRATIVE 115 It is air-line policy to fill dispatcher positions by promotions or transfers from within the com pany. Most present dispatchers were formerly employed as station managers or meteorologists by the same line and were selected as particularly adapted to dispatching work. However, outsiders are sometimes hired as assistant dispatchers and may be promoted to regular dispatcher jobs after they have had a training period of 1 to 3 years and have obtained their certificates. For assistant jobs, 2 years of college is generally insisted on by the carriers, and men who have completed a 4-year college course—including training in mathematics, physics, chemistry, me teorology, and related subjects—are likely to re ceive preference. Experience in flying, weather forecasting, and business administration is par ticularly advantageous. Personality factors also count heavily. Outlook Slowly rising employment of both dispatchers and assistants is expected both in the near future and over the long run, provided that general bus iness conditions remain good. Nevertheless, dis patchers and assistants will together number only in the hundreds for many years to come. There appears in early 1948 to be no prospect of a change in the policy of filling of vacancies by promotions or transfers from within. For the occasional hir ing of outsiders as assistants, employers have had at their disposal more than enough qualified appli cants (from among former air-force operations officers and pilots, for example). Despite the planned air-force expansion, the potential number of such job seekers will continue to be so great relative to the probable number of openings that job chances for outsiders are almost certain to re main poor indefinitely. Earnings and Working Conditions The monthly salaries of the bulk of dispatchers fall within a range of about $325 to $600 a month. Assistants generally earn less, of course—about $250 to $350 a month in most cases. The normal workweek is usually 40 hours. Daily hours are irregular and, on occasion, very long. Two weeks’ vacation with pay is usually given to both dis patchers and assistants. Assistant dispatchers at work in an air line dispatchers office— telephoning a CAA airways traffic-control center, entering the esti mated time of arrival of a plane, and reading a teletype report on weather conditions. The Air Line Dispatchers' Association (A F L ) is the only labor organization with contracts cov ering dispatchers and related workers. It has negotiated agreements with 11 air lines. Where To Get More Information Additional information on the occupation o f dispatchers and assistants is given in : U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Opportunities in Avia tion Occupations. Part I—Postwar Employment Outlook, and Part II—Duties, Qualifications, Earnings and Working Conditions. Bulletins Nos. 837-1 and 837-2, (1945 and 1946), Govern ment Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price ' 10 cents and 20 cents. Inquiries regarding job openings should be sent to the personnel managers of the lines. Addresses are listed in part II of the bulletin just mentioned or may be obtained from : Air Transport Association o f America, 1107 16th St. N W „ Washington, D. C. See also Pilots, page 92; Meteorologists, page 82. 116 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Airport and Air-Route Traffic Controllers (D .O .T . 0-61.60) Outlook Summary Where Employed Some openings expected in both occupations in next few years, but probably not enough for all qualified applicants. Any significant rise in em ployment in the immediate future may be followed by a period of relative stability. Over the longer run, however, a slow but steady rise in jobs is virtually assured. Most airport traffic controllers work in the 140 or more towers operated by the Federal Airways Service, a division of the Federal Government’s Civil Aeronautics Administration. The balance are on the pay roll o f about 40 airports, which operate their own towers. The airports with towers, CAA or non-Federal, are the large fields in different parts of the country (some few outside the United States) where traffic is heavy enough to require control towers. The Federal Airways Service is the only em ployer of air-route controllers. These workers are located at the various traffic-control centers scattered throughout the country. Duties Airport traffic controllers supervise all flights within a carefully defined flight-control area around their airport. They issue directions (by radio or other means) to planes taking off, landing, and flying within the area, including instructions as to course and flying levels as vr as when to ell take off and land. Other tasks include giving weather and position information to planes in the vicinity and keeping records of messages. Senior controllers have responsibility for all aspects of the work. Controllers (considered to be in training for senior positions) assist them in specific duties. In their supervisory capacity, the senior controllers are also responsible for seeing that all airport lighting and all communications and other facilities are kept in good condition and that information regarding flights is regu larly obtained from and relayed to airways trafficcontrol centers in the vicinity. Air route (or airway) traffic controllers operate air-route traffic-control centers, which regulate air traffic on civil airways. The controllers do not communicate directly with planes but constantly receive information regarding the progress of flights and related matters from air-line dispatch ers, airport traffic controllers, other control cen ters, and CAA communications stations. In return, instructions, advice, and information are given as to the conditions under which flights may be commenced or continued and as to the progress o f flights under w ay. Telephone, interphone, and T teletype equipment is used in transmitting these messages. Qualifications Entry into either of the occupations under dis cussion is almost always as a trainee. A ll perma nent appointments to CAA jobs are made on the basis of competitive civil-service examinations. Pending the holding of such examinations, hiring is done directly by CAA, and successful applicants are given only temporary appointments. For the most part, the minimum standards for admission to civil-service tests for the trainee classification have been adhered to by CAA in its hiring prac tices. These include at present such alternative minimum experience or education as (1) 1 year’s service in military aeronautical meteorological or communications work or as an air-crew member in the armed forces; (2) 9 months as a dispatcher at a military base; (3) 200 hours of flying time, plus a currently effective pilot certificate (except when the flying time was acquired in the armed services); or (4) 1 year of college credits. Posi tions above the level of trainee are filled mainly by promotion from within, but only CAA-certificatecl persons are eligible for such advancement in airport work. Kigid criteria are applied to deter mine fitness for the higher grades, and an airport certificate is good only for duty at a specified field. 117 OTHER PROFESSIONAL, SEMIPROFESSIONAL, ADMINISTRATIVE Outlook In August 1948 about 1,650 airport controllers and about 1,150 air-route controllers were em ployed (or authorized). These totals represent substantial increases over the end-of-war levels, and the rising volume of airport construction and increasing airport and airway utilization promise further gains over the long run. Employment in these occupations is, of course, governed largely by the size of the appropriations made by Congress for the Federal Airways Service. Several recent reports by congressional and other bodies have recommended that such expenditures be increased. The planned Air Force expansion will be a favor able factor. Therefore, if general business activity and hence air traffic remain in high gear, it may be reasonable to expect a doubling of the airport and air-route staffs over the next 5 to 10 years, and further modest but steady growth thereafter. With respect to the extensiveness of the labor supply, the flexible qualifications for the positions make it possible for the Federal Government and other employers to draw upon a wide variety of military experienced persons to meet their man power needs: Meteorologists, communication specialists, air-crew men, and dispatchers; also upon many men and women without a military background. Considering the large numbers of persons involved in these categories and the inter est shown in traffic-control jobs, fairly stiff com petition can be expected for most openings. Earnings and Working Conditions Like Federal workers generally, CAA employ ees have a basic 40-liour week. However, air-route traffic controllers often have to work 4 or 5 hours overtime in a week, which is compensated for by time off or premium pay. Minimum salaries of CAA airport traffic con trollers range from $2,975 to $4,480 a year, de pending on the grade of job. The minimum rates for air-route controllers range from $2,975 to $4,526 a year. In addition, within-grade increases are given every 12 or 18 months. Other benefits of these Government jobs include 26 days of an nual leave, 15 days of sick leave, and 8 holidays a year, all with pay. On the other hand, both air- 793996°—49— -9 COURTESY OF C IV I L A E R O N A U T IC S A D M IN I S T R A T IO N . An airport traffic controller giving instructions to a pilot by radio telephone. port and air-route controllers may have to work at night. Where To Get More Information Additional information on these occupations is given in : U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Opportunities in Avia tion Occupations, Part I—Postwar Employment Outlook; Part 2—Duties, Qualifications, Earn ings, and Working Conditions. Bulletins Nos. 837-1 and 837-2 (1945 and 1946). U. S. Govern ment Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price 30 cents and 20 cents. To find out more about opportunities with CAA and the exact qualifications needed, one should write to the United States Civil Aeronautics A d ministration, Washington 25, D. C., or to any regional office of this agency or of the United States Civil Service Commission. See also Ground Radio Operators and Tele typists, page 90; Dispatchers and Assistants, page 114. Clerical, Sales, and Service Occupations CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS Seventy years ago very few people were en gaged in clerical work! In those days business records were kept to a minimum; letters had to be written and copied by hand and bookkeeping involved laborious copying of figures from one sheet or ledger to another. Since then the typewriter has been introduced widely, speeding up the writing of letters and pro viding copies easily; adding and calculating ma chines, now widely used, speed up figuring; ac counting machines make record-keeping easy; statistical punch-card equipment performs mira cles of accuracy and speed in sorting, counting, adding, computing, and printing a vast amount of information. One would think that such labor-saving, techno logical improvements would have reduced the number of clerical workers. Nevertheless, despite the introduction of these machines—perhaps even because of it—the number of clerical workers has increased more rapidly than that of any other major occupation group. Only 1 in 160 was a clerical worker in 1870; in 1930 1 in 12 was en gaged in this type of work. As shown in chart 21, employment in clerical jobs gained steadily during the war, and this growth continued with out interruption in the postwar period; in 1947 one employed worker in eight was engaged in a clerical occupation. Underlying this growth has been the increasing complexity of business and Government organiza tion. The further introduction of labor-saving business machines and more efficient procedures, 118 induced by the growing burden of clerical costs, may affect the future trends in this field, particu larly in routine bookkeeping and clerical jobs, just as the dial telephone has cut down the employment of telephone operators and the teletype has reduced the numbers of jobs for telegraph operators. These developments may well slow down the rapid growth of the clerical occupations, but in view of their past gains and the increasing complexity of the economy it seems likely that they will continue to gain in importance for some time to come. CLERICAL, 119 SALES, AND SERVICE OCCUPATIONS keepers in census statistics, and an accurate esti mate of their number is not available. From the point of view of a young woman considering a vocational choice, the clerical field is an important area of employment opportunity. More than a quarter of the working women are in clerical jobs—more than in any other single field— and the number of new job openings available each year is large because of turn-over. During the war there were 2,400,000 more women in clerical occu pations than in 1940, while the number of men de creased. As the veterans returned to industry, the number of men in clerical occupations increased and the number of women fell, but by 1947 there were still 1,600,000 more women clerical workers than in 1940, and only about 700,000 more men. Reports on a few occupations usually classified as clerical are included in other sections of this handbook—railroad clerks and baggagemen with the other railroad occupations, hotel clerks with the hotel occupations, and proofreaders with the printing occupations. The major occupations in the field are shown in chart 22. Largest groups are stenographers, typ ists, and secretaries, and bookkeepers, accountants, and cashiers. A large number of people are also employed as shipping clerks, telephone operators, and mail carriers. Many clerical workers perform miscellaneous jobs and are not classified separately by the Bureau of the Census. Looking at the chart, one can clearly see the wide variations in skill to be found among the occupations classified by the census as clerical. They range from accountants, who usually have several years of college or business-school training and often hold responsible positions in large firms, to messengers and office boys. Actually, account ants are often considered professional workers; certified public accountants (of whom there were about 20,000 in 1940) have been included with the professions, but the balance of accountants—per haps as many as 200,000—were not shown sepa rately because they are grouped with the book MAJOR C LER IC A L O C C U P A T IO N S EMPL OY MENT, 1940 T H O U S A N D S O'F W O R K E R S 200 400 600 800 000 1200 Stenographers,Typists, and Secretaries Bookkeepers, Accountants, and Cashiers Shipping and Receiving Clerks Telephone Operators Mail Carriers Office Machine Operators Messengers and Office Boys Bill Collectors Telegraph Operators Ticket Agents Sourc*. U. S B U R E A U OF T H E C E N S U S OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 120 MAJOR S A L E S OCCUPATIONS E M P L O Y M E N T . 1940 THO U SANDS OF W ORKERS 600 TY PE OF S A LES PERSO N Traveling Salesmen and Sales Agents Food Store Department and Generali Merchandise Store Insurance Agents and Brokers Clothing and Accessories Store Automobile and Auto Parts Real E s ta te Agents and Brokers Canvassers and Solicitors Drug Store Limited Price Variety Store Hardware Store Men W om en Newsboys Furniture Store Hucksters and Peddlers Shoe Store U N IT E D STATE S DE P A R T M EN T OF L A B O R B U R EA U OF L A B O R S TATISTICS ♦ N U M B ER OF MEN TOO FEW TO SHOW ON C HAR T • N U M B E R OF WOME N TOO FEW TO SHOW ON C HAR T S o u r c . U. S BU REAU OF T HE C E N SU S C L E R IC A L , SALES, AN D S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S 121 SALES OCCUPATIONS To those who enjoy meeting people, sales work offers a broad choice of opportunities. Sales occu pations usually require no special training for en trance (there are important exceptions to this, however), and, while one’s first job may not pay so well, experience and ability may lead to betterthan-average earnings in some selling fields. Salesmen are sometimes promoted to administra tive jobs, such as sales manager or departmentstore buyer, and can then move on up the ladder to higher executive positions. Sales workers may be classified as “ inside” and “ outside” salesmen. The first group is typically employed in stores and sometimes in wholesalers’ or manufacturers’ sales offices. “ Outside” sales men, such as insurance agents and manufacturers’ sales representatives, visit the homes or offices of prospective buyers. Some of the major sales occu pations are shown in chart 23. While special training is not required for many sales jobs, the good salesman is expected to know a great deal about his “ line”—whether this be shoes, furniture, paints, hardware, or automobile parts. Experience is often the only way this knowledge can be acquired. There has been moderate growth in employment in sales occupations in recent years. By 1940, after nearly a decade of depression, there were many people working in sales occupations simply be cause they had no other job. During the war the employment of men in the selling field dropped by a million or about half, and by 1947 had not yet fully recovered to 1940 levels (chart 24). A wartime increase of a half million women was maintained in the postwar pe riod. The exodus of men was caused in part by selective service withdrawals, but even more by the fact that in the war economy, production of furniture, automobiles, and other consumer dura ble goods was curtailed or eliminated; manufac turers with Government contracts found it unneccessary to maintain large sales staffs, while manufacturers of consumers’ goods, instead of having to make an effort to sell, often found buy ers eagerly beating a path to their doorsteps. Moreover, difficulties in recruiting workers in some relatively low-paid sales jobs hastened the prewar trend toward self-service stores, which employ many clerical workers—such as checkers, weigh ers, and stock clerks—but few salespeople. Em ployment in sales occupations has increased only half as much since 1940 as total employment in wholesale and retail trade. In the long run, the field of sales occupations will probably continue to grow. With the return of keener competition, additional salespeople may be hired by both manufacturers and stores. In the large field of insurance selling, a continued rise is probable with the growth of population and purchasing power. In view of the moderate growth of sales occupations in the past, however, and the continued extension of self-service stores, it does not seem likely that the number of jobs in selling will increase as much in the future as will some of the other occupational fields. O C C U P A T IO N A L 122 OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K C H AR T 25 MAJOR S E R V IC E OCCUPATIONS E M P L O Y M E N T , I 9 4 0 J/ Waiters and W aitresses % Ja n ito rs and Sextons S e rv a n ts ^ C ooks^ Guards and Watchmen Barbers Beau tician s and M a n icu ris ts Policemen, Detectives, etc P o rte rs B a rte n d e rs Boarding-and Lodginghouse Keepers Attendants, hospital, etc. P ra ctica l Nurses and Midwives Housekeepers, Stewards, Hostesses^/ Firem en, fire departm ent Ele va to r Operators Cleaners and Charwomen Attendants, amusement, etc Attendants, services, n e c Ushers n e C * NOT E L S E W H E R E C L A S S I F I E D Bootblacks UN IT ED S TATE S D E P A R T M E N T OF LA B O R BUR EA U OF L A B O R S TATISTICS • N U M B E R OF WOMEN TOO FEW TO SHOW ON C HAR T ^ D OMEST IC S E RV AN TS OR M E M BE RS OF A RM ED F ORCES NOT I N C L U D E D ^ E X C E P T T HOSE EMPL OYE D BY PRI VAT E F A M IL I ES Sour c* U S BU REA U OF T HE C EN SU S C L E R IC A L , SALES, AND S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S 123 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Service occupations are often referred to in glowing terms as a great and promising field of employment. This is true to some extent of service industries, as pointed out in the discussion of in dustrial trends (p. 24). But service occupations and service industries are not the same thing: Workers in many other types of occupations, in cluding skilled, clerical, and professional, are em ployed in service industries (automobile mechanics, radio actors, and stenographers, for example), while people in service occupations are employed in many other industries (such as janitors in fac tories, or porters on railroad trains). The fact is that while the service industries are growing rap idly, employment in service occupations is in creasing more slowly. The major fields include domestic service, pro tective service, personal service, and institutional service. The occupations are shown in chart 25, and the recent trends in chart 26. Domestic service as an occupation has been grow ing more slowly than the labor force as a whole. Whenever other jobs were easy to get, employment in this field declined. This was true during the recent war, as can be seen in chart 27. The protective service occupations include mainly policemen, detectives, firemen, guards, and watchmen. Most of these are Government jobs. Largest single group is members of the armed forces, who in 1947 numbered about 1y2 million. In the civilian protective service occupations the long-run employment trend is upward. CHART 27 EMPLOYMENT IN DOMESTIC SERVICE OCCUPATIONS M I L L I O N S OF WORKERS The other service occupations include personal services, such as barbers, beauty operators, and practical nurses; and institutional service occupa tions such as janitors, waiters, cooks, and elevator operators. Some involve a great deal of skill and training; others are comparatively unskilled. Here, too, the long-run trend is slowly upward. With higher income levels and a rising population, restaurants, hotels, barber and beauty shops, and theaters and other places of amusement should continue to furnish increasing employment oppor tunities. As more hospitals and large commercial and public buildings and apartment houses are built, more jobs will open for janitors, charwomen, elevator operators, and hospital attendants. It seems likely that the service occupations as a group will grow moderately in the long run, but they are not the great and promising field of the future, as they are sometimes described. Hotel Occupations The typical modern hotel in this country is not simply a lodging place but a complex organization offering many kinds of service to its guests—from providing them with food and doing their laundry to helping them get theater tickets and make travel arrangements. To furnish these many different services, hotels employed about half a million workers in 1947. A great many different kinds of workers are em ployed, such as managers, clerks, skilled mainte nance men, restaurant and kitchen workers, house keepers, maids, and porters. The qualifications for these jobs are so varied that men and women with very different educational backgrounds, per sonalities, and skills can find jobs in the hotel industry. make up less than one-tenth of all hotels, let most of their rooms for relatively long periods. Com mercial and residential hotels together employed about 322,000 workers during 1939— 95 percent of the average annual employment figure for the entire industry. Resort hotels—about one-sixth of the total— cater to vacationers and are open for business only part of the year. The number of people employed varies greatly from one season of the year to another: For example, in 1939, employ ment in such hotels was 13,000 in February—the busiest month of the southern season; it fell to 8,000 in May, rose to 38,000 in August— the month when there are the most vacationers— and then dropped to a low of 4,000 in November. The Hotel Industry Hotel Occupations The 28,000 hotels in the country are of three main types—transient (or commercial), residen tial, and resort. Commercial hotels are by far the most numerous and comprise about threefourths of the total. Residential hotels, which There are a number of different departments in large hotels. The executive department is likely to include a general manager, personnel director, publicity director, sales and advertising managers, and other executive and junior executive workers. M O S T OF T H E H O T E L W O R K E R S A R E IN T H E F E W L A R G E H O T E L S P E R C E N T D I S T R I B U T I O N , 1939 P E R C E N T OF W O R KERS 40 30 20 U N I T E D STATES D E P A R TM E N T OF L A BOR BU REA U OF L A B O R ST ATI ST IC S 124 10 0 S o u r c C E N S U S OF B U S I N E S S HOTEL 125 O C C U P A T IO N S CHART 29 RESTAURANT AND HOUSEKEEPING EMPLOYEES ARE LARGEST GROUPS OF HOTEL WORKERS PERCEN T D IS T R IB U T IO N OF E M P L O Y E E S IN Y EA R -R O U N D BY M A JO R O C C U P A T IO N A L G R O U P S, 1939 RESTAURANT OFFICE AND CLERICAL UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS H O TELS, 36.7 11.0 LABOR Sou rces: CENSUS OF BUSINESS, SERVICE ESTABLISHM ENTS, VOLUME 111,1939 "HOTEL B U S IN E S S "- BY R T HUNTINGTON, 1940 126 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK The front office employs such workers as mail clerks, room clerks, reservation clerks, and the front-office manager. In the accounting depart ment are auditors, bookkeepers, office-machine operators, cashiers, and other clerical workers. The housekeeping department includes not only the housekeeper and her assistants and the cham bermaids but also housemen (who do heavy clean ing) . furniture polishers, seamstresses, decorators, upholsterers, and others. Headed by the superintendent of service, the service department employs such workers as bell men, baggage porters, elevator starters and oper ators, and doormen. The restaurant department includes chefs, cooks of various kinds, and kitchen helpers; the steward and his staff—pantrymen, storeroom employees, dishwashers; and waiters, bartenders, and other food and beverage service workers. In the maintenance department one finds such workers as stationary engineers, electricians, plumbers, carpenters, and painters. In addition, there may be auxiliary depart ments which employ, for example, laundry work ers. barbers, valets, and tailors. Though small hotels do not have nearly as many separate occupations as this, practically all of them employ front-office, housekeeping, and main tenance workers, and some have restaurant work ers and service employees such as bellmen. Restaurant and barroom employees are the largest occupational group in hotels, as shown in chart 29. Young people interested in a career in hotel work usually have to begin at the bottom of the ladder— in a job such as that of bellman, elevator operator, clerk, or maid. From these entry jobs, they may be promoted to supervisory positions, if they have the needed personality and ability. Ex ceptionally able and well-qualified men may ad vance eventually to managerial jobs, which are almost always filled by promoting workers with many years of hotel experience. Trend o f Employment Employment in hotels will probably tend to re HANDBOOK main at about the present level in the near future, unless there should be a major business recession. The labor shortages which developed during the war in almost all hotel occupations have been greatly reduced but there are still openings for some types of work in some hotels as is indicated in the following occupational reports. Additional opportunities will arise continually owing to turn-over, which is especially high among the less skilled and lower paid workers such as maids and kitchen help. In the long run, a slow upward trend in employ ment in practically all hotel occupations is to be expected as population and travel increase. Tourist camps and other lodging places will take some business away from hotels, as they were doing before the war, but the growing demand for lodgings should offset this competition in most localities as long as general business conditions continue to be good. Declines in business activity have led to sharp declines in hotel employment in the past, however, and would probably do so in the future; some occupational groups would be affected more than others. How stable employ ment is likely to be in different types of hotel work is one of the points discussed in the reports on individual occupations. Where To Get More Information More information on the hotel industry, hotel occupations, and working conditions is given in: Employment Outlook in Hotel Occupations. Bulletin No. 905. U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1947. 13 p p .; illus. Price 10 cents. Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C. Information on employment opportunities in different parts of the country may be obtained from the larger hotel chains, from big city hotels, or from State hotel associations. These associa tions can also supply information on schools and colleges offering courses in hotel work. Addresses of the secretaries of State associations and of all hotels and hotel chains are given in the Official Hotel Red Book and Directory, which is available at most hotels and libraries. HOTEL 127 O C C U P A T IO N S Front-Office Clerks (Hotels) (D. O. T. 1-07) Outlook Summary Some job openings for experienced workers and also for qualified newcomers expected in near fu ture. Long-run trend in employment slowly upward. Duties The duties of front-office clerks in hotels include renting rooms to incoming guests; acknowledging room reservations received by telephone or mail and filing reservation cards; handling guests' com plaints; issuing and receiving room keys; supply ing information about arrivals and departures of guests and about local points o f interest; receiving and delivering messages; and taking care of in coming mail. In small hotels with few employees, one clerk may do all this work by himself or with the help of one or two assistants. Where there is a large staff, however, employees usually specialize in d if ferent types of work. In such cases, beginners are assigned routine jobs such as those of key clerk, information clerk, or mail clerk, and there are also higher-grade clerks with such titles as room clerk, desk clerk, or front-office manager, who supervise other clerical workers in addition to handling the more difficult and responsible work. Hoio To Enter Men are generally preferred for front-office clerical jobs. Openings in beginning jobs are filled sometimes by hiring inexperienced outsiders, sometimes by promoting bellmen, switchboard op erators, or other workers already employed by the hotel. Positions of higher grade are usually filled by promotion from within but, in some instances, by hiring experienced clerks from other hotels. A supervisory clerk may be promoted to assistant manager and, after becoming familiar with the operation of other departments of the hotel, may possibly become general manager. As a rule, applicants should have at least a high school education. Completion of a 2- or 4-year college course in hotel work is becoming increas ingly helpful in obtaining front-office jobs and, later, securing promotions to managerial posi tions. In the case of men without college training, a course in hotel work in the public schools where one is offered, is likely to be an aid in getting a job. Outlook There will be some job opportunities in the near future, not only for experienced workers but also for newcomers who have the desired qualifications. During the war, about half of the many thousands of men employed in these occupations left for the armed forces and war industries. Although a large number of new clerks were hired, including many women, there was a shortage of help in both supervisory and lower-grade jobs. Since the end of the war, the shortage has been filled in most places, but many hotels have been anxious to reA room clerk helping a guest to register. 128 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK place some of the clerks hired during the war. In addition, there are always a considerable number of vacancies each year owing to turn-over. The best chance of jobs for inexperienced workers will generally be found in the bigger commercial hotels, where beginners can be assigned to special ized jobs. At least in the next few years, a large proportion o f the openings will probably go to graduates of college courses in hotel work (which now have much greater enrollments than ever before). The long-run trend in employment is slowly upward and is likely to be only slightly affected by declines in general business activity. Most of those who find jobs and prove satisfactory may therefore look forward to continued employment over a long period of time. Although there are some jobs in all sections of the country, the greatest number are concentrated in only 10 States. Nearly one-fifth of the workers are employed in New York; another two-fifths in the following nine States: Illinois, California, HANDBOOK Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, New Jer sey, Missouri, and Florida. Earnings and Hours of W ork No up-to-date statistics on earnings in different hotel occupations are available. However, scat tered information for a few large cities suggests that typical weekly salaries in beginning frontoffice jobs were roughly $25 to $35 in the early part of 1946; in higher-grade jobs, about $35 to $45. Earnings of head clerks tended to be somewhat higher, especially in large hotels. Generally, pay is highest in the large hotels in metropolitan cen ters and on the west coast. Front-office clerks usually work 8 hours a day, 5y2 or 6 days a week. Owing to the fact that hotels provide service 24 hours a day, some employees work at night. /See also Hotel Managers, page 133; Bellmen and Baggage Porters, page 128; Bell Captains and Head Baggage Porters, page 130; and Superin tendents of Service, page 131. Bellmen and Baggage Porters (D.O.T. 2-22.1 and 2-92.10) Outlook Summary Limited number o f openings in a few localities but, taking the country as a whole, occupations tend to be overcrowded. Long-run trend in em ployment is slowly upward. Duties Bellmen’s work includes ushering guests coming into the hotel up to their rooms and carrying their baggage, running errands, delivering messages and packages, and supplying various types o f infor mation to guests. In large hotels a separate group of employees known as baggage porters, handle the suitcases and other baggage of guests who are leaving. They also help to set up sample rooms for salesmen, supply travel information and buy transportation tickets, and arrange for shipment of express articles. The duties of bellmen are frequently combined with those of baggage por ters, except in large hotels, and the worker in such cases is generally known as a bellman. In some instances bellmen and baggage porters act as relief men in such jobs as elevator operator and switch board operator. How To Enter The way of entering these occupations differs from one hotel to another. Some hotels fill open ings only by promoting workers already employed by the hotel—most often elevator operators and starters—whereas some hire workers with expe rience in other hotels. A good many hotels, espe cially the smaller ones, hire outsiders without pre vious hotel experience. In a few* localities train ing courses for bellman jobs are given by the public schools; completion of such a course is generally helpful in obtaining work. Lines o f Promotion A man w*ho wishes to advance from the job of HOTEL O C C U P A T IO N S bellman may aspire to be bell captain. A baggage porter may advance to head baggage porter. From either position, the second step up is to become superintendent of service. Some workers have a chance to transfer to front-office clerical jobs, which may enable them to advance eventu ally to managerial positions. Moreover, both bellmen and baggage porters may increase their earnings by moving to jobs of the same kind in better-grade hotels. Outlook These occupations tend to be overcrowded, tak ing the country as a whole, although there are a limited number of openings in some localities. As former workers have returned from the armed forces and war industries, many of the men hired during the war have been down-graded, usually to elevator-operator jobs, or have been laid off. Hiring standards have become much more strict. During the next few years inexperienced men may find it difficult to get positions as bellmen or baggage porters. In general, competition for jobs will be keenest in large commercial hotels in metro politan centers. The chance of entering the occu pations will probably be best in resort hotels, and experience gained there may enable men to trans fer to commercial or residential hotels. It may also be possible for beginners to find jobs in occu pations such as elevator operator or houseman in which there are still shortages o f workers in some areas. These jobs may lead to positions as bellmen or baggage porters in the future. The length of time it will take to be promoted will vary greatly, however, depending upon the rate of turn over in the particular hotel and the number of employees with greater seniority. Though the long-run trend is upward, employ ment in these occupations is very much affected by 129 declines in business activity. Whether all bellmen and baggage porters will have steady employment over a long period of time will therefore depend on whether or not general business activity con tinues at a high level. Jobs are found in all sections of the country, but the greatest number are in New York, where al most one-fifth of these workers are employed. Another two-fifths o f the workers are employed in the following nine States: Illinois, California, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, New Jer sey, Missouri, and Florida. Earnings and Working Conditions Wages in union hotels were about $12 to $16 per week in early 1946, according to scattered data for some large cities. Including tips, the total amount received by many bellmen was reported to be roughly $45 to $60 a week; some bellmen and baggage porters who worked in very large tran sient hotels made as high as $85. Earnings vary with the region, size and type of hotel, and skill of the individual worker. Generally, they are highest in very large hotels in metropolitan cen ters and on the west coast. The usual work schedule is 8 hours a day, 6 days a week. Some men are on duty at night, since hotels provide service 24 hours a day. A fairly large number of bellmen and baggage porters belong to unions. The union members are mostly in large cities outside the South. They are represented by the Hotel and Restaurant Em ployees' Alliance and Bartenders’ International Union, AFL, and in a few places by the Building Service Employees’ International Union, AFL. See also Hotel Managers, page 133; Bell Cap tains and Head Baggage Porters, page 130: Super intendents of Service, page 131; and Front-office Clerks, page 127. 130 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K Bell Captains and Head Baggage Porters (D.O.T. 2-22.01 and 2-92.20) Outlook Summary Positions practically always filled by promoting experienced bellmen and baggage porters. Op portunities for such promotion likely to be limited in near future. Long-run trend of employment slowly upward. Duties These supervisory employees are to be found in almost all medium-sized and large hotels, though seldom in small hotels with only a few service workers. It is the bell captain’s job to assign work in rotation to bellmen and to keep time rec ords; the head baggage porter has the same re sponsibilities with respect to the workers in his department. Both are responsible for instructing new employees, interviewing job applicants, in vestigating and adjusting guests’ complaints re lating to the work of their departments, and de ciding what action should be taken on unusual requests for service. The head baggage porter is sometimes called a transportation clerk because of his expert knowledge o f train and airplane sched ules. The bell captain, in addition to his other duties, may occasionally perform bellman’s work. How To Enter Bell-captain positions are usually filled by pro moting one of the bellmen employed by the hotel; head baggage-porter jobs, by promoting one of the porters. Although a man may advance to the job o f superintendent of service from either position, bell captains are more likely to receive this pro motion than head baggage porters. Outlook Both these occupations are small ones, employ ing only a few thousand workers. In both, the number of men employed declined slightly during the war. Vacancies created by withdrawals to the armed forces and war industries could not al ways be filled and, often, part or all of the duties were taken over by other employees such as the superintendent of service, room clerk, or assistant manager. Most of the men who left are now back on the job, and the shortage of qualified workers has largely been met. Openings that arise in the near future will be due mainly to turn-over and will, as usual, be filled in most instances by pro moting the most qualified bellmen and baggage porters. Men who obtain such promotions in yearround hotels will have a good chance of holding their positions indefinitely, since employment in these occupations is not affected very much by de clines in general business activity and will prob ably tend to rise slowly over the long run. The greatest number o f jobs are found in New York. A large proportion o f the remaining work ers are employed in the following nine States: Illinois, California, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, New Jersey, Missouri, and Florida. Earnings and Hours of Work Typical weekly wages of both bell captains and head baggage porters were roughly $35 to $45 in the early part of 1946, according to fragmentary data for a few large cities. Total earnings were higher, however, because of tips. The amount of money earned through tips varies considerably from one hotel to another. In general, head bag gage porters make more than bell captains, because they receive larger and more frequent tips—mainly for making travel arrangements and purchasing tickets. The usual work schedule is 8 hours a day, 6 days a week. See also Hotel Managers, page 133; Bellmen and Baggage Porters, page 128; Superintendents of Service, page 131; and Front-offfce Clerks, page 127. HOTEL O C C U P A T IO N S 131 Superintendents of Service (Hotels) (D.O.T. 2-25.11) Outlook Summary Positions in this small occupation generally filled by promotions from within. Opportunities for such promotions will be very limited in near future. Long-run trend of employment slowly upward. Nature of Work Hotel service departments include such em ployees as bellmen and baggage porters, elevator operators and starters, doormen, and washroom attendants. At the head of the service department in some large hotels is the superintendent of serv ice. He hires, instructs, disciplines, and discharges employees in his department. In addition, he con fers and cooperates with the people in charge of other departments— for example, the chief clerk and the housekeeper—and he may also make out the pay roll for his department. In smaller hotels, these duties are performed, as a rule, by the assis tant or general manager, the room clerk, or the bell captain (who may be called working superintend ent of service). How To Enter X Most superintendents of service attain this posi tion by promotion from the job of bell captain or, less often, from that of head baggage porter. Tgn years of hotel experience is necessary in many cases to become a superintendent of service. Occasion ally, men transfer from this position to a frontoffice clerical job, with the aim of advancing eventually to a managerial position. It has also been possible in a few instances for a superintend ent of service to move to a better-paying position of the same type with a larger hotel. Outlook Employment is likely to rise slightly above the present figure, which is in the hundreds, during the next few years. During the war, a small num ber of men left the occupation for the armed forces and war industries. As in the case of bell captains and head baggage porters, vacancies were not always filled and employment therefore de clined somewhat. With the return of most of the men who left, employment has risen again, and there is a tendency toward overcrowding in the occupation in most parts of the country. A few openings may be expected, mainly as a result of turn-over; these will, as usual, be filled in most instances by promotions from within. The long-run trend of employment is slowly up ward in the occupation, as in the hotel industry as a whole. In addition, this occupation is little affected by declines in general business activity. The small group of men who succeed in obtaining positions in year-round hotels should therefore have steady employment for many years. The greatest number of jobs are found in New York. A large proportion of the remaining work ers are employed in the following nine States: Illinois, California, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, New Jersey, Missouri, and Florida. On the basis of scattered data for some large cities, it appears that typical wages were approxi mately $40 to $60 a week in this occupation in the early part of 1946. A few men who worked in very large hotels earned more. Tips are seldom re ceived, but meals may be provided by the hotel. The number of hours of work per day and per week vary greatly, depending upon pressure of work. See also Hotel Managers, page 133; Bellmen and Baggage Porters, page 128; Front-Office Clerks, page 127; and Bell Captains and Head Baggage Porters, page 130. 132 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK HANDBOOK Hotel Housekeepers and Assistants (D.O.T. 2-25.21) Outlook Summary Outlook Some opportunities in near future, especially in lower-grade jobs. Competition for better paying jobs likely to be keen. Long-run trend of employ ment slowly upward. Many thousands of housekeepers and assistants are employed in the industry as a whole, and their number is likely to increase slowly, both during the next few years and in the long run. The short age of workers which developed during the war has been much reduced since VJ-day, but there Nature of Work The hotel housekeeper is responsible for keeping the furnishings, rooms, and halls clean and attrac tive. She supervises ‘the work of room maids, linen maids, wall and window washers, furniture polishers, housemen (who do heavy cleaning), and seamstresses. Generally, she hires and discharges employees in her department. In addition, she buys or assists in the buying of supplies, reports expenditures to the manager, makes out the pay roll for the department, takes periodic inventories of supplies, and trains new employees. Large hotels have an executive or head house keeper and also one or more assistant housekeepers and floor housekeepers or inspectresses. In small hotels, on the other hand, there is only one house keeper (often called a working housekeeper) who not only handles all the supervisory duties by her self but may, in addition, do some of the work of a maid. How To Enter Openings for housekeepers are usually filled by promotions from within the hotel or by hiring women who have performed similar work in an other hotel. Positions as inspectresses or assistant housekeepers in large hotels are filled sometimes by hiring inexperienced women and giving them on-the-job training; sometimes by promoting chambermaids, linen maids, and seamstresses. From these assistant supervisory jobs, promotion to the position of housekeeper is possible. Train ing courses for housekeeping jobs are given by the public schools in some localities and are likely to be helpful to girls wishing to enter the occupation. Photograph by U. S. d e pa r tm e n t of l a b o r . Hotel housekeeper supervising a houseman in hanging drapes. are still some vacancies, especially in small hotels and in lower-grade jobs. In addition, there will be hundreds of openings a year owing to turn-over. As already indicated, however, inexperienced women will be able to find jobs only as maids or, if they have the desired personal qualifications, as assistant housekeepers or inspectors. Moreover, HOTEL competition for the better paying jobs in large hotels is likely to be keen, as it was before the war. The long-run trend of employment is upward. Women who obtain promotions to housekeeper jobs in year-round hotels should have a good chance of holding them indefinitely. Assistant housekeepers and inspectors, however, have less assurance o f steady employment, since declines in general business activity affect the number of as sistants needed to a much greater extent than the number of top jobs. The number of maids em O C C U P A T IO N S 133 ployed' is likely to be still more affected by chang ing business conditions. Earnings Earnings of housekeepers, according to limited data for a few large cities, were about $150 to $350 a month in large hotels and $75 to $100 in small hotels in early 1946. Besides their cash pay, housekeepers and assistants are often given their meals and, sometimes, lodging. Assistant house keepers and inspectors made less. Hotel Managers and Assistants (D.O.T. 1-71.13) Outlook Summary Some opportunities for qualified persons in the next few years, but competition for jobs will be keen. Long-run trend of employment slowly upward. Nature of Work Over-all responsibility for the operation o f a hotel rests with the manager. It is his job to see that the different departments function efficiently, so that the guests are satisfied and the greatest possible profit is made. The manager has many duties to perform, such as hiring personnel, buy ing or supervising the purchase o f supplies, direct ing publicity, introducing improvements in serv ice, and determining rates and credit policies. In large hotels, some of these duties are delegated to assistant managers. In small hotels, on the other hand, the manager—who is frequently the owner— may also do front-office clerical work. How To Enter Advancement to the position of manager is pos sible from many hotel jobs, including bellman, bookkeeper, and cook, but the most common line of promotion is from the front office. To qualify for promotion to manager, it is often necessary to have a high-school education and very helpful to have college training, especially in hotel manage ment. College-trained persons often start in such positions as room clerk, salesman, accounting clerk, store-room clerk, or, in a small hotel, as 793996°—49 10 sistant or night manager. It is possible for highschool and college-trained people to start in kit chen jobs; experience in the kitchen and steward’s department is extremely valuable in qualifying for future managerial positions. People who want to go into business for them selves as owner-operators of small hotels need good experience in hotel management and also considerable capital. Outlook There are about 28,000 hotels in the country, the large majority of which have fewer than 50 rooms. Each of these hotels has one manager; the big hotels also have one or more assistant man agers. A t the present time there is a tendency toward overcrowding in these occupations. As former workers returned to their jobs from the armed forces and war industries, some o f the men who had been placed in managerial positions dur ing the war were down-graded or laid off. Men without experience in hotel management may therefore have difficulty entering the occupations in the immediate future. In the next few years, some job opportunities will be created by the building of new hotels. In addition, there will be hundreds of job openings a year, owing to deaths, retirements, and trans fers to other fields. Competition for managerial positions is keen. Therefore, only men with ex ceptional ability and many years of experience will be able to obtain such positions, especially in 134 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H AN D B O O K large hotels. In general, the trend is toward fill ing openings by promoting college-trained persons with hotel experience, but it will still be possible for some men without such education to rise very slowly to the top jobs. Most managers and assistant managers may look forward to continued employment over a long period of time. The long-run trend o f em ployment is upward in these occupations. More over, they are relatively little affected by declines in general business activity; men in top positions have greater assurance o f steady employment than do assistants. Jobs are found in all parts of the country—in small towns as well as large cities, though mainly in the latter. About one-half of all hotel mana gers in the country are employed in the following 10 States: California, New York, Texas, Florida, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Washington, New Jersey, Michigan, and Missouri. Over one-third are em ployed in the first five of these States. Earnings Earnings o f managers have an extremely wide range and largely depend upon the size of the hotel. In addition to a fixed salary, many man agers receive a percentage of the profits and fre quently living accommodations and meals for themselves and their families. See also: Bellmen and Baggage Porters, page 128; Superintendents of Service, page 131; FrontOffice Clerks, page 127; and Bell Captains and Head Baggage Porters, page 130. Restaurant Occupations The custom of “ eating out” has created one of this country’s largest industries. During 1946, people spent more than 12 billion dollars for meals and beverages, which they ate in restaurants, ho tels, dining cars, cafeterias, clubs, and a great va riety of other eating and drinking places. This was about one-third of the amount spent for food consumption at home. To serve these meals and beverages requires a great army of workers. In restaurant dining rooms are waiters and waitresses, head waiters, hostesses, bus boys, and cashiers. The kitchens have not only cooks and chefs but vegetable clean ers, dishwashers, and a variety of other kitchen helpers. Also employed in the industry are res taurant and cafeteria managers, dietitians, stew ards, bartenders, countermen, and many others. For several decades the tendency to eat meals outside one’s home has been growing, and this has been reflected in an upward trend in restaurant employment. The increase in restaurant sales was greatly accelerated during the war, by rationing and food shortages and the fact that many work ers who had migrated to other cities for war jobs were without cooking facilities. During the first postwar year, restaurant business continued to in crease, but since then there has been a decrease in restaurant sales. However, assuming that general economic conditions remain good, there is every reason to anticipate that the upward trend in res taurant business will be resumed and that, over the long run, this will be a slowly expanding field of employment. The following statements describe employment opportunities in four of the industry’s largest oc cupations: Restaurant and cafeteria managers, cooks and chefs, waiters and waitresses, and bev erage-service workers. Additional information on training, employ ment opportunities, earnings, and other subjects may be obtained from large hotel and restaurant chains, State hotel associations, and: Educational Director, National Restaurant Association, 666 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, 111. The Official Hotel Red Book and Directory, which is available at most hotels and libraries, gives addresses o f the secretaries of State hotel associations and of all hotels and hotel chains. People interested in opening their own restau rants would do well to consult: Establishing and Operating a Restaurant. U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 1946. Price 45 cents. Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C. Restaurant and Cafeteria Managers (D.O.T. 0-71.21 and 23) Outlook Summary Duties Fairly good employment prospects for experi enced managers in near future. Outlook less good for people without managerial experience, though there are trainee openings in some areas. Longrun trend of employment slowly upward. The manager has over-all responsibility for the operation of a restaurant, cafeteria, or lunchroom. His duties include hiring personnel, supervising and assigning duties to employees, estimating amounts of food needed, keeping records on in 135 136 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K ventories, cooperating with the chef in planning menus, handling customers’ complaints, and buy ing equipment. In large eating places, some of these duties are delegated to one or more assistant managers. In small eating places, on the other hand, the manager may also serve as cashier or head waiter. Many restaurant owners act as man agers, sometimes employing an assistant. Qualifications and Training The minimum experience required to become a manager is generally 1 to 3 years as an assistant manager, or in some other type of restaurant work. In some o f the larger restaurants, 3 to 5 years’ experience is required. Some establishments hire prospective managers and assign them for brief periods to a series of different jobs, to give them a chance to learn all aspects of the business. It is sometimes necessary to have high-school training and very helpful to have a 2- to 4-year college course in foods and restaurant manage ment. College-trained persons often start as as sistant managers in the larger eating places. A thorough knowledge of food buying and storing, food preparation, menu making, and cost account ing is essential for success. In addition, managers must understand sanitation and be qualified to make daily sanitary inspections and to fill out the required reports. General business ability is very important also. Outlook Employment of restaurant and cafeteria mana gers has been rising since the end of the war. as the number o f eating places has increased. Before the war (in 1939), there were almost 100,000 restaurants, cafeterias, and lunchrooms in the country, in addition to numerous other eating places in hotels, department stores, and industrial establishments. Despite a marked increase in restaurant business during the war, the number of eating places declined, and so did the number of managers and assistant managers employed. Be ginning in early 1944, however, new restaurants began to be opened in sizable numbers; many have been started since the end of the war. Though some have gone out of business, the total number of eating places in operation was higher in early 1948 than ever before. Competition for jobs has developed, however, as many former workers have returned from the armed forces and other indus tries and newcomers have entered the field. In experienced workers are therefore likely to have a hard time finding managerial positions in the im mediate future. However, there may be some openings for trainees and also some opportunities for experienced managers. Long-run trend of employment is slowly up ward. Furthermore, there will be numerous open ings each year owing to deaths, retirements, and transfers to other fields. Employment is, however, very much affected by declines in general business activity; many eating places are forced out of business during bad times. Best opportunities to become managers will be found in chain restaurants and in the large inde pendent eating places. In general, the trend is toward hiring and promoting men with schooling in restaurant management, but it will still be pos sible for w aiters, cooks, and others without such T education to qualify for this position. Jobs are found in all parts of the country, in small towns as well as large cities, though mainly in the latter. Over one-half of the restaurants, cafeterias, and lunchrooms in 1939 were located in the following eight States : New York, California, Texas, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Michigan, and Massachusetts. Earnings E a r n in g s , as w o u ld be e x p e cte d , v a r y c o n s id e r a b ly , d e p e n d in g on the ty p e , size, and lo c a tio n o f an estab lish m en t. I n a sm all p erce n ta g e o f resta u ra n ts and ca fe te ria s, the m a n a gers are p a id o n a co m m issio n basis. RESTAU RAN T O C C U P A T IO N S 137 Cooks and Chefs (D.O.T. 2-26) Outlook Summary Good prospects for skilled, all-round cooks in near future; also some openings for beginners, though demand for such workers varies consider ably from one locality to another. Long-run em ployment trend slowly upward. Nature of Work Cooks and chefs are employed not only in res taurants and cafeterias but in hotels, boarding houses, railroad dining cars, passenger ships, hos pitals, clubs, and many other places. Those work ing in private homes are not covered by this report. In eating places with a large staff, cooks usually specialize in preparing different types of food. At the head of the'kitchen staff is the chef, who supervises the other cooks, often plans the menus, and sometimes buys the foodstuffs. Other work ers have such titles as fry cook, roast cook, vege table cook, sauce cook, broiler cook, dessert cook, and cold meat cook; some or all of these employees may be assisted by helpers or apprentices. In smaller establishments, however, each cook is like ly to handle many different types of w ork; in some places, a working chef or general cook does all the work, with the help of one or two assistants. Be cause o f the many differences in kinds o f dishes served, it is not always possible for workers to transfer from one sort of eating place to another without additional training. IIow To Enter An apprenticeship or equivalent on-the-job training lasting at least 3 years is generally needed to become a skilled, versatile cook. As a rule, it takes a number of additional years of training and experience to become a chef or head cook, especi ally in the larger and higher-grade places. The training period for the various cook specialty jobs is usually 1 to 2 years. Many people enter the trade after serving for varying lengths o f time in other kitchen jobs, such as vegetable cleaner, pot washer, and dish washer. Preparatory training in one of the large num ber of vocational schools which give courses in this work is helpful. Most schools offer both full-time day courses and part-time night classes. Comple tion of the eighth or ninth grade is generally re quired for entrance, though this prerequisite may be waived in the case o f veterans. Sometimes a health certificate is required. Veterans who acquired their first experience in food preparation while in the armed forces gener ally have to start as lower grade cooks or helpers. Because of their experience, however, they may be able to advance more rapidly than other workers. Both men and women can find jobs as cooks. Of all cooks, chefs, and assistants employed in 1940, three-fifths were men, two-fifths women. Men hold most of the top jobs, however. Outlook Skilled, all-round cooks are likely to have good employment opportunities in the near future. Be ginners will also find some openings, but the out look for them varies considerably from one local ity to another. A marked labor shortage developed in this oc cupation during the war, although shortly before (in 1940) nearly one-sixth of the 336,000 chefs, cooks, and assistants in the country were unem ployed. The wartime increase in restaurant busi ness was great; while the number of cooks employed rose also, not enough were available to keep pace with the need. Since VJ-day, many veterans and other former workers have returned to their jobs and some newcomers have entered the occupation. Moreover, the volume of restau rant business has declined from the all-time peak reached in early 1946. The labor shortage has thus been relieved to a great extent: but skilled chefs with all-round training and experience are still in demand in most communities. 138 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K For inexperienced persons, there are some open ings as helpers or trainees, or in other unskilled kitchen jobs from which it may be possible to enter the trade o f cook. The chance of finding such openings will be much better in some areas than others in the immediate future. In all parts of the country, opportunities for apprenticeship pro viding the all-round training needed for top posi tions are very scarce. However, the number of employers with apprentice-training programs may increase somewhat in the next few years, since the need to prepare young men to fill the places which will be left vacant by aging first cooks and chefs is becoming more and more acute. Deaths and retirements of cooks, chefs, and as sistants of all grades create around 5,000 to 6,000 vacancies each year. Additional openings arise owing to transfers to other fields of work. Fur thermore, employment will probably tend to in crease slowly over the long run in this as in other restaurant occupations, assuming that general economic conditions remain good. Past experi ence indicates, however, that restaurant business and therefore employment of cooks would be sharply affected by any major decline in general business activity. Jobs are found in all parts of the country, in small towns as well as in big cities. However, the greatest number— about half—are in the following eight States: New York, California, Illinois, Texas, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Massachusetts, and Michigan. Earnings and Working Conditions There are w ride differences in earnings, depend ing upon such factors as the worker's skill, the type of eating place, and the part of the country in which it is located. According to one estimate for late 1947, most cooks earned between $35 and Ph otograph by U. S. Departm ent of Labor Specialty cooks in a large hotel kitchen $75 a week: executive chefs typically made from $60 to $100, though a few men earned considerably more. Besides their cash pay, these employees often receive one or more free meals. Most cooks are on a 40- to 48-hour week, though working hours range from less than 40 to as many as 70 a week. In some eating places, em ployees are on a split shift. Unionization of cooks is most common in the larger establishments in big cities outside the South. The major union in this field is the Hotel and Restaurant Employees’ and Bartenders’ International Union, AFL. See also: Restaurant and Cafeteria Managers, p. 135. RESTAU RAN T O C C U P A T IO N S 139 Waiters and Waitresses (D.O.T. 2-27.01— .12) Outlook Summary Good employment prospects for competent ex perienced workers in most localities in near future; also some openings for newcomers, particularly as bus boys and bus girls. Turn-over creates a good many thousand openings yearly in this large oc cupation. Long-run employment trend slowly upward. Nature of Work Waiters and waitresses are employed in many different types o f eating places, including restau rants, hotels, bars, night clubs, boarding houses, passenger ships, and railroad dining cars. In addition to taking guests’ orders and serving food and beverages, they set tables, make out checks, sometimes collect payments, and handle other duties. In many eating places which do not have bus boys they also clean off the tables. Generally, higher grade establishments employ the more skilled and experienced workers. Many restau rants employ captains or hostesses, head w aiters or T head waitresses, who supervise the other dining room employees and conduct guests to tables. How To Enter One way to enter the occupation is to start as a bus boy or bus girl. Some restaurants fill waiter and waitress jobs only by promoting people from these beginning positions or hiring workers with experience in waiting on table. However, some places will take on workers without any restau rant experience, give them a few weeks’ training, and then start them out waiting on a small num ber of guests. Still other restaurants, usually the expensive places, prefer to hire only waiters and waitresses with at least a year of experience. Openings in supervisory jobs are usually filled by promoting or hiring experienced waiters or waitresses. Supervisory workers may sometimes advance to managerial positions. Two-thirds o f those employed in the occupation in 1940 were women. In certain types of eating places, however, men outnumber women workers. Outlook This is a very large occupation, employing about 525,000 men and women in 1940. Employment rose somewhat during the war, but not fast enough to keep pace with the soaring restaurant business. A shortage of waiters and waitresses therefore developed. Since the end of the war, many former workers have returned to their jobs, and the labor shortage has diminished. Restaurants in many localities are still having difficulty finding satisfactory ex perienced workers, however. The need for such workers is reported to be less in New York City and on the west coast than in most other parts o f the country. Openings for women are and will probably continue to be more numerous than those for men. Inexperienced persons are in much less demand as waiters or waitresses than experienced workers, but should be able to find jobs in the occupation in some places. There are also likely to be openings for bus boys and girls in most localities and, as in the past, inexperienced workers may be able to enter the trade through these jobs. The long-run trend of employment is slowly upward. In addition, deaths, retirements, and transfers to other occupations create a good many thousands of vacancies each year. However, em ployment of waiters and waitresses, as of other restaurant workers, is sharply affected by declines in general business activity. Jobs are found in all parts o f the country, in small towns as well as large cities. However, the majority of these workers are employed in the following nine States: New York, California, Illi nois, Pennsylvania, Ohio. Texas, Michigan, Mass achusetts, and New Jersey. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings in this occupation depend not only on 140 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K the wages received blit also on tips, which vary considerably, depending on such factors as the skill o f the worker and the type and location of the restaurant. Bus boys and girls, who ordinarily do not receive tips, are often paid slightly higher wages than the waiters and waitresses they assist. Both groups of workers receive one or more free meals a day in many cases. Many of these employees work 48 hours a week, though some have shorter hours and others much longer ones. Split shifts are fairly common. The work requires employees to be constantly on their feet. Unionization is most frequent in the larger es tablishments in big cities outside the South. The major union in the field is the Hotel and Restau rant Employees’ and Bartenders’ International Union, AFL. Beverage-Service Workers (D.O.T. 2-21.10) Outlook Summary Field overcrowded and likely to remain so at least in near future. Nature of Work These workers are employed in hotels, restau rants, and other places, such as bars, taverns, night clubs, tap rooms, and cabarets, which sell alcoholic beverages. The group includes bartenders, bar boys, cellarmen, wine stewards, and bar waiters and waitresses. Bartenders mix and serve many types o f alco holic beverage to order. In service bars, drinks prepared by the bartender are served by waiters. In public bars, bartenders also serve drinks directly to patrons and often collect payments. Bar boys perform such duties as carrying in supplies, tak ing out empty bottles and trash, chipping ice, washing and drying glasses, and sometimes mix ing simple drinks. Wine stewards—employed only in large or high-grade establishments— are in charge of the ordering, storing, and issuing of wines and liquors; they are assisted in this work by cellarmen. Hoiv To Enter Most bartenders learn the trade through on-thejob experience. Bar boy is a beginning job, which after six or more months may lead to promotion to bartender work as helper or assistant to an ex perienced man; then, after perhaps another 6 months, to a regular bartender job. Sometimes a bar boy may be promoted to cellarman or bar waiter and thereafter to bartender. Schools which give courses in this work, usually of 3 or 4 weeks’ duration, are sometimes helpful; such training may enable one to start as assistant bar tender. In some o f the larger establishments, a bar tender may advance to head bartender and to wine steward. Outlook, The number of people seeking jobs as bartend ers has been greater than the number of openings during the past 2 years. Before the war, in 1940, there were 128,000 bartenders, of whom 15,000 were unemployed. During the war, about 20 to 30 percent of the employed workers left for the armed forces and war industries. However, a still greater number of other workers, including some women, entered the occupation; consequently, em ployment rose. With the return of most workers who had left, the occupation has again become overcrowded; many workers hired during the war have had to be laid off. even though employment has remained above prewar levels. There will be some openings each year, owing to deaths, retirements, and withdrawals to other fields. A t least in the immediate future, however, most of these jobs will be filled by hiring experi enced bartenders who are out of work. Generally, the best chance of jobs for less skilled bartenders will be in service bars, since highly skilled men with many years of experience are preferred in public bars, especially in the better-grade estab lishments. Jobs for assistant bartenders will gen erally be found only in the larger establishments. RESTAU RAN T S om e exp erien ced b arten d ers m a y be able to op en and su cceed in th e ir ow n business. There are some openings as bar boys, but ad vancement to bartender will generally be very difficult at least in the next 3 to 5 years. The best chance of finding employment as bar boys will be in the larger establishments. There will be few job opportunities for cellarmen and wine stewards, since both of these occupations are very small. The long-run trend of employment in eating and drinking places is slowly upward. However, em ployment of beverage service workers is sharply affected by economic conditions as well as many other factors. Jobs are to be found in many sections of the country, in small towns as well as large cities, but the greatest number are in New York. Other States with large numbers of employees are Illi nois, Pennsylvania, California, and New Jersey. Together, these five States employ roughly half of the workers in this field. Serving o f alcoholic O C C U P A T IO N S 141 beverages is prohibited in numerous counties throughout the country. Earnings and Working Conditions Typical wages of bartenders were about $40 to $60 a week in some large cities in early 1946; those o f assistant bartenders about $30 to $40 and those o f bar boys around $20 to $25. Wage increases since 1946 have been slight in most cases. Total earnings of bartenders employed in public bars are sometimes much above these figures, because of tips. The amount of money earned through tips, however, varies considerably from one establish ment to another. Meals and uniforms are fur nished by the employer in many establishments. The usual work schedule is 8 hours a day, 6 days a week. Unionization is fairly common except in the South, the major union organizing these workers is the Hotel and Restaurant Employees’ and Bar tenders’ International Union. AFL. See also: Waiters and Waitresses, page 139. Protective Service Occupations Policemen (D.O.T. 2-66.20 to .29) Outlook Summary Expanding field. Room for several thousands o f newcomers each year. Nature o f Work Most policemen are city employees, though many work for counties and States. Those employed by the Federal Government are not covered by this statement but are discussed separately (see p. 144). Policemen usually wear uniforms. In large cities, they are assigned to a particular type of work, such as walking a beat, accident or crime prevention, dance- or pool-hall inspection, traffic patrol, motorcycle or mounted patrol, harbor pa trol, homicide squad, or radio operation. Police women are assigned mainly to crime prevention and detection work among women, young people, and children. County and State police and those in smaller communities usually have more diversi fied work. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement In many cities, especially large ones, the jobs are filled on the basis of competitive examinations. In such cities, job seekers may have to meet very rigid requirements, especially with respect to age, height, health, strength, agility, and physical en durance. Applicants must have sufficient educa tion to meet basic requirements. There lias been and will probably continue to be a strong tendency to raise hiring standards for police jobs, and ex aminations are becoming increasingly difficult. Veterans, especially those with military police training and experience, are likely to have an ad vantage over other applicants. For most police jobs, applicants must meet residence requirements. Many police departments have training pro grams for new recruits and also provide in-service training for men already on the force. The num 142 ber o f communities with such programs is grow ing, as a result, mainly, of increasing emphasis on crime prevention and traffic control. From beginning police jobs, opportunity for ad vancement to sergeant or detective is fair—better in large and medium-sized cities than in small communities. From either of these positions, ad vancement to lieutenant, then to captain, is possi ble, and on up the ladder. In most large cities, promotions up to the rank o f captain are made on the basis of competitive examinations. Appoint ment to a higher grade (inspector, deputy chief, chief, and commissioner) is usually made without examination. Outlook Police work is an expanding field. Early 1948 employment was estimated to be about 10 percent above the immediate prewar (1940) level, when about 96,000 nonranking policemen, including about 1,000 women, held jobs. During the war, police departments lost thousands of men to the armed forces and war industries and were unable to get enough replacements. Although many vet erans and others have now returned to their jobs, some departments still have shortages of qualified applicants. In addition, the shorter workweeks which are being put into effect in more and more cities are making it necessary to increase person nel. To meet these needs, make replacements for normal turn-over, and cope with the rising crime rate, several thousand newcomers will be required each year for several years. However, many de partments already have people in line for ap pointment or have applications on file. Over the long run, there will probably continue to be sizable numbers of openings, owing to turn over and the upward trend in employment. But competition for jobs is likely to be keen in many localities. P R O T E C T IV E S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S 143 Geographically, opportunities are widespread. All but the smallest communities will probably have at least a few openings each year. Most op portunities are in big cities, where there are not only more policemen in proportion to population than in small cities but also higher turn-over rates. On the other hand, competition for the available jobs is likely to be stiffer in large than in small communities. The predominant work schedule for city police is 8 hours a day and 48 hours a w eek. In several T large cities the workweek has recently been cut to 40 hours. State police generally live in barracks, are on call 24 hours a day, and often work more than 60 hours a week. Policemen have unusually secure jobs and stable earnings, paid vacations, better-than-average retirement pensions, and other benefits. Earnings and Working Conditions Where To Go for More Information Base starting salaries of city policemen are gen erally over $2,000 per year; they range up to $3,200 in a few large cities. In many places, extra compensation has been awarded, usually in the form of a cost-of-living adjustment. Earnings vary not only with the size of the community but with the region o f the country. Automatic pay raises are frequently provided. In large cities, these usually amount to $500 to $700 over a period of about 5 years; thereafter, advancement in earn ings is almost always through advancement in rank only. Information on employment opportunities and requirements in a particular locality may be ob tained from the chief or personnel officer of the local police department or, where there is a local civil-service commission, from this commission. Inquiries with regard to opportunities in the Met ropolitan Police force of Washington, D. C., should be addressed to United States Civil Service Commission, Washington 25, D. C. See also Federal Police and Detectives, page 144; F B I Agents, page 145; and Detectives, page 143. Detectives (D.O.T. 2-66.11) Outlook Summary How To Enter Detective positions practically always filled by promotion or transfer of uniformed policemen. A good many opportunities for such promotions expected in next couple of years. Long-run em ployment trend slowly upward. Detective positions are practically always filled by promotions or transfers of uniformed police. Both personal qualifications and length of service in uniform are considered in selecting personnel for detective positions. In many places, especially large cities, the positions are covered by a merit system, and in most of these cities written exami nations are given. Some police departments have apprenticeship periods for new detectives, though many provide no introductory training. Mature of Work Detectives are plain-clothes men and women. The large majority are city employees, though many work for States and counties. Men are usually assigned to investigate crimes o f a par ticular type, such as homicides, burglaries, rob beries, illegal use and sale of narcotics, forgeries, illegal pawn shop activities, or pocket-picking. Women detectives—of whom there are very few— generally do crime prevention and detection work among women, young people, and children. Outlook There will be a considerable number of oppor tunities for appointment to detective jobs in the next couple of years. Before the war, in 1940, there were about 10,000 detectives in the fields covered by this statement. During the war, many 144 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K entered the armed forces, but more promotions and transfers than usual were made to provide replace ments. In the country as a whole, employment remained at about the prewar level through VEday and then began to rise as former employees returned from the armed services. The total number of detectives employed is now greater than ever before and will probably continue to increase for another year or two because of the trend to ward a shorter workweek and needs created by the mounting crime rate and increasing emphasis on crime prevention and scientific detection. How ever, as already indicated, practically all person nel will be obtained from the uniformed forces. After 1949 employment may level off tempo rarily, but eventually it will, in all likelihood, resume its long-run upward trend. On the other hand, hiring standards will probably become stiffer and competition for detective positions will remain sharp. Geographically, opportunities are widespread, with big cities likely to have propor tionately more openings than small ones. , Earnings and Working Conditions Detectives usually have the same salary rates as uniformed men at the same grade levels. Their starting salaries are over $2,000 per year in most cities and range as high as $3,200 a year in a few large ones. In many places extra compensation has been awarded, usually in the form of a costof-living adjustment. Detectives in some locali ties are allowed expense accounts for extra costs incident to their work. Opportunities for advancement to higher grade positions are excellent for men with the needed experience, efficiency, and other qualifications. Detectives have unusually steady employment and stable earnings, paid vacations, better-thanaverage retirement pensions, and other benefits. See also Policemen, page 142; Federal Police and Detectives, page 144; and F B I Agents, page 145. Federal Police and Detectives (D.O.T. 2-66.99) Outlook Summary Some few openings in prospect. Civil-service examinations to be given in 1948 or soon thereafter will determine eligibility of applicants for several years. Nature of Work Police and detectives referred to in this state ment are employed by the Bureau of Customs, United States Secret Service, Bureau of Internal Revenue, and Bureau of Narcotics, all of which are in the Treasury Department; by the national de fense agencies; and by some other Federal agen cies. Excluded from the statement are F B I agents (see p. 145), ordinary building guards and watch men, and unarmed investigators. Some Federal police are uniformed; others are plain-clothes men. Their duties depend on the agency in which they are employed and their particular assignment. Some guard the borders and ports of the United States (Bureau of Cus toms, and Immigration and Naturalization Serv ice) ; protect the President and President-elect and their families and property and visiting for eign dignitaries (Secret Service) ; or guard Gov ernment property, especially military and naval establishments (Army and Navy Departments). Other groups enforce certain Federal laws— for example, those regarding counterfeiting (Secret Service), narcotic trade (Bureau of Narcotics), and tax collection (Intelligence and Alcohol Tax Units of the Bureau of Internal Revenue). The work often involves tracking down criminals and making arrests. Job titles include border patrol man, customs agent, port patrol officer, secret serv ice agent, customs patrol inspector, special agent, patrolman, and narcotics agent. How To Enter A ll these positions are in the Federal civil serv ice. Permanent appointments of people who do not already have civil-service status are made only from registers established on the basis of com petitive examinations given by the United States Civil Service Commission. To be admitted to examinations for agent posi- P R O T E C T IV E S E R V IC E tions in the Treasury Department, applicants must have some college training or experience in in vestigative work. Veterans are given 5 or 10 points’ preference in the grading of all examina tions. In addition, there are restrictions on ap pointment of nonveterans to certain classes of posi tions. Physical requirements are strict—more so for some kinds of jobs than others. Newly hired employees receive on-the-job train ing and classroom instruction for periods varying from several weeks to about a year. Outlook This is not a large field of employment. The Treasury Department has some 3,000 agents, and around the same number are employed by other agencies. During 1948, or soon thereafter, the Civil Serv ice Commission will give examinations for Treas ury Department positions and those in other agencies. From the resulting registers of qualified persons appointments will be made to fill the small number of current vacancies. At the same time, the positions now held by war-service appointees will be filled on a permanent basis, but it is ex pected that many of the present employees will qualify for appointment. Not much expansion in employment is antici pated. Though the long-run trend in employ ment has been upward, the peak may have been reached during the war. There will, however, be a few job opportunities each year as a result of nor mal replacement needs. These vacancies will of course be filled from the civil-service registers. Veterans will generally have much the best chance for appointment; those with experience in 145 O C C U P A T IO N S military intelligence work will have a special advantage. Earnings The starting salary is generally a little over $3,200 a year for men without experience and about $4,000 a year for those with related experi ence. Within-grade pay increases are given at regular intervals, as in other Federal jobs. A sal ary of about $4,700 a year is considered the “ jour neyman” rate for Treasury agents. Opportunity for advancement to supervisory positions with still higher pay usually comes only after many years of experience. These men have unusually steady employment and stable earnings, paid vacations, sick leave, better-than-average pensions, and other benefits. II"here To Go for More Information In q u irie s abou t e x a m in a tion s and a p p o in tm e n ts sh o u ld be m a de at re g io n a l offices o f the U n ite d States C iv il S e rv ice C om m ission , b u t o n ly w hen r e c r u itin g o r e x a m in a tio n ann ou n cem ent has been m ade. S u ch ann ou n cem en ts are p u b lish e d in the n ew sp a p ers a n d p o ste d in C iv il S e rv ice C o m m is sion offices, p o st offices, and o th e r places. The C o m m issio n has r e g io n a l offices in th e fo llo w in g citie s : Boston, Mass. New York, N. Y. Philadelphia. Pa. Washington, D. O. Atlanta, Ga. Cincinnati, Ohio Chicago, 111. St. Paul, Minn. St. Louis, Mo. New Orleans, La. Seattle^ Wash. San Francisco, Calif. Denver, Colo. Dallas, Tex. See also FBI Agents, page 115; Policemen, page 142; and Detectives, page 143. FBI Agents (D.O.T. 2-66.99) Outlook Summary Nature of Work S om e o p e n in g s each y e a r o w in g to tu rn -o v e r , th o u g h n ot n e a rly en o u g h f o r all jo b seekers. Ap p lica tio n s are w elcom e d , e sp e cia lly fr o m q ualified veterans. F B I (Federal Bureau of Investigation) agents are plain-clothes men. They investigate all types of violations of Federal law not specifically as signed to other agencies, including antitrust vio- 146 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K la tio n s, b rib e r y , fr a u d a g a in st th e G o v e rn m e n t, b a n k ro b b e ry , k id n a p in g , w h ite-sla v e traffic, m o to r -v e h icle th e ft, e s p io n a g e , and sabotage. How To Enter The FBI, part o f the United States Depart ment of Justice, hires its agents directly (not through the U. S. Civil Service Commission). Applicants must be (1) graduates o f accredited law schools, or (2) graduates of accredited ac counting schools. They must also be male citizens of the United States, between the ages of 25 and 41 years, and willing to serve anywhere in the United States or its Territories. Furthermore, they must be at least 5 feet T inches tall; have un impaired hearing, excellent vision, and normal color perception; be capable of strenuous exer tion; and have no physical defects which would prevent use of firearms or participation in dan gerous assignments. W r itte n an d ora l ex a m in a tion s are g iv e n , c o v e r in g law , a cco u n tin g , and a p titu d e f o r m eetin g th e p u b lic an d c o n d u c tin g in v e stig a tio n s. E x h au stive b a c k g ro u n d a n d ch a ra cter in v e stig a tio n s are co n d u cte d o n a p p lica n ts p r io r to a p p o in tm e n t. Outlook Employment in early 1948 was about 3,500. At least this many men will doubtless be needed in the next few years to combat the sharply increased crime rate and to discharge the Bureau’s vari ous responsibilities. Turn-over, although small, should make some vacancies, and if prewar ex perience is any indication, the number of agents employed will rise slowly in the long run. How ever, the number of interested applicants will prob ably far exceed the number of available jobs. The F B I nevertheless, welcomes applicant inquiries, particularly from qualified veterans and inter views plus the opportunity to file applications are afforded. Earnings and Working Conditions All agents start at $4,856 a year. Periodic within-grade pay increases are given, as in all Fed eral agencies. Opportunities for advancement to higher-grade positions are excellent for men with the needed experience, efficiency, and other qualifi cations. Top pay for regular field agents is $7,193 a year. The basic workweek is 40 hours, but all agents are on call 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Though assigned to one o f the many F B I offices in differ ent parts of the country, agents may be called upon at any time to handle jobs requiring travel outside their headquarters city. A subsistence allowance of $6 per day is paid for work away from this city. Transportation of families and shipment of household effects are at Government expense on official transfers. F B I men have paid vacations and sick leave, relatively secure employment and stable earnings, and pensions on retirement. Where To Go fo r More Information Additional information and application forms may be obtained by writing t o : Personnel Office, F B I Room 7204 U. S. Department o f Justice Bldg. W ashington 25, D. C. See also Policemen, page 142; Detectives, page 143; and Federal Police and Detectives, page 144. Other Clerical, Sales, and Service Occupations Secretaries, Stenographers, and Typists (D.O.T. 1-3 3 ; 1-37.12, .14, .18, and .32) Outlook Summary Good employment prospects in immediate future for well-trained workers. Long-run employment trend upward. Nature of Work Typists’ work ranges from simple copying to reproducing complicated statistical tables and manuscripts. Stenographers, besides typing, take dictation in shorthand or on a stenotype machine. Some become specialists in public or court stenog raphy, foreign languages, or legal or police work. Secretaries usually handle stenographic duties along with business details which do not need their employer’s personal attention. Some spe cialize in legal, medical, private, social, or other types of secretarial work. Over 1,000,000 persons were employed in these occupations in 1940. The number increased greatly during the w ar; it may now be as high as 2,000,000, according to a rough estimate. The great majority of the workers (94 percent in 1940) are women. Nevertheless, a good many men are employed (about 69,000 in 1940) in stenographic jobs with finance, insurance, and real-estate com panies. Court stenographers are usually men, although some women stenotypists are employed. How To Enter At least a high-school diploma and preferably also one from a business school or college are needed to enter these occupations. Typists need good training not only in typing but in spelling, vocabulary, punctuation, grammar, and corre spondence procedures; stenographers must also be able to take dictation quickly and accurately; court stenography requires exceptionally high speed. Ability to use other office machines and courses in business administration are helpful for many jobs. The better-paid positions often require knowledge o f the fundamentals and terminology o f a particular field, such as law, medicine, engi neering, or foreign languages. Starting out as a typist, a person with ability and training can advance to stenographic, secre tarial, and administrative assistant positions. Specialized knowledge of the particular industry where one is employed is most helpful for advance ment. Outlook Employment prospects are good for welltrained secretaries, stenographers, and typists. In early 1948 there was a shortage of such workers, owing to the withdrawal of many young women from the labor force since VJ-day, to the fact that the number of young people completing training was less than usual during the war, and to the continuing high levels of business activity. How ever, the shortage is likely to become less acute as the great numbers of young people currently en rolled in business courses complete their training. Poorly trained people will therefore find it in creasingly difficult to get jobs. Since the end of the war, employers have become more insistent upon hiring only those people with thorough stenographic training. Veterans’ preference will generally be a great help in obtaining Govern ment jobs. In the long run, employment will probably tend to rise slowly. In addition, high turn-over rates, usual in occupations where young women pre dominate, will continue to create many job open ings. Since these workers are needed in every industry and profession, they are likely to be less seriously affected by declines in economic activity than those in occupations found in only one in dustry. Well-trained stenographers and secre taries have a better chance o f holding their jobs than typists with only one skill to offer. J o b s w ill be fo u n d in m ost section s o f the c o u n 147 148 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K try, in small towns as well as large cities. The greatest number of openings, but also keenest com petition for jobs, will be in large industrial and population centers. About three-fifths o f the workers in 1940 were employed in 8 States: New York, Illinois, Pennsylvania, California, Ohio, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Michigan. vance to secretarial and administrative assistant jobs, which pay higher salaries. Court stenog raphers in the Federal service begin at $3,351. State and local governments generally have some what lower salary scales than the Federal Gov ernment. Where To Go for Further Information Earnings More data on schools may be obtained from : At the beginning of 1948, average weekly salaries o f women general stenographers in private indus try ranged from $37 in Boston to $48 in San Fran cisco, with an average for all cities of about $40, according to a survey of 11 large cities. Earnings o f the small number of men engaged in this work were somewhat higher, as were earnings of tech nical stenographers working in such specialized fields as law or medicine. Junior typists had an average of $30 to $42 a week depending on the city where employed. For senior typists the median salaries ranged from $37 to $47 weekly. In the Federal civil service, typists have an annual starting salary of $2,086 or $2,284; stenog raphers start at $2,284. Stenographers may ad National Council o f Business Schools, 839 17th St. NW., Washington, D. C. Information on salaries, hours of work, and sup plementary benefits for office workers in 11 lar^e cities are available from : U. S. Department o f Labor, Bureau o f Labor Statistics, W ashington 25, D. C. Information on Government jobs may be ob tained from State or municipal civil-service au thorities or the United States Civil Service Com mission, Washington 25, D. C. Notices o f civil-service jobs and examinations are very frequently posted in local post offices. Bookkeepers (D.O.T. 1-01.02, 1-01.03; 1-02.01, .02, .03) Outlook Summary Many openings at present for bookkeeping clerks and machine operators; some opportunities at higher levels. Keen competition probable in long run. Nature o f Work Jobs in bookkeeping range from entry positions as clerk or machine operator up to head book keeper. Bookkeeping clerks perform routine tasks such as recording and posting items by hand; in small businesses, they may also perform related duties such as typing, filing, answering the tele phone, and mailing statements. Bookkeepingmachine operators may use relatively simple ma chines to record only one type of data or may per form involved computations on special machines. General bookkeepers keep complete and system atic sets of records o f their employers’ business transactions, recording items in proper journal and on special forms, balancing books and com piling reports. In large establishments which em ploy many office workers, a bookkeeper may be assigned to work with one phase or section of a complete set of records, as accounts payable or accounts receivable. The head bookkeeper in a large office has full responsibility for his depart ment. T raining Most employers require graduation from a high school, business or vocational school, or junior col lege. However, many employers prefer not to hire college-trained persons for routine bookkeeping jobs. A commercial course which includes train ing in many office functions such as typing, short hand, and use of various office machines, as well OTHER C L E R IC A L , SALES, AND as bookkeeping procedures, will usually be of greatest value in obtaining a job in this field. Head bookkeepers usually qualify either by edu cation in accounting or extensive experience,. Where Employed Bookkeepers are employed in all industries, with by far the greatest numbers in wholesale and retail trade. Many employment opportunities are found with banks, insurance companies, railroads, and utility companies. S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S 149 great because of the low training requirements for entrance in the occupation. The greatest source of job openings for book keepers will continue to be the result of turn-over which is considerable in this large field. The num ber of persons employed in bookkeeping jobs prob ably exceeds 700,000. Nearly half of these jobs are filled by women, about 50 percent of whom are under 30 years of age. Many of these women leave their jobs each year, thus creating openings for new employees. Earnings Outlook There are a large number of openings in book keeping jobs at the present time (early 1948), owing chiefly to the high level of business activity and the high rate o f turn-over within the occupa tion. There is a trend, especially in large offices, toward breaking down bookkeeping functions into office-machine operator and other routine clerical jobs. The vast majority of openings in the book keeping field are of this nature. While there are plenty of people with the qualifications to fill such positions, many are loath to accept them because of the low salaries usually paid. Openings for bookkeepers who are required to assume responsi bility for a complete set of books are few; even so, there is now a shortage of workers with the neces sary training and experience to qualify for these jobs. However, there are large numbers now tak ing business courses and accounting training, and it is likely that the supply will soon exceed the demand. The long-run outlook for bookkeepers depends, in the main, on the level of business activity and the number of individual businesses. It is likely that, if general business conditions remain good, there will be some increase in the need for book keepers, because the growth of scientific manage ment in industry, complex tax systems, and the general complexities of the economy necessitate more record keeping. In the event of a slump in business activity the competition for jobs will be 79399(5°—49-----11 Earnings vary greatly, depending on the indus try, type and location of office, and grade of job performed; also with the education, experience, age, and sex of the worker. In general, earnings are highest in large cities and in the Pacific and Middle Atlantic States. Men usually receive higher pay than women in the same offices. In the early part of 1948, average weekly earn ings of women hand bookkeepers in private in dustry ranged from $44 in Buffalo and Atlanta to $55 in New York City and San Francisco accord ing to a survey of office workers in 11 large cities. In nearly all cities, hand bookkeepers received higher pay than workers in any other office occupa tion. Women bookkeeping machine operators with highest skills averaged from $42 to $52 weekly, while operators with less responsibility had aver age salaries of $34 to $44, depending on city in which employed. Wh ere To Go F or Additional Information Information on salaries, hours of work, and sup plementary benefits for office workers in 11 large cities are available from : U. S. Department o f Labor, Bureau o f Labor Statistics, Washington 25, D. 0. Information, particularly on private business schools, may be obtained from : National Council o f Business Schools, 839 17th St. NW., W ashington 6, D. C. 150 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K Stock and Stores Clerks (Air Transportation) (D.O.T. 1-38.99) Outlook Summary Some openings each year. Competition for jobs usually considerable but likely to decrease during next few years. Long-run employment trend up ward. Nature of Work Most stock and stores clerks employed by the air lines are in the storerooms at the main over haul bases and, to a less extent, at the smaller service stations where day-to-day line maintenance work is done. Duties include receiving and un packing the tremendous number of different parts and supplies, issuing these to the mechanics and other personnel, packing and shipping materials and equipment, and keeping records and inven tory controls. In the larger stockrooms, different groups of clerks may specialize in different phases of the work. There are also a few stock clerks in the larger nonscheduled flying services and other fixed-base operations. The general nature of the work is very similar to that in air-line stockrooms, but since the operations are on a much smaller scale, there is likely to be little, if any specialization of work or distinction between grades of clerks. Often only one clerk is employed, and in many such instances he may be required to perform mechanical duties in order to keep himself fully occupied. Qualifications and Advancement There are no legal requirements for work in this occupation, and the standards used in hiring jun ior clerks vary considerably from one carrier to another. Some air lines may or may not require even a high-school diploma; others prefer appli cants with some college or business-school educa tion. Ability to read and to write legibly is always essential. The minimum age limit is usu ally 18; the maximum may vary from 35 to 50. On a few air lines, passing of a physical examina tion is necessary. Previous clerical experience, especially in aircraft or automotive stock and stores work, is always an asset, sometimes a pre requisite for the job. In general, positions above the level of junior clerk are filled by promotions from within the company. Outlook Expansion in employment may be expected over the long run in this as in most other occupations in air transportation. Since the end of the war, however, the number of stock and stores clerks employed by the air lines and in related activities has not risen significantly; it was between 2,000 and 3,000 in round figures on VJ-day and is still within this range. There is little likelihood that more than double the present number will be on pay rolls at the end of the next 5 years, however vigorous general business activity may continue to be. The pool of qualified job applicants from among persons with and without experience in the field is expected to be ample to meet hiring needs in the immediate future. Since entrance into the occu pation is easy and the work fairly interesting and pleasant, competition for employment is usually strong. However, the 70-group air force program legislated in May 1948 is expected to mean ex panding job opportunities in aircraft manufactur ing and related activities and therefore de creasing competition for stock-clerk jobs in air transportation. Most jobs will be found in the 55 city areas where the air lines’ main overhaul bases are lo cated. However, there will be some openings at large airports in other localities. Working Conditions The usual work schedule with the air lines is a 40-hour week and an 8-liour day. Typical start OTHER C L E R IC A L , SALES, AND ing rates o f pay of nonsupervisory clerks range from 90 cents to as high as $1.25 an hour. A d vancement is possible to rates as high as $1.45. A 2-week vacation with pay is usually given. Stock clerks are widely organized for collective bargaining. They are represented by several dif ferent unions. Where To Get More Information Additional information on the occupation of stock and stores clerks is given in : Employment Opportunities in Aviation Occu pations, Part I—Postwar Employment Outlook; Part I I —Duties, Qualifications, Earnings and Working Conditions. (Bulletins Nos. 837-1 and 837-2.) U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1945 and 1946. 36 pp. and 45 pp., illus. Price 10 cents S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S 151 and 20 cents. Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C. To find out about openings with air lines and the exact qualifications needed, inquiry should be made to the personnel managers of the lines. Addresses are listed in part II of the bulletin just mentioned or may be obtained from the Air Transport Asso ciation of America, 1107 Sixteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C. Information as to locations of air fields, repair stations, and flying schools can be obtained from the Office of Aviation Information, Civil Aero nautics Administration, Washington 25, D. C. For information regarding Federal Government positions, address this agency or any regional office of the United States Civil Service Commission. See also Automobile-Parts Salesmen, p. 155. Traffic Agents and Clerks (Air Transportation) (D.O.T. 1-44.12, .27, and .32) Outlook Summary Job opportunities for newcomers likely to be limited in the immediate future. Long-run em ployment trend slowly upward in occupational group as a whole; more rapidly in positions con cerned with cargo traffic than in other types of work. Nature of Work These workers are employed mainly in air-line traffic departments. They include ticket agents, passenger agents, reservation clerks, and, at a somewhat higher level of responsibility, traffic representatives. Still further up the ladder are city and district traffic and station managers. Traffic staffs are located principally in down town offices or at airports in or near large cities— the primary source of air-line customers. How ever, some are in smaller communities where air lines have scheduled stops. A few are stationed in foreign countries. Qualifications There are strict hiring standards with respect to appearance, personality, and education—to qualify employees for the constant contact with the public which is involved in most traffic jobs. High-school graduation is generally required; some college training is considered desirable. Ex perience in connection with freight or express traffic in other branches o f transportation will be increasingly valuable. Aviation background and sales experience are helpful for higher-grade jobs. Women are commonly employed as reservation and ticket agents; some few are passenger agents. The occupations covered in this statement are among the best in the industry from the point o f view of advancement. Outlook Employment in traffic jobs is expected to increase both in the near future and over the long run. In early 1948, more than 10,000 people were employed in such jobs by the air lines. Five years hence, the number should be substantially greater, if general business activity continues high. The largest numbers of openings will probably be for ticket and reservation clerks. However, relative growth may well be most rapid in jobs connected with cargo traffic, which now employ far fewer people than are in the passenger end of the business. In creasing emphasis is being placed on cargo traf 152 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK fic; it lias barely been tapped by the air-transport industry. The United States Department of Com merce (Domestic Trade Digest, December 1947) says: “ Air freight traffic may be expected to ex pand at a more rapid rate in 1948 than any other form o f transportation, passenger or freight.” During 1947, cut-backs in domestic operations and improvements in the handling of traffic led to a good many lay-offs in air-line traffic departments. By now, however, probably all furloughed person nel who desired to do so have been able to return to their own jobs or to take other air-line positions for which they qualified. Job chances o f new comers should be perceptibly better before long, bolstered by the general upward trend in employ ment and other factors. The planned air-force expansion, however, will have a negligible effect. Earnings and Unionization Earnings vary widely, depending on the degree o f responsibility of the job. A representative sal HANDBOOK ary range for agents and clerks was $150 to $250 or more per month in early 1948. Station man agers and district traffic managers in large cities sometimes made as high as $400 or better a month. Reservations and transportation agents are cov ered by a union contract on only one line, where they are represented by the Brotherhood of Rail way and Steamship Clerks, AFL. Where To Get More Information In q u irie s r e g a r d in g jo b o p e n in g s sh ou ld b e sent t o th e p e rso n n e l m a n a gers o f th e a ir lines. A d dresses are liste d i n : Employment Opportunities in Aviation Occu pations, Part 2— Duties, Qualifications, Earnings and Working Conditions. (Bulletin No. 837-2.) U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1947. 45 pp., illus. Price 20 cents. Superintendent o f Docu ments, Washington 25, D. C. They may also be obtained from Air Transport Association of America, 1107 16th St. NW., Wash ington, D. C. General-Insurance Agents and Brokers (See D.O.T. 1-57.10) Outlook Summary Many opportunities each year for experienced men; some for women. Training courses avail able for inexperienced persons. Long-run trend in employment upward. Nature of Work Agents sell one or more kinds of general insurance (fire, casualty, marine, surety, and other) as representatives of underwriting companies or of brokerage firms. Brokers give service to individ uals and firms seeking insurance and may have pol icies written on behalf of clients by any insurance company. Agents as well as brokers are consid ered independent contractors. IIoio To Enter Little or no capital is needed to enter the field. Anyone who can meet the training and licensing requirements of the State or States where he wishes to operate may become a broker. The tendency is for States to require licensing standards of com petence, and about half give examinations. New York State gives written examinations covering insurance laws and other matters relating to the business. To become an agent, one must first ob tain a contract with a company or a general agent of a company and then secure the necessary State license or licenses. An expert knowledge of the chosen branch of insurance is necessary for the newcomer’s success. Therefore, to prepare for work as an agent or broker, one should take courses in insurance and related subjects in a college, evening high school, or correspondence school, or with a trade associa tion or insurance company. New agents some times have periods of on-the-job training when they are first hired and, in any event, usually work under close company supervision for a fairly long time. Since the broker is on his own once he starts in business, it is particularly important for men OTHER C L E R IC A L , SALES, AND planning to enter this type of work to get the best education and training. Outlook There will be many opportunities for both ex perienced and inexperienced men in these fields during the next few years; also some openings for women. Of the quarter of a million or so agents and brokers in all branches of insurance, roughly one-third are in general insurance; almost all of the brokers are in this field. Employment is be lieved to be higher now than before the war. Additional workers continue to enter the field, however. The ease with which people can enter it encourages them to do so, and competition for business is always keen; large brokerage firms get most of the important accounts that are placed. Many people are forced out of the field, especially during the first year or two, because their earn ings are so low. It generally takes 5 years or even longer for an agent or broker to establish himself. The number of successful agents and brokers in business has so far had an upward trend and will probably continue to increase. The volume of surety and general insurance business is deter mined largely by population and property values; population is expected to go on growing until about the end of this century, and property values will probably continue to rise over the long run. While the number o f agents Rnd brokers does not change in direct proportion to changes in the amount of insurance business, it tends to move in the same direction, especially when business is in creasing. Because o f the expected growth in in surance activity and other factors, the chances of successful employment as an agent or broker are likely to improve in the long run. S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S 153 Openings for agents will be found throughout the country. Brokerage opportunities, however, will be mainly in large cities, such as New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, San Francisco, Los A n geles, and Washington, D. C. The best place to start is generally in one’s own community, where one has the widest contacts. Other things being equal, however, it is considered easier to build up a business in the West than in the East. Oppor tunities in many parts of the South have improved considerably during the last few years. Texas is a promising area. In general, places which have had recent increases in population and income are likely to offer more favorable opportunities than other localities, but there may be offsetting factors. California, for example, has had very great popu lation and income growth, but it already has many more agents and brokers than ever before. Where To Go for More Information General agents or managers of insurance com pany branch offices can supiply information not only on employment opportunities in the particu lar locality but on their companies’ methods of selecting, training, and compensating agents. Questions on how to prepare for general insur ance work may be addressed to the National Asso ciation of Insurance Agents, 80 Maiden Lane, New York 7, N. Y., or to State or local associations of insurance agents. Information on training courses is available from N A IA educational divi sion at the above address. For information about securing a license, one may write to the Department of Insurance at any State capital. See also Insurance underwriters, page 97; and Life-Insurance Agents, page 153. Life-Insurance Agents (See D.O.T. 1-57.10) Outlook Summary Nature of Work Several thousand opportunities each year for experienced and inexperienced men; some open ings for women. Long-run trend in employment upward. Most life-insurance agents specialize either in ordinary insurance (policies with face values of at least $1,000 and premium payments made directly to the general agent or company home office); or 154 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K in industrial insurance (low-premium policies with small face values and premiums collected by the agent in person) ; or in group insurance (poli cies covering a group of people, usually the em ployees of a particular company). The work is much more highly personalized than most other sales jobs. An insurance agent often becomes the family financial adviser, build ing up a relationship with clients like that of the family lawyer or doctor. He is primarily a repre sentative o f a single company, although he may occasionally place new policies with other com panies. The ordinary agent is generally an inde pendent contractor, the industrial agent an em ployee. How To Enter To become an agent, one must first obtain a con tract with a company (usually through a general agent). A license must then be obtained from each State in which the agent is to operate. In some States, about all that has to be done is to apply for a license and pay a nominal fee; usually the company makes the application and pays the fee. In many States, however (New York, for example), written examinations are given cover ing life-insurance principles, State laws, and other matters relating to the business. An expert knowledge of the field is necessary for success. Therefore, to prepare for work as an agent, one should take courses in insurance and re lated subjects in a college, evening high school, cor respondence school, or with a trade association or insurance company. In any event, the agent goes through a period of on-the-job training when he starts out with a company and works under close supervision for a fairly long time. All else being equal, the greatest success comes to men who like people and find it easy to deal with them. Outlook There will be several thousand opportunities each year for both experienced and inexperienced men to enter this large occupation; also some open ings for women. O f the quarter of a million or so agents and brokers in all branches of insurance, including suretyship and general insurance, roughly two-thirds are life agents. O f these, slightly more than half are industrial agents. Employment is higher now than before the war. Additional workers continue to enter the field, however. General agents rarely turn down quali fied applicants and few States are attempting to restrict the number of agents. The ease with which people can enter the field encourages them to do so, and competition for business is always keen. Many ordinary agents are forced out of business, especially during the first year or two, because of low earnings; it generally takes 5 years or even longer for an agent to establish himself firmly. However, many companies which write ordinary insurance now give new agents financial assistance during the apprenticeship period. All industrial agents receive a salary from the start. The number of successful agents in business has so far had an upward trend and will probably continue to increase. The volume of life insur ance business is determined largely by population and purchasing power; population is expected to go on increasing until about the end of this cen tury, and national income will probably continue to rise over the long run. While the number of agents does not change in direct proportion to changes in the amount o f insurance business, it tends to move in the same direction, especially when business is increasing. Because o f the ex pected growth in insurance activity and other fac tors, the chances of successful employment as an agent are likely to improve in the long run. Opportunities for life agents will be found throughout the country. They are now more widespread than opportunities for other types of insurance salesmen. The best place to start is gen erally in one’s own community, where one has the widest contacts. Other things being equal, how ever, it is considered easier to build up a business in the West than in the East. Areas where popu lation and income have risen in the last few years are also likely to offer more favorable opportu nities than other localities. Opportunities in many parts of the South have improved considerably. Texas is a promising area. In general, places which have had recent increases in population and income are likely to offer more favorable oppor tunities than other localities, but there may be off setting factors. California, for example, has had very great population and income growth, but it already has many more agents than ever before. OTHER C L E R IC A L , SALES, AND S E R V IC E 155 Institute o f Life Insurance, 60 W. 42d St. New York 17, N. Y. Where To Go for More Information General agents or managers of life insurance company branch offices can supply information not only on employment opportunities in the par ticular locality but on their companies’ methods o f selecting, training, and compensating agents. Other questions, including how to prepare for life insurance work, may be addressed to the following organizations: O C C U P A T IO N S L ife Insurance Agency Management Association, 115 Broad St., H artford 5, Conn. F o r in fo r m a tio n a b ou t se cu rin g a license, one m a y w r ite to the d ep a rtm e n t o f in su ra n ce at a n y S ta te ca p ita l. See also: Insurance underwriters, page 97, and General Insurance Agents and Brokers, page 152. Automobile-Parts Salesmen (D.O.T. 1-75.22) Outlook Summary Outlook Good employment prospects for experienced workers in the next few years; also a considerable number of openings in entry occupations. Longrun trend of employment upward. Employment is now increasing and will prob ably continue to do so during the next few years. Since the end of the war, many veterans and other former parts salesmen have returned to their jobs. The wartime shortage of salesmen has thus been somewhat relieved, but more workers are still needed. Sales of auto parts and accessories are setting new records; in 1946, sales were more than double those in 1941; in 1947, they were still higher. In the next few years, the number of new cars manufactured is not expected to be sufficient to meet the backlog of replacement demand, and the average age of cars on the road will con tinue to be high. This factor, plus the growing number of cars in use, will keep the demand for parts at a high level and will probably create some further employment oportunities for salesmen. In addition, there will be openings owing to deaths, retirements, and transfers to other fields of work. Experienced workers should therefore have no trouble finding jobs. Newcomers will find a considerable number of opportunities as stock and receiving clerks, from which they may advance to jobs as counter sales men ; also some openings in the small but growing number of formal training programs. Veterans with related stock-clerk experience in the armed forces generally receive preference for entry jobs, and advancement may be quicker for them than for inexperienced persons. In some areas, particu larly in small towns, experienced automotive parts Mature of Work There are tens of thousands of automobile-parts salesmen in the country, working mostly for auto mobile dealers, parts jobbers, and parts distribu tors. Occupation includes both counter and out side salesmen, the former being the larger group. For either type of job, knowledge o f a great num ber of automotive parts, often for various makes of cars, is necessary. Salesmen must identify parts, using micrometers, calipers, and other measuring instruments when necessary. They fill orders, quote prices, and give other information, using catalogs as a source. Some jobs involve ex amining faulty parts to determine what has to be replaced. Outside salesmen also visit retailers to solicit sales. How To Enter Men usually enter this field as stock or receiving clerks. After 6 months to a year at this type of work, they advance to the job of junior counter man. Altogether, about 3 years’ experience is usu ally necessary to qualify as counter salesman. Several more years in the latter job are required for advancement to outside salesman. 156 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K salesmen, with general business ability and suffi cient capital, will find favorable opportunities to open their own parts stores. Long-run trend of employment is upward. In addition, employment in this occupation is rela tively little affected by declines in general busi ness activity. Most people who find jobs may therefore look forward to continued employment over a long period of time. Jobs are to be found in all parts of the country, in small towns as well as in large cities. The greatest number o f jobs are in States with the highest number of motor vehicles—California, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Texas. Michigan, and New Jersey. Earnings Ph otograph Countermen are usually paid on an hourly basis, while the majority of outside salesmen are on a combination salary and commission basis. In some large cities, typical weekly earnings of ex perienced counter salesmen working for others were roughly $40 to $55 in 1946, depending on such factors as the size of shop and its location. Yearly earnings of outside salesmen in these cities were generally in the neighborhood of $4,000 to $6,000. by U. S. d e pa r tm e n t of labo r Auto parts salesman fills an order for a customer. Since 1946, the earnings of both groups have tended to increase. Where To Find Out More About This Occupation National Standard Parts Association, S S. Michigan Ave., Chicago 3, 111 Filling-Station Attendants, Managers, and Owners (D.O.T. 0-72.12 and 7-60.500) Outlook Summary Job and business prospects fairly good in early 1948. Once labor shortages are met, employment will probably show little further increase for at least a few years. Many openings each year owing to turn-over. Nature of Work Attendants work in filling stations owned or controlled by oil companies and in independent stations. They have a variety of duties—supply ing passenger cars, trucks, and busses with gaso line, oil, water, and air; changing oil and doing lubrication jobs; installing accessories; changing tires and repairing inner tubes. Since filling sta tions generally have many supplies for sale—for example, batteries, spark plugs, light bulbs, and tires—selling these makes up an important part of the attendant’s duties. Short training programs are conducted by many oil companies for employed attendants, some of whom become managers, operators (who lease a station, usually from an oil company), or owners. Except in some very large stations, managers, operators, and owners perform many or all of the duties of attendants, in addition to buying sup plies, supervising their employees, and handling other business duties. The most common method of going into business for one’s self in this field is to lease a station from an oil company; previous experience as an attendant is highly desirable. Outlook Employment in filling stations has been rising steadily since YJ-day. It dropped sharply dur OTHER C L E R IC A L , SALES, AND ing the war, but in early 1948 it was higher than in 1940, when about 200,000 attendants and 180,000 managers, operators, and owners Tvere employed. There has been a tremendous increase in fillingstation business. More cars were on the road in early 1948 than before the war; this has not only raised gasoline sales but also sales of automobile accessories and the amount of repair work, greas ing, and washing. In addition, gasoline consump tion per car was greater than ever before. While business has soared, employment has increased' at a much slower rate, and at the start of 1948 there were still a great many stations with insufficient help. Qualified men should therefore have little difficulty finding employment. Persons with pre vious experience will generally have the best chance of finding jobs. O n ce the la b o r sh orta ges are reliev ed , e m p lo y m ent is lik e ly to sh ow little i f a n y fu r th e r in crease in the n ear fu tu re. G a solin e co n s u m p tio n is n ot ex p ected to rise a p p re c ia b ly above its p re s ent p eak f o r som e tim e to com e a n d m a y even d r o p a little, since th e sh orta g e o f re fin in g a n d tra n s p o rta tio n equ ip m en t lim its th e s u p p ly . I t w ill p ro b a b ly be several yea rs b e fo r e th ere is en o u g h g a solin e availa b le th ro u g h o u t th e co u n tr y to fill the e v e r -g ro w in g d em an d f o r m o to r fu el. People interested in purchasing or leasing gaso line stations found in early 1948 that only a lim ited number of stations were available; a great many veterans, as well as other people, have gone into this business since the war. Stations selling the most popular brands o f gasoline are now, as always, the hardest to get. The amount of capital needed to buy or build a station has been increas ing somewhat with the rise in prices. A minimum of $2,000 to $3,000 at that time was necessary in most cases, the exact amount depending on the size and location of the station. At least one large oil company requires its prospective distributors to have capital of $3,000 or more. O v er the lo n g run, to ta l e m p lo y m e n t w ill ten d to rise s lo w ly , sin ce a co n tin u e d u p w a r d tre n d in m o to r -v e h ic le reg istra tio n s and m ile a g e is a n tic i p ated — a ssu m in g th a t gen era l business a ctiv ity con tin u es at a h ig h level. I n a d d itio n , th ere w ill S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S 157 be several thousand job openings for attendants each year, owing to the high turn-over rate which is characteristic of this occupation. Opportuni ties for going into business for one’s self will prob ably continue to be fairly numerous, since there is also considerable turn-over in ownership of filling stations. Jobs are to be found in all parts o f the country, including small rural communities. Employ ment of attendants is greatest, however, in States with the largest number of motor vehicles—Cali fornia, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Texas, Michigan, and New Jersey. Wages and Working Conditions Wages in early 1948 were almost double what they were before the war. The average attendant earned around $45 or $50 a week in many large cities, while the manager got around $60. Hourly wage rates for attendants seldom went above $1 an hour, the higher weekly earnings coming as a result of longer working hours; often men work more than 10 hours a day. I f consumption of gasoline should be curtailed, there may be a tend ency to shorten the workweek, thereby also reduc ing earnings. In addition to their wages, some attendants and managers get commissions on sales. Earnings of operators and owners depend upon the location and size of the station and the volume of business, and therefore vary a good deal. Where To Go fo r More Information People interested in going into business for themselves will find valuable information in : Establishing and Operating a Service Station. Industrial (Small Business) Series No. 22. U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce (1945). Price 45 cents. Su perintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D . C. Information on job and business opportunities in a particular locality can be obtained from local distributors of the large oil companies. 158 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Barbers (D.O.T. 2-32.01) Outlook Summary G o o d jo b p ro sp e cts f o r sk ille d barbers, esp e cia lly d u r in g n ext y e a r o r t w o ; f a ir ly g o o d p ro s p e cts f o r learners. Nature of Work B a rb e rs g iv e a v a rie ty o f p erson a l services such as h a ircu ts, sh am p oos, sca lp tr e a tm e n ts ; f o r th e ir m ale p a tro n s th ey m a y also g iv e shaves a n d fa c ia l m assages. Both learners and skilled men are still in demand in most parts of the country. The shortages are less acute in some areas than others, however, and are slowly but steadily diminishing. Newcomers may have difficulty getting the needed school train ing, since many barber courses are now full and some even have waiting lists. A f t e r the la b o r sh orta g e has been m a d e u p , e m p lo y m e n t is lik e ly to level o ff a n d o p e n in g s w ill be fe w e r. tio n s B u t so lo n g as ge n e ra l e co n o m ic c o n d i con tin u e to be good, th ou sa n d s of n ew Training and Advancement b arb ers w ill be n eeded each y e a r to fill v a ca n cies due to d eath s, retirem en ts, a n d tr a n sfe r s to o th e r The most frequent method of entering the occu pation is by taking a trade course in a public voca tional school or a 6- to 9-month course in a commer cial barbers’ college. Graduates of such courses must usually serve 18 months as apprentices (or learners) before qualifying as journeymen, A p prentices must meet minimum-age requirements (generally 16 or 18 years) ; must, as a rule, have a grade-school education or its equivalent; and must be able to pass health examinations. In all States except Virginia, both apprentices and master bar bers must have licenses. Experienced barbers can advance by going into shops where customers spend more money on such services as facial massages, shampoos, and scalp treatments, or by opening their own shops. In some shops which are not managed by the owner, there is opportunity for promotion to manager. The majority of barbers are self-employed. fields. Outlook The employment outlook is good in this occupa tion especially for the next year or two, that is, for 1918 and 1949. In 1940, there were about 200,000 employed male barbers, and probably more than 10,000 unemployed. During the war, many went into war industries and the armed forces and few men were trained. As some veterans and other former employees have returned to the occupation, employment has gone up again to some extent. M o r e o v e r , declin es in g e n e ra l b usiness a c t iv it y d o n o t red u ce the n u m b er o f m en e m p lo y e d in th is o c c u p a tio n as m u ch as in m a n y o th e rs— o w in g la r g e ly to the g re a t n u m b er o f s e lf-e m p lo y e d b a rbers, w h o o fte n m a n age to sta y in b u s i ness even i f th e ir ea rn in g s are m u ch red u ced . Jobs are to be found in all parts of the country, in large cities and small. The greatest numbers are, however, in New York. Pennsylvania, Illinois, California, Texas, Ohio, and New Jersey. Earnings and Working Conditions Most barbers are paid a fixed salary plus a com mission, although some are paid either one or the other. Guaranteed weekly wages typically ranged from about $25 to $45 in many parts of the country in micl-1946, and have not changed very much since that time. Earnings from commissions have risen, however; this has meant an average increase o f about 10 percent in total earnings, according to a rough estimate for early 1948. The earnings of individual workers vary, depending on such fac tors as type and location of shop and custom of the community regarding tips, as well as on skill and personality. They tend to increase as the barber establishes a personal following. The em ployee usually pays for his uniforms, razors, combs, and scissors. Hours are long—at least 46 or 48 per week and many union contracts provide for a 51-hour week. OTHER C L E R IC A L , SALES, AND In a few shops, workers receive a 1-week paid vacation after a year of service. The majority of organized barbers belong to Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers, and Cosme tologists International Union of America, A F L ; some to the Barbers and Beauty Culturists Union of America, CIO. Those who are shop owners or managers may belong to Associated Master Bar bers and Beauticians of America. Where To Go for More Information The following organizations can provide addi S E R V IC E 159 O C C U P A T IO N S tional information on such subjects as earnings, working conditions, training requirements, and job opportunities: Barbers and Beauty Culturists Union o f America, CIO, 330 Flatbush Ave., Brooklyn 17, N. Y. Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers, and Cosmetolo gists International Union o f America, AFL, 12th and D elaware Sts., Indianapolis 7, Ind. National Education Council, Associated Master Barbers America, 537 S. Dearborn St., Chicago 5, 111. and Beauticians of Beauty Operators (See D.O.T. 2-32.11-14, .21, .22, .31) Outlook Summary Prospects fairly good for experienced workers, but inexperienced operators will find fewer and fewer openings. Long-run employment trend slowly upward. Nature o f Work The majority of workers are all-round opera tors who give a variety of services such as sham poos, hair cuts, hair setting, permanent waves, hair dyeing, face and scalp treatments, and mani cures. There are, however, some less-skilled oper ators who can do manicuring only; also some with all-round training who specialize in other services. The few men in the occupation are mainly stylists specializing in hair cutting, setting, and perma nent waving. Many operators are self-employed. Training and Advancement In all States except Delaware, Mississippi, and Virginia, there are now licensing requirements. To qualify for licenses, operators must have reached a specified age (generally 16 or 18 years) ; they must pass health examinations; in most States they must have at least a grade-school (in some a high-school) education; and they must have com pleted satisfactory training courses. Usually, prospective operators take a 6- or 8-month course in a commercial beauty school or a trade course in a public vocational school. In the District of Co lumbia and the 45 States which require licensing, there are about 1,130 schools offering beauty-cul ture courses approved by the State boards of exam iners; there are schools in every State, in both small towns and large cities. Learning on the job is not common, although some States accept this kind of training in lieu of trade courses. After completing a beauty course and obtaining a license, an operator ordinarily starts out in a small neighborhood shop, although especially skill ful girls are sometimes able to go directly into higher-grade shops. A few women who are al ready licensed operators may work into positions with chain organizations by selling the firm’s cos metics in department stores and then taking ad vanced beauty courses at the company’s training centers. Experienced operators may advance by moving to a better shop or becoming specialists. A few, employed in large salons, may be promoted to positions as managers. Those who have skill, business ability, and some capital may be able to succeed in business for themselves. Outlook Employment opportunities are expected to be fairly good for experienced beauty operators, less and less good for newcomers, in the next few years. During and immediately after the war, there was a labor shortage in this large occupation, which em ployed more than 200,000 women (including own ers, managers, and specialists such as manicurists 160 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K and electro]ogists) and roughly 10,000 men in 1940. Both experienced and inexperienced operators could find plenty of jobs. The situation has been changing gradually, however, as former workers have returned to the occupation from war jobs and newly trained people have begun to enter the field in increasing numbers. Skilled workers can still find jobs fairly easily, especially in small towns. However, newcomers may expect more and more difficulty in findings openings and may have to ac cept relatively low pay or long working hours. Prospective students may also encounter obstacles in enrolling in courses, since some schools have waiting lists. Opportunities for men will prob ably continue to be limited in number and will most frequently be found in the larger shops in big cities. The long-run employment trend will probably continue to be upward, assuming that general eco nomic conditions remain good. However, the in crease is likely to be slower than before the war. There will also be many openings owing to turn over. Jobs are to be found in every State, in large cities and small. The greatest numbers are in Mew York, California, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, and Massachusetts. Earnings Earnings are influenced by length of experience, personality, and ability, as well as the type of shop and its location. They therefore vary widely. Median hourly earnings, excluding tips, of women operators in New York State early in 1947 were about 86 cents; men operators had a median of $1.14 an hour. Manicurists earn less than all round operators. Many operators throughout the country are on a 48-hour week; a few are on a 40-hour week. However, a considerable number, especially in small shops, have extremely long hours. Some shops give 1 week's vacation with p a y ; a few give 2 weeks. Where To Go for More Information The following organizations may be helpful in supplying information on such topics as job op portunities, training requirements, and working conditions: Barbers and Beauty Culturists Union o f Am erica, CIO, 330 Flatbush Ave., Brooklyn 17, N. Y. Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers and Cosmetolo gists, International Union o f America, AFL. 12th and Delaware Sts., Indianapolis 7, Ind. National Council o f Boards o f Beauty Culture, 17 N. State St., Chicago 2, 111. National Education Council, Associated Master Barbers America, 537 S. Dearborn St., Chicago 5, 111. and Beauticians of National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists A ssocia tion, 212 5th Ave., New York 10, N. Y. To people interested in opening a beauty shop of their own, the following pamphlet will be of assistance. Establishing and Operating a Beauty Shop. Industrial (Small Business) Series No. 25. U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Superintendent of Docu ments, Washington 25, D. C. Price 30 cents. Hospital A tten dan ts 910 (D.O.T. 2-42) Nature of Work Outlook Summary G ood im m ed ia te em p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n itie s. T h e y assist the n u rsin g staff in h o sp ita ls b y p e r T h e n eed in th e fu tu r e w ill co n s id e ra b ly exceed fo r m in g ro u tin e o r less sk ille d tasks in th e care th a t o f th e p re w a r years. 9 0 1 o f p atien ts. 9 See Statement on Practical Nurses. 10 Prepared by the W om en’s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor. S u ch services u su a lly in c lu d e b a th in g a n d d re ssin g p a tien ts, a n sw e rin g ca ll b ells, m a k in g beds, s e rv in g fo o d , a ssistin g the p a tie n t OTHER C L E R IC A L , SALES, AND in walking, giving alcohol rubs, and possibly clean ing rooms and equipment. There is a trend to ward standardizing their training and duties. Many are employed in hospitals for mental patients. Training and Other Qualifications Preparation for practice varies considerably. Many persons qualify for jobs as attendants through experience only and obtain jobs without being licensed. Veterans trained in such work in the Army or Navy will qualify for most jobs as attendants in hospitals. Two years of high school are preferred though not required for entrance to an approved course for training attendants. About half the States have made provision for licensing and requirements vary, but usually call for graduation from an approved course o f 9 to 18 months, or the passing of an examination. In 1946 there were more than 96,000 attendants and practical nurses and almost 37,000 orderlies em ployed in approved hospitals. O f this number, over half were men. These men worked for the most part in veterans’ hospitals or hospital depart ments in which all the patients were men, and par ticularly with male patients who were mentally ill. Outlook Employment outlook for the trained hospital attendant is good; however, it will become in creasingly difficult for those without training to obtain desirable employment as the trend is to ward licensing to protect both patients and quali fied personnel. Schools trained very few attend ants during the war, and poorly qualified persons often obtained jobs as attendants. Those trained in special courses such as were given by the Army and Navy should have no difficulty in obtaining employment either in veterans’ or in other hos pitals. The Federal civil service restricts positions as hospital attendants to veterans as long as such applicants are available. There is a growing tendency toward the use of attendants to perform many of the functions S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S 161 formerly performed by the professional nurse. As new treatments are developed, more assistants are required to aid the nurse or physician during the treatment and also with the preparation of the patient for it. Trained attendants or assistants usually are needed for this purpose as, for example, the hot packers who are used in the application of moist heat under the Kenny treatment for po liomyelitis. The war greatly increased the num ber of veterans who will require long-time hos pitalization and the services of attendants. The increasing hospitalization of those suffering from mental or nervous conditions adds to the demand for trained attendants in mental institutions, as does the growing hospitalization of tuberculous and other patients with chronic illnesses. There is a growing trend toward merging the hospital attendant and practical nurse groups so that basic training and requirements for licensing will be similar. Earnings The basic annual beginning salary for hospital attendant jobs under civil service in 1947 was $1,954. Recent Nation-wide information is not available on other hospital attendants. In one Midwest State, recommendation was made in 1947 to raise the base pay of attendants in State hos pitals from $75 a month to $115 a month. Where To Go for More Information Additional information on the outlook for women as hospital attendants is given in the fol lowing publication: Practical Nurses and Hospital Attendants. Bulletin 203, No. 5. United States Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau, 1945. 20 pp. Price 10 cents. Superintendent of Documents, Washing ton 25, D. C. Information may also be obtained from: American Hospital Association, 18 E. Division St., Chicago, 111. 162 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Practical N u rses 1 1 (D.O.T. 2-38.20) Outlook Summary Very good employment opportunities at present and in near future, particularly for those with training. It will become increasingly difficult for those without training to obtain the most desirable employment. Nature o f Work and Where Employed Practical nurses work in institutions, as visiting nurses with visiting nurse associations, and in homes. They work under the general direction of a licensed physician or the supervision of a regis tered professional nurse. They perform a combi nation of nursing and housekeeping duties. Training and Other Qualifications Preparation for practice varies considerably. Two years of high school are preferred though not required for entrance to an approved course for training nurses. Courses are often available in public vocational schools, requiring no tuition fee. In the approximately 49 approved schools of prac tical nursing, located mostly on the east and west coasts, tuition ranges up to $110. Hospital expe rience is required as part of the training. Main tenance may be provided by the hospital and a stipend for service is accepted practice. Licensing of practical nurses is recommended by the American Nurses Association, but there is mandatory legislation of this kind at present only in New York (.where it was suspended during the war and was not yet in effect in 1947), Arkansas, and Hawaii. Twenty-five additional States have made provision for licensing. Requirements vary but usually call for graduation from an approved school where courses are 9 to 18 months in length, and passing an examination covering such sub jects as care of children and of the aged, care of 1 11 Prepared by the W om en’s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor. convalescents, care of medical and surgical pa tients, care of the mentally ill, dietetics and food preparation, hygiene, elementary anatomy, and nursing methods. A great many persons in this work obtain employment through experience only, but in States with licensure laws, those licensed are given preference. Outlook In 1946 there were more than 96,000 practical nurses and attendants employed in approved hos pitals in the United States in addition to almost 37,000 orderlies. At least an equivalent number of 133,000 are believed to be employed in private homes or by visiting nurse associations. More than half the hospital group are men whereas more than 95 percent of the noninstitutional group are women. The employment outlook for both groups is good. Because of a slowly growing in sistence on licensing it will become increasingly difficult for those without training to obtain the most desirable employment. During the war, the needs of hospitals, public-health agencies, and in dustry, as well as an increased number of patients cared for at home, created a demand for practical nurses w hich was far greater than the supply. T This demand is continuing because of the increas ing use of hospital facilities brought on by Gov ernment programs, insurance, and preventive medicine. The trained practical nurse performs many of the functions formerly performed by the profes sional nurse, such as the taking o f temperatures and the giving of certain routine treatments. The earlier discharge of patients from hospitals after surgery or childbirth lengthens the convalescent period at home during which some nursing is re quired. Visiting nurse service and practical nursing at home will continue in high demand be cause of the increased number of chronically ill persons due to the larger proportion of older people in the population. OTHER C L E R IC A L , SALES, AND Earnings and Hours of Work Salaries vary greatly according to the place of employment, the hours worked, the amount of re sponsibility assumed and general economic condi tions. During the depression period many prac tical nurses worked for wages amounting to lit tle more than subsistence. On the other hand, during the war some practical nurses in com munities where the shortage was critical earned as much or more than some professional nurses re ceived. In 1943, salaries, according to one survey, ranged from $4 to $7 a day plus meals. In 1945, earnings varied from around $10 a day in one city to $25 a week in another. In some States, prac tical nurses and professional nurses have agreed that 75 percent o f the usual professional nurse’s salary is an acceptable salary for the practical nurse in any given area in the State. S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S 163 Resident duty hours vary from 8 to 20 a day. In hospitals, 8 hours is often the rule, but there is wide variation of schedules and hours. Where To Go for More Information Additional information on the outlook for women as practical nurses is given in the following publication: United States Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau— Practical Nurses and Hospital Attend ants. Bulletin 203, No. 5. United States Depart ment of Labor, Women’s Bureau, 1945. 20 pp. Price 10 cents. Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C. Information may also be obtained from: National Association for Practical Nurse Education. 654 Madison Ave., Suite 407, New York 21, N. Y. Airplane Hostesses (D.O.T. 2-25.37) Outlook Summary Qualifications and Advancement A good many openings for qualified applicants each year, but considerable competition for these jobs. Occupation will remain small for many years to come, despite rising employment. Entry into the occupation is usually as a “ stu dent” stewardess, for training by the employing air line. Frequently, however, girls trained in special private schools are hired through the place ment facilities provided by such institutions for their own graduates. In either case, applicants must be in excellent physical condition; have a pleasing personality and appearance; be in their twenties or within even narrower age limits; and also be within specified height and weight limits. As a general rule, only single women (or widowed or divorced women without children) are eligible for jobs, and their continued employment is con ditioned upon their remaining unmarried. A p plicants who are registered nurses are strongly preferred, but not nearly enough are available to fill all openings; about 1 out of 10 of all present stewardesses are nurses. Girls without this qualification must, as a rule, have at least 1 or 2 years of college education. For international flying, knowledge of a foreign language is an other requirement. Experience in handling food may be considered. Duties Hostesses (also known as flight stewardesses) are carried on most air-line passenger flights with in this country; also on some international flights. They are responsible for attending to passengers’ needs and comfort while in flight—by serving meals, giving minor medical aid, helping to ad just seats, answering questions, supplying passen gers with reading matter, and in other ways. They also have to keep some records. When a hostess and steward work together, as is often the case on big planes, the former tends to specialize in service to the women and children aboard. Hostesses are stationed mainly in the few sea board cities where international and transconti nental flights originate and inland at a number of air-line division points. A few are based in for eign countries. 164 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK H A N D B O O K From the position of hostess, the line of promo tion is to instructor and division chief hostess. Outlook Employment in this occupation is now (early 1918) much higher than at the war’s end, when the air lines had about 1,000 hostesses on their pay rolls. Since VJ-day, several thousand new host esses have been hired. Some of these new re cruits were needed to staff the many additional larger planes put into service. Others filled va cancies owing to turn-over, which is always heavy in this occupation, but has been greater than usual since the war— as a result of an exceptionally high marriage rate and the fact that other types of jobs have been relatively easy to obtain. During 1917, the air lines had to make some nonseasonal lay offs, but at the end of the year employment totaled over 3,500. By 1950, it may well be in the neigh borhood of 5,000, assuming continued high levels of general business activity. The long-run em ployment trend, too, is almost certainly upward. The high turn-over rate, combined with the steadily increasing need for stewardesses, make the job prospects in this field more favorable than in many other aviation occupations. The recent furloughs, largely temporary in character, will have only a slight effect on the job chances of new comers even in the immediate future. Competi tion for jobs is likely to be keen, however. Despite the air lines’ strict hiring standards, the interest in the occupation is so great that there are prac tically always qualified applicants competing for positions. In addition, some lines are as willing to hire stewards as they are to take on hostesses for many runs. An air-line hostess serving lunch. working away from home, their living expenses are paid by the employing air line; they may also be allowed $1 or more a day while on land for inci dental expenses. Many hostesses belong to unions. Most of those organized are represented by either the Airline Stewards and Stewardesses Association (a branch of the Air Line Pilots Association, A F L ), the Air Line Stewardesses Association (independent), or the Flight Pursers and Stewardesses Association, AFL. Earnings and Working Conditions Where To Get More Information Earnings on domestic lines range from $170 to $235 or more per month for most stewardesses. They are considerably higher on international lines, especially for registered nurses. Working time averages well over 100 hours a month. Most of this time (as high as 85 hours a month) is spent in flight. Domestic lines gener ally give 2 weeks’ vacation with pay each year; in ternational lines, 1 month. As a rule, airplane hostesses are on duty away from base about half the time. When they are Detailed information on the occupation of hostess is given in— U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Opportunities in Avia tion Occupations, Part I—Postwar Employment Outlook; Part 2—Duties, Qualifications, Earnings and Working Conditions. Bulletins No. 837-1 and 837-2. (1945 and 1946.) U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price 10 cents and 20 cents. OTHER C L E R IC A L , SALES, Inquiries in regard to job openings should be sent to the personnel managers of the lines. A d dresses are listed in part II of the bulletin just mentioned, or may be obtained from the Air AND S E R V IC E 165 O C C U P A T IO N S Transport Association of America, 1107 Sixteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C. See also page 19. Registered Professional Nurses, Flight Stewards (D.O.T. 2-25.32) Outlook Summary Outlook A small but growing occupation in which va cancies occur frequently, owing largely to a high turn-over rate. Employment in this very small occupation is now (early 1948) considerably higher than at the war’s end, when the two air lines then doing over seas flying on a commercial basis together em ployed only a hundred or so stewards, nearly all in this work at the time. Since VJ-day, a thou sand or so new stewards have been hired, because of the rapid growth in international traffic, rising domestic traffic accompanied by increased use of stewards in home operations, and the high turn over rate in the occupation. Despite some lay offs in the last half year or so, employment remains several times the end-of-war figure, although it is probably under 1,000. By 1951 or 1952, it may well double, assuming continued high levels of general business activity. The longrun trend, too, is almost certainly upward. The high turn-over rate, combined with the steadily increasing need for stewards, makes the job prospects in this field more favorable than in many other aviation occupations. The recent fur loughs, largely temporary in character, will have only a slight effect on the job chances of new comers even in the immediate future. Competi tion for jobs is likely to be keen, however. De spite the air lines’ strict hiring standards, the interest in the occupation is so great that there are practically always qualified applicants competing for positions. In addition, hiring policies are generally not so rigid nor stewardesses so hard to get, that difficulty in filling a steward opening may not be readily overcome by the hiring of a quali fied woman instead. The general picture outlined above would be little affected by the planned air force expansion. Duties Stewards are carried on most international air line flights and an increasing proportion of sched uled domestic runs—especially on large planes making long-distance trips. Their work includes serving meals while aloft, attending to the com fort of the passengers in other ways, and keeping records. With increased use of larger planes, stewards will be more and more assigned ticketcollecting and related tasks usually identified with the job designation of purser. When a steward and hostess work together, as is often the case on large planes, the former tends to handle the heavier work; the latter, to specialize in service to the women and children aboard. Stewards are stationed mainly in the few sea board cities where international and transconti nental flights originate, but some are located inland at a limited number of air-line division points. A few are based in foreign countries. Qualifications High -school education is a minimum require ment for this occupation; some college education is preferred. Knowledge of a foreign language is required for international flying. Excellent physical condition is a must, as are a pleasing personality and good appearance. In addition, ap plicants may not be above a specified height and weight. Also important is experience in handling food; many of the flight stewards now employed were formerly restaurant cooks or waiters. 793996°—49 12 166 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Earnings and Working Conditions Where To Get More Information Earnings on domestic lines range from $175 to $240 or more per month for most stewards; they are considerably higher on international lines. Working time averages well over 100 hours a month. Most of this time (as high as 85 hours a month) is spent in flight. Domestic lines gener ally give 2 weeks’ vacation with pay each year; international lines, 1 month. As a rule, flight stewards are on duty away from base about half the time. When they are working away from home, their living expenses are paid by the employing air line; they may also be allowed $1 a day while on land, for incidental expenses. Many stewards belong to unions. Most of those organized are represented by either the Airline Stewards and Stewardesses Association (a branch o f the A ir Line Pilots Association, AFL, or the Flight Pursers and Stewardesses Association, AFL. Additional information on the occupation of steward is given in— U. S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Opportunities in Avia tion Occupations, Part I—Postwar Employment Outlook; Part 2—Duties, Qualifications, Earnings and Working Conditions. Bulletins Nos. 837-1 and 837-2. (1945 and 1946.) U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price 10 cents and 20 cents. Inquiries in regard to job openings should be sent to the personnel managers o f the lines. A d dresses are listed in part II of the bulletin just mentioned, or may be obtained from the A ir Transport Association of America, 1107 Sixteenth Street, NW., Washington, D. C. See also: Traffic Agents and Clerks (A ir Trans portation), page 151; and Railroad Clerks, page 342. Trades and Industrial Occupations The trades and industrial occupations—skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled— are the largest of the broad groupings of fields of work. They offer employment to 4 out o f 10 workers in the United States today. These workers are of prime impor tance to the economy because they are the men and women who produce the goods; they mine the coal and ore, run the railroads, build the houses, bake the bread, make the clothes, and keep our mechani cal civilization in running order. To the many young people whose interests and abilities lie in the mechanical or manual spheres, the trades and industrial occupations offer the bulk o f employment opportunities. Within this area is offered a wide range of occupations varying in skill and earnings from the tool and die maker to the unskilled laborer. While most of the jobs fall clearly into either the skilled, semiskilled or unskilled groups, dis tinctions cannot always be finely drawn. This is particularly true because the nature of the work in the occupations often changes as new machines or methods are introduced. Thus some o f the types of work formerly done by allround crafts men are now broken down into several different steps, each requiring a shorter period of training than was originally demanded of the craftsman. These are usually classified as semiskilled occupa tions, but in some cases the skilled designation has been kept. In the same way it is often difficult to distinguish between unskilled occupations and the simpler machine-tending jobs in the semiskilled group. For practical purposes in guidance, informa tion on the outlook in each of the various unskilled and semiskilled occupations is not of major impor tance. For the most part a worker can move fairly easily from one to another, since training for most semiskilled occupations is given on the job in a few weeks or months at the most. To qualify for a skilled occupation, on the other hand, requires either a formal apprenticeship or a long period o f experience and training in semiskilled jobs which gives the worker a chance to learn all the different phases of the craft. The introduction of machinery and new, efficient processes over the last two centuries has slowly changed the relationship of the skilled, semi skilled, and unskilled occupations. In the old days the all-round craftsman, who made the entire product, and the unskilled laborer were the pre dominant occupations. As machinery came in and the process was broken down into a number of steps, each handled by a different worker, the semi skilled group gained in importance at the expense of both skilled and unskilled workers. In recent years the semiskilled have increased rapidly, the skilled have just about held their own, and the unskilled have declined. It has been easier to de vise machines to do the lifting, carrying, digging, and other jobs in the province of the unskilled laborer than to find mechanical substitutes for the craftsmen. The occupational reports in this section are grouped by industry or field of work, rather than by level of skill, since from the point of view of practical guidance that is the most useful grouping. SKILLED OCCUPATIONS Skilled workers or craftsmen are a key group in our economy. They make the machines for our machine age, and the patterns, models, working samples, tools, dies, templates, or jigs without which industrial processes could not be carried out by semiskilled or unskilled workers. They keep things running, too, since they are the repairmen, not only for equipment used in industry but also 167 O C C U P A T IO N A L 168 OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K for the large amount of mechanical equipment and appliances used by consumers— automobiles, household appliances, radios, and many other items. These functions suggest why the skilled occupa tions have continued to grow, and why they offer good employment opportunities to a large number of young people. Moreover, because so many skilled workers are older men, a large number of jobs will open each year as men in the field die or retire. The relative importance o f the various skilled groups has been changing. While the artisan has in some cases been displaced by semiskilled work ers, the repairmen occupations have been growing as the amount of mechanical equipment in use increases. Chart 30 shows that the occupations which characteristically do repair work—the largest single one of which is automobile me chanic— are the second largest group of skilled workers, exceeded only by the building trades. Moreover a great many of the skilled workers in other fields do repair work as their major func tion ; this is true, for example, of machinists, up holsterers, and plumbers, carpenters, and other building-trades workers. The end o f the decade of the thirties found the skilled occupations, many of which are employed in the construction and durable goods industries, severely hit by the depression. Fully 900,000 skilled workers—or 1 out of 7—were unemployed, and another 460,000 were employed in semiskilled, unskilled, and other occupations. In contrast to the situation in the professions, training of new C HAR T 30 M A J O R G R O U P S OF S K I L L E D WORKERS E M P L O Y M E N T , 1940 U N I T E D STATES D EP A RT ME NT OF L A BOR BU REA U OF L A BO R STATI STICS n.e.C.sNOT E L S E W H E R E C L A S S I F I E D « U S BUREAU OF THE C E N SU S TRADES AND I N D U S T R IA L workers in many skilled trades had slowed down to a trickle. Moreover, immigration laws adopted in the twenties had cut off one of the major sources o f the skilled labor supply. By 1940, half of the craftsmen employed were over 41 years of age, and relatively few young men were being trained in all-round skills. War production required great numbers of skilled workers. Employment of craftsmen, fore men and kindred workers increased by over 2 million in the early years of the war at the height o f the factory and cantonment construction pro gram, and then fell off somewhat, emphasis shift ing to the metal trades as munitions production hit its peak (see chart 31). This rapid expan sion of employment—at a time when many skilled men were being called to the armed forces— is re markable in view of the long period required to train craftsmen. It was made possible by recruit ment from among the 1,360,000 skilled workers who were unemployed or engaged in other occupa tions in 1940, by temporary upgrading to craft or foreman jobs of semiskilled and other workers who already had partial training or qualifying experience, and to some slight extent by expansion of apprentice training in the metal trades begin ning at the start of the lend-lease program. As a O C C U P A T IO N S 169 result, many of those employed in skilled occupa tions during the war did not have a fully rounded background in their craft. In some crafts such as tool and die maker and machinist, it was sim ply not possible to expand employment so rapidly and many men in these trades worked extraordi narily long hours during the war. Recruitment of skilled workers for war indus tries was also facilitated by the movement of craftsmen from other industries. Employment of automobile mechanics dropped by about 150,000 during the war, many of them moving to factory jobs where their mechanical background could be utilized in skilled jobs. After the construction peak of 1942 many building craftsmen also moved into factory jobs. In the postwar period, as construction activity increased, employment of skilled workers sur passed the wartime peak by half a million. A p prenticeship programs received great impetus as a result of the desire of veterans for thorough training leading to a skilled trade. From about 20,000 at the end of the war, the number of ap prentices in programs registered with the Bureau of Apprenticeship of the United States Depart ment o f Labor shot up to more than 220,000 by the summer of 1948. More than half the apprentices in mid-1948 were in the building trades, and more than two-thirds of them were veterans. In the long run the place of some craftsmen will be taken by semiskilled workers. But as mechan ical equipment becomes more widely used—in in dustry, on farms, in the home—the need increases for the rapidly growing repairmen occupations. Furthermore, the small nucleus of all-round skilled craftsmen used in developing new equipment should increase in size somewhat as technology advances. In machine shops and printing—two of the major fields for skilled workers in manufac turing—moderate increases in employment seem likely in the long run. Railroad occupations and foundry occupations may not show any significant rise over present high levels. The model-making occupations in industry—tool and die makers, pat tern makers, sample makers in apparel plants, etc.—will, in general, gain in employment only slightly, since a large increase in production and plant employment can usually be achieved with only a small expansion in this type of work. With 170 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK greater use o f semiskilled workers in industry, the number of skilled workers serving as foremen, leadmen, set-up men, lay-out men, inspectors, and similar workers should increase. Finally, with a great backlog of demand, construction employ ment may well remain high for several years, but is not likely to increase significantly above these levels in the long run. The skilled trades offer certain advantages young men should consider seriously. With training and HANDBOOK experience in a craft, a man often has a wider choice of jobs; he may work in different cities or industries; he is able to handle not only the skilled job in the plant but also, if necessary, one requir ing less skill, and he is therefore more valuable to his employer than the one-machine man. This pays off in job security, and usually in earnings as well. Moreover in many plants the skilled man, who un derstands the whole process, is given preference in promotion to a foreman’s job. SEMISKILLED AND UNSKILLED WORKERS More than one-fifth of the workers in the United States are “ operatives,” the census designation for what are often called semiskilled workers. Like all broad occupational classifications this one has within it jobs varying widely in nature of the work, in earnings, and in levels of skill. For example, truck driving, one of the largest occupa tions in the group, calls for skill in driving, knowl edge of routes and traffic rules, ability to make minor repairs, some clerical work, and independent responsibility and judgment. On the other hand some machine operator jobs in industry require only the repetition of a half-dozen different mo tions all day long— reach for a metal blank and put it in the machine, pull the lever, press the button, push the lever, take out the piece of metal, which now has been stamped or cut, and place it on a pile, reach for another metal blank. Such a routine can be picked up in a day and mastered in a few weeks. With some exceptions, such as the truck driver’s occupation, these jobs are generally fairly routine and repetitive. Often they pay fairly well, how ever, particularly when an incentive system based on the amount of production a worker achieves is in use. Frequently semiskilled workers in a large, efficient plant, or one that is represented by a strong union will earn more than skilled workers in inefficient or unorganized plants. The semiskilled worker does not need to invest years of his life in learning his trade. This is a disadvantage in some ways, as was pointed out in the discussion of skilled workers—the worker with less training has less flexibility and is not so valu able to his employer. On the other hand, the semi skilled worker is not wedded to any one occupa tion because of long years he has spent in training for it, and he is therefore more ready to adapt to new opportunities as they arise. Should the chances for employment disappear in one field of work, as often happens when some new process displaces an existing one, it is usually the semi skilled man who most readily writes off his in vestment of time and experience in that field, gets himself another job, and, in a brief period of train ing, learns the new occupation. Too often the craftsmen hang on in the outmoded occupation as long as they can, and longer than they should. In the guidance and education of those who may become semiskilled workers it is important to stress flexibility. In a sense, many a semiskilled worker has a job or a series of jobs, rather than an occupation. His skill should consist not so much in doing one kind of work as in readily learning new kinds in response to his own need to find a new or better job or the needs of industry for an adaptable labor force. Rather than extensive training in a vocational school in one type of work, this person needs some familiarity with many different types—machine shop, woodworking shop, welding, electrical work, etc. He does not need to attain proficiency in any one of these fields, but does need an industrial literacy—a familiarity with the different types of processes and machines so that he can adapt readily to them. The need for adaptability in the semiskilled worker is illustrated by the great increase in em ployment in this field in a short period in response to the needs of the war production program. During the war, manufacturing employment in creased and more new and heavily mechanized industrial plants were built. More semiskilled workers were needed, and over 4,000,000 were added—half as many as were employed in 1940 TRADES AND IN D U S T R IA L O C C U P A T IO N S 171 chine-tool operators. Nevertheless, employment in the semiskilled group, though not as high as at the peak o f war industry employment, is far above prewar levels, and this group of occupations has increased its share of the working population. In view of the long-term trends and the recent developments, it seems likely that these occupa tions will continue to grow, both in numbers and in relative importance. There are still large areas of work in which further mechanization holds the promise of additional employment opportunities for semiskilled workers. These include farming, the movement and handling of material in indus try, and construction. The increase in employment of semiskilled workers will mean relatively fewer jobs for un skilled workers. There are now over 3 million people engaged in unskilled jobs in industry. The long-term trend in this group has been downward relative to other occupation groups, and this trend continued during the war. Workers were drawn out of these jobs by the better pay in other occu pations. Rapid strides in the use of machinery are displacing laborers from the principal work they are called upon to do in many industries: moving materials, loading, unloading, digging and shoveling, etc. Employment in these occupations dropped dur ing the war and increased after the war to above prewar levels partly because of the great amount of construction work being done (see chart 33). The long-term downward trend in relative impor tance will probably continue. (see chart 32). Great numbers of hastily trained welders, riveters, machine tool operators, and as semblers, the largest part of whom were semi skilled, went to work in shipyards, aircraft fac tories, and munitions plants. The number of welders and machine tool operators nearly tripled from 1910 to 1943. After a sharp drop when the war ended, employ ment in semiskilled jobs has again climbed nearly to peak wartime levels. Some workers had to learn new skills in the postwar period; more than 100,000 welders, for example, had to shift to other occupations. In many machine shops where some form of mass production had been introduced during the war, a return to prewar products and methods has meant need for fewer semiskilled men and more all-round machinists and skilled ma Construction Trades Construction work employs the largest group of skilled workers in all industry. In March 1910, over 1,600,000 persons were employed in the major construction trades; in addition a large number of workers were unemployed. As shown in chart 64, carpenters constituted the largest construction trade, followed by painters, plumbers and steam fitters. Most construction workers are employed on new building, but a considerable number work on maintaining and repairing existing structures. I t is easy to see, for example, that many more painters and paperhangers are needed C HAR T 34 M AJOR BUILDING T R A D E S OCCUPATIONS E M P L O Y M E N T , 1940 T H O U S A N D S OF W O R K E R S 600 Carpenters Painters Plumbers,Gas and Steam Fitters Construction Machinery Operators Bricklayers, Masons, etc Electricians, construction Sheet Metal Workers, etc. Construction Foremen Plasterers Structural Metal Workers,etc. Paperhangers Roofers and Slaters Cement Finishers, etc. Stonecutters and Stone Carvers Glaziers UNITED STATES D E P A R T M E N T O F L A B O R BU R E AU OR L A B O R STATISTICS 172 Sm i h : U. S. BU R E AU O F TH E C E N S U S C O N S T R U C T IO N for repairing and. redecorating than for new buildings, since most houses and apartments are redecorated every few years. Because they are engaged in maintenance work, many of the work ers in the construction trades find jobs in other industries. Thus, in 1940 over 20 percent of the carpenters were employed outside the construc tion field in manufacturing, transportation, and Government. While most construction workers are employed by building contractors, or by other firms for maintenance work, a large number are self-em ployed, working directly for property owners on small jobs. Most of these jobs involve maintenance and repair work, but minor alterations and addi tions and small new buildings such as garages are frequently undertaken by individual construction workers. These jobs last from an hour or so to a few weeks. Payment may be by the hour or day, or an agreed amount for the job, with materials provided by the owner, or it may be an over-all price including the cost of all materials. Self-em ployment is most common in painting, decorating and paperhanging, and in carpentry, but is also found in plastering (for repairs on ly), in masonry repairs, and (to the extent permitted by State and municipal licensing requirements) in plumbing repairs. It is impractical for all types of work requiring extensive shop facilities or field equip ment. There are many different types of new construc tion and each has a different set of employment needs for the various construction trades. Resi dential building uses many carpenters, but this trade is less important in industrial plant con struction. The building of roads, airports, and dams may call for many men of certain trades and practically none of others. During 1947, resi dential building ranked first in amount o f new construction, followed by industrial plants and public utilities. However, the relative importance of any type of construction varies from year to year. Like activity in most other durable goods fields, construction work has had its ups and downs, rising sharply in good times, but falling off se verely when business slumps occur. Declines in construction work in bad times may be partially offset by increased expenditures for public works in such periods. During the depression of the 1930’s TRADES 173 construction activity would have been much lower than it was except for the public funds spent on various projects. Construction workers have lay-offs more often than the workers in many other occupations. To a large extent this results from changes in the em ployment needs of individual contractors, since the workers are usually laid off as soon as their particular jobs are finished at a specific building project. Sometimes the worker can get another job at once, but at other times, especially in winter, it may take a while before a new job is found. Construction employment is also affected by seasonal slumps resulting mainly from weather conditions which interfere with outside building work, especially in northern areas. During most years, a good share of the construction workers are unemployed for as much as several months out of the year, and even when employed, frequently have days off. Although workers in construction trades receive relatively high hourly pay, seasonal work and time lost between jobs reduce substan tially their annual earnings. As can be seen in chart 11, page 24, employment on contract construction declined considerably during the 1930’s after averaging 1,500,000 in 1929, and did not regain the 1929 level until the defense boom of 1941. Even though residential construc tion had already been curtailed, the program of war construction for military installations and war-plant facilities carried the volume of con struction in 1942 higher than any previous year, and contract construction employment showed a corresponding increase, reaching a high point of 2.577.000 and averaging 2,170,000 over the year. Following this peak year, construction activity steadily declined during the war. Since the war, there has been a great upsurge in the volume of construction work, although the increases have not come up to some expectations, because of material shortages and other limita tions. The amount spent on construction was at an all-time high in 1947, although the physical volume was below that of previous peak years. The number of workers employed averaged 1.921.000 and reached 2,107,000 in September, the peak month. Despite the retarding effects of higher construction costs, the strong demands for all types of construction should take construction work even higher in the next several years and hold 174 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K it at a high level for some time to come, unless there is a marked decline in general business con ditions. Over the long run, changes in design and tech nological changes should continue to affect the relative needs for the different construction trades. Developments in design, materials, tools, and equipment will also change the nature of work done by individual trades. During the past 75 years, occupations such as carpenters, bricklayers, and plasterers have declined in relative import ance, although actual employment has increased along with increases in total construction activity. On the other hand, newer trades such as plumbers and electricians have grown rapidly since 1900, since most structures built before that time had little in the way of plumbing or electrical installa tions. The individual statements on the various con struction occupations describe the way that an occupation is usually carried on, but because of differences among localities in customary prac tices and in the terms of union agreements they may not present a completely accurate picture of the situation in any given city. On the whole, lines of distinction between the work of the various crafts are most sharp, and specialization within crafts is greatest in large cities and the nearby suburbs, and least in rural localities. In a city or village of 2,500 in a farming community for ex ample, glazing is done by painters, or sometimes by carpenters, rather than by glaziers, and the local bricklayers commonly do cement finishing and sometimes plastering as well. In such places, any uncommon job requiring skill which cannot be picked up while doing roughly related work (such as installation of an elevator, or building of a structural steel bridge) is necessarily per formed by workmen brought in from a larger city. Because of the development of new materials and of new uses for old materials, distinctions be tween the fields of individual trades are in some cases quite detailed and in a few cases have not yet been established to the full satisfaction of all parties. The sections on individual occupations which follow are intended to give a general pic ture of the field of each, but no more; these are not intended as, and are not suitable for use as, a de tailed description or a recommendation of the range or jurisdiction o f any trade. A careful effort has been made to avoid error, but since there are some geographical differences in the distinc tions between trades, it is possible that usage in some localities may differ from that indicated by the examples of work done. C O N S T R U C T IO N TRADES 175 Carpenters (D .O .T . 5-25.110 to .830) Outlook Summary Outlook excellent for at least tlie next several years and probably favorable thereafter. Nature of Work Carpentry is the basic trade in almost all con struction. Carpenters have the biggest share of work in residential building. They play an im portant part in all other buildings such as offices and factories and are used to some extent on many other kinds of construction (bridges, dams, sewers, etc.). Carpenters likewise do a wide variety of less obvious jobs such as building temporary struc tures, concrete forms, scaffolds and platforms, chutes for materials or rubbish, safety barricades, etc. Many carpenters are used for alteration, re pair, and maintenance work, particularly on resi dential buildings. Although a carpenter is customarily thought of as working with wood, he also uses many other materials nowadays. In recent years numerous materials have taken the place of wood in uses where their special nature (insulating quality, lighter weight, or lower cost, etc.) makes them preferable. So the carpenter today finds himself working with insulating board, gypsum board, linoleum, wallboard, plywood, and other such materials. The kinds of work that fall under the heading of carpentry are so varied that although a journey man carpenter may be able to do them all, most carpenters specialize in some particular branch of the trade. The most common are house carpen ters who build the wooden structure for frame and combination masonry and frame buildings. Other specialists, called trimmers or finish carpenters, may do nothing but install millwork (doors, sash, casings, and moldings, cabinets, etc.), and apply finish hardware. In many locali ties, laying hardwood flooring is a recognized specialty. Still another specialization is the con struction of wooden forms for concrete work. Job specialization is most prevalent around larger towns and cities where big building projects are common. In smaller places, the carpenter is more likely to be an all-round craftsman. In fact, in rural areas, it is not unusual for carpenters to do all sorts of building work, including opera tions which in larger places are done by the other building trades. A comparatively large number of carpenters do repair and jobbing work on existing structures, including minor additions and alterations. Such men must have a wide range of skills because of the variety of conditions encountered and the dif ferent types of work to be done. Much of this work is done by individual carpenters working directly for property owners. Where Employed Most carpenters work in the construction in dustry. Others are employed—mostly as mainte nance men—in other fields, such as shipbuilding, aircraft manufacturing, motion-picture produc tion, mining, metal products manufacturing, and hotels. Quite a few go into business for themselves, mainly for repairs and remodeling work. Such workers, commonly paid by the job rather than by the day, are much like small contractors. Some in fact, eventually expand their operations and hire other carpenters for new building construc tion. Others work on their own account only part of the year, hiring themselves out to contractors during the busy season. Training and Qualifications The trade of carpentry is made up of many elements. Among the things that a fully qualified man should know are skillful use of a wide variety of tools; the characteristics of materials, particu larly the commoner woods; and an elementary un derstanding of structural design. He must also possess a thorough knowledge of construction 176 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK operations including the relationship between the work of the different trades, and a knowledge of simple mathematics sufficient for laying out of angled cuts for roof, dormers, and similar fram ing. Also required is the ability to read blueprints, make clear sketches of work to be done, and, when necessary, to work without drawings in making re pairs or additions to existing work. Obviously there is much a carpenter must know, and while a person' reasonably skillful with the basic tools can work efficiently on simple operations, a fully com petent carpenter is a highly skilled man. The customary way to become a journeyman carpenter is to serve a 4-year apprenticeship. An apprentice signs a contract with an employer cov ering his wages, training, and duties. However, it is the union rather than the employer which guarantees his training. The contractor is often unable to give an apprentice steady work. The union, on the other hand, can shift him to another contractor with whom it has an agreement so that his training and wages will not be interrupted. Most contracts provide for at least 144 hours of classroom work a year, covering such subjects as shop arithmetic, simple algebra, and woodworking shop practice. A few training programs enable an apprentice to earn a high-school diploma while lie is completing his apprenticeship. The usual on-the-job part of the apprentice’s training includes learning to use all of the stand ard tools, and the measuring and lay-out devices such as the rule, square, steel square, level, and chalk line. His assignments progress in difficulty from rough simple jobs, such as laying subflooring or simple framing operations, to more complicated work such as making the frame for a complex roof. When his skill is sufficient, the learner ad vances to “ trimming” (the installation of millwork and hardware and the laying of floors). At any stage he has a chance to observe the work of journeymen on more difficult operations, and to see how the individual pieces go together to make up framework of a structure. Emphasis in the training and, to some degree, the sequence in which various parts of the job are learned are of course affected by the types of work which the employer has on hand from time to time. HANDBOOK Although a 4-year apprenticeship is customarily required, many men learn the trade through the “pick-up” method and some eventually become journeymen. However, the union (most carpen ters are union members) does not authorize the use o f “ helpers.” Photograph by U. S. d e pa r tm e n t of La b o r . Carpenter apprentices learn the trade through actual work experience. V e te ra n s w ith c a rp e n tr y ex p erien ce in the serviv e m a y be e lig ib le f o r a d m ission as a d v a n ce d a p p ren tices, o r even as jo u rn e y m e n p r o v id e d th e ir e x p e rie n ce has been sufficient to enable them to d o s a tis fa c to r y w o r k a n d pass the ex a m in a tio n cu s to m a r ily g iv e n b y the lo ca l u n io n at the c o m p le tio n o f the a p p re n tice sh ip p e rio d . S u ch p r o v i sions r e g a r d in g “ p r o v e r s ,” as th ey are o fte n ca lle d , v a ry a c c o r d in g to the p o lic y o f the lo ca l u n ion . Outlook O p p o r tu n itie s f o r n ew com ers to lea rn the tra d e are ex cellen t f o r the n e x t several years, a n d w ill p r o b a b ly co n tin u e to be rea son a b ly g o o d f o r som e yea rs th e re a fte r. T h e d em a n d f o r resid en tia l c o n stru ctio n has crea ted a g re a t need f o r ca rp en ters, C O N S T R U C T IO N who are especially important on this type of work. Other types of new construction which use car penters are also expected to be at very high levels. In addition, there is a large accumulation of re pair work and remodeling to be done. Now that supplies of lumber and other critical building materials show signs of becoming more plentiful, the demand both for skilled men and apprentices will be greater than at any time since the war. The supply of skilled carpenters is still low in many localities. By the time construction ac tivity reaches its expected peak, the need for ad ditional carpenters (new workers) may be well over a hundred thousand. This does not mean, however, that there will be openings for addi tional workers in all localities throughout the country. In some areas the number of available carpenters is adequate for local expected needs; in others, even though more workers may even tually be needed, as many trainees as can be han dled for the time being have already been ap prenticed. Taking the country as a whole, how ever, additional apprentices are still needed in considerable numbers if construction is to reach its expected volume. After the anticipated period of high activity, construction is likely to decline somewhat, reduc ing the need for carpenters, but normal drop-outs from the trade resulting from retirements, deaths (nearly half of the carpenters in 1910 were over 50 years o ld ), and transfers to other kinds of work, will take up most of the slack. This will assure continued employment for those who are already established in the trade. The demand for carpenters exists in all parts of the country. The greatest opportunities, how TRADES 177 ever, are concentrated in large cities and in indus trial areas, primarily in the Northeastern and North Central States. Earnings Because they work in so many different locali ties, there is a wide variation in carpenters’ wages. In April 1948, the minimum wage rate for union carpenters in construction averaged $2.09 an hour in 75 cities throughout the country, but it ranged from as low as $1.50 an hour to $2.90 an hour, de pending on where the carpenter worked. The minimum rates for some of the representative cities are shown below. (In this table and those that follow hourly rates are shown rounded to the nearest cent:) Atlanta, Ga________ $1. 65 Baltimore, Md______ 1. 95 Birmingham, A la___ 1. 80 Boston, M ass_______ 2.10 Buffalo, N. Y _______ 2. 00 Chicago, 111_________ 2.15 Cincinnati, Ohio____ 1. 98 Cleveland, Ohio_____ 2.18 Denver, Colo_______ 1.88 Houston, T ex _______ 2. 00 Indianapolis, Ind___ 1. 98 Jackson, Miss_______ 1. 75 Kansas City, Mo____ 2. 05 Little Rock, Ark____ 1. 63 Los Angeles, C alif___ 1. 90 Milwaukee, W is____$1. 80 Minneapolis, Minn__1. 80 Nashville, Tenn_____ 1. 60 New Haven, Conn___ 2. 10 New Orleans, L a____ 1. 70 New York City, N. Y_ 2. 75 Omaha, Nebr_______ 1. 95 Philadelphia, Pa____ 2. 00 Pittsburgh, Pa______ 2. 25 Portland, Oreg______ 1. 93 Richmond, Va______ 1. 65 St. Louis, M o_______ 2. 20 San Francisco, Calif_ 2. 00 Seattle, W ash______ 2. 07 Springfield, Mass___ 1. 88 Apprentices’ rates are figured at a percentage of the journeyman’s rate, and are increased peri odically so that over the entire period of appren ticeship they average at least 50 percent of the journeyman’s rate. Painters (D .O .T . 5-27.010) Nature of Work Outlook Summary F ie ld is o v e r cr o w d e d a n d o p p o r tu n itie s f o r new w ork ers are lim ited . C o m p e titio n w ill be espe c ia lly keen in re d e c o ra tin g w ork . The painter is a skilled craftsman who paints or repaints houses, apartments, and other buildings. Repainting or redecorating apartments and other 178 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK buildings which need periodic overhauling and maintenance make up most of his work. In the redecorating of interiors, the painting work is usually done by men who do both painting and paperhanging. (See statement on Paperhangers, p. 183.) The painter sets up a scaffold of ladders, trestles, or planks; he then washes or scrapes and sand papers the surface to be painted, using a blow torch, scrapers, and other equipment. He mixes the paint from the basic ingredients, or re-mixes prepared paint, when necessary adding coloring to match a color sample or adding thinner. With a brush or spray-gun he applies one or more coats of the paint. He must have a knowledge of the drying speed, toughness, water resistance, and coloring of different paints, enamels, varnishes, and shellacs. I f he runs his own business, he must obtain contracts, buy supplies, keep records, and figure costs. Where Employed About 80 percent of the painters described in this statement work in the construction industry. The remaining 20 percent are employed in main tenance work in such places as hotels and office buildings or they may work for manufacturers, and do maintenance painting of the plant and equipment. Training and Qualifications A man may learn to be a construction painter through a 3-year apprenticeship. In that case he signs an agreement with an employer concern ing wages, training, and work, and receives a planned program of all-round training while on the job, including at least 144 hours of related in struction in class. Sometimes the painter learns his job by taking courses in a public trade school. Although many workers in the past have picked up the trade in a casual fashion while working as helpers, such a method may not give adequate training. Under an apprenticeship program most of the training is done on the job. In large cities, out side courses are given in either union-sponsored or union-approved schools. In small cities and HANDBOOK towns, local trade schools or correspondence courses are frequently used to fulfill the appren tice’s educational requirements. The usual order of the training on the job includes sandpapering ; preparing and sizing walls; priming of wood work ; outside painting; removing old paint, and preparing surfaces to receive the first coat; match ing, mixing, and harmonizing colors; paint formulas; scaffolding; and the care and use of brushes, scrapers, sanding machines, and other tools and equipment connected with the trade. Outlook The amount of painting to be done on new construction is expected to increase for the next several years. But the largest volume o f painting required will be the redecorating and maintenance work on apartments, hotels, homes, and factories which have already been built. This work, during the next few years, will also be considerably great er than before the war. Despite the prospect of such a large amount o f work, the long run outlook for new workers, con sidering the country as a whole, is not favorable. Taking into account both the qualified journey men and the many workers who entered the trade without thorough training there are a great many painters already in the trade. In the field o f redecorative painting, a large proportion of the painters are self-employed and the scramble for work is very keen. In addition, it is possible that many of the less-skilled painters who were em ployed in shipyards and factories during the war will attempt to set themselves up in the redecorat ing trade, although most are not qualified for such work without additional training. This would further limit opportunities in an already over crowded field. The few painters who have regular work with the hotels, manufacturing plants, railroads, Government departments, and similar organizations have the best chances for employ ment the year-round. Earnings Minimum wage rates specified in union con tracts for journeymen painters in 75 cities throughout the country averaged $2.02 in April 1948, ranging from as low as $1.25 to $2.30 an C O N S T R U C T IO N hour in various localities. The rates in some of the representative cities are shown below: Atlanta, Ga__________$1. 75 Baltimore, Mtl______ 1. 78 Birmingham, A la___ 2. 00 Boston, Mass_______ 2. 00 Buffalo, N. Y _______ 1. 88 Chicago, 111_________ 2.15 Cincinnati, Ohio------ 1. 88 Cleveland, Ohio_____ 2.13 Denver, Colo_______ 1. 75 . Houston, T ex_______ 1. 88 Indianapolis, Ind___ 2. 00 Jackson, Miss______ 1. 50 Kansas City, Mo____ 2. 05 Little Rock, Ark____ 1. 50 Los Angeles, C alif___ 1. 85 Milwaukee, W is____$1. 80 Minneapolis, Minn_1. 80 Nashville, Tenn_____ 1. 63 New Haven, Conn___ 2. 00 New Orleans, L a____ 1. 63 New York City, N. Y_ 2.30 Omaha, Nebr----------- 1. 50 Philadelphia, Pa____ 1. 00 Pittsburgh, Pa______ 2. 00 Portland, Oreg______ 1. 88 Richmond, Y a______ 1. 63 St. Louis, Mo_______ 2. 07 San Francisco, Calif_ 2. 00 Seattle, W ash______ 2. 07 Springfield, Mass___ 1. 88 These earnings represent work principally on new construction. In redecorative painting, where the extent of unionization is not so great, TRADES 179 hourly rates are usually somewhat lower. On many redecorating jobs the painter is self-em ployed and quotes a price for the entire job. Annual earnings for painters are usually among the lowest in the building trades, since they reflect both the overcrowded conditions in the trade and the seasonal fluctuations in employment. Adverse weather conditions may interfere with painting on new construction, and redecorating work is usually concentrated in the spring and fall renting seasons. Where To Learn More About the Trade Additional information may be obtained from the Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators, and Paperhangers of America (A F L ), Painters Build ing, LaFayette, Ind., or from the Painting and Decorating Contractors Association of America, 12 South Twelfth Street, Philadelphia 7, Pa. Bricklayers (D .O .T . 5-24.010 to .140) Outlook Summary Anticipated expansion in new construction and repairs makes the outlook very good for several years. Over the longer run openings will be lim ited mainly to replacement needs. Nature of Work Bricklayers are skilled craftsmen whose main work is the construction of walls, partitions, fire places, chimneys, piers, and other parts of build ings from brick, structural tile, concrete and cin der block, and other masonry materials. They also build blast furnaces and coke ovens, do re fractory work such as lining kilns and industrial furnaces, build manholes for sewers, and build manholes and clay conduit lines for underground utility cables. Bricklaying is precise work. Masonry joints must be planned and laid out so that the courses or rows of brick will come out even with the story heights, the tops of windows, door heads, sills, etc. In addition there must be proper lengthwise allowances for various openings for doors and windows. The bricklayer first spreads a layer or “bed” of soft mortar, then sets the brick (or part of a brick depending on the size of the space) and gently taps it into place so that it will be precisely straight and true. Next, he cuts, or scrapes off excess mortar and applies it to the exposed end or back of the brick. As each row of brick is laid the bricklayer uses a gage line (tightly stretched cord) to be sure that the top and front surfaces of the brick are in line. A t intervals he checks the work for trueness with a mason’s level. Where Employed About 80 percent of all bricklayers work in the construction industry both in new building and repair work. The rest are employed in a wide variety of other industries which require con struction or repair work from time to time. In dustries using furnaces, kilns, etc., which have fire-brick linings require a considerable amount of work to maintain them. Coal mining, iron and steel, crude petroleum and natural gas production, public utilities, glass, furniture and lumber prod ucts, the chemical industries, and Government agencies all use bricklayers to some degree. 180 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK Although public construction programs tend to spread the demand for bricklayers throughout most States, the largest number are located in the northeastern and north central regions. Qualifications and Training A good bricklayer needs a good eye for straight lines and proportions, and a knack for using his hands. He should be able to picture in his mind how the parts of a structure fit together. He needs the ability to understand general science and simple arithmetic, to make rough sketches and drawings, to read blueprints, and to make measure ments. The bricklayer’s trade requires physical endurance to spread mortar and lay bricks hour after hour. Generally, a man learns bricklaying through a formal apprenticeship, and usually 3 to 4 years are required for him to qualify as a journeyman bricklayer. The apprenticeship contract he signs with an employer contains an agreement about w ages, training, and work. But it is the union T which guarantees his training because the indi vidual contractor is often unable to give appren tices a full year’s work. The union, on the other hand, can shift him to another contractor with whom it has an agreement so that his training and wages will not be interrupted. In some areas the training program has been accelerated greatly by brief trade-school courses in the manipulation of tools and materials. The courses have been encouraged by the Structural Clay Products Institute and endorsed by some locals of the bricklayers' union as well as by the masonry contractors’ associations. They are de signed to give within a few weeks’ time, sufficient skill so that the beginner will be useful from the very start of the on-the-job training. Such courses, in addition to their other advantages, may speed up the progress of the apprentice in his apprenticeship training. The apprentice-training program adopted in some cities calls for a definite amount of classroom work—usually from 4 to 8 hours a week—in gen eral vocational and related technical subjects. Such schools are run either by the union or by the local school board. The subjects taken in class include the history o f the trade; the study of brick, terra cotta, and other building blocks; the tools HANDBOOK and equipment of the trade such as trowels, squares, and levels; the characteristics of different kinds of mortar; making various types of meas urements; and making and reading working sketches. Sometimes the student practices mixing mortar, cutting brick, and building walls, or watches such demonstrations in class. In most towns and small cities where there is no classroom instruction an apprentice is dependent for the related technical knowledge on training obtained at the job, or through correspondence courses. Outlook Although many men have entered training for the trade since the end of the war, opportunities will continue to be good for several years. The prospect is for a high level o f construction employment for several years, unless a severe business depression interferes. Eventually, con struction activity will fall off somewhat, just as it always has in the past when the demands for new housing, industrial plants, and public works have been met. Despite the expected drop in the total number of jobs, those who enter the trade should have continued employment, because many of the ex perienced men in the trade are nearing the ages when vacancies because of death or retirement be come numerous. The average age of the brick layers in 1940 was much higher than for many other occupations. The vacancies caused by those leaving the trade will take up any slack resulting from a decline in the need for bricklayers. Although currently there are many job openings for experienced bricklayers, it may be difficult at any particular time to find an opening as an ap prentice in some areas. Only a limited number of persons can be given training at any one time, and in certain localities the industry may already have taken on all the apprentices it can handle for the time being. Earnings Bricklayers’ wages are among the highest in the building trades. Minimum wage rates for union bricklayers in 75 cities throughout the Nation av eraged $2.43 an hour in April 1948, but varied from $1.75 to as much as $3.15 in different locali ties. Bonus payments, now prevalent in many C O N S T R U C T IO N localities, make hourly earnings much higher in many instances. The minimum rates for some of the representative cities are shown below. Atlanta, Ga_________ $2. 00 Baltimore, Md______ 2. 50 Birmingham, A la___ 2.25 Boston, Mass_______ 2.15 Buffalo, N. Y _______ 2. 25 Chicago, 111_________ 2. 20 Cincinnati, Ohio____ 2. 25 Cleveland, Ohio_____ 2. 38 Denver, Colo_______ 2. 50 Houston, T ex_______ 2. 50 Indianapolis, Ind___ 2. 23 Jackson, Miss_______ 2. 00 Kansas City, M o------ 2. 50 Little Rock, A rk____ 2. 50 Los Angeles, C alif___ 2. 38 Milwaukee, W is____$2. 20 Minneapolis, Minn__2. 08 Nashville, Tenn_____ 2. 25 New Haven, Conn___ 2. 40 New Orleans, L a____ 2. 05 New York City, N. Y_ 2. 75 Omaha, Nebr_______ 2. 25 Philadelphia, P a____ 2. 50 Pittsburgh, P a______ 2. 45 Portland, Oreg______ 2. 50 Richmond, V a______ 2. 25 St. Louis, M o_______ 2. 50 S’an Francisco, C a lif- 2. 81 Seattle, W ash______ 2. 37 Springfield, Mass____ 2. 33 In the past bricklayers have experienced considerable unemployment during the winter months. Outdoor masonry work can be severely damaged by freezing weather or heavy rain before the mortar has set and when construction is car ried on in the winter there are usually many days when no bricks can be laid. With the use of pro tective devices such as tarpaulins, contractors can carry on brick work in unfavorable weather, TRADES 181 although at some added expense. In recent years contractors have made increasing use of such equipment and have developed new methods. However bricklayers in northern areas are likely to continue to lose a substantial amount of working time during the winter months in most years and this will affect their total annual income. Apprentices’ wages usually start at 50 percent of the journeyman’s rate and increase gradually during the apprenticeship, reaching 90 percent during the final 6 months. How To Get Additional Information I f you want the address o f a local union which sponsors apprentice training in your locality write the Bricklayers, Masons, and Plasterers In ternational Union (A F L ), 815 Fifteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C. Additional information may be obtained by writing the Apprenticeship Committee of the As sociated General Contractors, 1227 Munsey Build ing, Washington 4, D. C., and the Mason Training Promotion Department o f the Structural Clay Products Institute, 1756 K Street NW., Washing ton 6, D. C. Electricians, Construction (D .O .T . 4-97.010) Outlook Summary There will be continued opportunities for addi tional construction electricians during the next several years. Over the longer run, opportuni ties will be limited mostly to replacement of those who leave the trade. Nature of Work A construction electrician installs electric wir ing and fixtures and hooks up equipment that is run or controlled by electricity such as electric ranges, the controls on heating systems, air con ditioning equipment, industrial machinery, etc. 793996°—19-----13 On a large job, he is given specifications concern ing the materials to be used and drawings which indicate various circuits and the approximate location of panel boards, load centers, etc. On less complicated jobs, such as wiring a small house, the electrician may work from verbal instructions or a simple sketch, along with information on the type and grade of installation wanted. Whether the job is large or small, the electrician must follow the electrical laws of the State, and, unless it is in a small community, the municipal electrical ordinances. For example, under most codes he installs metal boxes wherever there is to be an outlet or switch. I f a conduit system is used, 182 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK the wiring is enclosed in metal pipes (or conduits) connecting the metal boxes. Frequently, instead of conduit systems, wires wrapped with a contin uous strip of steel (“ B X ” ) or with a flameproof fabric are used, but the codes (laws and ordi nances) specify that certain minimum require ments must be met both in the material and the way it is utilized. In such cases he must use his own judgment in placing the outlets and the wir ing and in properly arranging them on the differ ent circuits so that the loads will be evenly dis tributed. Then he installs the fixtures, switches, and various electrical controls. HANDBOOK ants, factories, etc., means extension of existing circuits or installation of new circuits to provide the necessary current and avoid overloading the old circuits. Even the smallest portable items, such as drink mixers at soda fountains, require nearby outlets, and if these are not already in place, they must be provided. Not included among the construction electricians are stage and motion picture electricians, electrical equipment repairmen, linemen, and men working on telephone equipment. Where Employed Construction electricians are principally em ployed along with the other building trades in the construction of residences, apartments, stores, o f fice buildings, and industrial plants, and in re modeling work. Some, however, work for electric utility systems, city or Federal Government de partments, or work in coal and metal mines, manu facturing plants, and large buildings, where they install, change, and maintain wiring systems and electrical equipment. There are also various types of specialists, such as those who restrict their work to the construction and installation of elec tric signs. Employment is naturally greatest in densely populated areas, partly because of the large amount of commercial and industrial wiring. However, small cities, towns, and villages, and even rural areas, are offering more new opportuni ties than previously, and electric service is being extended to more farms. Training and Qualifications Ph otograph by U. S. d e pa r tm e n t of l a b o r . A big part of the electrician’s job is installing electrical wiring. Remodeling work provides a considerable part of total employment, as does also the installa tion of additional business or factory equipment in existing buildings. Commercial remodeling usually means substantial changes in the elec trical system, especially in store modernization. Residential remodeling and modernization also affect the electric wiring. The installation or shifting of electrical equipment in stores, restaur A 4-year apprenticeship or, in some cases, sev eral years as electrician’s helper, is necessary to learn the trade. Picking up the trade informally through employment as a helper was fairly com mon at one time, but is much less prevalent now adays. The union does not recognize helpers; they are, however, still employed in some cases on nonunion jobs. In many localities an electrician is required to have a journeyman’s license for which he must pass an examination showing a wellrounded knowledge o f the job and of State and local regulations. Men who held ratings as elec tricians in the armed forces usually will not qual ify as journeymen without further training, but C O N S T R U C T IO N their past experience may afford an opportunity to enter the trade as advanced apprentices. Outlook For the next several years the outlook is good. The expected high level of construction activity will create jobs for many more construction elec tricians than were employed before the war. Many apprentices have entered training since the war but more workers are still needed for the time when construction reaches its peak. After construction reaches its postwar peak and continues at high levels for a number of years, the rate of activity is likely to decline somewhat and this would reduce the total need for electricians. However, most if not all of the slack will be ab sorbed because workers die or retire from the trade each year. 183 TRADES some of the representative cities are shown be low. Atlanta, Ga------------Baltimore, M d______ Birmingham, A la___ Boston, Mass_______ Buffalo, N. Y _______ Chicago, 111________ Cincinnati, Ohio____ Cleveland, Ohio-------Denver, Colo_______ Houston, T ex _______ Indianapolis, Ind___ Jackson, M iss______ Kansas City, M o____ Little Rock, Ark____ Los Angeles, C alif___ $ 2. 00 2. 25 2.00 2.15 2. 15 2. 35 2. 13 2. 25 2. 05 2. 00 2. 10 2. 00 2.15 1. 88 2. 25 Milwaukee, W is____$2. 00 Minneapolis, Minn_2. 06 Nashville, Tenn-------- 2. 00 New Haven, Conn— 2. 00 New Orleans, La------ 2. 00 New York City, N. Y_ 2. 50 Omaha, Nebr_______ 2.10 Philadelphia, P a____ 2. 38 Pittsburgh, Pa______ 2. 38 Portland, Oreg______ 2. 00 Richmond, Y a______ 2. 00 St. Louis, M o_______ 2.25 San Francisco, Calif_ 2. 25 Seattle, W ash______ 2. 27 Springfield, Mass___ 2.10 Apprentice wages, based on a graduated scale, are designed to average at least 50 percent of the journeymen’s rate over the 4-year period. Where To Get Additional Information Earnings In April 1948, minimum wage rates specified in union contracts for journeymen electricians in 75 cities throughout the country averaged $2.24 an hour. In some localities the rates were as low as $1.50; in others they amounted to as much as $2.50 per hour. The minimum wage rates in Additional information on apprenticeship may be obtained from the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers o f America, 1200 Fifteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C., or from the Na tional Electrical Contractors Association, Ring Building, 1200 Eighteenth Street NW., Washing ton, D. C. Paperhangers (D .O .T . 5-28.100) Outlook /Summary Considerable amount of paperhanging to be done during the next 5 years. However, opportu nities for new workers are limited by the great number of self-trained workers who, while they may be less skilled than journeyman paperhangers, still obtain much of the redecorating work. Nature of Work Paperhangers do decorating of new buildings and redecorating in existing buildings. In re decorating work paperhanging is often combined with interior painting into a single job. In new buildings men usually do only paperhanging. (See statement on Painters, p. 177.) The basic steps in hanging wallpaper are famil iar to anyone who has watched a paperhanger brush paste onto the back of a strip of paper, fold and carry it to the wall, then aline the top edge of the strip and smooth the entire length into place with a dry brush. The less obvious parts of the work are bringing the edges together exactly and matching patterns. In some cases old wallpaper must be removed and repairs made to the wall be fore the paper is hung. Sometimes fabric is used instead of wallpaper. Training and Qualifications It has been customary for a worker to serve a 3-year apprenticeship, or to get equivalent experi ence as a helper, before he can qualify as a journey- 184 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK man paperhanger. However, many workers, entering the trade with little previous training or experience, have set themselves up in business— the amount of capital required is small—or have found employment with smaller contractors with less rigid work standards. Recognizing such practices, some union locals have become lenient regarding the admission of workers with limited experience and often admit new workers subject to oral examination and approved workmanship on the job. Such policies, however, vary from one local to another. Sometimes the paperhanger learns the me chanics of painting while he is in training as a paperhanger or he may pick it up later. Local unions frequently offer night classes where jour neymen in one trade learn the applied techniques of the other. Knowledge of such things as color harmony and decorative theory are common to both trades. HANDBOOK jobs, to restrict entrance to fully qualified me chanics. As a result, competition is likely to be most keen in redecorating work. In the long run, the increasing popularity of painted walls in place of wallpaper may mean less work for paperhangers and further encourage the combining of the trade with that of painting. Furthermore, it has become common for house holders to apply so-called water emulsion paints over old wallpaper instead of having new paper put on. Earnings In July 1947, minimum wage rates for union paperhangers in 75 cities throughout the country averaged $1.92 an hour, ranging from as low as $1.25 in one locality to $2.15 in another. Mini mum wage rates in some of the representative cities are shown below. Outlook Atlanta, Ga________ $1. 75 Baltimore, M d______ 1. 78 Birmingham, A la___1. 75 Buffalo, N. Y _______ 1. 88 Chicago, 111________ 2.15 Cincinnati, Ohio____ 1. 88 Cleveland, Ohio_____ 2. 00 Denver, Colo_______ 1. 75 Houston, T ex _______ 1. 75 Indianapolis, In d___ 1. 88 Jackson, Miss______ 1. 50 Kansas City, M o____ 1. 83 Little Rock, A rk____ 1. 63 Los Angeles, C alif___ 1. 88 The high level of construction activity will cre ate a substantial increase in the demand for paperhangers to work on new homes for the next several years. In addition, a large backlog of redeco rating work, accumulated as a result of wartime shortages of labor and material, will mean a con siderable increase over prewar requirements for maintenance and repair work. But the outlook for new workers entering the trade is not good in spite of the fact that in some areas there are only a few fully qualified paperhangers. The field as a whole is already over crowded with less-skilled workers who have set thenjselves up in the trade before they acquired the training and experience necessary to qualify as journeyman paperhangers. More of such workers are likely to enter the trade since there is no means, particularly in the countless small redecorating In many localities most paperhangers, particu larly those working on redecorating jobs, are not union members, and their wages would tend to be lower than the rates shown above. The earnings of those in business for themselves depend upon the prices they are able to obtain for redecorating jobs. Paperhangers, like painters, usually do not have regular year-round employment. Although they do a large amount of redecorating, the peak de mand for this work usually occurs during and following the spring and fall renting seasons rather than during the winter— the off season for new construction. Paperhangers have compara tively full employment now, but after the present backlog of redecorating jobs is completed it is unlikely that most of them will have year-round work. Where Employed Paperhangers find work on new buildings— houses, apartment buildings, or hotels— and in the periodic redecoration o f existing buildings. Since a house or apartment may be repapered or painted as often as 20 times or more during its lifetime, the amount of work in redecorating far exceeds that on new construction. Minneapolis, M inn__$1. 80 Nashville, Tenn_____ 1. 50 New Haven, Conn.*__1. 80 New Orleans, L a____ 1. 50 Omaha, Nebr_______ 1. 50 Philadelphia, P a____ 1. 75 Pittsburgh, Pa______ 2. 00 Portland, Oreg______ 1. 90 Richmond, Va______ 1. 50 St. Louis, M o_______ 1. 80 San Francisco, Calif_ 2. 00 Seattle, W ash______ 1. 94 S'pringfield, M ass___ 1. 75 C O N S T R U C T IO N Where To Learn More About the Trade Additional information may be obtained from the Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators, and TRADES 185 Paperhangers of America ( A F L ), Painters Build ing, La Fayette, Ind., or from the Painting and Decorating Contractors Association o f America, 12 South Twelfth Street, Philadelphia 7, Pa. Plumbers and Pipe Fitters (D .O .T . 5-30.010 to .410) Outlook Summary Substantial number of openings for apprentices for at least the next several years. Replacement needs will continue to create opportunities there after. Nature of Work Journeymen in the plumbing and pipe-fitting industry install, alter, and repair the piping sys tems (including fixtures and similar parts) for household and other water use, and for heating, steam power, refrigeration, fire sprinklers, indus trial processing, and numerous other purposes. This broad field has been divided among several trades, but about 2 years ago the international union representing all of them adopted the policy o f combining the entire pipe field into a single trade. The carrying out of this policy in any particular locality is decided by vote of the mem bers of the union’s locals there, and in many places (including many large cities) the craft distinc tions are observed by journeymen as fully now as in the past. The plumbing field includes water supply and waste piping with the fixtures themselves and their “ trimmings” for houses, for other buildings and elsewhere (outdoor drinking fountains, for example). It includes many items for special uses such as hospital plumbing fixtures, restaurant sinks, dishwashers, commercial and nonportable domestic washing machines, etc.; gas piping; the public water-supply lines under streets and else where; and a variety of infrequent installations (swimming pools, ornamental fountains, etc.). The general pipe-fitting field takes in hot water and steam heating systems' (including vapor and vacuum systems), high-pressure steam plants for power generation and for steam used otherwise (as for heating of materials in manufacturing op erations), sprinkler systems for fire protection, re frigeration systems for processing and storage of perishables and for air conditioning (but not the ventilating work connected with air condition ing) , lines for compressed air and industrial gases, and piping for industrial processing. This last type of work is used most extensively in oil refineries, chemical plants, and food-processing plants, but occurs to some degree in many other industries. This is a field where adeptness in the Use of tools and in handling of materials, although necessary, is less important than thorough knowledge. A truly skilled workman must be familiar with a wide variety of materials and an extremely wide variety of fittings and specialties, including their particular uses, their limitations or disadvantages, and the proper methods of handling. He must know the operating principles for different kinds o f systems and the operating relationships be tween the different parts. He must be able to lay out the system so that it fits the building where it is being installed, and able to avoid unnecessary damage to other work in any cutting that is needed. For plumbing, he must know the State laws and city ordinances so that his work will pass inspec tion. For a major installation there are separate pip ing drawings showing where all the pipes are to be placed with sizes and the location of valves and other special items, thus giving a complete picture of the installation. A t the other extreme there may be no more than a verbal statement o f the fixtures wanted and their approximate locations. From such information plus measurement o f the building, the journeyman or foreman decides where and how the pipes will go. Then the nec essary pieces are cut to length and assembled with necessary fittings, valves, and other parts. At the end of this “ roughing-in” stage there is usually an inspection for plumbing by the city or State in 186 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K spector, including a test under water pressure. When carpentry, plastering, and the other trades are far enough advanced, the job is finished by in stallation of the plumbing fixtures with their “ trimmings” (faucets, drains, traps, etc.) or the corresponding parts of the heating system (radi ators, etc.). Examples of changes in the work within recent years are the rapid adoption of copper pipe with brass fittings for plumbing, the very recent growth o f radiant hot-water heating, and quite interest ingly the use of copper pipe for some o f the radiant heating installations. Many others could be cited. It is because such changes occur that an over-all knowledge of the field and an understanding of principles are particularly important. Where Employed Most journeymen work in the construction in dustry, primarily on buildings but on other con struction as well. Others work for municipal water departments, other utilities, and in ship building. Commercial and industrial establish ments also employ plumbers and pipe fitters for maintenance work and alterations, and some com panies use them when they carry on their own construction work. They are found in almost every locality; although they are most numerous in large cities, opportunities have been increasingly good in small places because of rising standards in village and farm sanitation. There is at all times a considerable amount of alteration and improvement work, in addition to new construction. This includes home moderni zation, store and office modernization, alterations and installation of new equipment in industrial plants, and preparing business property for new occupants. Soda fountains, restaurants, even dental offices, use equipment which must be con nected to water-supply pipes and waste lines. Since these are usually not at the locations where the equipment is to be placed, they must be extended. Repairs and replacements are more important in plumbing than in many other types of work, and help greatly in providing a sufficient volume of business in small localities. They are the main stay of many o f the small plumbing establish ments. Opportunities for the heating and industrial piping part of the work are more limited geo graphically than opportunities for plumbing. Steam and hot-water heating systems are natu rally uncommon in the warmer parts of the coun try, and in the north are used most in cities having many apartment buildings and nonresidential buildings. Industrial piping is greatest where the industrial operations include processing of fluids. Refrigeration and fire-sprinkler system work is done in industrial and commercial build ings of many different types. Qualifications and Training A person interested in becoming a journeyman should have an interest in and the ability to master elementary physical science, and be skillful at using his hands. He must learn to make clear working drawings, to read architectural and piping blueprints, and to take measurements for laying out his work. Average physical strength is needed, but no more than for several other trades. As in other building trades, at times it is necessary to work under inconvenient and uncom fortable conditions. Generally, the trade is learned through a 5-year apprenticeship. The apprentice signs an agree ment, commonly with a joint committee represent ing the union and the local employers, about train ing, related school instruction, and wages and hours. Under the usual program, all-round train ing is given on the job and an apprentice is likely to be transferred to several employers in order to get experience in different kinds of work. At least 144 hours of classroom work are given a year, including mathematics applicable to pipe w ork; physics, with special attention to liquids and gases, the elements of hydraulics, and heat; me chanical drawing; and theory, which includes ma terials, sanitation and elements o f bacteriology, and piping systems. Also covered in school courses are piping drawing, shop work, and acetylene and electric welding. A new training course covering the entire piping field has been prepared by the international union, and is scheduled for publica tion in the near future. In localities where ap prenticeship is for the separate trades (plumbing, steam fitting, sprinkler fitting, refrigeration fit ting) rather than for the entire plumbing and C O N S T R U C T IO N pipe-fitting field, the classroom training for any o f these is likely to omit the material dealing al most entirely with the other trades. It seems like ly that in localities where the apprenticeship is for the entire pipe field, many of the apprentices on reaching journeymen status will prefer to specialize in a particular type of work whenever such jobs are available. In some localities a journeyman’s license is re quired for plumbing work, obtainable after satis factory completion o f apprenticeship. A master’s license is very commonly required for those in tending to engage in plumbing contracting. Outlook Prospects for the next several years are excel lent, and thereafter the outlook for those already in the trade will continue to be good. A larger than usual number of replacements will be needed during the next 5 to 10 years, to fill openings left by those who leave the trade because of death or retirement. A large part of the journeymen plumbers and pipe fitters are in the older age groups where drop-outs for these reasons are fre quent. By the time construction activity reaches its expected postwar peak, many more plumbers and pipe fitters will be employed in new construc tion than were needed just before the war. There will also probably be a large volume of repairs and remodeling work to bring old installations up to present day standards. Many manufacturing and other industries normally employing plumbers and pipe fitters were shorthanded during the war and need more men. In some localities at any particular time, all the new workers (apprentices) that the industry can handle have already been taken on. In such cases, applicants for apprenticeships must wait until openings again are available, even though at the same time skilled journeymen are in demand in the community. Earnings Minimum wages for union plumbers in 75 d if ferent cities throughout the country averaged $2.20 per hour in July 1947, and ranged from $1.75 to $2.85 depending on the locality. Steam fitters averaged $2.11 an hour and the minimum rates in the various localities ranged from $1.65 to $2.34. 187 TRADES The rates for plumbers and steam fitters in some of the representative cities as of July 1, 1947, are shown in the following table. S team fitte r s P lu m b ers $2. 00 2. 00 2.00 2.00 2. 15 2. 15 2. 13 2.13 2. 05 2.13 2. 10 1. 75 2.13 1.88 2.25 2.00 2.00 1.90 1.90 2.05 2.81 2.00 2.25 2. 25 2. 13 1. 88 2. 25 2.25 2.34 1 93 Atlanta, Ga Baltimore. Md Birmingham. Ala Boston, Mass Buffalo, N. Y Chicago, 1 1 1 Cincinnati, Ohio Cleveland, Ohio Denver, Colo Houston, Tex Indianapolis, Ind Jackson, Miss Kansas City, Mo Little Rock, Ark Los Angeles, Calif Milwaukee, W is Minneapolis, Minn Nashville, Tenn New Haven, Conn New Orleans, La New York City, N. Y Omaha, Nebr Philadelphia, Pa Pittsburgh, Pa Portland. Oreg Richmond, Va St. Louis, Mo San Francisco, Calif Seattle, Wash Springfield, Mass $2. 00 2. 00 2. 00 2.00 2.15 2. 15 2.13 2.13 2. 05 2. 00 2. 10 1.75 2.13 1. 88 2. 20 2. 00 2. 00 1. 90 1. 90 2. 05 2. 30 2.00 2. 25 2. 15 2. 13 1. 88 2.13 2. 25 2. 34 1.93 Apprentices’ wages are increased periodically, Repair work keeps many plumbers busy, even during the slack seasons for new construction. Photograph by U. S. Departm ent of La b o r . 188 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K and over the apprenticeship period, average about half of the journeyman’s rate. Although plumbing work on construction is seasonal, considerable repair and maintenance work makes for more regular year-round employ ment than in most other building trades. Where To Find Out More About the Trade For information on where to apply for appren ticeship in a given locality, write to the United A s sociation of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe-Fitting Industry, Ring Build ing, Eighteenth and M Streets NW., Washington 6, D. C .; to the Heating, Piping and Air Condi tioning Contractors National Association, 1250 Sixth Avenue, New York 20, N. Y., or to the Na tional Association of Master Plumbers, 1105 K Street NW., Washington 5, D. C. Plasterers (D .O .T . 5-29.100 and .200) Outlook Summary Job opportunities for plasterers during the next few years are excellent and additional workers must be trained. Plastering will always be an im portant part of building construction, as far as can be seen at the present time, although there will probably be changes in the relative importance of the different kinds of work. Nature of Work The principal work of the plasterer is the appli cation of several coats of plaster to a suitable base, to produce wall and ceiling surfaces and stucco exterior wall surfaces. In some interior work he produces textured surfaces which get no further decorative treatment, and in more elaborate work he produces surfaces in imitation of stone, marble, or other materials. In some types of buildings he produces curved ceilings and in ornamental work obtains a great variety o f architectural effects using cornices, pilasters, vaulted and groined ceil ings, arches, and relief ornamentation. This occupational statement includes the work of plasterers only, exclusive o f modelers, model makers, casters, and sculptors (engaged mainly in the shop production of relief plaster pieces for building' and other uses). While engaged in closely related work, these are distinct occupations. Employment is primarily in the construction industry, and almost exclusively at the construc tion site. Most of this is in new construction, but plastering is usually needed in extensive alter ations and has become particularly important as a means of obtaining architectural and lighting effects in commercial modernization. Repair jobs in old buildings are restricted in both number and size by the inherent durability of plaster. Training and Qualifications A 4-year apprenticeship, or its equivalent, is needed for qualification as a journeyman. During this period the apprentice is trained in a wide va riety of skills, of which manipulation of the tools is only one part. He must learn the properties and appropriate handling of the different kinds of ma terials and the different mixtures; the characteris tics o f the various backing materials or bases to which the plaster is applied; and procedures for getting true vertical and horizontal surfaces. He must also acquire ability to lay out curved, arched, vaulted, and other ornamental work which (when elaborate) presents difficult geometrical problems. He must learn methods of forming cornices and mouldings in place; of installing shop-made or namental pieces and fastening them securely; and of applying and forming wet plaster onto orna mental pieces to join them smoothly or to add small repetitive figures which cannot be put on conveniently at the shop. The apprentice should become familiar with the work of other trades, such as proper means for supporting overhead and suspended plastering. Standard apprenticeship includes 144 hours of classroom instruction each year, with particular attention to drawing, blueprint reading, and mathematics applicable to lay-out work. Outlook The large volume of construction, which will reach its peak during the next few years, is ex- C O N S T R U C T IO N pected to require many more plasterers than the number employed just before the war. During recent decades the number of apprentices trained was comparatively small, but more than 7,000 have been registered by the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Finishers’ International Association since the beginning of 1946. The long-range outlook is affected by several conditions, some favorable and others not. Many attempts have been made to get less expensive surfacing materials for ordinary walls and ceil ings, and some of the products available in sheet form have been used extensively. It is likely, however, that alleviation of the shortage of plas terers will cut down the use of these other ma terials to at least some degree. Public taste and architectural usage have changed, so that ornamental plastering in large metropolitan buildings (banks, the lobbies and public rooms of major hotels, the lobbies of lead ing office buildings, etc.) is used much less exten sively than prior to the depression. It was in such buildings, in churches, in downtown movie the aters, and in larger Government buildings, that ornamental plastering had its chief market. There is little doubt that such work will always be used to some degree in certain types of build ings, and it seems likely to be used extensively in a few types, particularly some churches. For nonresidential buildings as a whole, however, the trend has been toward simpler lines. While the demand for plastering has been re duced in these directions, it has been increased m others. Within the last 20 years acoustical treat ment has had widespread adoption, and plastering is one of the means by which such treatment is ob tained. During the same period extensive atten tion has been given to lighting, including the effect of ceiling design. This has been most pronounced for retail stores, restaurants, and similar establish ments, but by no means confined to such places. The result here has been a marked trend toward curved ceilings, commonly with recesses for con cealed lighting fixtures or with flush fixtures fitting into, rather than protruding from, the ceiling. This work obviously required many more man hours than would an ordinary flat ceiling for a room of the same size. Curved surfaces as a form o f architectural or decorative treatment, without TRADES 189 special consideration for lighting effects, have also come into increasing use. The use of mechanical equipment in large build ings (especially ventilating equipment, with or without air conditioning) has increased, and seems likely to continue. This means a more diffi cult plastering job, and hence more man-hours, than would be required otherwise. There has also been increasing use of concrete structural floors in small nonresidential buildings where formerly ordinary construction would have been customary. This likewise means a more difficult plastering job on the ceilings than is the case with nonfireproof construction. This trend may be expected to con tinue, and there are already some signs that it is beginning to spread to other types of buildings. Stucco finish on exterior walls has been used widely in certain parts o f the country, and used to at least some degree almost everywhere. Greater use may be expected because of an increased range of finishes and colors that can be provided, suitable to almost any architectural style. Earnings The average of the minimum rates specified in union contracts for plasterers in various localities throughout the country was $2.36 per hour in April 1948. Rates ranged from as low as $1.75 an hour in one locality to as high as $3.15 an hour in an other. The minimum rates for some of the repre sentative cities are shown: $2. 00 Atlanta, Ga Baltimore, Md 2. 25 Birmingham, Ala___ 2. 00 Boston, Mass 2. 25 Buffalo, N. Y 2. 15 Chicago, 111_________ 2. 23 Cincinnati, Ohio____ 2. 13 Cleveland, Ohio 2. 38 Denver, Colo 2. 25 Houston, Tex 2. 50 Indianapolis, Ind___ 2. 15 Jackson, Miss 2. 00 Kansas City, M o____ 2. 50 Little Rock, A rk____ 2. 00 Los Angeles, C alif___ 2. 25 Milwaukee, W is____$2. 00 Minneapolis, Minn_2. 25 Nashville, Tenn_____ 2. 25 New Haven, Conn___ 2. 40 New Orleans, L a____ 1. 88 New York City, N. Y_ 3. 00 Omaha, Nebr________ 2.25 Philadelphia, Pa------ 2. 50 Pittsburgh, P a______ 2. 25 Portland, Oreg______ 2. 35 Richmond, V a______ 2. 00 St. Louis, M o________ 2.25 San Francisco, Calif_ 2. 25 Seattle, W ash______ 2. 37 Springfield, Mass___ 2. 33 Whereas hourly wage nual earnings prior to the war were comparatively low. In part this was caused by a wmrkday usually shorter than was common for other trades (in some localities a 6-hour day in comparison with 190 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK an 8-hour day for most of the trades) and in part by seasonal unemployment. Plastering in a small building is a comparatively brief job, and such jobs tend to be seasonal because of concentrated rental and sales seasons for new apartments and bouses. Work on nonresidential buildings is less seasonal, and when these are sufficiently large the plastering extends over several months. Almost three-fourths of the plasterers working in 1939 had at least 6 months of work, but only a third had work for 9 months or more during the year. HANDBOOK Ho tv To Get Additional Information To obtain the address of a local union which sponsors apprentice training in your locality, write the International Association of Operative Plasterers and Cement Finishers, Fidelity Build ing, Cleveland 14, Ohio. Information on apprenticeship may also be ob tained from the Contracting Plasterers Interna tional Association, 1327 Majestic Building, Detroit 26, Mich. Sheet-Metal Workers (D .O .T . Outlook Summary Substantial number o f openings for appren tices in next several years. Some replacement needs thereafter. Nature o f Work Sheet-metal workers are highly skilled crafts men who make, install, and repair equipment and units fashioned from lightweight metal sheets. Most of the work is for new buildings. This trade should not be confused with the jobs performed by certain types of semiskilled factory workers who produce a wide variety o f articles from sheets or strips of metal, usually by stamping or die-form ing. Most sheet-metal work is making and install ing ducts to be used with ventilating equipment, and more especially with heating and air-condi tioning apparatus. While a considerable number of homes use hot air heating systems which require a system of air ducts, and some houses are equipped for air-cool ing, the great bulk of the work with sheet-metal air ducts is in stores, offices, and other public places and in some industries where ventilating or air-conditioning equipment is essential to the man ufacturing process. Sheet-metal workers also lay roofing—when metal roofing materials are used—and install gut ters and downspouts for rainwater. Metal strips (called flashings) are installed by sheet-metal workers around chimneys and at certain other places, such as those where some part o f the build- 1- 80- 010 ) ing extends above the roof line. Such installa tions, while they are not a major part of what the sheet-metal worker does on new construction, need periodic repairs and replacements because they are exposed to the weather. Some sheet-metal workers specialize in roofing and related work (just as others may specialize in ventilating and heating). Air-conditioning is doubtless the most important current development in the sheet-metal trade, but Most sheet-metal work consists of making ducts for heating and air-conditioning systems. PH OTOGRAPH BY U . S . DEPARTM ENT OF LABOR C O N S T R U C T IO N other products, either introduced or more widely used in recent years, have also increased employ ment. For example, factory-made doors, window sash, frames, partitions, etc., made with sheet metal are being increasingly used in homes and also in public buildings and factories. Sheetmetal workers frequently install such products. Another example is the more specialized sheetmetal work on commercial signs, marquees, and the like for theaters, stores, and restaurants. In many cases the sheet-metal products (air ducts and other units) are made right on the job where they are to be installed. In other cases they are made to order at the contractor’s shop from drawings and measurements taken back on the job site. Large contractors commonly have separate shop crews and field crews. In any case, however, the shop work is a basic part o f the trade. The reason sheet-metal work (especially heating and ventilating) calls for so much custom work rather than factory-made units is that nearly every in stallation requires special lay-outs, and different dimensions for the particular job. Where Employed The majority of the sheet-metal workers are em ployed in making and installing equipment on new buildings, or new installations in existing build ings. A very small number specialize in repair work. Apart from this work on buildings, sheetmetal workers employed in small shops, manufac ture (and install), often to special order, a variety of kitchen equipment such as steam tables, dish racks, canopies, sinks, steel or copper kettles, and similar products for hotels and restaurants. A n other specialization is the coppersmith work in constructing vats and stills for breweries and dis tilleries and hand-made fittings for marine work. But the number so employed is quite small. Sheet-metal workers are also employed in a fairly wide range o f manufacturing industries though there are only a comparatively small num ber in each. Probably the largest number are em ployed in the machinery industries, particularly those making blowers, exhausts, electrical generat ing and distributing equipment, food products machinery, and steam engines and turbines. Here they make and assemble sheet-metal parts on an individual order basis—enclosures and parts for special machinery, industrial ovens, and a great TRADES 191 many other items. This work requires the same skills, tools and equipment as does sheet-metal work for buildings, and is totally different from repetitive operations found in many factories, where one worker stamps out thousands of identi cal parts. During the war, the aircraft and ship building industries employed large numbers of sheet-metal workers. Many o f them were highly specialized and their skills did not, as a rule, com pare to the all-round sheet-metal worker. Training and Qualifications An apprenticeship of 4 or sometimes 5 years is required, including a minimum of 144 hours per year of classroom instruction in pattern drafting, mathematics, blueprint reading, estimating, basic principles of heating and ventilating, and re lated subjects. Workers with several years’ expe rience as helpers sometimes become journeymen, or their equivalent, without serving a formal ap prenticeship. Apprentices must be at least 16 years of age and have an eighth-grade education. However, com pletion of high school or trade school is strongly recommended. Good health, average strength, and agility in working on ladders and scaffolding are necessary, together with a high degree of man ual dexterity, and a strong aptitude for mechan ical work. While it is necessary to acquire skill in the use of tools and to become adept at working from diffi cult positions, these qualities alone are not enough to make a person a thoroughly capable workman. This is a trade where rounded knowledge of the work being done and good elementary knowledge o f the principles being followed are particularly important. Outlook Prospects for sheet-metal workers are excellent during the next several years. By the time the ex pected peak of building activity is reached, there should be jobs both on the construction site and in the shops for many more sheet-metal workers than were employed at the end of the war. In addition, a number of skilled all-round sheet-metal workers will be needed in the other industries men tioned above. For a number of years, both before and during the war, there were not enough ap prentices in training. As a result the present sup 192 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K ply of skilled workers is considerably below the expected demands and many new workers must be trained if these demands are to be met. During the past several years the volume of sheet-metal work has been limited by inadequate supplies o f metal sheets. As a result, in some areas the number of jobs has not been up to expecta tions. Such localities will not be able to use new comers until the sheet-metal situation eases. The long-range outlook is for a continued high level of employment, principally because of the in creased use of sheet-metal work in construction. The rapid growth of air-conditioning is the major development creating a demand for sheet-metal work. The use o f ventilating systems in factories is also expected to expand considerably. Earnings Minimum hourly wage rates specified in union contracts for journeymen working on construction in 75 principal cities throughout the country aver aged $1.99 per hour in July 1947, but they ranged from as low as $1.37 in one locality to $2.50 in an other. Wage rates in some o f the representative cities are shown in the following statement. $1. 65 Atlanta, Ga 2. 00 Baltimore, Md Birmingham, A la— 1. 73 Boston, Mass 1. 90 2. 00 Buffalo, N. Y Chicago, 1 1 1 2. 15 Cincinnati, Ohio____ 1. 90 2. 00 Cleveland, Ohio Denver, Colo 1. 88 Houston, Tex 2. 13 Indianapolis, In d ___ 1. 88 Jackson, Miss 1. 60 K ansas City, M o____ 2. 03 Los Angeles, C a lif__ 1. 94 M ilwaukee, W i s ____ 1. 85 Minneapolis, M in n __ $1. 90 Nashville, Tenn 1. 60 New Haven, Conn___ 2. 00 New Orleans, L a____ 1. 60 New Y ork City, N. Y_ 2. 30 Omaha, Nebr 1. 75 Philadelphia, P a------ 2. 25 Pittsburgh, Pa 1. 88 1. 83 Portland, Oreg Richmond, Va 1. 63 2. 13 St. Louis, Mo San Francisco, Calif. 2. 00 2. 09 Seattle, W ash Springfield, M ass___ 1. 93 The hourly rates are not among the highest in the building trades, but annual earnings are good because sheet-metal workers are more steadily em ployed than most other construction workers. Maintenance and repair work helps to take up the slack during the new construction off-season. Apprentices average at least half the journey man’s rate throughout the apprenticeship period. In other industries where sheet-metal workers are employed, hourly earnings are somewhat lower than in construction. Outside the construction in dustry, however, the work is usually not subject to much seasonal fluctuation. Structural and Ornamental Metal Workers (D .O .T . 4 -8 4 .0 1 0 , .020, .040, and .060) Outlook Summaiy Opportunities are good for at least the next several years for those who want to enter as apprentices. Nature o f Work Structural-steel workers erect the steel frame work for buildings. Best known are the tall buildings common in downtown locations, but structural-steel columns and roof framing are used frequently in one-story factory buildings, and to some extent in other types of buildings. Factories may also require steelwork for crane runways and to support heavy equipment. The men in this trade also put up steel bridges and towers, and in stall or erect certain types of tanks. In some cases they set structural-steel members in place when they occur in buildings not of steel frame design, such as beams over wide doors and windows in masonry walls to support the brickwork above. Structural-metal workers erect steel scaffolding and sidewalk canopies for use by other construc tion trades and for protection of the public, both for new buildings and repair work. The steel scaffolding for exterior repairs to a tall building can be a fairly large job in itself. Other work in cludes the placing of vault doors with their frames, and installing the steel plate work covering the exterior of burglar-resistive vaults. In erecting a steel framework or structure they first take the steel shapes already fabricated by other workers and hoist them into place in the proper order. They then connect them tempo rarily with bolts, accurately aline the structure as necessary, and rivet or weld the parts together. Ornamental iron workers typically handle light C O N S T R U C T IO N er materials, such as those not making up the basic framework o f a building. The name “ orna mental iron” is historical, and is likely to be mis leading. Within recent years a large part of the work, probably more than half, has dealt with other metals than iron and steel—mainly alumi num alloys, brass, and bronze. In some cases the installations are highly decorative, although along much simpler lines than 20 or 30 years ago, while other installations are strictly utilitarian. Ornamental iron workers install all metal parts used in buildings, excluding structural work, re inforcing rods, sheet-metal work and, of course, the metal used in plumbing and pipe fitting and in electrical work. They install metal stairways (which are much commoner than they seem, be cause the treads and platforms are commonly filled with concrete) and the railings and handrails at stairways, balconies, and elsewhere. They put in place solid metal sash and doors and their frames, including the common steel sash used in many kinds of buildings; swinging and revolving metal doors with their frames, and vestibules at the street entrances to office buildings, hotels, etc. Other work done includes doors, grilles, and screens, such as used at bank tellers’ compartments and elsewhere; gratings, metal cabinets of many types, such as display cases and safety deposit Structural-metal workers must often work in high places. Photograph by u . S. d e pa r tm e n t of labo r TRADES 193 boxes; window and door guards, and a very wide variety of other installations. Where They Work Structural and ornamental iron workers are en gaged largely on new construction. They are also employed on alteration work such as insertion of a mezzanine floor in steel-frame buildings,-instal lation of steel stairs during modernization of an old apartment or commercial building, or the ad dition of window guards to an existing building for burglary protection. There is even a little repair work, despite the durability of the mate rials—replacement of members weakened by long neglect of painting, replacement of bridge parts damaged by bad traffic accidents, etc. The structural workers do no fabrication of their materials, beyond reaming out of mispunched rivet holes and other small corrections of shop errors. In general the ornamental workers likewise do no fabrication, although some of the smallest contractors (especially in small commu nities) do not distinguish sharply between shop crews and field crews. Occasionally larger con tractors use some of their erecting crews for shop work to handle peak loads, but this practice is not prevalent because of the substantially higher wage scale for the erecting men. Ornamental iron workers are commonly em ployed within commuting distance of home be cause establishments capable of doing a wide va riety of work can be maintained on a fairly low volume of business and hence are found in many localities. Ornamental metal for an occasional elaborate building in a small city is likely to be provided by a contractor from a larger city, who ordinarily either sends his own crew or sends a partial crew and hires other workers locally. On the whole, more traveling is involved for struc tural iron workers, because most localities have insufficient structural business to support an erection contractor or local crew. Consequently, workers must be brought in from outside to handle the occasional structural work that occurs, such as a steel-frame office or factory building. Workers living in the largest metro politan centers and preferring employment there are likely at times to find that the only vacancies are for out-of-town jobs. 194 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K Training and Qualifications Ornamental-metal work is a highly skilled craft usually requiring 4 years of apprentice training. In structural-steel work—which calls for less skill— a 2-year apprenticeship is all that is cus tomarily required. Men with several years of ex perience as helpers sometimes become journeymen, but, as the trade is highly unionized, few enter without serving a formal apprenticeship. Outlook Employment prospects for the next several years are very good, and although not many addi tional workers will be needed thereafter, the out look will continue to be good for those already at work in the trade. The prospects for structural workers are im proved by developments in the use of steelwork intended for buildings with light floor loads. There has also been increased recognition of ad vantages o f steel construction in some kinds o f one-story nonresidential buildings. The possibili ties of a fairly new type of unconventional design (“ rigid frames” ) are likely to be realized much more fully than in the past. For ornamental metal work the prospects are likewise good. It is admirably suited to recent trends in architectural design; there has been steady progress in its fabrication; and it is likely to be used more extensively in buildings where cost is a leading consideration, because the building can get a greater range of stock and semi-stock parts (such as extruded mouldings). Strictly utilitarian uses are likely at least to be sustained, if not to increase. Some workers will also be needed to replace those who leave these trades because o f death, retirement, or shifting to other kinds o f jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions In July 1947, wage rates specified in union con tracts for structural and ornamental workers (con struction) in various localities throughout the country averaged $2.12 an hour. The wage rates ranged from as 1o w t as $1.67 in some localities, to as high as $2.50 in others. Minimum wages in some of the representative cities for structural workers as o f July 1947 are shown here. In general the rates were the same or only a few cents lower. Atlanta, Ga________ $1. 75 Baltimore, M d______ 2.15 Birmingham, A la___ 1. 90 Boston, Mass----------- 2. 00 Buffalo, N. Y _______ 2.15 Chicago, 111________ 2.20 Cincinnati, Ohio____ 2.10 Cleveland, Ohio_____ 2. 25 Denver, Colo_______ 1. 88 Houston, T ex _______ 2. 00 Indianapolis, In d___ 2.13 Jackson, M iss______ 1. 75 Kansas City, M o____ 2. 05 Little Rock, A rk____ 1. 88 Los Angeles, C alif___ 2.10 Milwaukee, W is____$1. 85 Minneapolis, Minn__2. 00 Nashville, Tenn_____ 1. 88 New Haven, Conn__2. 25 New Orleans, L a____ 1. 88 New York, N. Y _____ ' 2. 50 Omaha, Nebr_______ 1. 93 Philadelphia, P a------ 2. 40 Pittsburgh, P a______ 2. 25 Portland, Oreg_____ 1.95 Richmond, Va______ 2. 00 St. Louis, M o_______ 2. 25 San Francisco, C a lif- 2. 25 Seattle, W ash______ 2.14 Springfield, Mass___ 2. 03 Except for the New York area (where the struc tural wage rate is 25 cents per hour above the orna mental rate), hourly wage rates for structural and ornamental workers are the same or differ by only a few cents. Workers in the erection crews receive much higher wages than do shop workers. However, structural and ornamental workers in construction are not as steadily employed throughout the year as shop workers. Since there is little mainte nance and repair work that they can do during the dull building season, annual earnings usually are low relative to the hourly wage rates. Accidents are infrequent, but in structural work are likely to be quite serious. Safety standards have been greatly improved over those prevalent 25 years ago, and safety measures such as nets and scaffoldings are used much more. Nevertheless, it cannot be expected that accidents will be com pletely prevented. There are occasional falls from high places, likely to be fatal unless stopped by a safety net, occasional accidents from falling ob jects, and once in a long while in past years there has been a catastrophe such as collapse o f the structure. Where To Get Additional Information • For further information about apprenticeship for either o f these trades, write to the Interna tional Association of Bridge, Structural and Orna mental Iron Workers, Syndicate Trust Building, St. Louis 1, Mo., or regarding structural metal work, write to the National Erectors’ Association, 33 W. 42d St., New York 18, N. Y. C O N S T R U C T IO N TRADES 195 Construction Machinery Operators • (D .O .T . 5-23.010 to .6 2 0 ; 5-73.010 to .320 and .510 and .520) Outlook Summary Some job openings during next several years for additional workers. Thereafter, continued em ployment for qualified workers. Nature of Work Construction machinery operators (frequently known as operating engineers in the construction industry) include cranemen, derrickmen, hoistmen, and shovelmen and workers on a wide range of other machinery such as excavators, graders, pile drivers, concrete mixers, paving machines, etc. Much of such equipment is used to lift and move heavy and bulky materials on construction sites, but other machinery performs special jobs which in the past were done by hand labor. For example, in building a highway, bulldozers, pow er shovels, scrapers, and graders do a much faster job of clearing, excavating, and grading the rightof-way than the gang of common laborers for merly used. Likewise the concrete is mixed, placed, leveled and smoothed by machine. I f a sewer is to be installed, a trench-excavating ma chine or ditch digger may be used to scoop out the dirt, the sewer tile lowered into place by a crane, and the dirt filled back in by dragline or a bulldozer. The workers are often called after the machines which they operate such as cranemen, hoistmen, shovelmen, bulldozer operators, etc. The name does not mean that the worker cannot handle other construction machinery, even though he is gen erally specially skilled and prefers to work on one or two kinds of equipment. A capable oper ator during the course of his experience becomes efficient in handling several kinds and can learn to operate others within a rather short time. Where Employed Some of the same machinery used in construc tion is also employed in other industries, such as metal mining, strip mining o f coal, quarrying, and shipbuilding. These operations are possibly the most frequent users— outside of the construction industry—o f power shovels, hoists, cranes, der ricks, and other similar equipment. But equip ment of this general type is also used in many mills, foundries, and factories where heavy and bulky materials need to be moved. I f the installa tion is more or less permanent, the machinery, such as a derrick or crane, often operates on perma nently installed rails. While the machinery used in other planes is quite similar and often identical to that used on construction, it may differ in some features, being specially designed for the specific work. Most im portant, however, is the fact that the kind of work going on in a steel mill or a factory is entirely different from construction activity, and the ma chinery operator must know enough about the nature of the work where he is employed to carry out his part of the job without delay and con fusion. Thus a man experienced in operating construction machinery could not step into a job operating an overhead crane in a foundry until he had a chance to learn how cranes were used in the foundry processes. Training Learning how to operate such equipment is usually quite informal and generally accomplished on the job. Because of wide differences in com plexity of operation and degree of responsibility, the newcomer on some equipment can learn to take over entirely on his own in a few weeks or months while other types of equipment require a much longer time. Apprentice programs have been in augurated in some localities in the past few years, but apprentice training for most types of construc tion-machinery operators has not been widely utilized. Many veterans received training on such equip ment in the armed forces and may find their skills directly transferable to civilian jobs. Additional on-the-job training may be necessary, in some in stances. 196 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K Outlook A large number of power-equipment operators will be needed for the next several years. Most of the demand will come from the construction indus try where activity will call for many more workers than are available at present. In addition, the producers of iron and steel, machinery manufac turers, foundries, sawmills, mines, and other heavy industries which employ cranemen, derrickmen, hoistmen, and shovelmen must be considered. While these other industries are expected to em ploy a few more operators than they now have, some openings will continue to occur. After a number of years at peak rates of ac tivity, the demand for power-equipment oper ators on construction may drop somewhat, but re main at a relatively high level. An encouraging feature of the outlook is the rapid development over a number of years, of machines intended especially for comparatively small jobs. This technological advancement, which made rapid strides during the war, has meant the use of ma chinery and employment of operators for work which would have been done by hand not many years ago. Other industries using such operators will continue to need about as many as at present. Earnings The minimum wage rates for union workers on construction equipment in 75 selected cities, dur ing July 1947, ranged from $1.63 to $2.88 an hour for cranemen and derrickmen; from $1.25 to $2.75 an hour for hoistmen, and from $1.50 to $2.88 an hour for shovelmen. The operators on less com plicated machinery and equipment usually have lower wage rates than the ones listed above. How ever, because of the large difference in wages from city to city, a worker on a piece of equipment which pays the highest wages in that area may earn less than a worker on one of the lower paying jobs in another vicinity. For example, bulldozer oper ators working under union contracts in Cleve land, Houston, and Milwaukee made at least $2 an hour, while shovel operators in Tampa had a minimum o f only $1.50. Then too, wages often vary even for the same job depending on the size of the machinery. To illustrate, in many locali ties operators o f concrete mixers are paid differ ent rates according to whether the mixer capacity was under or over five bags. It is evident then that many factors such as the locality, the kind of equipment, and its size, and frequently the experi ence of the operator, go into the determination of the wage rate. Operating similar equipment on jobs in other industries, usually does not pay as much per hour as it does in construction, but steadier work on such jobs often makes the annual income con siderably higher. Glaziers (D .O .T . 5-77.01C) Outlook Summary Job openings in the next several years for only a few additional workers. Long-range oppor tunities are limited to replacement needs. Nature of Work Glaziers install all types of glass,, although not in all places where glass is used. In many local ities the largest single part of their work has been the installation o f plate glass in store windows and for other uses. They also install ordinary window glass (sheet glass) in the windows and doors of houses, apartments, and business or fac tory buildings, put wire glass in skylights and fire-resistant windows, set in mirrors when these are not already mounted in a frame, and install any unusual items such as preassembled stained glass or leaded glass panels. Since it became available about 25 years ago, the glazier has installed structural glass (a non transparent plate glass, usually polished on one surface only, made in a number of colors) as an ornamental surfacing on the exterior of buildings (usually for stores, above and below their display windows). Glaziers install glass block under some condi tions, but these are used mainly in exterior walls, C O N S T R U C T IO N where they are set in mortar by bricklayers. Ordinary glazing work consists of cutting the glass to size (except where stock sizes fit without cutting, which is commonly the case with steel sash),.spreading a bed o f putty around the edges o f the opening, pressing the glass into place, fast ening it with wire clips pressed into small holes in steel sash or with triangular metal points driven into the edge o f wood sash, and then placing and beveling a strip of putty on the outside to keep out moisture. Plate glass, commonly cut to size at the shop rather than on the job, is held in a special supplementary frame built into the store front and partially disassembled for the removal and replacement of glass. In many localities the wood sash and doors used in ordinary residential building are glazed at the millwork factory, by factory workers rather than glaziers. This is much less practical for steel sash, because of greater difficulty in protection during transportation, handling, and installation. Even when both are glazed at the site, steel sash is likely to mean more work for glaziers than wood sash because of the customary division into a num ber of small openings. While each of these can be glazed rapidly, in total they require more time than would a two-pane wood window having the same total glass area. In small communities glazing work is frequently handled by “ combination” men who also do paint T ing and paperhanging. But in large cities it is the custom to use separate men for glazing, espe cially for plate glass and structural glass installa tions, which require much more skill than the usual glazing of windows, skylights, etc. Training Glazing is a skilled craft customarily requiring 3 years of apprentice training. In most areas the trade can be entered only by way of formal ap prenticeship but in some localities helpers with several years of experience may qualify and be admitted to the trade as journeymen. Where Employed A few glaziers are employed in the manufacture of glass, and in various industries as maintenance workers. The great majority, however, work in 793996°—49---- 14 TRADES 197 new construction or for contractors who install or replace commercial glass (store fronts, etc.). Outlook The high level o f construction activity which is expected to continue for at least the next fewr years will mean a substantial increase in the de mand for glazed products. There is a definite trend toward the use of more glass in residential building. To the extent that the sash comes pre glazed from the factory this will not increase the demand for glaziers. Where steel sash is used or where large plate glass windows are to be installed glaziers will be needed. There has been, in recent years, a very marked development of the use of glass in commercial buildings, especially retail stores. Store modernization has often been cen tered around improved store windows which in volves a completely new glass installation. Structural glass will also be used more widely than before. Keplacement o f store windows broken by windstorms or other accidents is, of course, a yearround employment source for glaziers. There is a present need for additional skilled workmen, be cause only a few apprentices have been trained within recent years to make up for those who died or retired. In the longer run a few additional workers may be added to this relatively small oc cupation, but most o f the job openings will be to replace workers who drop out of the trade. Earnings The minimum wage rates for union journey man glaziers in 75 cities throughout the country averaged $1.90 an hour in July 1947, ranging from as low as $1.25 in Jackson, Miss., to $2.50 in New York City. Minimum wage rates for some o f the representative cities are shown below: Atlanta, Ga__________$1. 63 Baltimore, M d______ 1. 75 Birmingham, A la___ 1. 63 Buffalo, N. Y ________ 1.70 Charleston, W. Y a___ 1. 68 Chicago, 111_________ 2.25 Cincinnati, Ohio____ 1. 90 Cleveland, Ohio_____ 2. 00 Houston, T ex ________ 1.75 Indianapolis, In d___ 1. 88 Jackson, Miss_______ 1. 25 Kansas City, Mo____ 2. 00 Little Rock, A rk____ 1. 50 Los Angeles, C alif— 1.84 Milwaukee, W is____ $1. 85 Minneapolis, Minn__1. 55 Nashville, Tenn_____ 1. 43 New Orleans, La____ 1. 50 New York City, N. Y_ 2. 50 Omaha, Nebr________ 1.55 Philadelphia, Pa___1.93 Pittsburgh, P a______ 1. 82 Portland, Oreg_____ 1. 82 Richmond, Y a______ 1. 60 St. Louis, M o________ 2.04 S’an Francisco, Calif_ 1. 88 Springfield, M ass___ 1. 88 Mechanics and Repairmen Automobile Mechanics (See D .O .T . 5-81.010, .120, .420 and .510) Outlook Summary Opportunities for skilled mechanics very good now and likely to remain so for next few years. Apprenticeship and other training opportunities decreasing. Long-run employment trend slowly upward. Nature o f Work Automobile mechanics do repair work on pas senger cars, busses, and trucks. They may be either general mechanics or specialists such as auto electricians, carburetor experts, and body repairmen. Specialists other than body repair men are usually mechanics with all-round knowl edge of automotive repair who have concentrated upon one aspect of the work. Body repairmen, as a rule, are skilled only in reconditioning of fend ers and bodies; they do not need and generally do not have knowledge of the engine and related parts. Where Employed Most mechanics work in service departments of car and truck dealers or in independent repair garages. Smaller numbers are employed in ga rages of transportation companies and other large firms which service their own fleets, or in shops specializing in such work as battery and ignition, wheel and axle, and brake repair. Some are em ployed in gasoline filling stations. Many are in business for themselves, usually with the help of one or more hired mechanics. There are auto mechanics in all parts o f the country, including small rural communities. The greatest concentration, however, are in States with the highest numbers of motor vehicles— Califor 198 nia, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Texas, Michigan, and New Jersey. How To Enter The best way to learn the trade is to serve a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship. Such apprentice ships and also other on-the-job training plans pro viding less thorough preparation have become fairly common since the war. Before that, new workers generally had to start out in such jobs as helper, greaser, or washer, and gradually pick up a knowledge of the trade. Many people still enter the trade in this way. Those who do so should, if possible, supplement their work experience with trade-extension training in related technical sub jects. They should also try to get a broad knowl edge of the construction and function of all parts of a car and of different types and makes of motor vehicles, to help in competing for jobs or business later on. Veterans introduced to the trade in the armed forces generally need further training for civilian jobs, since most armed-forces experience in auto mobile maintenance is limited to one narrow spe cialty. Often, these men can obtain advanced status as apprentices. Young people under 18 should, if possible, com plete at least 2 years of high school before begin ning on-the-job training or entering a voca tional school. Courses in English, general sci ence, physics, and mathematics are particularly valuable. Outlook Employment of auto mechanics has been rising sharply during the past 2 years, as experienced M E C H A N IC S AND workers have returned to the trade from the armed forces and war industries and some new mechanics have completed their training. The number working today is greater by a good many thousand than in 1940, 'when about 377,000 were employed. Demand for repair services has gone up still more rapidly, however; not only is the average age of cars much higher (in 1946, it was 9 years, as against 5.5 years in 1941) but the number of motor vehicles in use exceeds prewar levels. Skilled all round mechanics are in great demand, and those with business ability may still find favorable op portunities to open their own shops. However, so many workers, especially veterans, have recently entered training that apprenticeship and other training opportunities are becoming less and less plentiful. Ph otograph Automobile mechanics doing a by U. S . d e pa r tm e n t major overhaul job block. o f labo r 199 slow. Most job openings will come from turn over, which creates thousands o f vacancies in the trade each year. Earnings and Working Conditions Class A mechanics had average straight-time pay of about $1.60 an hour in July 1947, accord ing to a survey of independent general repair shops and dealer-service departments in 32 large cities. Average hourly pay ranged from $1.24 in Provi dence, to $2.05 in Detroit. For less skilled, class B mechanics, average straight-time hourly earnings were $1.15 in the 32 cities, ranging from 78 cents an hour in NewT Orleans to $1.62 in Cleveland. Automobile electricians earned more than the class A men ($1.75 an hour, on the average); body re pairmen made still more (about $1.80 an hour). In general, wage rates were substantially higher in the Pacific coast and Great Lakes cities than in other regions. Within cities, pay varies widely, de pending upon the individual’s skill, the size and location of the shop and, especially in* shops hav ing incentive wage plans, the volume of business done. Earnings in small rural towns tend to be considerably lower than in cities. In the southern cities surveyed in mid-1947, the usual workweek was 48, 50, or 54 hours. In prac tically all the cities in other parts of the country, it was 40 or 44 hours. Most repair shops in large cities give their mechanics vacations with pay. Many pay them for holidays. Work is fairly steady throughout the year. Unionization is not very widespread among me chanics, taking the country as a whole. The re gion where they are most highly organized is the west coast, but there is some unionization in other parts of the country, particularly in large cities. on a cylinder In the next few years, the number o f new cars manufactured is not expected to be suffi cient to meet the backlog of replacement demand, and the average age of cars in use will continue to be high. This factor, plus further growth in the number of cars on the roads, will keep demand for repair work at a high level and will probably cre ate some further employment opportunities for mechanics. Over the long run, employment will probably continue to rise, assuming continuing high levels of business activity, but the gains will be R E P A IR M E N Where To Go for Further Information Employment Outlook for Automobile Mechan ics. Bulletin No. 842. U. S. Department of La bor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1945. Washing ton : U. S. Government Printing Office, 1945. Price 10 cents. U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Establishing and Operating an Automobile-Repair Shop. Indus trial (Small Business) Series No. 24. Washing ton : U. S. Government Printing Office, 1946. 200 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K Diesel Mechanics (D.O.T. 5-83.931) Outlook Summary Employment opportunities for new workers or those who have only specialized Diesel-engine training will be greatly limited because most job openings go to mechanics with general experience in engine servicing. Prospects for experienced engine mechanics with knowledge of Diesel main tenance are highly favorable, both during the next few years and over a longer period. Nature of Work Diesel-engine mechanics maintain and repair Diesel engines. Their duties include diagnosing engine trouble, disassembling the engine, replac ing or repairing defective parts, reassembling the engine, and adjusting the fuel and air valves. The Diesel engine, which is almost always oilfueled, is similar to the gasoline (or carburetor) engine in many respects. From the point of view of the mechanic, the essential difference between the carburetor engine and the Diesel engine lies in their different methods of ignition. The Diesel engine has no electric ignition system or carbu retor such as is found in the gasoline engine, but has an oil-injector system and fuel pumps, with which the mechanic must be familiar. However, the basic stationary and working parts are similar in both engines. As a result, Diesel-engine main tenance is usually carried on by workers who are employed as engine mechanics rather than as spe cialized Diesel mechanics. For example, Dieselpowered busses, trucks, tractors, and construction machinery are usually maintained by automobile or tractor mechanics, and railroad machinists generally repair Diesel locomotives. Training and Qualifications Most mechanics who repair Diesel engines have had training and experience on other engines. Qualifications for Diesel maintenance jobs vary among industries. Mechanics employed in serv icing and repairing Diesel locomotives are drawn from among railroad machinists, who are usually required to serve a 4-year apprenticeship. Ma rine engineers, who are in charge of the operation and maintenance of Diesel engines on ships, must be licensed by the United States Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation. Experience in the engine departments of ships and a written exami nation are among the chief requirements for a marine license. Mechanics who service Diesel engines in the vehicular field, including trucks, busses, tractors, and construction machinery, gen erally are gasoline-engine mechanics who have learned how to repair Diesel engines. There are a number of schools which provide instruction in Diesel engine repair and maintenance. Such training is most valuable when it supplements ex perience in gasoline-engine maintenance. Those without actual experience who take courses in Diesel theory and practice will find it difficult to qualify directly for a job as Diesel mechanic. Where Employed Diesel maintenance jobs are found in a wide variety of fields that use Diesel engines. Among the more important sources of employment are bus lines, trucking companies, railroads, ships, electric power plants, large farms, logging camps, marineengine repair establishments, and large buildings and factories. Garages and firms that service Diesel tractors and construction machinery also have Diesel repair jobs. Outlook D ie se l-e n g in e p r o d u c tio n in crea sed g r e a tly d u r in g th e w a r, a n d all in d ica tio n s are th a t D iesels w ill b ecom e even m o r e w id e ly used. M o s t o f th e n ew lo co m o tiv e s o rd e r e d b y th e ra ilr o a d s are D ie sels ; m o re D ie se l tru ck s a n d busses are o n th e h ig h w a y s ; a n d th ou sa n d s o f D ie se l tr a c to rs are s o ld to fa r m e rs a n n u a lly. T h is p o in ts to a co n tin u e d in crease in th e n u m ber o f D ie se l m a in ten a n ce jo b s, w h ich w ill g o to m ech a n ics, f o r a n u m b er o f y e a rs at least, w h o a lre a d y h av e ex p e rie n ce in r e p a ir in g o th e r ty p e s o f engines. F o r e x a m p le , a co m p a n y M E C H A N IC S AND changing over to use of Diesel engines will usually assign experienced mechanics already on its pay roll to service the Diesel equipment, and give them the slight retraining necessary. Other companies who are filling expansion needs with Diesel en gines will hire experienced engine mechanics wherever possible. Those with specialized Diesel training acquired in schools, but without engine repair experience will be at a disadvantage. In ad dition there are many fields in which Diesel em gines are used where seniority rules are observed so that engine mechanics with the longest work experience have the first choice when Diesel maintenance job openings appear. Eventually, as Diesels come into greater use, on*the-job training opportunities for inexperienced applicants may become more common. Diesel en gines are likely, however, to continue to be but a very small proportion of all engines in use. Un less unexpected developments occur, they will not R E P A IR M E N 201 be used to any appreciable extent in passenger automobiles. Earnings Because Diesel servicing is usually considered as part of a broader job, and not a separate and dis tinct field, information on the earnings of Diesel mechanics as such is generally not available. The earnings of automobile mechanics are probably typical o f those of many Diesel mechanics. In July 1947, class A automobile mechanics employed in large cities, had average earnings of about $1.60 an hour, excluding premium pay for overtime work. Where To Get Additional Information Employment Opportunities for Diesel-Engine Mechanics (Bulletin No. 813). U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1945. 10 pp. 5 cents. Superintendent of Documents, Washing ton 25, D. C. Industrial Machinery Repairmen (D.O.T. 5-83.641) Outlook Summary Where Employed Long run prospects are for the gradual increase in employment. Replacement needs, however, will provide most of the openings for new workers. These workers are employed in almost every type of industrial plant which uses any great amount of machinery or equipment. Many indus trial machinery repairmen are employed in metal working establishments including plants making automobiles, electrical equipment, iron and steel products, and machinery. Other groups work in non-metal-manufacturing industries such as textile mills, chemical plants, and paper and pulp m ills; several thousand are employed in coal and metal mining. Because industrial machinery repairmen do maintenance work in such a wide variety of indus tries, they are employed in every section of the country. These workers are concentrated, how ever, in the principal industrial regions including Michigan, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, New York, and California. Nature of Work Industrial machinery repairmen, often called maintenance mechanics, maintain and repair machinery and other mechanical equipment in all types of industrial plants. Their duties include examining the machinery to determine cause of trouble, dismantling machinery, repairing or re placing defective parts, reassembling machinery, and making necessary adjustments for efficient operation. Often some of the duties of the mill wright in the moving and assembling of machin ery and equipment are included. Maintenance mechanics usually specialize in the type of machin ery or equipment used in the industry in which they are employed, and generally are required to have a knowledge of the operation of the machines which they repair. Training and Qualifications The amount o f skill and training required for industrial machinery repairmen varies widely 202 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK with the type of machinery and equipment in the plant. Training is usually obtained on the job, particularly since workers often specialize on one type of equipment. In many plants, machinists or machine operators are transferred to the main tenance department to do this job; in other plants inexperienced workers are hired as helpers and learn the job while working. A 3- or 4-year ap prenticeship may be required by some firms. Outlook During the next few years and also in the longer run there should be a small number of opportu nities each year for new workers to enter this field. The growing mechanization of industry is expected to gradually increase the need for maintenance mechanics to keep production equipment in work ing order. However, most of the openings for HANDBOOK new workers will result from the need to replace persons who switch to other jobs, retire, or die, rather than from any increase in employment. Earnings Industrial machinery repairmen are generally among the best paid maintenance workers. Earn ings for these workers vary considerably among industries. In October 1946, maintenance me chanics employed in the machinery industries (except electrical machinery, machine tools, and machine tool accessories) in large cities had aver age straight-time hourly earnings of $1.37. In independent ferrous foundries during the same period they averaged $1.25 an hour. Since the latter part of 1946, industrial machinery repair men have had wage increases in many plants. See also Millwrights, page 286. Airplane Mechanics (D.O.T. 5-80.120 and .130) Outlook Summary Employment prospects good for skilled mechan ics between now and 1950; also rising number of openings for apprentices. Outlook still more fa vorable in longer run, on basis of present de fense plans. Duties Air-line mechanics are assigned either to line maintenance or to overhaul work. Line-main tenance men are mostly all-round aircraft and en gine mechanics. They service and inspect the air liners and their power plants and instruments, and make minor repairs and adjustments. When an engine or other part has to be sent to the main over haul base for major repairs, they remove it from the plane and install new or overhauled equipment in its place. Mechanics at the main base usually specialize in engine or airplane overhaul or in some other di vision of the work, such as overhaul of electrical equipment, radio servicing, instrument work, painting, or upholstering. In general, the larger the base, the greater is the specialization of work. Outside the air lines, most mechanics do servic ing and inspection work roughly comparable to that of the air-line line-maintenance men; few are in shops which handle overhaul work. The planes which these mechanics service are, as a rule, very much smaller than air liners; often they have only a few comparatively simple instruments, no radio, and no elaborate propeller mechanism. However, a single mechanic usually has to do the entire serv icing job with little supervision, and has to be able to work with many different types of planes and engines. It is estimated that one good mechanic and a helper can take care of the line-maintenance requirements of 8 to 10 light planes, if the work is properly organized. Where Employed Easily half of all mechanics work for the 28 scheduled air lines engaged in interstate and foreign commerce. Of the remainder, by far the greatest number are employed in fixed-base oper ations (a term which is often used to refer to the great variety of commercial and industrial flying services, flying and ground schools, and independ- M E C H A N IC S AND R E P A IR M E N 203 when not a definite requirement. Experience in automotive repair or other mechanical work is also helpful. In addition, it is customary for ap prentices to own a sizable kit of tools. Mechanics coming out of the armed forces generally need some retraining for licenses and for jobs above the apprentice or helper level. Most air lines require a generally rigid jjreemployment physical exam ination, though waivers are allowed in some* instances. The line of advancement is to such positions as lead mechanic, crew chief, shop foreman, chief mechanic, and, finally, supervisory and execu tive positions in maintenance departments. After some additional training, radio specialists may become ground or flight radio operators and ad vance in these fields. Outlook An engine mechanic reassembling an air-line engine which had been torn down for overhauling. ent repair shops) of which there are about 5,000 in all parts of the country. Some men operate their own small repair shops, with or without the help of hired mechanics. Other employers are Gov ernment agencies and aircraft factories. Mechanics are employed in more different parts of the country than most other types of aviation workers. However, large numbers of all-round mechanics and almost all specialists work at the main overhaul bases located in 55 different cities. Qualifications To qualify as a skilled mechanic or specialist, a 4-year apprenticeship or its equivalent is usually involved. For many jobs, a CAA mechanic cer tificate with an aircraft mechanic “ A ” or aircraft engine “ E ” rating or both is legally required. The certificate system may be extended to provide for special ratings for radio and electronics mechanics and possibly other types of specialists not at present covered. In competing for apprentice jobs, applicants will find higli-school or trade-school education— including such subjects as mathematics, physics, chemistry, and machine shop—a great advantage, Continued growth of air-line traffic and in- creased activity in other branches of aviation will make for expanding employment of mechanics both in the near future and over the long run. In early 1948, well over 20,000 mechanics were em ployed, exclusive of those in aircraft plants, ac cording to a rough estimate. By 1950, jobs may be half again as numerous in the transport seg ment of the industry alone, provided that general economic activity remains at a high level. A far greater expansion will occur in aircraft construc tion and related activities, stemming from the 70group A ir Force program legislated in May 1948. Hiring will soon become sufficiently heavy to cut down considerably or even wipe out the surplus of applicants which has existed in many parts of the country during the last 2y2 years. There is, however, a great reservoir of potential apprentices and journeymen, including men now working as helpers, some of the tremendous num ber of veterans who did mechanics’ work in the military and naval air forces, and other groups. In 1947 alone, more than 3,000 men finished me chanic training in CAA-approved schools, and upward of 10,000 were taking courses at the end of the year. Large numbers will continue to be trained each year. For these and other reasons, serious shortages of full-fledged mechanics and apprentices may not develop at least in the next year or two. 204 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K In the longer run, virtually all qualified jour neymen and peak peacetime numbers of appren tices should be able to obtain positions, until de fense plans affecting air power are significantly altered. Highly experienced and skilled men will be in an extremely favorable position reminiscent of wartime, with no competition in job seeking and excellent chances for advancement. Specialists, motably those who are also qualified for general “ A ” or “ E '5 work, will be in particular demand, especially as the manpower situation begins to tighten. Earnings and Working Conditions For most newly hired air-line mechanics and specialists, the starting rate of pay was upward of $1.35 an hour in early 1948. Wages went as high as $1.80 or more for men with several years’ service. Mechanics in fixed-base operations tend to make as much as or more than air-line me chanics, according to very limited data; the pro portion of licensed men, particularly “A ” and “ E ” men, is much higher in fixed-base operations than with the air lines. Salaries of CAA inspectors range from about $2,800 to well over $6,000 a year. The air lines usually give their men 2 weeks’ vacation with pay. CAA employees, like most other Federal personnel, receive 26 days of paid annual leave per year. Mechanics are covered by union agreements on practically all air lines. Several different unions are involved—the International Association of Machinists (Independent ) ; the United Automobile Workers (C IO ) ; and the Transport Workers Union (C IO ). Where To Get More Information Detailed information on the occupation of air plane mechanic: U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Opportunities in Avia tion Occupations, Part I—Postwar Employment Outlook; Part 2—Duties, Qualifications, Earn ings, and Working Conditions. Bulletins No. 837-1 and 837-2. Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1945 and 1946./ Price 10 cents and 20 cents. To find out about openings with air lines and the exact qualifications needed, one should write to the personnel managers of the lines. Addresses are listed in part 2 of the bulletin just mentioned or may be obtained from the Air Transport Asso ciation of America, 1107 Sixteenth Street N W „ Washington, D. C. Men interested in setting up their own aviation businesses should consult State aviation commis sions and local chambers of commerce; also the following publication: Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Opportunities for Es tablishing New Businesses in Aviation. Washing ton : U. S. Government Printing Office, 1946. Information as to locations of air fields, repair stations, and flying schools can be obtained from the Office of Aviation Information, Civil Aero nautics Administration, Washington 25, D. C. For information regarding Federal Government positions, address this agency or any regional office of the United States Civil Service Commis sion. See also: Automobile Mechanics, page 198. Flight Engineers (D.O.T. 5-80.100) Outlook Summary fa r , m a in ly in overseas fly in g . S om e ty p e s o f p la n es h av e sp e cia l station s f o r these airm en . O p e n in g s w ill be fe w at best b oth in n ear fu tu r e a n d o v e r the lo n g ru n a n d w ill be filled p r in c ip a lly b y p r o m o tio n fr o m w ith in . Nature of Work P r a c tic a lly all flig h t en gin eers are e m p lo y e d b y s ch ed u led a ir lines on fo u r -e n g in e p la n es and, so A recen t d e v e lo p m e n t in v o lv e s th e use o f a p ilo t in a d u a l c a p a c ity o f p ilo t-e n g in e e r. F lig h t en gin eers are resp on sib le f o r th e p r o p e r fu n c tio n in g o f the a ir c r a ft a n d en gin es in flig h t, p e r m ittin g the ca p ta in a n d c o p ilo t to co n ce n tra te m o r e f u l l y on p ilo t in g th e a ir c r a ft. I n the air, th e ir d u ties in clu d e w a tc h in g a n d k e e p in g lo g s on M E C H A N IC S AND 205 R E P A IR M E N en gin e p e rfo rm a n ce , o p e r a tin g certa in co n tro ls u n d er the d ire ctio n o f th e ca p ta in , a n d m a k in g tically always need experience in air-line ground maintenance to qualify for flight jobs. em ergen cy rep a irs. A t stop s w h ere th ere are n o m echan ics, th ey d o n eed ed m a in ten a n ce w o r k Outlook them selves (u n less a re g u la r m e ch a n ic is ca rr ie d a lo n g f o r th is p u r p o s e ) ; at oth er stops, w h ere there are m ech an ics, th e y d ire ct th e s e rv icin g o f th e p lan e. M o st en gin eers are sta tion ed in o r n ear coastal cities w h ere the overseas o p e ra tio n s are based. S om e fe w are station ed elsew here in the U n ite d States an d overseas. Employment will rise somewhat over the years with increased use of larger planes and lengthening of nonstop flights. Federal action affecting the carrying of flight engineers (such as C A A ’s recent ruling that it would not certificate a specified type of aircraft without a flight engineer’s station) may also tend to increase employment in this occupa tion, depending on the extent to which pilots are used to meet the new requirements instead of non pilot engineers (see p. 92). But the total will remain small. At the war’s end there were no more than a few hundred men working as flight engineers; the occupation is still of this general magnitude. Under the most favorable circum stances it should be several years before the number employed exceeds 1,000, even if general business activity remains at high levels. There are certain to be thousands of candidates to fill these jobs from the air lines’ ground mainte nance staffs, and from the great number of former flight engineers and ground mechanics o f the mili tary and naval forces. There is now an oversup ply of qualified applicants for flight-engineer posi tions, and the condition is likely to persist indefi nitely. The surplus will be only moderately reduced by the planned air-force expansion. Earnings and Working Conditions The flight engineer of an overseas air liner noting dial readings on his log. Qualifications Every engineer (including pilot-engineers) is legally required to have a Civil Aeronautics A d ministration Flight Engineer certificate. This calls for a broad knowledge o f such subjects as flight theory, aircraft performance, fuel con sumption, and aircraft loading. Written and practical tests are given to determine not only the adequacy of the engineer's grasp of these and re lated subjects, but also his skill in repair work. Rigid physical examinations, repeated at intervals, must be passed. In promoting ground mechanics (the principal method of filling flight-engineer openings), or hiring from outside, the air lines frequently emphasize specified personal character istics and education. Air Force veterans will prac Typical earnings of fully qualified flight engi neers range from $300 to $600 a month, depend ing mainly on length of experience. For some men, higher earnings can come with promotion to copilot and higher positions or to chief engi neer. Eighty-five flight-hours a month (or 255 a quarter, in international flying) is a maximum schedule, with some added time spent in ground duties. Men in international operations generally get a month’s paid vacation each year; those in do mestic flying, 2 weeks. A s a ru le, flig h t en gin eers are on d u ty a w a y fr o m base a b ou t h a lf th e tim e. W h e n th ey are w o r k in g a w a y fr o m h om e, th e ir liv in g expenses are p a id b y the e m p lo y in g a ir lin e ; o fte n th ey are also a llo w e d $1 a d a y w h ile on la n d , f o r in c i d en tal expenses. O C C U P A T IO N A L 206 OUTLOOK Most flight engineers belong to and are repre sented by an American Federation of Labor union, the Air Line Flight Engineers Association. How ever, there is also an independent union, Flight Engineer’s Officers Association, with a contract on at least one line. Where to Get More Information Detailed information on the occupation of flight engineers is given in : U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Opportunities in Avia tion Occupations, Part I—Postwar Employment HANDBOOK Outlook and Part 2—Duties, Qualifications, Earn ings, and Working Conditions. Bulletins No. 837-1 and 837-2. Washington: U. S. Govern ment Printing Office, 1945 and 1946. Price 10 cents and 20 cents. Inquiries in regard to job openings should be sent to the personnel managers of the lines. A d dresses are listed in part 2 of the bulletin just mentioned, or may be obtained from the Air Trans port Association of America, 1107 Sixteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C. See also: Airplane Mechanics, page 202 and A ir plane Pilots, page 92. Electrical-Household-Appliance Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.04) Outlook Summary Good prospects for experienced men during next few years; also a limited number of openings for newcomers. Long-run trend of employment upward. Nature o f Work Main duties of servicemen are to install, main tain, and rebuild large appliances such as ranges, stoves, and washing machines, and to repair smaller ones such as irons and toasters. These workers may also install and service refrigerators and radios, though they are seldom expected to handle major repairs on these types of equip ment. Many sell appliances and replacement parts and give instructions to customers on their proper use and care. They use hand tools, such as screw drivers, pliers, wrenches, files, and hack saws; also a few machine tools, such as small drill presses and buffer-grinders. These repairmen are employed mainly in service departments of stores and other concerns selling electrical household appliances and in shops spe cializing in the repair of such appliances. A good many men have their own shops; a few work for appliance manufacturers and electric companies. Training On-the-job training is one of the best ways of entering the trade. Many employers offer oppor tunities for this. Hundreds of trade, correspond ence, and other schools also give courses in funda mentals o f electricity and in operation and con struction of various types and makes of appliances. To be considered fully qualified, however, a worker must have had practical work experience; it takes several years’ experience to become a skilled mechanic. Outlook There will be many openings in this expanding field during the next few years. The number of mechanics now employed may be as high as 50,000, not counting those who have their own service shops or dealers who themselves do service work. Employment is no doubt thousands greater than at the end of the war; not only have many vet erans returned to their jobs, but considerable numbers of newly trained men have entered the field. The serious wartime shortage of mechanics has thus been much relieved, but more workers are still needed. Sales of appliances are expected to be high during the next few years; this will mean much work for servicemen, especially in view of the guaranties given on new appliances. Manu facturers and power companies are urging dealers to set up high-quality service departments or arrange for reliable service work. Besides numer ous openings in skilled jobs, there will also be some opportunities in beginning positions. A limited number of men with good experience and business ability will find favorable opportunities to go into business for themselves, although many M E C H A N IC S AND new dealer service departments and independent shops have already been started. The occupation is likely to go on expanding over the long run, since the future is promising for elec trical household appliances. About a quarter of a billion are now in use; most homes have at least one appliance; many, two or more. It is expected that the total number will continue to increase. In addition, replacement needs will remain high. Competition for jobs and business is likely to become keener, however. More and more, men seeking jobs or wanting to go into business for themselves will need good personal qualifications and training. Whether they find openings will also depend increasingly on the types and makes o f appliances on which they specialize. Opportunities are to be found in all parts of the country. Some regions—the Pacific North west and Tennessee Valley, for example—use more R E P A IR M E N 207 appliances than others in proportion to popula tion. In general, prospects are likely to be best in such areas, at least in the immediate future. The particular city and neighborhood where one locates will probably become a more and more important factor in success in business or in finding a job. Where To Go for Additional Information Servicemen interested in going into business for themselves will find valuable information in : U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of For eign and Domestic Commerce, Establishing and Operating an Electrical Appliance and Radio Shop. Industrial (Small Business). Series No. 28. Washington: U, S. Government Printing Office, 1946. Price 35 cents. See also: Radio Servicemen, p. 210, and Refrig erator Servicemen and Refrigeration and AirConditioning Mechanics, page 208. Electrical Repairmen (D.O.T. 4-97.420) Outlook Summary More apprentices will be needed during the next 3 to 5 years. Long-range outlook good. helpers for several years. A veteran with ex perience in electrical work in the service may be eligible for admission to the trade as an advanced apprentice. Nature of Work Outlook It is the electrical repairman’s job to keep wir ing. motors, switches, electrical mechanisms, and other electrical equipment in operating condition, and to make repairs when equipment breaks down. Sometimes they make connections, adjustments, etc., to new electrical machinery and equipment that is being installed, but such work is usually handled by regular electricians. Electrical repair men are employed in all kinds of industries, but most of them work in transportation—railways, streetcars, and busses—in communications, such as telephone and telegraph, and in other public utilities. The remainder work mostly in retail stores, in manufacturing plants, or for the Government. Both the immediate and long-range outlook are very good. During the war there was a substan tial demand for more electrical repairmen to take care of the extra work load on communications, transportation, etc., and to replace those going into the armed forces. However, the number of ap prentices trained and new helpers employed was quite small—not nearly enough to fill existing needs. The industries which employ most of the electri cal repairmen are expected to continue at high rates o f activity for several more years. The large amount o f new industrial plant capacity added, both during the war and since the end of the war, means more electrical equipment to be maintained. In addition new technological developments call for installations of electrical machinery, controls, and other equipment which require repairmen to service them. This means that in the long run there will be increasing opportunities in this occupation. How to Qualify Although a 4- or 5-year apprenticeship is usu ally considered necessary to qualify a man as a journeyman electrical repairman, some get the necessary experience and training by working as 208 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK HANDBOOK Refrigerator Servicemen and Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Mechanics (D.O.T. 5-83.031 and .941) Outlook Summary Employment prospects only fair for servicemen in near future; some opportunities for top-notch men but few for the less skilled. Good oppor tunities for journeymen mechanics, but appren ticeship openings scarce. Long-run employment trend slowly upward in both fields. Refrigerator servicemen work on domestic elec tric refrigerators, deep freezers, small room airconditioners, and small commercial units like dis play cases, beverage coolers, and reach-in boxes. They have such tasks as inspecting equipment, cleaning condensors, adding or removing refriger ant, and taking out freezing units for repair. Some also do repairs on other types o f electrical household appliances. Refrigeration and air-conditioning mechanics may also do repair work on small equipment, but typically they install and repair larger refrigera tion and air-conditioning units and central systems in such places as factories, stores, theaters, taverns, restaurants, hotels, and office buildings. Their duties include assembling and connecting pipes and ducts, especially on installation jobs, and overhauling and repairing pumps, compressors, condensors, and other parts. Where Employed Servicemen are usually employed by shops spe cializing in refrigerator repair or by retail stores and distributors who handle domestic refriger ators. Many servicemen are self-employed. Mechanics usually work for heating, refrigera tion, or air-conditioning contractors. Many are in business for themselves as contractors. Some mechanics are employed by manufacturers of re frigeration and air-conditioning equipment, and still others work for companies that use much equipment of these types. Ph otograph by u . S. d e pa r tm e n t of la b o r Mechanic repairing an air conditioner. How To Enter On-the-job training is needed to qualify one as a skilled serviceman; a course at a public trade school or commercial refrigeration school may be helpful as preparation for such training. The usual way o f becoming a mechanic is to serve an apprenticeship. Where the trade is not organ ized, servicemen sometimes learn to repair larger equipment through on-the-job training and then advance to mechanic positions. Young men are usually preferred for apprenticeships and other beginning jobs, but age requirements are generally waived for veterans. In a few cities (including Oklahoma City, Okla. and Long Beach, Calif.) mechanics are required to have licenses. A larger number of cities re quire that refrigeration contractors be licensed. M E C H A N IC S AND Outlook Servicemen: For the near future, job prospects are not good in most communities. Work volume is higher than before the war, but there are thou sands more men in the occupation. Not only have many veterans returned to their jobs, but consid erable numbers of newly trained men have en tered the field. Many more are now being trained in schools or on the job. Further opportunities for on-the-job training will therefore be limited for at least the next year or two, and competition for these openings is expected to be keen. In the case of experienced men, only those with top skills are likely to have a good chance of getting jobs or of establishing successful new repair shops. Though there seems to be little likelihood of a shortage of men in this field, employment will probably tend to increase slowly over the long run, owing to the growing numbers of domestic refrigerators and other small units. Demand for repair services will not expand as fast as the amount of equipment in use, however, since tech nological improvements are reducing the amount of servicing required per unit. Men well estab lished in the field should have good chances of keeping their jobs or businesses over the long run; the amount of work for servicemen is less affected by declines in general business activity than that for many other occupational groups. Mechanics / Journeymen refrigeration mechanics * will probably have good job prospects in the near future, particularly in larger towns and cities. Currently, material shortages are impeding new installations and major overhaul work. When these shortages no longer exist, many communi ties expect increased demand for mechanics. A p prenticeship opportunities are likely to be limited in the near future, however, since relatively large numbers are already in training. Over the long run, the total number of men employed as mechanics will increase, owing to ex panding use of commercial and industrial refrig eration and air-conditioning equipment. An in creasing number of mechanics will be needed to install and repair air-conditioning equipment— mostly for commercial users, such as stores, taverns, and office buildings. Domestic systems R E P A IR M E N 209 are still too costly for all except the comparatively small numbers of high-income families. Indus trial process air-conditioning and refrigeration will also employ more and more men. Employ ment on commercial refrigeration, ranging in size from walk-in boxes to cold storage warehouses, will have an upward trend for many years to come. To a considerable extent, employment of me chanics depends on the rate of new installations. I f installations are curtailed in the event of a depression, the number employed on large-scale refrigeration and air-conditioning work will drop, but many who lose their jobs may be able to shift to refrigerator servicing. Earnings and Working Conditions Typical straight-time hourly rates for mechanics working under union agreements ranged from about $1.75 to $2.25 in late 1947. Kates for serv icemen were generally somewhat lower and tended to vary according to such factors as experience and size of community. Many mechanics, especially in large cities, are represented by the United Association of Plumbers and Steam Fitters or the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers. Unionization is much less extensive among refrigerator service men. Except in the southernmost regions of the United States the demand for repair services and new installations is seasonal, but most mechanics and servicemen work all year. During peak sum mer months overtime work is customary for both groups. In the winter many mechanics work on heating equipment, and servicemen often repair other types of electrical appliances. Where To Go for Additional Information Further information on the nature of the work, apprenticeship and other training opportunities, earnings, and other subjects may be obtained from : Local unions of the United Association of Plumbers and Steam Fitters and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Local air-conditioning and refrigerating con tractors associations. O C C U P A T IO N A L 210 O U TLO OK Those interested in going into business for them selves will find valuable information in : U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of For eign and Domestic Commerce, Establishing and Operating an Air Conditioning and Refrigera HANDBOOK tion Business. Industrial (Small Business) Series No. 59. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1946. Price 20 cents. See also: Electrical Household Appliance Serv icemen, page 206. Radio Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.411) Outlook Summary Some openings for highly skilled AM-FM men, but occupation overcrowded with less skilled men in most areas. Excellent opportunities for men thoroughly trained in television expected in many cities. Long-run employment trend upward. Nature o f Work Radio servicemen mainly repair home radios. They may also install and service other electronic equipment such as interoffice communication and public-address systems and warning devices. A growing number specialize in work on television Radio repairman locating “ trouble” in a home receiver. P H O ’T'O G R A PH by U. S. d e pa r tm e n t o f LABOR sets. Sometimes radio repairmen sell and service other electrical appliances. A majority of those working on AM-FM sets are self-employed; some repair radios during their spare time only. Other AM-FM men are em ployed by large repair shops, radio stores, garages, wholesale distributors, manufacturers of electronic equipment, and other types of concerns. Tele vision servicemen are so far employed mainly by manufacturers, distributors, and some large retail dealers. How To Enter Most AM-FM radio repairmen receive their early training from correspondence courses, at technical schools, in the armed forces, as appren tices, or through “ham” radio activities. The quality of the initial training varies greatly; as a consequence there is a wide range in degree of skill among new entrants in this occupation. Television repairmen need much more basic training and knowledge of radio theory than AM-FM men. Because there are at present so few men who can repair television sets, one of the lead ing manufacturers is assisting its distributors and dealers to train topnotch AM-FM servicemen in television by furnishing training materials and, where necessary, instructors. Another large com pany, which employs television servicemen di rectly, trains its men through a combination of factory classroom work and on-the-job training. It is also possible to obtain training in television work at the better radio schools. Men going into business for themselves as AM or FM repairmen must have at least $500 for tools and equipment. The additional equipment needed to service television sets costs several hundred dollars. M E C H A N IC S AND Outlook Highly skilled, experienced AM-FM men should be able to find job openings in most areas in the near future, but the field as a whole is over crowded. In most parts of the country there is a surplus of inexperienced and inadequately trained radio repairmen. The number now in business for themselves full time is roughly estimated at 50,000, about twice the prewar figure. Many of the newcomers are veterans who were trained in the armed forces; others were employed as technicians in electronics manufacturing plants during the war. Because there are already more than enough repair shops in most areas, favorable opportunities to start new shops are rare. To succeed in a new business, servicemen will need a high degree of skill and business ability as well as an unusually good location. Television specialists will find good opportuni ties in areas reached by telecasts (anywhere with in about 50 miles from a television station). By December 1, 1947, there were 17 operating tele vision stations in 11 large cities. The Federal Communications Commission had issued construc tion permits or had applications pending for 97 more stations which would provide service to a total o f 54 cities and their environs; it is expected that the number of construction permits will in crease greatly within a few months. Though less than 200.000 television sets were in use in early 1948, their number is increasing rapidly, as is the need for men to install and service them. Over the long run, employment of radio repair men is likely to rise slowly. About 90 percent of all families in the Nation already have radios, but the proportiqn is still rising and the number of sets per family is increasing. In the 3 years be tween 1944 and 1947, the proportion of families with two or more radios rose from 18 percent to 34 percent, according to one estimate. Radio ownership and the total demand for repair serv ices will be further increased by the anticipated R E P A IR M E N 211 growth in population and number of families. As television sets multiply, they will increase the need for repairmen; television receivers are much more complicated than AM -FM radios and require more servicing. Servicemen with television training will have a greater and greater advantage over those with knowledge of AM and FM only, both in competing for jobs and in trying to make a go of their own repair businesses. Earnings and Working Conditions AM -FM repairmen have lower wage rates than many other groups of skilled workers. Typical weekly wages were between $40 and $60 in mid1947 for servicemen in many metropolitan areas. Men who have their own shops often have low incomes; those who combine radio repair with sales of radios and other appliances usually earn more than those who do repair work only. Repairmen employed by others usually work between 44 and 48 hours per week. Taking the country as a whole, only a small proportion of ra dio servicemen are union members; most of those organized are in large cities. Where To Go for More Information Some communities have radio servicemen’s or ganizations that can provide information on em ployment opportunities, wages, and working conditions. Servicemen interested in going into business for themselves will find valuable informa tion in : U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of For eign and Domestic Commerce. Establishing and Operating an Electrical Appliance and Radio Shop. Industrial (Small Business) Series No. 28. Washington : U. S. Government Printing O f fice, 1946. Price 35 cents. See also: Electronic Technicians (Commercial and Industrial Servicing) ; page 212, Electronic Technicians (Electronics Manufacturing); page 213; Radar Technicians, page 214; and Radio Op erators (Broadcasting), page 87. O C C U P A T IO N A L 212 OU TLOOK HANDBOOK Electronic Technicians (Commercial and Industrial Servicing) (D.O.T. 5-83.449) Outlook Summary Technician jobs in industrial servicing generally filled by promotion of electricians. Commercial servicing is small but expanding field with more job seekers than openings for the present. Nature o f Work The main duties of technicians in these fields of work are installing, servicing, and repairing elec tronic equipment. Technicians in manufacturing plants maintain and repair such devices as electric current controls, electronic precipitators, counting mechanisms, and certain types of welding and heating equipment. When an engineer installs a new electronic device, he usually instructs plant electricians in main tenance and simple repairs. Later, when there are enough electronic instruments in the plant to war rant having a full-time electronic technician, the man chosen for the job is likely to be the electrician who has been working with the equipment and studying electronics. In smaller plants or those using few electronic devices, minor maintenance and repair work may be handled by general main tenance mechanics, the distributor’s engineers, or commercial servicemen; when major repairs are needed, the distributor’s engineers are called in. Office buildings, hotels, stores, and other com mercial structures use devices such as wire re corders, office intercommunications systems, and warning equipment. These are serviced by several different groups. Much of the work is still being done by the distributor’s engineers, because the instruments employ principles with which regular electrical repairmen are not familiar. Sometimes, when electronic devices have been incorporated in machinery (for example, when electronic floor leveling mechanisms became part of elevator equipment), the regular repairmen have expanded their training to enable them to service the new electronic features. Also, there are commercial servicing organizations which often employ tech nicians, as well as engineers, to take care of the wide variety of new electronic instruments. In addition, radio shops and individual repairmen often service some types of electronic equipment. T raining Electronic technicians in commercial servicing are expected to have sound backgrounds in elec tronics and fundamentals of electricity. Usually those hired must show evidence of study in the field of electronics at one of the reputable technical schools or certain Army or Navy schools, or have had equivalent training. Applicants must also prove their ability on actual repair jobs. Outlook Few men trained primarily in electronics will find openings as technicians in manufacturing plants, though the use of electronic devices in sucii plants is expanding and industrial concerns are doing more and more of their own servicing (in stead of having it done by the distributor’s engi neers). The additional technicians needed in factories will continue to come mostly from the ranks of electricians already on the company pay roll. Electricians’ unions are encouraging mem bers to prepare themselves for taking over the servicing of electronic devices. Servicing of electronic equipment in commer cial establishments provides a long-term expand ing field for electronic technicians. An increas ing share of the work will probably be done by technicians employed by radio and commercial repair organizations. For the present, however, there is an oversupply of jobseekers with some training in electronics. Many of those who might hold jobs in less exacting electronic occupations such as routine testing in radio manufacturing will not be qualified for commercial work, since it often demands a high degree of skill and knowl edge of electronics. Earnings In industrial servicing, wage rates are generally just above those of regular maintenance elec tricians in the same plants. Wage rates for tech M E C H A N IC S AND nicians in commercial servicing have not yet crystallized ; it is expected that these hourly rates will be slightly higher than those for ordinary radio repairmen in the same area. R E P A IR M E N 213 See also: Radio Servicemen, page 210; Elec tronic Technicians (Electronics Manufacturing), page 213; Radar Technicians, page 214; and Radio Operators (Broadcasting), page 87. Electronic Technicians (Electronics Manufacturing) (See D.O.T. 4-98.999) Outlook Summary Outlook A number of openings in radio and other types o f electronics manufacturing in the near future. Long-run employment trend upward in all branches of the industry. Employment of testers is likely to increase both in the near future and over the long run. Only a few thousand are now employed, a majority of them in radio manufacturing. In this branch of the industry, growth of television is an important factor and is expected to contribute largely to the upward trend in tester employment; television sets, which must be given many complex factory tests, probably will be produced in ever-increasing numbers for many years to come. Other electronics manufacturing is likely to ex pand considerably in the next few years owing to greatly increased demand for military electronic equipment. Continued gradual growth in the manufacture of equipment for civilian use is an ticipated for an indefinite number of years. It is unlikely, however, that the total number of elec tronic technicians in this branch of the industry will equal more than a fraction of the number in radio and television manufacturing for a long time to come. There is now an oversupply of men with some electronic training in this as in related fields, and a continuous stream of men is seeking to enter this occupation. Well-trained, highly competent tech nicians have much the best chance of jobs. Before the war, radio manufacturing was a highly seasonal industry. Most of the manufac turing was done during the fall months; the rest of the year was devoted mainly to development and research, which was carried on with a small fraction of the personnel employed during peak production. I f this pattern again becomes char acteristic of the industry, technicians in radio plants will be subject to temporary lay-offs in some seasons. Also, the demand for radio sets, and therefore employment in radio manufacturing, changes rapidly with the tides of general business prosperity and depression. Nature o f Work Technicians in radio and other electronics manu facturing are employed mainly as testers and inspectors. Large companies also employ small numbers as assistants to engineers and scientists in experimental laboratories. The testers’ primary job is to check completed equipment for defects and to locate the source of malfunctioning. In some plants they are also responsible for making needed repairs. Those on low-grade jobs in radio manufacturing usually do routine testing and need have little knowledge of the theories of electronics. In other electronics manufacturing, the equipment pro duced is more varied and intricate; it is often made to order rather than mass produced. In this type o f manufacturing, even the lowest-grade testers must have some background in electronics. Jlow To Enter A 12-month course at a reputable technical school or the equivalent of such training is gen erally required for tester and inspector positions (except low-grade jobs in radio manufacturing). Completion of a year’s course at an Army or Navy school is usually considered adequate preparation. Workers usually enter the occupation either directly from school or from radio-technician jobs of other kinds; tester positions are seldom filled by up-grading less-skilled production workers. Ad vancement is possible from the lowest-grade tester jobs to the highest, Men who have unusual ability may be promoted to engineering positions. 793996°—49 15 214 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK Earnings In January 1948, average straight-time earnings for men ranged from about $1.30 to $1.60 per hour for high-grade tester and inspector jobs in major manufacturing centers. Electronic technicians have earnings advantages over less-skilled production workers which are not revealed by their hourly rates. Their opportuni HANDBOOK ties for promotion are considered better than aver age. In addition, they are sometimes kept on when other production workers are sent home be cause of temporary break-downs. See also: Radio Servicemen, page 210; Electronic Technicians (Commercial and Industrial Serv icing), page 212; Radar Technicians, page 214; and Radio Operators (Broadcasting), page 87. Radar Technicians (D.O.T. 5-83.449) Outlook Summary Very small but expanding field; occasional open ings for highly qualified men. Nature of Work The group covered by this statement is made up of men engaged mainly in supervising installa tion o f radar (radio detection and ranging) equip ment and in servicing and repairing such equip ment; some do actual installation work. In general, duties are similar to those of radio tech nicians but call for greater technical knowledge and skill, since radar involves more advanced knowledge of electronic principles and more in tricate equipment than ordinary radio. Also, ra dar technicians must be able to make reports on difficulties encountered and recommend improve ments in construction and design. They often service other types of electronic equipment as well as radar. Where Employed Most radar technicians work for the very small number o f concerns manufacturing and selling radar equipment and holding contracts to service military radar. The great majority are assigned to district offices of employing companies, located mainly in the big port cities. A sizable propor tion are stationed in the Great Lakes and Missis sippi River regions. Technicians servicing mili tary equipment are scattered throughout the world. Training and Other Qualifications Only men with good experience or training in radar or radio are hired. Many are former radio repairmen. Some are college graduates; at least one company considers a college degree, preferably in electrical engineering, essential. Even collegetrained engineers must, however, have basic me chanical skills to be considered fully qualified as technicians. A number of schools, colleges, and radio institutes offer courses in electronics; some have well-rounded programs, including labo ratory work and practice in the types of mechani cal tasks met with in technician jobs. Though thousands of men were trained to operate and maintain radar equipment in the armed services, this military experience alone rarely, if ever, quali fies a man for civilian work. New employees almost always receive on-thejob training. For entrants with especially good experience, the training period may last only a few weeks; for others, it may last a year or more. Outlook There will be a number o f openings for excep tionally well qualified men in this small but ex panding new field during the next year or two. As yet, only a few hundred radar equipments are being operated on a regular commercial basis for civilian purposes. Practically all the large equipments are used in navigation o f ocean-going ships or vessels sailing the Great Lakes and inland waterways. The number of such sets is expected to grow particularly fast. There will also be an increase in aviation installations (including alti meters, search radars, and ground approach and control systems). Radar weather observation and research instruments are coming into use. An other new product, a cooking range, makes use of radar’s magnetron tube. All these developments will mean more work for M E C H A N IC S technicians in supervising the installation of sets and keeping them in order. In addition, civilian technicians will be needed to service military equipment, the amount o f which will be substan tially increased under the rearmament program. There will be a few openings owing to turn-over. The total number of job opportunities will not be great, however. Employment will probably go on increasing over the long run. There are now many more job applicants than openings, but few job seekers meet hiring stand ards. The number of qualified technicians com peting for jobs is likely to become still greater in the near future, as more and more people complete well-rounded programs in electronics. For men unable to get jobs as radar technicians, there may be opportunities elsewhere in electronics—in tele vision, for example. In the near future, most jobs, except for work on military equipment, will probably continue to be in seaports and Great Lakes and river ports. AND R E P A IR M E N 215 However, as use of radar increases in aviation and other fields, opportunities will tend to become more widesjn-ead in this country. Earnings Fully qualified men with good radar experience are likely to make around $1,000 for the first year or so with a company. Typical annual earnings in the occupation are between this figure and $5,000. Men working away from their headquar ters’ cities have their expenses paid by the com pany or receive extra pay. Special bonuses may be given for overseas work. Basic workweek is usually 40 hours, with time and one-half for overtime. See also: Radio Servicemen, page 210; Elec tronic Technicians (Electronics Manufacturing), page 213; Electronic Technicians (Commercial and Industrial Servicing), page 212; and Radio Operators (Broadcasting), page 87. Typewriter Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.127) Outlook Summary There will be a number of job openings for new workers during the next 4 or 5 years. The longrun outlook is for steady employment. Nature of Work Typewriter servicemen inspect, adjust, and repair typewriters. Repair w rork may involve replacing worn or broken parts, alining the type to print evenly, fixing the escapement (spacer), and adjusting the shift mechanism and ribbon movement. Servicemen also clean and oil the machines. Most servicing and repair work is taken to the shop. However, minor servicing jobs may be done in the offices where the machines are used. The mechanics use common hand tools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and punches. In some small shops, typewriter servicing may be combined with the servicing of other business equipment, particularly adding machines. Most servicemen are bench men; that is, their work is done in the repair shop. “ Outside” men make contacts with customers as well as frequently doing some work in the shop. They inspect the customer’s machines and determine whether or not they should be brought back to the shop for repair. Outside men, particularly those employed by small independent shops, may also sell typewriter rib bons and supplies; occasionally, they sell type writers. Where Employed Typewriter repair men are employed both in the local service branches of typewriter manufacturers and in independently owned local repair shops (which frequently sell typewriters as well as repair T them). Many servicemen have their own repair shops. Geographically, typewriter servicemen are widely distributed. Every city and large town has men employed in the occupation. However, the greatest concentration of servicemen is in large cities, wffiere the bulk of clerical work is found. 216 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK Training and Qualifications The length and kind of training for typewriter servicemen varies. Most of it, however, is received on the job. Training periods range from 1 to 3 years. Servicemen employed in independently owned shops require more training and experience, as they must be able to repair all makes of type writers and, sometimes, adding machines and cal culators ; servicemen employed in the service branches of manufacturing companies generally repair only one make of typewriter. In many independent shops, new workers be come servicemen by working as helpers, gradually picking up the necessary skills. In some inde pendent shops and in the manufacturers’ service branches, however, training schedules are set up and experienced servicemen and supervisors teach the new men systematically. In addition, trainees in the service branches are frequently sent to a company school at the factory for a few weeks or months of intensive training. Some typewriter servicemen are trained in 2- or 3year formal apprenticeships which include work on several makes and types qf business machines. There are at least two privately owned schools, not connected with any manufacturer, training typewriter servicemen. These schools are equipped to give additional training on servicing adding machines and calculators. Outlook Opportunities to enter the trade during the next 4 or 5 years will be better than in most prewar years. There is a current shortage of skilled men. During the war a number of experienced service men went into other lines of work and have not returned to this field. Many small shops are still reluctant to take on inexperienced men because of the expense of training them. Meamvhile, the amount of repair work is increasing. The number o f new workers who will find job openings in this HANDBOOK field will be greater than in other kinds of businessmachine servicing. There are about 10,000 type writer mechanics, who comprise nearly half of all business-machine servicemen. Those who enter the occupation during the next few years, will have excellent chances for continued employment over the longer run. Employment in this field will tend to rise gradually as the num ber of typewriters in use increases. Moreover, typewriter repair work is not greatly affected by changes in general economic conditions. In poor business years, sales of new machines fall, but the amount of repair work remains fairly steady, as old machines are kept in use instead of being replaced. Earnings and Working Conditions The typical pay of experienced typewriter serv icemen for a 40-hour week in 1947 ranged from T about $45 to $75 in the larger cities. Servicemen in independent repair shops usually earn more than men in the manufacturers’ service branches, largely because men in the independent shops must be able to repair various makes of typewriters. Many typewriter repair shops pay servicemen commissions on sales of typewriters, supplies, and contracts to do servicing for particular firms. Servicemen may increase their earnings through promotion to service supervisors or shop managers. In many cases they have opportunities to open their own shops. Typewriter servicing is light work, comparatively free from accidents, and cleaner than most other mechanical trades. Where To Get Additional Information U. S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Outlook for Business Ma chine Servicemen. Bulletin No. 892. Washing ton : U. S. Government Printing Office, 1947. Price 15 cents. See also: Adding Machine Servicemen, page 217. M E C H A N IC S AND 217 R E P A IR M E N Adding Machine Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.122) Outlook Summary Prospects are favorable for entry of a limited number of new workers during tlie next 4 or 5 years. The long-run outlook is for steady em ployment. Nature of Work Servicemen inspect, adjust, and repair adding machines. Adjustments and minor repairs are usually made in the offices where the machines are used. Major repair work is taken to the shop. Repair work involves determining the cause o f trouble, replacing worn or broken parts, and clean ing and oiling machines. Servicemen use common hand tools such as screw drivers, wrenches, pliers, punches, and special tools designed for the par ticular type of machine being repaired. In some cases servicing of both adding machines and cal culators is combined in a single job. In inde pendent repair shops, adding-machine mechanics may also repair typewriters. Where Employed Servicemen are employed principally in large cities, where the bulk of the adding machines are used. Adding machine servicemen are employed both in manufacturer’s service branches, which are operated in connection with the sales offices of the firms, and in independently owned local repair shops. Other sources o f employment are in the Federal, State, and local governments and in a few large banks and other firms which use large numbers o f adding machines. Training and Qualifications The training period for adding machine me chanics ranges from 6 months to a year or more of on-the-job instruction. Servicemen employed in manufacturers’ service branches generally re ceive a few weeks supplemental training in the manufacturers’ own school, usually located at the plant. Manufacturers train men to work only on their own line of machines. I n in d e p e n d e n t sh op s new m en m a y learn to r e p a ir a d d in g m a ch in es b y w o r k in g as h elpers. S om e p ic k u p th e sk ill w h ile w o r k in g as ty p e w r ite r m ech a n ics. The main aptitudes needed by a trainee are gen eral mechanical ability and manual dexterity. Most manufacturers o f adding machines prefer new trainees to be in their early twenties. Outlook During the next 4 or 5 years, there will be jobs for a small number of trainees in adding machine repair. Most manufacturers of the equipment are conducting expanded training programs. It is necessary not only to make up for the war years during which few men were trained, but also to provide additional men to service the growing number of machines in use. Since this is a small occupation, however—there are probably about 2,000 adding machine servicemen in the country— the number o f openings for new workers will be limited. Longer run prospects are for an upward trend in the employment of servicemen. The number of adding machines in use in business and in gov ernment is tending to increase. Moreover, the repair of adding machines is little affected by changes in general economic conditions. In time of depression there are few lay-offs, since during these years the tendency is to keep old machines in repair, rather than to buy new machines. Earnings and Working Conditions During the latter part of 1947, typical earnings for a 40-hour week ranged from $50 to $75. In ad dition, commissions are sometimes paid to serv icemen and supervisors on sales of supplies and contracts to do servicing for a particular firm. Men servicing calculators, as well as adding machines, generally earn more than men servicing only adding machines. S e r v ic e m ech a n ics m a y be p ro m o te d to p o sitio n s as service su p e rv iso r. T h e w eek ly ea rn in g s o f se rv ice su p erv isors ra n g e u p to $100 and ov er. In 218 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K manufacturers’ branches, mechanics are sometimes transferred to the sales department. Repairing adding machines is comparatively free from the danger of accident and is cleaner than most other mechanical trades. Servicemen generally dress like white-collar workers, since most service work is performed in the offices or stores where the machines are located. Where To Find Additional Information U. S. Department o f Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics; Employment Outlook for Business Ma chine Servicemen. Bulletin No. 892. Washing ton : U. S. Government Printing Office, 1947. Price, 15 cents. See also: Calculating Machine Servicemen, page 218, and Typewriter Servicemen, page 215. Calculating Machine Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.123) Outlook Summary There will be opportunities for a limited num ber of new men to enter this field during the next 4 or 5 years. Long-run prospects are for steady employment. which are operated in connection with the sales offices o f these firms. However, a few work in independently owned local repair shops. Most of these independent shops are small and employ only a few workers. Another source of employment is the Federal Government. Nature of Work These servicemen inspect, adjust, and repair calculating machines. Calculating machines, which add, subtract, divide, multiply, and also perform combinations o f these operations, are used mostly in offices where a great many compu tations are necessary. These machines, most of which are electrically operated, have elaborate mechanisms, and, therefore, skilled men are re quired to repair them. Minor repairs and adjust ments are made in the offices where the machines are used. Major repair work may be taken to the shop. Repairing the machine involves determin ing the cause of trouble in the machines, repair ing or replacing broken or worn parts, and clean ing and oiling the machines. The mechanic uses common hand tools designed for the particular type of machine on which he is working. Service men are sometimes required to explain to new operators how to operate the machines. In some cases, servicing o f calculators is combined with the servicing of other business machines, particu larly adding machines. Where Employed Most servicemen are employed in large cities, since this is where the bulk of the calculators are used. Mechanics servicing calculators are usually employed in manufacturers’ local service branches Training and Qualifications Trainees employed by manufacturers of calcu lating machines generally receive from 1 to 3 years of on-the-job training, often combined with a 3or 4-month course at a company school. Service men employed by the manufacturers are trained to service only the company’s products. S erv ice m e n w o r k in g in in d e p e n d e n t sh o p s m ust be a ble to r e p a ir a ll m akes o f ca lcu la to r s, a n d n eed a lo n g e r tr a in in g p e rio d . M o s t c a lcu la to r serv ice- m en in in d e p e n d e n t sh ops re ceiv e n o fo r m a l tr a in in g , b u t lea rn th r o u g h e x p e rie n ce g a in e d w h ile h e lp in g e x p e rie n ce d m ech a n ics. The main aptitudes needed by trainees are gen eral mechanical ability and manual dexterity. The calculating machine manufacturers generally pre fer to hire men in their early twenties. Outlook Opportunities for new workers to enter this field will be good for 4 or 5 years. Expanded training programs are being conducted by the manufactur ers and the need for skilled calculator servicemen in independent shops exceeds the supply. How ever, the number of new workers entering the oc cupation will be limited, since only about 2,400 men are engaged primarily in repairing calcu lators. M E C H A N IC S AND R E P A IR M E N 219 few lay-offs during depressions as the tendency during poor years is to keep the old machines in repair rather than to buy new ones. Earnings and Working Conditions Ph otograph by u . S. d e pa r tm e n t of labo r Cleaning a calculator with a fine spray of cleaning fluid— an impor tant step in keeping the complicated mechanism in good running condition. % Looking further into the future, prospects are for an upward trend in the employment of serv icemen, lasting for many years. There will be a growing demand for calculators in business and government. At the same time, there is a trend toward more complicated calculators, as they are improved and adapted to new uses. Servicing of calculators is little affected by changes in general economic conditions. There are In December 1917, typical earnings for a 40hour week ranged from $50 to $85. Including commissions and overtime, earnings were often considerably higher. Commissions are sometimes paid to service mechanics on sales o f contracts to do servicing for a particular firm. Servicemen may be promoted to supervisory jobs. The weekly earnings of a service manager range up to $120 and over— depending largely on the size of the shop. In manufacturers’ service branches, mechanics are sometimes transferred to the sales departments. Repairing calculators is usually light work and cleaner than most other mechanical trades. The occupation is relatively free from serious acci dents. Generally, servicemen dress like office workers, since most service work is performed in the offices where the machines are located. Where To Find Additional Information U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics; Employment Outlook for Business Machine Servicemen. Bulletin No. 892. Wash ington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1947. Price 15 cents. See also Adding Machine Servicemen, page 217. Cash Register Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.124) Outlook Summary During the next 4 or 5 years, a limited number o f new workers will be able to enter this field. The long-run outlook is for steady employment. Nature of Work C a sh -reg ister servicem en in sp ect, a dju st, and re p a ir cash registers. N ext to ty p e w r ite r s , cash registers are the m ost w id e ly used business m a ch in es. T h e y are fo u n d m a in ly in re ta il stores and service establish m en ts. C ash reg isters v a ry g re a tly in the n u m ber o f th in g s th ey can d o. The simple models merely record each transaction, total the day’s receipts, and provide a change drawer. The more complicated cash registers tab ulate several different kinds of information on one transaction simultaneously, such as identification of clerk, department, and type of merchandise, as well as provide printed receipts with such infor mation for the customer. The more elaborate cash registers actually perform many functions of ac counting machines. In some cases servicemen work on other types of business machines, such as adding machines or O C C U P A T IO N A L 220 OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K accounting machines. Most repairs and adjust ments are made in the establishments where the machines are used. Usually only major repair jobs are taken to the shop. Repairing cash reg isters involves determining the cause of trouble in the machines, replacing worn or broken parts, and cleaning and oiling machines. Servicemen use common hand tools, such as screw drivers, pliers, and punches, and special hand tools designed for cash registers. Training and Qualifications The training period for cash register mechanics employed in the manufacturers’ service branches generally consists of 1 year of on-the-job training followed by about 6 months at the company school. Cash register servicemen working in manufac turers’ shops are trained to repair only the com pany’s own line of machines. Servicemen working in independent repair shops generally have not had formal training, unless they are former employees of manufac turers’ service branches. Most of the men in the independent shops pick up the trade while work ing as helpers in the shops. In independent shops, servicemen are required to repair several different makes of cash registers, and several years of this informal training is required. New men entering the field should have general mechanical ability and enjoy working with ma chines. Since servicemen in this field make many contacts with customers, a presentable appearance and manner are important, and servicemen must be able to carry on some business transactions. Manufacturers generally prefer to hire as trainees high school graduates in their early twenties. Outlook Ph otograph by U. S. Departm en t of La b o r Cash-register repair is exacting work Where Employed Cash register servicemen are employed princi pally in large cities. However, most cities of 50,000 population and over have shops repairing cash registers. The great majority of servicemen primarily engaged in repairing cash registers are employed in the local service branches of the few manufacturing firms in this field. There is little transferring of servicemen among firms. Some of the repair work, especially in smaller towns, is done in independently owned local shops, with only a few employees, which repair other types of business machines, such as typewriters and adding machines. During the next 4 or 5 years, prospects will be good for new workers to enter the field in limited numbers. There will probably be more cash reg isters in use than ever before, since retail trade is expected to expand. Cash-register manufacturers are carrying on expanded-training programs, and are planning to open up many new service branches in the next few years. The number of men who can enter in any one year, however, is limited by the small size of the occupation. At the present time there are probably not more than 2,700 cash-regis ter repairmen in the United States. Longer-run prospects are for an upward trend in the employment of servicemen. Gradually in creasing sales of new machines and the trend to ward more complicated machines, which can do a wider variety of operations make it necessary for the manufacturers to build up larger service or ganizations. This work is not greatly affected by changes in general economic conditions. In time of depres sion there are few lay-offs. Cash registers are M E C H A N IC S AND great timesavers and they serve so many essential commercial purposes that they are a necessity in most businesses. Depressions affect the sales of new machines, but the repair and service work continues. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1947, experienced cash-register servicemen typically earned from $60 to $75 a week, plus over time for work beyond 40 hours. It generally takes a trainee 3 years to reach this level of earnings. Earnings may be increased through promotions to service supervisory jobs. Men showing sales tal ents are sometimes transferred to the sales depart ment. R E P A IR M E N 221 Repairing cash registers is comparatively free from the danger of accident and is cleaner than most other mechanical trades. Since most serv ice work is performed in the offices or stores where the machines are located, servicemen generally dress like white-collar workers. Where To Get Additional Information, U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Outlook for Business Machine Servicemen. Bulletin No. 892. Wash ington : U. S. Government Printing Office, 1947. Price 15 cents. Accounting-Statistical Machine Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.126) Outlook Summary A small number of new workers will be hired for trainee jobs during the next 3 or 4 years. The long-run outlook is for a gradual upward trend in the number of servicemen. Nature of Work These servicemen inspect, adjust, and repair punched-card accounting-statistical machines, such as card-punching, sorting, and tabulating ma chines, collators, multipliers and dividers, and verifiers. They also install machines in offices where they are used and sometimes train person nel to operate them. Accounting-statistical ma chines are machines designed to record and tabu late large masses of accounting and statistical data. The information is punched on cards alpha betically or according to a code, and the cards are put into machines which sort them and tabulate the results. These machines are used mainly in large organizations, such as Government agencies, department stores, insurance companies, and large industrial establishments for pay-roll and other accounting records, inventory control, statistical surveys, and similar purposes. Repair work involves determining the cause of trouble in the machines, replacing worn or broken parts, and cleaning and oiling machines. Service men use common hand tools such as screw drivers, wrenches, punches, and pliers, and a few hand tools which are specially made for these machines. Repairs and adjustments are usually made in the establishments where the machines are used. Where Employed Accounting-statistical-machine servicemen are employed by two firms which manufacture and service all accounting-statistical machines. These men may be assigned by their companies to work anywhere in the United States, but usually their work is in large cities. They rarely transfer from one company to the other. Training and Qualifications Men seeking employment in this field should have general mechanical ability and enjoy work ing with machinery. Both concerns employing these servicemen generally require that new trainees be in their early twenties and have at least a high-school education. In addition, 2 years’ technical schooling in electrical or mechanical engineering or equivalent electrical or mechanical experience is required. Men hired as trainees are first given a trial period o f 1 or 2 months’ on-the-job training. I f the new trainees are satisfactory, they are sent to the company school for a period of from 3 to 6 O C C U P A T IO N A L 222 OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K months. After completion of the school course they are put to work under supervision until they are able to service and repair machines on their own. This last period of training usually lasts from about 12 to 18 months. Outlook For many years in the future there will be con tinued growth in the use of punched-card account ing-statistical machines. This growth, together with the need for replacing those who leave this work, means that prospects should be favorable for entering the occupation and remaining em ployed in it for many years. The number of men that will be hired in any one year will be limited, however, by the small size of the occupation— there are about 2,600 punched-card accountingstatistical-machine servicemen employed at the present time—and by the fact that increases in use of the machines will be gradual rather than sharp. During the next 8 or 4 years prospects should be especially favorable for new workers to enter the occupation, as manufacturers are expanding their service organizations, to take care of the in creasing number of machines in use. Employment in this field will be steady, because this work is little affected by changes in general business conditions and because the policy of the companies in this field is to hold on to their serv icemen even when work is slack. In the past, there have been few lay-offs in time of depression. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of servicemen vary considerably. Typical weekly straight-time earnings for account ing-statistical-machine servicemen with at least 3 years’ experience ranged from about $65 to $85 at the end of 1947. However, a few of the most skilled servicemen earned up to $100 a week. Pe riodic pay increases are given to servicemen ac cording to skill and experience. Servicemen may be promoted to supervisory jobs, or may get into the sales departments. Servicing and repairing these machines is cleaner and lighter w ork than most other mechani T cal trades. The occupation is comparatively free from the danger of accident. Servicemen gen erally dress like office workers, since the work is clean and is usually performed in the offices where the machines are used. Where To Get Additional Information U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau o f Labor Statistics, Employment Outlook for Business Ma chine Servicemen. Bulletin No. 892. Washing ton : U. S. Government Printing Office, 1947. Price 15 cents. See also Adding Machine Servicemen, page 217; Calculating Machine Servicemen, page 218; and Cash Register Servicemen, page 219. Accounting-Bookkeeping Machine Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.121) Outlook Summary p o st en tries, som e d o b illin g , w h ile oth ers are c o m O p p o r tu n itie s w ill be g o o d f o r a lim ited n u m b er o f m en w ith ex p erien ce in r e p a ir in g a d d in g m a ch in es, ca lcu la to rs, an d cash re g is te r s; th e re w ill be fe w o p p o r tu n itie s f o r m en w ith o u t th is e x p e r i ence. F o r th ose su ccessfu l in e n terin g the field, p ro sp e cts are f o r stea d y em p loy m en t. m ach in es. T h ese m a ch in es are used w h e re v e r a g re a t d eal o f a cco u n tin g a n d b o o k k e e p in g is d on e, such as in d e p a rtm e n t stores, la r g e re ta il and* w h olesa le businesses, and banks. S in ce th ere are ca ted , th e s e rv ic in g is h ig h ly sk ille d w o rk . T h ese servicem en in sp e ct, a d ju st, and r e p a ir a c T h ere are S erv ic in g these m a ch in es is som etim es co m b in e d w ith th e s e r v ic in g o f o th e r office m ach ines. a R e p a ir w o r k in v o lv e s d e te rm in in g the cau se o f n u m b er o f d iffe re n t ty p e s o f these m ach ines— som e tr o u b le in th e m a ch in es, r e p la c in g w o r n o r b ro k e n m ach ines. A ll ty p e s h a v e k e y b o a rd s, lik e ty p e w r ite r s a n d a d d in g several d iffe re n t ty p e s o f m a ch in es, each c o m p li Nature o f work c o u n tin g -b o o k k e e p in g b in a tio n ty p e w r ite r s and c o m p u tin g d evices. M E C H A N IC S parts, and cleaning and oiling machines. Service men use common hand tools such as wrenches, punches, pliers, screw drivers, and a few hand tools which are specially designed for the particu lar type of machine being repaired. Adjustments and minor repairs are made in the offices where the machines are used. However, some major repair work is taken to the shop. AND R E P A IR M E N 223 work with other repair work. Two other major companies train their mechanics to work on all of the office machines that they manufacture. One of these firms has a 4- to 5-year training program. Usually a man must have had 1 or 2 years’ ex perience as an adding machine, calculator, or cash register repairman in order to be eligible for ac counting-bookkeeping machine training—which consists of 2 or 3 years of on-the-job instruction and, in some cases, an additional 6 months of train ing at a company school. Some of the repair work on accounting-bookkeeping machines requires con siderable experience and knowledge of the ma chines. Servicemen who have just completed their training need additional experience before they are qualified to perform all repair work. The main aptitudes needed by a trainee are gen eral mechanical ability and manual dexterity. Most manufacturers of these machines prefer to hire men in their early twenties as trainees. Since servicemen in this field make many contacts with customers, a presentable appearance and manner is important to the employers. Outlook Photograph by u . S. Departm ent of labo r Repairing accounting-bookkeeping machines is one of the most highly paid of business-machine servicing jobs Where Employed These servicemen are employed principally in large cities, since this is where the bulk of the ma chines are used. Most accounting-bookkeeping ma chine mechanics are employed in the local service branches of companies which manufacture this equipment. There is little transferring of service men among the five main companies in this field. Only a very few servicemen are in independent repair shops. Training and Qualifications Training programs for accounting-bookkeeping machine repairmen vary greatly among the com panies employing these workers, partly because this work is frequently combined with the repair of other business machines. One large concern uses its mechanics primarily on the accounting bookkeeping machines and does not combine this During the next 5 or 6 years, prospects will be good for a limited number of new men to enter this field. Additional workers will be trained in order to service the growing number of accounting bookkeeping machines in use. However, most of the trainees will be drawn from the ranks of mechanics repairing other business machines, such as calculators. The accounting-bookkeeping machine manufacturers make other machines, such as adding machines, calculators, and cash registers, and the practice has developed of transferring some of the more skillful mechanics on these less complex machines to servicing the more intricate bookkeeping machines. Although this field is small, comprising about 1,600 workers, it will probably expand gradually for several years to come. The trend is not only toward greater sales of these machines, but also toward greater complexity in newly developed equipment, which tends to increase the need for servicemen. Long-run prospects are excellent for stable em ployment for those already in the trade or for those entering in the next few years, since this 224 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK occupation is little affected by declines in general business activity. The tendency during poor busi ness years is to keep old machines in repair rather than to buy new ones. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1947, experienced servicemen typically earned from $60 to $85 for a 40-hour week, with some working 8 hours longer and receiving overtime pay. It .generally takes a trainee about 3 years to reach this level of earnings. Experienced serv icemen may be promoted to supervisory jobs. Men showing sales aptitude are sometimes trans ferred to the sales departments. Repairing these machines is comparatively free HANDBOOK from the danger of accident and is cleaner than most other mechanical trades. Since most work is performed in the offices where the machines are located, servicemen generally dress like office workers. Where To Find Additional Information U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau o f Labor Statistics, Employment Outlook for Business Machine Servicemen. Bulletin No. 892. Wash ington : U. S. Government Printing Office, 1947. Price 15 cents. Fee also: Cash Register Servicemen, page 219; Calculating Machine Servicemen, page 218; and Adding Machine Servicemen, page 217. Gunsmiths (D.O.T. 5-83.542) Outlook Summary There will be a small number of job openings for highly skilled workers; also some demand for less-skilled workers to do gun repairing in gen eral locksmith and repair shops. Nature of Work The gunsmith rebuilds, repairs, and alters fire arms, usually as the proprietor of a small shop. His duties include the repair o f broken and wornout parts and making new parts, frequently in volving the use of such machine tools as the lathe and grinding machine, as well as many types of hand and woodworking tools. In addition some gunsmiths design and make new guns requiring a high degree o f skill. Gunsmithing is carried on by two main kinds o f workers in two types of shops: (1) The com bination locksmith and gun-repair shop operated by a mechanic who does general repair work on mechanical equipment and guns. The gun-repair work o f this type o f shop is primarily seasonal. (2) The shop operated by an expert craftsman who works on guns throughout the year and who specializes in intricate jobs, very often working on unusual and expensive arms. Qualifications for doing this work in a lock smith and gun-repair shop are general mechanical aptitude, and actual experience which can be best acquired by starting as a helper in a repair shop. The specialized gunsmith, the other type of worker, usually receives his training by spending much time rebuilding and repairing rifles and guns. He frequently gets started in the craft by tinkering with his own guns and if he has sufficient mechan ical ability and interest in this hobby, he goes on to acquire a greater knowledge of gun repair and machine-shop practice. Some men have been able to establish themselves in the trade by doing re pair jobs on a small scale among their acquaint ances and acquiring a reputation for doing good work. The more specialized gunsmith who spends most of his time designing and making new guns must have all-round skill. In designing new guns he may have to lay out the plan on paper, apply math ematical calculations, and do precision machining and wood shaping. Gunsmiths are found throughout the country, to a large extent in the rural areas in which hunting is important. They are especially numerous in the Middle West and West. Most locksmith and repair shops are located in cities and the larger towns. Outlook During the next few years and also over the longer run there will be some opportunities for M E C H A N IC S AND h ig h ly sk illed w ork ers, m o s tly as rep lacem en ts f o r th ose w h o leave the o cc u p a tio n due to d eath a n d retirem en t. N u m bers o f p erson s w h o used sm all arm s w h ile in the serv ice w ill becom e in cre a sin g ly interested in firearm s, b o th f o r s p o r t and as relics. 225 R E P A IR M E N is anticipated. There will be a moderate number of openings for gunsmiths in the locksmith and general repair shops. Despite the possibility of some growth, the size of the occupation will con tinue to be very small. A s a result, a s lig h t increase in jo b o p p o r tu n itie s Shoe Repairmen (D.O.T. 4-60.100) Outlook /Summary The trade can use only a few additional workers in the next several years. Over the longer run the present employment level—considerably above prewar— will be maintained, with very little change. Nature o f Work The shoe repairman resoles and reheels shoes and performs various other repair jobs. To resole a shoe, he first rips off the old sole with a pair of nippers and levels and sands the welt (narrow strip of leather between the shoe upper and the sole). Next, the new sole is set in place over the welt and permanently attached either by cement ing, nailing, or machine stitching. Then the edges of the new sole are held against a revolving trim mer until the sole is trimmed to the shape of the shoe. Finally, the bottom of the sole is buffed, and the edges and bottom are waxed and stained to give a finished appearance. In reheeling, the old heel must be snipped off, and a new one shaped (by hand or machine) and fastened into place. The new heel is buffed and finished in the same manner as new soles. Numerous other shoerepair services, such as cleaning, dyeing, and stretching, stitching ripped seams, patching holes, attaching heel and toe plates, and replacing but tons and buckles, are a part of the everyday work of the shoe repairman. Over three-fourths o f the shoe repairmen (about 60,000 working in 1940) own or operate their own shops. Most of the shops are small one-man busi nesses and the owner-repairman is an all-round workman capable of handling almost any repair job. Comparatively few of the 50,000 shops throughout the country in 1939 had more than one qualified repairman. One-man shops frequently h av e a b o o tb la c k o r w o r k e r to d o o d d jo b s, b u t su ch em p loy ees ra re ly a ch iev e th e status o f shoe rep a irm a n . I n la r g e sh o e -re p a ir sh op s lo ca te d in d o w n to w n section s o f cities, sk ille d cr a ftsm e n are o fte n sp ecia lists. S om e, f o r instan ce, w o r k o n ly o n m e n ’s shoes o r w o m e n ’s shoes, o th e rs sp e cia lize in m a ch in e o p e ra tio n s o r b en ch (h a n d ) w o r k , and p a r tia lly tra in e d w o rk e rs m a y p e r fo r m th e sim p le tasks. How To Get Into the Trade The most common method of entering this trade is by serving an apprenticeship (usually 2 years) under an experienced shoe repairman. However, many shoe repairmen pick up the trade by getting a minor job in one of the large shops and advancing from the least difficult to the most difficult oper ations. Less emphasis is placed upon apprentice ship in large shops, where beginners are often hired and trained in a few months for one par ticular operation—such as finishing—which they continue to do. Outlook Prospects for additional skilled repairmen are not very bright despite the fact that those in the trade expect to retain at least 50 percent of the wartime increase in business. During the war there was an unprecedented demand for shoe re pairers. At the same time many skilled men were lost to the armed forces. As a result o f the efforts to fill wartime needs there is currently a sizable number of partially trained workers. The major ity will remain in the trade and eventually become skilled repairmen. A good many will doubtless want to go into business for themselves. Conse quently, opportunities for additional workers to 226 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK obtain training and experience in shoe repairing will be limited for the next few years. Prospects for continuing employment are good for those who learn the trade. The demand for shoe repairs is fairly steady and goes on very much the same year after year. Few shoe repair busi nesses fail, even in periods of depression. Jobs are located throughout the country, in small cities as well as large. Employment oppor tunities are better in the Middle Atlantic and East North Central States where over one-half of the shoe repair shops are located. Barring excessive competition, shoe repairmen usually fare better in cities because the average expenditures per HANDBOOK family for shoe repairs are much larger than in small towns and rural areas. Earnings In prewar years workers in shoe repair shops were not highly paid. Wages of skilled men ranged from $25 to $35 a week. Wages have risen to the point where skilled workmen in city shops now receive from $55 to $80 a week and semiskilled finishers from $35 to $45. Hours of work are often long. Employment in shoe repairing is fairly steady throughout the year with the busiest seasons occurring in early spring and fall. W atch Repairmen (D.O.T. 4-71.510) Outlook Summary Good employment outlook for skilled men both in near future and in long run. Good current op portunities for men watchmaker-school graduates but competition for junior jobs likely to become keen within next few years. Long-run employ ment trend slowly upward. Nature of Work Watch repairmen (who are frequently referred to as “ watchmakers” ) repair and adjust time pieces. This involves a variety of duties such as inserting new springs, refitting pivots, truing bal ance wheels, and grinding old parts or making new parts. These workers also clean and oil the parts, refinish dials, and repair or replace wrist bands. In small shops, watch repairmen may per form some o f the simpler types of jewelry repair and sometimes sell jewelry and watches. It is customary to specialize in either watch or clock repair work. The latter generally requires less skill than the former. Where Employed Watchmakers work in retail jewelry stores, de partment stores, mail-order houses, “ trade shops” which service retail stores, repair departments of watch and clock factories, and importing firms. Many of these in retail stores and trade shops are in business for themselves. J o b s are to be fo u n d in all p a rts o f th e co u n tr y , b u t a re co n ce n tra te d in la rg e cities, p a r tic u la r ly N e w Y o r k w h ich , in a d d itio n to o th e r ty p e s o f sh o p s, has m o st o f th e im p o r t in g firm s. S o m e e m p lo y m e n t a n d business o p p o r tu n itie s , h o w e v e r , w ill b e fo u n d in sm a ller cities, in som e o f w h ich th ere are fe w e r w a tch m a k ers re la tiv e to d em a n d th a n in la r g e cities. Qualifications Watch repairing is extremely intricate and pre cise work and requires much patience as well as a high degree of mechanical aptitude. A veteran who has had instrument repair experience has usually developed a partial skill of small-tool manipulation and would probably make a good watch technician provided he received further training. Anyone wishing to enter the watchmaking trade will find that 1 or 2 years in a watchmaker’s train ing school is desirable; without such training it will generally be difficult to qualify later as a highly skilled watchmaker. The best watchmak ers’ schools provide thorough training in all phases of the trade, though their graduates need months of experience and practice on the job to reach a high rate of output. Men trained at lowergrade schools may need 3 to 5 years of work ex perience to become highly skilled. Some employ ers take on men with less than a year’s training in M E C H A N IC S AND a school or with no school background at all and attempt to train them on the job, but watchmakers are usually too busy now to give beginners ade quate attention. Only a small number of shops have formal apprenticeship programs. Such pro grams and also most jobs for recent school gradu ates and other partially qualified men are in larger shops where there is more specialization. Small shops, particularly in large cities, generally hire only skilled men. Certificates, which are widely recognized by em ployers throughout the country, are issued by the Horological Institute of America to those who are able to pass the Institute’s examinations and thus demonstrate a certain quality o f workmanship. Junior watchmaker certificates are granted to those able to pass a relatively simple examination, usually men who have completed school or the equivalent in on-the-job training. Certified watchmaker certificates are awarded to men who pass the more difficult examination, usually men who have had about five or more years’ experience. Certificates of proficiency are also issued by the Testing and Certification Laboratory of the United Horological Association of America. However, the States which require licenses—namely, W is consin, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, Oregon, and Oklahoma— will not accept the certificates of either organization in lieu o f their own exami nations. Outlook There is a shortage o f skilled workers at the present time; also good opportunities for watchmaker-school graduates. Employment in the oc cupation was about 15,000 to 20,000 before the war and is now somewhat higher. Junior watchmak ers who have completed a school course or equiv alent on-the-job training are entering the field at the rate of about 5,000 to 6,000 a year. Neverthe less, more watches are being brought in for repair than can be taken care of. This is due largely to the interruption of production of new watches and clocks caused by conversion of the industry to war production. While there is an oversupply of job applicants without adequate basic training, many R E P A IR M E N 227 shops refuse to employ them because they are likely to damage the watches. The shortage of skilled workers, though acute, is declining and will be relieved, according to one estimate, in 3 to 6 years. The watchmakers’ schools have expanded enrollments and the better ones have waiting lists, although these waiting lists are declining. When the boom in veterans’ training has subsided, enrollments are likely to drop off, but they may not drop soon enough to avoid a surplus of new graduates. The number of watches and clocks brought in for repair is likely to diminish as worn-out timepieces are re placed by new ones, since the watch and clock industry is producing at peak levels. Watch makers with inadequate training will be in danger of being displaced, and even well-trained junior men may have difficulty getting jobs. The long-run trend in employment is slowly upward, because of the rising trend in watch and clock ownership. Retirement of older watch makers is a factor in creating employment oppor tunities. This trade is less affected by declines in business activity than many other fields. A topnotch man (skilled enough to make his own parts) is likely to have employment in good times and bad. Earnings In early 1948, experienced watchmakers typi cally made around $100 a week, according to one estimate. Earnings of self-employed watch makers vary considerably, depending not only upon the individual’s skill but also upon the num ber of men working for him and, in the case of retail jewelry stores, upon the quantity of stock and volume o f sales. Work and earnings are fairly steady throughout the year. Where To Go for Additional Information Horological Institute o f America, National Bureau o f Standards, Washington, D. C. United Horological Association of America, 1549 Lawrence Street, Denver 2, Colo. See also: Watch and Clock Factory Workers, page 370. 228 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Jewelry Repairmen (D .O .T . 4-71.010 and .020 Outlook Summary A few scattered job openings for top-skilled men, but trade overcrowded with partially trained workers and trainees. Chances for newcomers therefore poor, at least for next few years. Not much expansion in employment expected in long run. Trade likely to be very much affected by any decline in general business activity. Nature o f Work These workers repair and reshape jewelry such as rings, pins, chains, earrings, bracelets, clasps, religious jewelry, necklaces, and other ornaments. In smaller shops they may also set stones or design and make pieces of jewelry. Occasionally, the repairmen do hand engraving on jewelry and sil verware or handle very minor watch repairs. Where Employed Jewelry repairmen work chiefly in retail jewelry stores; but also in repair departments of jewelry factories and of department stores, and in trade shops which do work for retail stores. Most shops or repair departments are small, employing only a handful of men. In retail stores, repairmen some times assist in selling jewelry and watches. A good many repairmen eventually acquire their own trade shops or retail jewelry stores. How To Enter It takes 2 to 3 years of on-the-job experience and training in the trade to become qualified to handle most repair jobs; several years more to become a highly skilled, all-round jeweler. Only a small number of shops—generally the larger ones—have apprenticeship systems; except in these shops there are few opportunities to get wellrounded training. There are in some cities pub lic and private vocational schools which offer courses in jewelry repair and design, stone setting, and engraving. Additional practical experience is necessary after completing a school course, in order to become a skilled worker. S in c e th is is lig h t se d e n ta ry w o r k , it is su ita b le f o r p e o p le w ith ce rta in ty p e s o f p h y sic a l h a n d i cap s. M a n y d isa b le d veteran s h a v e been su ccess f u lly e m p lo y e d in th is field. This is a small occupation, employing only a few thousand men. The supply of skilled repair men is about adequate for present needs, although there are a few scattered job openings. The labor shortage which developed during and immediately after the war, has now disappeared. Many former workers have returned to the trade from war in dustries and the armed services. In addition, jewelry sales, after reaching a peak in the spring of 1946, have since been showing a slight decline, especially in the higher priced lines, thereby lessen ing the need for skilled men. Partially trained men, with whom the trade is oversupplied, are in a much more unfavorable position. Now that the need for workers is not so acute, these men are finding it harder to get jobs. Trainee openings will also be scarce for the next few years owing both to the surplus of semiskilled workers and to the fact that more men than usual have been taken on as trainees since the end of the war. What few openings for beginners and partially skilled work ers do occur in the next few years will generally be found in the larger trade shops and department store service departments. Retail jewelry stores, who rarely employ more than one or two men, re quire skilled workers. A few highly skilled and experienced men may be able to open their own retail stores or trade shops, especially in medium-sized communities which do not now have such services. Retail stores, which carry watch and jewelry stock, re quire at least $5,000 capital to start in a modest way; stores in a better location or having more stock are likely to need between $10,000 and $15,000 as a minimum. For a trade shop, several thousand dollars would be needed for materials and machinery. L it t le i f a n y in crea se o v e r p resen t e m p lo y m e n t levels is e x p e cte d in the lo n g run. O p e n in g s th a t M E C H A N IC S AND arise will be primarily due to turn-over, and these will be few in number since turn-over is character istically slight in this occupation. Furthermore, since this is a luxury trade, it is greatly affected by declines in general business activity. In bad times, repair business tends to be somewhat more stable than jewelry making; people who can afford any expenditure in this field are likely to have their old jewelry repaired rather than buy new pieces. What jobs are to be found will be scattered throughout the country. The majority are in the larger cities. However, some employment and business opportunities, especially for skilled men, will be found in smaller cities, where earnings may not be as high but there is often much less compe tition for jobs. Earnings Weekly earnings of skilled men, according to scattered reports, ranged from $65 to $160 in late 1947. Those in business for themselves may earn somewhat more. Earnings are greatest before and immediately after Christmas. Overtime is very 793996°—49 -1 6 R E P A IR M E N 229 common. The months when there is the least work are those in the late winter and early spring. Where To Go for More Information Additional information on job opportunities, training, earnings, and related matters may be ob tained from the following organizations: International Jewelry W orkers Union, AFL, Suite 825, 551 5th Ave., New York 17, N. Y. Jewelry Industry Council, 366 5th Ave., New York 1, N. Y. Playthings, Jewelry, and Novelty W orkers Interna tional Union, CIO, 225 Lafayette St., Room 606, New York 12, N. Y. The following pamphlet contains information helpful to those interested in going into business for themselves: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of For eign and Domestic Commerce. Establishing and Operating a Jewelry Store. Industrial (Small Business) Series No. 55. U. S. Government Print ing Office; Washington, D. C., 1947. Price 15 cents. Machine Shop Occupations Machine-shop workers are the largest occupa tional group in metalworking and one of the most important groups in all industry. Currently, about 850,000 workers are employed in the skilled and semiskilled machining occupations. In addi tion, there are many thousands of other workers, such as inspectors, helpers, and laborers employed in machine shops. Nature o f Machine Shop Work Metal is cut down to shape in machine shops by machine tools— power-driven machines which firmly hold both the piece of metal to be shaped and a cutting instrument, or tool, and bring them together so that the metal is cut, shaved, ground, or drilled. In some, the tool is moved and the metal held stationary; in others, the metal is moved against a stationary tool. The most common kinds of machine tools include the engine lathe, turret lathe, grinding machine, boring mill, drilling machine, milling machine, screw machine, shaper, and planer. The opera tion of lathes is known as turning. The piece of metal being cut is rotated against the cutting tool held in the machine. A screw machine is a type of lathe. Boring mills and drilling machines are Genera! view of a small machine shop. C O U R T E S Y O F N A T IO N A L A R C H IV E S 230 M A C H IN E SH OP among the machines that make holes in metal. Grinding machines remove metal with a powerdriven abrasive wheel. Milling machines shape metal with a saw-toothed cutting tool. Planers and shapers are used to machine flat surfaces. Some machine shops manufacture metal prod ucts and others do maintenance work—making or repairing metal parts for machinery or equipment in use. The manufacturing shops are of two main types—job shops and production shops—depend ing upon the way their production is organized. In job shops, the earliest developed, a wide variety of products may be made, with relatively few of each kind. Production shops, on the other hand, make large quantities of identical parts. O C C U P A T IO N S 231 found in the maintenance shops of a large number of nonmetalworking industries, including, for ex ample, railroads, public utilities, and plants mak ing such products as cotton textiles, paper, ciga rettes, chemicals, and food. Even though the number of machine-shop workers in most nonmetal industries is small, these industries, taken together, are important as a source of employment for machine-shop workers since they provide almost one-fifth of the jobs for them. Moreover, in many cases the machine-shop jobs rate among the better job opportunities in the plant and its locality, as for example, in many textile mills in southern towns. General Employment Outlooh Industries Where Employed Machine-shop workers are employed principally in the metalworking industries. Nearly every industry, however, employs some machine-shop workers in maintenance work. About four-fifths of all workers in the machine-shop occupations have jobs in metal industries like machinery, auto mobiles, and iron and steel (see chart 35). Most of the remaining machine-shop workers are Prospects are for a moderate rise in the number of machine-shop jobs during the next several years. Continued high employment levels are anticipated in many of the metal-working industries, which are the main source of machine-shop jobs. Some of these industries are likely to hire considerable numbers of additional workers for their machine shops. There will also be opportunities in the maintenance machine shops o f a wide variety of nonmetal industries. After a few years of high employment, the num ber of jobs in many metalworking industries will probably decline somewhat, after the backlog of demand for many metal products is worked off. However, in the long run, machine-shop employ ment should remain far above what it was before the war. The long-term trend in metalworking employment has been upward (chart 36). But one may also see in the chart that the industries using machine-shop workers are hit severely by depressions. Even more than employment trends, replace ment needs are likely to affect job opportunities in machine shops. A high proportion of machineshop workers, especially the more skilled, are of advanced age and will have to be replaced in a relatively few years. Deaths and retirements may create from about 13,000 to 17,000 job openings annually. In addition, many new workers will be needed to replace the large numbers of lessskilled machine-shop workers who shift into other lines o f work, or drop out of the labor market for one reason or another. 232 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K C H AR T 36 E M P L O Y M E N T IN M E T A L W O R K I N G I S AT A P E A C E T I M E HIGH ( P R O D U C T IO N W O R K E R S ) MI LLI O N S MILLIONS UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS In many areas there will be relatively few ap prentice openings for another year or two because of the large number o f apprentices taken on since the end of the war. When these men have com pleted their training, however, apprentice open ings should be fairly numerous. A ll in all, there should be many openings for new workers in machine-shop jobs during the next few years. These workers will have favorable prospects for continued employment over a period of many years. Even though the employment outlook for ma chine-shop workers is generally favorable, there are some differences in prospects among the vari ous occupations. The outlook in some of the major machine-shop occupations is summarized in the following reports. to perform any of the operations in a machine shop rather than to work on only one type of machine. Tool and die makers are essentially highly trained machinists who specialize on tool or die work. The function of tool makers is to make CHART 37 MAJOR MACHINE SHOP OCCUPATIONS EM PLOY ME NT, 19 47 T H O U S A N D S OF W OR KER S 0 100 The Major Occupations Major machine-shop occupations are shown in chart 37. The basic machine-shop job is that of the all-round machinist. Machinists are employed mainly where workers are needed who are qualified UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 200 300 400 500 600 M A C H IN E SHOP cutting tools used on machine tools, jigs, and fix tures which hold the work while it is being ma chined, and gages and other precision measuring devices. Die makers construct the dies used in such metal-forming operations as forging, stamp ing, and pressing, and they also make the metal molds used in clie-casting metal and molding plastics. The specialized operators of machine tools make up the bulk of the workers in machine shops. These workers may be either relatively skilled men who can handle a variety of work on one type of machine, including the making of adjustments on the machine, or they may be less skilled opera tors whose duties are confined principally to plac ing the workpiece in the machine and watching its operation. Nearly 540,000 are employed as machine-tool operators. In many production shops it is possible to use semiskilled machine-tool operators only because the most difficult parts of the work are done for them by set-up men and lay-out men. The set-up man is a skilled specialist employed in machine shops which carry on large-volume production. His job is to install cutting tools and adjust the O C C U P A T IO N S controls of machine tools so that they can be run by semiskilled operators. The lay-out man is a highly skilled specialist whose job is to make guide marks on metal before it is machined to indicate to the machine-tool operators the kind of machining needed. This is one of the smaller machine-shop occupations. Where Machine-Shop Jobs Are Found Because so many machine shops are in metal working industries, the bulk of them are found in the northeastern and midwestern sections of the country, where these industries are concentrated. Some machine-shop employment, however, is scat tered throughout the country in railroad repair shops and the maintenance shops of other indus tries. There are machine-shop jobs in every State, as is shown in chart 38. Where To Get Additional Information Employment Outlook in Machine-Shop Occupa tions. Bulletin No. 895. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1947. 28 pp., 3 charts, 7 illus. Price, 20 cents. Superintendent of Documents, Wash ington, D. C. S IX STA TES HAVE T H R E E -F IF T H S OF T H E M A C H I N E S H O P J O B S U N IT E D STATES D E PA R TM EN T OF LA BO R BUREAU OF LA B O R STA TISTIC S 233 234 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K All-Round Machinists (D.O.T. 4-75.010) Outlook Summary C o n tin u e d h ig h e m p lo y m e n t o f m a ch in ists is e x p e cte d f o r th e n e x t several years. C u rre n tly , th ere are fe w a p p re n tice o p e n in g s, b u t a fte r a y e a r o r tw o , th ere w ill p r o b a b ly be m a n y n ew a p p re n tice s h ired . Nature o f Work This is a skilled machine-shop occupation, in which about 175,000 men are employed. In addi tion, there are thousands of men with training as all-round machinists but employed in other machine-shop occupations, such as that of ma chine-tool operator. Variety is the main feature of the all-round machinist’s work. He knows how to work from blueprints and specifications, can select the tools and materials for each job, and can plan the se quence of machining operations. He is able to set up and operate such standard machine tools as lathes, planers, milling machines, grinders, shap ers, boring mills, and drilling machines. Where Employed The majority o f all-round machinist jobs are in maintenance shops in industries which use ma chinery, such as railroads, textile mills, automobile factories, oil refineries, steel mills, and printing plants. Many all-round jobs are also found in manufacturing shops (including job and produc tion shops) which make machinery and metal parts, such as machine tools, tractors, and railroad equipment. In job shops, a wide variety of prod ucts may be made, with relatively few of each kind. Production shops, on the other hand, make large quantities o f identical parts. In general, work in j ob and maintenance shops requires greater all-round skill. In production shops, there are large numbers o f men trained as all-round machin ists, but not usually employed as such; these men specialize in a single machine-shop function, such as set-ujf or operation of one type of machine tool. M o s t o f th e m a ch in is ts ’ jo b s are in the M id d le Western and Northeastern States where the metal working industries are concentrated. However, machinists are employed in every State because of their use in maintenance work. Training and Qualifications The machinist trade can be learned in two ways. According to most authorities, a 4-year appren ticeship is the best way, but, on the other hand, many have qualified without an apprenticeship, by picking up the trade over a number of years of varied shop experience. An apprentice machinist must be mechanically inclined and temperamentally suited to very care ful and exact work. Great physical strength is not required for this work. A high-school or trade-school education is desirable preparation for machinist training and some employers require such preparation. In general, this is a man’s occupation. Outlook The number of all-round machinist jobs during the next several years is expected to continue at about the present high level. However, there will be relatively few apprentice openings for a year or two, until the present large number of appren tices who are already enrolled have completed training. Replacement needs will create many opportuni ties. There are many all-round machinists closely approaching the age when death or retirement will take them from their jobs. To provide for their replacement, over 40,000 new machinists must be trained during the next decade. In manufacturing shops the number of jobs re quiring all-round machinists to fill them may be expected to show a slight, gradual decline after the next several years, mainly because o f technical changes which reduce the skill needed, permitting some substitution of less-trained men. Machinist training will continue, however, to offer consider able advantage. Machinists are generally pre ferred for specialized jobs, which often pay as well M A C H IN E SHOP or better than all-round jobs. Moreover, all round machine-shop workers must continue to be hired in order to supply the necessary supervisory staffs. In maintenance shops, the increasing mechanization of industry may expand the need for maintenance machinists to keep production equipment in working order. Co urtesy of n a t io n a l A r c h iv e s The basic machine shop job is that of the all-round machinist, who can operate all standard types of machine tools. Earnings and Working Conditions Although the pay of all-round machinists com pares favorably with that of other machine-shop workers, it is often lower than the earnings of skilled machine-tool operators, many of whom work on an incentive basis. The earnings of machinists vary considerably among localities. The average straight-time hourly earnings of pro duction machinists in machinery plants in Novem ber 1917 are shown here for selected large cities. O C C U P A T IO N S A tlan ta_____________$1.42 B altim ore___________ 1. 47 B irm in gh am _______ 1. 46 B oston --------------------- 1.32 Buffalo______________ 1. 35 Charlotte____________ 1.16 Chattanooga________ 1. 40 Chieago-Gary_______ 1. 58 Cleveland___________ 1. 54 D allas______________ 1.36 D enver_____________ 1. 34 D e t r o it _____________ 1. 60 H o u sto n ____________ 1. 49 In d ia n a p olis_______ 1. 48 Los Angeles________ 1. 54 235 M ilw aukee_________ $1.42 MinneapolisSt. Paul__________ 1. 43 Newark-Jersey City_ 1. 42 New York City_____ 1. 49 P h ila d elp h ia_______ 1.45 P ittsbu rgh _________ 1. 53 P ortla n d -O regon ___ 1. 58 Providence_________ 1.27 St. Louis____________ 1. 65 San Francisco______ 1. 67 Seattle---------------------- 1.67 Syracuse____________ 1. 48 Tulsa_______________ 1. 41 W a terbu ry _________ 1. 38 The great majority of machinists are members o f unions. There are a number of labor organiza tions in this field, some of the more important of which are the International Association of Ma chinists (Independent), the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America (C IO ), the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America (C IO ), the United Steelworkers of America (C IO ), and the Mechanics Educational Society of America (Independent). The promotional opportunities for all-round machinists are good. Many advance to foreman of a section in the shop, or to other supervisory jobs. With additional training, some develop into tool and die makers. Highly skilled and expe rienced machinists sometimes have the chance to start small machine shops of their own. Most machine shops are relatively clean, well lighted, and free from dust. The danger of seri ous accidents in machine shops is comparatively small. Machine shops are generally safer places in which to work than are most factories. /See also Set-Up Men (Machine S hop), page 244; Lay-Out Men (Machine Shop), page 245; Tool and Die Makers, page 236; Engine-Lathe Operators, page 238; Turret-Lathe Operators, page 239; Grinding Machine Operators, page 241; Milling Machine Operators, page 242; and Shaper Oper ators, page 243. 236 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K Tool and Die Makers (D.O.T. 4-76.010, .040, and .210) Outlook Summary Rising employment levels are expected for the next several years, but there will be few appren tice openings. Over the longer run, however, re placement needs will create many jobs for new workers. Nature of Work Tool and die makers are essentially highly trained machinists who specialize on tool or die work. Theirs is the most skilled job in machine shops and is also one o f the larger skilled fields in metalworking—nearly 100,000 are currently em ployed. The function of tool makers is to make cutting tools used on machine tools, jigs, and fixtures (which hold the work while it is being machined), and gages and other precision measuring devices. Die makers construct the dies used in such metal forming operations as forging, stamping, and pressing and they also make the metal molds used in die-casting metal and molding plastics. Tool and die makers must have a broad knowledge of machine-shop work, including blueprint reading, laying out work, setting up and operating machine tools, and using precision-measuring instruments. Training and Qualifications To learn this work requires rounded and varied machine-shop experience, usually obtained through formal apprenticeship or the equivalent in other types of on-the-job training. A tool and die apprenticeship ordinarily covers 4 or 5 years, including mainly shop training in various parts o f the job. Since tool and die making is the most exacting type of machine-shop job, persons plan ning to enter the trade should have a great deal o f mechanical ability and liking for painstaking work. This is essentially a man’s job, although little physical strength is required. Where Employed Although tool and die makers work in many different metalworking industries, the automobile industry, with nearly one-third of the jobs, is the largest employer. Also very important are tool and die jobbing shops. Many are employed in other machinery industries, including electrical machinery and general industrial equipment. Among the nonmetal industries using these work ers is the plastics products industry, which em ploys die makers to make metal molds. Most of the tool and die maker employment is in the midwestern and northeastern sections o f the country. Michigan, especially the Detroit area, has more jobs than any other section. Many are also employed in Ohio, Illinois, New York, and Pennsylvania. Outlook Prospects are for several years of rising employ ment in this occupation. The biggest factor in the job outlook for tool and die makers is the expected large volume of automobile production. High output of automobiles will also tend to maintain employment in tool and die jobbing shops, many of which serve the automobile industry. Pro spective Government programs for expanding pro duction o f military aircraft will also require addi tional tool and die makers. In many other indus tries—such as the heavy electrical equipment and farm machinery industries—production prospects are good. Moreover, tooling up for various new products will provide additional jobs. Replacement needs are important, because many tool and die makers are approaching ages at which they are increasingly likely to drop out o f the labor force because o f death or retirement. Dur ing the next 10 years, such drop-outs may create upward o f 20,000 new openings. During the next year or two, there will be rela tively few apprentice openings, because o f the large number o f apprentices taken on recently. However, after these men complete training, apprentice openings should be numerous. After several years, the accumulated demand for many metal products will have been met, and the employment of tool and die makers will prob- M A C H IN E SH OP ably drop slightly from its high postwar level. However, large numbers of these workers will still be needed, not only to repair and replace the tools and dies normally used by industry, but also to retool plants for new products. It is reasonably certain that those who enter the trade during the Ph otograph by U. S. Departm ent of La b o r An apprentice tool and die maker learns how to operate standard machine tools, such as this shaper. next several years will find good employment opportunities for many years to come. Even in the event of a general business depression, with machine-shop employment temporarily down, ex perienced tool and die makers, because of their all round skills would have fairly good chances to get lower rated machine-shop jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions This is the highest paid machine-shop occupa tion. Earnings of tool and die makers vary con siderably among localities. Average straighttime hourly earnings of tool and die makers 237 O C C U P A T IO N S employed in machinery plants in November 1947 are shown below for selected large cities. Atlanta______________ $1. 45 Baltim ore__________ 1. 61 Birm ingham________ 1.55 Boston______________ 1. 46 Buffalo_____________ 1. 52 Chattanooga________ 1. 55 Chieago-Gary_______ 1. 78 Cincinnati__________ 1. 60 Cleveland___________ 1. 77 D allas______________ 1. 45 Denver_____________ 1. 45 D etroit_____________ 1. 83 H artford____________ 1. 58 Houston____________ 1. 69 Indianapolis________ 1. 71 Los Angeles__________ $1. 72 M ilwaukee___________ 1.61 Minneapolis-St. Paul- 1. 59 Newark-Jersey City_1. 68 New York City_____ 1. 75 Philadelphia_________ 1.71 Pittsburgh___________ 1.56 Portland, Oreg______ 1. 77 Providence___________ 1.45 St. Louis____________ 1. 87 San Francisco______ 2. 00 Seattle_______________ 1.91 Syracuse_____________ 1.53 Tulsa_______________ 1. 55 W aterbury___________ 1.57 Tool and die makers i l machine-tool accessory plants in December 19471 Lad average straight-time hourly earnings of $1.94 i i Chicago, $1.74 in Cleveland, $2.10 in Detroit, an 1 $1.83 in Los Angeles, The great majority of tool and die makers are members of unions. The re are a number of labor organizations in this field, some of the more impor tant of which are the International Association of Machinists (Independent), the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America (C IO ), the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ), and the Society of Tool and Die Craftsmen of America (Independent). Tool and die makers often rise to better jobs. Many have advanced to shop superintendent or other responsible supervisory work, or to such positions as tool designer. Another avenue of op portunity is the opening of small tool and die jobbing shops. Tool rooms, where tool and die makers work, are relatively clean, well ventilated, and free from dust. They are considerably safer places to work than factories in general. See also All-Round Machinists, page 234. 238 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Engine-Lathe Operators (D. O. T. 14-78.000 to 4-78.019; 6-78.000 to 6-78.019) Outlook Summary The number of these jobs should increase dur ing the next several years; thereafter a slight drop in employment is likely, but new workers will be needed to replace many of the older men in the occupation. Natume o f Work These are machine-shop workers specializing in operating an engine lathe, a machine tool which shapes metal by rotating the metal against a cut ting tool. These jobs may be divided into two main classes, according to the skill required. The skilled engine-lathe operator does varying kinds of machining. He works from blueprints or lay outs, sets up his machine for each machining oper ation, and measures the finished work to see if it meets specifications. His work is much like that o f the all-round machinist except that it is limited to the engine lathe. The semiskilled engine-lathe operator does repetitive work. Typically his job consists o f placing the metal stock in the machine, watching the machining for signs of trouble, and measuring the finished work with specially pre pared gages which simplify measurement. His machine is set up for him by a machinist or set-up man. Training and Qualifications To become a skilled engine-lathe operator re quires from 2 to 4 years of on-the-job training. However, many of these jobs are filled by men who have completed all-round machinist apprentice ships. Semiskilled engine-lathe operators are gen erally trained in not more than 6 months on the job. The work is not physically strenuous and a num ber of women are employed as engine-lathe oper ators. Most of the women, however, are semi skilled operators. Where Employed Engine-lathe operators are employed mainly in metalworking industries. Many of the skilled en gine-lathe operators work in jobbing machine shops, a few are in maintenance shops of nonmetal industries. Production shops in mass-pro duction industries, such as automobiles, employ most o f the semiskilled engine-lathe operators. In the job shops a wide variety of products may be made with relatively few of each kind. Pro duction shops make large quantities o f identical parts, and skill requirements are generally lower than in job shops. Most o f the jobs for engine-lathe operators are in the middle-western and northeastern sections of the United States, with Michigan, Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania the leading States. Outlook Prospects are for a slight increase in the num ber of jobs for engine-lathe operators during the next several years, because of the expected high output of many metal products, including auto mobiles, aircraft, farm machinery, and heavy elec trical equipment. In general, skilled operators will be more in demand than the semiskilled. After a few years, employment of engine-lathe operators may drop slightly as production in the metalworking industries catches up with unsatis fied demand. The number of jobs for enginelathe operators should continue, however, at a rel atively high level. Many of the skilled enginelathe operators are older men, approaching the ages when death or retirement will take them from the shops. Keplacement of these workers will re sult in numerous openings. Among the semi skilled operators, shifting into other occupations is fairly common, and openings for new workers will be created in this way: Earnings and Working Conditions Many engine-lathe operators are paid on an in centive basis and hence often earn as much as machine-shop workers o f greater skill. Earnings of these workers vary considerably among locali ties. Average straight-time hourly earnings of male engine-lathe operators in machinery plants M A C H IN E SHOP in November 1947 are shown below for selected large cities. Class A Atlanta_____________ Baltim ore___________ Birm ingham________ B oston______________ B uffalo______________ C harlotte___________ C hattanooga________ C hicago-G ary_______ Cincinnati__________ Cleveland___________ D allas_______________ D en v er_____________ D etroit______________ H artford____________ H ou ston ____________ Indianapolis________ Los Angeles_________ M ilw aukee__________ M inneapolis-St. Paul Newark-Jersey City_ New Y ork C ity _____ Philadelphia________ Pittsburgh__________ Portland, Oreg______ Providence__________ St. Louis____________ San Francisco_______ Seattle______________ Syracuse____________ Tulsa_______________ W aterbury__________ $1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 34 34 49 46 43 19 44 54 32 66 49 31 67 72 56 44 56 54 44 61 57 61 50 55 23 55 71 66 49 32 43 Class B $1. 1. 1. 1. 1. . 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. Class C 18 11 26 24 20 99 31 42 14 71 20 07 50 33 32 34 42 47 30 32 37 33 35 $0. 86 . 92 1. 08 1. 35 1. 44 . 91 1. 30 1. 21 1. 20 1. 04 1. 09 . 86 . 84 1. 37 1. 05 1. 20 1. 1. 1. 1. 22 19 26 24 1. 1. 1. 1. 27 07 14 40 O C C U P A T IO N S 239 The great majority o f engine-lathe operators are members of unions. There are a number of labor organizations in this field, some of the more important o f which are the International Associ ation o f Machinists (Independent), the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of Amer ica (C IO ), and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. Skilled engine-lathe operators may be promoted to such jobs as set-up man or foreman. I f they can get experience on several different kinds of machine tools, they also can develop into all-round machinists. Semiskilled operators generally have less chance for advancement since they are em ployed mainly in production shops where the work is very repetitive, and there are few opportunities to develop additional skills. Most machine shops are relatively clean, well lighted, and free from dust. The danger of se rious accidents in machine shops is relatively small. The industries in which engine-lathe operators are employed generally have average or better-thanaverage safety records, in comparison with manu facturing industries in general. See also: All-Round Machinists, page 234; Turret-Lathe Operators, page 239; and Set-Up Men (Machine Shop), page 244. Turret-Lathe Operators (D.O.T. 4-78.020 to 4-78.029; 6-78.020 to 6-78.029) Outlook Summary Prospects are for an increase in the number of jobs during the next few years, with the skilled operators more in demand than the semiskilled. Over the longer run, employment is expected to drop slightly, but replacement needs will create openings. Nature o f Work Turret-lathe operators are machine-shop work ers specializing in running a turret lathe, a ma chine tool which shapes metal by rotating the metal against a series o f cutting tools mounted on a revolving turret. These jobs may be divided into two main classes according to the skill required. The skilled turret-lathe operator does varying kinds of machining. He works from blueprints or lay-outs, sets up his machine for each machining operation, and measures the finished work to see if it meets specifications. His work is much like that of the all-round machinist, except that it is limited to a single type of machine tool, the turret lathe. The semiskilled turret-lathe operator does repetitive work. Typically, his job consists of placing the metal stock in the machine, watching the machining operation for signs of trouble, and measuring the finished work with specially pre 240 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K pared gages which simplify measurement. His machine is set up for him by a machinist or set-up man. Training and Qualifications To become a skilled turret-lathe operator re quires from iy2 to 3 years of on-the-job training. However, many of these jobs are filled by men who have completed all-round machinist 4-year apprenticeships. Semiskilled machine-tool oper ators are generally trained in not more than 6 months on the job. The work is not physically strenuous and a num ber of women are employed as turret-lathe oper ators. Most o f the women, however, are semi skilled operators. Where Employed Turret-lathe operators are employed mainly in production shops, in such industries as automo biles and machinery. A number of the skilled turret-lathe operators, however, are found in job bing machine shops, and a few work in mainte nance shops in nonmetal industries. In job shops a wide variety of products may be made with rel atively few o f each kind. Production shops make large quantities of identical parts, and skill re quirements are generally lower than in job shops. Most of the jobs for turret-lathe operators are in the middle western and northeastern sections of the United States, with Michigan, Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania the leading States. Outlook The number of jobs for turret-lathe operators is expected to increase somewhat in the next few years. Increases will occur mainly in such metal working industries as automobiles, aircraft, and heavy electrical equipment. In general, skilled operators will be more in demand than the semi skilled. After a few years, as production in many metal-working plants catches up with unsatisfied demands, the employment of turret-lathe opera tors will tend to drop off slightly, but should re main at a relatively high level. Among the skilled turret-lathe operators are a number of men approaching the ages when death or retirement will take them out o f the labor force. Replacement o f these workers will provide many new openings. Shifting into other occupations is common among the semiskilled operators, and op portunities for new workers will be created in this way. Earnings and Working Conditions Many turret-lathe operators are paid on an in centive basis and hence often earn as much as machine-shop workers of greater skill. In Octo ber 1946, average straight-time hourly earnings o f male turret-lathe operators (hand) in the ma chinery industries (except electrical machinery, machine tools, and machine-tool accessories) in large cities were as follows: Class A, $1.40: class B, $1.29; class C, $1.21. Since October 1946 there generally have been wage increases in plants employing turret-lathe operators. The great maj ority o f turret-lathe operators are members o f unions. There are a number of labor organizations in this field, some of the more im portant o f which are the International Association of Machinists (Independent), the United Electri cal, Radio, and Machine Workers of America (C IO ), and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ). S k ille d tu rr e t-la th e o p e ra to rs m a y be p r o m o te d to such jo b s as set-u p m a n o r fo re m a n . I f th e y ca n get e x p e rie n ce on several d iffe re n t k in d s o f m a ch in e to o ls, th e y also ca n d e v e lo p in to a ll-r o u n d m a ch in ists. S e m isk ille d o p e ra to rs g e n e r a lly h a v e less ch a n ce f o r a d v a n cem en t since th e y a re e m p lo y e d m a in ly in p r o d u c tio n sh ops w h e re th e w o r k is v e r y r e p e titiv e a n d th ere are fe w o p p o r tu n itie s to d e v e lo p a d d itio n a l skills. M o s t m a ch in e sh op s are re la tiv e ly clea n , w e ll lig h te d , a n d fr e e fr o m dust. T h e d a n g e r o f se ri ous a ccid en ts in m a ch in e sh op s is r e la tiv e ly sm all. T h e in d u stries in w h ich tu rre t-la th e o p e ra to rs are e m p lo y e d g e n e r a lly h a v e a vera ge o r b ette r-th a n a vera ge s a fe ty re co rd s, in co m p a riso n w ith m a n u fa c tu r in g in d u strie s in g en eral. See also A ll-R o u n d M a ch in ists, p a g e 234; E n g in e L a th e O p e ra to rs, p a g e 238; a n d S e t-U p M en (M a ch in e S h o p ) , p a g e 244. M A C H IN E SH OP O C C U P A T IO N S 241 Grinding-Machine Operators (D.O.T. 4-78.500 to 4-78.589; 6-78.500 to 6-78.589) Outlook Summary An increase in the number of jobs is expected for the next few years; thereafter, there may be some decline in employment, but replacement needs will create openings, especially in the skilled jobs. Nature o f Work These are machine-shop workers who specialize in operating a grinding machine, a machine tool which shapes metal by means of a power-driven abrasive wheel. These jobs may be divided into two main classes, according to the skill required. The skilled grinding-machine operator does vary ing kinds of machining. Working from blue prints or lay-outs he sets up his machine for each machining operation, adjusts the feed and speed controls, and measures the finished work to see if it meets specifications. This job is similar to that of the all-round machinist, except that it is limited to a single type o f machine tool, the grinding ma chine. The semiskilled grinding machine oper ator does repetitive work. His job typically con sists of placing metal in the machine, watching the machining for signs of trouble, and measuring the finished work with specially prepared gages which simplify measurement. A machinist or set up man sets up the machine for him. Training and Qualifications From 2 to 4 years of on-the-job training are needed to become a skilled grinding-machine oper ator. However, many men qualified as all-round machinists are employed as skilled grinding-ma chine operators. Semiskilled machine-tool oper ators are generally trained in not more than 6 months on the job. The work is not physically strenuous and a num ber o f women are employed as grinding-machine operators. Most of the women, however, are semi skilled operators. Where Employed Grinding-machine operators are employed mainly in production shops in such industries as automobiles and machinery. A number of the skilled grinding-machine operators, however, are found in jobbing machine shops and a few are in maintenance shops in nonmetal industries. In job shops a wide variety of products may be made with relatively few of each kind. Production shops make large quantities of identical parts, and skill requirements are generally lower than in job shops. Most of the jobs for grinding-machine operators are in the middlewestern and northeastern sections o f the United States, with Michigan, Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania the leading States. Outlook During the next few years the number of jobs for grinding-machine operators is expected to increase somewhat and there will be opportunities for new workers to get trainee jobs in this occu pation. Increases will occur mainly in such metal-working industries as automobiles, aircraft, and heavy electrical equipment. After a few years, employment of grinding-machine operators may drop off somewhat as production in these and other metal industries catches up with unsatisfied demand. As long as general business conditions are favorable, however, there should continue to be a large number of these jobs. Among the skilled grinding-machine operators are a number of men approaching the ages when death or retirement will take them out of the labor force. Replacement of these workers will provide many new openings. Shifting into other occupa tions is common among the semiskilled operators, and opportunities for new workers will be created in this way. Earnings and Working Conditions Many grinding-machine operators are paid on an incentive basis and hence often earn as much as machine-shop workers of greater skill. In Octo ber 1946, average straight-time hourly earnings of male grinding-machine operators in the machinery industries (except electrical machinery, machine tools, and machine-tool accessories) in large cities 242 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK were as follows: Class A, $1.45; class B, $1.35; class C, $1.22. Since October 1946, there generally have been wage increases in plants employing these workers. The great majority of grinding-machine opera tors are members of unions. There are a number o f labor organizations in this field, some of the more important of which are the International Association of Machinists (Independent), the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of America ( C IO ), and the United Automobile, A ir craft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ). Skilled grinding-machine operators may be pro moted to such jobs as set-up man or foreman. I f they can get experience on several different kinds HANDBOOK of machine tools, they also can develop into all round machinists. Semiskilled operators gener ally have less chance for advancement since they are employed mainly in production shops where the work is very repetitive and there are few op portunities to develop additional skills. Most machine shops are relatively clean, well lighted, and free from dust. The danger of seri ous accidents is relatively small. The industries in which grinding-machine operators are em ployed generally have average or better-thanaverage safety records, in comparison with manu facturing industries in general. See also All-Round Machinists, page 234, and Set-Up Men (Machine Shop), page 244. Milling-Machine Operators (D .O .T . 4-78.030 to 4 -7 8 .0 3 9 ; 6-78.030 to 6-78.039) Outlook Summary A small increase in the number of jobs is ex pected during the next few years. Over the longer run, employment is expected to drop off somewhat, but replacement needs will provide openings for new workers. Nature of Work Milling-machine operators are machine-shop workers specializing in running a milling machine, a machine tool which shapes metal with a saw tooth cutting tool. These jobs may be divided into two main classes according to the kind of skill re quired. The skilled milling-machine operator does varying kinds o f machining. He works from blueprints or lay-outs, sets up his machine for each machining operation, and verifies dimensions of work. The semiskilled milling-machine operator does repetitive work. Typically, his job consists of placing metal in the machine, watching the ma chining for signs of trouble, and measuring the finished work with specially prepared gages which simplify measurement. A machinist or set-up man sets up the machine for him. Training and Qualifications To become a skilled milling-machine operator requires from 1y2 to 3 years o f on-the-job training. However, many of these jobs are filled by men who have completed all-round machinist apprentice ships. Semiskilled milling-machine operators are generally trained in not more than 6 months on the job. The work is not physically strenuous and a num ber of women are employed as milling-machine operators. However, most of the women are semi skilled operators. Where Employed Milling-machine operators are employed mainly in metalworking industries, such as machinery and automobiles. A number of the skilled millingmachine operators work in jobbing machine shops and a few are employed in maintenance shops in nonmetal industries. Most semiskilled operators are employed in production shops. In job shops a variety of products may be made with relatively few o f each kind. Production shops make large quantities q4 identical parts, and skill require ments are generally lower than in job shops. Most of the jobs for milling-machine operators are in the Middle West and Northeast, with Michi gan, Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania the lead ing employers. M A C H IN E SHOP Outlook The number o f jobs for milling-machine oper ators is expected to increase somewhat in the next few years. Increases will occur mainly in such metalworking industries as automobiles, aircraft, and industrial electrical equipment. In general, skilled operators will be more in demand than the semiskilled. After a few years, as production in many metalworking plants catches up with un satisfied demands, the number of jobs for millingmachine operators will tend to decrease slightly, but should remain at a relatively high level. Among the skilled milling-machine operators are a number of men approaching the ages when death or retirement will take them out of the labor force. Replacement of these workers will provide numerous openings. Shifting into other occupa tions is common among the semiskilled operators, and opportunities for new workers will be created in this way. Earnings and Working Conditions Many milling-machine operators are paid on an incentive basis and hence often earn as much as machine-shop workers of greater skill. In Octo ber 1946, in large cities, average straight-time hourly earnings of male milling-machine opera tors in the machinery industries (except electrical machinery, machine tools, and machine-tool acces O C C U P A T IO N S 243 sories) were as follows: Class A, $1.42; class B, $1.28; class C, $1.20. Since October 1946, there generally have been wage increases in plants employing these workers. Skilled milling-machine operators may be pro moted to such jobs as set-up man or foreman. I f they can get experience on several different kinds o f machine tools, they also can develop into all round machinists. Semiskilled operators gener ally have less chance for advancement since they are employed mainly in production shops where the work is very repetitive and there are few op portunities to develop additional skills. Most machine shops are relatively clean, well lighted, and free from dust. The danger of serious accidents is relatively small. The industries in which milling-machine operators are employed generally have average or better-than-average safety records, in comparison with manufacturing industries in general. The great majority of milling-machine opera tors are members o f unions. There are a number of labor organizations in this field, some of the more important o f which are the International As sociation of Machinists (Independent), the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of Amer ica (C IO ), and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ). Shaper Operators (D .O .T . 4-78.060 to 4-78.069) Outlook Summary Prospects are for a fairly steady employment level in this small occupation during the next sev eral years; over a longer period employment is likely to drop somewhat, but replacement needs will create openings for a few new workers. Nature of Work These are machine-shop workers specializing in operating shapers (machine tools which form a flat surface of metal by moving a cutting tool back and forth over the surface). This is a rel atively small occupation, because of the specialized uses of the shaper. The workers are usually skilled. The job generally requires working from blueprints or lay-outs, setting up the shaper for each machine operation, and measuring the fin ished work to see if it meets specifications. The work is comparable to that of the all-round ma chinist except that it is limited to one machine tool, the shaper. Training of shaper operators may consist of a 4-year machinist apprenticeship or several years of on-the-job training in the operation of the machine. Where Employed Shaper operators are employed mainly in job bing shops in various machinery industries, par ticularly machine-tool plants and tool and die shops. Relatively few are employed in production 244 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K shops. In job shops a wide variety o f products may be made with relatively few of each kind. Production shops make large quantities of identi cal parts, and skill requirements are generally lower than in job shops. Most of the jobs for shaper operators will be in the middle western and northeastern sections of the United States, with Michigan, Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania, the leading States. Outlook During the next few years the number o f jobs for shaper operators should continue at about the present, relatively high level. It is unlikely that the industries, such as machine tools, which employ the bulk of these workers will experience sharp changes in employment in the near future. Over a long period, the number of jobs for shaper oper ators may decrease slightly, particularly if other machine tools are substituted for the shaper in cer tain uses. However, because a high percentage of shaper operators are older men, approaching the age when death or retirement will take them from the labor force, there will be openings for new workers to replace these men. Nevertheless, be cause this is a small occupation, these openings will be relatively few in number. See also All-Round Machinists, page 234. Set-Up Men (Machine Shop) (D .O .T . 4-75.160) Outlook Summary Prospects during the next few years are for a small number o f openings for men with experi ence as all-round machinists or skilled machinetool operators. Over the longer run continued high employment is likely. or as a skilled machine-tool specialist, since the job requires a good background in machine-shop prac tice as well as a thorough knowledge o f the opera tion of at least one type of machine tool. This is essentially a man’s job, although great physical strength is not required. Nature o f Work Where Employed The set-up man is a skilled specialist employed in machine shops which carry on large-volume production. His job is to install cutting tools and adjust the controls of machine tools so that they can be run by semiskilled operators. The usual practice is to assign a set-up man to a number of machine tools, which are often of one type, such as the turret lathe. The set-up man works from blueprints, written specifications, or job lay-outs in order to set the cutting tools in place and to adjust, for each machining opera tion, the guides, speed and feed controls, working tables, and other parts of machine tools. After setting up and adjusting a machine, he makes a trial run to see if it is working properly, and then turns it over to the regular operator. During the machining operation he makes all important ad justments needed for accurate production. Set-up men are employed in a variety of metal working industries, especially in plants making automobiles and machinery. Most of the jobs for set-up men are in the Middle West and Northeast, with Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, New York, and Pennsylvania the leading States. Training and Qualifications In order to become a set-up man, it is usually necessary to qualify first as an all-round machinist Outlook Employment prospects for set-up men are gen erally favorable for the next several years. Metal working employment as a whole is expected to rise, with marked increases coming in some o f the industries, such as automobiles and aircraft, which use relatively large numbers of these workers. Thus, a number of experienced machinists and skilled machine-tool operators will be able to get jobs as set-up men. After a few years, openings for set-up men will be reduced as the backlog of demand for many metal products is wiped out. However, the trend toward specialization in machine-shop work will tend to provide continued employment. M A C H IN E SH OP Earnings and Working Conditions In October 1946, set-up men employed in the machinery industries (except electrical machinery, machine tools, and machine-tool accessories) in large cities had average straight-time hourly earn ings of $1.43. Since that date, there generally have been wage increases in plants employing set-up men. The great majority of set-up men are members of unions. There are a number of labor organiza tions in this field, some of the more important of which are the International Association of Ma chinists (Independent), the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of America (C IO ), 245 O C C U P A T IO N S and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and A gri cultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ). Most machine shops are relatively clean, well lighted, and free from dust. The danger of serious accidents in machine shops is relatively small. The industries in which set-up men are employed generally have average or better-thanaverage safety records, in comparison with manu facturing industries in general. See also: All-Round Machinists, page 234; En gine-Lathe Operators, page 238; Turret-Lathe Operators, page 239; Grinding-Machine Opera tors, page 241; and Milling-Machine Operators, page 242. Lay-Out Men (Machine Shop) (D .O .T . 4-75.140) Outlook Summary There will be openings for a small number of experienced, all-round machinists to get into this field during the next few years; longer run pros pects are for stable employment. Nature o f Work The lay-out man is a highly skilled specialist whose job is to make guide marks on metal before it is machined to indicate to the machine-tool op erators the kind of machining needed. Working from blueprints or written specifica tions, the lay-out man marks guide lines, reference points, and other instructions to operators on rough castings, forgings, or metal stock. He uses a wide assortment of instruments, including the scriber, with which he marks lines on the surface of the metal; the center punch, used to indicate the centers on the ends of metal pieces to be ma chined or drilled; the keyseat or box rule, used for drawing lines and laying off distances on curved surfaces; dividers, for transferring and comparing distances; L- or T-squares for deter mining right angles; and calipers and micrometers for accurate measurement. Not only must the lay out man work with extreme accuracy, but he has also to be familiar with the operation and uses o f each of the standard machine tools. 793996°—49 17 Ph o to graph by U. S. d e pa r tm e n t of La b o r The lay-out man must have a broad knowledge of machine-shop work and be able to use marking and measuring instruments. Training and Qualifications In general, it takes from 6 to 10 years to develop this skill, including the machinist apprenticeship or equivalent training needed to learn the funcla- 246 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK mentals o f machine-shop practice. A high-school education, including courses in geometry, trigo nometry, and mechanical drawing is often re quired ; additional preparation in a trade or tech nical school is considered desirable. Where Employed Lay-out men are employed in various metal working industries especially in plants making automobiles or machinery. Most of the jobs for lay-out men are in the mid-western and north eastern sections of the country, particularly in the States of Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, New York, and Pennsylvania. Outlook Prospects are for a slight increase in employ HANDBOOK ment in this small, occupation during the next few years. Metalworking employment as a whole is expected to rise, with marked increases coming in automobile plants and other employers of lay-out men. Thus, a small number o f experienced all round machinists will be able to get jobs as lay-out men. Over a longer period, metalworking em ployment, generally, will drop off somewhat as the backlog o f demand for many metal products is wiped out. However, the trend toward using skilled lay-out men in conjunction with semiskilled machine-tool operators in many shops, is expected to continue; this will tend to maintain the number of lay-out jobs at a relatively high level. See also All-Round Machinists, page 234. Foundry Occupations Foundries and Foundry Products Foundries are places where castings are made. A casting is formed by pouring molten metal into a mold and allowing the metal to solidify, taking the shape of the mold. This is one of industry’s basic metalworking methods since it can produce metal parts in a wide range of shapes and sizes. Castings in general use include, for example, au tomobile cylinder blocks, water mains, bathtubs, machinery bearings, ship propellers, railway car wheels, machine-tool bases, radiators, valve bodies, and locomotive frames. Casting is applied to a number of different metals and their alloys. Gray iron accounts for most of the tonnage. Steel and malleable iron are the other important types of ferrous metals which are cast. Among the nonferrous metals, brass, bronze, aluminum, and magnesium are the main casting materials.' Foundries usually specialize in casting one or two particular metals, since some what different kinds of equipment and methods are used for the various metals. Most foundry workers can transfer, however, from casting one type of metal to another without much extra training. Foundries differ greatly in the way their pro duction is organized. Production foundries make large quantities of identical castings, using mainly machine methods and requiring relatively few skilled workers. Many of the production found ries are captive or integrated foundries, that is, they are departments or subsidiaries of plants which use castings in manufacturing finished products such as automobiles, various types of machinery, agricultural implements, plumbing and heating equipment, or electrical machinery. Jobbing foundries, on the other hand, make a variety o f shapes and sizes of castings, usually in limited quantities. To a great extent, hand meth ods are employed and a relatively high propor tion of skilled workers is required. Jobbing foundries are usually separate establishments (in dependent or commercial foundries), selling their castings to other companies. General Employment Outlook Foundries will provide a large number of jobs for new workers during the next several years. Rising output of foundry products is in prospect, and many foundries will increase their employ ment. In addition, there will be numerous job openings created by the replacement of workers leaving the foundries. As chart 39 shows, foundry employment is cur rently at a high level; it is far above prewar, slightly higher than at the end of the war, and not so much short of the wartime peak. About 380,000 production workers are employed in foundries, including both independent and inte grated foundries. High production of castings has resulted from the expanding needs of many of the industries which use castings—including particularly the automobile, electrical equipment, farm machinery, industrial equipment, plumbing and heating supplies, and railroad-equipment industries. Continued strong demand for cast ings for these and other metal-products industries is likely for the next several years, with even increased demand expected in many cases. Gov ernment programs for expanded production of military aircraft and ships will require higher output o f certain types of castings. Prospects are, therefore, for higher output of castings and for rising foundry employment, although shortages of pig iron, scrap, and coke may temporarily hinder greater production of iron and steel castings. There are differences in outlook, however, among the various major classes of foundries. In gray-iron foundries, which have about 200,000 workers (more than half of all foundry jobs), production has been at an all-time high. Large 247 248 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK CHART 39 THE NUMBER OF FOUNDRY JOBS IS FAR ABOVE PREWAR TH O U S AN D S OF PRODUCTION W O R K E R S 1939 Peek 1 94 4 War J u ly 1945 1947 U N ITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTIC S quantities o f gray-iron castings are used in the manufacture of automobiles and trucks, machine tools, and other types of industrial machinery, electric motors and generators, steel-mill equip ment, and construction materials (including castiron pipe, radiators, bathtubs, etc.). Several years of record output of gray iron will probably be required to meet the needs for castings for these and other metal products. For the immediate future, however, there is not much chance of in creasing employment to any great extent in grayiron foundries, because of continuing shortages of materials such as pig iron and coke. In steel foundries, which have about 70,000 work ers, rising employment is likely during the comingfew years. Stepped-up production of railway equipment, which takes a very large share of steel castings output, will be the main factor in this increase. Other important markets for steel cast ings include such expanding fields as shipbuilding, HANDBOOK construction and mining machinery, power-plant equipment, and steel-mill machinery. The number of jobs in malleable-iron foundries will probably rise somewhat above the present level of about 35,000. Increased production of malle able castings will be required to meet the needs o f many of the industries which are important users of this type of casting, including the auto mobile, farm machinery, and railroad-equipment industries. Employment in the non ferrous foundries is the highest ever achieved in peacetime (75,000) and is likely to rise above this level during the next several years. Output of brass and bronze cast ings will be kept at a high rate by the demands of such industries as automobiles, plumbing sup plies, and industrial machinery. Aluminum cast ings production was expanded tremendously dur ing the war, dropping very sharply after VJ-day. It has recovered substantially, however, with new markets for aluminum opening up in the house hold equipment, automotive, and other fields. Moreover, stepped-up production of military air craft will contribute to the demand for aluminum castings. Output of magnesium castings also was enormously increased during the war, but today only a small number of workers are employed in magnesium foundries. Employment opportunities in foundry work will be created not only by the expected rise in total foundry employment, but also by the need to re place those workers who leave the foundries. Openings resulting from death and retirement may run about 6,000 to 10,000 annually. Replace ment demand of this kind will be especially im portant in the more skilled foundry occupations, in which there are many workers of relatively advanced age. An even greater number of open ings, however, will arise from turn-over; that is, the shifting of experienced foundry workers into other kinds of employment. In the semiskilled and unskilled foundry occupations, most of the job openings will arise in this way. Over a longer period, the backlog of demand for many metal products, such as automobiles, will be satisfied and the production of castings prob ably will be reduced. In addition, continued tech nical advances in foundry methods will have ail effect on foundry employment. Some of the more important technological changes will include FOUNDRY O C C U P A T IO N S greater use of permanent-mold casting and more extensive installation of material handling equip ment, and as a result fewer workers will be needed to produce a given amount of castings. These technological advances, together with the expected dropping off in the demand for castings, will mean some reduction in foundry employment. As long as general business conditions are good, however, the decrease should not be sharp enough to cause unemployment of experienced foundry workers in any numbers, although there will be fewer open ings for new workers. All in all, the trends in foundry employment are favorable, in terms both of getting a foundry job during the next few years and of holding onto the job over a longer period. There are, however, some differences in outlook among the various foundry occupations. Opportunities in some of the more important foundry occupations are sum marized in the statements for the individual occupations. 249 ing and coremaking are relatively large occupa tions and include a high proportion o f skilled jobs requiring apprenticeship or equivalent training. Although fewer workers are engaged in pattern making, the skill needed is very high and appren ticeship is the normal method of entry. Employment in the principal foundry occupa tions is shown in chart 40. The Foundry Occupations Foundries constitute one of the most important fields of employment for trained workers in manu facturing. Molding, coremaking, and pattern making are the main skilled occupations in foun dries. There are. of course, many other occupa tions represented, including maintenance workers (such as carpenters and electricians), a large num ber of laborers, and clerical and professional employees. The foundry occupations are mainly limited to men, reflecting the strenuous nature of much of the work as well as certain traditional employ ment practices. During the war a large number of women came into the foundries, but relatively few of them have remained. The proportion of Negroes in foundries is markedly high; they constitute more than onefourth of all production workers in independent ferrous foundries. They are employed not only in many unskilled and semiskilled foundry occupa tions, but also to a substantial extent as skilled molders and coremakers. In March 1940, Negroes comprised about 8 percent of the employed molders reported in the Census of Population. Among the many types of foundry jobs, three occupations—molder, coremaker, and pattern maker—stand out as especially significant. Mold The first step in casting is to make a wood or metal pattern in the shape of the final casting desired. Patternmakers, highly skilled craftsmen, are classified according to the kind o f material they use in making patterns. Those who con struct wooden patterns constitute about two-thirds of the total. O f the remainder, most are metal patternmakers, although there are a few who work with other materials, such as plaster. Hand molders prepare the sand molds into which metal is poured. The molds are made by packing and ramming sand around the patterns. Molds for smaller castings are usually made on a workbench by bench molders/ -floor molders make molds for large and bulky castings on the foundry floor. A machine molder operates one of several types of machines which simplify and speed up the mak ing of large quantities of identical sand molds. Hand coremakers shape the bodies of sand, or “ cores,” which are placed inside molds in order to form any hollow spaces needed in castings. Ma- 250 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK chine coremakers are employed mainly in produc tion foundries, where large quantities of identical castings are made for use in such finished products as automobiles, agricultural machinery, and house hold appliances. With the mold made and the cores, if any, put inside, the next step is to pour the molten metal into the mold. A melter operates a furnace used to melt metal for castings. The actual pouring is customarily done by a pourer, although in some small foundries it is part of the molder’s job. When the casting has cooled off it is taken out of the mold (this is called “ shaking out” ) and sent to the cleaning and finishing department, where chippers remove the excess metal from castings by means of pneumatic hammers or hand hammers and chisels. Grinders, using a mechanically powered abrasive wheel, smooth and finish the casting. Although chipping and grinding may be separate occupations, they are often combined into one job, especially in the smaller foundries. Cast ings inspectors then check finished castings for structural soundness and proper dimensions. Foundry technicians are a group of skilled workers having to do with quality control in the HANDBOOK making of castings. Included are workers with such specialized duties as testing of molding and coremaking sands, chemical analysis of metal, op eration of machines which test the strength and hardness of castings, and the use of X-ray or mag netic apparatus to inspect the internal structure o f castings. Earnings and Working Conditions Wages in foundries compare favorably with those in the metalworking industries generally. Shown below are average weekly earnings in inde pendent iron and steel foundries, compared with earnings in the entire group of industries making iron and steel and their products and in all manu facturing. A v e r a g e w e e k ly ea rn in g s, J a n u a ry 19 if 8 Gray iron foundries_______________________ $57. Malleable iron foundries________________ 59. Steel foundries___________________________ 59. Cast iron pipe foundries_________________ 51. Iron and steel industry group____________ All manufacturing_______________________ FOUR S T A T E S HAVE N E A R L Y HALF OF TH E F O U N D R Y J O B S 57. 66 52.14 The above earnings include extra pay for overtime and night work. C H AR T 41 B U R E A U O F L A B O R S T A T IS T IC S 31 03 86 25 FOUNDRY The working environment varies greatly among individual foundries. In some, the conditions compare favorably with metalworking industries generally; in others, safety and comfort are below the average for metalworking. The injury rate in foundries tends to be relatively high, but there has been considerable improvement of working conditions in recent years. The frequency of accidents varies among the different kinds of foundry work. In general, pat ternmaking and coremaking are the least hazard ous, molding is somewhat more unsafe, and jobs in melting and chipping tend to have among the highest injury rates. Where Are the Foundry Jobs? As the map (chart 41) shows, most of the foun dry jobs are in the Midwestern and Northeastern O C C U P A T IO N S 251 States. Foundries tend to be near the great con centrations of metalworking industries for which they produce castings and near the supply of such basic material as pig iron, coke, and nonferrous metals. The leading foundry States are Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Michigan. However, foundry jobs appear in substantial numbers in other parts of the country: Alabama, for example, has many foundry workers; in California, foundry employment has recently become more important. Every State has some foundry jobs. Where To Get More Information Employment Outlook in Foundry Occupations. Bulletin No. 880. U. S. Bureau of Labor Sta tistics, 1946. 56 pp. 15 cents, Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C. Hand Molders (D .O .T . 4-81.010 and .030) Outlook Summary Where Employed There will be a number of openings for new workers during the next several years. Over a longer period, employment in the occupation will decline somewhat; however, journeymen molders will be in a much better position than the less skilled molders. Hand molders work mainly in jobbing found ries; in production foundries, some journeymen molders are employed in skilled, specialized mold ing jobs and in supervisory positions. Production foundries make large quantities of identical cast ings, using mainly machine methods and requiring relatively few skilled workers. Many of the pro duction foundries are “ captive” or “ integrated” foundries; that is, departments of plants which use castings in manufacturing finished products, such as automobiles, various types of machinery, agricultural implements, plumbing and heating equipment, or electrical machinery. Jobbing foundries, on the other hand, make a variety of shapes and sizes of castings, usually in limited quantities. To a great extent, hand methods are employed and a relatively high proportion of skilled workers is required. Jobbing foundries are usually separate establishments (independent or commercial foundries), selling their castings to other companies. Although foundries tend to specialize in casting one or two metals—gray iron, steel, malleable Nature of Work These foundry workers use mainly hand meth ods to prepare the sand molds into which metal is poured to make castings. A mold is made by packing and ramming prepared sand around a model or pattern of the desired casting and then removing the pattern, leaving in the sand a hollow space in the shape of the casting to be made. Molds for smaller castings are usually made on a workbench by bench molders/ those for large and bulky castings are made on the foundry floor by floor molders. Skill requirements in this occupa tion differ considerably. An all-yound hand molder (journeyman) makes widely varying kinds of molds. A less skilled molder does more repeti tive work, specializing on a single kind of mold. 252 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK iron, brass, bronze, aluminum, or magnesium— hand molders usually can transfer, with little ad ditional training, from one type of foundry to another. Most of the hand molders work in the Mid western and Northeastern regions, with Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, and New York the leading States. Training and Qualifications Completion o f a 4-year apprenticeship, or the equivalent in experience, is needed to become a journeyman molcler and thus to qualify for all round hand molding and for the skilled special ized or supervisory jobs. Men with this training are also preferred for many kinds of machine molding. For the less skilled jobs, less than 6 months of on-the-job training is usually required. For a molding apprenticeship, an eighth grade education is usually the minimum, and many em ployers specify additional school work-up to and including high school graduation. Eighth grade schooling, however, suffices for most jobs as learn ers of less skilled hand molding. Full-time 1- or 2-year trade school courses in molding are available in many localities. I f the school’s equipment is adequate and its instruction of good quality, useful preparation for the mold ing trade may be provided in that the trade school course may be credited toward completion of the molding apprenticeship. However, these schools cannot qualify their students for jobs as journey men molders without an additional period of work experience. Physical standards for molding jobs take into account the needs for continual standing and moving about, frequent lifting, good vision, and manual dexterity. Since the work is fairly stren uous, very few women are employed in this occu pation. There are a fairly large number of Negroes in molding jobs. Outlook In general, the employment outlook for hand molders is favorable. Expanding output in such industries as automobiles, electric-power equip ment, farm and construction machinery, and rail road equipment, which are among the major users of castings, should keep foundry employment at a HANDBOOK peacetime high. As between the two skill grades, however, prospects are better for journeymen be cause of their varied skills. A high proportion of journeymen now employed are of relatively ad vanced age, nearing the time when they will have to be replaced. During the next few years, more journeymen will be needed than are likely to be available and many new workers will enter the occupation. Currently, molcler apprentice open ings are scarce in most areas, because of the large number of apprentices taken on since the end of the war. However, after a year or two, many of these men will complete their training, and there should be numerous openings for apprentices. COU RTESY OF N A T IO N A L A R C H IV E S A floor molder smoothing sand mold. Over the longer run, employment of hand mold ers, along with foundry employment generally, is expected to drop off somewhat as the backlog o f demand for many metal products is satisfied and the requirements for castings are thus reduced. Moreover, greater use of machine molding, per manent-mold casting, and other technical advances FOUNDRY will cut down the number of openings for new workers. Experienced journeymen, however, should continue to have jobs, since they will be needed to supervise less skilled workers and to make molds which cannot be produced by machines. For at least several years there will be enough jobs for experienced less skilled hand molders, and some opportunities for beginners are expected. Technical advances will affect this kind of mold ing more than the other types, and employment o f hand molders will be reduced. However, those who get the equivalent o f the journeyman’s train ing will have very good chances for continued employment. Earnings and Working Conditions Hand molders are among the highest paid foundry workers. Average straight-time hourly earnings o f male floor and bench molders in inde pendent ferrous foundries in selected large cities in November 1947 are shown below: City Baltimore _ Birm ingham____ _ _ Boston _ __ _ _______ __ Buffalo __ _____ _ __________ Chicago _ . ______________ __ Cincinnati. _ ______________________ Cleveland________ ______ _________ D enver _ _ _ _ __________ __ _ _ D e t r o it ________ ___________ ____ _ H artford, C on n ____ _ H ouston __________ ____ Indianapolis__________________ . _ _ Los Angeles. _____ ____ ____ ____ Milwaukee _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Molders, hand, floor $1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 44 24 49 63 61 57 70 40 84 58 53 53 69 80 Molders, hand, bench $1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 36 08 49 55 63 45 62 40 82 35 41 48 58 43 253 O C C U P A T IO N S City M inneapolis-St. Paul _ _________ _ Newark . . . __ ___________ _ New York _ ____________ ____ Philadelphia __________ ___________ Pittsburgh. _ _ ____________ _ Portland, Oreg__ ____________ _ San Francisco__________________ . . Seattle. ______________________ Toledo __ _ ____________________ . . Molders, hand, floor $1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 41 49 55 67 57 64 63 64 66 Molders, hand, bench $1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 42 53 51 50 50 64 67 64 52 Apprentices generally start at from one-tliird to one-half of the journeyman rate, and their pay rises gradually during the apprenticeship period. Hand molders with all-round training have good chances for promotion to supervisory jobs. Opportunities for advancement are much more limited for the less-skilled hand molders. Working conditions for molders vary greatly among individual foundries. In some, conditions compare favorably with metalworking industries generally; in others, safety and comfort are below the average for metalworking. The injury rate in foundries tends to be relatively high, although there has been considerable improvement of work ing conditions in recent years. Like other foundry workers, the large majority of hand molders are union workers. The principal labor organizations covering these workers in clude the International Molders and Foundry Workers Union of North America (A F L ), the United Steelworkers of America (C IO ), and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C I O ). See also: Machine Molders, page 253, and Hand Coremakers, page 255. Machine Molders (D.O.T. 4-81.050; 6-81.010 and .020) Outlook Summary Nature o f Work An increase in the number of jobs is likely dur ing the next few years. Replacement needs will provide many job opportunities for new workers. Over the longer run, employment should remain fairly stable. Machine molders are foundry workers who op erate one o f several types of machines which sim plify and speed up the making of large quantities of identical sand molds for castings. The basic duties of a machine molder consist mainly of as 254 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK sembling the flask (molding box) and pattern on tbe machine table, filling the flask with prepared sand, and operating the machine by the properly timed use of its control levers and pedals. Ma chine molders sometimes are qualified journeyman molders who require little supervision and who set up and adjust their own machines. More com monly, however, the machine molder is a semi skilled worker, whose duties are limited to operat ing the machine which is set up for him. Where Employed HANDBOOK a very high rate. These industries include par ticularly automobiles, farm machinery, plumbing and heating supplies, and railroad equipment. Over a longer period, foundry employment may drop off somewhat, as the backlog of demand for many metal products is satisfied and the produc tion of castings is thus reduced. However, the number of machine molders is expected to remain fairly stable, because the trend toward wider use of machine methods in place of hand molding will tend to offset any decrease in foundry activity. Machine molders are employed mainly in pro duction foundries—those which make large quan tities of identical castings for use in such products as automobiles, agricultural machinery, and household appliances. Many of these foundries are departments of plants which use the castings in their products. Other machine molders work in independent foundries producing castings for sale. Although foundries tend to specialize in casting one or two metals— gray iron, steel, malleable iron, brass, bronze, aluminum, or magnesium—machine molders usually can transfer, with little or no extra training, from one type of foundry to another. Most o f the jobs for machine molders are in the midwestern and northeastern regions, with Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan,' Indiana, and New York the leading States. Training and Qualifications For molding-machine jobs of the more difficult and responsible types, a 4-year molder apprentice ship or equivalent training is required. However, machine molding of the less skilled variety, in which close supervision is provided and finishing is delegated to other workers, is ordinarily learned in from 60 to 90 days of on-the-job training. In general, average physical strength is needed for machine molding. A very small number of women are employed in the occupation. Outlook The number of jobs for machine molders is ex pected to increase during the next few years. The expanding needs of many of the industries which are among the most important users of castings should keep the Nation’s foundries producing at Co u rtesy of u . S. o f f ic e o f e d u c a t io n Machine molders operate machines which simplify and speed up the making of a large quantity of identical molds. Since shifting into other occupations is common among semiskilled machine molders, there will be many openings for new workers to replace them. The ranks of the more skilled machine molders in clude a considerable proportion of older men who will have to be replaced within a few years. Earnings and Working Conditions Average straight-time hourly earnings (exclud ing premium pay for overtime and night work) of men operating molding machines in independ ent ferrous foundries in selected large cities in November 1947 are shown in the following state ment. FOUNDRY Baltimore__________ $1. 46 Birmingham________ 1. 23 Boston_______________ 1.47 Buffalo_______________ 1.78 C h icago--------------------- 1.78 Cincinnati___________ 1.57 C leveland___________ 1.85 Denver_______________ 1.46 D etroit_______________ 1.93 Hartford (C on n .)___ 1.84 Houston______________ 1.38 Indianapolis_________ 1.71 Los Angeles________ $1. 71 M ilw aukee_________ 1. 91 Minneapolis-St.Paul- 1.39 N ew a rk _____________ 1. 68 New Y ork__________ 1. 92 Philadelphia------------- 1. 67 Pittsburgh__________ 1. 57 Portland (O reg.) ___ 1.71 San Francisco______ 1. 72 Seattle______________ 1. 60 T o le d o ______________ 1. 81 A machine molcler who has completed an appren ticeship or acquired other all-round molding ex perience is often in line for promotion to a super visory job. A semiskilled machine molder, how ever. generally has much less chance for advance ment. 255 O C C U P A T IO N S Working conditions vary greatly among indi vidual foundries. In some, conditions compare favorably with metalworking industries gener ally; in others, safety and comfort are below the average for metalworking. The injury rate in foundries tends to be relatively high, although there has been considerable improvement of work ing conditions in recent years. Like other foundry workers, the large majority of machine molders are union members. The prin cipal labor organizations covering these workers include the International Molders and Foundry Workers Union of North America (A F L ), the United Steelworkers of America (C IO ), and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ). See also Hand Molders, page 251. Hand Coremakers (D.O.T. 4-82.010) Outlook Summary Prospects are for a moderate increase in the number of jobs for hand coremakers during the next few years. Over a longer period, employ ment in this occupation is expected to decline somewhat. Nature o f Work These foundry workers use mainly hand meth ods to prepare the bodies of sand, or cores, which are placed in molds to form hollows or holes re quired in metal castings. A core is made by pack ing prepared sand into a hollow form (core box) so that the sand is compressed into the desired shape. Small cores are made on a work bench by bench coremakers; large and bulky cores are made on the foundry floor by floor coremakers. Skill re quirements in this occupation differ considerably. All-round hand coremakers (journeymen) pre pare a variety of larger or more intricate cores. The less skilled coremakers make the small and simple cores, frequently produced in large num bers, so the work is highly repetitive. Photograph by u S. Departm ent of La b o r Where Employed Journeymen hand coremakers usually work in Bench coremakers use mainly hand methods to prepare the bodies of sand, or “ cores,” which are placed in molds to form the hollows or holes required in metal castings. 256 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK jobbing foundries, which make castings of various shapes and sizes in limited quantities. Most job bing foundries are independent establishments, selling their castings to other firms. Semiskilled hand coremakers are generally employed in pro duction foundries, where large quantities of iden tical castings are made, so that coremaking is mainly repetitive. Many of the production found ries are captive or integrated foundries, that is, they are departments or subsidiaries of plants wffiich use castings in manufacturing finished products, such as automobiles, farm machinery, or plumbing supplies. Some journeymen coremakers work in production foundries as supervisors or in skilled, specialized jobs. Although foundries tend to specialize in casting one or two metals—gray iron, steel, malleable iron, brass, bronze, aluminum, or magnesium—hand coremakers usually can transfer, with little addi tional training, from one type of foundry to another. Most o f the hand coremakers work in the midwestern and northeastern regions, with Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, and New York the leading States. Training and Qualifications Completion of a 4-year apprenticeship, or the equivalent in experience, is needed to become a journeyman coremaker. Molding and coremak ing training is often combined in a single appren ticeship. For the less skilled jobs, only a few months of on-the-job training is usually required. For coremaking apprentices an eighth-grade education is usually the minimum, and many em ployers specify additional school work up to and including high-school graduation. Eighth-grade schooling, however, suffices for most jobs as learn ers of less skilled hand coremaking. Full-time 1- or 2-year trade-school courses in molding, coremaking, or general foundry work are available in many localities. I f the school’s equip ment is adequate and its instruction of good qual ity, useful preparation for the coremaking trade may be provided in that the trade-school course may be credited toward completion of the core making apprenticeship. However, these schools cannot qualify their students for jobs as skilled coremakers without an additional period of work experience. HANDBOOK Physical requirements for light coremaking are fairly modest, since the work is not strenuous; women are frequently employed in the less skilled coremaking jobs. Outlook The number of hand-coremaker jobs should increase somewhat during the next few years. Foundry employment is already at a peacetime high, and further increases are likely in some types of foundries. Many industries which are impor tant users of castings, including automobile, farmmachinery, and power-plant equipment producers, are expected to expand their output, creating a big ger demand for castings, and, in turn, more jobs for coremakers. Journeymen coremakers will be in especially strong demand, with replacement needs becoming more important because of the advanced age o f many of these men. Although apprentice openings are currently somewhat scarce in many localities because of the large number of appren tices now in training, there should be a relatively large number of openings after a year or two. A t the less skilled level, shifting of experienced work ers into other occupations will create jobs for beginners. Over a longer period, the number of hand core making jobs will decline slightly, because foundry production will drop somewhat when the backlog of demand for many metal products is satisfied, and because of greater use of coremaking ma chines. Although opportunities for semiskilled coremakers will be reduced by greater use of machines, journeymen will be less affected, since the work of the latter is less subject to mecha nization and because journeymen will continue to be needed on supervisory jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Hand coremakers are among the better paid foundry workers. Average straight-time hourly earnings of male hand coremakers in selected large cities in independent ferrous foundries in Novem ber 1947 are shown below: B altim ore____________$1.34 Cleveland_____________ $1.69 B irm in gh am _______ 1.10 D e n v e r_____________ 1. 36 B oston_______________ 1.50 D e t r o it ______________ 1.84 B u ffa lo ______________ 1.71 H artford (C on n .) — 1.34 Chicago_____________ 1. 73 H o u sto n ____________ 1.45 C in cin n a ti__________ 1. 45 In d ia n a p olis------------ 1. 53 FOUNDRY T.ns Arip-pies Milwaukee Minneapolis-St. PaulNewark New York Philadelphia $1. 54 1. 72 1.37 1. 46 1. 53 1. 82 Pittsburgh Portland (O reg.) — San Francisco Seattle Toledo $1. 55 1.61 1. 63 1. 63 1. 66 Working conditions for coremakers vary greatly among individual foundries. In some, conditions compare favorably with metalworking industries generally; in others, safety and comfort are below the average for metalworking. The injury rate in foundries tends to be relatively high, although there has been considerable improvement of work ing conditions in recent years. Coremaking, how O C C U P A T IO N S 257 ever, is somewhat safer than foundry work generally. Like other foundry workers, the large majority of hand coremakers are union members. The principal labor organizations covering these workers include the International Molders and Foundry Workers Union o f North America (A F L ), the United Steelworkers of America (C IO ), and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ). See also Machine Coremakers, page 257, and Hand Molders, page 251. Machine Coremakers (D.O.T. 6-82.010, .020, and .030) Outlook Summary Employment in this occupation is expected to increase slightly during the next few years. Over the longer run a fairly stable employment level is anticipated. Nature of Work Machine coremakers are foundry workers who operate one of several different types of machines which force prepared sand into specially shaped hollow forms to make sand cores. These cores are then used together with sand molds in casting metal. The duties and the amount of skill re quired for machine coremakers vary. Some workers are required to set up and adjust their own machines and do any necessary finishing oper ations on the cores; less-skilled coremakers are more closely supervised, and the necessary adjust ing of the machines is done for them. Where Employed Machine coremakers are employed mainly in production foundries, where large quantities of identical castings are made for use in such finished products as automobiles, agricultural machinery, and household appliances. Most of these produc tion foundries are departments of the company which uses the castings, but some are independent foundries producing castings for sale. Although foundries tend to specialize in casting one or two metals—gray iron, steel, malleable iron, brass, bronze, aluminum, or magnesium—machine coremakers can usually transfer, with little or no extra training, from one type o f foundry to another. Most of the jobs for machine coremakers are in the midwestern and northeastern sections of the country, with Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michi gan, Indiana, and New York the leading States. Training and Qualifications In general, for the less-skilled machine-core maker jobs only a brief period o f on-the-job train ing is needed, and no special form of preparation is required. Persons without previous foundry experience may be hired directly, or foundry labor ers or helpers may be upgraded to this work. However, a 3- or 4-year coremaker apprenticeship, or equivalent training, is sometimes needed for the more difficult and responsible machine-coremaking jobs. For many types of machine coremaking little physical strength is needed, and some women are employed. In a number of foundries the occu pation is open to Negro workers. Outlook During the next few years, a moderate increase in the number of jobs for machine coremakers is anticipated. Expanding output in such industries 258 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK as automobiles, electrical equipment, farm ma chinery, and railroad equipment, which are among the major users of castings, should keep foundry employment at a peacetime high. There will also be job opportunities for a number of new work ers to replace experienced machine coremakers who leave the foundries for other fields of work, or to replace those who die or retire. However, T because machine coremaking is a relatively small occupation, the total number of new job openings will be limited. Over the longer run, the employment of ma chine coremakers should be relatively stable. The trend toward wider use of coremaking machines will tend to offset the slight decline in total foundry activity likely to occur when the unsatis fied demands for many metal products using cast ings have been met. HANDBOOK Working Conditions Working conditions vary greatly among indi vidual foundries. In some, conditions compare favorably with metalworking industries gener ally; in others, safety and comfort are below the average for metalworking. The injury rate in foundries tends to be relatively high, although there has been considerable improvement of 'work ing conditions in recent years. Like other foundry workers, the large majority of machine coremakers are union members. The principal labor organizations covering these work ers include the International Holders and Foundry Workers Union of North America (A F L ), the United Steelworkers of America (C IO ), and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C I O ). See also Hand Coremakers, page 255, and Ma chine Holders, page 258. Patternmakers (D.O.T. 5-17.010 and .020) Outlook Summary There will be opportunities each year for a small number of persons to enter this highly skilled occupation, with good prospects for continued em ployment over the longer run. Nature o f Work Patternmakers are the highly skilled craftsmen who construct patterns and core boxes for cast ings. They are classified, primarily, according to the kind o f material they use in making patterns. Those who construct wooden patterns constitute about two-thirds of the total. Of the remainder, most are metal patternmakers, although there are a few who work with other materials, such as plaster. To do his job properly, a patternmaker must understand general foundry practice. He works from blueprints and plans the pattern, taking into account the manner in which the object will be cast and the type o f metal to be used. The wood patternmaker selects the appropriate wood stock and lays out the pattern, marking the design for each section on the proper piece of wood. Using power saws, he cuts each piece of wood roughly to width and length. He then shapes the rough pieces into their final form, using various wood working machines—such as borers, lathes, planers, band saws, and sanders—as well as many small hand tools. Finally, he assembles the pattern seg ments by hand. The duties of a metal patternmaker differ from those o f a wood patternmaker principally in that metal and metalworking equipment are substituted for wood and woodworking equipment. Metal patternmakers prepare patterns from metal stock, or, more commonly, from rough castings made from an original wood pattern. To shape and fin ish their work, they use a variety of metalworking machines, including the engine lathe, drill press, milling machine, power hacksaw, grinder, and shaper. Apart from these differences, metal pat ternmaking is similar to work on wood patterns, requiring blueprint reading and lay-out. Throughout his work the patternmaker care fully checks each dimension of the pattern. A high degree of accuracy is required, since any im perfection in the pattern will be reproduced in the castings made from it. Other duties of pattern FOUNDRY makers include making core boxes (in much the same manner as patterns are constructed) and repairing patterns and core boxes. Where Employed Patternmaking is done in specially equipped pattern shops, which are of two types—independ ent and integrated. Independent pattern shops are separate establishments which make patterns for sale. An integrated (or corporation) shop may be operated in conjunction with a foundry which uses the patterns. On the other hand, it, may be the pattern department of a plant that buys castings from a commercial foundry, to which it supplies appropriate patterns with each new order for castings. Patternmaking jobs are found mainly in the in dustrial centers of the Midwest and Northeast, with Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and New York the leading States. Training and Qualifications Apprenticeship, or a similar program of on-thejob training, is the principal means of qualifying as a journeyman patternmaker. Because of the high degree of skill and the wide range of knowl edge needed for patternmaking, it is very difficult to obtain the necessary training through infor mally picking up the trade. Good trade school courses in patternmaking provide useful prepara tion for the prospective apprentice, and may in some cases be credited toward completion of the apprentice period. However, these courses do not substitute for apprenticeship or other on-the-job training. The usual apprenticeship period for pattern making is 5 years, or about 10,000 working hours. In addition, at least 720 hours of classroom in struction in related technical subjects is normally provided during apprenticeship. Since wood and metal patternmaking differ in certain essen tial respects, there are separate apprenticeships for each type. Patternmaking, although not strenuous, re quires considerable standing and moving about. A high degree of manual dexterity is especially important because of the precise nature of many hand operations. To all practical purposes, this is entirely a man’s occupation. O C C U P A T IO N S 259 Outlook It is expected that the number of jobs for pat ternmakers will remain around its present level of about 16,000 during the next few years. Con tinued high production in the industries which are among the main users of castings, such as automo biles,, plumbing and heating equipment, household appliances, and farm machinery, is expected to keep foundry activity at a peacetime high, thus providing many jobs for patternmakers. There will be few apprentice openings in the next year or two because of the large number of apprentices taken on since the war, but when these men complete their training there will be a small number o f openings each year. After several years of high employment, the number o f patternmaker jobs will decline, slightly reflecting the general downward trend in foundry activity that may be expected after the accumu lated demand for many metal products has been met. In addition, employment may tend to be re duced somewhat by such technological changes as some substitution of welding and other fabricat ing methods in place of casting. However, not many experienced patternmakers should be unem ployed, and those who begin training during the next few years, have good prospects for continued employment over a period of many years. The gradual dropping out of older men in the trade will tend to offset the decline in employment, so that the remaining workers will probably continue to have jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Patternmaking is among the highest paid occu pations in manufacturing. In August 1947, union patternmakers in such large centers as Chicago, Cleveland, and Detroit generally earned upward of $2 an hour straight time, and some made as much as $3.50 an hour. Experienced patternmakers may be advanced to pattern lay-out man or pattern room foreman. In some cases, a journeyman may have the oppor tunity to start a small pattern shop of his own. When patternmaking employment is not avail able, journeymen patternmakers can find jobs in related fields. Wood patternmakers can qualify for nearly every kind of skilled woodworking 260 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK job— cabinetmaking, for example. Metal pattern makers are suited for many types of machine shop work, including the jobs o f machinist, machine tool operator, and lay-out man. The great majority of patternmakers are mem HANDBOOK bers of the Pattern Makers’ League of North America (A F L ). A small number have been or ganized by industrial unions of the CIO, particu larly the United Automobile, Aircraft, and A gri cultural Implement Workers of America. Chippers and Grinders (Foundry) (D.O.T. 6-82.910) Outlook Summary There will be numerous openings for new workers during the next few years; employment prospects in the longer run are less favorable. Nature of Work Chippers and grinders constitute a large group of workers, most of them semiskilled, in the clean ing and finishing departments of foundries. Chipping consists of removing the excess metal from castings by means of pneumatic hammers or hand hammers and chisels. In grinding, a me chanically powered abrasive wdieel is used to smooth and finish castings. Although chipping and grinding may be separate occupations they are often combined in one job, especially in the smaller foundries. There are variations in skill requirements, depending on the intricacy of the castings on which work is done, the degree of precision required, and the amount of supervision given the worker. Where Employed Chippers and grinders are employed in both independent foundries, which produce castings for sale to other firms, and in foundry depart ments of plants which use castings in the manu facture of such products as automobiles, farm machinery, various types of industrial equipment, household appliances, and railroad equipment. Although foundries tend to specialize in casting one or two metals— gray iron, steel, malleable iron, brass, bronze, aluminum, or magnesium— chippers and grinders usually can transfer, with little or no extra training, from one type of foun dry to another. Most o f the jobs for chippers and grinders are in the midwestern and northeastern sections, with Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, and New York the leading States. Training and Qualifications The basic duties of the chipper or grinder are generally learned in a brief period of on-the-job training, and no special form of preparation is needed. Persons without previous foundry expe rience may be hired directly, or foundry laborers may be upgraded to this work. Considerable experience in chipping and grinding is required, however, to qualify for the more intricate, precise, and responsible duties. In many respects chipping and grinding involve strenuous work, and at least average strength is needed. Consequently, relatively few women are employed in this occupation, and these only for work on small castings. In most foundries, these jobs are open to Negro workers. Outlook The number o f jobs for chippers and grinders is expected to rise slightly above the present level of about 40,000 during the next few years. E x panding output in such industries as automobiles, electrical equipment, farm machinery, and rail road equipment, which are among the major users of castings, should keep foundry employment at a peacetime high. There will also be many job op portunities for new workers to replace experienced chippers and grinders who leave the foundries for other fields of work, or who die or retire. Over the longer run, employment of chippers and grinders, along with foundry employment generally, is expected to drop off somewhat as the backlog of demand for many metal products is satisfied and the requirements for castings are thus reduced. The growing use of permanent-mold FOUNDRY 261 O C C U P A T IO N S and grinders in independent ferrous foundries in selected large cities in November 1947 are shown below: B a ltim ore------------------$1. 00 Birmingham________ . S6 Boston______________ 1. 04 B u ffa lo _____________ 1. 58 Chicago_____________ 1. 42 Cincinnati___________ 1.15 C leveland__________ 1. 42 Denver______________ 1. 05 D etroit--------------------- 1. 66 H artford (C o n n .) 1.14 Houston_____________ 1. 01 Indianapolis________ 1. 27 Photograph by u . S. d e pa r tm e n t of La b o r Grinders use mechanically powered abrasive wheels to smooth and finish castings. casting, and other methods which decrease the amount of finishing needed, plus increased in stallation of materials handling equipment, will tend further to lower the number of jobs for chippers and grinders. However, there should be little unemployment of experienced workers, al though the number of openings for beginners will be diminished considerably. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings o f chippers and grinders vary widely. Many are paid on an incentive basis. Average straight-time hourly earnings of male chippers Los Angeles________ $1. 23 M ilw au kee_________ 1. 56 M inneapolis-St.PauL 1.16 N ew ark _____________ 1. 04 New Y ork__________ 1.15 Philadelphia________ 1. 48 P ittsburgh_________ 1. 35 Portland (O reg.)___ 1.39 San Francisco______ 1. 33 Seattle______________ 1. 34 T o le d o ______________ 1. 42 Working conditions vary greatly among individ ual foundries. In some, conditions compare fa vorably with metalworking industries generally; in others, safety and comfort are below the average for metalworking. The injury rate in foundries tends to be relatively high, although there has been considerable improvement of working conditions in recent years. Chipping and grinding tend to have higher-accident rates than many other kinds of foundry work. Like other foundry workers, the large majority of chippers and grinders are union members. The principal labor organizations covering these workers include the International Holders and Foundry Workers Union of North America (A F L ), the United Steelworkers of America (C IO ), and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ). See also Castings Inspectors. Castings Inspectors (D.O.T. 6-82.920) Outlook Summary In the next several years, there will be some openings for new workers in this occupation. Longer run prospects are for continued employ ment of experienced inspectors. tors are able to read blueprints, to work on widely different types of castings, and to mark partially defective castings to show what should be done to salvage them. The less skilled do routine measuring and checking of large numbers of identical castings under close supervision. Nature of Work Castings inspectors are foundry workers who check finished castings for structural soundness and proper dimensions. The more skilled inspec 793996°—49- -18 Where Employed Castings inspectors are employed in both inde pendent foundries, which produce castings for sale 262 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK to other firms, and in foundry departments of plants which use castings in the manufacture of such products as automobiles, farm machinery, various types of industrial equipment, household appliances, and railroad equipment. Although foundries tend to specialize in casting one or two metals—gray iron, steel, malleable iron, brass, bronze, aluminum, or magnesium—castings in spectors usually can transfer, with little or no extra training, from one type of foundry to another. Most of the jobs for castings inspectors are in the midwestern and northeastern regions, with Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, and New York the leading States. Training and Qualifications Skilled inspector jobs are usually filled by pro motion from lower-grade inspection jobs or from other cleaning and finishing occupations, such as that of chipper and grinder. For the less skilled work, previous foundry experience may not be needed. Physical requirements depend on the size o f castings inspected and the availability of me chanical handling equipment. In the lighter types o f inspection work some women are em ployed, mainly for the less skilled jobs. Skilled inspectors may be promoted to the jobs of chief inspector or cleaning room foreman. Outlook The number o f jobs for castings inspectors is expected to remain near its present high level of about 10,000 during the next few years. The ex panding needs of many of the industries which are among the important users of foundry prod ucts should keep the Nation’s foundries producing HANDBOOK at a very high rate. These industries include par ticularly automobiles, farm machinery, industrial electrical equipment, plumbing and heating sup plies, and railroad equipment. Over a longer period, the number of jobs for castings inspectors, along with foundry employ ment generally, may drop off somewhat, as the backlog of demand for many metal products is satisfied and the needs for castings are thus re duced. However, few, if any, experienced in spectors will be unemployed, although the number o f new job openings will be reduced. There will be some job opportunities for new workers because of replacement needs. Among the less skilled inspectors especially, experienced workers frequently shift into other lines of work, creating jobs for newcomers. Working Conditions Working conditions vary greatly among indi vidual foundries. In some, conditions compare favorably with metalworking industries •gener ally; in others, safety and comfort are below the average for metalworking. The injury rate in foundries tends to be relatively high, although there has been considerable improvement of work ing conditions in recent years. Like other foundry workers, the large majority of castings inspectors are union members. The principal labor organizations, covering these workers include the International Molders and Foundry Workers Union of North America (A F L ), the United Steelworkers of America (C IO ), and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers o f America (C IO ). See also Chippers and Grinders (Foundry), page 260. Melters (Foundry) (D.O.T. 4-91.351, .411, .441, .447, .571, and .572) Outlook Summary Nature of Work There will be a limited number of openings for new workers in this occupation during the next few years. Long-run prospects are for a fairly stable level of employment. A foundry melter operates or directs the opera tion o f a furnace used to melt metal for castings. He usually specializes on a particular type of fur nace— cupola, open-hearth, electric, crucible, or FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS reverberatory—and on one or two metals. Skill requirements in this occupation depend on the way the foundry is organized and the type of melting equipment used. Skilled melters need little super vision and are responsible for charging the fur nace, controlling the furnace temperature and melting time, and determining from the appear ance of the molten metal when it is ready for pour ing. Less skilled melters work under close super vision of a foundry manager or an engineer and need use little independent judgment. Where Employed Melters are employed both in independent foundries, which produce castings for sale to other firms, and in foundry departments of plants which use castings in the manufacture of such products as automobiles, farm machinery, various types of industrial equipment, household appliances, and railroad equipment. Most of the jobs for melters are in the midwestern and northeastern regions, with Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, and New York the leading States. Training and Qualifications As a rule, there are no apprenticeships or other organized training programs provided for melters. The less skilled melting jobs are learned in a brief period of informal training. The usual way to get one of the more skilled jobs is to begin as a furnace helper or less skilled melter and gradually to pick up the trade. The more skilled melters must have some familiarity with general foundry practice, shop arithmetic, and certain practical aspects of chemistry and metallurgy. Since the duties of melters are in many respects strenuous, physical requirements are fairly high and normally only men are employed. Outlook The number of jobs for foundry melters along with foundry employment generally is expected 263 to increase somewhat in the next few years because of the expanding needs of many of the major users of foundry products, including such industries as automobiles, electrical equipment, farm machin ery, and railroad equipment. The long-run trend is for a fairly stable level of employment, although the growing use of more efficient melting methods may slightly reduce the number of men required. There is, moreover, a definite tendency to simplify the work of the more skilled melters by trans ferring some of their responsibilities to technical employees. Job opportunities for new workers will arise mainly from replacement needs. Among the more skilled melters, particularly, there is a considerable proportion of older men who will have to be re placed within a few years. Experienced furnace helpers and less skilled melters frequently shift to other fields of work, creating openings for new workers. However, because this is a fairly small occupation, there will be only a limited number of openings in any one year. Working Conditions Working conditions vary greatly among indi vidual foundries. In some, conditions compare favorably with metalworking industries gener ally; in others, safety and comfort are below the average for metalworking. The injury rate in foundries tends to be relatively high, although there has been considerable improvement o f work ing conditions in recent years. Accidents in melt ing tend to be more frequent than in many other kinds of foundry work. Like other foundry workers, the large majority of melters are union members. The principal la bor organizations covering these workers include the International Molders and Foundry Workers Union of North America (A F L ), the United Steelworkers of America (C IO ), and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America (C IO ). 264 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Foundry Technicians ( D . O . T . 4 - 8 6 .1 7 0 ) Outlook Summary There will be good employment opportunities for a limited number of new workers in this small but growing occupation. Nature of Work This is a group of skilled foundry occupations having to do with quality control in the making of castings. Included are workers with such spe cialized duties as the testing of molding and core making sand, chemical analysis of metal, opera tion of machines which test the strength and hard ness o f castings, and the use o f X-ray or magnetic apparatus to inspect the internal structure of castings. In general, a high-school education is a pre requisite, and employers may require additional technical schooling. However, most of the foundry technician’s duties are learned on the job. Physi cal strength is not ordinarily needed, and women are often employed. Foundry technicians may advance to supervisory positions in their various specialized fields. Foundry technicians are employed both in in dependent foundries, which produce castings for sale to other firms, and in foundry departments of plants which use castings in the manufacture of such products as automobiles, various kinds o f industrial equipment, farm machinery, railroad equipment, and household appliances. Most of the jobs for foundry technicians are in the midwestern and northeastern sections of the country, with Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michi gan, Indiana, and New York the leading States. Outlook Employment of foundry technicians is expected to rise slightly above its present level during the next few years. The expanding needs o f many industries which are major users of foundry prod ucts should result in an increase in foundry ac tivity. These industries include particularly auto mobiles, power-plant equipment, farm machinery, and railroad equipment. Over a longer period, while foundry employ ment generally may decline somewhat, the longrun trend toward greater use of scientific methods in casting metal gradually will lead to expanded employment of foundry technicians. However, although this is a growing occupation, it is numeri cally small and consequently only a limited num ber of openings are likely in any one year. Forge-Shop Occupations Forge-shop work is among the smaller fields of employment in metalworking. Less than 60,000 workers currently are employed in forge-shop occupations. These are, however, among the bestpaid industrial occupations and include a high proportion of skilled jobs. Forging is used to shape metal objects that are required to withstand great stress, including, for example, automobile crankshafts and axles, loco motive wheels, and marine-engine drive shafts. Steel is the main material used, but brass and other nonferrous metals are also forged. In general, forgings are produced in machines which pound or squeeze heated metal into the desired shape. This is similar to what is done by the old-time blacksmith, except that machine power is substituted for the blacksmith’s arm, and dies for his hammer and anvil. There are many different kinds o f jobs in forge shops. The most important are those having to do with the operation of the forging hammers. These hammers usually are run by crews of 2 or more— sometimes as many as 10 or 15. Hammer operators (or hammermen) and their crews gener ally specialize on a particular kind of forging hammer. Drop-hammer operators use a machine which forms heated metal by impact between dies shaped like the desired object. Hammersmiths produce forgings with power hammers equipped with unshaped dies, forming metal to shape by manipulating it under the pounding of the flat dies. (Basically this is what the blacksmith does by hand.) Upsetters operate forging machines which shape metal by pressure exerted horizon tally ; forging-press operators use a machine simi lar to the upset machine, except that it operates vertically. Heaters and helpers make up the rest o f the various hammer crews, assisting the ham mer operators in a number of ways. In addition to' the hammer crews, forge-shop workers include a number o f men engaged in trim ming, cleaning, finishing, or inspecting forgings. There are also many laborers employed, mainly in moving materials. A small number of skilled die sinkers work in the die shops, preparing the forg ing dies by highly acccurate hand and machine operations. The more skilled forge-shop jobs, such as that o f hammerman, are filled by promoting men from lower rated forge-shop jobs. For example, a man starts as a helper on a hammer crew, advances to the job of heater, and then to hammerman. T yp ically, this takes several years; it can, however, sometimes be done in less than a year. Forge-shop jobs are found in a variety o f in dustries. The largest group is in independent steel-forging plants—those producing steel forg ings for sale to other industries. Many workers, however, are employed in the forge departments o f plants which use forged parts in their final prod ucts, such as automobiles, railroad equipment, air craft, hand tools, or machinery. A number of forge-shop workers are employed in large shops operated as a part of steel mills. Employment of forge-shop workers is concen trated mainly in the metalworking centers of the Midwest and the Northeast, with Ohio, Pennsyl vania, Michigan, and Illinois among the most im portant States. During the next several years there should be some increase in the number of forge-shop jobs, and new workers will be hired as helpers and la borers. Higher output is in prospect in many industries using forged parts in their final prod ucts. These industries include particularly auto mobiles, tractors, farm machinery, aircraft, and railroad equipment. As a result, production o f forgings will probably rise somewhat over its pres ent high level. However, although fo'rge-sliop 265 266 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK employment is far higher than prewar, it is still well under the wartime peak, when tremendous quantities of forgings were required for ordnance, aircraft, and ships. Over the longer run, forge-shop employment may decline slightly as the backlogs of demand for automobiles, tractors, and other products using forgings are worked off. It is likely, however, that enough older workers will be dropping out of the shops to offset the decline in employment so that those remaining in this field will continue to have jobs, and there will also be some new openings. Earnings in forge shops are among the highest in industry. In January 1918, production work ers in independent steel forging plants earned an average o f nearly $66 for a workweek of slightly under 42 hours. (In the same month, the average for all durable goods manufacturing was slightly under $56 for a workweek of about 41 hours). In part, the level of forge-shop earnings is accounted for by the prevalence of incentive p a y ; the gen erally difficult working conditions are also a factor in the wage scale. Earnings in certain forge-shop occupations, such as that o f hammerman, range considerably higher. Because some of these jobs require considerable speed and stamina, older men are often unable to continue in the occupation and are transferred to lower rated, less-demanding forge-shop jobs. Forge shops are typically hot and noisy, and much of the work is strenuous. The accident fre quency rates for forge shops are higher than the average for metalworking industries. Most forge-shop workers are union members. The leading unions in this field include the Inter national Brotherhood of Blacksmiths, Drop Forg ers, and Helpers (A F L ), the United Steelworkers of America (C IO ), and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ). Drop-Hammer Operators ( D .O .T . 4 - 8 6 .1 7 0 ) Outlook Summary There will be some increase in employment dur ing the next few years. Drop-hammer operator jobs will be filled by upgrading less-skilled forgeshop workers, creating openings for new workers at the lower-skill levels. Longer-run prospects are for continued employment of those in this field. Nature o f Work A drop-hammer operator is a skilled forge-shop worker who operates a drop hammer, a kind of forging machine which pounds metal into various shapes between closed (shaped) dies. He directs the work of the heater who heats the metal to pre pare it for forging and supervises any helpers as signed to his hammer. He may direct his crew in setting up the hammer. The two principal types o f drop hammers are steam and board. The oper ators of steam hammers are generally considered more skilled than those on board hammers and the skill required tends to increase with the size of the hammer, although this also depends upon the com plexity o f the object to be forged. Men can trans fer from one type of hammer to another only with an additional period of training. Because of their greater skill, steam-hammer operators can more readily transfer to board hammers than boardhammer operators to steam. Where Employed The largest number of drop-hammer operators are employed in independent iron and steel forge shops which forge parts for other industries. Many are also employed in forge shops in factories making automobiles and machinery, and in rail road repair shops. Jobs for drop-hammer operators are found prin cipally in the Midwestern and Northeastern States, including Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, and New York. Training and Qualifications Drop-hammer operation is learned on the job, but a regular apprenticeship is not ordinarily pro vided. Usually, a minimum of 2 to 4 years’ ex perience in the forge shop is required. Workers usually begin as helpers and after sufficient expe rience advance to the job of heater. Experienced FORGE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS and capable heaters are upgraded to light forging work when openings occur and then progress on to the heavier hammers as they acquire greater skill. All of the workers in this occupation are male, and considerable physical strength is required. Outlook During the next several years there should be some increase in the number of drop-hammer operator jobs, so that less-skilled forge-shop workers will be upgraded to these jobs and new workers taken on as helpers. Higher output is in prospect in many industries using drop-forged parts in their final products. These industries include particularly automobiles, aircraft, trac tors, farm machinery, and railroad equipment. As a result, production o f drop forgings will prob ably rise somewhat over its present high level. Over the longer run, forge-shop employment may decline slightly as the backlog o f demand for automobiles, tractors,.and other products using forging is worked off. However, it is likely that enough older workers will be dropping out o f the occupation to offset the decline in employment, so that those remaining in this field will continue to have jobs, and there will also be some new openings. Earnings and Working Conditions Drop-hammer operators are among the highestpaid workers in manufacturing. Recent wage 267 data are not available for the independent forge shops or for some of the other industries which employ drop-hammer operators. However, in October 1946, in the machinery industries (except electrical machinery, machine tools, and machinetool accessories) average straight-time hourly earnings were as follow s: Drop-hammer opera tors, steam, 5,000 pounds and over, $1.91; drophammer operators, steam, under 5,000 pounds, $1.72; drop-hammer operators, board, under 3,000 pounds, $1.57. (Since October 1946, drop-ham mer operators generally have received wage in creases in machinery plants.) Most drop-hammer operators are members of unions. Many belong to the International Brotherhood of Blacksmiths, Drop Forgers, and Helpers (A F L ). Others have been organized by the industrial unions o f the CIO, especially the United Steelworkers o f America and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Imple ment Workers o f America. Forge shops are typically hot and noisy places to work. The accident frequency rates for forge shops are higher than the average for metal working industries. Because the work requires considerable speed and stamina, older men are often unable to con tinue in the occupation. These men are usually transferred to lower-rated, less-demanding forgeshop jobs. See also Heaters, Forge, page 271. Hammersmiths (D.O.T. 4-86.120) Outlook Summary There will be a few new openings for hammer smiths during the next several years. Longer run prospects are for stable employment. Nature of Work A hammersmith is a highly skilled forge-shop worker who operates a hammer equipped with un shaped (open) dies, used to pound heated metal into required shapes. This method is employed in forging objects which are too large or intricate for closed dies (shaped to form a particular ob ject) or which are needed in quantities too small to justify the expense of making closed dies. The hammersmith supervises several men—for ex ample, an assistant operator or hammer driver, a heater, and several helpers assigned to his hammer. His work is generally considered more skilled than closed-die forging. In addition to control of the hammer stroke and careful manipulation of the heated metal under the die, his job requires a knowledge of forging practice, blueprint reading, properties of metals, and shop arithmetic. 268 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Co urtesy of n a t io n a l a r c h iv e s The hammersmith supervises a crew of men. Where Employed m ersm ith . H a m m ersm ith s are e m p lo y e d b oth in in d e p e n d en t ir o n an d steel fo r g e sh op s (p a r tic u la r ly in the ex p e rie n ce d h e lp e r w h o sh ow s th e need ed a p titu d es m a y be p r o m o te d to th e jo b o f h eater, a n d th en ce sm a ller p la n t s ), w h ich fo r g e p a rts f o r sale to to o th e r in d u stries, an d in the fo r g e d ep a rtm en ts o f lected fr o m a m o n g the m ore e x p e rie n ce d a ssist fa c to r ie s m a k in g fin ish ed p ro d u cts , such as h ea v y ants. d u t y m a ch in ery . w o r k in o rd e r to d o the n ecessary h e a v y lif t in g D u r in g the w a r, m a n y w ere assistant I t is usual to b e g in as a h elp er. o p e ra to r. H a m m e rsm ith s are An se C on sid e ra b le stam in a is re q u ire d f o r th is e m p lo y e d in f o r g i n g la r g e g u n b a rrels a n d sh ip a n d to w ith sta n d the n oise, h eat, a n d v ib r a tio n p arts, such as p r o p e lle r sh afts. ty p ic a l o f fo r g e shops. H a m m e rsm ith jo b s are fo u n d m a in ly in the Outlook M id w e ste rn a n d N orth ea stern States, in c lu d in g P e n n s y lv a n ia , In d ia n a , O h io , N ew Y o r k , Illin o is , and W is co n s in . Training and Qualifications A t least several y ea rs o f fo r g e -s h o p e x p erien ce in lo w e r g ra d e jo b s are re q u ire d to b ecom e a h a m R e p la ce m e n t o f w ork e rs le a v in g th e o cc u p a tio n w ill p ro v id e a fe w o p e n in g s to be fille d b y lesssk ille d fo r g e -s h o p w ork ers. T h e n u m ber o f h a m m ersm ith jo b s is fa r b e lo w the w a rtim e p eak , w h en m a n y w ere e m p lo y e d in f o r g in g o rd n a n ce and sh ip p arts. E m p lo y m e n t, h o w e v e r , is fa r h ig h e r th a n FORGE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS prewar, and may rise somewhat during the next few years in response to the needs of many metal working industries for heavy forgings. Longer run prospects are for continued employment of those entering the occupation. This is one of the smaller forge-shop occupations, so that the number of openings occurring in any one year is limited. Wo t hing Conditions Forge shops are typically hot and noisy places to work. The accident frequency rates for forge shops are higher than the average for metalwork ing industries. 269 Because the work requires considerable speed and stamina, older men are often unable to con tinue in this occupation and are usually trans ferred to lower-level, less-demanding forge-shop j obs. Most hammersmiths are members of unions. Many belong to the International Brotherhood of Blacksmiths, Drop Forgers, and Helpers (A F L ). Others have been organized by the industrial unions of the CIO, especially the United Steel workers of America and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. Forging-Press Operators (D.O.T. 4-86.125; 6-88.718) Outlook Summary Training and Qualifications There will be a few openings for new workers. The trend of employment is upward, so that those who do enter the occupation should continue to have jobs. Forging-press operation is learned on the job. Where crews are used, workers start as helpers, advancing to heaters after getting enough experi ence; operators are selected from among the ex perienced heaters. It may take several years to advance from helper to operator. Where a single man operates the press, inexperienced men are hired as trainees. The work is strenuous and re quires the ability to withstand the heat, noise, and vibration present in forge shops. Nature of Work These are forge-shop workers who operate forg ing presses, which shape metal by squeezing it in closed (shaped) dies. This method is mainly used where large quantities of relatively small forg ings—either steel or nonferrous— are required. The forging-press operator may supervise a heater (who heats the metal before forging) and one or more helpers. He must know how to control the heating of the metal, to regulate the pressure of the machine, and to position the work in the dies. His duties may include setting up the press. In general, the job is less skilled than drop forging. Where Employed Forging-press operators are employed both in independent forge shops (which forge parts for sale to other industries) and in the forge depart ments of factories producing finished products, such as automobiles and farm implements. Dur ing the war, many were employed in forging alu minum parts for aircraft. Jobs for forging-press operators are found prin cipally in the Midwestern and Northeastern States, including Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Connecticut, and ISew York. Outlook There will be a few openings for forging-press operators in the next several years. Employment will rise somewhat because of the expanding needs for pressed forgings in many metalworking in dustries. Longer-run prospects are also favorable, since somewhat greater use of the press-forging method is anticipated. The resulting increase in the number of forging-press jobs combined with normal replacement needs will create opportuni ties for beginners. Relatively few openings are likely in any one year, however, because of the small size of the occupation. Earnings and Working Conditions Recent w age data for independent forge shops T and for many of the other industries which em ploy forging-press operators are not available. However, in October 1946, hydraulic forging-press 270 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK operators (vertical) averaged $1.33 an hour straight time in forge shops in the machinery in dustries (except electrical machinery, machine tools, and machine-tool accessories). Since then, forging-press operators have received wage in creases in many machinery plants. M o s t fo r g in g -p r e s s o p e ra to rs are m em bers o f u n ion s. M any b e lo n g to the In te r n a tio n a l B ro th e r h o o d o f B la ck s m ith s , D r o p F o r g e r s , a n d H e lp e rs ( A F L ) . O th ers h a v e been o rg a n iz e d b y the in d u stria l u n ion s o f the C I O . esp e cia lly the U n ite d S te e lw o rk e rs o f A m e r ic a a n d the U n ite d A u to m o b ile , A ir c r a f t , a n d A g r ic u lt u r a l I m p le m en t W o r k e r s o f A m e rica . F o r g e sh op s are ty p ic a lly h o t a n d n o is y p la ces in w h ich to w o rk . T h e a ccid e n t fre q u e n c y rate f o r f o r g e sh op s is h ig h e r th a n th e a v e ra g e f o r m e ta lw o rk in g in d u stries. Upsetters (Forging’) (D .O .T . Outlook Summary 4-86.125) Training and Qualifications D u r in g th e n ex t fe w y ea rs th ere w ill be a sm all n u m ber o f o p e n in g s to be filled b y less sk illed fo r g e -s h o p w o r k e r s ; o v e r the lo n g e r ru n , e m p lo y m en t w ill ten d to rise s lig h tly . S e v e ra l y e a rs ’ w o r k e x p e rie n ce is g e n e r a lly n eed ed to lea rn upset fo r g in g . I t is usual t o b e g in as a h e lp e r, a n d a fte r sufficient e x p e rie n ce to rise t o the jo b o f heater. E x p e rie n ce d h eaters are se le cte d f o r u p setter jo b s on lig h t w o rk . Nature o f Work W it h f u r th e r e x p erien ce th e y m a y p ro g re ss to th e h e a v ie r T h e u p setter in fo r g e sh op s op era tes an u psetter fo r g in g w o rk . C o n sid e ra b le p h y sic a l stren g th m eta l b etw een a n d en d u ra n ce are n eed ed in o r d e r to d o th e r e clo se d dies (sh a p e d to m a ke a p a r tic u la r o b je c t) q u ire d h e a v y l if t in g a n d to w ith sta n d h eat, n o ise , w h ich m o v e h o riz o n ta lly , p re s sin g th e m etal a lo n g a n d v ib r a tio n . o cc u p a tio n . fo r g in g m a ch in e, u sed to its g reatest len g th . fo r m T h is a ctio n causes the m etal t o sp re a d a lo n g its o th e r d im en sion s, u n til it takes o n th e req u ired fo rm . T h e u psetter d ire cts a sm all cre w , co n s istin g o f a h eater (w h o heats th e m eta l p re p a r a to r y to f o r g i n g ) sig n ed to h is m a ch in e. a n d h e lp e rs as H e m u st k n o w h o w to c o n t r o l th e h e a tin g o p e ra tio n , to a d ju s t th e m a ch in e ’s p ressu re on the m eta l, a n d t o p o s itio n th e m etal sto ck b etw een the dies. I n gen era l, th e la r g e r the o b je c t fo r g e d , the g re a te r th e sk ill req u ired . Outlook T h e r e w ill be a fe w o p e n in g s f o r u p setters in th e n e x t severa l years. T h e jo b s w ill be filled b y u p g r a d in g less sk ille d fo r g e -s h o p w o rk e rs, n ew w o r k e r s b e in g ta ken on as h elp ers. E m p lo y m e n t o f u psetters w ill rise som ew h a t because o f the e x p a n d in g needs f o r u p set fo r g in g s in m a n y m e ta l w o r k in g in d u stries, such as a u to b o m ile s a n d a ir c r a ft. L o n g e r -r u n p ro sp e cts are a lso fa v o r a b le , since co m e w h a t g re a te r use o f th is f o r g i n g m e th o d Where Employed M o s t u p setters are e m p lo y e d in in d e p e n d e n t ir o n an d steel f o r g i n g sh ops, w h ich sell fo r g e d p a rts to o th e r ind u stries. O n ly m en a re e m p lo y e d in th is S o m e w o r k in the fo r g e d ep a rtm en ts o f p la n ts m a k in g fin ish ed p ro d u cts , su ch as a u tom ob iles a n d m a ch in e ry . is a n ticip a te d . ber o f T h e re su ltin g in crea se in th e n u m these jo in s, co m b in e d p la ce m e n t needs, w ill b egin n ers. create n o rm a l re o p p o r tu n itie s w ith fo r K e la tiv e ly fe w o p e n in g s are lik e ly in a n y on e y e a r, h o w e v e r , because o f th e sm a ll size o f th e o cc u p a tio n . J o b s f o r u psetters are con cen tra ted in the M id w estern a n d N orth ea stern States, in c lu d in g O h io , Working Conditions P e n n sy lv a n ia , Illin o is , In d ia n a , W is co n s in , M ic h i g a n , a n d N ew Y o r k . M o st u p se ttin g m a ch in e o p e ra to rs are m em bers of u n ion s. M a n y b e lo n g to the In te r n a tio n a l FORGE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS Brotherhood of Blacksmiths, Drop Forgers, and Helpers (A F L ). Others have been organized by the industrial unions of the CIO, especially the United Steelworkers of America and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Imple 271 ment Workers of America. Forge shops are typically hot and noisy places to work. The accident-frequency rates for forge shops are higher than the average for metalwork ing industries. Heaters, Forge (D.O.T. 6-88.732) Outlook Summary Outlook Higher employment is in prospect for the next few years, with openings occurring for expe rienced forge-shop helpers. Those entering the occupation will have good chance for employment over the longer run. During the next several years there should be some increase in the number of jobs for forge heaters. Higher output is in prospect in many industries using forged parts in their final prod ucts. These industries include particularly auto mobiles, aircraft, tractors, farm machinery, and railroad equipment. As a result, production of forgings will probably rise somewhat over its present high level. Over the longer run, forge-shop employment will decline somewhat as the backlog of demand for automobiles, tractors, and other products using forgings is worked off. However, it is likely that enough older workers will be dropping out o f forge-shop work to offset the decline in employment, so that those remaining in this field will continue to have jobs, and there will also be some new openings. However, not many open ings are likely in any one year, because of the small size of this occupation. Nature o f Work The forge heater prepares metal shapes for forging by heating the metal pieces in a furnace. His duties include operating the furnace and feeding fuel to it, controlling the temperature, placing the metal shapes in the furnace, taking them out when properly heated, and transferring them to the forging machine. Many heaters work in independent shops producing forgings for use in further fabrication by other companies. Heat ers are also employed in forge shops of plants making automobiles and parts, in machinery plants, and in railroad repair shops. Experienced heaters are in line for promotion to higher-rated jobs on the hammer crews. Jobs for heaters are found principally in the Midwestern and Northeastern States, including Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, and New York. Training and Qualifications Heaters learn their jobs by working as helpers on various kinds of forging hammers. When a vacancy occurs, experienced and qualified helpers are upgraded to the job of heater. A growing number of shops are requiring heaters to have some technical knowledge of metallurgy. Consid erable physical strength may be required. Earnings and Working Conditions Recent wage data for independent forge shops and for many of the other industries which employ forge heaters are not available. How ever, in October 1946, light-work forge heaters averaged $1.31 an hour straight time, and heavywork forge heaters averaged $1.55 straight time in forge shops in the machinery industries (except electrical machinery and machine-tool acces sories). Since then forge heaters generally have received wage increases in machinery plants. 272 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Most forge heaters are members of unions. Many belong to the International Brotherhood of Blacksmiths, Drop Forgers and Helpers (A F L ) ; others have been organized by the industrial unions of the CIO, especially the United Steel Workers o f America and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers o f America. Forge shops are typically hot and noisy places in which to work. The accident-frequency rate for forge shops is higher than the average for metalworking industries. See also: Drop-hammer Operators, page 266: Hammersmiths, page 267; Forging-Press Opera tors, page 269; and Upsetters, page 270. Other Metalworking Occupations Assemblers, Bench (Machinery Manufacturing) (D.O.T. 4-75.120; 6-78.632) u su a lly e m p lo y e d . Outlook Summary P ro sp e cts are th at the n u m b er o f jo b s w ill r e m ain at its p resen t h ig h lev el d u r in g the n e x t fe w years. O v e r the lo n g e r ru n , re p la ce m e n t needs w ill con tin u e to p r o v id e m a n y o p e n in g s f o r new w ork ers even th o u g h to ta l e m p lo y m e n t in this o ccu p a tio n m a y d r o p o ff som ew h at. In e x p e rie n ce d w ork e rs m a y be h ir e d as train ees o r h elp ers a n d tr a in e d on the jo b to d o th e less sk illed b en ch assem blin g. B e n ch assem blers u su a lly sp e cia liz e o n on e ty p e o f m a ch in e r y o r equip m en t. O fte n th e y can n ot r e a d ily tr a n s fe r to b en ch a ssem bly o f o th e r p r o d ucts, o r even o f sim ila r p ro d u c ts in o th e r p la n ts, w ith o u t a d d itio n a l tr a in in g . T h e w o r k is re la tiv e ly lig h t, a n d m a n y w o m e n Nature of Work are e m p lo y e d to d o th e less sk illed a ssem b lin g jo b s. T h ese w ork ers fit to g e th e r and assem ble m a ch in e ry p a rts in to com p le te u n its o r subassem blies w h ile w o r k in g at a bench . T h e m ore s k ille d as sem blers ( o ft e n ca lle d b en ch m a ch in ists) assem b le the m o re c o m p le x m a ch in e ry p a rts w ith g reat p recision an d w ith little o r n o su p e rv isio n . T hey m u st k n o w h o w to rea d b lu e p rin ts a n d to use p r e cisio n m e a su rin g in stru m en ts a n d v a rio u s h a n d an d p o w e r to o ls, su ch as scrap ers, ch isels, files, and d r ill presses. T h e less s k ille d assem blers d o re p e ti tiv e a ssem b lin g o p e ra tio n s u n der su p e rv isio n a n d are g e n e ra lly n ot resp on sib le f o r th e fin a l assem b lin g o f co m p le x job s. Where Employed Outlook T h e n u m b er o f jo b s f o r b en ch assem blers is e x p e cte d t o re m a in at its present h ig h level d u r in g the n ext fe w yea rs, w ith m a n y jo b o p p o r tu n itie s o p e n in g up fo r n ew w ork ers. C u rre n tly , the m a ch in e r y in d u stries are p r o d u c in g at the h ig h e st ra te e v e r a ch ie v e d in p eacetim e, w ith m a n y m a ch in e ry p la n ts, such as th ose m a k in g tra ctors, fa r m m a ch in e ry , co n stru ctio n eq u ip m en t, a n d o il-fie ld m a ch in e ry , h a v in g la rg e b a ck lo g s o f o rd ers. H ig h e m p lo y m e n t in the m a ch in ery in d u stries as a w h o le is lik e ly to be m a in ta in e d d u r in g the n ext fe w years. A f t e r a fe w years, as p r o d u c tio n in m a n y m a B en ch assem blers are e m p lo y e d in a w id e v a rie ty o f m a ch in e ry p la n ts, in c lu d in g th ose w h ich m ake m a ch in e tools, a g ricu ltu ra l m a ch in e ry , in tern a lco m b u stio n en gin es, and te x tile m a ch in e ry . B en ch assem blers w o r k th ro u g h o u t the cou n try . in m a ch in e ry p la n ts H o w e v e r , m ost o f th e c h in e r y p la n ts catches u p w ith u n sa tisfied d e m a n d s, the n u m ber o f jo b s f o r assem blers a lo n g w ith m a ch in e r y e m p lo y m e n t g e n e r a lly w ill ten d to d r o p o ff som ew h at, bu t sh ou ld rem a in at a re la tiv e ly h ig h level as lo n g as ge n e ra l business c o n d itio n s rem ain g o o d . jo b s f o r these w ork ers are co n ce n tra te d in the m a A m o n g the sk illed b en ch assem blers are a n u m c h in e r y -m a n u fa c tu r in g cen ters o f th e M id w e st b er o f w o rk e rs n e a r in g the a ge w h en d ea th o r re and tirem en t w ill ta k e them fr o m the la b o r fo r c e . N orth ea st, p a r tic u la r ly in O h io , Illin o is , P e n n sy lv a n ia , M ich ig a n , a n d N ew Y o r k . o f o p e n in g s f o r n ew em p loy ees each yea r. Training and Qualifications F or the m ore m a ch in e-sh op sk ille d S h if t in g in to o th e r o cc u p a tio n s is com m on a m o n g the b en ch -a sse m b lin g jo b s , w ork ers, such lie - p la cem en t o f these w ork e rs w ill p r o v id e a n u m ber as m a ch in ists, are less sk ille d assem blers, and m a n y jo b o p p o r tu n tie s w ill be cre a te d in th is w ay. 273 274 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of bench assemblers vary widely, depending on their skill grade, the type of product assembled, the size and location of the plant in which they are employed, and whether they are paid on an incentive basis. Average straighttime hourly earnings of male assemblers (includ ing both bench and floor assemblers) in machinery plants in November 1947 are shown below for selected large cities. Class A Atlanta Baltimore . Birmingham Boston . Buffalo Charlotte Chattanooga Chicago-Gary Cincinnati Cleveland Dallas Denver D etroit Hartford Houston Indianapolis Los Angeles Milwaukee Minneapolis-St. Paul Newark-Jersey Citv New Y ork Citv Philadelphia Pittsburgh Portland, Oreg Providence St. Louis San Francisco Seattle Syracuse Tulsa W aterbu ry. ■ _ . _ _ , $1. 34 1. 28 1. 42 1. 36 1. 45 1. 16 1. 44 1. 56 1. 32 1. 67 1. 19 1. 56 1. 66 1. 40 1. 46 1. 38 1. 48 1. 68 1. 38 1. 53 1. 53 1. 43 1. 41 1. 60 1. 29 1. 53 1. 55 1. 65 1. 69 1. 23 1. 44 Class B $1. 07 1. 14 1. 24 1. 21 1. 22 1. 02 1. 09 1. 37 1. 17 1. 61 1. 02 1. 14 1. 58 1. 21 1. 30 1. 26 1. 34 1. 42 1. 32 1. 33 1. 37 1. 26 1. 58 1. 45 1. 14 1. 28 1. 38 1. 45 1. 46 1. 07 1. 32 HANDBOOK Most bench assemblers are members of unions. There are several labor organizations in the field, among the most important of which are the Inter national Association of Machinists (Inch), the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America (C I O ), and the United Automobile, Air- Class C $0. 89 . 98 1. 16 1. 00 1. 09 . 80 . 93 1. 24 1. 01 1. 26 . 92 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 38 10 16 45 13 44 02 11 11 11 39 ______ 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. . 1. 03 10 21 27 39 90 23 COURTESY OF N A T IO N A L A R C H IV E S Bench assemblers fit together and assemble small machinery parts into complete units or subassemblies. craft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ). Working conditions for bench assemblers are usually good compared with factory work in gen eral. Their places of work, generally, are rela tively clean, well-lighted, and free from dust. See also Floor Assemblers (Machinery Manu facturing), page 275; and All-Round Machinists, page 234. OTHER M E T A L W O R K IN G O C C U P A T IO N S 275 Assemblers, Floor (Machinery Manufacturing-) (D.O.T. 6-78.«32) Outlook Summary Employment in this occupation is expected to remain at the present high level during the next few years. Over the longer run, the number of jobs will drop off somewhat, but replacement needs will continue to provide numerous openings for new workers. Nature of Work These workers assemble heavy machinery or equipment on shop floors, fitting and finishing machined parts with hand and power tools and fastening parts together with bolts, screws, or rivets. The more skilled assemblers put together finished machines and equipment of a complex nature, with little or no supervision. They must know how to read blueprints and use various hand and power tools. The less skilled assemblers do repetitive assembling operations under close super vision and are generally not responsible for the final assembly of complex jobs. Where Employed Floor assemblers are employed in a wide variety of machinery plants, including those which make machine tools, tractors, construction machinery, and internal-combustion engines. Floor assemblers work in machinery plants throughout the country, with most of the jobs con centrated in the Midwest and Northeast, particu larly in Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and New York. Training and Qualifications For the more skilled floor assembling jobs, ma chine-shop workers such as machinists are usually employed. Inexperienced workers may be hired as trainees or helpers and trained on the job to do less skilled floor assembly. Floor assemblers usually specialize on one type of machinery or equipment. Often they cannot readily transfer to assembly of other products, or even of similar products in other plants, without additional training. Outlook The number of jobs for floor assemblers is expected to remain around its present high level during the next few years, with many job opportu nities opening up for new workers. Currently, the machinery industries are producing at the highest rate ever achieved in peacetime, with many machinery plants, such as those making tractors, farm machinery, construction equipment, and oil field machinery, having large backlogs of orders. High employment in the machinery industries as a whole is likely to be maintained during the next few years. After a few years, as production in many machinery plants catches up with unsatisfied demands, the number of jobs for assemblers, along with machinery employment generally, will tend to drop off somewhat, but should remain at a rela tively high level as long as general business condi tions remain good. Among the skilled floor assemblers are a number of workers nearing the age when death or retire ment will take them from the labor force. Re placement of these workers will provide a number of openings for new employees each year. Shift ing into other occupations is common among the less-skilled assemblers, and many job opportunities will be created this way. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of floor assemblers vary widely, depending on their skill grade, the type of product assembled, the size and location of the plant in which they are employed, and whether they are paid on an incentive basis. Average straighttime hourly earnings of male assemblers (includ ing both bench and floor assemblers) in machinery plants in November 1947 are shown in the follow ing statement for selected large cities. 276 O C C U P A T IO N A L | Atlanta Baltimore Birmingham B oston , Buffalo _ C h arlotte, _ Chattanooga , ............. Chicago-G arv Cincinnati Cleveland D a l l a s ____ D enver D etroit, _ H artford _ _ H ou ston , _ Indianapolis Los Angeles Milwaukee M inneapolis-St. P au l, Newark-Jersey C itv , New Y ork C i t y ,T Philadelphia, Pittsburgh _ _ Portland, Oreg Providence _ _ St. Louis - _ , , ------------ | Class A $1. 34 1. 28 1. 42 1. 36 1. 45 1. 16 1. 44 1. 56 1. 32 1. 67 1. 19 1. 56 1. 66 1. 40 1. 46 1. 38 1. 48 1. 68 1. 38 1. 53 1. 53 1. 43 1. 41 1. 60 1. 29 1. 53 Class B $1. 07 1. 14 1. 24 1. 21 1. 22 1. 02 1. 09 1. 37 1. 17 1. 61 1. 02 1. 14 1. 58 1. 21 1. 30 1. 26 1. 34 1. 42 1. 32 1. 33 1. 37 1. 26 1. 58 1. 45 1. 14 1. 28 OU TLOOK HANDBOOK Class C $0. 89 . 98 T . 16 1. 00 1. 09 . 80 . 93 1. 24 1. 01 1. 26 . 92 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 38 10 16 45 13 44 02 11 11 11 39 1. 03 1. 10 Class A San Francisco Seattle Syracuse Tulsa W aterbury _ $1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 55 65 69 23 44 Class B $1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 38 45 46 07 32 Class C $1. 1. 1. . 1. 21 27 39 90 23 Most floor assemblers are members of unions. There are several labor organizations in the field, among the most important of which are the Inter national Association of Machinists (In d.), the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America (C I O ), and the United Automobile, A ir craft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ). Working conditions for floor assemblers are usually good compared with factory work in gen eral. Their places of work, generally, are rela tively clean, well lighted, and free from dust. See also Bench Assemblers (Machinery Manu facturing), page 273, and All-Round Machinists, page 234. Inspectors, Machinery Parts (D.O.T. 4-78.671, 6-78.671) Outlook Summary Prospects are that the number of jobs for these workers will remain around its present high level during the next few years. Over the longer run, employment is expected to drop off somewhat, but replacement needs will continue to provide open ings for new workers. Nature of Work These workers examine metal parts which have been shaped by machine tools. They look for various defects, checking the dimensions and ap pearance of the parts to determine whether they meet specifications. The skilled inspectors work with little or no supervision and examine a variety o f parts, often quite complex. They must be able to read blueprints and use various measuring de vices, such as calipers, gages, and micrometers. Skilled inspectors usually must have a general knowledge of machining and other metalworking processes. The less skilled inspectors inspect large numbers of identical parts under close super vision; often they use specially prepared gages and other measuring instruments which greatly simplify inspection. Where Employed These inspectors are employed in a wide variety of nonelectrical machinery plants, such as those which make machine tools, tractors, mechanical power transmission equipment, and refrigerating equipment. Most of the jobs for these workers are concentrated in the industrial centers of the Midwest and Northeast, particularly in Ohio, Illi nois, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and New York. Training and Qualifications Skilled inspectors are obtained from the ranks of machine-tool operators and other machine-shop workers, or by upgrading less skilled inspectors. OTHER M E T A L W O R K IN G Inexperienced workers are often hired for the less skilled jobs and taught to do repetitive inspection in a brief period o f on-the-job training. The work is not strenuous, and women are often employed as inspectors. Because of the nature of the work, good eyesight is generally required. Outlook The number of jobs for machinery-parts in spectors is expected to remain near its present high level during the next few years, with some openings occurring for new workers. During the war large numbers of inspectors were trained in the war industries, such as aircraft. However, most of those workers have shifted to other occu pations or dropped out of the labor force, so that they will not be seeking jobs as machinery-parts inspectors. Currently, machinery industries are producing at the highest rate ever achieved in peacetime. Many machinery plants, particularly those making such products as tractors, farm ma chinery, oil-field equipment, and construction ma chinery, have large backlogs of orders, and high employment in the machinery industries as a whole is likely to be maintained for a few more years. After a few years, as production in many ma chinery plants catches up with unsatisfied de mands, the employment of machinery-parts in spectors will tend to drop off slightly, but should remain at a relatively high level as long as gen eral business conditions are favorable. Among the skilled machinery-parts inspectors are a number of workers approaching the age when death or retirement will take them out o f the labor force. Replacement of these workers will provide a number of openings for new employees each year. Shifting into other occupations is common among the less skilled inspectors, and many job oppor tunities will be created in this way. Earnings and Working Conditions Average straight-time hourly earnings of male inspectors in machinery plants in November 1947, 793996°—49-----19 277 O C C U P A T IO N S are shown in the following statement for selected large cities. Class A Atlanta Baltimore Birmingham Boston Buffalo Charlotte Chattanooga Chicago-Garv Cincinnati Cleveland _ D allas. _ __ D en v er. _ D etroit H artford Houston Indianapolis L o s A n g e le s .. Milwaukee Minneapolis-St. Paul Newark-Jersey C ity _ New Y ork City Philadelphia Pittsburgh Portland, Oreg Providence St. Louis San Francisco Seattle Svracuse Tulsa Waterbury $1. 1. 1. 1. 43 52 48 53 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 51 45 57 44 39 67 62 61 47 54 54 45 46 50 71 64 66 27 39 61 67 36 26 Class B Class C $1. 05 1. 15 1. 33 1. 39 1. 37 1. 27 1. 47 $1. 05 1. 10 1. 10 1. 22 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 57 25 45 40 34 39 1. 43 1. 12 1. 1. 1. 1. 23 34 38 37 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 20 1. 25 1. 37 1. 17 1. 03 1. 26 1. 16 1. 22 1. 21 04 11 13 17 1. 11 1. 22 1. 05 1. 09 Most machinery-parts inspectors are members o f unions. There are a number of labor organiza tions in this field, some o f the more important of which are the International Association of Ma chinists (Ind.), the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (C IO ), and the United Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers o f America (C IO ). Working conditions in the inspection depart ments are usually good compared with factory work in general. The working places are generally clean, well lighted, and adequately ventilated. 278 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K Arc and Gas Welders (D.O.T. 4-85.020, .030; 6-85.080) Outlook Summary Employment of arc and gas welders is expected to rise somewhat during the next few years and over the longer run. For several more years, however, many of the job openings will be filled by workers who have had wartime welding ex perience but are now employed in other occupa tions. Nature o f work In electric arc and gas welding metal parts are joined through the application of heat intense enough to melt the edges to be joined. The welder controls the melting by properly directing the heat, whether from an electric arc or from a gas welding torch, and adds filler metal where neces sary to complete the joint. In manual (hand) arc welding, the most com monly used method, the welder “ strikes” an arc by touching the metal part to be welded with an elec trode and then withdrawing the electrode a short distance. The arc results when the electric curcuit is broken by withdrawing the electrode, mak ing the current jump the gap between the metal to be welded and the electrode. The welder guides the electrode along the joint to be welded, holding it at the proper arc length. The welder should know how to make different kinds of welds to weld from various positions, and to work with different metals, he should understand welding symbols. In gas welding the welder directs the flame from a gas welding torch along the joint to be welded. The flame is usually produced by com bustion of oxygen and acetylene gas. The welder must know how to light and adjust the torch for various metals and how to form the different kinds of welds. To a considerable extent, particularly in main tenance and repair work, welding is done by mem bers of other crafts. The boilermaker, the struc tural steel worker, the machinist, and the auto mobile mechanic, all may be required to know and perform welding in their work. Typically, how ever, welding, especially in production work, is done by workers who specialize in its application. No matter where he works, the skilled welder should have some practical knowledge of the fabricating and assembling operations in the field of work in which he is engaged. For example, a welder working in a shipyard should know in gen eral how ships are put together or one employed in a boiler shop should understand how boilers are assembled. I f the welder moves into a type of work in which he is not experienced, some of the C o u r t e s y o f n a t io n a l a r c h iv e s W elders are subject to certain hazards in their work, but these can be almost entirely avoided by proper precautions. basic practices in the new field of work must be learned. Training and Qualifications A course in welding methods, followed by exten sive job experience, has been the common way for skilled welders to receive their training. Formal apprenticeships in welding alone are not often found. Frequently, welders doing the simpler repetitive types of work are trained on the job, without any special instruction, in 6 months or less. To acquire a broader knowledge of welding, regu OTHER M E T A L W O R K IN G lar course instruction in welding is desirable, either in public or private vocational schools or in courses conducted by industrial firms to train their work ers. Before enrolling in a private school, the pros pective student should check with the local educa tional authorities about the quality of the instruc tions offered. The American Welding Society has issued codes of recommended standards for weld ing courses which provide for a minimum of 150 hours of actual welding practice under qualified instructors and not less than 20 hours of class in struction in welding theory. Experience has shown that a longer learning time is usually re quired. Since a poor weld may have serious consequences in the failure of the completed product when in use, welders are usually required to have passed qualification tests established by the American Welding Society. Requirements are administered by insurance companies, employers, and inspection agencies as specified by the applicable code. In ad dition, welders must be licensed to do certain types of construction work in some localities. Where Employed Since many welders are engaged in maintenance work, welding jobs are found in a wide range of in dustries, including all those in which metal equip ment is repaired. Most jobs, however, are in pro duction work in the metal products industries; the leading employers are those making machin ery, automobiles, electrical equipment, ships, air craft, boilers and tanks, and fabricated structural steel. Examples of places where welders are used in maintenance work are railroad shops, electric power plants, street railway systems, paper mills, foundries, and chemical plants. A large number of welders work in local repair shops that either specialize in welding or do general metal repair work. Usually these are small shops, and very often they are owned and operated by individual welders, with perhaps several employees to assist. These shops serve mainly their local communities, repairing such things as farm equipment, auto mobile parts, and industrial machinery, and mak ing welded products on a subcontract basis for local manufacturing plants. Because of their wide employment among d if ferent industries jobs for welders are found in all 279 O C C U P A T IO N S section s o f the co u n tr y . M a n y o f the jo b s are c o n cen tra ted , h o w e v e r, in th e in d u stria l cen ters in th e M id w e ste rn a n d N orth ea stern S tates, in c lu d in g M ich ig a n , O h io , Illin o is , P e n n sy lv a n ia , and N ew Y o r k , w h ere th e m a ch in e ry , a u tom ob ile, and e le ctrica l eq u ip m en t p la n ts are m a in ly loca ted . S o m e com p a n ies o fte n h a v e o p e n in g s in fo r e ig n co u n trie s f o r e m p lo y m e n t on p ip e -lin e w o r k and sim ila r co n stru ctio n . Outlook D u r in g the n ext fe w years, th ere sh o u ld be an in c re a sin g n u m ber o f jo b op en in g s f o r a rc a n d gas w elders. M a n y o f the o p e n in g s w ill resu lt fr o m the re p la ce m e n t o f w ork ers le a v in g the o c c u p a t i o n ; o th e r o p e n in g s w ill be crea ted b y th e e x p e cte d rise in the d em a n d f o r w elders. T h e m a ch in e ry , a u tom ob ile, stru ctu ra l steel f a b r ic a tin g , a ir c r a ft, a n d b o ile r sh op in d u stries a n d th e o th e r p r in c ip a l em p lo y e rs o f w eld ers in the m e ta lw o r k in g field are ex p e cte d to m a in ta in a n d in som e cases in crea se th e ir a c tiv ity in th e n ext fe w years. T h e a ir c r a ft in d u stry , p a r tic u la r ly , w ill h ire m ore w eld e rs as the G o v e rn m e n t p r o g r a m f o r g r e a tly e x p a n d e d p ro d u c tio n o f m ilita r y a ir c r a ft gets u n d e r w a y. S h ip b u ild in g , w h ich d u r in g the w a r e m p lo y e d o v e r h a lf the tota l n u m ber o f w eld ers, is fa r b e lo w the w a rtim e rate a n d is n ot ex p e cte d to rise a bove the cu rre n t lo w levels, u n less a la rg e scale G o v e rn m e n t sp o n so re d s h ip b u ild in g p r o g r a m sh o u ld be resum ed. I n spite o f in crea sed e m p loy m en t o f w elders, the n u m b er o f jo b s in th is field w ill be fa r u n der the w a rtim e level. A s a result, w e ld e r jo b s w ill be filled , in m a n y cases, b y w ork ers w h o h a v e h a d w a rtim e e x p erien ce in w e ld in g b u t are n o w e m p lo y e d in o th e r o ccu p a tio n s. I n a d d itio n , h o w ever, th ere sh o u ld be a n u m ber o f o p e n in g s f o r new w ork ers, since m a n y o f the w a rtim e w eld ers are n o lo n g e r a v a ila b le f o r w e ld in g job s. A f t e r several yea rs, e m p lo y m e n t o f w eld ers in m a n y m e ta lw o r k in g in d u stries m a y d e clin e som e w h a t, as the b a c k lo g o f dem an d f o r certa in m eta l p r o d u c ts is e lim in a ted . O ffse ttin g th is d eclin e, h o w e v e r, w ill be the p ro b a b le g re a te r use o f w e ld in g in in d u stry g e n e ra lly . N ew uses f o r w e ld in g are b e in g fo u n d , a n d as a resu lt o f new d e v e lo p m ents in w e ld in g , m ore and m ore ty p es o f m a te ria ls can be w eld ed . T h is sh ou ld m ean a gra d u a l 280 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK increase in the future number of arc and gas weld ing jobs. The gain in employment, however, may not keep pace with the increase in amount of weld ing done, because as techniques become more effi cient, fewer man-hours are required to do a job. Some experienced, all-round welders may be able to establish their own welding repair and service shops. Prospects for such shops depend upon the situation in the particular community in which the shop is located. Before a new shop is opened the needs of the community and the compe tition to be faced should be carefully considered. Earnings and Working Conditions Recent information is not available on earnings of welders in most o f the industries which employ them. Average straight-time hourly earnings of male hand welders in machinery plants in Novem ber 1947, are shown below for selected large cities. Class A A tlanta____ Baltimore - _ Birmingham B oston _____ Buffalo_____ Charlotte. C hattanooga_ _ C h icago-G ary_.. Cincinnati_____ Cleveland_____ Dallas_________ D enver________ D etroit________ H artford_______ H ouston_______ Indianapolis----- $1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 35 39 30 38 52 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 60 61 39 73 25 47 78 53 63 41 Class B $1. 16 1. 16 1. 17 1. 30 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 37 33 67 11 25 56 1. 50 1. 41 HANDBOOK Class A Los Angeles Milwaukee Minneapolis-St. Paul Newark-Jersey City New Y ork Citv Philadelphia Pittsburgh Portland, Oreg Providence St. Louis San Francisco Seattle Syracuse Tulas W aterbury $1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 57 75 43 52 52 60 41 58 46 43 Class B $1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 51 69 31 35 36 43 30 1. 11 1. 68 1. 63 1. 51 1. 33 1. 1. 1. 1. 60 73 17 32 Welders are subject to certain hazards in their work, but these can be almost entirely avoided by proper precautions. Without such precautions arc welders may be exposed to minor skin burns and eye injuries and to electric shock. Similarly, gas welders are subject to the possibility of explosion and fire and, when welding is done in confined spaces, poisonous fumes or gas may be present. However, these hazards can be largely eliminated by training in safety methods and by the use of proper equipment such as goggles and ventilating devices. Where To Get Additional Information Employment Opportunities for Welders. Bulle tin No. 844. United States Bureau o f Labor Statistics, 1945. 19 pages. 10 cents, Superin tendent o f Documents, Washington 25, D. C. Resistance Welders (D.O.T. 6-85.010, .020, .030, .060, and .100) Outlook Summary There will be a small increase in employment during the next several years, with gradual gains over the longer run. Some job openings will occur as a result o f replacement needs in the occupation. Nature of Work Operators of resistance welding machines join metal parts by bringing them together under heat and pressure. The pieces of metal to be joined are pressed between two electrodes through which electric current is passing. The parts being welded offer sufficient resistance to the flow of current to create intense heat, which together with the pres sure, fuses them together. The principal types of resistance welding machines are the spot, seam, projection, flash, and upset welding machines and OTHER M E T A L W O R K IN G portable spot welding guns. The supervisor, or in some cases the operator, sets the controls of the machine for the desired electric current and pres sure. The operator mainly alines the work, starts the machine, and then removes the work when it is finished. The machines that weld automobile bodies are large and highly automatic, while smaller and less automatic machines are used to assemble such products as metal furniture. Training amd Qualifications Courses in resistance welding are not widely given. Most resistance welders learn their work on the job in a relatively short time. The length of the learning period on the job depends upon the scope of the duties of the welders. Some welders, following general directions, insert the proper electrodes and regulate and adjust the welding ma chine each time a different welding operation is begun. To do this a welder should learn the mean ing of welding symbols, the characteristics of dif ferent metals, and how to select and install the electrodes. In most welding j obs, however, the ma chine is set up and adjusted for the welder, and the welding is simple and repetitive. Beginners can learn these jobs in a month or two. Where Employed Resistance machine welders are employed al most entirely in metalworking industries, particu larly in plants assembling large quantities of products made o f sheet metal and intended for the final consumer rather than as equipment to be used in factories. Thus, most of the jobs are in the industries making automobiles, electrical household appliances, refrigerators, metal furni ture, and similar products. Some are also em ployed in machinery, industrial electrical equip ment, and aircraft plants. Because metalworking employment is concentrated in the Midwestern and Northeastern States, most of the jobs are located in these regions, with Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Illinois the leading States. Outlook Employment opportunities for resistance weld ers depend upon prospects in metalworking indus O C C U P A T IO N S 281 tries and the extent to which resistance welding becomes more widely used. The industries which employ most of the workers in the occupation, such as the automobile and household appliance indus tries, have been operating at high levels during the past several years, and are expected to continue at or above these levels for at least several years more. Stepped-up production of military aircraft will also create some jobs for resistance welders. Thus, a small number of additional jobs for re sistance welders is in prospect. In recent years rapid progress has been made in improving resistance welding methods, and in spreading its use to more products. Only during the 1930's did welding become extensively used in assembling automobiles, although now it is a very important part of the process. In the long run, further gains in the use of resistance welding can be expected. The resulting rise in the employment of machine welders will be limited, however, be cause of a trend toward the use of more rapid and highly automatic machines. There is likely to be a good number of job openings, however, because, as is the case in many semiskilled occupations, turn-over rates are relatively high. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings vary considerably, depending upon the industry in which employed, degree of skill required, and method of wage payment (hourly or incentive rates). Earnings usually range some what below those of arc welders and skilled ma chine-tool operators. * Average hourly earnings in July 1946 in plants manufacturing stoves and ranges were $1.28 for male Class A and 90 cents for female Class A resistance machine welders; in October 1946, average hourly earnings in the ma chinery industries (excluding machine tools and accessories and electrical machinery) were $1.37 for male Class A and $1.25 for male Class B ma chine welders. In 1947 male spot welders in the metal furniture industry averaged $1.17 an hour straight time, while female spot welders earned 90 cents an hour on the average. Women generally earn less than men and are usually employed at Class B machine welding jobs. Since 1946 there generally have been substantial increases in aver 282 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK age hourly earnings in plants employing machine welders. The hazards connected with resistance-welding work are not great, and in general the working conditions compare favorably with those in other metalworking operations. HANDBOOK Where To Get Additional Information E m p lo y m e n t O p p o r tu n itie s f o r W eld ers. le tin N o. 844. B u l U n ite d S tates B u re a u o f L a b o r S ta tistics, 1945. 19 p p . 10 cen ts, S u p e rin te n d e n t o f D o cu m e n ts, W a s h in g to n 25, D. C . Acetylene Burners (D.O.T. 6-86.215) Outlook Summary Where Employed No marked changes in employment are expected. There will be some job openings to replace workers leaving the occupation. Acetylene burners are generally employed in plants whose operations include cutting steel plates to size, removing metal from castings, trimming rough steel shapes, and cutting up scrap metal. Among the principal employers of acetylene burn ers are the shipbuilding, steel works and rolling mills, machinery, fabricated structural steel, and boiler shop industries. Many are also employed by firms that prepare and sell scrap metal to be re-used in steel mills and foundries. Nature of Work Acetylene burners use an oxyacetylene torch to cut or trim metal objects to the desired size or shape. The oxyacetylene cutting equipment gen erally consists of a torch into which oxygen and acetylene gas are fed from hoses connected with the gas supply. The ignited acetylene, which serves as the fuel gas, heats the metal, and jets of oxygen do the actual cutting. Torch tips, from which the flames spout, come in various sizes, depending upon the nature of the cutting jobs. The operator prepares for the cut ting job by attaching the proper torch tip for the particular job, connecting the torch to the gas hoses, and regulating the flow of gases into the torch for the desired cutting flame. He then guides the torch along previously marked lines or, fol lowing a template or pattern, cuts through the metal. In some cases he marks the lines on the metal himself, following blueprints or other in structions. Training and Qualifications The operators of acetylene burners are semi skilled workers. Newcomers usually learn the work in a relatively short period of on-the-job training. Experienced acetylene gas welders can easily qualify for jobs as burners, if they should desire, since theirs is a more skilled job and covers all the things that the burner has to know. Outlook During the next few years, employment of acetylene burners is not expected to increase sig nificantly. There will be some openings in this relatively small field, however, to replace workers who change to other jobs. Over the longer run, employment in the occupation should remain at around current levels. A substantial revival of shipbuilding would open up some additional jobs. Increased use of flame cutting machines in place of hand torches will hold down increases in employ ment of burners, even when metalworking ac tivity is expanding. I f at any time during the next 3 to 5 years or so general employment should drop substantially and jobs become hard to get, many of the experienced burners from among the thousands laid off from shipyards at the end of the war may again seek jobs as burners. I f this should happen, employers would be likely to choose them over inexperienced applicants to fill any job open ings for burners. See also Arc and Gas Welders, page 278. OTHER M E T A L W O R K IN G O C C U P A T IO N S 283 Boilermakers (D.O.T. 4-83.100) Outlook Nummary Long run prospects are for a gradual decline in the number of jobs for all-round boilermakers, but experienced workers will continue to have jobs. Nature of Work All-round boilermakers fabricate, assemble, and repair boilers, tanks, vats, smoke stacks, and simi lar products made of heavy steel plate. Their work involves such duties as planning and laying out work from blueprints or specifications; cutting plate to size and shape with power shears or acety lene burners; shaping plates on power presses; assembling parts by bolting, riveting, or welding; and calking seams and rivet heads. Many men qualified as all-round boilermakers, however, specialize in a simple boiler-shop function, such as welding. Some of the most skilled boilermakers do only lay-out work—marking the steel plates to show other workers where the metal is to be sheared, welded, bent, or otherwise fabricated. Where Employed Boilermakers are employed in railroad repair shops, construction projects, and boiler repair shops throughout the country; in power boiler manufacturing plants concentrated in the Great Lakes, Middle Atlantic, and Pacific coast areas; in coastal shipyards; and in the oil-refining areas of Texas, California. Pennsylvania, and other States. Training and Qualifications To become an all-round boilermaker, a 4-year apprenticeship or equivalent on-the-job training is required. Welders, helpers, and other boilershop workers sometimes have the opportunity to learn the trade without serving an apprenticeship. Much of the boilermaker’s work is fairly strenuous and at least average physical strength is needed. Outlook Currently, the number of boilermaker jobs is considerably higher than prewar when less than •30,000 were employed, but under the wartime peak when many boilermakers were working in ship yards. However, many of these wartime workers had been quickly trained in some part of boiler making and were not all-round workers. A num ber of these less skilled men went into other lines of work after being released from the shipyards. During the next several years electric power plants, oil refineries, chemical plants, and other in dustries using boilershop products are expected to expand their production facilities greatly, putting up new plants and installing new equipment. This will mean continued high employment of ex perienced boilermakers and some openings for new workers. In addition, any revival of shipbuilding activity, resulting from the Government’s defense program, will create jobs for boilermakers. Over a longer period a gradual decline in the number of jobs for all-round boilermakers is in prospect. In railroad shops, which have a large proportion of boilermaker jobs, the long-run trend is for reduced employment of boilermakers be cause of the increasing use of Diesel and electrical locomotives in place of steam locomotives. (Few boilermakers are used in the construction and re pair of Diesel and electrical locomotives.) There also has been a growing tendency in boilermaking operations generally to utilize specialized workers, such as welders, thereby reducing the need for all round boilermakers. Experienced men, however, are not likely to be unemployed, since men quali fied as all-round boilermakers are definitely pre ferred for specialized boilermaking jobs by most employers. Moreover, a high proportion of boiler makers are older men who will be dropping out of the labor force; thus replacement needs may offset any decline in employment, so that the younger men will continue to have jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of boilermakers vary among the indus tries in which they are employed. In September 1947, straight-time earnings of boilermakers work ing for steam railroads averaged about $1.45 an hour. In construction work, in July 1947. the av erage hourly wage rate of union journeyman 284 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K boilermakers in 75 cities was $2.09. Recent wage data are not available for boilermakers employed in other industries. Boilermaking tends to be more hazardous than most other metal-working occupations. The injury frequency rate in the boiler-shop-products industry is considerably higher than the average for manu facturing industries as a whole. In construction there is considerable seasonal variation in employment of boilermakers; while in other fields, such as power boiler manufacturing and railroad repair shops, employment is fairly steady throughout the year. Boilermakers are generally unionized. A large number are members of the International Brother hood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders and Helpers of America (A F L ) ; others have been or ganized by industrial unions, such as the United Steelworkers of America (CIO ) and the Indus trial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers o f America (C IO ). See also Arc and Gas Welders, page 278. Riveter, Pneumatic (Manufacturing) (See D.O.T. 4-84.060; 6-95.080 and .082) Outlook Summary Outlook Employment of riveters is expected to rise dur ing the next few years; over the long run it will decline, as riveting is largely being replaced by welding and other metal-joining methods. In the next several years, there should be a rela tively big increase in the number of jobs for riv eters, with practically all o f the rise occurring in aircraft plants. Many of these jobs, which will be concentrated in a few aircraft-producing centers, will be filled by wartime riveters now employed in other occupations. In other metalworking industries, replacement needs will provide a limited number of openings. The more-skilled riveters will be preferred for most of these jobs. After several years of relatively high employ ment in this occupation the number of jobs will begin gradually to decline. This will result, in part, from technological changes, particularly the substitution of welding for riveting in the fabri cation of many products, which already has re sulted in greatly decreased use of riveters in re cent years. The effects of these developments have been particularly felt in the aircraft, shipbuilding, and boilermaking industries. Nature o f Work These workers use pneumatic hammers to rivet together steel plates and metal parts. The more skilled riveters do many types of work; they must be able to read blueprints, use riveting hammers of varied types and sizes, and select appropriate ham mers, dies, and rivets. However, most riveters in manufacturing plants do repetitive work which does not call for the skills of the all-round riveter. Some of the more skilled riveting in certian in dustries, boilermaking and shipbuilding, for ex ample, is done by journeymen qualified in other occupations, such as structural iron worker, boiler maker, and sheet-metal worker. Pneumatic riveters who are employed in manu facturing industries are found mainly in plants making aircraft, industrial cars and trucks, and agricultural equipment; boilermaking shops; loco motive and car-building and repairing shops; and shipyards. The less skilled pneumatic riveters are generally trained in several months on the job. Boiler makers, sheet-metal workers, and other journey men who do skilled riveting have had formal ap prenticeships or the equivalent in experience. While women were employed as riveters during the war, especially in aircraft assembly and ship building, it is predominantly a male occupation. Earnings and Working Conditions In October 1946 male pneumatic riveters in the machinery industries (except electrical machinery, machine tools, and machine-tool accessories) had average straight-time hourly earnings of $1.18. Since that date there generally have been wage increases in machinery plants employing riveters. Riveting is noisy work, and much of it is done in cramped positions (for example, inside aircraft fuselages). OTHER M E T A L W O R K IN G O C C U P A T IO N S 285 Blacksmiths (D.O.T. 4-86.010) Outlook Summary Long-run prospects are for little change in the employment of blacksmiths. Replacement needs will provide some opportunities for new workers. Nature of T Vork Blacksmiths use mainly hand methods to shape and repair metal articles and parts. They heat metal in a forge and hand-hammer the metal on an anvil into the desired shape. They also forgeweld metal by heating the pieces and hammering them together; sharpen tools such as chisels, drills, and picks by heating them and hammering the cutting edges to proper shape; and heat-treat metal articles to improve their physical properties. Where Employed Most blacksmiths work in small shops which re pair farm and garden equipment, tools, automo bile parts, and household articles. Often these shops perform other services, such as welding and tool dressing; a few shoe horses. Many black smiths are self-employed, operating their own shops. Other blacksmiths are employed in maintenance and repair departments in metalworking plants, Blacksmiths use mainly hand methods to shape and repair metal articles and parts. c o u r t e s y o f n a t io n a l a r c h iv e s 286 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in railroad repair shops, and in coal and metal mining. Blacksmiths are found in all parts of the coun try, many in small rural communities as well as in large industrial centers. have entered the occupation in the last several decades. Training and Qualifications th is rep lacem en t d em a n d ra th er th a n because o f A la r g e p r o p o r tio n o f the m en n o w e n g a g e d in the tra d e are o f r e la tiv e ly a d v a n ce d age, n e a r in g the tim e w h en th ey w ill h a v e to be re p la ce d . O p e n in g s f o r n ew w ork e rs w ill o c c u r because o f e x p a n d in g em p lo y m e n t. Some workers enter this occupation through ap prenticeship, others by picking up the trade while working as laborers or helpers in blacksmith shops. The apprenticeship period is generally 3 or 4 years and customarily includes blueprint reading, train ing in the use of tools and equipment, heat-treating metal, forging methods, and welding. Considerable physical strength is required in order to pound metal into shape and. to handle heavy metal parts. Outlook There will be a small number of openings for new workers in this occupation. Few young men Prospects for those entering the occupation are for continued employment over a long period. About 40,000 blacksmiths were employed in 1940, substantially fewer than 20 or 30 years ago. How ever, there has been little change in employment in recent years and no further decline is anticipated. The number of blacksmiths working in small re pair shops is expected to remain stable because of the diversified demands for their services and the importance of blaeksmithing in local com munities. Since blacksmiths employed in manu facturing plants, railroads, and mines generally do maintenance work, which tends to be fairly steady, there should not be much fluctuation in the number of jobs for these workers. Millwrights (D.O.T. 5-78.100) Outlook Summary Where Employed Prospects are for fairly stable employment in this occupation, with replacement needs providing opportunities for new workers. Millwrights are employed in most manufactur ing plants which use heavy machinery and equip ment. Many of these workers are in the metal working industries, such as iron and steel, auto mobiles, and machinery. Other large groups are employed in various nonmetal industries, includ ing pulp-and-paper mills, meat packing houses, sawmills, and flour mills. Some millwrights are employed by building contractors in the installa tion of machinery and equipment in new factory buildings. A small number work for machinery manufacturers who do the installation of their machinery in customers’ plants. Millwrights work in every State. However, most of the millwright jobs are in the major indus trial areas of the Midwest and Northeast, with Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York the leading States. Nature of Work The job of a millwright is to install, dismantle, move, and set up heavy machinery and industrial equipment. Millwrights also prepare the plat forms on which machines are mounted and help plan the location of new equipment in the plant. They sometimes perform some of the duties of in dustrial machinery repairmen in addition to their regular work. They should have considerable knowledge of the structure and operation of the equipment on which they work. Millwrights often specialize on particular types of industrial ma chinery, such as paper-mill machinery, machine tools, or chemical-plant equipment. OTHER M E T A L W O R K IN G Training and Qualifications Entry into this occupation is usually through a millwright apprenticeship or equivalent on-thejob training. The apprenticeship period is gen erally 4 years and the training customarily in cludes blueprint reading; use of hoisting equip ment; installation, assembly, and repair of indus trial machinery and equipment; and acetylene burning. On the other hand, inexperienced workers may be hired as helpers or trainees and pick up the occupation while working. Outlook T h e n u m ber o f jo b s f o r m illw r ig h ts is exp ected to rem ain at its presen t h ig h level d u r in g the n ext fe w years. C o n tin u in g la r g e ex p en d itu res f o r new p la n ts an d equ ip m en t b y such e x p a n d in g m a n u fa c tu r in g in d u stries as ir o n and steel, ch em ica ls, a n d a u tom obiles w ill req u ire m a n y m illw r ig h ts . O th er in d u stries in w h ich m illw r ig h ts are e m p lo y e d , such as p u lp and p a p e r, fa c e several yea rs o f h ig h a ctiv ity . After the next several years the number of mill wright jobs may decline somewhat as retooling and new equipment purchases fall off. However, employment in this occupation is expected to hold np fairly well. Growing mechanization of indus try has a tendency to expand the need for mill wrights. Moreover, these workers have continuing functions in plants using heavy equipment, in con nection with repair and rearrangement of the equipment. O C C U P A T IO N S 287 Replacement needs will provide numerous op portunities for new workers. There are many ex perienced millwrights approaching the age when death or retirement will take them from their jobs, and new men will have to be trained to fill these positions. Earnings and Working Conditions The pay of millwrights compares favorably with that of many other maintenance jobs. Recent in formation on wages for most industries employing millwrights is not available. In October 1946 average straight-time hourly earnings for mill wrights in large cities in the machinery industries (except electrical machinery, machine tools, and machine-tool accessories) was $1.32. In independ ent ferrous foundries in the same period they earned an average of $1.29. Since October 1946 there generally have been wage increases in foundries and machinery plants. Millwrights are generally unionized. Their union affiliation varies according to the industry in wffiich they are employed. Some of the more im portant: unions include the International Associa tion of Machinists (Inch), United Steelworkers of America (C IO ), United Electrical. Radio and Machine Workers of America (C IO ), Interna tional Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners (A F L ), and International Brotherhood of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers (A F L ). See also Industrial Machinery Repairmen, page 201. O C C U P A T IO N A L 288 OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K CHART 4 2 NEWSPAPER AND JOB SHOPS EMPLOY MOST PRINTING WORKERS N U M B E R S EM P LO Y ED AND N U M B E R S OF P L A N T S IN P R IN T IN G AND A L L IED IN D U S T R IE S , 1939 EMPLOYMENT INDUSTRY THOUSANDS UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS NUMBER OF PLANTS THOUSANDS S ou rce CENSUS OF MANUFACTURERS AND CENSUS OF BU SIN E SS REFER TO APPENDIX FOR FIGURES AND E X P L A N A T IO N S Printing Occupations Printing is an art, a great industry, and one of our chief means of communication. Its contribu tion to the growth of democracy was so funda mental that freedom of the press was one of the basic rights incorporated in the first amendment to the United States Constitution. About 725,000 men and women made their liv ing in the printing industries in 1948. Printing is especially important as a field of employment for men capable of attaining a high level of skill. It affords opportunities in many different skilled occupations, and, as a rule pays better-than-average wages. Jobs are to be found in all parts of the country, in small towns as well as large cities. Many printing craftsmen are in business for them selves. The Printing Industries More than a third of the people working in the printing industries in 1939 were in newspaper shops. General commercial or job printing is the second largest printing industry; there are many more commercial shops than newspaper plants, but the average job shop is small. Periodicals and books are the next largest printing industries. Smaller industries are engaged mainly in produc ing lithographed items of various types, greeting cards, or gravure products, or in doing bookbind ing and other bindery work. The so-called service industries for the printing trades do mainly type setting, photoengraving, or other work for print ing shops. A lm o s t ev ery sm all to w n has a p r in t in g sh op o f som e k in d — fre q u e n tly a sm all n ew sp a p er p la n t w h ich also h an d les an y jo b p r in t in g n eeded in the com m u n ity . H o w e v e r , a la rg e p a r t o f th e c o u n t r y ’s p r in t in g is d on e in 10 in d u stria l cen ters— N ew Y o r k , C h ica g o , P h ila d e lp h ia , L o s A n g e le s , S an F ra n cisco , D e tr o it , C lev ela n d , St. L o u is , C in cinnati, and Minneapolis-St, Paul. In 1939, about half of all employees in the printing and allied industries were in these centers. Methods of Printing Letterpress (or relief) printing is the oldest and by far the most common printing process. Prac tically all newspapers, most books and magazines, and most commercial jobs are printed by this method. Lithography, though still much less common than letterpress work, is the most rapidly growing method of reproduction. Practically all items printed by the relief process are also produced by lithography— including, for example, books, cal endars, maps, posters, labels, office forms, sheet music, and even newspapers. Almost all printing on metal and much of the printing on rough paper is done by this method. Gravure printing, the least common process, is of two main types: Rotogravure (in which press plates are made from pictures by a method based on photography) and hand or machine engraving. The picture supplements of some Sunday news papers are the best known rotogravure products. Hand or machine engraving is used in making en graved stationery, greeting cards, and similar products. The Printing Workers The largest group of skilled and semiskilled workers are in the composing room, the depart ment responsible for typesetting. Other major groups are the printing pressmen and their assist ants, photoengravers and rotogravure photoen gravers, electrotypers and stereotypers, litho graphic workers, and bookbinders and bindery workers. Chart 44 shows the number of people employed in 1940 in each of the main occupations in these categories. 289 290 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K CHART 4 3 A GENERAL PICTURE OF THE FLOW OF WORK IN PRINTING LETTERPRESS UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS LITHOGRAPHIC ROTO GRAVURE P R IN T IN G Employment Prospects There will be many thousands of job openings in printing during the next few years. The outlook is for greater and greater activity and employment in all branches of printing at least during the next few years, because of growing demands for printed products such as advertising materials and text books, increasing availability of new machinery and supplies, and other factors. Unusually large numbers of job openings due to retirements and deaths may also be expected for a while, because of the postponement of retirements during and since the war and the fact that the average age of jour neymen is therefore higher than before. For all these reasons, it will generally be easy for skilled workers to get jobs during the years immediately ahead, and there will be moderate numbers of training opportunities. Workers who now have jobs or succeed in get ting them in the near future should have a good chance of holding them indefinitely. Printing em ployment tends to be less affected by declines in general business activity than employment in man ufacturing as a whole. Moreover, the long-run trend in employment is upward in most printing occupations. In general, the largest number of job openings will be in the printing centers previously men tioned. Opportunities will, however, be more widespread in some branches of printing than in others. They will, for example, be more scattered in newspaper than in job printing; but in lithog raphy, they will be concentrated in the major cen ters to a greater extent than in either of those in dustries. In all branches of printing, competition for jobs is likely to be keenest in the largest cities. Earnings Earnings tend to be higher in printing than in many other industries, owing to the large number of skilled workers employed, the strong influence of the printing unions, and other factors. In early 1948, earnings averaged over $1.50 an hour in book and job shops and well over $1.80 in newspapers and periodicals, compared with about $1.30 in all manufacturing. What an individual printing worker can expect to make varies greatly from one occupation to an 291 O C C U P A T IO N S other, as well as from city to city and in other ways. The best source of information on wages in different occupations are union wage scales. These scales are the minimum rates paid under collectivebargaining agreements and are usually uniform for each occupation in a given locality. They are, in general, representative of wage rates in skilled and semiskilled printing trades, which are all highly organized. In January 1948, union wage scales averaged about $2 an hour. For the skilled workers covered rates were typically between $1.85 and $2.30 an hour; for the others they were usually between $1 and $1.70. Tables 1 and 2 give union wage rates for the major printing trades in a large number of cities. The wage scales cited are the basic rates received by employees on day shifts. In most printing plants, as in many other manufacturing establish ments, workers are paid time and a half for over time work not only above a standard number of hours a week but also above 8 hours a day. The standard workweek is usually 37^/2 hours in news paper plants. In other printing shops, it is usually 40 hours. Work on Sundays and holidays is customarily paid for at time-and-a-half or double time rates in most branches of printing. In news paper plants, the standard workweek often in cludes Sundays and work has to go on as usual on holidays; however, time and a half or double time is paid for these days only when they are not part of the Employee’s regular shift. Night-shift workers in union shops generally receive extra pay. There are many other types of provisions for over time and special rates of pay. How much workers earn during a year depends not only on their rates of pay but also on how regularly they are employed. Printing workers are fortunate in having steadier employment and earnings than those in many other industries. Earnings tend to be especially steady in newspaper work. P a id v a ca tio n s are ca lle d f o r b y m ost w age agreem ents. T h e m a jo r ity o f u n io n w ork ers re ceive 2 w eek s’ v a ca tio n w ith p a y a fte r 1 y e a r o f e m p loy m en t. In a d d itio n , the p r in t in g u n ion s are n o te d f o r w e lfa r e p ro v isio n s f o r th e ir m e m b e rs; f o r ex a m p le, p en sion s, san itariu m fa c ilitie s , and e d u ca tion a l p ro g ra m s. 292 O C C U P A T IO N A L T a ble OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 1.— U nion W age Scales in M a jor Newspaper Printing Trades in Selected Cities, January 2, 1 9 4 8 1 Hand com positors City and State Composingmachine operators Stereotypers Photoengravers $2.19 1.81 1. 73 1. 83 2. 47 2.09 2. 02 1. 75 1. 88 $2. 08 2. 16 2. 04 2. 11 2. 51 2. 37 2. 40 2.64 $2. 26 1. 73 1.90 2. 40 2.19 $2. 26 1. 73 1.90 2.40 2.28 1.85 1. 35 2.40 2.28 2. 24 2. 40 2. 28 2. 24 2. 01 2. 16 2.20 2. 21 1.92 (2 ) 2. 13 1.93-1.99 1. 91 Erie, Pa. ___ . . . ____________________________________ Grand Rapids, M ich._ . . . _____ .. _____ . .. . . Houston, Tex__ ... .... . ... . . . . . . Indianapolis, Ind_____________________________________ Jacksonville, Fla____ ____ . . . . . . . . . _____ . .. Kansas City, M o. . ____ _ ._ . . . . . . ... ... . . 2. 55 1.85 2. 00 1.97 2. 05 2. 27 2. 11 2. 29 2.13 2.55 1.85 2. 00 1. 97 2. 05 2. 27 2. 11 2. 29 2. 13 2.46 1. 63 1. 84 1.63 2. 05 1.96 2.09 2. 29 1. 70 Los Angeles, Calif _ ____________________ . 1.73 2. 07 1.73 2. 07 Manchester, N. I I . _ _ . . . . ____ _____ ____ . Memphis, Tenn___ . ____ . ________ ___ _. .. .. Milwaukee, Wis. _ . . . . . ___ .. .. . Minneapolis, M inn___________________________________ 2.00 1. 87 2.13 2. 00 2. 35 1. 80 2.00 1.87 2.13 2. 05 2. 35 1.80 1. 64 2. 07 2.08 2. 00 1. 87 1. 77 1. 97 2. 20 1. 90 Baltimore, M d ______ _____ ._ ______ __________ ._ Binghampton, N. Y __ . . . . _ _____ . . ... Birmingham, Ala. . _ _______ ........ Boston, Mass______ _______ _____________________ Buffalo, N. Y ________________________________________ Charleston, W. V a... ._ _. ______ . . . . ... Charlotte, N. C ... . . . . . . . . ___ _______ . Columbus, Ohio________________________________ . . ____ Davenport, Iowa . ... _ . . ___ ..... Dayton, O h io ..------ ------ ----------------------------------------- . Denver, C olo... . . . ----------- . ________________ ___ (2 ) Detroit, M ich.. _____________________________________ Duluth, M inn_________________________ ___________ . ._ _____ Moline, 111_________________________________________ . Nashville, Tenn______________________________________ Newark, N. J________________________________________ (2 ' ) 2.20 2. 21 1.92 (2 ) (2 ) (2 ) New Orleans, La_ _ .... ......... .................... New York, N. Y _____________________________________ 2. 05 2.20 1.89 1.90 2. 48 Oklahoma City, Okla_____ ._ _________________ Omaha, Nebr . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ .. . . . . . ... 1.83 1.95 1.83 1.95 2. 04 2. 03 1. 75 1. 65 2. 25 1. 88 1. 65 1. 95 Peoria, 111.. _ _____ . . . . _ . .. ____ ______ . Philadelphia, Pa_____________________________________ 2.00 2.13 2. 00 2. 40 1.63-1.71 2. 48 2. 30 1. 79 1 94 . 2.00 2.13 2.00 2. 40 1.63-1. 71 2.48 2. 30 1. 79 1.94 1. 92 1.65 2.00 1.97 1. 71 2. 01 2. 24 1. 79 1.63 1.97 1.96 2. 47 2. 30 2. 07 2. 03 2. 17 2. 05 2. 19 1.97 1.96 2. 47 2.30 2. 07 2.03 2. 17 2. 05 2. 19 1.97 1. 96 2. 09 1.92 1. 75 1.83 2. 06 1.98 2. 19 1.96 2.00 1.96 2. 00 1.95 2. 28 2. 43 1.88 1.87 1. 78 2.13 1.95 2. 28 2. 43 1. 88 1.87 1. 78 2. 13 1.95 2.21 2. 10 1. 55 1.89 1. 78 2. 04 1.95 2. 58 2. 45 (2 ) 2. 09 2.12 2. 20 2. 41 1.88 2. 00 2. 30 2. 44 2. 00 2. 40 Richmond, Va. _ ___ _ . _ ______ . ... _ . . _____ ______ Rochester, N. Y . . _ _ _ _ _ _ __ . _ ... Rock Island (111.) district 2 _ __________________ . __ St. Louis, Mo___ _ _ _____ ... __ . . . St. Paul, M inn_______________ ______________________ Salt Lake City, Utah_______ ________________________ San Antonio, Tex____________ ____________________ .. San Francisco, Calif. ________________________________ Seattle, Wash_______________________________________ South Bend, Ind_____________________________________ Springfield, Mass . _ ..... ..... ..................... Tampa, Fla... _____________ ___________________ ____ Toledo, Ohio ___ ____________________ _____________ Washington. D. C ____________________________________ Wichita, Kans_____________ _ _______ ______ _ ___ Worcester, Mass. __________________ . . ------------------ 1 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Wage Analysis Division: Union Wage Scales, Newspaper Printing Trades, January 2,1948 (available upon request). These scales are the minimum wage rates agreed upon through collective bargaining between employers and trade unions and are, in most cases, uni $2 19 1.81 1. 73 1. 80 2. 00-2.18 1. 96-2. 10 2 00 1 80 1. 85 (2 ) 2. 29 2. 19 1.95 2.59 1.96 2.13 1.88 2.20 2. 37 2.31 2. 20 1.63 2. 24 1. 87 2. 59 2. 30 1.97 1. 75 2. 25 2. 59 1.87 1.65 2.32 2.30 1.88 2. 08 2. 00 1.89 2.14-2. 33 2.13-2. 27 2 15 2.03 2 19 2 17 2 52 2.13 2 33 2.00 2. 06 2. 11 (2 ) 2.11 2.19 2.13-2. 39 1.66 1 84 1.81 1. 88 1. 89 2. 04 2.00 1. 75-2.18 2. 40-2. 66 1.80 1.87 1. 64 1. 94 1. 97 2. 00 1 74 2. 07 2 24 2.08 1.78 1.91 2. 20 1. 90 2. 00 2. 07 2. 37 1. 71 2. 19 2. 24 2. 35 (2 ) Pressmenin-charge 2 01 2 04 2 29 2. 00 2.12 2. 51 2. 21 1.98 1.93 Pittsburgh, Pa____________ ______ . . ._ ______ Portland, Oreg_______ . . . . 2. 05 2. 20 1.89 1.90 2. 48 Journeyman pressmen (:) 2. 04 2. 10 1. 80 1.70 2. 33 1. 89 1. 76 1. 74 1.95 2.20 2.13 1.81 (2 ) 2. 21 2.29 1 90 1.85 2. 54 1.89 1.89 2.00 2.00 1. 90 1.89 1. 71 1.95 1. 95 1. 79 1.88 2.13 2. 20 1. 97 1.96 2. 28 1.92 1.83 1. 86 2. 07 1 94 2. 05 2.11 2. 12 2. 47 2.45 1.97 2.11 2. 27 2. 06 2.18 1. 89 2. 02 1. 95 2.18-2. 27 1.90 1. 73 1. 80 2.18 2. 33-2. 55 2.03 1.79 1.92 1. 78 1.91 1. 96 2. 05 2 08 1 92 2. 13 form for each occupation in a given locality. Where no rate is given, there was no effective union wage scale for the occupation in the particular city. 2 Rock Island district includes Rock Island and Moline, 111., and Daven port, Iowa. P R IN T IN G T a b l e 293 O C C U P A T IO N S 2 .— U nion W age Scales in M a jor Book and Job Printing Trades in Selected Cities, January 2, 19j S 1 ComposingHand machine compositors operators City and State Baltimore, M d ________ _ _ _ ___________ •_ Binghampton, N. Y_ _ _ _ _______ _ Birmingham, Ala________________________ Boston, Mass_ ___________ ____ ____ ____ Buffalo, N. Y ___________________________ Butte, Mont_. ___ _ _ _____ __ . . . ___ Charleston, W. Va___ _ ............ .......... ... __ Charlotte, N. C _____________ Chicago, 1 1 __ ___ 1 _ _ . Cincinnati, Ohio____ _______ ___ __ _ Cleveland, Ohio___ __ _ __ ___ Columbus, Ohio_______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Dallas, Tex _____ _ _ __ _______ Davenport, Iowa.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Dayton, Ohio. _____ _ _ ______ ____ Denver, Colo _____ __ ___ ______ _ _ Des Moines, Iowa_________ _ ______ ____ Detroit, Mich___________________________ Duluth, Minn__________________________ El Paso, Tex___________________ ___ ____ Erie, Pa_________________________ _______ Grand Rapids, Mich_ _____________ __ _ Houston, Tex_ _ _ _ _ _ .................... Indianapolis, Ind_______________ _______ Kansas City, M o_________ _____________ Los Angeles, Calif_______________________ Louisville, K y .......... . _ _ __ __ Madison, Wis___________________________ Manchester, N. H__ Memphis, Tenn _ Milwaukee, Wis _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___. . . Minneapolis, Minn. ____________________ Mobile, Ala___. . . _______ ___ _ _ _ __ Electro typers $2.00 1.49 1. 50-1.63 1.52 1.63-1.72 1.82 1. 75 2. 02-2.80 1. 54-2. 21 1.86-2. 25 2. 08 1.07-1.88 (2 ) 1.66-2.43 1.75 1.81-1.98 2.16-2. 35 1. 54-1.64 2.08-2.15 1.40 1.84 1.75 1.85 1.95 1.65-2. 07 1.85 1.10 1.84 1.60 1.60 1.70-1.85 1.83-1.97 1.15-1.45 1.65-1. 71 1.17-1.84 2.11-2. 27 1.96-2.06 1.33-1.67 1.19 2.25-2. 36 1.37-2.16 1.19 2.14 1.35-1.46 $2.17 1.75 $2. 35 2.08-2.29 2.00 1.81 2. 04 2.00 1.81 2.04 2.01 $1.90-1.92 1.55 1.95 2. 27 2.16 1.98 1.85 1.98 1.85 2. 50 1.92 2.05 1.84 2.39 Book binders Bindery women $1.13-1.35 1.14-1.46 1.10-1.18 . 90-1. 25 1. 02-1. 70 1.42-1. 78 . 79-1.13 $1.99 1.55 1.02-1.45 1.80 1.81 1.83 1.89 1.98 1.45 $1. 03 .63- .85 .78- .88 1.00 .98 .93 1.11 1.13 .87 1.68-2.44 1.03-1.72 1.41-1. 79 1. 72 1.07-1.45 (2 ) . 90-1. 70 . 82-1. 44 1. 20-1. 58 2.12-2. 44 1. 90 2. 00 2.08 1.27 1 31 1. 07 .95-1 02 1.13 1.85-1.95 1.61 1.61 .90-1.10 .98 .90 1.35-1.83 .80 1.25-1.80 . 92-1.07 1.97 1. 25 2.00 1.09 . 70 1.15 .60- .83 1.61-1.96 .98-1.62 1. 56 2. 25 .80 1.35 1. 53 1.90 1.74 81 .95 .90 1.28-1.65 1. 72-2.10 1.65 1.65 . 85-2. 24 2.03 1.65 .85 1 10 .80 .85 . 90-1.08 .85- .90 1. 55 2.20 2.08 2. 25 (2 ) 2.14 1.75 1.90 (2 ) 2. 25 2.00 1.84 2.20 1.83 2.20 2.30 1.45 2.30 2.26 2.13 1.80 2.05 2. 27 2.00 1.50 2.11 1.80 2. 05 2. 27 2.00 1.50 2.11 1.70 2.10 2.00 2.13 1.56 2.05 1.56 2. 05 2.20 1.81 1.81 1.63 2.06 1.87 1.90 1.63 2.06 1.87 1.90 1.88 2.00 2.05 2.34 1.71 1.50 1.58 1.90-2.10 1.30-2. 07 1. 70 1.30 1.35-1.60 1.88 1.37-1.82 1.70 .81-1.05 1.23-1.76 . 77-1. 52 (2 ) 1.75 2. 50 2.00 2. 03 2.50 2.06 2. 71 2.00 1.90 2.74 (2 ) 1.41-1.80 1.80-2. 35 1.70-1.88 1.65-1.78 2. 23-2. 53 (2 ) 1.33-1. 53 2.00-2. 40 1.58 1.20 1.95-2.10 (2 ) . 91-1.30 1. 20-1.96 1.35-1.48 . 80-1. 28 1.38-1. 92 1.66 1.75 2.00 1.88 1.65 1.45 1.51 1.45 1.04-1.17 1.20 1.85 2. 35 2.02 2.13 1.45-1.65 1. 28-1. 76 1.21-1.32 1.13-1. 70 1.65 .89 2.19 1.90 2.40 1.73 1.86 1.61 1.83 1.00 1.93 1. 56-1. 74 1.70 1.85 1.75-2. 29 1.76 1.92-2. 35 1.11 2.00-2.13 1.35-1.60 2.00 1.20 1.88 1.88 1.69 1.25-1.88 1.58-1.63 1.15 1.47-1.63 1.00-1. 54 1.60-2.18 1.66 1.80-2. 25 1.87-2.30 1.70 1. 50 1.87-2.65 1.88-1.99 2.14 1.44-1.97 1.43 1.73-1.87 1.32-1.95 1. 70 1.35 2.41 1. 60 1.97 1.12-1. 59 1.32 1.10-1.90 1.07-1.52 1. 25 . 75-1. 00 1.57-1.98 1. 25-1.60 1.41-1. 70 (2 ) 1.93 New Haven, Conn_ _ _ _ _ _ ._ __ _ New Orleans, La_ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ New York, N. Y ________________________ Norfolk, Va___ __ _ _________________ Oklahoma City, Okla____ _ _. ___ _ Omaha, Nebr_______ ____ _________ ___ 1.75 1.80 2. 23 1.75-1.94 1.65 1.75 1.80 2. 23 1.75-1.94 1.65 Peoria, 111_________ ____________________ Philadelphia, Pa____ ____ ._ _ ______ Phoenix, Ariz__......... ___ _ ________ ____ Pittsburgh, Pa_ __________ _____ _ _ __ Portland, Maine________________ _______ Portland, Oreg_ _ _ _____________ _ Providence, R. I _ ___ _______ ___ ___ Reading, Pa. _ _____ ______ _____ Richmond, V a __________________ _ _ _ _ 1.90 1.84 2.00 2. 24 1.13 2.00 1.70 1.73 1. 75-1.97 1.75 2.00 1.90 1.84 2.00 2. 24 1.13 2.00 1.70 1.73 Rochester, N . Y_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ....... Rock Island (111.) district 2_. ___ _ ______ St. Louis, M o ___ _ ______ _ ___ _ __ __ St. Paul, Minn __ _ _ _ _ _ _ . Salt Lake City, Utah____________________ 1.87 1.75 1.90 2. 41 1.92 2.14 1. 75-1.97 1.75 2.12 1.87 1.75 1.90 2. 41 1.92 2.14 1.95 1.88 1.95 1.98 1.75 1.95-2. 07 2.11 1.75 1.95-2.07 2.11 1.88 1.60 1.70 2 .1 2 2. 40-2. 48 Platen pressmen 2.15 2.08 2. 25 (1 2 ) 2.14 1.75 1.90 1.80 __ _ $1. 58-2.16 1.60-1.98 1. 50-1. 73 1.80-2.15 1.81-1.96 1.96-2.18 1.89 1.98 1.80 $1.75 (2 ) South Bend, Ind_ _ _____ __ _ _ Cylinder pressmen $1.75 Moline, 111___ _ _ _ _ _____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Nashville, Tenn__ ______ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ Seattle, Wash.. ________________________ Press assistants and feeders Photoengravers 1.76 1.96 2.05 2. 21 1.95 1.88 2.00 2. 00 2. 34 1. 71 2.00 2.16 1. 71-2.13 1.75 2. 27 1.95 2.29 2.79 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.87 2.08 1.66 (2 ) 1.83-2.06 1.61 1.70 1 43-1 64 .90 65- 85 1.70-1.92 .93-1.06 1.90 1.40-1. 74 1.10 . 77-1.06 1. 50 2 41 1.64-1 69 2.14 1 .2 2 1 .8 8 Worcester, Mass __ _________________ 1.60 1.70 1 U . S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Wage Analysis Division: Union Wage Scales, Bock and Job Printing Trades, January 2, 1948 (available upon re quest). These scales are the minimum wage rates agreed upon through collective bargaining between employers and trade unions and are, in most cases, uniform for each occupation in a given locality. Where no rate is 793996°—49 20 1. 88 1.40-1. 44 1 .8 8 1.75 2.26 1.88 1.95 1.83-2.36 1.82 1.65 1.83-1.88 1.61-1. 74 1.60-1.82 1.68 1. 23-1. 73 1 26-1 54 1.80 1.75 1.78 1.15 .90 1.03 2.13 Springfield, Mass. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ Tampa, Fla _ ............. _ _ _____ Toledo, Ohio________________________ _._ Washington, D. C _________________________ 1 90 1 88 1. 73 1.84-1.91 1.84 1.45 .85-1 25 .85 2.00 2. 21 1.90 1.59 LOO given, there was no effective union wage scale for the occupation in the par ticular city. In this table, book and job printing includes all branches of printing except newspaper. 2 R ock Island district includes Rock Island and Moline, 111., and Daven port, Iowa. 294 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK HANDBOOK CHART 4 4 MAJOR PRINTING OCCUPATIONS EMPLOYMENT, 1940 THOUSANDS OF W O RKERS COMPOSING-ROOM JOBS 0 20 1------------------------ 1 40 i 60 i --------------— — 80 100 r Compositors and Type setters, hand Linotype Operators Monotype Keyboard Operators Proofreaders Monotype Caster Operators ELECTROTYPERS AND STEREOTYPERS PHOTOENGRAVERS, including rotogravure LITHOGRAPHIC JOBS Platemakers Artists and Letterers Cameramen Cutters P R E S S R O O M JOBS Pressmen and Plate Printers Press Assistants BINDE RY JOBS Bindery Workers, semi-skilled Bookbinders UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS BASED ON 1940 CENSUS OF POPULATION AND OTHER SOURCES P R IN T IN G Ilow To Enter Printing Occupations Apprenticeship is the accepted way of entering skilled printing occupations. With very rare exceptions, it is the only means by which one may qualify as a journeyman in a union shop. Print ing apprenticeships usually last from 4 to 6 years, depending on the occupation and whether the shop is union or nonunion. The training program cov ers all phases of the particular trade and almost al ways includes classes in related technical subjects as well as training on the job. When an apprentice starts out, he is usually paid 30 or 40 percent of the wage rate for journeymen. However, his pay is increased once or twice a year until, in the final year or half year of training, he receives 80 or 90 percent of the journeyman rate. Men who have had some experience in the trade in either civilian life or in the armed forces can often obtain credit for this. They will then start out at a wage above the beginning apprentice rate, and the length of time before they become journeymen will be re duced. To be eligible for apprenticeship, applicants are generally required to be 18 (though sometimes only 17) years of age and not over 30. A physical ex amination is usually given. Exceptional physical strength is rarely required, and the industry is, on the whole, a relatively good field of employment for handicapped people. A considerable number of workers with speech or hearing defects—even some who are totally deaf—are employed, particu larly as linotypists aud compositors. Men who have lost one or both legs or do not have the use of all 10 fingers have proved satisfactory in some composing-room occupations. High school graduation is usually required and always preferred. A thorough knowledge of spelling, punctuation, and grammar is essential for most trades. Technical training in a printing trade school is desirable. I f a person had print ing courses in high school this will also be greatly in his favor. In addition, courses in art, such as drawing, design, color, and lettering, are helpful for many kinds of printing work. Where To Get More Information Additional information on the printing indus tries, on methods of printing, and on typesetting and many other printing occupations is given in— 295 O C C U P A T IO N S Employment Outlook in Printing Occupa tions. Bulletin No. 902. U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1947. 36 pp., illus. 20 cents. Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C. Information on opportunities for apprentice ship or other kinds o f jobs in a particular locality may be obtained directly from printing plants or from local unions and local employer associations. I f none are listed in the telephone directory, ap plicants may write to the following national organizations and ask them to refer the letters to their nearest branches: Amalgamated Lithographers o f America 450 Seventh Ave. New York, N. Y. (CIO ) American Newspaper Publishers Association 370 Lexington Ave. New York 17, N. Y. American Photo-Engravers Association 166 W est Van Buren St. Chicago 4, 111. Book M anufacturers Institute 25 West Forty-third St. New York, N. Y. Employing Bookbinders of America 28 W est Forty-fourth St. New York, N. Y. Employing Printers Association o f America 53 West Jackson Blvd. Chicago 4, 111. International Allied (A F L ) 307 AFL Bldg. Washington 1, D. C. Printing Trades Association International Association of Electrotypers and Stereo typers, Inc. 350 East Twenty-second St. Chicago, 111. International Brotherhood o f Bookbinders (A F L ) 901 Massachusetts Ave., NW. Washington 1, D. C. International Photo-Engravers’ Am erica (A F L ) 292 Madison Ave. New York 17, N. Y. Union of North International Printing Pressmen’s and Assistants’ Union o f North Am erica (A F L ) Pressmen’s Home, Tenn. International Stereotypers’ and Electrotypers’ Union (A F L ) 475 Fifth Ave. New York, N. Y. International Typographical Union (A F L ) P. O. B ox 728 Indianapolis 6, Ind. Joint Lithographic Advisory Council 70 Pine St. New York, N. Y. Benjamin M. Robinson, Secretary 296 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK HANDBOOK Library Binding Institute 501 Fifth Ave. New York, N. Y. National Association o f Photo-Lithographers 1776 Broadway New York 19, N. Y. * Lithographers National Association, Inc. 420 Lexington Ave. New York 17, N„ Y. National Publishers Association 232 Madison Ave. New York 16, N. Y. Lithographic Technical Foundation, Inc. 131 East Thirty-ninth St. New York 17, N. Y. Printing Industry o f America, Inc. 719 Fifteenth Street, NW. W ashington 5, D. C. Hand Compositors and Typesetters (D.O.T. 4-44.010) Outlook Summary Very good employment prospects for qualified journeymen in most parts of country in near fu ture; also diminishing number o f apprenticeship opportunities. After next few years, employment will probably resume its long-range downward trend. Nature o f Work The oldest and largest composing-room occupa tion is that of hand compositor and typesetter. In some small shops, all the type is still set by hand. This involves setting each line of type in a com posing stick—-letter by letter and line by line— and, when the stick is full, sliding the completed lines onto a shallow metal tray or galley. In many shops, all straight matter (such as you are now reading) is set by machine, but hand compositors are still needed to set some of the type required for headlines, titles, and other special work, and to assemble the machine- and hand-set type. Tak ing proofs of type that has been set (that is, print ing a few copies on a proof press), checking the proofs against the original copy, and correcting errors in typesetting are among the other duties sometimes performed by compositors, particularly in small shops. These workers may be responsible also for page make-up (arranging type and any needed engravings into pages) and for locking the completed pages into forms. In large plants, how ever, page make-up is usually done by special make-up men, chosen from among the compositors, and the type forms are generally locked up by stonemen. All the major branches o f printing—newspaper, job, book, and periodical—employ large numbers o f hand compositors. Smaller numbers work in other kinds of printing shops or in service shops doing typesetting on contract for printing estab lishments. A good many men in the occupation have their own small job or service shops. How To Enter the Occupation A 6-year apprenticeship is usually required for employment as a journeyman. In union shops, the apprenticeship is always o f this length, except in the case of some veterans with military experience related to printing and of particularly outstand ing apprentices for whom shop foremen recom mend shorter training periods. Apprentices have come mostly from among the high-school graduates whose programs included printing courses. A thorough knowledge o f spelling, punctuation, and grammar is especially im portant in this occupation, since the worker should be able to catch errors in copy before setting type. Facility in arithmetic is also needed to assist him in calculating the spacing of type on pages. Im agination and artistic ability in planning page lay outs may help him to advance to lay-out work or make a success in business for himself. For a job in this trade, the worker should be in good enough physical condition to enable him to be on his feet 8 hours a day and to move around considerably. He should also be able to use hands, arms, and eyes constantly. Outlook Employment opportunities for journeymen are expected to be very good in most parts of the coun try during the next few years. Since VJ-day there have been many more openings for inexperi P R IN T IN G enced men than usual. To make up for the war time deficit in training employers have generally taken on as many apprentices as are permitted by the ratios of apprentices to journeymen established by union agreements, and training opportunities are becoming much fewer. In the long run, employment in this-occupation will no doubt tend to decrease, as it was doing be fore the war, owing to continued advances in ma chine typesetting and to other factors. The de cline will be slow and will probably not involve many lay-offs. Men in the occupation should have a good chance of holding their jobs indefinitely, especially if they have machine (linotype or mono type) as well as hand skills. For years, there have been so many small gen eral printing shops that competition for business has been keen in most parts of the country and earnings of shop owners have often been very in adequate. Some veterans and others wishing to O C C U P A T IO N S 297 go into business for themselves may, however, find favorable opportunities during the next few years. Those with good all-round civilian experi ence will have the best, chance of success. Men with composing-room skills plus supervisory and managerial abilities will also find some immediate openings in salaried positions with large and wellestablished firms and, in general, good opportunity for advancement to such positions. Earnings and Unionization Hand compositors are among the better-paid printing-trades workers. Those in newspaper shops tend to have particularly high wage rates— as one can see from the tables on pages 292 and 293, which give the union wage rates in effect in a large number of cities in January 1948. The great majority of compositors are repre sented by the International Typographical Union, one of the six major unions of printing workers. Linotype Operators ( D . O . T . 4 - 4 4 .1 1 0 ) Outlook Summary How to Enter the Occupation Very good employment prospects for skilled men during next few years in country as a whole, but diminishing number of training opportunities. Upward trend in employment expected to continue for some time. Eventually, however, decline in employment is possible, even under favorable gen eral economic conditions. A 6-year apprenticeship is required for work in most shops. For the first 5t/2 years, the training is the same as for hand compositors, but during the last 6 months the linotypist apprentice specializes and receives training in machine work. High-school graduation is usually required for apprenticeship and is always preferred. Technical training in a printing trade school is desirable. A thorough knowledge of spelling, punctuation, and grammar is especially important, since the worker shoidd be able to catch errors in copy before setting type. Mechanical aptitude is needed to help the linotypist understand the mechanism o f his ma chine and make adjustments. Nature o f Work Linotypists operate the keyboard of a machine which sets lines of type automatically and much more rapidly than is possible by hand. (The In tertype is a similar machine invented somewhat more recently.) Linotype and Intertype opera tors are the second largest group of composingroom workers, exceeded in number only by hand compositors. In 1940, about 60.000 were em ployed ; their number is now considerably greater. Newspaper and job shops are the main employers of linotypists. However, many work for periodi cal and book plants, and some operators own or are employed in service shops doing machine type setting for printing firms. Outlook The employment outlook for skilled Linotype (and Intertype) operators during the next few years is good in the country as a whole. There will also be some training opportunities, though not as many as during the first year or two after the war. Top-skilled men, with experience in hand as well as machine composition and with 298 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K supervisory and managerial abilities, will find some immediate openings in salaried positions or will have a good chance for advancement to such jobs. Some ex-servicemen and others wishing to go into business for themselves may find favorable opportunities to do so; those with good all-round civilian experience will have the best chances of success. The long-range outlook, too, is reasonably favor able—more so than for hand compositors, for example. Employment has so far tended to rise over the years and should continue to do so for some time. Evenually, however, technological and other factors may lead to a stable or even a declining trend in employment. On the other hand, printing tends to be less affected by declines in genera] business activity than does manufactur ing as a whole. See also Hand Compositors and Typesetters, page 296, and Monotype Keyboard Operators, page 298. Linotype operator at the keyboard of a linotype machine. CO U RTESY OF U . S. GOVERNMENT P R IN T IN G O F F IC E Earnings and Unionization Linotype operators tend to have much the same rates of pay as hand compositors, as is shown by tables 1 and 2 (on pages 292 and 293). These tables give the union wage rates for both trades in many cities as of January 1948. The great majority of linotypists are repre sented by the International Typographical Union. Monotype Keyboard Operators (D.O.T. 4-44.120) Outlook Summary Enough jobs for all qualified journeymen in this small occupation during next few years; also a limited number of openings for apprentices. Long-range trend upward. Nature of Work Monotoype keyboard and monotype casting ma chines are used to cast automatically individual letters and other type characters (instead of solid lines, as in linotyping) and to assemble the type automatically. The monotype has a keyboard similar to that of a typewriter, but with some 200 keys. Unlike the linotype, which does the whole typesetting job, the monotype keyboard machine onty perforates a narrow roll of paper for use later in the separate casting machine. The skilled workers who operate the keyboard and make the many different adjustments needed are called monotype keyboard operators (some times simply monotype operators). They are a rather small occupational group; only about 6,000 were employed in 1940. The number was probably closer to 8,000 in early 1948. Most of them work for book or periodical houses; some few, for job and service shops. How to Enter A 6-year apprenticeship is required for work in most shops. For the first 5y2 years the training is the same as for hand compositors, but during the last 6 months the apprentice specializes and re ceives training in machine work. High-school graduation is usually required for apprenticeship and is always preferred. Techni P R IN T IN G cal training in a printing trade school is desirable. A thorough knowledge of spelling, punctuation, and grammar is especially important, since the worker should be able to catch errors in copy before setting type. Mechanical aptitude is needed to help the operator understand the mechanism of his machine and make adjustments. 299 O C C U P A T IO N S linotyping, as well as in monotype keyboard op eration, are likely to have the greatest job security. The big printing centers will generally offer the most job openings but, at the same time, the keenest competition for employment. In the long run, more and more jobs are likely to be found in smaller cities, to which book and job plants have been moving gradually over the years. Outlook In the country as a whole, qualified journeymen should find it easy to get jobs in this occupation for the next 2 or 3 years. In addition, employers will have some openings for apprentices. The actual number of training opportunities will not be large, however, because the occupation is so small. The long-range trend in employment is upward in this occupation. Men already in the trade and those who enter it in the near future should have a good chance of holding their jobs indefinitely. Those who are adept in hand composition and Earnings and Unionization Wage rates for monotype keyboard operators are generally the same as for linotype operators outside the newspaper industry. Table 2 shows the rates in effect in union shops in a large num ber of cities in January 1948. The great majority of monotype keyboard op erators are represented by the International Typo graphical Union. See also M o n o ty p e C aster O p e ra to rs, p. 299, L in o ty p e O p e ra to rs, p. 297, and H a n d C o m p o si tors a n d T y p e se tte rs, p. 296. Monotype Caster Operators (D.O.T. 6-49.310) Outlook Summary Good prospects for experienced workers in this small occupation during next few years; also lim ited number of openings for new workers. Longrange employment trend upward. Nature of Work Workers in this occupation operate monotype casting machines, which cast and assemble type automatically, guided by perforations in rolls of paper which have been prepared by monotype key board operators (see p. 298). The caster opera tors not only adjust and tend the machines but usually are required to know the mechanism in order to make repairs. In shops having several casting machines, the operator may supervise un skilled workers who tend the machines. Up to the present time, only one caster operator has been employed to about every three keyboard operators, taking the printing industries as a whole. The occupation is therefore very small, employing only about 2,000 workers in 1940 and not more than 3.000 in early 1948. In the main, Monotype caster operator adjusting position of newly cast type as it comes out of the machine. P h otograph by U. S. Departm ent o f La b o r 300 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K caster operators work for book or periodical houses; a few, for job and service shops. How to Enter the Occupation Most newcomers to this occupation learn to op erate the machine at a monotype school. Training is then rounded out on the job. This experience is especially needed for the most skilled and best paying jobs in the occupation, which require an understanding of the mechanism of the caster and ability to make adjustments and repairs. Persons entering the occupation should be physically strong and in good health. Outlook Employment opportunities for experienced workers are expected to be good in this occupa tion, especially during the next few years. Em ployment is likely to increase at an even faster rate than among keyboard operators in the near future, and to have a continued upward trend over the long run. There will be more openings for newcomers than before the war, but there is room for only a limited number of new recruits in this small occupation, and competition for jobs is likely to be keen. Earnings and Unionization Most monotype caster operators have about the same wage rates as linotypists and monotype key board operators outside the newspaper industry (see table 2, p. 293). However, caster operators without responsibility for adjustments or repairs earn less. The great majority of operators are represented by the International Typographical Union. See also Monotype Keyboard Operators, p. 298. Proofreaders (D .O .T . 1 - 1 0 .0 7 ) Outlook Summary How to Enter the Occupation Employment expected to rise in this small occu pation during next few years, but outsiders will have little if any chance for jobs. Long-range em ployment trend upward. Workers usually enter the occupation from an other composing-room job or a front-office job with the same company. A thorough knowledge of grammar, spelling, and punctuation is especially important, since proofreaders must find and cor rect all errors. The work also requires good hear ing and good eyesight. Nature of Work Workers in this occupation are responsible for reading proofs of type set-ups against the original copy to guard against errors in the final printed product. Either the proofreader puts the proof and the copy side by side and reads one against the other, a line at a time, by himself, or he has the material read to him by a copyholder while he fol lows the proof. Where there are errors, he notes the corrections needed, using standard proofread er’s marks. In small shops, journeyman typeset ters and advanced apprentices may do the proof reading; in most large shops, however, particu larly in the newspaper, book, and periodical in dustries, there are special proofreaders. Most proofreaders work in composing rooms of large printing establishments—notably in news paper, book, and periodical industries. Outlook Increased printing activity will mean rising em ployment of proofreaders in the next few years. Altogether, about 5,000 proofreaders were em ployed in 1940, including a good many women; the number employed is estimated to be about one-fifth higher now. Though most of the new jobs and jobs arising from turn-over will be filled by work ers already in the printing industries, there will be a few openings for veterans and others with expe rience related to proofreading. Persons com pletely new to the field will have little if any chance for jobs. The long-range trend in employment will prob ably continue to be upward. Those already in the P R IN T IN G occupation and those who enter it in the near future should have a good chance of holding their jobs indefinitely. 301 O C C U P A T IO N S Earnings and Unionization tables 1 and 2). Nonunion shops are likely to have lower rates of pay for proofreaders, particu larly women. Furthermore, some union contracts provide lower rates for proofreaders who have never qualified as hand compositors. Wage rates for proofreaders in union shops are generally the same as for hand compositors (see See also: Hand Compositors and Typesetters, p. 296. Electrotypers and Stereotypers (D.O.T. 4-45.010 and .210) Outlook Summary Enough jobs for all qualified journeymen in next few years; also a limited number of openings for apprentices. Long-range trend slowly up ward. quite different for each trade; rarely do journey men change from one occupation to the other. High school graduation is usually required for apprenticeship and is always preferred. Mechan ical training and courses in chemistry and metal lurgy are useful. Nature o f Work Electrotyping and stereotyping are two differ ent processes for making metal press plates from type forms; it is necessary to use such plates when curved plates or a number of duplicate plates are needed. Electrotyping involves making a mold (wax, lead, or other), placing it in a chemical solu tion, and passing an electric current through it. The result is a metal shell on the back of the mold. This shell, after much further processing, becomes a plate for use in the pressroom. In stereotyping, which is a much simpler process, the mold is made of paper and is used in casting a composition-lead plate. Journeymen electrotypers and stereotypers must know how to handle all the tasks involved in their respective processes, although in practice they are often assigned to only one phase of the work. Electrotypers work mainly in large book and periodical plants or shops which service the book and periodical industries. Stereotypers work mainly in newspaper plants or shops servicing newspaper publishers. Some large commercial shops and other kinds of printing plants also use a few men in these occupations. How To Enter To qualify for either job, a 5- or 6-year ap prenticeship is usually required. The training is P h otograph by U. S. d e pa r tm e n t of labo r Electrotyper placing wax mold on top of type form which is on bed of power molding press. In workrooms where electrotyping and stereo typing is done, there are frequently fumes and dust and the temperature and humidity are often ex tremely high. Moreover, the work involves lifting of very heavy plates and type forms. People en tering the occupations should be sufficiently strong and healthy to work under these conditions. 302 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK H A N D B O O K Outlook Journeymen electrotypers and stereotypers will generally find it easy to get jobs in the next few years. There will also be some training opportuni ties, though not as many as during the first year or two after the war. Some men with all-round ex perience and managerial abilities will be able to go into business for themselves, with fair chances of success. But these are small occupations, employ ing together roughly 10,000 or so, and the aggregate number of job and business opportunities will therefore number only two or three hundred at best each year. The long-range trend in employment is upward in these occupations. Men already in the trades and those who enter them during the next few years should have a good chance of holding their jobs indefinitely. Jobs and business opportunities will seldom be found outside large industrial areas and will be mainly in or around Xew York, Chicago, Phila delphia, Detroit, and Cincinnati. Earnings and Unionization Wage rates for electrotypers tend to be higher than those for any other printing trade except photoengravers. Stereotypers, for the most part, have considerably lower pay. The union rates for electrotypers in a number of cities in January 1948 are shown in table 2 on page 293; those for stereo typers in table 1 on page 292. In both occupations, the proportion of workers unionized—by the International Stereotypers’ and Electrotypers’ Union (A F L )— is extremely high. This organization is one of the six major unions of printing workers. Photoengravers (D .O .T . 4-47.100) Outlook Summary Employment opportunities for qualified jour neymen expected to be fairly good in this small occupation in immediate future; some trainee op portunities. Long-run trend in employment very slowly upward. the engraving on wooden blocks to make them the right height), or pro vers (who print sample copies on a proof press to see if the plate is satisfactory). Nature of Work Photoengravers make copper or zinc plates for use in relief printing of illustrations. The process involves photographing material to be repro duced; transferring (or “ stripping” ) the negative from one glass plate to another; printing from the glass negative onto a metal plate; etching the sur face of the metal plate in an acid solution in such a way as to leave the image to be printed in relief; and finally touching up, trimming, mounting, and proofing the plate. Journeymen must be able to do all operations, and the entire job sometime is done by one man. More often, however, especially in large shops, the work is divided among a number of photoengrav ers, all craftsmen, who may then be known as pho tographers, strippers, etchers, finishers (who touch up the plates), routers (who operate the machines which trim off excess metal), blockers (who mount P hotograph by U. S. d e p a r t m e n t o f labo r Photoengraver (router) cutting away metal from nonprinting areas of a plate. These workers are employed in “ service shops” whose main business is making photoengravings for use by others—newspaper plants, book and P R IN T IN G periodical houses, and government Many have their own service shops. agencies. How To Enter the Occupation A 6-year apprenticeship, including 864 hours of related technical instruction, is commonly re quired. Apprentices have come mostly from among the higli-school graduates whose programs included printing courses. Employers and the union may give some credit for related training and experience in the armed forces. Photoengravers may transfer to rotogravure (and rotogravure journeymen to photoengrav ing) ; usually a probationary period of training and adjusted rates are provided. Outlook Employment of photoengravers has been rising steadily since the end of the war and will probably continue to do so in the immediate future. In 1939, journeymen photoengravers numbered around 10,000, but many were unemployed. There was, on the average, 1 apprentice to every 10 or 12 employed craftsmen, the ratio varying from area to area and shop to shop; some shops offered no training opportunities of any kind. During the war, a shortage of skilled workers, trainees, and trainee replacements developed, pri marily because of selective-service withdrawals and transfers to war industries. To make up for the labor shortage, meet normal replacement O C C U P A T IO N S 303 needs, and handle the increasing demand for photoengraving, employers have needed all quali fied journeymen who have been available in the postwar period thus far, and many more trainees than usual. The outlook continues to be generally favorable, although reduced apprenticeship op portunities are indicated for the near future. At best, the number of openings for trainees will probably not exceed a hundred or so in the entire country in the next year or two. Some persons wishing to go into business for themselves may find favorable opportunities to do so; generally, those with good all-round experience in the field will have the best chances of success. In the longer run, employment is likely to level off and become fairly stable. Most job and business opportuni ties—but also the keenest competition—will prob ably be found in the large cities of New York, Illinois, and Pennsylvania. Earnings and Unionization Photoengravers have, on the whole, higher wage rates than any other group of printing craftsmen, with the exception of rotogravure men. Their basic wage rates in a large number of cities in early 1948 are shown in tables 1 and 2 (on pp. 292 and 293). Photoengravers are almost completely organized by the International Photo-Engravers’ Union of North America (A F L ), one of the six major unions of printing workers. Rotogravure Photoengravers ( S e e D . O . T . 4 - 4 7 .1 0 0 ) Outlook Summary Expanding field, but very small; therefore, few job opportunities at best each year. Nature of Work Rotogravure work is a fairly recent develop ment of photoengraving, which so far has never employed more than a few hundred journeymen in the entire country. The process differs from regular photoengraving (in which the image is in relief on a flat plate) in having the image below the surface of a cylinder-plate prepared for use on a rotary press. The operations included in pre paring the cylinder-plates used in rotogravure printing are retouching of drawings, paintings, photographs, or other copy to be reproduced (to bring out highlights and shadows), and combining type with the design; photographing the material; transferring the negative onto a copper-plated cyl inder; etching in an acid solution in such a way as to cut the image below the surface of the plate; and finally, finishing or touching up the cylinder. In addition, these workers grind off the surfaces o f cylinders no longer needed and replate them. The work is similar in many respects to photo engraving, particularly the photographing, etch ing, and finishing of the cylinder. As in photo 304 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K engraving, craftsmen must be able to do all the tasks required, though the work is usually divided among a number of workers who may be termed retoucher, photographer, etcher, finisher, or cylin der depositor and grinder. A few large newspaper and commercial plants have departments which reproduce pictures by this method. However, rotogravure men are em ployed mainly in independent rotogravure plants. Most of them work for half a dozen big firms which handle a large proportion of all rotogravure work. How To Enter the Occupation A 6-year apprenticeship, including 864 hours of related technical instruction, is generally required. Photoengravers may transfer to rotogravure ( and rotogravure journeymen to photoengraving) ; usu ally a probationary period of training and ad justed rates are provided. Outlook There has been little room for newcomers as rotogravure photoengravers during the last year or so. During the war, the amount of rotogravure printing was much reduced, and a large propor tion of the journeymen and apprentices either went into the armed services or transferred to photoen graving. The volume of rotogravure work has been rapidly returning to prewar levels, however, and there has been frequent need for additional workers. But the openings have been filled in most instances by former workers returning to the trade. On the other hand, since the occupation is expected to go on expanding for an indefinite period, there should be increasing opportunities for newcomers from now on—though only a very few each year, because the total number of men employed is so small. Earnings and Unionization Rotogravure men are among the highest-paid printing craftsmen. In general, their wage scales are above even the high rates for photoengravers doing letterpress work (see tables 1 and 2, pp. 292 and 293). Practically all workers in this trade are repre sented by the International Photo-Engravers’ Union (A F L ), one of the six major unions of printing workers. See also Photoengravers, page 302. Lithographic Occupations ( D . O . T . 4 - 4 6 . a n d 4 - 4 8 .0 5 0 ) Outlook Summary Very good employment opportunities for quali fied craftsmen and semiskilled workers in next few years; limited number of openings for newcomers. Continued rise in employment in all major occu pations expected in long run. Nature of Work Lithography (or offset printing) is one of the three main printing methods. A lithographic plate is smooth or nearly so, with both the image and non-image areas on the same level, instead of on different levels as in letterpress and gravure work. Lithography makes use of the principle that grease and water repel each other. The image areas of the plate are coated with a greasy sub stance to which the greasy printing ink will adhere. On the press, the plate is moistened with water before each inking, with the result that only the image areas take up the greasy ink from the ink ing roller. In present-day lithographic work the plates are usually made by a photographic process, and the method is often referred to as photolithography. There are, however, a few types of work—posters, for example— in which some of the plates are still made by hand. The main groups of lithographic workers are the cameramen (who photograph copy to be printed and prepare negatives or positives for use in platemaking) ; artists and letterers (who re touch negatives, correct colors in the final press plates, draw posters, and do related work) ; platemakers (who transfer negatives and positives or, less often, hand drawings onto press plates and P R IN T IN G prepare these plates for the pressroom) ; and the pressmen and their assistants (who make ready and operate the presses). There are also a num ber of other occupational groups— among them, engravers and paper trimmers (or cutters). Altogether, about 5,000 platemakers were em ployed in 1946. Pressmen totaled about 3,300 or 3,400, and their assistants about 4,000. Artists and letterers numbered approximately 3,000; camera men, about 1,200; cutters, roughly 1,000. Their numbers have increased steadily during 1947 and 1948, but are still of the same general magnitudes. Most workers in these occupations are employed in plants specializing in lithography. However, a good many work in job shops or other letterpress plants which have lithographic departments, or for firms in other industries which do printing of their own by the lithographic process. Qualifications and Training To become an all-round skilled worker in any lithographic department generally requires a 4-year or 5-year apprenticeship covering all phases of the given department's work. Begin ners are usually taken on as helpers (or “ assist ants” ) and promoted to apprentices after a year or two, if they show promise and there are openings. Less-skilled jobs, such as that of cutter, are gen erally learned through on-the-job training also, but the training periods are, of course, shorter. Besides on-the-job training many plants give sup plementary courses for their workers. Courses in lithography are offered also in trade schools and under other auspices. A high school education is needed for most jobs. Work in the art, engraving, and camera depart ments requires natural drawing ability and an eye for color and design, as well as technical ability. In platemaking and presswork, manual dexterity and an interest in chemistry are more important. Men with physical handicaps of many types can qualify for jobs. O C C U P A T IO N S 305 Outlooh Qualified craftsmen should have little trouble getting jobs in lithographic occupations during the years immediately ahead. The labor shortages which developed during the war have been relieved considerably since YJ-day and are no longer gen eral. But this is a fast-growing process, perhaps the most rapidly expanding graphic art. Employment opportunities will probably be very good also for men with training and experi ence in semiskilled lithographic occupations. In addition, there will be openings for trainees. However, the actual number of opportunities for newcomers will not be large in any o f these small occupations in any one year. A few men will find favorable opportunities to open their own shops. The chances for success are likely to be greatest in localities which do not al ready have well-established lithographic busi nesses. The long-run outlook is for continued rises in employment in all major lithographic occupations, unless there should be a severe decline in general business activity. Employment is increasing in plants specializing in lithographic work, and a growing number of letterpress plants are setting up lithographic departments. Both these trends are expected to persist. By far the largest num bers of job openings, probably half of the total, will be in three cities—New York, Chicago, and San Francisco—during the next few years. Oppor tunities will become more and more widespread, however, as time goes on. Unionization The large majority o f lithographic workers be long to the Amalgamated Lithographers o f America (C IO ), one of the six major unions of printing workers. 306 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K Printing Pressmen and Assistants ( D . O . T . 4 - 4 8 .0 1 0 , .0 2 0 , .0 3 0 , a n d .0 6 0 ; 6 - 4 9 .4 1 0 , . 4 2 0 , a n d .4 3 0 ) Outlook Summary Journeymen pressmen in demand. A good many openings as apprentices and press assistants likely in near future. Long-range outlook good for pressmen; less favorable for press assistants. Nature of Work P ressmen.— Skilled pressmen are the third largest group of printing craftsmen. In 1910, about 33,000 of them were employed; only hand compositors and linotypists were more numerous. Pressmen’s basic duties are to “ make-ready” and then tend printing presses while in operation. The object of the make-ready is to insure printing im pressions that are distinct and even and neither too dark nor too light; this is done by such means as placing pieces of paper of the right thickness underneath low areas of the press plate or type form and attaching pieces of tissue paper to the surface of the cylinder or flat platen which makes the impression. Pressmen also have to make many other adjustments and may be responsible for oil ing and cleaning the presses and making at least minor repairs. In many cases they have assistants whose work they supervise. The exact nature of pressmen’s work varies widely from one type of shop to another, because of the great differences in the kinds and sizes of presses used. Small commercial shops, many of which are owned and run by pressmen themselves in partnership with compositors, generally have small and relatively simple platen (or job) presses that are often fed paper by hand. At the other extreme are the big newspaper plants with their tremendous web-rotary presses, which are fed paper in big rolls and have so many different mechanisms that each press has to be operated by a crew of journeymen and less skilled workers un der the direction of a pressman-in-charge. It is customary for pressmen to specialize in operating only one type of press. P ress assistants.—The duties of press assist ants range from merely feeding sheets of paper into hand-fed presses to helping pressmen make ready and operate large and complicated rotary presses. Workers whose main responsibility is feeding are often referred to simply as “ feeders.” The non journeymen on web-rotary crews in newspaper plants are commonly known as flyboys. They pick up the newspapers as they come out of the press and load them onto hand trucks; they also wheel the trucks out of the pressroom and do other work. In 1940 the total number o f press assistants em ployed was roughly eight or nine thousand, not counting flyboys in newspaper plants. • The ratio of assistants to pressmen varies greatly from one establishment to another, depending on the size of the plant, the type of press used, and other factors. Many shops are too small to have any pressroom helpers. How To Enter To become a skilled pressman requires 3 to 5 years of apprenticeship. Usually, men receive training on only one type of press, and opinion differs as to how readily journeymen can become skilled on other types of presses. The length of the apprenticeship and the content of the training largely depend on the kind of press involved. Apprentices are generalty chosen from among the press assistants and others already employed by the company. They must have completed at least the eighth grade in school; some employers re quire liigh-school graduation. Since they will often have to blend their own inks, a knowledge of color is necessary. Courses in art are therefore very helpful. Physical strength and endurance are necessary for work on some kinds of presses, where the press man has to lift heavy type forms and press plates and be on his feet all day. Another quality needed is mechanical aptitude, to assist the worker in mak ing adjustments and repairs to the presses. Outlook P ressmen.—Employment in the occupation will rise considerably in the next few years and prob ably more slowly thereafter. P R IN T IN G 307 O C C U P A T IO N S P Pressman using paper to level plate. A shortage of both skilled pressmen and ap prentices developed during the war. To make up for this shortage, meet normal replacement needs, and handle the actual and anticipated increases in printing of all kinds, the industry has hired many thousands of men for presswork since VJ-day. During the next few years, it will probably con tinue to require virtually all qualified men likely to be available. In addition, there will be many hundreds of training opportunities. The long-range trend of employment in the oc cupation is upward. Technological developments have tended to increase the need for skilled “ specialists” on one type of press (as contrasted to the all-round men previously required). P ress a s s i s t a n t s .— Several hundred job open h o to g r a p h by u . S. D e p a r t m ent of labor Press is a small flatbed cylinder press for letterpress printing. ings for press assistants may be expected each year for the next few years. After that, openings will probably become much fewer. Before the war, the printing industries tended not to hire as many press assistants as they lost owing to turn-over. It is likely that this tendency will appear again after the current need for labor has been met and that employment in the occupation will resume its long-range downward trend. However, lay-offs will probably be made only in exceptional circum stances. Earnings and Unionization Wage rates for pressmen depend on the make and style of press operated, as well as the type of 308 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK printing plant and other factors. Rates tend to be highest in the newspaper industry, as shown by the union wage rates for pressmen in many cities in January 1948 given in tables 1 and 2 (on pp. 292 and 293). Table 2 also shows what the union scales were for press assistants in these cities. HANDBOOK Pressroom workers are usually covered by union agreements. Practically all the letterpress and rotogravure pressmen who are organized belong to the International Printing Pressmen’s and A s sistants’ Union of North America (A F L ). Bookbinders < D .O .T . 4 - 4 9 . 0 1 0 ) Outlook Summary Many more openings than usual during the next few years for both journeymen and begin ners; decreasing numbers of job opportunities thereafter. Long-run employment trend slowly downward. Skilled bookbinders seldom handle all these different tasks, although many journeymen have had training in all of them. Especially in large shops the bookbinders are likely to be assigned to one or a few operations, most often to the opera tion of complicated machines. Nature of Work Many printing products are finished when they leave the pressroom. This is true of a wide variety o f items produced by job shops—business forms, printed stationery, labels, advertising flyers, and so forth. Newspapers, except the few that are bound for libraries, never see a bindery depart ment. Nevertheless, binderies play a part in the manufacture of many items besides books. When ever a magazine or pamphlet or even a small calendar is sewed or stapled together, this is con sidered a bindery operation. Making a book out of the big, flat sheets of paper that come into the bindery from the pressroom is by far the most complicated type of bindery work. The first step is to fold the printed sheets, each of which contains many pages, so that these pages will be in the right order; when so folded into sections of 16 or 32 pages, the sheets are known as signatures. The next steps are to insert any illustrations that have been printed separately, to assemble the signatures in proper order, and to sew them together. The resulting book bodies are shaped in various ways, usually with power presses and trimming machines, and fabric strips are glued to the backs to reinforce them. Some times, the edges of the pages are gilded or colored. Covers are glued or pasted onto the book bodies, after which the books undergo a variety of finishing operations and, frequently, are wrapped in paper jackets. P h o to g r a p h by U. S . d e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o r Bookbinder putting gold lettering on back of book with hand tool. The majority of journeymen are employed in shops whose main business is bookbinding. How ever, a good many work in the bindery rooms of large book, periodical, and commercial printing plants. Some are employed in libraries, where the work is done mainly by hand and also differs in other respects from that performed elsewhere. P R IN T IN G O C C U P A T IO N S Qualifications fo r Em ploym ent Completion of a 4-year apprenticeship is usually required of men seeking to qualify as skilled book binders. The apprenticeship programs may vary considerably between the different types of shops. Where large quantities of books are bound on a mass-production basis, emphasis is on the most modern machine methods. Where fine hand bind ing is done, the training is mainly in hand methods, including artistic designing and decoration of leather covers. Outlook Employment in the occupation is likely to rise in the next few years. Rough estimates suggest that there were in 1939 about 20 to 25 thousand bookbinders. Many were unemployed or could find only bindery jobs paying less than journey man rates. Now there are probably no less than 30,000 at work, with few if any in non journeyman positions; unemployment is at the irreducible minimum that can be expected under even the most favorable circumstances. To make up for these labor shortages which de veloped during the war, meet normal replacement needs, and handle the increased demand for bindery services, more qualified journeymen and trainees have been required during the postwar years than for many years prior to the war. The 309 outlook continues to be favorable. Meu with book binding skills plus supervisory and managerial abilities will find some immediate openings in salaried positions or will have good opportunity for advancement to such jobs. After several years, openings will become fewer. The long-range employment trend appears to have been downward; there is no evidence that this trend has been reversed. Most job openings—but also the keenest competition for jobs—will probably be found in large cities, notably in New York, Ohio, Illinois, and New Jersey. Earnings and Unionization Wage scales in this occupation tend to be below the average for all printing trades. What the union rates were for journeyman bookbinders in many cities in January 1948 is shown in table 2, page 293. Although employees in binderies are not as highly organized as other groups of printing work ers. many skilled bookbinders are represented by the Internationa] Brotherhood of Bookbinders (A F L ), one of the six major unions of printing workers. A higher proportion of journeymen than of non journey men bindery workers belong to this union. See also: Bindery Workers, page 309. Bindery Workers ( D . O . T . 6 - 4 9 .0 0 0 Outlook Summary Substantial numbers of openings likely for an other year or two; fewer opportunities thereafter. Long-run trend in employment upward. Nature of T York In many binderies, especially large ones, a great part of the work is done by employees trained in only one operation or in a small group of related tasks, rather than in all tasks like many journey man bookbinders. These semiskilled workers are mostly women, though a few are men. The women handle a variety of hand and light-machine opera tions—such as hand folding, pasting in of inserts, 703990°—49-----21 to .1 9 9 ) assembling signatures by hand, machine sewing, gluing fabric reinforcements on signatures, and feeding machines. The men are usually assigned to more intricate machine jobs; they may operate assembling, trimming, stamping, and many other types of machines. Bindery workers are employed mainly in inde pendent binderies, bindery departments of large printing firms, libraries, and Government agencies. Training A training period of 1 or 2 years is frequently required. In union shops there are always formal training programs. 310 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K Outlook Employment has risen considerably since VJday and continued substantial gains are likely for another year or two. In 1939. roughly 70.000 to 80,000 bindery workers were employed; many were unemployed. During the war, however, a short age developed mainly because of the competition for labor from war industries and because of with drawals to the armed services. To make up for the shortage, meet normal replacement needs, and handle the increases in bindery work, employers have required increasing numbers of experienced workers and many more newcomers than usual since mid-1945. After the next few years, openings will probably become fewer and there may not be jobs for all those seeking work. But the long-range trend in employment is upward, and workers who now have jobs or get them in the immediate future have a good chance of holding their positions, unless there should be a sharp decline in general business activity. Jobs will be found in most sections of the coun try. But the greatest number of openings—also the most competition for them—will be in the large cities in New York, Ohio, New Jersey, and Illinois. Earnings and Unionization Women bindery workers have the lowest wage rates o f any group of production workers in the printing and allied industries. Table 2, page 293, shows the union scales in effect for these workers in many cities in January 1948. Men doing semiskilled machine work are gen erally paid somewhat more than the usual top rate for women. The few doing hand operations have rates similar to those for women workers. Although employees in binderies are not so strongly organized as other groups of printing workers, many bindery workers are represented by the International Brotherhood of Bookbinders (A F L ), one of the six major unions of printing workers. See also: Bookbinders, page 308. Furniture Manufacturing Occupations Major Branches of the Industry Furniture covers a wide range of products— everything from a complete suite of furniture to decorative gadgets. The branches of the industry which make upholstered and wooden (unup holstered) furniture for the home are the two most important. A third branch includes plants which make wood office furniture and store fix tures. (Workers in plants making metal furni ture either for the office or home are not included in this report, since the occupations are quite d if ferent, being metalworking rather than wood working occupations.) Finally, there are workers in the countless small retail upholstery shops throughout the country who handle repairs and sometimes make custom furniture. Processes and Occupations— Wooden Furniture Most furniture production is carried on in fac tories using mechanized, mass-production methods. This development has greatly affected the kinds of workers needed in furniture produc tion. Nowadays relatively few of the all-round furniture workers such as cabinetmakers and fur niture finishers are employed. A large number of different kinds of semiskilled workers who special ize in particular operations have taken the place of the all-round furniture makers. The actual production of the furniture is carried out by three groups of workers— woodworking machine opera tors, assemblers, and finishing-room workers. Cut ting and shaping of the furniture parts is done in the woodworking department by such workers as cut-off saw operators and shaper operators. The parts then go to the assembly department where specialized workers including chair makers, door hangers, and base-assembly men put the furniture together. After the furniture is as sembled, it is finished off by sanders, rubbers, painters, and similar workers in the finishing de partment. Processes and Occupations— Upholstered-Furni ture Plants In plants turning out upholstered household furniture, the nature of the work is quite different. Upholstering furniture consists primarily of at taching springs to a frame, covering the springs with filling materials and stretching a fabric cover over the foundation. But upholsterers usually no longer do many of the incidental tasks. Job simplification has resulted in less skilled workers taking over parts of the job, i. e. webbers to tack the webbing and spring setters to install the springs. Furthermore, where the upholsterer for merly covered all of a piece or suite of furniture by himself, in many plants the work on a piece of furniture is now further divided so that one up holsterer works only on the seat of a sofa, another on the arms and wings, etc. Employment In the fall of 1947, there were about 180.000 workers employed in household-furniture plants, including upholstered-furniture factories and some making metal household furniture. This figure does not include the workers in small custom shops and repair shops. Something over 30,000 were engaged in woodworking-machine operations mentioned above and there were more than 20,000 assemblers and 10,000 finishing-room workers. Another 25,000 to 30,000 employees worked in up holstery departments as cutters, sewers, webbers, upholsterers, etc. Still another sizable number were the helpers—the largest single group in furni ture manufacture. Many of the remainder were in maintenance, shipping, supervisory, and materialshandling occupations. Outlook The future for furniture manufacture—and the furniture worker— looks good, both for the next 311 312 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK few years and for the long run. More than many other industries, this industry does particularly well under good general business conditions such as have prevailed throughout the country during the first postwar years. Then, too, there has been a backlog of demand which began to accumulate during the war and although it has been obscured in part by recent consumer resistance to evermounting prices, its effect is by no means ex hausted. Finally, manufacturers are confident that once the construction of new homes reaches full stride it will be followed, as it always has been in the past, by a wave of purchases of new furni ture which will continue for several years. It should be noted that, because of the sensitivity of furniture sales to business conditions, when slumps occur, opportunities in this industry are seriously affected. I f people have limited incomes, furni ture purchases are among the first to be put off. HANDBOOK Major Regions Three regions, the Great Lakes, Southeast, and Middle Atlantic regions stand out as principal areas of furniture manufacture. Tliree-fourtlis of the industry is concentrated in nine States: North Carolina, Illinois, Indiana, New York, Penn sylvania, Virginia, Michigan, California, and Ohio— ranked roughly in order of their impor tance. Earnings Taken as a group, workers in the furniture in dustry averaged $1.12 an hour in September 1947. Straight-time earnings would average somewhat less, since some overtime work is reflected in this figure. Wages for workers directly engaged in production usually range from about 75 cents to $1.50 an hour depending on the job and the locality. Cabinetmakers ( D .O .T . 4 - 3 2 .1 0 0 ) Outlook Summary Only a few cabinetmakers are now employed in the industry and any additions there are unlikely. A limited number may find jobs in small custom plants or repair shops. Nature o f 1York The cabinetmaker makes high-grade wooden furniture for the home, office, and store. He uses a saw, plane, chisel, and other hand tools and wood working machines to cut and shape each of the parts and assembles them into an article of furni ture following specifications detailed in blueprints and drawings. A 3- to 4-year period of training or apprenticeship is necessary to learn the job. Where Employed All-round cabinetmakers in the furniture indus try have almost disappeared because with the mod ernization of the industry their work has been successfully broken down and different parts of the job assigned to machine-room workers. Most of the workers employed nowadays in the cabinet room of a furniture plant are not cabinetmakers P h o to g r a p h by U. S. D e p a r t m ent of La b o r Cabinetmakers are employed mainly in repair shops or in small shops which make custom furniture. but assemblers who, except in key occupations, are semiskilled workers. Cabinetmakers, however, are F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G still employed wherever custom furniture is man ufactured and in retail shops where they repair furniture and occasionally make new pieces. Outlook Almost no additional cabinetmakers will be hired in the furniture industry, despite the fact that the production of furniture will probably be higher for several years than any time since the peak in the 1920’s. Various types of furniture as semblers— chair makers, case clamp men, case fit ters, drawer makers, frame makers, etc.—have long since taken over the work of the cabinet O C C U P A T IO N S 313 maker. Relatively few cabinetmakers are em ployed nowadays and they work in plants where, because of the feasibility of manufacture along craft lines, or because of the kind of product, job specialization does not occur. The comparatively few additional cabinetmakers needed in the next 5 or 6 years will be employed in such factories or in small custom plants and repair shops scattered throughout the country. See also: Furniture Woodworking Machine Operators, page 314, and Furniture Assemblers, page 315. Wood Turners (Furniture) ( D .O .T . 4 - 3 3 .3 6 3 ) Outlook Summary Very few additional skilled wood turners (hand) can be employed. Most wood turning nowadays is done by less-skilled automatic lathe operators. Nature of Work A chair leg or arm, such as is seen on Chippen dale or other period furniture, a curved and rounded porch column or stair spindle, or a base ball bat is the product of wood turning. The wood turner presses hand-held cutting tools against the wood stock, which is on a rotating lathe. He must use skill and dexterity, both in the free-hand direction of the cutting tool and in turn ing the different kinds of wood. The wood turner learns his trade during a 3- to 4-year period of training, and perfects his ability through years of woodworking experience. Outlook In most plants this trade has been mechanized for many years and automatic lathes instead of hand lathes are used. In October 1945, a total of about 400 men were employed as automatic lathe operators in the furniture industry on machines which they set up and operated. Only an ex tremely small number o f the skilled hand wood turners are employed in manufacturing furniture. Prospects for additional skilled hand wood turn ers are very limited because workers on auto matic lathes supply most of the turned products needed. Wood Carvers and Spindle Carvers ( D . O . T . 4 - 3 3 .3 6 1 , Outlook Summary A very small number of additional skilled carvers can be used, despite good outlook for furni ture manufacturing generally. Nature of Work The wood carver uses various carving knives, chisels, and other hand tools to cut designs and .3 6 2 ) figures into the surface of wooden furniture, man telpieces, panels, and staircases. The spindle carver cuts similar designs and figures, usually into smaller pieces of wood stock such as chair arms and legs and furniture panels, by pressing and guiding the face of the stock against the rapidly rotating cutter on the end of a spindle. There is no significant difference in the training and experi ence in the two jobs for, although the use of power- 314 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK driven cutters speeds up the work, dexterity, and judgment are still essential. In some work carvers trace or draw the outline of the design on the wood, while in others the carver works freehand without a pattern. Carvers usually learn their trade during a 3- to 4-year training period. Emphasis during training is placed on an understanding of freehand draw ings and blueprints. Outlook While the demand for the products of both the furniture and woodworking industries will be much greater during the next several years than it was during the prewar period, there w ill be no T proportionate increase in the use of the carver’s services. Hand carving is generally employed only where higher-priced furniture or other custom items o f wood are manufactured. It is estimated HANDBOOK that there were fewer than 500 single-spindle carvers in furniture plants in October 1945, and only very few hand carvers. Decorative scroll work and other furniture carvings have declined in popularity in the past several years and fewer carvers have been needed. In addition, both the furniture and woodworking industries, in develop ing mass-production techniques, have installed automatic carving machines with multiple spindles which carve from 1 to 10 pieces of wood simul taneously. The operator of such machine not only displaces several skilled carvers but is not required to possess the same dexterity or judgment in his work. Even in highly-mechanized factories where automatic carvers are used, unless period furniture is one of the major items, there is relatively little demand for carving work. Job opportunities for additional hand or single spindle carvers will be extremely limited. Furniture Woodworking- Machine Operators ( D . O . T . 6 - 3 3 .1 1 1 , .2 1 1 , .2 1 4 , a n d Outlook Summary Numerous openings for woodworking machine operators for several years; thereafter opportuni ties limited mainly to replacement needs. Nature of Work > Most modern furniture factories have developed mass-production methods, and large quantities of identical pieces of furniture are produced daily. The first part o f what used to be the all-round cabinetmaker’s job— cutting and shaping wood into furniture parts—is now usually carried on by various workers in the machine room. First the lumber is ripped and cut on power saws into speci fied dimensions. Then the pieces are sent on to different workers, each stationed at a machine, to be trimmed and shaped. A small number of skilled woodworkers who use hand tools, such as the carver and the wood turner, are still employed in some mechanized woodworking departments of modern factories. But workers who tend automatic machines have, by and large, taken the place of these craftsmen. .3 6 4 ) A great many of such less-skilled, specialized workers nowadays are employed in the wood working room. Each o f the machines, and usually, therefore, each worker, performs a single opera tion in cutting and shaping the parts which will later be assembled into the final product. For in stance, there is a boring machine which only bores holes into the pieces of wood. Another machine is set up to cut tenons into the wood for joints, while still another cuts the mortise into which the tenon fits. Other machines sandpaper the wood, trim it, or carve it. The workers who operate the machines are usually identified by the names of the machines they run. For instance, among the workers are belt and drum sanders, boring-machine operators, and cut-off and rip-saw operators. Also known by their machines are the planer operators, shaper op erators, and turning-lathe operators, and the multiple-spindle carvers. T raining Most woodworking machine operators learn to do their work in a few weeks. The most complex F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G 315 O C C U P A T IO N S job requires no longer than a few months. As a rule, a new employee in the department is assigned to a job as helper, or trained on one of the simplest operations, then advanced to other jobs as open ings occur. each year. In addition, the number of workers who quit to work elsewhere or are promoted to better jobs considerably enhances chances for a job as a replacement. Where Employed Recent earnings information is not available for all the different kinds of woodworking machine operators. The average straight-time hourly earnings in September 1947 of male workers in three typical woodworking machine jobs—belt sanders, cut-off saw operators and shaper opera tors—are shown below for some of the important furniture-producing areas.1 2 The wood and upholstered household furniture plants employing woodworking machine operators are concentrated in a number of major furniture producing centers. The most important ones in clude High Point and other towns in North Caro lina ; New York City and Jamestown, N. Y . ; Mar tinsville, V a .; Gardner and Fitchburg, Mass.; Chicago, 111.; Grand Rapids, Mich.; Jasper and Tell City, In d .; and Los Angeles, Calif. Earnings Outlook Area The woodworking machine operators are the backbone of the labor force of the furniture indus try and, with the expected increase in furniture employment in the next several years, represent by far the best opportunity for employment in the average furniture plant. In 1947 there were well over 30,000 such workers, making up a larger pro portion of total employment than any other similar group of workers such as the furniture assemblers. Although employment gains will slacken off after the next several years, openings because of retire ments and deaths may average as many as 500 jobs Belt sanders Shaper Cut-off saw operators, hand (set operators up and operate) $ 1 . 16 $ 1 . 12 $ 1 . 31 F itc h b u r g , M a s s 1. 0 1 . 95 1. 0 6 G r a n d R a p id s , M ic h 1. 2 2 1. 18 1. 3 3 J a m e s to w n , N . Y 1. 21 1. 0 4 1. 13 J a s p e r -T e ll C i t v , In d 1. 0 6 . 97 . 99 L o s A n g e le s , C a lif 1. 3 6 1. 4 3 1. 5 8 C h ic a g o , I l l .- G a r v , In d M a r t in s v ille , V a . 95 1. 0 2 1. 0 2 M o r g a n t o n -L e n o i r , N . C ___ . 95 1. 0 5 . 98 . 84 . 86 . 93 W in s t o n -S a l e m -H i g h P o in t, N . C ____________________________ 12 W ood furniture, excluding upholstered. Furniture Assemblers ( D .O .T . 6 - 3 6 .0 1 0 Outlook Summary Rising trend of employment in next several years; over longer run many openings to fill re placement needs. Nature of the Work As mentioned earlier, one of the main results of advancing technology in furniture manufacture has been the virtual disappearance of the old-time cabinetmaker—at least in furniture factories. The part of his work that involved putting the furni ture together after the parts had been shaped by machine or by hand is done nowadays by special t o .1 3 0 ) ized assemblers who, in different sections of the country, are called cabinet room assemblers, as sembly room workers, or furniture assemblers. Depending upon the type of product made, and the degree of specialization in the particular factory, one worker may assemble one product by himself— chair makers, table assemblers, bed makers, etc. On the other hand, he may be part of a group, or he may work in a production line, in which case his job is to assemble only some piece of the final product. Typical of the latter are the door hang ers, back makers, base-assembly men, drawer mak ers, drawer slide ssemblers, upfitters (who attach hardware and trim) and a great many others. 316 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK Training None o f the assembly-room jobs— except that of the foreman— is skilled in the sense that the cabi netmaker's job was. They require, at the most, only a few months’ training to develop the neces sary skill and proficiency. Once the worker gets the hang of how furniture is assembled, he can move about from one job to another without much additional training. Where Employed The wood and upholstered household furniture plants employing furniture assemblers are con centrated in a number of major furniture produc ing centers. The most important ones include High Point and many other towns in North Caro lina ; New York City and Jamestown. N. Y . ; Gard ner and Fitchburg, Mass.; Martinsville, V a .; Chi cago, 111.; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Jasper and Tell City, In d .; and Los Angeles, Calif. HANDBOOK continued specialization, which has not yet reached its peak. After several years the number of addi tional jobs will be less plentiful, but deaths, retire ments, promotions, and transfers to other indus tries will result in an average demand for over 500 replacements each year. Earnings Recent earnings information is not available for all the different kinds of furniture assemblers. The average straight-time hourly earnings in September 1947 of male workers in two typical assembly jobs— case-clamp men and chair makers— are shown below for some of the more important producing areas.1 3 A rea C h ic a g o , I l l .- G a r y , In d C ase-clam p Ca h ir m en mk a ers 1. 01 1. 3 8 1. 2 3 J a m e s to w n , N . Y The number of furniture assemblers in house hold furniture plants has increased steadily over the past few decades. By 1947 something over 20,000 such workers, in various assembly special ties, were employed throughout the industry. More jobs will be created not only by the expected expansion in furniture production, but because of $1. 2 3 1. 01 G r a n d R a p id s , M ic h Outlook $1. 2 2 F itc h b u r g , M a s s 1. 4 4 J a s p e r -T e ll C i t y , In d 1. 21 L o s A n g e le s , C a lif 1. 3 4 M a r tin s v ille , V a . 96 M o r g a n t o n —L e n o ir, N . C . 89 W in s t o n -S a l e m -H i g h P o in t, N . C . 85 1. 11 . 94 . 79 See also Cabinetmakers, p. 312. 1 Wood furniture, excluding upholstered. 3 Furniture Finishers ( D . O . T . 5 - 1 6 .7 1 0 Outlook Summary Only a limited number of all-round skilled fin ishers are now employed in the industry. Nature of Work The finisher applies successive coats of stain, sealer, filler, and lacquer or varnish to the surface o f wooden furniture, smoothes the surface between coats, and rubs down the final coat to a satin finish with pumice, or wax and a buffing cloth. The fin isher can prepare necessary formulas for the stain, shellac, and varnish necessary to get the desired t o .7 9 9 ) color and luster. On repair work in a factory or repair shop he develops special skills in the use of putty and filling sticks and in matching the stain, high-lighting, graining, or inlay of the surround ing undamaged area. Considerable experience is necessary before a man is a competent finisher and a 3-year on-thejob training or apprenticeship is usual in this craft. Where Employed Although the large furniture manufacturing States are New York, Illinois, Michigan, North F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G In the finishing department, paint is usually applied with a spray gun. P h o to g r a p h by U. S. d ep a r tm e n t of Labor O C C U P A T IO N S 317 Carolina, Massachusetts, Ohio, Indiana, and Penn sylvania, the finisher finds work in all parts of the country. Repair shops and small custom furni ture plants, which afford the best opportunities for all-round finishers, are located for the most part in large cities. Outlook With increased job specialization the all-round finisher has been almost completely supplanted in the larger, more modern factories. Less skilled workers smooth the surface of the furniture and move it on to other workers who apply filler, stain and oil, and varnish or lacquer, and rub down the finish. Only a small number of all-round finish ers, often classified as foremen or repairmen, are currently employed in the industry. The outlook for an additional number of such workers is poor. Furthermore, as openings occur, the specialized workers will be upgraded and thus most of the existing openings for all-round finish ers will be filled from among their ranks. Furniture Finishing-Room Workers ( D . O . T . 7 - 1 6 .1 1 1 Outlook Summary Considerable number of openings for finishingroom workers for the next few years; opportuni ties thereafter mainly for replacements. Nature o f Work In many furniture plants—especially the larger, more modernized factories—the finishing process is broken down into several stages instead of being performed by skilled all-round furniture finishers. Each part of the work is performed by specialized workers. For practical purposes the furniture finishing is divided into three phases of w ork: (1) Cleaning and sanding the surface, (2) coating the furniture, and (o) rubbing and polishing the finish. The surface of a piece of furniture must be lightly sanded and rubbed down with abrasives before the application of each type of finishing material. In factories where the work is greatly specialized, workers who use sand or emery paper, t o .1 2 2 ) or steel wool are known as hand sanders. Those who smooth the surface after the putty and filler are applied are known as putty men and filler wipers. The men who clean the surface after it has been stained are known as stain wipers. The next group of workers apply paint, varnish, lacquer enamel, etc., to the surface of furniture. These men work with either a brush or spray gun, sometimes with both. In the manufacture of some expensive grades of furniture, less skilled workers are employed to do the rough work and more highly skilled painters do the final, decorative work. In such cases the more highly skilled painters, varnishers, or whatever they might be called in a particular plant, can be likened to all round finishers. They work on a variety of prod ucts where different finishes are called for, and often select and mix the paints used. In some fac tories, glazers, blenders, and high-lighters do special work such as shading stains and colors.. When the filling, sanding, etc., are completed, rubbers polish the furniture. Hand rubbers work 318 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K with a cloth or felt pad dipped in a mixture of pumice stone and oil, or else they apply wax and rub it in with steel wool. The machine rubbers use a portable rubbing machine to rub in the polishing compound and lubricants. Training Finishing-room workers are generally con sidered semiskilled, and most of them learn these jobs in a relatively short time, from a few weeks up to several months. Usually the worker begins as a helper, or on one o f the easier jobs in the finish ing department, and is advanced to more difficult operations as openings occur. Where Employed The wood and upholstered furniture plants em ploying finishing-room workers are concentrated in a number of major furniture-producing centers. The most important ones include High Point and other towns in North Carolina; New York City and Jamestown, N. Y . ; Martinsville, V a.; Gard ner and Fitchburg, Mass.; Chicago, 111.; Grand Rapids. M ich.; Jasper and Tell City, Ind. manufacture, there will be openings for a con siderable number of newcomers. After the next few years the demand for addi tional workers will let up, but replacing those who leave their jobs for one reason or another will create some opportunities for newcomers in finish ing departments. Replacements for deaths and retirements alone might average as high as 200 a year. Earnings Recent information is not available on the earn ings of all the different kinds of finishing-room workers. The average straight-time hourly earn ings in September 1947 of male workers in two finishing-room jobs—hand rubbers and hand Sanders—are shown below for the more important furniture areas.1 4 A rea C h ic a g o , I l l .- G a r y , In d F itc h b u r g , M a s s Outlook R b ers, ub hn ad $ 1. 15 S n ers, ad hn ad $1. 06 1. 0 4 G r a n d R a p id s , M ic h Like the other semiskilled jobs in furniture plants, the number of finishing-room workers has increased rapidly in the past 20 years. By 1947 well over 10,000 were employed in the finishing departments of furniture plants throughout the country. With the expected increase in furniture 1. 2 5 J a m e s to w n , N . Y 1. 3 3 1. 2 2 J a s p e r -T e ll C i t y , In d 1. 3 3 1. 0 4 L o s A n g e le s , C a lif 1. 3 0 1. 16 . 75 . 79 _ M a r tin s v ille , V a M o r g a n t o n -L e n o i r , N. C W i n s t o n -S a l e m -H i g h P o in t, N . C 1. 0 6 . 80 . 79 . 76 . 73 1W 4 ood furniture, excluding upholstered. Upholsterers ( D . O . T . 4 - 3 5 .7 1 0 Outlook Summary Field is likely to be crowded for the next 5 or 6 years. Many newcomers have recently entered training for the trade. Nature o f Work The work involved in upholstering furniture consists of several distinct steps. The first job is to fasten in the canvas webbing, tie in the springs if any are used and cover this foundation with a n d .7 2 0 ) fabric. Then various filling materials, such as cotton batting, kapok, animal hair, or sponge rub ber are laid over the covered foundation. Finally, burlap canvas is tacked over the padding and the upholstery fabric is cut and tailored to fit. Be cause much of the work can be separated into d if ferent tasks, the upholsterers often do only the final tailoring and the other parts are taken over by less-skilled workers, i. e., webbers to tack in the webbing, and spring setters (or “ tiers” ) to install the springs. F U R N IT U R E M A N U F A C T U R IN G Many plants in addition have further divided the upholsterer’s work so that he specializes in covering sofa seats, for example, while another covers the arms and wings, and so on. While one upholsterer formerly covered an entire piece of furniture or even a complete suite by himself, now adays the chances are that if he works in a regular plant, the upholsterer is a specialist. However, in the small retail upholstery shops which do repair work and occasionally custom upholstering, the all-round upholsterer still does all the work him self. Training A 2- to 4-year training period is necessary to become an all-round upholsterer. Sometimes a formal apprenticeship is arranged, but often the skill is acquired through informal on-the-job training. 319 O C C U P A T IO N S industry employs. The bulk of the upholstered furniture industry is located in New York, Illinois, California, North Carolina, Ohio, and Massachu setts. Large cities are centers for shops which do custom and repair work, and many additional shops may spring up since it usually takes less than $2,000 to open such a business. Outlook Although the peak may be reached by 1948 or 1949, furniture sales will remain high for several years because of the volume of pent-up demand and the continuing number of new homes to be fur nished. Beyond this, furniture sales depend prim arily on business conditions throughout the Nation. New families are always furnishing homes, but there is comparatively little outlay for new furni ture during periods when incomes are low. Furniture is reupholstered instead, but activity even in this line depends on purchasing power in the con sumer's hands. In addition, current information indicates that many veterans have begun training to be upholsterers. Competition for the few jobs likely to open up in the near future will be very keen and an oversupply of upholsterers is a strong possibility. Earnings Straight-time average hourly earnings of uphosterers in September 1947, in plants manufac turing upholstered furniture in the four most im portant areas, were as follow s: P h o to g r a p h by u . S. d e p a r tm e n t of N ew s ork C ica o ALele Y h g no s g C ity labor Springing up a chair is one of the early steps in upholstering. Sometimes specialized workers do this job. AYhere Employed There are currently 8,000 to 10,000 upholsterers employed in furniture manufacturing in addition to those who upholster seats in automobiles and railroad coaches, or work in department or furni ture stores and retail shops. The number of up holsterers working elsewhere—mostly in the many retail shops—is much larger than the furniture U p h olsterers W in sto n S alem H igh P t, oin X. C . 1 $1. 69 $2. 7 0 $2. 19 U p h o ls te r e r s , c o m p le te w ork 2. 2 4 2. 2 7 1. 3 8 U p h o ls te r e r s , se c tio n w ork 1. 8 3 2. 18 1. 2 2 U p h o ls te r e r s , chairs $1. 14 1In rm tio c n o b p se te by typ o w rk fo a n a n t e re n d e f o . Upholsterers in retail and custom shops are usually paid a weekly wage or salary. In many of the retail shops the owner does the upholstering. Fur Manufacturing Occupations At one time the whole process of manufacturing fur garments was carried on by furriers, skilled craftsmen who tanned and dyed the furs, and sewed them together into fur garments. Nowa days the different steps in the process are usually handled by specialists. Fur dressing and dyeing plants employ fleshers and blenders to prepare the furs for further use. Fur-garment manufacturing plants employ such skilled craftsmen as cutters and finishers, and other semiskilled workers to make up the furs into finished coats and other garments. Some fur coats are still made by retail custom fur riers, but most are made by manufacturing estab lishments which sell their output to stores. A ll round furriers are employed in retail shops to do custom work and to repair and remodel fur garments. Most of the fur dressing and dyeing and the manufacture of fur garments is carried on in small establishments located in New York City, which is the recognized center of the fur industry. Retail fur shops and department stores employing fur riers are found in localities all over the country, but most of them are located in northern areas. Fur work has usually been subject to seasonal ups and downs because most people buy fur coats in the period between August and the end of Janu ary. Fur employment reaches its peak in the fall, and in most years there has been widespread un employment of fur workers in the first few months of the year. Fur manufacturing is also greatly affected by changes in general business activity. Fur garments are greatly in demand in prosperous periods, but sales fall off very sharply when slumps occur. Fleshers (Fur Dressing) ( D . O . T . 7 - 1 3 .7 1 2 ) Outlook Summary In the long run, employment should be steadier than it lias been in the past. For the most part, openings in the next few years limited to replace ments for those who leave the trade. Nature of Work The flesher pulls fur skins back and forth across a stationary knife or a revolving blade, to scrape from the inside o f the pelts the thin film of tissue which must be removed to allow the tan ning chemicals to work efficiently. Fleshing is a very delicate operation— one that requires con siderable skill and dexterity. Any excessive pres sure on the keen-edged flesher’s knife will cut through the hair roots embedded in the skin and damage the fur. Except for the substitution of 320 the revolving blade for the stationary knife to facilitate the handling of some of the cheaper skins, fleshing has not changed much since ancient times. From time to time fur dressers have experi mented with the use of automatic fleshing ma chines. But manual methods— calling for a high degree of skill— are still in general use, and are likely to' continue, since many types o f skins can not be fleshed by machine without injury to the fur. Wh e re Employed Fleshers work for fur dressers, or fur dressers and dyers, nearly all of whom are located in New York City and vicinity. Over 90 percent o f all furs are dressed and dyed in the New York City area, the remainder in St. Louis, Chicago, and other cities where there is sufficient fur-trading. FUR M A N U F A C T U R IN G How to Qualify as a Flesher There is no organized apprenticeship system in the fur dressing and dyeing industry, but in order to qualify as a journeyman, the flesher must have several years of training on the job. It is difficult, however, for newcomers to get training and ex perience in this trade, since the union to which fleshers belong, the International Fur and Leather Workers (C IO ), limits the number admitted to membership. This policy was adopted by the Union because the trade is small and easily over crowded and because the unstable and seasonal nature of the industry has resulted in unemploy ment and low incomes for fur workers in less prosperous times. Outlook During the next few years not many fleshers will be needed in addition to the estimated 2,000 now employed. As long as times are prosperous, fur dressers will continue to do a good business and there will be plenty of work for those already in the industry. However, any further expansion is unlikely. O C C U P A T IO N S 321 The long-range employment outlook for flesh ers is affected by the ever-increasing manufacture of less expensive fur coats, which has broadened the market for furs by including consumers with lower incomes. Further advances in the process ing of inexpensive furs will take a larger part of the fur industry out of the luxury category, and thereby tend to stabilize employment in an indus try that has been subject to extreme fluctuations. Earnings Fleshers are paid piece rates—the amount de pending on the type of fur—but are guaranteed a minimum wage which amounted to $1.50 per hour ($52.50 for a 35-hour week) in union shops in the early part of 1948. However, the average wage greatly exceeds the minimum, and some fleshers receive as much as $175 per week during the busy season. In all but very prosperous times, annual earnings in fur dressing and dyeing have not been unusually high because the work is highly sea sonal. Fleshers usually work part time during the slack season, dividing among themselves what little work there is in the shop. Fur Blenders ( D . O . T . 7 - 1 8 .9 2 1 ) Outlook Summary Openings for new workers limited to a small number of replacements for those who leave the occupation from time to time. No increase in em ployment expected over longer run. Nature of 1York Blenders dye furs by hand, using feathers or very fine brushes. In the most common type of blending, called “ feathering,” the blender dips his feather into a pot of dye and strokes it lightly across the tips of the long overhair until the de sired depth of color is obtained. Pale or off-color pelts of high-priced furs such as sable, marten, fisher, and mink are feather-blended to make them look the same as better-colored skins. Feather blending is also used to simulate the characteristics of rare furs in cheaper skins. Striping—the rul ing in of lines on a fur coat with a brush—is an other form of blending. Muskrat, rabbit, marmot, and other less costly furs are striped to imitate such furs as sable and mink. Formerly all furs were dyed by hand. Grounddyes were brushed over the entire surface of the coat and pounded into the fur with especially adapted beating brushes. Now, since the develop ment o f dyes that are not harmful to the leather, many different types of furs are vat-dyed—that is, simply immersed in a vat filled with dyestuff. Then too, there are brushing or “ topping” ma chines which apply top-dyes mechanically. How ever, in spite of these developments, a great many furs still require the individual attention and care ful treatment that can be given only by the blender’s skillful hands. In this category are the luxurious furs such as mink and sable, and the excellent imitations of these furs created from cheaper skins. 322 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK Where Employed A ll blenders work in fur dressing and dyeing plants. Almost all of the jobs are within the metropolitan area of New York City or in nearby New Jersey. About 90 percent of all furs are dressed and dyed in this vicinity. How to Qualify as a Blender Blenders are usually recruited from the ranks of unskilled or semiskilled workers in the blend ing department or dyehouse. Beginners receive a learner’s wage until they become recognized as full-fledged blenders, but there is no formal ap prenticeship. The trade is difficult to enter. Be cause the fur dressing and dyeing industry is small and its activity seasonal in nature, the union to which blenders belong, the International Fur and Leather Workers (C IO ), seeks to prevent over crowding and unemployment by limiting the num ber of members going into blending work. Outlook The outlook for fur dressing and dyeing is tied up directly to the number of fur coats and acces sories which fur garment manufacturers will turn HANDBOOK out. Since the dressers and dyers don’t expect to do any more business than they did during the booming war years, the prospects of their needing many additional workers are not very good. Re placements will be needed from time to time for blenders who drop out of the trade because of death or retirement. But since the craft is quite small— somewhere around 1,000 workers—the number of future replacements will be limited. Since most o f the blender’s work is on luxury products, his job is less certain than that of his fellow-craftsmen. He has plenty o f work at pres ent because the bulk of the trade is turning out better-grade fur garments. But a depression would mean a shift to relatively cheap furs, mostly vat-dyed, or top-dyed with brushing machines, and thus less work for the blender. Earnings Blenders are paid piece rates. However, they were guaranteed at least $1.50 an hour in the union contracts in force during the early part of 1948. Although average hourly earnings greatly exceed $1.50, frequent lay-offs have made annual earn ings rather low in all but very good years. Fur Craftsmen (Manufacturing) ( D . O . T . 4 - 2 1 .1 1 0 and Outlook Summary Job opportunities for only a few additional workers, to replace those who leave the trades be cause of death or retirement. In the long run, prospects are good for employment above the pre war levels and for more stable employment condi tions than have prevailed in the past. Nature of Work Cutters, sewing machine operators, nailers, and finishers are the four principal craftsmen in furgarment manufacturing. About four out of every five workers in shops which turn out ready-made fur clothing are members of one of these crafts. As a team they do the job that was once done in its entirety by the traditional old-time furrier. Most highly skilled of these specialized fur workers is the cutter. It is his job to see that the . 2 1 0 ; 6 - 2 1 .1 1 0 and .2 1 0 ) best possible use is made o f the expensive fur. First, he selects enough skins from stock to make up one garment, matching them for size, color, and texture. Then he trims each skin with his razoredged furrier’s knife, stretches it, and lays it out on the coat pattern. The finest furs are allotted to the most conspicuous parts of the coat such as the front, sleeves, and collar, and the poorer ones to places where they are less noticeable. When the lay-out is complete, the cutter shapes the fur pieces so that they may be assembled into a garment. The sewing machine operator sews the skins to gether into sections of a coat, by means of a powerdriven fur-joining machine that sews an overcast stitch. Later on he closes the coat—that is, joins the sections, attaches the collar, and assembles the sleeves into the body of the garment. Fur sections go from the sewing machine opera tor to the nailer, who fits them to the pattern of FUR M A N U F A C T U R IN G the coat. The nailer chalks an outline from a paper pattern on a board surface, dampens the skin side of the fnr with a wet brush, and places the fur (with the skin side up) over the chalk outline. One edge of the coat section is nailed along the border and the fur is stretched, by hand or with pliers, to cover the outline. Kemaining edges are nailed to the table, and the skins are allowed to dry in this stretched position. Once the coat sections are dry, they are squared—trimmed to the exact measurements of the pattern—by either the nailer or a squarer. Then they are sent back to the sew ing machine operator for closing. Student learning fur cutting in vocational school Now the coat is ready for the finishers, who per form the tasks necessary to complete the garment, such as cutting, fitting, and sewing in linings, in serting shoulder pads, and attaching buttons. Some of the finishing work is done by sewing machine, some of it by hand. Where Emyloiged Most of the jobs are located in New York City, O C C U P A T IO N S 323 where over 80 percent of our fur clothing is made. A few specialized fur workers are found in retail fur shops, fur alteration and repair sections of de partment stores, specialty shops, and cleaning and storage establishments scattered throughout the country. In most retail establishments, however, all-round workmen known as furriers perform several or all of the operations involved in the manufacture, repair, and restyling of fur gar ments. Training and Qualifications The fur worker learns his craft on the job. but there is no organized or formal apprenticeship program. The length of the training period de pends upon the learner’s previous experience (he is often chosen from the unskilled workers in the shop) and upon his aptitude for the work. Cut ters usually qualify for work on inexpensive furs in about 2 }T ears. But before they can be trusted with very expensive skins, they must have several years of additional experience. The same thing holds true for other fur workers, except that the learning period is shorter. Finishers are often al ready skilled in needlework when they go into fur work, but must have additional training. Many learners go to school in the evening. The Central High School of Needle Trades in New York City (a vocational school) has a department dealing specifically with fur work. Entrance into the fur crafts is difficult. Since the fur industry is small and seasonal in nature, the union to which the workers belong, the Inter national Fur and Leather Workers (C IO ), tries to prevent overcrowding and resulting unemploy ment by limiting the number of new members en tering the fur trades. For example, no new mem bers are admitted if there is any unemployment in the industry. Outlook On the whole, the war and early postwar years have been very prosperous ones for the fur indus try. Temporary set-backs have occurred, but throughout most of this period fur sales have been maintained at all-time high levels. I f business conditions remain favorable and consumers' in comes high, employment in the fur industry should hold up pretty well in the next several years. No 324 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK increases in employment are expected over the cur rent levels, however, and any job openings will be limited to the replacement of workers who die or retire. Since the industry is small, these vacancies will be few. There are probably not over 15,000 fur craftsmen— approximately 2,500 cutters, 5,000 sewing-machine operators, 2,500 nailers, and 5,000 finishers—plus about 3,000 less skilled floor workers. The long-run indications are that employment of fur workers should remain above the prewar levels. There will probably be slumps, just as there have been in the past. But barring severe and prolonged depressions, these ups and downs— which seem to be chronic with the fur business— need not have any permanent effect on employment opportunities. By the same token, another de pression would hit the fur industry hard. The fur trade is an extremely sensitive barometer of general business conditions. When times are bad, furs (along with other luxury goods) are one of the first things to be scratched from the shopping list. In the long run, the fur industry will continue to benefit by the ever-increasing production of inexpensive fur garments— a trend that has been evident for the past 30 years. Improvements in dressing and dyeing techniques have brought forth HANDBOOK inexpensive furs (such as mouton-dyed lamb) which are both durable and attractive. Such furs are making customers out of women who never before have bought fur coats. But even more im portant, they mean steadier business—less trouble with ups and downs in the fur trade which always follow the rise and fall of prosperity throughout the country. As a result, although no increases in employment for fur workers are expected, they should have more regular employment—both from year to year, and from season to season—than they experienced in past years. Earnings As of the early part of 1948, first-grade cutters were guaranteed a minimum of $75 for a 35-hour week by union contract, first-grade operators $64, and first-grade nailers $59. Second-grade cutters (those working on cheaper skins) were guaranteed $64, operators and nailers $54. The minimum for finishers was $53. Average weekly earnings are much higher; very few work for the minimum. B eca u se o f the e x c e p tio n a lly la r g e d e m a n d f o r fu r s , th ere has been co m p a r a tiv e ly little seasonal u n em p loy m en t d u r in g the p ast severa l years. H o w e v e r , in o r d in a r y tim es a ll b u t a fe w h ig h ly sk ille d fu r w o rk e rs h ave been u n e m p lo y e d f o r sev eral m on th s ou t o f the year. Furriers (Retail Trade) ( D . O . T . 4 - 2 1 .0 1 0 ) Outlook Summary O p p o r tu n itie s g o o d in n e x t several yea rs b u t o p e n in g s w id e ly scattered . O v e r the lo n g e r ru n reta il fu r r ie r s sh o u ld find stead y em p loy m en t. Nature of the Work lish m en ts, he m a y co n cen tra te on th e w o r k re q u ir in g the m ost sk ill, such as c u ttin g a n d d e sig n in g (i. e., m o d ify in g e x is tin g d esign s o r p a t t e r n s ). A p p r e n tic e s , learners, a n d oth er p a r tly tr a in e d w ork e rs m a y w o r k u n d er the su p e rv isio n o f th e m a ster fu r rie r. Of th e fu r r ie r s in re ta il tra d e , som ew h ere I n retail establish m en ts, th ere are n ot m a n y a rou n d h a lf are e m p lo y e d in d ep a rtm e n t stores and s p ecia lized cra ftsm e n such as are fo u n d in the o th e r reta il ou tlets f o r re a d y -m a d e f u r g a rm en ts m a n u fa ctu rin g p la n ts w h ich tu rn out re a d y -m a d e w h ich keep a staff o f f u r w o rk e rs f o r a ltera tion s, fu r ga rm en ts f o r sale to stores. rep a irs, and the re m o d e lin g o f fu r g a rm en ts. fu r cr a fts m e n .) (S ee statem ent on F u r rie r s in the retail sh ops are The oth ers are fo u n d in re ta il f u r sh op s w h ich m a ke a ll-a ro u n d cra ftsm e n ca p a b le o f cu ttin g fu r s , o p som e f u r ga rm en ts to ord er. e ra tin g a s e w in g m a ch in e, n a ilin g , a n d fin ish in g . ow n ers o r m a n agers o f sh ops, w h ich th e y u su a lly M a n y o f th em are the I n the sm aller sh op , the fu r r ie r a ctu a lly p e r fo r m s run un assisted o r w ith a sm all staff. a ll o f these v a rio u s op e ra tio n s. b e r o f fu r sh op s are d e v o te d a lm ost e x c lu siv e ly I n la r g e r estab A la r g e n u m FUR M A N U F A C T U R IN G to fur-garment repair and to cleaning and storage services; others sell fur coats, both factory-made and custom-made. Whether he works in a fur shop, department store, or elsewhere, the furrier in retail trade spends more of his time altering, repairing, and restyling old garments than he does in the manu facture of new fur garments. Formerly all fur coats were made to order by the custom furrier. But now most of the fur coats sold by the so-called custom furrier are ready-made garments, produced by New York manufacturers. Where the Jobs Are Located Fur workers in retail trade are scattered all over the country. But employment is concentrated in large cities, since it is there that the fur shops, department stores, and other retail outlets are mostly located. Because of climate, clothing habits, and more money for such luxuries, people who live in the Northeast and Midwest are the best fur garment customers. As a result, stores featur ing fur garments are most numerous in this part of the country. Ilow To Qualify as a Furrier One who wishes to qualify as a retail furrier must obtain several years of experience in an estab lished shop. The learner usually begins with un skilled work, graduates to skilled operations, and shifts from one job to' another until (usually after a period of 4 or 5 years) he has acquired the versatility of a master furrier. The training period can be shortened if the learner has the opportunity to take related courses in evening school. Trade schools in the larger cities throughout the country offer needlecraft courses which are sometimes good as a back ground, but do not offer direct training for fur workers. The Central High School o f Needle Trades in New York City is the only vocational school that has a department dealing specifically with fur work. This school has all the facilities of a fur workshop and an experienced staff of instructors. In addition, New York University offers courses on furs and fur merchandising which are especially valuable to apprentices or learners in the retail end of fur work. There are a few nonunion retail fur shops, but 793996°—49---- 22 O C C U P A T IO N S 325 for the most part the trade is highly unionized. To prevent overcrowding and unemployment in this small trade the union to which the furriers belong, the International Fur and Leather Work ers Union (C IO ), limits the number of new mem bers it takes in. Outlook Over the past 50 years, the bulk of fur-coat manufacturing shifted from the retail furrier to the manufacturer of ready-made garments, and the number of furriers in retail trade declined. There are probably not more than 15,000 furriers (all-round, skilled workers). It is not likely, how ever, that the trade will decline any further. There will always be a need for the services of the local furrier. Fur garments have to be repaired, al tered, remodeled, and cleaned. Moreover, many women prefer custom-made fur coats. Retail fur work offers more chances for immedi ate employment than any other branch of the fur industry. It is not that retail furriers expect to be any busier than they were during the war and thus need additional workers. Like the whole sale manufacturers, their business has been good since shortly before the war but is not likely to get any better. The reason is that outside of the New York City area there was a wartime scarcity of all round furriers and skilled specialists. New people could not be trained overnight, so many fur shops and department stores had to hire seamstresses or tailors to do their fur work, under a furrier’s super vision. Others simply stopped offering fur service, or sent remodeling and repair work to New York. Now that workers who might be trained are more plentiful, retailers want to correct temporary war time measures. Consequently, there are reason ably good opportunities throughout the country, although the openings are widely scattered. Earnings Furriers employed by retail fur shops and de partment stores in New York City make at least $75 a week but the majority earn considerably more. Earnings in smaller cities are somewhat lower. The income of the retail furrier who owns his shop depends upon such factors as his ability, both as a craftsman and as a businessman, his clientele, and local economic conditions. 326 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK Since the fur retailing business is seasonal in nature, annual earnings are not as large as the high weekly wages would indicate. However, be cause of the diversified nature of his work—which includes manufacturing, repairing, remodeling, etc.—the fur worker in retail trade is more steadily employed throughout the year than craftsmen HANDBOOK located in wholesale manufacturing houses. More over, in contrast to New York City, many sections of the country rarely ever have a surplus of skilled fur labor. Consequently, quite a few retail estab lishments retain their skilled fur workers on a yearly basis, giving them paid vacations and parttime work during the slack periods. Railroad Occupations Importance o f Railroads The railroad industry is one of the giants of American enterprise, with around 1y2 million workers and a vast network of lines connecting all parts of the United States. Railroads carry more freight and passengers and employ more people than all other intercity transportation agencies combined. They have more workers than are em ployed in automobile plants or in factories mak ing all kinds of clothing and other finished textile products; half again as many as are engaged in all types o f mining. In an industry as large as this, thousands of job openings arise each year as workers die, retire, or transfer to other fields of work. Openings occur in every State, in the great number of communi ties of all sizes which are served by the railroads. These jobs are so varied that people with very different interests and personalities can find satis factory positions in railroading. Regardless of the occupation they enter, however, new workers must expect to start out at the bottom of the ladder and to work up slowly as they prove tlieir ability and acquire seniority with the company. The Railroad Industry The big, well-known railroads are all in the group known technically as class I line-haul rail ways. There are 135 companies in this group, each with over $1,000,000 of revenue a year and lines connecting two or more cities or towns. In 1947, these roads employed, on the average, 1,350,000 workers, about 88 percent o f all the employees in the railroad industry. Besides the class I roads, there are about 350 smaller line-haul railways and over 200 switching and terminal companies. (“ Switching” is moving cars about in the yards as needed when trains are being made up or broken up.) The small line-haul railroads have about 18,000 employees, the switch ing and terminal companies about 63,000—alto gether, only 5 percent of the workers in the in dustry. Other employers in the industry are the Railway Express Agency and the Pullman Com pany. To outsiders, carrying passengers may seem to be the most important function of the railroads. The railroader knows, however, that freight busi ness brings in far more revenue. In 1947, 81 per cent of all class I railroad revenues were from freight and only 11 percent from passenger traffic. The remaining revenue came from mail, express, and various other sources. Railway lines spread over the country like a giant web, connecting every State and city and thousands upon thousands of towns and villages. Chicago is the hub of the Nation’s railroad net work. Here, the great eastern and western sys tems meet, and connections are made also with routes to the north and south. New York City ranks second as a railroad center, but had only 29,000 railroad workers in 1940 compared with Chicago’s 46,000. Other important railroad cities are, in the East, Philadelphia, Buffalo, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, and Jersey City; in the Midwest, St. Louis, Cleveland, Detroit, Minneapolis, and St. P aul; in the South, Louisville; and on the Pacific coast, Los Angeles. These 14 major centers, with their large stations, yards, and company main offices, had about 185,000 workers in 1940. This, however, was only one-sixth of the total number of railroad employees. Five States—Pennsyl vania, Illinois, New York, Ohio, and California— had about two-fifths of all railroad employees in 1940. Railroad Occupations L o c o m o tiv e en gin eers a n d tru ck lab orers, ca r rep a irm en a n d teleg ra p h ers, station agen ts a n d clerk s are but a fe w o f the m a n y d ifferen t k in d s o f w ork ers n eed ed to ru n a b ig ra ilro a d . C h a r t 45 sh ow s h o w m a n y person s w ere e m p lo y e d in these a n d a n u m ber o f o th e r r a ilr o a d o ccu p a tio n s in 327 328 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K CHART 45 B R A K E M E N , CLERKS, AND SECTIO N MEN A RE G R O U P S OF R A I L R O A D W O R K E R S LARGEST E M P L O Y M E N T IN S E L E C T E D OCCUPATIONS ON C L A S S I RAILROADS. 1947 THOU SANDS T R A IN AND E N G IN E S E R V I C E 0 50 OF WORKERS 100 150 Brakemen Firemen Engineers and Motormen Conductors Hostlers and Helpers Road Passenger Baggagemen Switchtenders O F F IC E , COM MUNICATION, AND STATION Clerks Telegraphers,Telephoners, and Towermen Station Agents M A IN T E N A N C E OF E Q U IP M E N T Helpers, all skilled trades Carmen Machinists Boilermakers Apprentices, all skilled trades Sheet Metal Workers Blacksmiths M A IN T E N A N C E OF WAY AND S T R U C T U R E S Section Men Extra Gang Men Bridge and Building Skilled Workers Helpers, Apprentices, Assistants Signalmen U N IT E D STATES D E P A R TM E N T OF LA B O R BU R EA U OF L A B O R ST A TIST IC S Source: IN T ER ST A TE C O M M E RC E C O M M IS S IO N R A IL R O A D O C C U P A T IO N S 1947. The occupations shown were selected from the much longer list of all railroad jobs because of their importance to people considering a career in railroading. They include the largest railroad occupations and several smaller ones in which the outlook is particularly favorable or which are of special interest for other reasons. The train and engine service workers, shown at the top of the chart, are the men who operate trains on the road and make up and break up trains in the yards; a few do related work. Maintenanceof-equipment workers, another large group, are responsible mainly for keeping freight and pas senger cars and locomotives in good running order. Employees in the maintenance-of-way and struc tures department have to keep the track and road bed in good condition and repair bridges, stations, and other buildings. Other major occupational groups are office, communication, and station work ers and service employees. Practically all the workers in train and engineservice occupations and maintenance jobs are men (except for a few women taken on as “ trainmen” during the war and some who work as cleaners). Even in clerical jobs men predominate, though in many other industries most of the clerical work is done by women. Negroes are not often found in skilled jobs. There are a couple of thousand Negro brakemen and firemen in the South and some Negro helpers in the shop crafts, but very few have been promoted to higher-grade positions. On the other hand, most of the workers in service occupations such as cooks and waiters are Negroes. Besides the occupations mentioned so far, rail roads have a great variety of other jobs—ranging from top executive and professional positions to unskilled laundry and cleaning jobs. Sizable numbers of workers are employed as foremen, ste nographers and secretaries, switchboard operators, watchmen, claim agents and investigators, truck drivers, power linemen, stationary firemen and en gineers, and crossing and bridge flagmen. Many of these types of workers are of course found also in other industries; their duties on the railroads are very similar to those of comparable workers elsewhere. 329 Outlook The number of workers employed on railroads will probably tend to decrease over the long run. The downward trend in employment is likely to be very slow, however, provided that general eco nomic conditions remain good. From time to time, short-run factors such as cuts in working hours may interrupt this trend and lead to employment increases. The main reason for anticipating declining rail road employment is the prospect of further tech nological advances in the industry. The outlook for freight traffic, which provides the bulk of rail road business, is good; this type of traffic may even increase slightly over the long run. Passenger traffic will probably have a slow downward trend, except when there may be temporary offsetting factors such as expanded military travel. In any case, the number of workers needed to handle a given amount of traffic is likely to decline slowly but steadily, as in the past. The increasing productivity of railroad labor has been the result of many improvements in rail road equipment and methods of operation, includ ing the introduction o f more powerful locomotives which can haul longer trains at higher speeds; development of cars, rails, and other equipment, which are more durable and need fewer repairs; introduction of machinery in maintenance-of-way work; improved communication and signaling systems; and mechanization of office work. Some new jobs have been created as a result of these innovations. But in every case the net effect has been to decrease the number of workers needed to handle a given amount of traffic. In 1947, rail roads carried almost half again as many revenue ton-miles and passenger-miles as in 1929 with about four-fifths as many employees. Technological developments will have a much greater effect on employment opportunities in some railroad occupations than others, as indicated in the statements on different railroad occupations in this handbook. For a few occupational groups (for example, signal workers and electricians) em ployment may even tend to increase. The outlook in different occupations will also be affected by other special factors. In the near future, for example, the larger-than-normal backlog of main 330 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK tenance and improvement work needing to be done on railroad equipment, road bed, and structures will probably mean especially favorable employ ment opportunities for workers in the maintenance-of-equipment and maintenance-of-way de partments. Because the total number of workers employed by the railroads is so great, there will be many thousands of job openings each year owing to deaths, retirements, and transfers to other fields of work. I f there should be a major business re cession and therefore a sharp drop in railroad traffic and employment, the number of job oppor tunities for newcomers would of course be drasti cally reduced, since furloughed workers have first claim on any job openings arising in their seniority districts. Even in bad years, however, conditions in the industry are likely to vary considerably from one part of the country to another and there may be openings for newcomers in some occupa tions and areas where there do not happen to be furlough lists. Earnings and Working Conditions The wages paid for an hour's work differ widely from one railroad occupation to another, depend ing on the degree of skill and length of experience required, the amount of responsibility for safe and efficient railroad operation involved in the job, and many other factors. O f the occupational groups covered in this handbook, the one with the lowest hourly wage rate is redcaps. The union rate for most men in this occupation was $0.91 an hour in early 1948; however, this figure excludes tips. The highestpaid group for which hourly earnings information is available is supervisory and chief clerks in ma jor departments; these men had average straighttime earnings of about $1.85 an hour in Decem ber 1947. Rates remained about the same at least until September 1948 in these and other occupations for which data on December 1947 earnings are given in the following occupational reports. Most railroad workers are on an 8-hour day and HANDBOOK a 48-hour week. This is the usual work schedule for employees in the yards, in station and commu nication jobs, in the car and locomotive shops, and in maintenance-of-way work. For overtime above these limits, workers generally receive premium pay at one and one-half times their regular hour ly rates. The rules governing the length o f the workday for train and engine crews in road freight and pas senger service are complex. In general, when a specified number of miles have been traveled or hours of work have been completed—whichever happens first—a full day’s pay is considered to have been earned. Any extra work beyond that point is paid for at regular hourly or mileage rates. Since railroads function 24 hours a day, many employees (usually those with least seniority) must work at night. Rates of pay for night work are the same as for day work. A substantial majority of railroad workers are covered by collective agreements. For the most part they are organized on a craft or occupational basis. Contracts between the unions and the rail road companies regulate wage rates, hours of work, seniority, and many other matters affecting railroad jobs. The principal unions representing the occupational groups covered in the handbook are listed in the separate statements. Where to Go for Jobs and Additional Information Job seekers may apply to the railroad officials listed in the individual statements on each occu pation. These officials can be located by inquiring at local railroad stations. People interested in obtaining additional information on railroading may read: Henry, R. S. This Fascinating Railroad Busi ness. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1946. Holbrook, S. H. The Story of American Rail roads. New Y ork: Crown Publishers, 1947. Van Metre, T. W. Trains, Tracks, and Travel. New York: Simons-Boardman Publishing Corp.. 1946. R A IL R O A D O C C U P A T IO N S 331 Locomotive Firemen and Helpers (D.O.T. 5-42.100) Outlook Summary Moderate numbers of openings for newcomers in near future. Slight downward trend in em ployment likely in long run. Nature of Work Firemen work as members of engine crews in yard, freight, and passenger service. Keeping a lookout for signals and for obstructions on the track is an important part of a fireman’s job; he, as well as the engineer, is held responsible for any accident due to failure to observe signals. On hand-fired locomotives, he must also properly dis tribute coal into the firebox, by shovel. However, all locomotives of this type (except small ones, used to a decreasing extent as switching engines) will soon be replaced by mechanically stoked, or Diesel or other oil-burning engines. On locomo tives of the latter types, the firemen (sometimes known as “helpers” )'can control the supply of fuel by watching gages and adjusting valves. Helpers also assist in operating electric locomotives. Qualifications, Training, and Where Employed Applicants are generally required to be not younger than 21 nor older than 27. They should usually have completed high school and must pass rigid physical examinations. Good eyesight and hearing are essential. Some men begin as laborers in engine houses or shops, where locomotives are repaired, and then go into fireman positions. A new fireman must make trial trips for a brief period lasting only 10 days or even less on some roads, up to 3 weeks on others. After this, he al most always begins on the “ extra board” (a pool of men who do not have regular assignments) in yard work, taking assignments in order as men are needed. He may remain on extra work for several months and then obtain a regular assign ment in yard work. After some time he usually moves to a regular assignment in freight service and eventually to passenger service where hourly pay is highest. Some men, however, prefer to re main in yard service, where they have a chance to live a more regular home life than do men in road service (who often have to be away from their home terminals overnight). While on the job, a fireman must be constantly absorbing the knowledge and obtaining the skills which will make him eligible for a locomotive engineer’s job. At specified intervals, he is ex pected to take progressive examinations on engine machinery, air brakes, fuel economy, timetables, train orders, and other operating rules. I f he fails to pass after several tries, he is sometimes dis missed. A fireman may qualify as an engineer in 3 or 4 years, but as a rule he has to wait much longer than that for his first engineer assignment. Before the war it often took 10 to 15 years or even longer for a fireman to become an engineer. Outlook There will probably be moderate numbers of job openings for newcomers in this occupation in the near future. The total number of firemen em ployed is not expected to increase; however, in this group of more than 60,000 employees, a few thou sand men quit, are promoted, or leave for other reasons each year and must be replaced. When ever there are men on furlough (owing to seasonal lay-offs and other factors), these workers have first claim on any openings that arise. Immedi ately after the war, many roads had to furlough firemen because of falling traffic and the need to make room for returning veterans, but most of these men have now been rehired, or have taken other jobs. There will therefore be room in the near future for a good many people without “ fir ing” experience. The best prospects for employ ment as student firemen are for men already work ing for railroads in other jobs and those whose fathers or other relatives are railroaders. Over the long run, employment of firemen will tend to decrease, although cuts in working hours may at times offset this trend. Increasing use of Diesels or other powerful new engines will cut 332 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK down employment of firemen, because the same amount o f traffic can be hauled with fewer engine crews, especially in mountainous areas where steam “ helper” engines and crews can be eliminated. Since new types of engines are introduced gradu ally, the resulting decrease in the number of fire men needed will come about slowly—very slowly indeed on many roads, somewhat faster on others. Provided general business activity re mains at high levels, it is likely that lay-offs of firemen will be only temporary in most cases. A major decline in business activity, however, would lead to a marked drop in railroad traffic and there fore in the number of firemen needed. Earnings and Working Conditions Firemen in yard service had average straighttime earnings o f around $1.33 to $1.35 an hour in September 1948. Freight and passenger firemen generally have higher take-liome pay than yard firemen. HANDBOOK In both yard and road service, the newer workers who are on extra boards tend to have less work and lower incomes than men with more seniority who have regular runs. The working hours of men on extra boards are very irregular. Often, they have to work at night and on Sundays and holidays. Firemen are covered by union contracts on all major railroads. They are represented mainly by the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen. Where to A pply for Jobs Men seeking jobs as student firemen may apply at the nearest road foremen's office. Those inter ested in laborer jobs that may help them to get preference for future openings as firemen may apply to roundhouse foremen or master me chanics. See also Locomotive Engineers, page 332, and Hostlers (Railroads), page 336. Locomotive Engineers (D.O.T. 5-41.010) Outlook Summary Engineer jobs filled only by promotion o f quali fied firemen, on a strict seniority basis. Promo tions likely to be slow. Nature o f W ork The main duties of a locomotive engineer are operating the controls of a steam, Diesel, or electric locomotive and keeping a constant lookout for signals and for obstructions on the track. He also directs, as necessary, the work of the fireman, checks the locomotive at the beginning and end of each run, and performs related tasks. Most locomotive engineers—about 57,000 in 1947— are employed by class I railroads. A few work for small railroads and switching and ter minal companies. Line o f Promotion When a fireman is promoted to engineer he usu ally begins on the yard extra board, later gets a yard switching assignment, and then moves on to road freight or passenger service. Men with great est seniority, who have their choice of available jobs, are frequently found on the new Diesel loco motives. Some oldtimers, however, prefer to re main on older steam engines where the work is more exciting. A very few engineers in road serv ice may work up to supervisory positions such as road foreman. Outlook Positions as engineers are generally filled by pro motion of qualified firemen on a strict seniority basis. Dur jng the war, the great increase in traffic and the loss of some engineers to the armed forces led to much faster promotions than in the prewar period, when firemen usually had to wait many years for an engineer assignment. With the drop in traffic and the return of servicemen since VJday, promotions have slowed down. They will probably continue to be slow over the long run, since employment of engineers is expected to have a downward trend and openings will arise mainly as a result of deaths and retirements. R A IL R O A D O C C U P A T IO N S 333 Men who accumulate enough seniority to be come engineers have much job security as long as they are able to pass the physical examinations re quired at regular intervals. However, if there should be a major recession in general business ac tivity leading to a sharp decline in railroad traffic, engineers on extra boards would be likely to have less work and lower earnings and some of the jun ior men might have to become firemen again. Earnings and Working Conditions Yard engineers had average straight-time hour ly earnings of about $1.54 in December 1947. Freight and passenger engineers generally have higher take-home pay then yard engineers. On most roads the engineers are represented by the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers; on some by the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen. See also Locomotive Firemen and Helpers, page 331. Engineer at controls of steam locomotive. Brakemen (Railroads) (D.O.T. 5-38.010) Outlook Summary A good many openings for newcomers in near future. Employment will probably decline slightly over long run. Nature of Work The occupation of brakemen is by far the largest one in the train and engine service group. In 1947, about 115,000 men were employed in this occupa tion on class I roads; a few thousand more worked for switching railways and other companies. Brakemen are employed in freight, passenger, and yard service. Both freight and passenger trains generally carry rear brakemen (or “flag men” ), whose main duty is to protect the rear end o f trains from being run into during stops or delays by signalling with flags, flares, and other devices. Freight trains usually carry at least one other brakeman, whose work includes transmitting signals from one end of the train to the other, making frequent inspections of the train, operat ing hand brakes, and coupling and uncoupling cars and air hose. Passenger brakemen (often known as “trainmen” ) perform many of these same tasks, look after the needs of the passengers, collect tickets, and assist the conductor in other ways. Yard brakemen (frequently known as “ switch men” or “yard helpers” ) assist in making up and breaking np trains, riding on the cars as they are shunted about the yard. Qualifications and Advancement Applicants are generally required to be not younger than 18 (21 on some railroads) nor older than 28 or 30. They should usually have com pleted high school and must pass rigid physical examinations. Student brakemen must make two or three trial trips without pay. After this brief trial period, they usually start out on the extra board (a pool of men who do not have regular assignments). From the extra board, they move to other assignments in the same way as firemen do. To qualify as a conductor, a brakeman needs at least 2 or 3 years’ experience and has to pass writ 334 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK ten and oral examinations covering signals, time tables, brake systems, operating rules, and other subjects; those failing to qualify after several tries are generally dismissed. Promotions are made ac cording to seniority rules, as openings occur, and a man may have to wait 10, 15, or possibly even 20 years to become a conductor. Brakemen may also bid for baggagemen jobs, and, on most roads, may transfer from yard work to road freight service and eventually to passenger work—which is generally considered the most de sirable, since it is cleaner and less strenuous and usually involves shorter working hours. Occa sionally, men prefer to stay in yard service to avoid the many nights away from home which may be necessary on road freight and passenger runs. A few others wish to stay in freight service, where they do not have to “ dress up” in uniform and cater to passengers. HANDBOOK ers leaving the occupation each year is reported to be somewhat higher than in the case of firemen. Where there are men on furlough because of sea sonal or other factors, they have first claim on any openings that arise in their seniority districts. But as of early 1948, there were few furloughed brakemen awaiting reinstatement; most of those laid off during the first postwar year, because of the drop in rail traffic or the need to make room for returning servicemen, had been rehired or had taken other jobs. Most job openings in the near future will, therefore, be filled by men with no pre vious braking experience. Young men who come from railroad families or who already work for the railroads in other occupations will generally be given preference for jobs. Employment of brakemen will probably de crease over the long-run, although reductions in hours worked may at times have a counteracting effect. Introduction of improved methods of handling yard traffic, including radio telephone communications between yardmasters and crews, will reduce the number of yard brakemen needed to handle a given amount of traffic. Longer trains with heavier loads, made possible by the use of improved locomotives and cars, will cut the num ber of road brakemen needed to handle a given amount of tonnage. Since these improvements will be introduced gradually, any decrease in employ ment of brakemen will come about slowly; how ever, the rate of decrease will vary considerably among different railroads. As long as general economic conditions remain good, it is likely that lay-offs of brakemen will be only temporary in most cases and that many new workers will be taken on in the occupation each year. Earnings and Working Conditions Brakeman giving “ highball” to engineer. Outlook There will probably be a good many job open ings for newcomers in this occupation in the near future. Though the total number of brakemen employed is not expected to increase, the occupa tion is so large that several thousand openings arise each year owing to quits, promotions, and other types of turn-over. The proportion of work Yard brakemen had straight-time average hourly earnings o f about $1.40 in December 1947. Freight and passenger brakemen generally have higher take-home pay than yard brakemen. Newer men who are on extra boards tend to have lower earnings than those with regular assign ments. Brakemen are highly unionized. Most are rep resented by the Brotherhood of Railroad Train men; some by the Order of Railway Conductors, the Switchmen's Union of North America, and other unions. R A IL R O A D Where To Apply for Jobs Men seeking positions as student brakemen, may apply at the nearest division superintendent’s or trainmaster’s office. Those interested in laborer jobs that may help them to get preference for O C C U P A T IO N S 335 future openings for brakemen may apply to round house foremen or master mechanics. See also Baggagemen (Railroads), page 336, Conductors (Railroads), page 335, and Switch Tenders (Railroads), page 337. Conductors (Railroads) (D.O.T. 0-92.00 to .29) Outlook Summary Positions as conductors generally filled by pro motion of qualified brakemen or baggagemen on strict seniority basis. Promotions tend to be slow. Nature of Work Conductors act as “ captains” of trains. They are responsible for the safety of the train and its cargo or passengers, for carrying out all orders regarding the operation of the train, and for the work of all members of the crew. Before a train leaves the terminal, the conductor determines that it has been thoroughly inspected and that all mem bers of the crew understand the train orders. Be tween stops the freight conductor prepares de tailed reports on such items as times of arrival and departure and the numbers of the cars and their contents. On passenger trains the conductor keeps records of passenger traffic and collects tickets and fares. Yard conductors (also called “ yard fore men” ) are in charge of switching crews which make up and break up trains. In 1917 there were about 49,000 conductors working for class I railroads. Like other members of train and engine crews, new conductors usually begin on the extra board (a pool o f men who do not have regular assign ments) and then move successively to regular as signments, to freight service, and finally to pas senger service. It takes many years to reach the top of this ladder, however. Promotion to still higher supervisory or administrative jobs is pos sible for a few experienced and exceptionally able men. baggagemen) on a strict seniority basis. Promo tions to conductor positions, as to engineer jobs, were stepped up during the war, owing to the great increase in traffic and the loss of some conductors to the armed forces. Since the war, promotions have slowed down, with the drop in railroad traffic and the return of veterans to their former jobs. It will probably take many years, in most cases, for brakemen to be promoted to conductors. Em ployment in the occupation is expected to have a slow downward trend; so openings will arise mainly as a result of deaths and retirements. Like engineers, conductors have much job se curity, provided they are able to pass the physical examinations required at regular intervals. Earnings and Working Conditions Outlook As would be expected, conductors generally earn more than any other group of train- and engineservice workers except engineers. In December 1947, average straight-time hourly earnings were $1.47 for yard conductors. Take-home pay for freight and passenger conductors is generally higher than for freight conductors. There are collective-bargaining agreements cov ering conductors on every .major railroad. Freight and passenger conductors are represented by the Order of Railway Conductors on the ma jority of class I roads; on most others by the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen. Yard con ductors are represented by the BRT on most major roads; on some by the ORC or the Switchmen’s Union of North America. Positions as conductors are generally filled by promotion of qualified brakemen (or, in a few cases, See also Brakemen (Railroads), page 333, and Train Baggagemen, page 336. 336 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K Train Baggagemen (D.O.T. 1-43.01) Outlook Summary Openings in this small occupation almost al ways filled by transfers of qualified brakemen on a strict seniority basis. Employment stable. Nature of Work Baggagemen are part of the train crew on pas senger trains which have baggage cars. At rail road stations they receive trunks and other bag gage checked by passengers, articles sent by Rail way Express, and mail bags (unless there is a sep arate mail car). During the run they sort these items and see that each one is delivered at the proper station. Baggagemen keep records of all baggage, express packages, and mail bags received and put off. When a train has to stop on the road, the baggageman may be required to leave his car (which is always near the locomotive) and go forward along the track to protect the train by signaling. How To Enter Positions as baggagemen are filled by transfers of qualified brakemen (or, occasionally, conduc tors) who choose to bid for these jobs, and assign ments are made on a strict seniority basis. The work is considered relatively easy compared to that clone by brakemen. Frequently, the jobs are taken by older men or by those who do not want to as sume the responsibilities of a conductor's position. Outlook Employment in this small occupation remains about the same from month to month and year to year. In 1947 about 4,100 baggagemen were at work on class I roads, only about 200 more than before the war (in 1939) and slightly more than at the war’s peak. In the long run employment will probably re main very stable, assuming that general business conditions remain good. A few openings will arise owing to turn-over, but these will continue to be filled by workers in other train-service jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Baggagemen have a minimum guaranteed monthly rate of about $295. Many of them, how ever, earn considerably more than this amount. The Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen repre sents the baggagemen on most roads, although on a few they have been organized by the Order of Railway Conductors or some other union. See also Brakemen (Railroads), page 333, and Conductors (Railroads), page 335. Hostlers (Railroads) (D.O.T. 5-41.020 and .030) Outlook Summary Hostler jobs are filled only by men with railroad experience; occasional openings for newcomers as helpers. Employment likely to decline slowly over long run. Duties Hostlers take railroad locomotives to the coal dock (or fuel-oil station) for refueling after they have completed runs; supply them with water, lubricating oil and sand; service them in other ways, and deliver them to road engine crews. In side hostlers handle locomotives only inside and around the engine house or on engine tracks at tieup points. Outside hostlers have unrestricted ter ritory within the limits o f the railroad yard; they may have to take locomotives from the station to the engine house or vice versa and must be ac quainted with signal systems used on the main R A IL R O A D tracks. Hostler helpers assist outside hostlers in watching for signals and in other duties. How To Enter Some outside-hostler jobs are filled by men who began as helpers; some inside-hostler posi tions by men with experience as laborers in the engine house. More often, however, both types of jobs are filled by firemen who either prefer work near home to road service or have been disqualified for some reason—often a limited physical disabil ity. There is little chance for advancement to higher positions; in fact, hostling is often called a fixture job. Outlook This is a small occupational group; in 1947, there were about 2,200 outside hostlers, 4,200 inside hostlers, and 1.500 outside hostler helpers working for class I railroads. Only a few openings as hos O C C U P A T IO N S 337 tlers will occur each year, as a result of turn-over, and these will be filled by men with railroad ex perience. There may, however, be occasional openings for outsiders as helpers. Over the years there is likely to be a slight down ward trend in employment, even assuming high traffic levels. Should there be a marked drop in traffic, employment would fall sharply in this as in most other railroad occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions In September 1948 the average straight-time hourly rate for outside hostlers was about $1.39 for inside hostlers, $1.31; and for outside hostler help ers, $1.23. On almost all roads hostlers are covered by the collective-bargaining agreements of the Brother hood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen. See also: Locomotive Firemen and Helpers, page 331. Switch Tenders (Railroads) (D.O.T. 7-44.020) Outlook Summary Outlook Very small occupation offering few if any op portunities to men without railroad experience. Long-run downward trend in employment. About 3,200 switch tenders were employed by class I railroads in 1947. Over the long run em ployment is expected to decrease, owing to replace ment o f hand-operated switches by automatic equipment. The few openings which occur through turn-over will be filled, as a rule, by men with railroad experience. Nature of Work Switch tenders are stationed at fixed points in railroad yards to throw certain track switches. The jobs are almost always filled by men already employed in the yard—often by disabled yard brakemen, since the occupation does not require as much stamina and agility as most yard work. Yard clerks sometimes take switch-tender jobs; from there, advancement to yard brakeman is possible. The majority of switch tenders are employed by the class I line-haul railways; most of the re mainder by switching and terminal companies. Earnings and Working Conditions Switch tenders had average straight-time hourly earnings of $1.23 in December 1947. The Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen repre sents switch tenders on most railroads. However, on some roads the agreements covering them have been negotiated by the Switchmen’s Union of North America or some other organization. See also: Brakemen (Railroads), p. 333. 338 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Telegraphers and Telephoners (Railroads) (D.O.T. 1-41.22) Outlook Summary Job prospects good in immediate future for both experienced telegraphers and newcomers. Longrun employment trend downward. Nature o f Work Telegraphers and telephoners are employed in most stations and many towers. They are re sponsible for receiving train orders from dispatch ers and passing them on to train crews either in written form or by signals, as well as handling all the railroad’s intercity communications that are not handled orally or by mail. Those in stations often have combination jobs involving ticket sell ing and other duties as well as handling of train orders and messages. Telegraphers and tele phoners are employed also as “ block operators,” who control the manually operated block-signal systems which have been installed along many routes. Some of the telegraphers with the great est speed in sending Morse code work in relay offices, which send relay messages regarding reser vations, freight shipments, and other matters to other telegraph offices all over the railroad system. In addition, relay offices employ printer operators, who receive messages by teletype or other kinds of automatic telegraph printing machines. In 1947 the class I roads employed about 15,000 telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen (includ ing printer operators, block operators, and all towermen regardless o f whether or not they were required to do telegraphing or telephoning). In addition, there were about 900 chief telegraphers and telephoners and wire chiefs and 10,000 work ers who combined telegraphing or telephoning with clerical duties in stations. Finally, there were 14,000 station agents whose work involved handling of train orders and messages by tele graph or telephone. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement For positions as student-telegraphers, the rail roads desire young people not over 21 years of age, preferably not more than 18 or even younger. Sometimes girls are hired, but young men are gen erally preferred. The physical examination for telegraphers pertains particularly to eyesight and hearing. A high-school education is required by almost all roads; legible handwriting is necessary. Most student telegraphers receive 6 to 12 months of on-the-job training at a small station, under the supervision of the station agent or of an experi enced telegrapher. They not only learn Morse code but are instructed in such subjects as train orders, operating rules, routes, rates, and accounts. Less often, beginners start by taking a course (which generally lasts 6 months) at a railroad telegraph school and then spend 2 or 3 months “ cubbing” at a station. For men with previous telegraphic experience, the training period may be shorter. On many roads, trainees have to pass a written or oral examination on train and operating rules and a practical test on code speed and han dling of train orders in order to qualify for a teleg rapher job. Newly qualified telegraphers usually begin as extra workers and then bid for regular assign ments. The men with greatest seniority have first chance at the shifts they prefer and at the various kinds of jobs within their seniority district (which, for most telegraphers, is the railroad division). They may bid not only on straight operator and block-operator jobs but also on towermen, teleg rapher-clerk, and telegrapher-station-agent posi tions. Later on, they may work up to such posi tions as station agent in a major station, dis patcher, or wire chief. Employment Prospects Employment opportunities are expected to be good in this occupation in the immediate future— better than in most other railroad jobs. A critical shortage of telegraphers developed during the war. and since VJ-clay, the railroads have continued to have difficulty in recruiting enough workers. There are openings for both students and experi enced telegraphers and telephoners in most parts R A IL R O A D of the country, though the need is more severe on some roads than others. Telegraphers or telephoners who are now on the pay roll or who take jobs in the near future should have a good chance of holding their jobs indefi nitely, provided that railroad traffic remains fairly high. The downward trend of employment ex pected in the occupation over the long run will probably not be sharp enough to cause heavy, pro longed lay-offs, though some of the many hundreds of workers who die, retire, or leave for other rea sons every year will not be replaced. Among the factors which have in the past reduced the number of Morse telegraphers needed and will continue to do so in the future are the use of telephone in place of telegraph in train dispatching and the introduc tion of teletype machines in relay offices. Workers in the telegrapher craft receive preference for tele phones and teletype jobs, however, and these de velopments therefore tend to change the nature of the work done by some men rather than to elim inate many positions. As centralized traffic con trol systems are introduced, they do cut out some telegrapher and telephoner jobs, but these installa tions are likely to be spread out over a number of years. What the effects of radiotelephone will be upon railway communication jobs is not yet clear. Many railroad officials believe, however, that telegraphers or telephoners will always be needed regardless of radio. The picture would of course be quite different if there should be a sharp decline in general busi ness activity and therefore in railroad traffic. Un der these circumstances, lay-offs would no doubt be necessary, as they were during the thirties, and there would be few opportunities for new work ers—of whom at least a thousand or two are needed in good years, owing to turn-over. Earnings and Working Conditions Clerk-telegraphers and telephoners had average straight-time earnings of $1.25 an hour in Decem ber 1947. Station-agent-telegraphers and tele phoners had about the same average rate ($1.26). For both groups, however, wages varied greatly from one station to another, since the pay scales are directly related to the type and amount of duties and responsibilities as well as the volume of dollar business done at the station. The wage O C C U P A T IO X S 339 Telegraphers are responsible for receiving and dispatching train orders, handling all the railroad's intercity communication other than mail or conversation, operating block signal systems and many other jobs. rates for students are far below those for qualified telegraphers. Employees in jobs involving only telegrapher, telephoner, or towerman duties made about $1.28 an hour in December 1947, on the average. Within this group also, there is wide variation in rates. Telegraph operators in relay offices have betterthan-average pay; and there are many other d if ferences. The wage rates for chief telegraphers and tele phoners and wire chiefs are naturally higher. In December 1947 these workers had average straighttime earnings of $1.51 an hour. Telegraphers and telephoners are represented by the Order of Railroad Telegraphers on nearly all major roads. Where To Apply for Jobs: Job seekers may apply at the office of the super intendent of telegraph or the chief dispatcher in cities where there are such officials. In smaller towns, station agents can provide information on how to apply for jobs. See also: Station Agents (Railroads), page 341, and Towermen (Railroads), page 340. 340 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK HANDBOOK Towermen (Railroads) (D.O.T. 5-44.020) Outlook Summary Outlook Job prospects good in near future. Over the long run, employment expected to decline slowly. In the near future, there will probably be a good many openings for newcomers in leverman jobs. Opportunities for railroad telegraphers to trans fer to towermen-telegrapher positions are expected to be unusually numerous also. A severe shortage of towermen, as of telegraphers, developed during the war, and the need for workers has been met only in part since VJ-day. Over the long run, the number of towermen em ployed is likely to decrease owing primarily to further installations of centralized traffic-control equipment. Where these systems are installed, the train dispatcher himself frequently is assigned to operate the signals and switches, thereby replacing towermen. These systems are being installed quite steadily where traffic is dense and will cover more miles of track, as the machines are perfected. Given continued high levels of general business activity, there is no reason to anticipate many pro longed lay-offs of towermen, though it is likely that some of the vacancies created every year by turn over will not be filled. Nature of Work Towermen, as the job title implies, work in rail road towers, which overlook yards, approaches to major terminals, and other places where two or more tracks come together or cross each other or where special care must be taken to prevent acci dents. The towermen operate switches, and, sometimes, signals; they may also transmit train orders and inform the dispatcher of the exact times at which trains pass their tower. In some towers, switches are operated by pulling long levers which move rods leading to the switches. In larger and more modern towers, sig nals and switches are operated electrically, and they are almost universally interlocked, thereby making it next to physically impossible for tower men to make mistakes that might lead to collisions. Workers who operate the levers controlling switches in either mechanical or electrical towers are generally known as levermen. I f they do tele graphing in addition to operating levers, they are generally called levermen telegraphers, or tower men telegraphers. In large towers, where several men are employed, a tower director is in charge; and where he directs movements through several towers or very intricate yards, as in large cities, he is designated a train director. Qualifications and Lines of Promotion Towermen begin either as telegraph operators or in leverman jobs which do not require knowledge of telegraphy. At towers with the most simple mechanisms, it may take only a week or so for the leverman to learn his work. Towermen with telegraphic skills may bid for any of the positions on the telegraphers’ roster for their seniority district. Advancement to tower director, train director, and dispatcher is possible. Earnings and Working Conditions Separate figures on earnings are not available for towermen. Statistics on the average hourly and yearly pay of the telegrapher, telephoner, and towerman group and on the working hours of this group are given on page 339, however. In general, levermen have lower wage rates than other tower men. The Order of Railroad Telegraphers represents the towermen, levermen, tower and train directors on nearly all major railroads. Where To A pply for Jobs Men seeking positions as levermen may apply to signal supervisors, division superintendents, or chief dispatchers, who can be located by inquiring at any railroad station. Station agents can also R A IL R O A D provide information on where to apply for jobs in communities where there are no such officials. O C C U P A T IO N S 341 See also Telegraphers and Telephoners (Railroads), page 338. Station Agents (Railroads) (D.O.T. 1-44.22) Outlook Summary Positions filled by railroad telegraphers or tele grapher-clerks. Employment much more stable than in most other railroad occupations but may decline slightly over long run. Nature of Work A station agent is the railroad’s official repre sentative in all dealings with the public at his sta tion. At small one-man stations, the agent has to do all the work himself—selling tickets, check ing baggage, calculating freight and express charges, loading and unloading freight and ex press packages, even taking care of the station and grounds. At most stations, the agent also serves as telegrapher and telephoner, with responsibility for receiving and delivering train orders and mes sages pertaining to the company’s business. In general, the larger the station, the more work that is delegated to clerks, cleaners, and other employ ees working under the agent’s supervision. Men who have worked up to agent positions in major freight or passenger stations have mainly admin istrative and supervisory duties and perform little of the detailed work themselves. Altogether, about 21,000 st ation agents were em ployed in 1947. Two-thirds of these men (14,000) were agent-telegraphers or telephoners; the next largest group (5,000) had nontelegraph jobs at the smaller stations, while 2,000 had supervisory positions at major stations. o f promotion is from assistant agent, to agent, and possibly station supervisor or inspector and train master. Outlook Employment is likely to be more stable in this occupation than in most other railroad jobs, though it may decline slightly over the long run. There will be a limited number of openings in sta tion agent jobs each year owing to turn-over, but these will continue to be filled, in the main, by telegraphers or clerks already on the pay roll. Since the early twenties the number of agents employed has declined slowly but steadily, as more and more stations were closed. It was possible to eliminate these stations because automobiles enabled people to travel further to reach railroad stations than they could in the horse and buggy days. The number of stations and agents may continue to decline, but probably at a much slower rate than in the past two decades. Most of the stations which could be easily eliminated have already been closed. Even if there should be a substan tial decline in business activity and railroad traffic, the number of stations and agents would remain about the same for a while, though some individual agents might be bumped by teleg raphers with greater seniority who were displaced from other types of jobs. Should there be a pro longed depression, however, it is likely that some stations would be closed. Qualifications and Lines of Promotion Positions as agents in the majority of stations are filled, as a rule, by promoting experienced teleg raphers, though sometimes clerks get the jobs. Positions as assistant agents at large stations are also filled in most cases by promoting telegraphers. For jobs in very small nontelegraph stations, tele graphic experience is not required. Agents may move up the ladder by going from smaller to larger stations. Another frequent line 793996°—49----- 23 Earnings and Working Conditions Supervisory station agents are generally paid on a monthly basis. Most agents, however, are paid on an hourly basis, and if they handle the business of the Railway Express Agency, they re ceive, in addition, a commission averaging 10 per cent on the business transacted. Pay varies with the location and size o f the station and the volume of business. Average straight time hourly earn 342 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK ings in December 1947 were $1.77 for supervisory agents at major stations, $1.32 for nontelegrapher agents, and $1.26 for agent-telegraphers and tele phones. HANDBOOK Most station agents are represented by the Order of Railroad Telegraphers. See also Clerks (Railroads), page 342, and Teleg raphers and Telephones (Railroads), page 338. Clerks (Railroads) (D.O.T. 1-11.) Outlook Summary Many openings in near future. Long-run em ployment trend likely to be slowly downward. Nature o f Work About 141,000 clerks worked for class I railroads in 1947.1 The largest group (115,000) were em 5 ployed as ticket sellers, rate clerks (who determine the charges for freight shipments), timekeepers, bill clerks, yard clerks, baggage-room clerks, and in related jobs. In small offices or stations, one man may handle several different types of work; in large offices with many clerks each one may be highly specialized. A smaller group of clerks (about 12,000 in 1947) had higher-grade jobs involving more responsible or technical work. Some prepare the statistics on employment, traffic, equipment, and other subjects required by the Interstate Commerce Commission. Among the other types of workers in the group are cashiers, who deal with the public on such matters as uncollected freight bills and undercharges made by the road. Supervisory and chief clerks numbered about 14,000 in 1947. They not only supervise other workers and assume responsibility for major or minor departments but may be called on to solve highly complex problems. Qualifications and Advancement Beginning clerical jobs are tilled either by hiring newcomers or by promoting office boys, messen gers, or, in some instances, laborers already em ployed by the company. Positions of higher grade are almost always tilled by promotions from with in. Men are preferred for most jobs. A highschool education is required by some roads, and 1 Secretaries, stenographers, typists, and similar occupations 5 are not included. clerical aptitude tests are given by a few. Train ing or experience in working with figures is help ful. The line of promotion depends on the depart ment in which the clerk is working. In many o f fices, he may hope to advance to assistant chief clerk, chief clerk, and, conceivably, still higher administrative positions. Some clerks have a chance to move from routine beginning jobs to work demanding special knowledge of accounting or statistics, which may lead eventually to posi tions such as that of auditor. Clerks in traffic departments may become traffic agents; those in supply and stores departments may advance to jobs such as buyer or storekeeper; those in stations have a chance to become ticket and station agents. Outlook Many job openings are expected in the near future. The total number of clerks employed will probably not change very much in the next year or two, but the occupation is so large that thou sands of vacancies arise annually through quits, deaths, retirements, and turn-over of other types. The turn-over rate is higher now than before the war; it is reported to be particularly high in some northern and western industrial cities. Further more, reduction of the workweek to 40 hours ( from the present 44- or 48-hour standard) is now under consideration. I f a 40-hour week is generally adopted, additional clerks will probably have to be hired in many places. Since there are now very few clerks on furlough, most of the openings in the near future will go to persons with other types of railroad experience or to newcomers. Employment in the occupation will probably tend to decline over the long run. Further mechanization and more efficient office procedures will make it possible for fewer and fewer clerks to handle a given amount of work. Since new ma R A IL R O A D chines are introduced gradually and much clerical work does not lend itself to mechanization, the total number of clerks needed will probably de crease slowly, however. Workers in the occupa tion should have reasonable expectations of steady employment, provided general business activity remains at a high level. I f there should be a major recession and a con sequent sharp drop in traffic, lay-offs would no doubt be heavy among some groups of clerks, in cluding ticket sellers, rate clerks, and others who are directly concerned with passenger or freight traffic. In the audit and accounting departments and certain other branches of the railroads, the amount of clerical work to be done and the num ber of clerks needed are much less affected by changes in the volume of traffic. Earnings and Working Conditions For clerks in lower-grade jobs, average straight O C C U P A T IO N S 343 time hourly earnings were about $1.23 in Decem ber 1947. Senior clerks and clerical specialists had considerably higher earnings (about $1.46 an hour). Supervisory and chief clerks averaged about $1.54 an hour in minor departments and $1.85 in major departments. The Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employees represents the clerks on all major roads. Where To A pply for Jobs Job seekers may apply at central employment offices maintained by railroads. In smaller com munities where there are no such offices, they may apply to local officials, such as station agents, who hire clerks. See also Station Agents (Railroads), page 341, Telegraphers and Telephones (Railroad), page 338. Redcaps (D.O.T. 2-92.30) Outlook Summary Few openings for newcomers in near future. Long-run employment trend slowly downward. Nature of Work The redcaps’ primary job is to carry baggage for railroad passengers, either by hand or with trucks. They also check baggage, buy tickets, make telephone calls, and perform other services for travelers. In addition, they must be prepared to answer questions on such subjects as train sched ules and the tracks on which particular trains will arrive or depart. At a few stations, they call out the names of trains, stock the time-table racks, and do cleaning and other work. This is a small occupation. In 1941, the last year for which information is available, there were only about 4,300 redcaps. Qualifications and Lines of Promotion Hiring standards for redcap jobs vary from company to company. As a rule, applicants are required to be at least 18 and not over 45 years of age. They must be able to read and write and pass physical examinations. Redcaps must be strong enough to carry heavy baggage. Most of them are Negroes. There are few promotional opportunities for redcaps, although a small number may advance to the positions of assistant captain and captain in their stations. Outlook In the near future there will be few openings for newcomers. Since the war, need for porter service has dropped with the decline in railroad passenger traffic. A t some stations redcaps have been fur loughed. These laid-off workers have the first chance at vacancies created by turn-over; so wher ever there are furlough lists, newcomers, for the time being, have no chance of getting jobs. Over the long run, employment of redcaps is likely to decline slowly. The number of jobs is of course closely related to the amount of passen 344 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK ger traffic, particularly Pullman travel. And it is the railroads’ Pullman business which is likely to suffer most heavily from airline competition. A limited number of openings will arise each year owing to turn-over, which is reported to be low in this occupation. Should there be a sharp decline in business activity, bringing with it a sudden slump in passenger traffic, there would probably be many lay-offs and newcomers would find it ex tremely difficult to enter the occupation. Earnings and Working Conditions At present (early 1948) most redcaps are paid 91 cents per hour. They also keep any tips which passengers give them over the regular charge for baggage; the standard fees (now 15 cents per bag in many stations, 10 cents at others) are collected by the redcaps and turned in to their employers. It is reported that the 15 cents per bag charge has caused earnings from tips to drop. The amount received in tips varies greatly, depending on the city, the station, the individual worker and many other factors. In general, positions at automo HANDBOOK bile or taxi entrances to stations are more profitable than those at trolley-car or foot-passenger en trances. Many companies assign the preferred positions to men with greatest seniority. Redcaps work an 8-hour day, and a 6-day week. They are usually paid the regular rate for time worked over 8 hours per day or over 48 hours per week, but at some stations get one and one-half times the regular rate. Those who have worked at least 160 days during the previous year receive vacations with pay— 6 days per year if they have had less than 5 years’ service, 12 days if they have been with the company for 5 years or more. These workers are covered by union contracts at most large stations. They are represented by the United Transport Service Employees of Amer ica (C IO ), and the Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight-Handlers, Express and Station Employees (A F L ). Where To Apply for Jobs Men seeking jobs in the occupation may apply at the stationmaster’s office at any railroad passen ger station having redcap service. Carmen (Railroads) (D.O.T. 5-79.020) Outlook Summary A good many openings for newcomers as ap prentices and helpers in near future; good pros pects for skilled carmen. Long-run employment trend slowly downward. Nature of Work Railroad carmen, who numbered about 77,000 on class I roads in 1947, inspect and repair most of the 2,000,000 freight cars and 50,000 passenger cars. They also do most of the work involved in building any new cars made in the railroad shops, build and repair some parts of locomotives (for example, cabs and running boards), and frames and trucks of locomotive tenders, and are responsi ble for work on various kinds of small vehicles (including the motor cars used in transporting workers along the tracks). Besides all this, these versatile craftsmen do all the carpentry and other woodworking needed in the shops and yards. Because of the wide variety of jobs they may be called upon to handle, most carmen are skilled in both carpentry and metal working and can use many power machines as well as hand tools. How ever, the carmen group also includes some up holsterers, car painters, and patternmakers, skilled only in their particular specialties. Even the all-round carmen are usually assigned to some one branch of the work. The largest num ber handle repairs and other work on freight cars. A sizable group do passenger car (or “coach” ) work. Others, known as inspectors, examine cars in the yards and stations, looking especially for any worn or damaged parts that might cause train accidents or delays. There is also a small group, called locomotive carpenters or tender repairmen, who are assigned to w ork in the engine houses and T locomotive shops. , , R A IL R O A D Qualifications Training and Advancement The usual way of entering the carman craft is to work either 4 years as an apprentice or 2 years as a helper and then 3 years more as a helperapprentice. Workers with related experience in other industries, especially car manufacturing, may be able to qualify as journeymen in less than 4 years. To become a regular apprentice, one must be at least 16 and not over 21; to become a helper-ap prentice, not older than 30 or 35 (younger men are desired). Good physical condition is insisted on. A few roads require candidates for regular apprentice positions to pass mathematical and me chanical-aptitude tests. Many union agreements provide that a high proportion of apprenticeships shall be given to sons of railroad employees, pro viding they meet hiring standards. The great majority of apprentices receive all round training in freight- and passenger-car work, both wood and steel, and in other branches of the O C C U P A T IO N S trade. Different training programs are provided, however, for the smaller numbers who are to be come patternmakers, car painters, or upholsterers. Young men who have completed their appren ticeships are, if possible, placed immediately in journeymen positions, but they are not retained on the pay roll if there are no openings for skilled workers. Journeymen with the greatest amount of seniority have their choice of the jobs they con sider to be most desirable in terms of their interests or because the work is cleaner, easier, or more highly paid. A very few experienced carmen may be promoted to such jobs as lead supervisor and foreman and, possibly, shop superintendent. On some roads, a few young men 18 to 25 years of age who have completed a technical high-school course are taken on as special apprentices. After 3 years of varied training, covering not only car men’s work but also the work of the other crafts in the maintenance-of-equipment department, they may choose the craft in which they wish to Carmen are versatile mechanics who do most of the repair work on ail types of railroad cars. 345 346 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K be employed. Later on, they are given special consideration for supervisory positions. Outlook There is a shortage of skilled carmen in many communities. During the war thousands of men left to go into better-paying jobs in other industries and into the armed forces. Those who transferred to other civilian jobs generally lost their seniority rights, and many have not returned. Moreover, the railroads are engaged in a greatly expanded, long-range car-building program, in addition to their regular car-maintenance work; so thousands more carmen are employed now than before the war. There will be several thousand openings for new comers as helpers to carmen in the near future. A good many newcomers will also be taken on as apprentices. In some areas, where wage rates in manufacturing industries and construction are high in comparison to rates paid railroad shop workers, roads are reported to be having difficulty recruiting helpers and apprentices. After the present backlog o f maintenance and building needs has been reduced, employment will probably taper off slowly in this occupation as in most other railroad jobs. In general, the only job openings will be the few thousand arising each year as a result of turn-over. Should there be a serious decline in general business activity, lay-offs would no doubt be heavy among carmen; in the past, when railroad traffic and income have de clined, maintenance work has been deferred as much as possible and cuts in employment have tended to be more drastic in maintenance depart ments than in other major departments of the rail roads. Earnings and Working Conditions In December 1947, average straight-time earn ings of freight carmen were about $1.34 per hour; those o f passenger carmen and tender repairmen, $1.42. Time and one-half is paid for work above 8 hours per day and on Sundays and certain holi days. Six or 12 days’ paid vacations a year is given, depending upon length of service. Most carmen work outside on uncovered tracks and are on the job in all kinds of weather. On some roads, the men themselves decide when the weather is too bad for them to w ork; they do not receive pay for time lost on this account. Carmen are represented on most roads by the Brotherhood of Railroad Carmen of America (A F L ) ; on two, by the Brotherhood of Railroad Shop Crafts of America (independent). Where To Apply for Jobs Those seeking jobs as apprentices and helpers may apply to shop or roundhouse foremen or mas ter mechanics. Bridge and Building Mechanics (Railroads) (See D.O.T. 5-25.840) Outlook Summary A good many openings as helpers and appren tices and good prospects for skilled men in near future. Employment expected to remain at high levels for several years at least and decline slowly over long run. Nature of Work The bridge and building men are, like the car men, an unusually versatile group of workers. One day, they may be called on to repair a bridge; the next, they may work on a tunnel; the one after that, they may repair or build a station, water tank, coal dock, ferry pier, or any one of a variety of other structures. The largest group of “ B. and B.” workers are the carpenters or mechanics. These men are all-round mechanics, able to do not only carpentry, but also other types of construction work. About 14,000 of them were employed on class I roads in 1947. In addition, the bridge and building force included some 2,000 painters; about the same number of masons, bricklayers, plasterers, and plumbers; and half as many structural-steel and iron workers. Helpers and apprentices numbered about 7,500 al together; foremen, around 4,000. R A IL R O A D Qualifications and Advancement New workers start out as helpers (or appren tices). Generally, they serve about 3 years as helpers before they can qualify as mechanics. As openings occur in skilled jobs, these are filled by promoting the qualified helpers with greatest seniority. Journeymen with years of experience and exceptional ability may work up to positions as inspectors, foremen, bridge and building super visors, and even division engineers. The last mentioned position frequently requires special training. Outlook The employment outlook is good for skilled bridge and building men in the near future, and there are likely to be more openings than usual in helper jobs. The shortage of workers, espe cially journeymen, which developed during the war still continues. Since there is a particular need for foremen, men with better-than-average abilities who show promise as prospective super visors are desired. Employment will probably remain high in this occupation for several years at least, in view of the backlog o f urgently needed repair and improve ment work which has carried over from the war period. After this greater-than-normal backlog has been reduced, employment will tend to decline slowly. A long-run downward trend is expected for such reasons as the increasing substitution of O C C U P A T IO N S 347 concrete and durable, treated lumber for untreated wood (which requires much more frequent repairs) and the greater use of power saws, drills, and other labor-saving equipment. However, turn-over is likely to create a few thousand openings for new comers each year, so long as the country avoids a depression and its inevitable consequences—falling railroad traffic, heavy lay-offs of maintenance workers, and waiting lists for jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Bridge and building carpenters had average straight-time earnings of about $1.22 an hour in December 1947. Hourly earnings were slightly higher ($1.24) for painters and still higher for ironworkers ($1.35) and for masons, bricklayers, plasterers, and plumbers ($1.34). But even these last two groups made less than most groups of skilled shop workers. Helpers of course have con siderably lower rates. In December 1947 their average hourly pay was about $1.09. Bridge and building men often have to be away from home for daj^s at a time. They generally live in camp cars but have to provide their own bedding and pay for their food. The Brotherhood of Maintenance-of-Way Em ployees represents the bridge and building workers on most major roads. Where To Apply for Jobs Job seekers may apply to bridge and building foremen or division master carpenters. Signalmen and Signal Maintainers (Railroads) (D.O.T. 5-79.170) Good prospects for skilled men and moderate number of openings for newcomers. Upward trend in employment expected in both short and long run. pair work within a given territory, riding back and forth in private automobiles, company auto trucks, or on the tracks in small motor cars. The two types o f jobs involve much the same mechan ical and electrical skills. Nature of Work Training and Advancement Railroad signalmen construct and install signals and signal apparatus. These construction gangs travel from place to place and often live in camp cars. Signal maintainers do inspection and re In either signalman or signal-maintainer work, new employees start as helpers, doing semiskilled labor. After about 6 months to 1 year of training on-the-job (or longer, depending upon how often Outlook Summary 348 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK vacancies occur), most helpers advance to assist ants. Four years’ experience as assistant gen erally qualifies a man for a journeyman job. As openings in skilled jobs occur, they are filled by promoting qualified assistants, according to senior ity rules. On nearly all roads, journeymen may transfer from signalman to maintainer jobs or vice versa. Both signalmen and signal maintainers may be promoted to more skilled and responsible jobs, such as inspectors and test-men, leading signal men or signal maintainers, foremen, assistant signal supervisors, supervisors, and engineering positions. Outlook Employment is expected to increase in both the short and long run. In 1940, about 10,300 signal workers (signalmen, signal maintainers, and help ers) were employed. Several thousand men left for the armed forces; nevertheless, employment The signal maintainer plays a key part in the safe operation of railroads HANDBOOK rose to 13,000 by 1915. Since the end of the war, employment has continued to increase (to around 14,000 in 1947). It is likely that employment of both skilled and semiskilled workers will rise still further during the next few years, owing to the backlog of work and expected modernization of signal systems. Workers will also be needed to replace those who leave the occupation because of death, retirement, or for other reasons. Signal workers probably will have an especially high degree of job security. This occupational group is among the few in railroading which is ex pected to increase in number over the long run. Moreover, in the group as a whole employment is less affected by the changes in the general level of business activity than employment in most other railroad occupations. While the amount of new construction and installation work falls off when railroad business declines, most maintenance work must be continued. On many roads, signalmen who may be laid off will displace maintainers in their district who have less seniority. Earnings and Working Conditions Average straight-time hourly earnings in De cember 1947 were $1.40 for signalmen and signalmaintainers; for assistants, $1.23; for helpers, $1.15. Time and one-half is paid for work above 8 hours a day and on Sunday and certain holidays. Maintainer work is fairly steady throughout the year. However, signalmen are likely to have less work in the winter than in other seasons, except in regions with mild winters. Six or twelve days’ paid vacation a year is given, depending upon length of service. These workers are represented on substantially all roads by the Brotherhood of Railroad Signal men of America (A F L ). Where To Apply for Jobs Men seeking beginning jobs in signal work may apply to signal foremen, signal supervisors, or signal engineers of any carrier. Other Trades and Industrial Occupations Electroplaters (D.O.T. 4-74.010) Outlook Summary Few job openings for trainee electroplaters in next several years. No marked changes in em ployment over longer run, with most job openings for replacements of workers who die or retire. Nature o f the Work Platers work in electroplating shops, in which objects, usually of metal, are given a thin coating of a metal such as nickel, silver, gold, chrome, or tin. These coatings are applied mainly for orna mentation, but often are for protection against corrosion. Typical electroplated products include automobile bumpers and hardware, cigarette light ers, plated silverware, costume jewelry, plumbing fixtures, and electrical appliances. The plating is done by immersing the article in a liquid solution containing the plating metal and through which an electric current is passed. The plater must first make sure that the articles to be plated have been properly cleaned and other wise prepared for plating. He must know the characteristics of the metal being plated, the type and thickness of metal coating to be applied, and the area of the surface to be plated, so that he can judge the proper type and strength of solution to use, the electric-current strength, and how long the articles should be kept in the plating tank. In some electroplating shops, particularly the smaller ones, solutions are prepared in an outside testing laboratory, and standard procedures set up, so that the plater has only to maintain solutions, regulate the flow of electric current and the time the article is kept in the plating tank and watch to see that no trouble develops. Platers usually supervise a number of semi skilled and unskilled workers who perform such tasks as placing articles to be plated on the racks in which they are held while in the plating tank, and removing them from the racks after plating is completed. Except in the smallest shops, skilled platers may also direct the work of one or more “ tank operators” who carry on the plating process at the tanks to which they are assigned. These workers have less knowledge and experience than the fully qualified platers. Their job is to care fully watch and regulate the plating operation but they usually have no responsibility in determining the solution used, the strength of the electric cur rent, and the length of time the articles will be immersed. Where Employed Platers are employed in many of the industries which have their products plated. The automo bile and automotive parts industries are the largest employers of platers, and many platers are also found in plants making electrical appliances, re frigerators, radios, lighting fixtures, silverware, hardware, and costume jewelry. Many companies do not do their own plating, however, but send their parts out to specialized job shops to be plated. These shops are usually small, most of them having only between 5 and 50 workers, but since there are a great many such shops they employ over 20 percent of all the platers. Because they do work for different customers they must be prepared to handle many types of plating jobs. Many of the small job shops are owned by platers, who do the work themselves. 34 9 350 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK HANDBOOK Training and Qualifications Plating is learned on the job. The training may be through an apprenticeship, ordinarily of 3 years, including classroom courses in chemistry and related subjects, or it may be just through gen eral work experience which usually takes a longer time. The best place to learn the trade is in a job shop, because of the great variety of work done. Advanced courses in chemistry and related sub jects are considered almost indispensable for pro motion to supervisory positions, and even ele mentary high school chemistry and physics will be helpful in learning the work. Tank operators learn to work on the plating tanks under the direc tion of a plater in about 8 months, but they have little understanding of the processes involved and are not able to operate the tanks without supervision. Outlook Not many openings for trainee platers are ex pected in the next year or two. The demand for many electroplated products, such as parts for au tomobiles and electrical appliances, should con tinue at high levels for several years but the pro duction of solne items such as costume jewelry has already fallen off from the high marks reached in the early postwar period. The longer-run outlook for electroplating and for platers is generally favorable. Plating should continue to have an important place in the produc tion of the many metal products where it is now used. There is no marked trend toward sub stituting other finishing methods for plating. Neither are there any important technological changes in prospect which would significantly re duce the number of platers needed in electroplat ing processes. Many of the larger shops use auto matic conveying devices to carry the plated arti cles through the plating tanks and other parts of the process, and this development may be extended to additional plants. However, this equipment tends to displace many of the helpers and laborers from the plating process more than the skilled platers who direct it. As many as 4,000 platers are now employed, plus a somewhat larger number of plating-tank op erators. It is likely that there will not be any sub stantial increase or decrease in the number of jobs Co u rtesy o f n a t io n a l a r c h iv e s Electroplating is done by immersing an article in a liquid solution containing the plating metal and passing an electric current through the solution. over the longer run. Most of the job openings will result from death or retirement of those in the trade. The use of electroplating is closely tied to general business conditions, however, and slumps in business activity cause temporary declines in the employment of platers. Plating establishments are found throughout the country, but many are concentrated near the metalworking industries, particularly the auto mobile industry. As a result most of the jobs will be found in the Midwestern States, especially Michigan, Illinois, and Ohio, and many of the re mainder in the Middle Atlantic and New England States. Although it still has fewer plating jobs than many of the Eastern States, California grew in importance as a plating center during the war. Earnings and Working Conditions Recent earnings data are not available for many of the industries in which platers are important. In January 1945, the straight-time earnings of plating tank operators in job shops, averaged $1 an hour. In October 1946, tank operators in the ma chinery industries in large cities averaged $1.30 OTHER TRADES AND IN D U S T R IA L an hour. Earnings for fully qualified platers would be somewhat above these figures. Since the dates specified there have been general wage in creases in these industries. During 1947 there was a minimum rate of $1.25 per hour for platers in the shops in the New York metropolitan area which are members of the Masters’ Electro-Plating Asso ciation, with an average of perhaps $1.40 or $1.45 per hour, although some of the more skilled men were earning much more. Plating work involves certain hazards in that strongly acid, alkaline, or poisonous solutions may O C C U P A T IO N S 351 be used, and there may be noxious fumes. How ever, injury from contact with chemicals can be avoided with reasonable care, and it is possible to eliminate fumes by proper ventilation. Many platers are members of trade-unions. Some belong to the Metal Polishers, Buffers, Plat ers and Helpers Union (A F L ) while others are covered by CIO unions such as the United Auto mobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement Workers which organize all the workers in a plant rather than only those in particular occupations. Plastics Molding Machine Operators (D.O.T. 7-10.014 and .016) Outlook Summary Prospects are for a sharp rise in employment during the next few years in this relatively small occupation. Thereafter, a gradual increase in the number of jobs is expected, with good chances for continued employment for those entering this oc cupation. Nature of Work These workers operate compression, injection, or extrusion molding machines which form plas tics articles or parts. Most molding machine operators are semiskilled workers. Their basic duties are to feed plastic materials into the mold ing machine, start the machine, and take out the molded pieces. A set-up man makes ready the ma chines used by the operators, setting the controls and positioning the molds. The operator watches the process and calls his foreman if anything goes wrong. A few molding machine operators have jobs requiring greater skill. These are the socalled hand molders, who set up their own ma chines and assemble the molds by hand. Where Employed The great majority are employed in plasticsmolding plants making plastic parts to order for other firms or making finished plastics articles for sale. Other molding-machine operators work in plastics departments of companies which make plastics parts for use in their final products, such as electrical appliances, radios, or automobiles. Plastics-molding plants are located principally in the important industrial regions of the country, near the main users of their products. The largest number of jobs is in New York, New Jersey, Mas sachusetts, Illinois, Ohio, Connecticut, California, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. Training and Qualifications Usually, no previous experience or special train ing is required to obtain the job of the moldingmachine operator. The general practice is to hire inexperienced persons and train them on the job. The training period varies from the 2 or 3 weeks necessary to learn the operation of the more automatic machines to the 12 to 18 months needed to become a skilled hand molder. There are a number of trade schools in the plastics field which give training in the operation of molding machines as part o f their courses. However, the large ma jority of plastic molding-machine operators have not had such courses nor are they generally neces sary to obtain jobs of this kind. With little additional training, workers can transfer from one type of molding machine to another, e. g., from compression to injection ma chines. Average strength is enough to do this work. About one-sixth of the operators are women. Outlook In the next 2 years, it is expected that there will be several thousand new openings in this occu 352 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK pation. Thereafter, a continuing, although more gradual, rise in employment is likely, so that those entering the occupation during the next few years will have very good chances for continued employ ment. A t the end of 1946 there were about 15,000 molding-machine operators employed, nearly three times the number in 1939 and higher than the wartime peak. Although the output of molded plastics is the highest in history, produc tion is expected to increase greatly, because of heavy demand for molded plastics parts for such products as automobiles, aircraft, and electrical equipment, and because of the anticipated de velopment of new uses for plastics. However, employment of molding-machine operators will increase less rapidly than plastics production because of the greater efficiency of the newer molding machines and methods. Earnings and Working Conditions In the early part of 1948 experienced men op erating plastics-molding machines earned from $1 to $1.50 an hour (including incentive pay and bonuses for working second and third shifts, but not including overtime pay). Earnings of women were usually 5 to 20 cents an hour less than those of men. Beginning pay for inexperienced workers ranged from 75 cents to $1 an hour. A molding-machine operator may be promoted HANDBOOK to set-up man or to molding-room foreman. Plas tics molding is not seasonal, and molding-machine operators generally work the year round. Working conditions in plastics-molding plants are usually good compared with factory work in general. However, the molding department tends to be noisy, and it may be quite hot next to the molding machines. The rate of disabling in juries in molding plants is considerably under the average for manufacturing industries as a whole. Most plastics-molding plants operate more than one shift; three-shift operation is the most com mon. There is no craft union of plastics molding-ma chine operators. However, about half o f the plants in which molding-machine operators work are unionized. Locals of various CIO and A F L unions and some independent unions have organ ized plastics-molding plants. Where To Get Additional Information U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau o f Labor Statistics, Employment Outlook in the Plastics Products Industry. Bulletin No. 929; Superin tendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C., 1948. Price 15 cents. /See also: Finishing Jobs (Plastics Molding). Finishing- Jobs (Plastics Molding) (D.O.T. 9-10.10) Outlook Summary Prospects are for a sharp rise in employment during the next few years. Thereafter, a gradual increase in the number o f jobs is expected, with good chances for continued employment for those entering this field o f work. Nature o f Work These workers perform a series o f finishing op erations which are needed to prepare most molded plastics articles for use. There are many differ ent jobs in the finishing room. Bench grinders hold molded articles against rotating abrasive wheels to remove excess material. Hand filers (or burrers) smooth edges and remove material, using hand files or carving spindles. Buffers and polishers polish articles by holding them against rapidly rotating wheels. Assemblers put together plastics pieces, using screw drivers, clamps, and pliers. Drill-press operators drill holes in plastic pieces and trim excess material from the holes. Tumbler operators run power-driven wire barrels in which plastics pieces are revolved in order to knock off excess material. Where Employed The great majority are employed in plasticsmolding plants making plastics parts to order for OTHER TRADES AND IN D U S T R IA L 353 O C C U P A T IO N S other firms or making finished plastics articles for sale. Others work in plastics-molding depart ments of companies which make plastics parts for use in their final products such as electrical appli ances, radios, or automobiles. Plastics molding plants are located principally in the important industrial regions of the country, near the main users of their products. The largest number of jobs is in Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Illinois, Ohio, Connecticut, Cali fornia, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. Training and Qualifications Because the jobs are easy to learn, unskilled, in experienced workers are hired. Training to use the various machines and tools is given on the job. Usually there are no educational requirements for new workers and average strength is sufficient. About three-fourths of the finishing-room workers are women. Outlook In the next few years the outlook is for a sharp increase in the number of finishing-room workers in plastics-molding plants, with several thousand new openings. Over the long run a continuing, but gradual, rise in employment is likely so that those entering this field of work during the next few years will have good chances for continued employment. At the end of 1916, there were about 13,000 finishing-room workers, nearly three times the 1939 number and more than the wartime peak. Although the output of molded plastics is the highest in history, production is expected to ex pand because of heavy demand for molded plastics parts for such products as automobiles, aircraft, and electrical equipment, and because of the an ticipated development of new uses for plastics. However, employment will increase less rapidly than production because of increased mechaniza tion of finishing operations and improved molding techniques which reduce the amount of finishing necessary. Earnings and Working Conditions In the beginning of 1948, workers in the various finishing operations usually earned from 85 cents to $1.20 an hour (including incentive pay and bonuses for working second and third shifts, but Co u rtesy o f U. S . O f f ic e o f E d u c a t io n A compression molding-machine operator feeds plastic materials into the molding machine, starts the machine, and takes out the molded pieces. not including overtime pay). Beginning rates for inexperienced workers were as low as 60 cents an hour. Working conditions in plastics-molding plants are usually good compared with factory work in general. Finishing rooms are generally well lighted and adequately ventilated. The rate of disabling injuries in molding plants is consider ably under the average for manufacturing indus tries as a whole. Most plastics-molding plants op erate more than one shift; three shift operations is the most common. Plastics molding is not sea sonal, and finishing-room workers usually have work the year round. About half of the finishing-room workers are members of unions. Locals of various CIO and A F L unions and some independent unions have organized plastics-molding plants. Where To Get Additional Information U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Outlook in the Plastics Products Industry. Bulletin 929; Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C., 1948. Price 15 cents. See also: Plastics Molding Machine Operators, page 351. 354 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H AN D B O O K Bakers (D.O.T. 4-01.100 to .800; 4-02.151, .311, and .321) Outlook Summary Where Employed Chances for a job as a baker are good in some localities where bakeries are still short-handed. After the next year or two openings will not be numerous although replacements will be needed from time to time. The largest single group o f bakers is employed in shops which make baked goods for both whole sale and retail distribution. The next largest group works in bakeries which sell their products at wholesale only. Most such bakeries are large and highly mechanized. Other bakers work in the great number of shops which distribute their prod ucts solely through their own retail outlets. Spe cialty bake shops, which specialize in foreign or native fancy baked goods, and chain stores are prominent in this category. The remainder o f the bakery workers—a comparatively small part of the total— are employed in restaurants, hotels, and institutions. Their products are consumed on the premises. Nature of the Work Although the name is often given to a great number o f bakery workers, a baker actually is one who has mastered all phases of bakery work and can perform any or all the duties involved in the preparation of bakery products. In small estab lishments, where the work is done mostly by hand, the baker usually makes a variety of products and performs all parts of the work. Elsewhere, the extent to which a man must specialize is deter mined by the kind of establishment he works in. In large establishments, where machines are used extensively, the baker’s work, even though his training and skill qualify him as an all-round baker, is limited to one type o f product such as bread, cake, or pie. Moreover, he generally spe cializes in one phase o f making the product such as mixing, dividing, or baking. I f so, he is usu ally known by the process in which he specializes, such as the “ mixer” who measures and mixes ingre dients, the “ ovenman” who controls the baking and the “ bench hand” who molds and divides the dough preparatory to baking. The bench hand’s job has been further specialized. In the larger bakeries, the work is usually done by “ molders” and “ dividers.” Not considered as bakers are the other bakery workers, a sizable number in all, for whom as a whole the outlook is more promising. Some are specialists, such as icing makers; others are ma chine operators (slicing-machine operator, for ex ample) and a large number are miscellaneous help ers and laborers. Nearly all learn how to do the work on the job rather than by formal apprentice ship. How To Get Into the Trade All-round bakers usually learn the work by serving a 3-year apprenticeship. Although, in the past, bakers sometimes got their start as help ers, nowadays relatively few helpers get the oppor tunity to do the increasingly difficult and impor tant tasks which would round out their knowledge and experience in the trade. Outlook The amount o f bakery products consumed is ex pected to increase during the next several years, but the number of bakers needed is not likely to be much larger than at present. Much of the ex pansion— especially in large cities—will be ac complished by the use of additional machines and other technological innovations which reduce labor requirements. About 2,000 to 3,000 bakers die or retire from the trade each year throughout the country. Replace ments for them will represent the best chances for new workers to get into the trade. There are openings too for foremen bakers. Such men, who know and can do the work of the skilled baker, and in addition have some vocational training in the OTHER TRADES AND I N D U S T R IA L 355 O C C U P A T IO N S chemistry and mechanics of modern mechanized baking, are needed to fill supervisory and mana gerial positions. Experienced journeymen bakers with oppor tunities restricted by the growth of large mecha nized establishments will find their best prospects for jobs in specialty shops rather than in the gen eral retail bakery. Establishments like these which specialize in foreign or native fancy pastries have the best chance of existing along with the larger mass-production bakery in large cities. Op portunities for bakers in the smaller bake shops will be limited by the continued encroachment of the large mass-production bakeries on the markets of small nearby bakeries. Photograph Earnings by U. S. Departm ent of La b o r M any bakers have specialized jobs, such as measuring and mixing ingredients. There is wide variation in bakers’ earnings de pending upon the locality of the bakery, the size of the bakery, and upon the product turned out. Recent earnings data are not available but in July 1945 bench hands averaged, throughout the coun try, $1 per hour. The average straight-time hourly rate for ovenmen was 94 or 96 cents, de pending on whether they worked with cake or bread. Mixers’ rates averaged 96 and 98 cents; those working with cake batters averaged 2 cents above the dough mixers. The all-round baker usually makes more than the man who specializes. Although more recent wage rates by individual occupations are not currently available, the extent to which earnings have increased recently is indi cated by the fact that between July 1945 and November 1947 the average hourly earnings for all workers on bakery products rose from 87 cents to $1.12 (including any extra pay for overtime, bonuses, etc.). Meat Cutters (D.O.T. 5-58.100) Outlook Summary Outlook for the next several years very favor able for workers who want to learn the trade. In the long run, technological developments may gradually reduce employment of meat cutters. Nature o f the Work Meat cutters carve pieces of meat from animal carcasses, or from precut quarters of beef, lamb, veal, or pork—using a knife, saw, or cleaver. They may also dress fish and poultry and make sausage, meat loaf, and other special products. The meat cutter in the retail store usually takes on the duties of a sales clerk in addition to cutting meat. He displays and sells meat and suggests various cuts to the customer. I f he is a proprietor of a small shop or a manager of a meat department in a large, independently owned store, the meat cutter buys and prices the meat. Where Employed M ea t cu tters w o r k in retail m eat m arkets, in g r o c e r y stores w ith m eat d ep a rtm en ts, in w h o le sale s u p p ly houses, a n d — to som e exten t— in h otels and restaurants. T h e b u lk o f th em are e m p loy ed in m eat m arkets a n d g r o c e r y stores. H ow ever, w h olesa le s u p p ly houses h ire quite a fe w m eat cu t ters to d iv id e w h ole carcasses in to quarters fo r m eat retailers w h o request th is service, o r to ca rve 356 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K steaks, ch op s, roasts, etc., f o r restaurants, h otels, a n d in stitu tion s. S om e o f the la rg e r h otels and restau ran ts e m p lo y th e ir ow n m eat cu tters instead o f fo llo w in g the usual p ro c e d u re o f b u y in g p recu t m eats. Training and Qualifications ' The meat cutter learns his trade on the job, usu ally in 2 or 3 years’ time. Chain stores, and some o f the larger independent meat markets and gro cery stores have formal training programs. But many meat cutters pick up the trade as butchers’ helpers or as part-time workers in butcher shops. Vocational schools in some cities offer instruction in meat cutting. size of the meat-cutting trade. One of the most significant is the more extensive use of electric meat-cutting machines, already installed in some of the larger retail shops. In some instances, time spent in meat cutting has been reduced by half, or even more. Some stores, especially chain stores and other large establishments, are using persons not qualified as meat cutters to sell the meat over the counter, and are having their meat cutters spend most of their time cutting up meat, rather than waiting on trade. Stores using this system need fewer meat cutters than they did before. Other developments, already under way, are the large-scale production of dehydrated and frozen meat products which are processed and packaged in packing plants. Outlook Meat sales—and consequently the number of available jobs for meat cutters—will be consider ably higher than prewar for the next several years. The demand for other foods, such as grains, fruits, or vegetables, is only slightly affected by good or bad business conditions. Meat sales, however, are especially large in prosperous times, unless high prices reduce consumer demands. During the war, when meat supplies were short, the increased de mands for meat were not fully satisfied. When meat retailers have plenty of meat, more should be sold than ever before, and employment oppor tunities for meat cutters will be numerous. Vet erans returning to the trade, plus those who re ceived in-service training in meat cutting, have only partly met the need for new workers. Several thousand additional openings for newcomers to the trade will arise during the next few years. Looking farther ahead, it is probable that tech nological developments will tend to reduce the Earnings In the larger cities, experienced meat cutters make $60 to $80 for a 40- to 48-hour week. But in the small cities and towns throughout the country, they make less and frequently work much longer hours. Although the hourly pay of the average meat cutter is lower than that of many other skilled workers, his annual earnings are comparatively good. His work goes on steadily the year round without much seasonal slack in activity. Many meat cutters look forward to eventually opening their own shops. It should be noted, however, that the average meat-market proprietor does not make a lot of money. Owners of the larger shops have high incomes, but the small mar kets greatly outnumber the larger ones. Much depends, o f course, upon the location of the meat market and upon the owner’s judgment in buying and pricing meats. Mold Makers (Glass) (D.O.T. 4-75.010) Outlook Summary A fe w o p e n in g s f o r n ew w ork e rs in n e x t sev era l years. I n the lo n g ru n , th ere w ill be stead y e m p lo y m e n t in th is sm a ll occu p a tio n . Nature of Work The mold maker in the glass industries is a skilled craftsman who makes the forms which are used to fashion various glass products such as bot- OTHER TRADES AND IN D U S T R IA L ties, jars, electric bulbs, etc. The molds must be precisely accurate to insure that the products will all be uniform. Most of the machines used to turn out glass products have a battery of several molds all alike and each new mold before it is set in the machine is carefully checked for exactness both in size and shape. The mold maker who turns out the metal molds for glass is essentially a machinist. He begins with a blank iron casting and, following a pattern or blueprint, uses an engine lathe, shaper, drill press, and other metalworking machines to pro duce one or a large number of molds, all identical in size and shape. Sometimes the molds are not made in the plant of the glass manufacturer, but are ordered from other sources. Although molds are essential in forming glass products, they are used over and over again and last a considerable time. Repair work is not fre quent. Consequently mold making in the glass industry is a very small occupation—less than 2,000 workers in all. Where Employed One of the largest divisions of the glass indus try is that devoted to making molded glass prod ucts. At one time, all blown or hollow glassware was made by hand. Now, molds are carefully designed and fabricated for use in the highly com plicated machines which make glassware auto matically. Some of the molds, such as those for food and beverage containers, are comparatively simple. During the war many such containers— and their molds— were standardized by Govern O C C U P A T IO N S 357 ment regulations. Others, like the molds for Christmas tree decorations, fancy ornamented glass bottles, and optical glass mean intricate and painstaking work. For pressed glass products the molds often carry a pattern on the inner sur face. There is a marked concentration of the branch of the glass industry employing mold makers in four States—Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, and Indiana. It is here that the few opportunities for new workers will be centered. Outlook There are some employment opportunities for additional mold makers, but these are limited in number, because of the size of the occupation. During the next few years an appreciable expan sion is expected in the glass industries as a whole, principally as a result of the wider use of glass products. Some glass manufacturers have re ported shortages of mold makers. Yet current needs could probably be met with a couple o f hun dred additional mold makers. Openings to re place those who leave the occupation for one rea son or another will be very few because of the small size of the occupation. Earnings During the early part of 1947 earnings of jour neyman mold makers averaged about $1.55 an hour. See also: Mold Makers (Structural Clay Prod ucts) . Mold Makers (Structural Clay Products) (D.O.T. 4-66.911) Outlook Summary Because of its small size this occupation cannot absorb many newcomers. Some of the few open ings will be filled by upgrading other workers. Nature of Work The mold maker in the structural clay products industries is a skilled artisan who specializes in 793996°—49 -24 making metal or wooden molds for shaping clay products. For metal molds, the worker marks out the metal plate or lighter metal sheets and cuts them to the necessary size and shape. He then assembles the parts and screws them into place. Making wooden molds is much the same except that lumber is used instead of metal. The wooden mold maker often is a journeyman carpenter and usually performs 358 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK general maintenance carpentry about the plant, in addition to making repairs on old molds as the need arises. The metal molds are fabricated by specialists in metal work who, on heavier metal plate, must perform simple cutting operations with a milling machine, use a drill press, and so forth. When he works with lighter metal sheets, the mold maker must use the ordinary tools o f the sheet metal worker’s trade—power shears, metal saws, and sometimes a brake for bending and shap ing the metal sheets. Although essential in forming clay products, most of the molds, particularly those made of metal, are used over and over again and last a con siderable time. Repair work is not frequent. Often the mold is made by a worker who spends most of his time turning out the finished clay prod uct and only occasionally is called on to fashion a new mold. Consequently mold making is a very small occupation— less than 1 percent of the total employment in the industry. The total now em ployed throughout all structural-clay-products plants probably numbers considerably less than a thousand. W ood mold makers generally outnum ber metal mold makers, about 4 to 1. Where Employed Although clay-products manufacturing estab lishments are located in every State there is a marked concentration of this industry in the States along the Atlantic coast from New York to Georgia, and in the Great Lakes region. Hoiv To Enter the Occupation Depending on the type of mold, the mold maker HANDBOOK is essentially a carpenter or a sheet-metal worker; workers trained in these trades would need little additional training to qualify. In fact quite a few mold makers are workers with some kind of former experience in these trades. Otherwise the jobs are generally filled by transferring workers from other work in the plant and giving them the necessary training on the job. Outlook Employment opportunities for additional mold makers will be limited. An appreciable expansion is taking place in the structural-clay-products in dustries as a whole, due principally to the antici pated high volume of construction. But the ex pected expansion can be met with only a few addi tional mold makers. Replacements such as are needed from time to time for workers who retire, die, or change to new jobs will likewise be neg ligible. Earnings In October 1945, average earnings in the struc tural-clay-products industries were 97 cents an hour, straight-time, for mold makers in w ood; and $1.07 an hour for workers in metal. Since October 1945, there have been substantial increases in the average hourly earnings of the workers in the structural-clay-products industries. Employment in the clay products industries tends to be seasonal, with a slack period occurring during the winter months. See also: Mold Makers (Glass), page 356. Painters, Spray (D.O.T. 7-16.210) Outlook Summary Outlook poor for new entrants; some experi enced workers will be unable to find jobs in this occupation. Nature of the Work Spray-gun painters are semiskilled workers em ployed in manufacturing plants. They paint all k in d s o f m a n u fa ctu re d a rticles o n a m a ss -p r o d u c tio n basis. T h e se p ro d u cts in clu d e a u tom ob iles and a u to m o tiv e p a rts, e le ctrica l a n d a g ricu ltu ra l m a ch in e ry , fu r n itu r e and fu r n itu r e p a rts, m eta l o b je cts, and m a n y o th e r m a n u fa ctu re d item s. T h e p a in te r fills th e s p ra y g u n w ith p a in t, a t tach es it to the a ir co m p re sso r, a n d tu rn s a v a lv e to re g u la te the p ressu re. T h e n he a d ju sts th e n o z zle and d irects a fine sp ra y o f p a in t o n to the su r OTHER TRADES AND IN D U S T R IA L face. Sometimes, in manufacturing, instead of using a spray gun, the painter applies paint or varnish by hand with a brush, or he may even dip the articles to be coated into the paint mixture. This work should not be confused with that of skilled hand painters who are used in some manu facturing processes and in construction. Training and Qualifications There is no formal training for this work, but experience on the job is necessary to qualify as a painter in a manufacturing plant. Two weeks of experience may be sufficient for some jobs; other jobs may take up to a year. Anyone going into this work should have the ability to stand on his feet for long periods of time, good lungs, a steady hand, strong fingers, and a good eye to see that there is a smooth surface on the articles being painted. He must not be bored by having to paint the same kind of objects over and over again. Those who dislike routine work will probably not like the work of a painter in manufacturing. Color blindness is disquali fying. Where They Work Spray painters are employed in practically every industry. Most of them, however, work in those plants which produce furniture, store fixtures, elec trical machinery and equipment, agricultural ma chinery and tractors, aircraft and parts, and auto 359 O C C U P A T IO N S mobile and automobile equipment and parts. This group does not include skilled painters employed in construction, automobile repairing, or furniture finishing. Outlook For the next several years the outlook is poor. The industries where such painters work trained a great many new workers during the war when they were losing labor to other jobs or to the armed forces. The number of painters employed in manufacturing industries during the war far ex ceeded the 89,000 employed in 1940. After the war large numbers of painters were released from airplane factories, shipyards, and other such war plants and had to seek jobs elsewhere. Even plants which have reconverted to the manufac ture o f automobiles, machinery, household appli ances, etc., often are not using all painters that they employed on war work. I f business conditions remain good and a high level of production is maintained, job opportuni ties for new painters will open up eventually, but there are now more manufacturing painters than there are jobs, and this situation is likely to con tinue for the next few years. Some plants do have openings from time to time because of workers taking other jobs and new workers may have a chance to be hired, especially if skill requirements are low. Blasters and Powdermen (D.O.T. 5-74.010, .020, and .030 ; 7-74.010, .020, and .030) Outlook Summary The fields of employment for the highly skilled specialists are relatively restricted, and a few workers can take care of the needs. Opportuni ties for the semiskilled blasters widely used in many fields of work are better, but such men usu ally need experience in a related occupation to be sure of full-time employment. Nature of Work A blaster sets off charges of explosives to blast rock, coal, ore, or clay, in tunnels, mines, quarries, a n d o p e n e x ca v a tion s. H is w o r k ra n ges fr o m b la stin g tree stu m ps f o r a fa r m e r to s h o o tin g a w ell in th e o il fields. T h e p o w d e r m a n is re sp o n si ble f o r th e sto ra g e a n d s a fe k e e p in g o f ex p losiv es, fuses, d e to n a to rs, a n d o th e r su pp lies. S om etim es he assists the b la ste r a n d fre q u e n tly the tw o jo b s are co m b in e d a n d h a n d le d b y on e w ork er. T h e jo b o f a b la ster m a y be q u ite sk illed o r it m a y re q u ire co m p a r a tiv e ly little skill, a c c o r d in g to the n atu re o f the jo b and the k in d o f b la st in g to be done. O il p ro d u ce rs e m p lo y o n ly sk illed and h ig h ly sp e cia liz e d m en, because fa u lty w o rk , such as a m isp la ce d ch a rg e, o r to o little o r to o 360 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK much explosives, can mean many weeks of wasted work. Other industries, such as construction, coal and metal mining, and stone quarrying may use both skilled and semiskilled workers—the lat ter often working as helpers or “ powder monkeys.” Still other industries, such as fertilizer, logging, and clay quarrying, employ men with compara tively little skill in handling explosives because the blasting operations are relatively simple and limited experience is sufficient. The number o f blasters employed full time in any single industry is quite small. I f the oper ations are large enough as in construction, for example, the company may have enough work to employ a full-time blaster— shifting him about from one location to another. On the other hand, the small construction contractor may have no one qualified to do blasting but instead use a subcon tractor to do the blasting jobs as they occur. Training and Qualifications There are no requirements regarding schooling, especially for those whose work with explosives is not greatly specialized. On-the-job training is the usual means of learning to become a blaster. Whether it is a father teaching his son or an old worker passing along his accumulated knowledge to a newcomer, picking up the job is informal and the time required may vary quite a bit. Often, blasting is combined with and learned as a part of another job. Here again, on-the-job training is the prevalent method. Learning the mechanics of blasting, other than getting the feel of handling such potentially dan gerous material, is rather simple. But learning how to apply the principles of blasting to specific jobs in some instances requires considerable judg ment. The expert blaster is considered an expert, not because of his blasting technique, but because he knows how !o apply it most effectively to the job at hand. Things to be considered, like the depth, diameter, and location of the holes to be drilled, the kind of explosive, and the strength of the charge are all related to each other and vary with the character and face of the material to be blasted. Formal knowledge of geology and applied physics is often important, but practical experience gained over time can be substituted. HANDBOOK Outlook Workers who considered blasting their principal or only occupation numbered less than 5,000 in 1940, but the number of workers who, as part of their job, use explosives for blasting in coal mines, on construction sites, in quarries, and on farms runs upward to a half-million people. Nearly all of them possess some skill in the handling of explosives, but the blasting they do generally does not require extensive knowledge or training. Because blasting is only incidental to other work, even in those industries which do the most work with explosives, the prevalent practice to assure steady employment is to combine the job with an other occupation. In coal mining, for example, the blasting is often done by drillers or coal load ers. In some mines the foreman does the blast ing, assisted by a small crew of helpers. Only in large mines where a high degree of specialization is feasible are blasters used and even here the num ber employed is quite small. The same situation is customary in metal mining. In public construc tion also the blaster must usually acquire another occupation to hold a steady job. Only in quarry ing and in the oil fields is the work generally recog nized as a separate occupation, and even in quarry ing the job is often combined with other work. The outlook for blasters in the postwar period does not differ materially from that of prewar days. Opportunities for highly skilled techni cians are extremely limited, and only a very few men with exceptional abilities will be able to find work. Best chances for such employment exist with concerns who do blasting jobs on a contract basis. But there are only a few scattered concerns in business and all are quite small. For veterans with military experience on blasting and demoli tion crews, the best chances for using their experi ence are to be found in mining, quarrying, and construction. Earnings and Working Conditions There is a very wide range in earnings. The highly skilled blaster called on to do a specialized job may be paid as high as $25 a day or even more, but his chances for steady work are slight. I f he works for a blasting concern his weekly salary may range from $40 to $75 a week or higher, de OTHER TRADES AND IN D U S T R IA L pending on the locality and the kind of work he is qualified to do. The large number of workers who do blasting as part of their work in another occupation are usually paid the wage rate of the principal occu pation. Those in mining for example, who work exclusively at blasting are paid wages generally comparable to the drillers. Only in a few cases is there a premium or bonus fbr their work with explosives. O C C U P A T IO N S 361 The occupation is a hazardous one, principally because many workers who handle explosives have not been sufficiently trained. Since blasting, espe cially in mines, involves a risk to other workers as well, there is a movement to require certificates that the person is adequately trained to reduce hazards to a minimum. Such a requirement might elim inate some of the casual workers and widen oppor tunities for the more specialized persons. Chainmen, Rodmen, and Axmen (D.O.T. 7-87.100 and .200) Outlook Summary Opportunities good for limited numbers only. Training T h e w o r k o f ch a in m en and rod m en is sem i sk ille d a n d g e n e r a lly requ ires p re v io u s tr a in in g Nature of Work o r exp erien ce. W o r k e r s u su a lly learn such jo b s b y o b ta in in g e m p lo y m e n t as axm en a n d p ic k in g Chainmen, rodmen, and axmen act as survey or’s assistants or helpers. Chainmen, under the direction of the surveyor, measure distances with a tape or chain. They work in pairs, with the head chainman establishing the most advanced measuring point, while the rear chainman holds the rear end of the tape at the last established measuring point. Rodmen hold the leveling rod at points designated by the surveyor or instrumentman for the purpose of obtaining the eleva tion of these points. On most surveying parties the duties of the rodman and chainman are in terchangeable. Axmen (unskilled workers) cut and clear brush and trees from the line of survey. Their duties are sometimes performed by the chainman or rodman. These workers are to be found principally in construction, Government, mining, railroad trans portation, agriculture, or in the offices of surveyors who offer professional service to the public. u p rela ted ex p erien ce w h ile in the field w ith su r v e y in g p arties, o r th r o u g h cla ssro o m in stru ctio n in su rv ey in g . Outlook It is estimated that, for at least the next 5 years, the high level of activity in private construction, together with increased Government spending for highway construction, soil conservation, reforest ation, etc., will create a demand for chainmen, rodmen, and axmen considerably above the num ber now employed. But the total number of workers in each o f the occupations is small and a few thousand additional workers will be suffi cient to take care of the anticipated deficit between demand and available supply. Many veterans who received technical training and experience in surveying during military service will doubtless decide to take advantage of the opportunities in this field of civilian work, because in most in stances no further training is necessary. 362 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK HANDBOOK Dry Cleaners (D.O.T. 5-57.110) Outlook Summary Good employment prospects for experienced workers in next few years; also some openings for newcomers. Long-run trend in employment grad ually upward. Duties These workers’ main duty is to operate machines which wash garments in dry-cleaning solvents. This involves determining the proper amount of solvent and, in some cases, the mixture to be used for various fabrics, regulating the length of time each batch of garments must remain in the ma chine, and filtering the solvent to remove lint and other insoluble matter. Most plants employ only one dry cleaner, who supervises a small number of helpers in the operation of several dry-cleaning machines. How to Enter On-the-job training is the customary way of learning the trade. The training requirements vary considerably among plants; a man may be classed as a fully qualified dry cleaner after any where from 6 months to as much as 2 years of on-the-job training. This is ordinarily a man’s occupation. A good many of the workers are Negroes. Outlook Employment prospects are favorable for the next few years. The wartime shortage of younger workers caused by the draft and competition for labor from other industries was intensified by an increased demand for dry-cleaning service. Since the end of the war, many former workers have returned to clry-cleaner jobs, but there is still a shortage in some plants. The actual number of job openings will not be great, however, because Ph o to g r aph by U. S. Departm ent o f La b o r A dry cleaner's main duty is to operate machines which wash gar ments in dry-cleaning solvents. of the fairly small size of the occupation; it is estimated that there were not more than 15,000 dry cleaners in the United States in 1940. In the long run, a gradual increase in employ ment is likely. There has been a growing use of this service as the public has become more drycleaning conscious and as the proportion of gar ments which .are nonwashable has increased. However, employment of dry cleaners may not increase to the same extent as the demand for the service, because the newer dry-cleaning machines can handle a greater volume of garments. Jobs are to be found in all parts of the country. Most o f the work is done in large towns and cities, primarily in the Northeastern, Midwestern, and Pacific Coast States. See also: Spotters, Dry Cleaning, page 363. OTHER TRADES AND I N D U S T R IA L 363 O C C U P A T IO N S Spotters (Dry Cleaning) (D.O.T. 5-57.310) Outlook Summary Openings for both experienced and new workers during the next few years. Long-range trend upward. Duties Spotters are employed in dry-cleaning estab lishments to remove spots from garments by ap plying moisture and chemical solutions. They have to determine the nature of each spot, select the proper solvent for the material and the spot, and rub or brush the stain until it dissolves. They may prepare their own solutions or use standard ones. Spotters may also wash or direct the wash ing of dirty garments in soap solution before attempting to remove spots (called wet cleaning). In very small plants all spotting is done by one individual. In most plants, however, there are two types of spotters: fancy (silk) and rough (wool) spotters. Rough spotters are not as skilled as fancy spotters, because they work with gar ments which have a coarser texture and are more color-fast. How to Enter From 9 months to as much as 3 years of on-thejob training is needed to qualify as a fancy spot ter. In the course of his training, the fancy spotter learns rough spotting, wet cleaning, and dry cleaning. The training is generally of an informal nature, but a few plants have regular 3-year apprenticeship programs. To become a rough spotter requires only 3 months to a year of work experience. In a number of plants, spotting, particularly rough spotting, is done by Negro workers. Outlook Employment opportunities are expected to be good for the next several years. There was a Photograph by U. S . Departm ent o f Labo r Spotters are employed in dry-cleaning establishments to remove spots from garments by applying moisture and chemical solutions. serious wartime shortage of spotters, which was intensified by the fact that few workers had been trained in the previous decade. The shortage to some extent remains. In addition, a number of spotters will soon reach retirement age. Thus, there will be some openings for trainees. Longer-run prospects are for a steady growth in employment. There is an increasing demand for dry-cleaning service, owing in part to the in creasing proportion of garments which are nonwashable. However, this trend may be partly offset by greater use of fabrics which have been made stain and soil resistant by chemical treat ment. Spotters are employed in every State. Job openings will be most numerous in large centers of population, primarily in the Northeastern, Midwestern, and Pacific States. See also: Dry Cleaner, page 362. 364 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK HANDBOOK Jewelry Workers (D.O.T. 4-72.300 to .599; 6-72.300 to .599) Outlook Summary Prospects fairly good for highly skilled men, but very few opportunities likely in next few years for partially skilled men and beginners. Women workers in demand for unskilled and semiskilled jobs except in slack spring months. Employment likely to be very much affected by any decline in general business activity. Nature o f Work Jewelry workers make rings, chains, bracelets, fraternal emblems, religious jewelry, brooches, earrings, and other ornaments either from pre cious metals such as gold, silver, platinum, or palladium, or from other materials such as brass, copper or plastics. They may also design the jewelry, do engraving, or do stone setting using precious, semiprecious, or synthetic stones. Most jewelry workers are employed in manu facturing plants, though some large retail jewelry stores or large department stores have a few high ly skilled men who specialize in making jewelry on order. Some plants produce both precious jew elry and medium- and low-priced articles; many specialize in one or the other. The types of jobs differ from plant to plant, de pending not only on the kind of article made but also on the method of production. As a rule, the more expensive the products, the more skill is re quired. In plants which manufacture precious jewelry, about two-thirds of the employees are skilled workers such as goldsmiths, platinumsmiths, stone setters, engravers, designers, filers, casters, and tool and die makers. Many o f these shops are very small, having less than 20 workers, and the jewelers there generally have to be skilled all-round workers. Only about 1 out of 10 work ers in these plants is a woman. Shops making the lower-priced jewelry are gen erally much larger, the biggest employing as many as a thousand people. There is much mechaniza tion and specialization and the bulk of the articles are stamped out by machine. Only about onefourth of the workers in such plants are skilled, their jobs being to design the pieces of jewelry, make the models or dies, or do engraving or fine casting, soldering, or bench work. Some o f the more routine and simpler bench and soldering work is done by the less skilled workers, who also handle the presses and do other machine work. In the medium- and low-priced jewelry shops, about one-half the workers are women, who are em ployed primarily in semiskilled and unskilled oc cupations. A good many jewelry workers have their own shops, often employing one to five other workers. Many of these small shops handle repair work in addition to manufacturing. Some men eventually acquire their own retail jewelry stores. How To Enter The usual way to enter the trade is to start in one of the simpler jobs. The beginner may be a charg er (setting up the work for soldering), do simple soldering work or polishing, or perhaps be on an assembling job. As he gains experience and skill, he may have a chance to move to more difficult work. The opportunity to become skilled is much better in precious than in lower-priced jewelry plants. Formal apprenticeships are not very widespread; those that exist last from 2 to 4 years, depending on the particular occupation involved. To become a highly skilled all-round jeweler usu ally takes still a few more years o f experience. S om e e m p lo y e rs b elieve th a t tra d e sch o o ls are n o t o f m u ch h elp and p r e fe r in stea d to tr a in w o r k ers them selves. S in ce the w a r, h o w e v e r, th ere has been an increase in th e n u m ber o f tra d e sch ools a n d im p ro v e m e n t in the q u a lity o f th e ir in s tr u c tion . N everth eless, a d d itio n a l p r a c tic a l e x p e r i ence is n ecessary a fte r c o m p le tin g a sch o o l cou rse in o r d e r t o b ecom e a sk ille d w ork er. Because this is light sedentary work, it has been found suitable for people with physical handicaps OTHER TRAD ES AND IN D U S T R IA L 365 O C C U P A T IO N S of certain types. Many disabled veterans have been employed successfully in this field. Outlook This is not a large field of employment. The total number of jewelry workers employed was only about 20,000 to 25,000 in 1939; it was some what higher in 1947 and early 1948. Skilled workers are in demand and will prob ably continue to be needed for some time, espe cially in the case of toolroom workers such as toolmakers, hub and die cutters, and chain-machine mechanics. Other skilled workers, such as jewel ers and those doing complicated soldering work, were likewise in great demand during the sum mer and fall of 1947, though the supply was ade quate for the seasonally slow spring months. The trade is flooded with partially skilled men, how ever—men with a little training who had been able to obtain jobs during the war and early postwar period because of the severe shortage of skilled workers and the unprecedented boom in jewelry sales. With the return of many skilled workers from war industries and the armed services and the slight downward trend in jewelry sales since the middle of 1946, particularly in the high-priced lines, some of the less-qualified workers have been forced out. In the semiskilled and unskilled occupations where women predominate, a marked shortage of workers during the rush seasons has developed since the end of the war. Turn-over is always high in these occupations and has been greater than usual in the past 2 years as many young women have left their factory jobs to go back to their homes. Some plants have been attempting to use young boys in place of girls in such unskilled occupations as foot-press operator, in order to re lieve the shortage of women workers. The few jobs in the semiskilled and unskilled categories in which men are customarily employed have been easily filled from the reservoir of partially skilled men; positions of this type will not be easy for newcomers to obtain in the near future. Training opportunities in the skilled trades will probably be still more difficult to find, since a considerable number of apprentices, including many disabled veterans, have been taken on since the end of the war. Ph otograph by U. S. Departm ent of labo r This skilled jew elry worker is setting a diamond— a job that takes several years of practice to do well. There are still some opportunities to open a shop of one’s own. Highly skilled men with several years’ experience will generally have the best chance of success. Several thousand dollars’ capi tal is a minimum requirement. The outlook in this field depends on general business conditions to a degree greater than in many other industries, since this is a luxury trade. Plants which produce medium- and lower-priced articles are somewhat less affected by unfavorable business conditions than those making more ex pensive jewelry. Moreover, in recent years, the former type of jewelry has been making steady inroads into the latter. This trend will tend to reduce the number of job opportunities for skilled workers. Technological changes—more mechani zation and improvement in types of machines al ready in use—will probably also tend to reduce employment slightly over the long run. Most jobs will be in the northeastern part of the country. The manufacture of precious jewelry is concentrated in New York and New Jersey, the manufacture of medium- and low-priced jewelry in New England, particularly in the ProvideRceAttleboro region. The cities with the largest num ber of jewelry workers are New York, Providence, Newark, and to a lesser extent Philadelphia, Chi cago, Indianapolis, and Los Angeles. 366 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Earnings Where To Go for More Information Average earnings of production workers in the jewelry industry in January 1948 were $51.54 for an average workweek of 42 hours. It should be noted, however, that this average represents some overtime and includes the exceptionally high earn ings of top-skilled men. During the late winter and spring months when work is slack, many employees are laid off. This is especially true of semiskilled and unskilled workers. In the case of highly skilled men, many employers prefer to keep a small number of work ers on the pay roll for all or most of the year and have them put in a lot of overtime during the busy fall season. The following organizations may be helpful in providing information on job opportunities, training, and related matters: In te r n a tio n a l J e w e lr y W o r k e r s U n io n , A F L S u ite 8 2 5 551 F if t h A v e . N ew Y o rk 17, N . Y . N e w E n g la n d M a n u f a c t u r in g s m it h s ’ A s s o c ia tio n S h e r a t o n -B ilt m o r e H o te l P r o v id e n c e 2, R . I. J e w e le r s ’ a n d P la y t h in g s , J e w e lr y a n d N o v e lty tio n a l U n io n , C IO 2 2 5 L a f a y e t t e S t., R o o m GOO N e w Y o r k 1 2, N . Y . W ork ers S ilv e r In te rn a Dental Mechanics (D.O.T. 0-50.06) Outlook Summary Job prospects fairly good for highly skilled, experienced men. Occupation now overcrowded with less skilled workers, and situation likely to become worse in next few years. Slow increase in employment probable in long run. Nature of Work Dental mechanics (often known also as dental technicians) make and repair, according to dentists’ specifications, dentures, bridges, inlays, and other dental restorations. They range in skill from semiskilled assistants in such jobs as plasterman, polisher, and packer to highly skilled me chanics such as set-up men and head casters. Me chanics usually specialize in one of three major types of work: (1) Rubber and acrylic, (2) gold and nonprecious metal casting, and (3) ceramics (hand-made porcelain work). However, in small laboratories they may have to do all three types. Nearly 18,000 dental mechanics were employed in July 1947, according to one estimate. O f these, over 14,000 worked in commercial dental labora tories ; the remainder (about 3,500) were employed directly by dentists. Many technicians have their own laboratories; in fact, almost all dental labora tories are owned by men who are or who were formerly dental mechanics. Laboratories vary in size. The majority of commercial laboratories are small, employing one to five men; few labora tories have over 25 workers; the very largest em ploy not more than 300. How to Enter On-the-job training is the most practical and economical way of learning this craft. As a rule, dental laboratories prefer to train their own work ers. There are some schools offering formal courses, but few of them give training that will be acceptable to most employers. One or two dental colleges now offer approved courses, how ever, and the number doing so may increase. Three to five years’ work experience is needed to qualify as a senior mechanic, and generally 15 to 20 years to reach the highest level of skill. Outlook Employment in this occupation has risen sharp ly since the end of the war. In 1940-41 there were only about 15,000 workers in the trade, including some unemployed. The number employed dropped sharply during the war, but by mid-1947 had risen to about 18,000. However, the dental profession, upon which dental mechanics depend for business, has not expanded sufficiently since the war to pro vide full-time employment for all of the great OTHER TRADES AND IN D U S T R IA L numbers of workers who have recently entered the field. Skilled and experienced men still have a fairly easy time finding jobs and will probably continue to find openings during the next few years. Jobs for partially trained workers are much more difficult to locate, and the situation will probably become even worse in the next few years because of the several thousand people now in training. Beginners seeking on-the-job training are likely to have an increasingly hard time finding openings. Long-run prospects appear somewhat more en couraging provided general business conditions remain good. In response to a growing realiza tion of the necessity for expansion of dental care, there will probably be a slow increase in the num ber o f dentists (see p. 45), and, consequently, in the number of dental mechanics needed. In ad dition, there will be several hundred job openings each year as a result of deaths and retirements. Those dental mechanics who find jobs will have a good chance of steady employment over a long pe riod of time, although a decline in general business activity would lead to a few lay-offs and to parttime work for some. Although mechanics are employed in all parts of the country, the majority of jobs are in the larg er cities. More than half the dental mechanics em ployed in 1947 were in the following 8 States: New York, Ohio, Illinois, New Jersey, California, Min nesota, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. In small towns, particularly in the Midwest, some dentists have their work done by an out-of-State O C C U P A T IO N S 367 laboratory. Job opportunities in such towns will, of course, be very limited. Earnings In 1945, typical earnings of skilled dental me chanics employed by others ranged from $50 to $70 a week, according to limited data for a few large cities. The highly skilled men earned much more. By early 1948, wage rates for skilled work ers had risen considerably; the usual starting rate for learners was about $25 a week in some large cities. Since the work falls off during the sum mer in most areas, annual earnings may be reduced by short lay-offs in that season. Earnings o f selfemployed mechanics vary considerably, depending not only upon the location of the laboratory and the individual’s skill but also upon the number of men working for him. Where To Go for More Information For more information on job opportunities, training, and other questions, one may write t o : D e n ta l L a b o r a to r ie s I n s tit u te o f A m e r ic a 7 S o u th D e a r b o r n S t. C h ic a g o 3 , 111. The Journal o f the American Dental Associa tion, in its issues of August 15, 1947, and January 1948, carried articles on the education and training of dental technicians. I f this publication is not available at local libraries, it may be obtained from : A m e r ic a n D e n ta l A s s o c ia tio n 2 2 2 E a s t S u p e r io r St. Chicago 11, 111. Optical Mechanics (Ophthalmic) (D.O.T. 5-08.010) Outlook Summary Employment prospects for skilled mechanics fairly good in most parts of country in near future; newcomers and partially trained workers may have hard time finding jobs. Expanding em ployment expected in long run. Nature of Work Optical mechanics (or opticians) are of two main types—lens grinders, who grind and polish surfaces of lenses, and benchmen, whose duties include cutting the edges of the lens to desired shape and size and inserting it in the frame. Much of the work is precise, and it, may require workers to be on their feet for extended periods of time. Most lens grinders work for wholesale optical distributors. A few are employed in retail shops, but the tendency is for such shops not to do sur face grinding but to send their work to a whole sale house. On the other hand, sizable numbers of benchmen work for optometrists and other re 368 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K tail dispensers as well as for wholesale establish ments. Those employed in retail shops often com bine work in edging and fitting lenses with the actual dispensing of eyeglasses to customers. A good many optical mechanics who have the nec essary capital are in business for themselves. Training and Other Qualifications Two to three years’ training and experience in the trade are necessary to become a fairly satis factory surface grinder or benchman, and longer— perhaps two more years—to become fully quali fied. In some shops, a formal system of appren ticeship prevails. Wholesale shops generally pro vide the best opportunity to acquire all-round skill and knowledge. Connecticut is the only State which licenses optical mechanics, but California and New York as well as Connecticut have legal requirements as to who may dispense eyeglasses. Outlook This is a small occupation. In early 1948, only about 7,500 mechanics and apprentices were em ployed in wholesale optical establishments and not more than 20 percent additional full-time me chanics in retail prescription shops, according to one estimate. The current employment situation is much more balanced than during the war, when a marked shortage of skilled workers developed owing to inductions and enlistments into the armed forces and sharply rising demand for eye glasses. An unusually large number of inexpe rienced workers were hired for training in an effort to relieve this shortage. As these new work ers completed their training and veterans returned to their jobs, the shortage of skilled workers was much relieved. However, skilled men should still be able to get jobs in most parts of the country, although labor surpluses are reported in some areas. The number of people in training is now less than during the war, but it is still considerable. Newcomers and partially qualified workers may have difficulty finding employment in many areas. Men able to find work or establish their own businesses may look forward generally to con tinued employment for many years. The trade is less affected by declines in general business ac tivity than many other fields. In addition, pro vided that general economic conditions remain good, there is likely to be a continued increase in the number of eyeglass wearers— owing to the growing proportion of old people in the popula tion, growing public awareness of the importance of proper eye care, and other factors. On the other hand, technological improvements will tend to re duce labor requirements. These developments promise to bring about such basic changes in the trade that it is important for new entrants to have good general training, since specialized training might become obsolete. Jobs are to be found in most parts o f the coun try. However, there will sometimes be fewer optical mechanics relative to demand— and, there fore, better employment and business opportuni ties— in small than in large cities. Where To Go for Additional Information O p tic a l W h o le s a le r s N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n Times Bldg. N ew Y ork 18, N . Y . See also: Precision Optical Workers, page 368. Precision Optical Workers (D.O.T. 5-08.071 and .081; 7-08.028) Outlook Summary Nature of Work V e r y g o o d em p loy m e n t p ro s p e cts f o r to p -s k ille d T h e se w ork ers g r in d a n d p o lis h o p t ic a l ele m e n ; f a ir ly g o o d p ro sp e c ts f o r th ose w ith m ed iu m m ents— lenses, m irr o rs , p rism s, a n d .optical flats— sk ill. J o b ch an ces f o r n ew com ers in sem isk illed jo b s n ot g o o d in n ear fu tu re . m en t tre n d u p w a rd . L o n g -r u n e m p lo y f o r b in o cu la r s, telescop es, ra n g e fin d ers, p h o t o g r a p h ic e q u ip m en t, a n d o th e r h ig h ly a ccu ra te o p tica l instru m en ts. M u ch o f the w o r k is d on e to e x OTHER TRADES AND IN D U S T R IA L 369 O C C U P A T IO N S tremely close tolerances—much finer than in ophthalmic work. The group includes workers of several skill grades ranging from semiskilled to very highly skilled. Most precision optical workers are employed in factories; others in Government establishments such as arsenals and navy yards, in small custom shops, and in a limited number of precision instru ment repair shops. Some highly skilled workers are in business for themselves, doing custom work for various industries. In most factories the work is on a mass-production basis, and the bulk of the workers are semiskilled. However, some facto ries, as well as custom shops, produce optical ele ments in small numbers on special order; in such places practically all the workers are highly skilled, able to work to close tolerances and to per form all the various operations. Qualifications To become a skilled precision optical worker, it is necessary to complete a 3- or 4-year apprentice ship or equivalent all-round on-the-job training. Learners usually are assigned to the rougher oper ations first and are set to work on the final polish ing and correction of lenses only toward the end of their training program. To handle the most difficult and precise operations requires years of experience after completion of an apprenticeship. Semiskilled production-line work can usually be learned in a few months. Experience on the pro duction line does not qualify a person as a skilled, all-round worker, although it may shorten the nec essary apprenticeship period. Outlook Employment of precision optical workers was below the wartime peak of 15,000 in early 1948, but far above the prewar level of only about 1,000 to 1,500. The increased employment during the war, in response to heavy military requirements, took place in the semiskilled categories; there were no substantial gains in employment of skilled mechanics. With the curtailment in military or ders (which was offset only in part by increased production o f cameras and other peacetime prod ucts) it was the semiskilled workers who were laid off. A few of these workers have been taken on as apprentices in custom optical shops; men with production-line experience are given preference as Ph o to g r a p h by U . S. d ep a r tm e n t o f La b o r Precision optical worker grinding a lens blank. apprentices if they are willing to accept the lower pay scale. However, most of the displaced war time employees have left the industry. It is re ported that some of them would like to return, and that these experienced workers will generally be given preference for any semiskilled jobs that may open up in the near future. Employment of skilled precision optical work ers has tended to increase rather than decrease since the end of the war. Government subsidized scientific projects are expanding and ordering more custom-made precision instruments; manu facturers in other industries are working to closer tolerances and need more special optical elements for precision measuring devices; other expanded and new needs for optical instruments have arisen. There are definite shortages of top-skilled men; a supply about equal to the demand in the case of men with medium skill. The outlook is for continued increases in em ployment among skilled men. In the case of the semiskilled, employment may not rise as fast as production because of increased mechanization. 370 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK Factors which will make for expanding produc tion in the industry are the further increases ex pected in scientific research and precision methods in manufacturing; the growing market for tele vision receivers; and the growing foreign market for optical goods. Should there be a large rearma ment program, this would create a great addi tional demand for optical instruments. What job openings arise will be mainly in New HANDBOOK York State, where the large, long-established pre cision optical manufacturing firms are concen trated, and, to a lesser extent, in some other east ern seaboard States and California. Chicago is also emerging as a center of optics. Opportuni ties, particularly for skilled men, may be found near some of the universities and scientific and in dustrial research centers where custom shops are generally located. Watch and Clock Factory Workers (D .O .T . 4-72.000 to .299 and 6-72.000 to .299) Outlook Summary Good job prospects for experienced workers; some openings also for newcomers. Long-run trend in employment slowly upward. cheaper watches; and the latter in turn requires more skill than work on all except the most ex pensive clocks. Employees generally must have some additional training to transfer from one branch of the industry to another. Nature o f Work Outlook There are many specialized jobs in watch and clock factories. The typical plant has many de partments (spring, dial, plate, and so forth) and five major types of workers: (1) Machine opera tors who make the various parts; (2) parts finish ers, whose work is done both by machine and by hand; (3) assemblers; (4) final finishers, timers, and adjusters; and (5) inspectors and supervisors. Most of the workers are semiskilled, and a very large number are women. The work differs some what from one plant to another, depending on the kind of timepiece made and also on the method of production. In factories which do not make all the parts for the finished timepiece but instead buy some or all of them, an especially large proportion of the employees do assembly work. Such fac tories may have no parts finishers and few, if any, machine operators. Employment of watch and clock factory work ers is now higher than in any prewar year. In December 1947 the industry had about 28,000 pro duction workers (o f whom the great majority were in the skilled and semiskilled jobs referred to in this statement). Manufacturers have a bigger demand than they can take care of, though they are producing at ca pacity. A few companies have built or are build ing new plants and training new workers to run them. Employment may continue to rise slightly until the new plants are fully staffed. Then it will probably level off and remain very high for at least a few years, provided that general economic con ditions continue to be good. There is likely to be considerable room for new entrants each year owing to turn-over. A large proportion o f the workers in the industry are women, and great numbers have been dropping out to assume household responsibilities. Other employees have left to take jobs which involve less precise and exacting w ork; transfers o f this type have been especially numerous during the last few years when jobs have been relatively easy to find. Over the long run, employment will probably tend to rise slowly in all branches of the industry, Ilotv To Enter Beginners usually start out in one of the simpler jobs. It takes 3 to 6 months of on-the-job train ing to learn to perform such a job satisfactorily and at least 2 to 3 years to reach the highest level of skill. As a rule, work on the more expensive watches requires more skill than work on the OTHER TRADES AND I N D U S T R IA L because of the increase in watch and clock owner ship, which is anticipated as long as general eco nomic conditions remain good. Most jobs will be in the following five States— Connecticut, Illinois, Massachusetts, New York, O C C U P A T IO N S 371 and Pennsylvania. Before the war, those five States employed about nine-tenths of all watch and clock factory workers. See also: Watch Repairmen, p. 220. Linemen, Electric Light and Power (D .O .T . 5 - 5 3 .4 2 0 ) Outlook Summary Good employment prospects during the next several years both for experienced workers and for new workers; over the longer run, there will be steady employment for experienced workers and a small number of openings for new workers. Nature of Work Power linemen install and maintain the over head wires and cables, and equipment used in transmitting and distributing electric power to consumers. Their work includes the stringing and restringing of wire spans and the mounting of cross arms and transformers, switches, insulators, and other equipment. Some linemen specialize in the construction of new lines, particularly the high-voltage lines which carry electric current over long distances and from power plants to sub stations. Others do mainly normal maintenance work on the lines and minor installations, such as the low-voltage lines leading from main lines to houses and stores. Some companies have crews of linemen to make emergency repairs, such as those needed when storms break down the lines. Training and Qualifications A 4-year apprenticeship or the equivalent in other on-the-job training is usually required to become a journeyman lineman. Men trained as telephone linemen in the Army may receive some credit for this experience and thus reduce the length of the learning period for power-line work. A number of months’ experience as a helper or groundman is often needed before entering line man training. During the apprenticeship period, courses in elementary electricity, mathematics, blueprint reading, and safety practices are given. Some companies have recently set up special in tensive training courses in actual line work which shorten the apprenticeship or learning period by as much as 2 years. Because of the strenuous nature of the work, men must be in good physical condition. For this reason a man may not be able to work at pole climbing to as advanced an age as he might work in less physically demanding occupations. Where Employed Most linemen work for privately owned electric power companies. There are also jobs for linemen 372 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK in electric power projects operated by the Federal Government, power systems owned by many cities and towns, and in rural cooperatives. Some line men work for construction firms that erect and in stall power lines for electric companies and Gov ernment agencies, principally the high voltage transmission lines. These workers move from one job to another as each is completed. Outlook Good prospects during the next several years both for experienced workers and for new work ers. Resumption of normal maintenance, in creased construction activity, and extension of power lines to new consumers, particularly in ru ral areas, will increase the needs for linemen con siderably above wartime levels. In the longerrun period there should be steady employment for experienced workers and a small number of open ings for new workers. The expected continued ex HANDBOOK pansion of power generation and distribution will cause small and gradual increases in employment of linemen, and in addition men must be trained to replace those leaving the occupation because of death, retirement, and changing to other jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Journeymen linemen in privately owned electric light and power companies earned an average of $1.61 per hour, straight time, in March and April 1948. Most light and power companies provide annual vacations with pay, and many give pensions and sickness benefits. Working conditions are often hazardous be cause of the extensive amount of climbing in volved, outdoor work in all weather, and danger of electrocution and shock. Linemen may occa sionally work long and irregular hours during storms, floods, and other emergencies to repair damage and restore service. Telephone Installers, Repairmen, and Linemen (D .O .T . 5-53.030, .250, and .410) Outlook Suanmary Qualifications Good employment prospects in immediate fu ture; fewer openings after backlog of orders for telephones is reduced. Employment likely to be relatively stable over long run. High-school graduates are given preference for jobs in these occupations, and knowledge of basic principles of electricity is an asset. New entrants are usually taken on for general telephone work ayd are given all-round classroom and on-the-job training. Then, they are placed in the particular occupation where workers are needed at the time. They usually progress within a single craft, though men are often shifted from one type of work to another as need arises. It usually takes about 8 years to advance to the top of the wage-progres sion schedule in the Bell System companies. Some of the small companies also have progression schedules covering varied periods of time, while others promote workers on the basis of their indi vidual competence. Veterans are usually granted some credit for time spent in the service. Nature of Work Group includes station installers and repairmen, who install and maintain telephone equipment in private homes, offices, and pay telephone booths; P B X installers and repairmen, who work on pri vate switchboard equipment; central-office repair men, who do maintenance work on the telephone companies’ central-office equipment; linemen, who string and repair wire and place cable; and cable splicers, who splice and maintain aerial and under ground cable. Most workers in these occupations are employed by the associated companies of the Bell System, but some work for independent tele phone companies, which have about one-sixth of the total telephones in the United States. Outlook Employment in these occupations is at the high est level in the history o f the industry. Since the OTHER TRADES AND IN D U S T R IA L war the number of workers employed in these occupations by the Bell companies has risen sharply; in early 1948, it was close to 110,000. Some of these companies were still expanding their work force, though many had passed their peak hiring rate. Replacement needs also provide siz able numbers of employment opportunities. The situation is similar in the independent companies. The backlog of orders for telephone service is still very large, because new orders are being re ceived nearly as fast as long-standing orders can be taken care of. The current level of employment is likely to continue as long as this backlog exists. Then the companies may find it necessary to re duce their forces by tapering off hiring or dis continuing it entirely for a while. Over the long run, there will be a tendency for the telephone business to increase and employment to rise at a moderate pace as long as general eco nomic conditions remain favorable. Should there be a decline in business activity, employment in the telephone industry would probably be less af O C C U P A T IO N S 373 fected than employment in many other industries, though during the thirties there was a great deal of part-time work and some lay-offs of telephone workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting rates with Bell companies ranged from about $30 to $38 a week in early 1948, depending on the community. The highest salaries provided for by the progression schedules varied from about $68 to $84 (somewhat less for linemen). The standard workweek is 40 hours, but overtime is frequently necessary. Linemen have to work out of doors in all kinds o f weather. Where To Go for Additional Information People interested in employment with a tele phone company should go to their nearest central office where they will be directed to the proper person to see. See also: Central Office Equipment Installers, Telephone. Central Office Equipment Installers, Telephone (D .O .T . 5-53.010) Outlook Summary Some opportunities for newcomers in immedi ate future; shortage of job applicants in some localities, surplus in others. Employment now higher than ever before; likely to decline after backlog of work is reduced. Nature of Work The group covered by this statement is engaged mainly in installing manual and dial switchboards and other equipment in the central offices of tele phone companies. In general, the duties involve placing the equipment in location designated in floor plans, connecting the various units with cables, and adjusting the devices for maximum efficiency. The principal employer is Western Electric Co., a subsidiary of the American Tele phone & Telegraph Co. The next largest is the American Equipment Co., which produces a good deal of equipment for foreign companies as well 793996°—49-----25 as for independent telephone companies in this country. The associated companies of the Bell System also employ a small number of installers in large cities, to make relatively simple installa tions. Qualifications Applicants must have at least a high-school education or its equivalent. Courses in electricity are an asset. Men with college education have an advantage in competing for advancement within the company, especially if they have engi neering training. It is absolutely necessary that the applicant be willing to travel. The Western Electric Co. gives new employees both classroom and on-the-job training. It takes about 6 years to work up to the top of the progres sion schedule. Some of the small companies also have progression schedules covering various pe riods of time, while others promote workers on the basis of their individual competence. 374 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK Outlook Employment o f central-office installers is at the highest level it has ever reached. It has been in creasing rapidly since the end o f the war, because the telephone industry has been engaged in the largest program of expansion in central-office equipment in its history. Opportunities for new comers have not been as numerous as might be ex pected, however, because returning veterans have been reabsorbed without displacing men hired during the war and because material shortages have delayed the delivery of equipment. In some localities, the number of applicants for jobs with the Western Electric Co. is greater than the num ber of openings, but in others the company is hav ing a hard time finding qualified help, as are the smaller companies. Not much further increase in employment is an ticipated. Future hirings will be largely to meet replacement needs. It is expected that the present high levels o f employment will continue at least HANDBOOK until 1949 and perhaps longer, provided that the great backlog of demand for telephones persists. When this has been taken care of, employment will probably decline considerably and then become relatively stable. Earnings and Hours of Work For most installers, wages started at 80 to 90 cents an hour in early 1948, with increases up to a maximum o f $1.50 to $1.66 an hour after about 6 to 8 years’ experience. The standard workweek is 40 hours, but it is often necessary to work over time. Where To Go for Additional Information People interested in employment as a centraloffice installer should go to the nearest central o f fice, where they will be directed to the proper per son to see. See also: Telephone Installers, Repairmen, and Linemen, page 372. Armature Winders (D .O .T . 6-99.011) Outlook Summary There will be a moderate increase in employ ment during the next few years with some open ings for new workers; a slight drop in employment will occur thereafter, but the long-range trend is upward. Nature o f Work Armature winders fit wires into the slots of armature cores of electric motors and generators. The armature is the moving part of a motor and generator. It consists of a metallic core and wire coils through which electric current flows. The armature winder may wind the wire coils onto the core by hand, by using a coil winding machine, or by inserting previously prepared wire coils into the slots of the armature core. He may also be required to cut and pack insulating material around and in the armature core. Armature winders are employed in plants which manufacture small motors and generators. These plants make large quantities of standard motors and generators, so that armature winding is mainly repetitive, and can be learned in a few months of on-the-job training. In motor-repair shops and in the manufacture of the larger specially de signed motors and generators, motor repairmen or all-round assemblers do most of the armature winding as part of their broader jobs, and only a few armature winders are employed. About half of the armature winders employed are women. Employment in the occupation is largely con centrated in a number of electrical equipment manufacturing centers, including such cities as Schenectady, N. Y .; Pitsburgh, P a .; and St. Louis, Mo. Outlook During the next few years there should be a moderate increase in employment of armature winders and some opening for new workers. The production of small motors and generators has been maintained at a high level. Prospects are for a further increase in production, because of OTHER TRADES AND I N D U S T R IA L the strong demands for many products contain ing small motors or generators, including automo biles, aircraft, farm machinery, tractors, refrig erators, and washing machines. As a result, mo tor and generator plants will be taking on addi tional workers during the next few years, includ ing a number of trainees in armature winding. However, the total number of new openings for armature winders will be limited because of the relatively small size of the occupation—a total O C C U P A T IO N S 375 of several thousand are employed throughout the country. Over a longer period, when output of automobiles and other products catches up with demand, there will be some decrease in the need for small motors and generators, and a decline in the number of jobs for armature winders will result. Thereafter, the long-range trend toward further electrification of homes and industry will tend generally to increase employment in this occupation. Agricultural Occupations' General Outlook for Farming Farming is not an easy occupation. Many kinds require long days of hard work, especially during the growing and harvesting seasons. Investment and operating costs for adequate size units are high and, in many cases, risks are great. I f these cautions are observed, farming offers an excellent opportunity for vigorous, intelligent operators. Farming is not just one occupation. There are many types of farms requiring different qualifica tions and presenting varied opportunities in d if ferent parts of the United States. The following descriptive material is arranged by groups of States to enable some geographical1 1This section w prepared by the B as ureau of Agricultural Econom ics, U S. Departm . ent of Agriculture. distinction among types of farms. This arrange ment is unjust to the more commonly used general ized type-of-farming areas, such as the Corn Belt which stretches into parts of the Great Plains States and Lake States. However, it does allow more attention to the wide variety of farms ap pearing in all regions of the country and was selected largely for that reason. Farming an Essential Industry Food production is an essential in our national economy and, today, is fairly well protected by the Nation in the interests of conservation and adequate supplies of food. However, there is a substantial turn-over in farm operators. As in C H AR T 46 PRICES R E C E I V E D AND PAID BY F A R M E R S B Y M O N T H S , 1910 TO 1948 IN D E X UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 376 *PRICES PAID NOT AVAILABLE BY MONTHS, 1910-22 Sourc*. BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS GENERAL OUTLOOK FOR F A R M IN G 377 any business, hundreds of farmers go broke each year. Many thousands are relatively inefficient, which is not amazing in view of the fact that 10 percent of our farmers produce over half our food. Thousands o f men are needed each year to re place the aged, the physically disabled (farm acci dent rates are high), and the economic casualties of bad financing or inefficient operation. In addi tion, there are thousands o f farms that are too small or too poor in resources to offer an adequate living wage. However, these units may provide additional income to those receiving pensions or Among widely varying factors to be considered in farm location are community facilities, includ ing churches, schools, stores, transportation, rec reation, entertainment, hospitals, and medical care. To some extent, facilities vary with the pop ulation ; that is, more of them are available in the heavily populated areas. However, existence alone must be tempered by quality. Age, local cus toms, wealth, industry, kind of people, geography, and many other factors affect the acceptability of these facilities which, even in our great country, vary from excellent to very poor. Their impor annuities. Though cash income from these “ parttime” units is small, they do offer low living costs in inexpensive residences and food products for family consumption. It should be noted that resi dences in some areas are quite expensive in com parison with total farm investment. This is par ticularly true in the Northeast and in suburban areas of all regions. tance to satisfactory living warrants careful in vestigation of them as well as farming possibilities in final selection of a farm. Farm Finances The price of farms and the amount of money needed to start farming varies greatly. Potential farmers should not be discouraged by the high cost 378 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK HANDBOOK Co u r te s y W hen choosing a farm, the family must be kept in mind. of certain types of farms, particularly in the Mid west. Many financial aids are available. More important is the fact that these costs represent owner-operated units of fairly well established farmers. In contrast, a large proportion of all farms are operated by tenants who lease land and buildings and use their capital for equipment and operating costs, including livestock. On this basis, a fairly large unit can be operated with a lim ited amount of capital. Many tenant farmers pre fer such an arrangement and continue to lease al though they could easily own their properties. Location during inflation is not impossible, but is likely to favor renting more than buying. Any assumed debt should be considered in relation to long-time earning capacity of the farm. Some idea of the opportunities in farming in different regions of the country can be obtained by examining farmers’ reports of their incomes and investment in 1945. Farms are grouped in of u . S. d e p a r t m e n t o f a g r ic u l t u r e Schools, churches, and other community facilities are important in the choice. table 1 by economic classes, as determined largely by the value of what farmers sold or used in their own living. Every region has some large-scale and many very small farms in each. This is the basis for saying that there is a greater variation of opportunity within each region than there is among regions; or, perhaps, that a man with deter mination can pick any area of the country he likes and make a good living on the right farm in that area. However, it may be a little easier where reports show that there is a larger number of fairly prosperous farms. Some idea of changes in net income from year to year can be gained by looking at those of farms selected from various parts of the country (table 3). These net incomes differ widely by type; but the changes from 1939 to 1946 are more significant because they show what can happen to income on just one farm. Winter-wheat farms had the great est fluctuation in income while dairy units tended to be most stable. GENERAL OUTLOOK FOR Study of the information in tables 1 and 2 gives some idea of the amount of money needed to run farms of different sizes in different parts of the country. This information also indicates the lim ited incomes that can be expected and the difficul ties to be faced if farming is started on a shoe string. These difficulties are not so much a bar rier to prospective farm operators, as they are a warning that unusual care should be used in se lecting the right farm. Any individual judgment should be aided by consulting all local sources of advice in respect to proper size, type of farming, location, and prospective return. In most cases, this will be necessary to obtain the loan to start farming. In any case, such consultation will be important if the prospect hopes to become a pros perous member of the farming community. Farm Training Much depends on the training the individual receives for farming. Obviously, there are ex cellent and poor schools, with many in between. Also, a good school may not be available in the area or for the type of farming selected. The choice of a school should be very carefully dis cussed by the counselor and, if crowded conditions prevent free selection, it may be desirable to do some apprentice training in the chosen area before going to school. Owing to the very general nature of the advice presented here, purchase of an actual farm before schooling is not recommended. T a b l e 1 .— Number and average size of farm s by economic class, United States, 194,5 1 Average per farm 2 Type of Farm The use of the word “type” in the discussion of farming may be confusing. Type, in this context, denotes the major source of income. Thus, by definition, a dairy farm obtains over 40 percent of its gross income from dairy product sales and no other source approaches 40 percent. More de tailed analysis would point out that very few farms receive all their income from only one source; thus, we have dairy-poultry, dairy-hog, T 2 . — Number o f farm s and average value of land, buildings, and m achinery , by economic class and by major region in the U. S ., 194-5 1 a b l e Econom ic class Economic class Gross value of prod uct T hou sa n d s D o lla r s 102.1 Large-scale units____ _408. 9 Large family farms------M edium family fa rm s.. i, 173.0 Small family farms_____ 1,661.9 Small holdings_______ . 923.5 602.2 Part-time farms_______ Nominal u n its.._ . . . . 987.3 39, 203 10, 484 4, 658 1,874 825 574 264 All land A cres 2,905 514 236 125 72 43 65 Har vested crop land A cres 384 193 104 46 22 10 11 Value of land and build ings D o lla r s 78, 422 26,067 11,135 5,117 2,305 2,585 3,583 Value of im ple ments and ma chin ery D o lla r s 6,452 3,021 1,616 595 204 209 176 1 Master Sample, U. S. Census of Agriculture. 2 Average of all farms in each class. N o te .—This information b y economic class is a convenient means of showing how investment costs vary among different sizes of business, what the more common sizes are, and the average value of product sold or con sumed b y the different classes. TJ. S. North South West N um ber of farms (in thousands) 102.1 Large-scale units_______ ___________ Large family farms. _ . . ___________ 408.9 1,173.0 M edium family f a r m s ...___ . . . . Small family farm s... . _______ . . . 1,661.9 Small h o ld in g s .___ . ____________ 923.5 602.2 Part-time farms_____ ______ _______ Nominal units________ _____ _____ 987.3 41.2 263.4 752.2 635.7 217.1 218.4 353.4 25.1 76.9 311.8 923.6 674.2 323.1 546.2 35.8 68.6 109.0 102.6 32.2 60.7 85.7 5, 858. 9 2,483.4 2,880. 9 494.6 T otal__________________ _____ Average value of land and buildings Large-scale units______ _ _________ Large family farm s... . . . ________ Medium family farms .. Small family farms___ . . . _____ S m a llh old in gs______ . _ . .. Part-time farms . ____ . Nominal units______________________ Average for all farms-------------- $78. 422 26,067 11,135 5,117 2, 305 2, 585 3, 583 $60,017 26, 629 12.191 6,608 3,293 3,065 4,635 $87,108 23,309 6,347 3, 791 1,921 2,052 2, 444 $93, 509 26. 999 12,509 7, 813 3,690 3,687 6,486 8,100 10,394 4, 644 16, 706 Average value of implements and machinery Large-scale units________ ________ _ Large family farms__________________ Medium family farms. _ . . . ______ .... Small family farms____ . . . . S m a llh old in gs____ ___ _ ________ Part-time farms ________ _________ Nominal units______________________ Average for all farms . . . N um ber of farms 379 F A R M IN G $6,452 3,021 1,616 595 204 209 176 $6, 335 3,230 1,698 912 357 321 243 $6, 122 2, 591 1,014 366 149 135 113 $6, 816 2,701 1, 383 085 317 198 300 899 1,350 422 l, 411 1 Drawn from the Master Sample of IT. S. agriculture. Each economic class is defined in terms of the total value of products, with the value of land and buildings and the number of days the farm operator worked off the farm as secondary criteria. For full description see U. S. Census of Agriculture, 1945, Special Report, 1945, Sample Census of Agriculture, page 16. corn-hog-beef cattle, cotton-peanuts, cattle-potato, and literally hundreds of similar combinations. Also, very few areas are completely dominated by one type, so that a corn-hog area has corn-hog farms neighbored by poultry and dairy. These details will become much clearer during the edu cation of those who select farming on the basis of these statements. In summary, farming is not an also-ran occu pation. On the contrary, it is a highly skilled in- 380 O C C U P A T IO N A L T Item a ble OUTLOOK H A N D B O O K 3. — Investment, cost, and net income o f selected typical farm s, 1 9 8 9 -4 6 1939 1941 1940 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 Wheat farm— Southern Plains Investment in: Land and buildings_____ M achinery and livestock. Return from farming: T otal incom e___________ T otal expense___________ Net farm incom e________ $14,125 2,682 $13, 704 2,762 $13,872 3,028 $14.625 3,978 $16, 520 5,316 $19, 040 5,100 $24,000 5,255 $26, 015 5,639 1,772 1,161 611 2, 246 1,146 1,100 5,711 1,485 4,226 7,879 1,605 6,274 6,941 1,648 5,293 9,100 1.855 7,245 9,081 1, 794 7,287 11,253 1,959 9,294 Cash grain farm— C om Belt Investment in: Land and buildings____ M achinery and livestock Return from farming: T otal incom e___________ Total expense___________ Net farm incom e________ 23,914 2, 889 24,178 2,783 24,365 2,924 25,021 3,703 29, 868 4,864 34, 960 4,833 36, 424 4, 835 41,360 5,180 4,080 1.428 2,652 4, 201 1, 446 2,755 6,560 1,709 4,851 8,905 1.971 6, 934 9, 738 2,186 7,552 9, 389 2,463 6, 926 10, 276 2,326 7, 950 14,268 2,458 11, 810 W heat, small grain, and livestock farm—Northern Plains Investment in: Land and buildings____ Machinery and livestock Return from farming: Total incom e___________ Total expense___________ Net farm incom e________ 7,192 2,286 6,703 2,426 6,734 2, 667 7,184 3,268 8,022 4, 052 9,187 4,025 11, 876 3,899 13,082 3, 981 2,093 1,005 1,088 2, 316 1.084 1,232 4,457 1.303 3,154 5, 864 1.466 4,398 7,318 1,752 5, 566 7,623 1,830 5,793 8,697 1,805 6,892 10, 750 1,872 8,878 Cotton farm—Black Prairie area , Texas Investment in: Land and buildings------Machinery and livestock Return from farmingTotal incom e___________ Total expense___________ Net farm incom e_______ 7,370 1,061 7,480 1,084 ■7, 535 1,228 8,060 1,503 8,945 1,863 9, 940 1,875 13, 442 1,899 14, 872 1,982 1,874 637 1,237 2, 028 777 1,251 2,441 807 1, 634 2, 814 933 1.881 3,509 1,103 2, 406 3,346 1,312 2,034 3,543 1,346 2,197 4,361 1,457 2,904 Dairy farm— Southern Wisconsin Investm ent in: Land and buildings_____ M achinery and livestock Return from farming: Total incom e___________ Total expense___________ Net farm incom e_______ 9,000 3,125 9,075 3,116 8,470 3,264 9, 516 4,133 10,248 4,941 11,224 5,188 12,078 5,270 12,810 5, 750 2,382 1,293 1,089 2,923 1,334 1,589 4,002 1,558 2, 444 5,483 1,804 3, 679 6, 261 2,111 4,150 7,041 2,420 4,621 7,434 2,610 4,824 8,819 2,677 6,142 Dairy farm— Central N ew York Investment in: Land and buildings_____ Machinery and livestock Return from farming: Total incom e___________ Total expense___________ Net farm incom e_______ 5,538 3,203 5,616 3,140 5,616 3,341 5,760 3, 855 6,525 4, 990 6,670 5,320 7,250 5, 535 8,120 5,728 2, 794 1,693 1,101 3,299 1,819 1,480 4. 041 2,133 1,908 5,298 2. 539 2, 759 5, 796 2, 782 3,014 7,133 3,329 3,804 7,386 3,289 4,097 8,028 3,450 4,578 Hog and dairy farm— Corn Belt Investment in: Land and buildings_____ Machinery and livestock. Return from farming: Total incom e___________ Total expense___________ N et farm incom e________ 9,648 2.963 9,792 2,856 10,050 2,895 10,720 3,721 12,144 4, 732 14,000 4, 779 15,904 4,734 18,144 4,998 2,443 1, 197 1,246 2, 684 1,194 ■ 1,490 4,003 1,455 2,548 5,408 1,712 3,696 5, 856 2,017 3,839 5,685 2,394 3,291 7,193 2, 550 4,643 8,998 2,589 6,409 Hog and beef fattening farm— C om Belt Investment in: Land and buildings_____ Machinery and livestock Return from farming: Total incom e___________ Total expense.. . ............... Net farm incom e_______ 15,771 3,844 15, 516 3,630 15, 768 3,971 17,748 5,091 19,665 6, 974 21, 840 6,908 26,500 6,851 30,672 7,351 3,249 1,627 1,622 3, 763 1,555 2,208 5,724 1,917 3,807 8,609 2,262 6,347 8,524 2.650 5,874 8, 715 2.949 5, 766 9, 519 2,989 6,530 13,820 3,106 10, 714 Source: F. M . 55, Typical Family-Operated Farms, 193(M5, b y W ylie D . Goodsell, Ronald W . Jones, and Russell W . Bierman; and F. M . 68, Farm Costs and Returns, 1945 and 1946, b y Ronald W . Jones. GENERAL OU TLOOK FOR dustry that offers as good opportunities as any in the country. It has its trade arrangements that make entry difficult in some instances, such as acreage allotments, restricted markets, established areas covered with no-sale signs and closed asso ciations. So has every occupation. An intelli gent person with adequate financing, who is will ing to obtain or has already received adequate edu cation and experience, can find excellent opportu nities in agriculture. For Further Information F A R M IN G Getting Started in Farming, Farmers' Bul letin No. 1961, rev. December 1945. Farm Opportunities? Prospects, Problems, Policies, rev. September 1946. Suggestions to Prospective Farmers and Sources of Information, February 1945. Reports of interest to the prospective farmer also may be obtained from State departments of agriculture and agricultural experiment stations. One publication especially recommended is the follow ing: Among the many publications of the United States Department of Agriculture, the following are especially recommended. They may be ob tained free by writing to the Department, Wash ington 25, D. C. Capital Needed To Farm in the Midwest, University of Minnesota Agricultural Ex periment Station, North Central Regional Publication No. 5. Reprinted August 1947. May be obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture. NOTE The following descriptions give a few o f the variations in farming by types and regions. F or each is presented a general description of relative opportunities. The field of farming as an occupation is barely opened up. In the selec tion of any farm, the need for sound local advice cannot be overemphasized. This need also exists for those planning farm-service jobs on a custom basis.- Particularly should advice be sought from agricultural colleges, county agents, successful farmers, and farm associations. 381 N O RTH EAST STATES Northeast States— Dairy Farms Dairying is by far the most important type of farming in the Northeast. The degree of speciali zation, the size, the productivity, the location with regard to market, and other factors all affect the income possibilities of the farm. Dairying is often combined with poultry or cash crops, and many so-called general farms could better be called di versified dairy farms. Most Northeast dairy farms produce their own roughage (hay, silage, pasture, etc.), but very few produce all of their feed concentrates. The pro portion of concentrates produced varies widely between areas and between farms, but Northeast dairymen generally have found that it pays to keep enough cows to utilize fully the labor supply and roughage capacity of their farms, even if this means purchasing all the concentrates. The Job A dairy farmer with a herd of suitable size has productive full-time employment for himself and family. Some seasonal help may be needed for haying and other harvesting. Feeding, milking, and other chores must be done every day and at A dairy farm in the Northeast where sturdy buildings and cows which’give high yields of milk are typical. Co u r te s y 382 of U. S. d e p a r tm e n t of a g r ic u l t u r e A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S — -N O R T H E A S T fairly definite hours. This means that the opera tor and his family are tied down more than in some other types of farming. Mechanical aptitude is necessary because a milking machine, farm truck, tractor, mower, rake, sprayer, and other field equipment must be kept in operating condition, and buildings kept in repair. An understanding of livestock charac teristics and disease control is essential. STATES 383 Outlook There is every indication that dairy farming will continue as the most important type in this region. It is more stable than most other types, ties in well with conservation programs, provides good distribution of employment and income dur ing the year, and has a favorable long-time outlook. Northeast States— Fruit and Berry Farms This is a risky and difficult business as a com mercial enterprise. A typical Northeast family fruit farm would have from 40 to 100 acres, with from 60 to 95 percent planted in fruit trees. Not all acreage will be of bearing age, as rotation to maintain production is necessary. Commercial tree-fruit farms are concentrated in areas where soil and air drainage have proved favorable, such as the lower Hudson Valley of New York, central Massachusetts, south-central Pennsylvania, the lake areas of western New York, and parts of New Jersey. Apples, peaches, cherries, grapes, cranberries, blueberries, strawberries, and raspberries are among the fruits grown commercially in the Northeast. Acreage of berry farms is smaller than for fruits grown on trees, and work is much more intensive. Favorable areas for grapes are concentrated along the lakes in New Y ork; for cranberries, in the Massachusetts and New Jersey bogs; for blueberries, the rolling land of New England, particularly Maine; for other small fruits, somewhat wide possibilities. Many of these farms also grow vegetables or have a dairy or poultry enterprise. Also, many dairy and poul try farms have a minor fruit enterprise. The Job Skill and experience are required to bring some what delicate crops through the year. Disease and weather must be constantly battled. Harvest and marketing must be timed to maximize returns. Fruit growers are less tied down to the farm, ex cept for spraying and harvesting, than are other farmers, but the work is hard and good supervis ory ability is essential. Daily work requires con siderable mechanical aptitude for equipment used and good judgment in timing seasonal operations. Bad investments are exceedingly dangerous in treefruit farms, because the cycle of growth covers such a long time and there is such wide variation in farm productivity. Because of soil and topo graphical limits in the Northeast, the purchase should be most cautiously made. Outlook Especially favorable areas offer good opportu nities for the well-grounded, well-financed opera tor. Outside of these areas, many unfavorable production and marketing conditions are likely to force continuation o f recent declines in commer cial fruit farming. See Part-Time and Resort Farms, pp. 386, 387. 384 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Northeast States— Poultry Farms Unusually risky business for inexperienced oper ators. A fairly typical general poultry farm raises about 2,500 sexecl to 5,000 mixed chicks and keeps 1,500-2,500 laying hens on a small acreage. Few, if any, crops are grown. There are countless varia tions of this scheme. Perhaps the most profitable with a small investment, although it demands high skills, is the keeping of fewer birds and doing door-to-door selling of chickens and eggs. A higher price for eggs can also be obtained by sell ing them to hatcheries. Some egg producers buy full-grown pullets and concentrate on egg produc tion only. In the late thirties, commercial broiler production became very popular. Broiler (young chickens for meat) production is fairly simple, except for disease problems, and can be profitable. However, a careful study of possible markets should precede any investment in broiler produc tion. Poultry is often one of several enterprises on diversified farms. Many substantial poultry farmers have cows, field crops, and some fruits or vegetables. This adds to work and total investment, particularly in land, but it allows diversification as a protec tion against bad years in the poultry enterprise and, also, increases products received from the farm by the family. Small flocks are common on part-time farms and as backyard flocks in sub urban or town areas. The Joh eases a n d th e ir rem edies, and estab lish m en t o f d is ea se -fre e stock . P o u lt r y fa r m in g has less season al o r e x c e e d in g ly h e a v y w o r k th a n m a n y o th e r fa r m en terp rises. T h e o p e r a to r a n d h is fa m ily ca n a n d sh o u ld p la n to d o p r a c tic a lly all th e ir o w n w o rk . Co u r tesy of u . S. d e p a r tm e n t o f a g r ic u l t u r e The farm flock of chickens brings food to the table and adds consid erably to money earned by the farm family. Small flocks are common to all parts of the country. Larger commercial poultry farms also are found in most parts of the United States. Outlook T h e w o r k is m ore sp e cia liz e d th an d a ir y o r g e n e ra l fa r m in g . A s in m ost fa r m in g , ce rta in ch ores, such as p ic k in g u p an d d e liv e rin g eg g s, fe e d in g , w a te rin g , and cle a n in g , m ust b e d o n e e v e ry d ay. S ea son a lly , houses m ust be clea n ed and re p a ire d a n d b ird s p re p a re d f o r m arket. S o m e o f th is is h a rd p h y s ica lly , an d it is m on oton ou s. M e c h a n i ca l a p titu d e is n o t so im p o r ta n t as on fa r m s w ith m u ch field w o rk , b u t g o o d m a n agem ent a n d p la n n in g are. C lean lin ess is u n u su a lly im p o rta n t in p o u ltr y fa r m in g . a g a in st disease are clea nlin ess, k n o w le d g e o f d is H ig h m o r ta lity ca n v e ry q u ick ly w ip e o u t a y e a r ’s p rofits. A m o n g th e best p ro te c tio n s Dense population of the Northeast requires large quantities of poultry products. Poultry farming is well suited and highly important to the agriculture of the area, but competition is exceedingly stiff. Ease of production and ship ping from surplus feed-producing areas, short-time and relatively small investment required to estab lish poultry enterprises, and disease dangers in herent in poultry make it a somewhat risky farm venture. Efficient, well-located, well-financed poultrymen do have a place, but this is a type of farming in which investments should be made with caution, particularly so in broiler production. A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----N O R T H E A S T Other Types Poultry includes chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guineas, and pigeons. Variations in invest 385 STATES ment, marketing, and care occur among these fowl, but the comments above apply to all. See Part-Time and Resort Farms, pp. 386, 387. Northeast States— Tobacco Farms Tobacco may be grown alone, but some farms combine it with other crops and livestock. Areas are very limited and little tobacco is now grown outside the Connecticut Valley and the LancasterYork district of Pennsylvania. Farms for family operation vary from 25 to 200 acres; the smaller units all in crops, mostly tobacco, the larger with considerable livestock. Good tobacco land is ex pensive, and high investment is necessary, largely in land but also in equipment. In some parts of the Connecticut Valley, a few acres of tobacco are combined with onions, potatoes, poultry, and truck crops. In Pennsylvania, tobacco is one en terprise on farms growing truck crops and field crops for a dairy enterprise. Both areas grow cigar tobacco; valley types for wrappers and binders and Pennsylvania for filler. Some valley acreage is shade-grown, a type for which marketing is very closely controlled. A ll is grown under a Federal allotment program, and the farm’s allotment history should be considered before purchase is made. The Job Tobacco culture is difficult and risky. It should not be undertaken without some experience and education. Income from an acre of tobacco is un usually large. So is amount of toil per acre. Work is hard, quite seasonal and demands skill and knowledge o f a special kind. Combination of enterprises in which tobacco is usually found in cludes dairy, poultry, and truck crops. Work and management on such farms require a vigorous, re sourceful operator with mechanical aptitude and experience in planning and carrying out field operations of considerable complexity. Outlook The cigar-tobacco enterprise has decreased con siderably in the past 20 years. It is very doubtful that this trend will change, although it was re versed somewhat by World War II. As part of a combined farm operation, tobacco will continue to be grown on land suited for it. Purchase of farms at prices built up from tobacco land only should be made with extreme caution, particularly at pres ent levels. Northeast States— Vegetable Farms A difficult business with a premium on success ful marketing and handling of labor; high cash expenses, and much tedious work. A fairly com mon vegetable farm has about 30 acres of cropland devoted to crops such as carrots, peas, lettuce, spinach, beets, cauliflower, cabbage, radishes, squash, and celery. Kinds of vegetables raised and number of replantings of the same land de pend on the market, available labor, soil, and the operator. In some areas, potatoes are the major or only crop. M a rk e t-g a rd e n o p e ra to rs sell fr o m ro a d sid e stands, t o stores, a n d to w h olesa le p rod u cem en . M a rk e t g a r d e n in g is ch a ra cte riz e d b y la r g e p r o p o r tio n o f re ta il sales a n d w id e v a rie ty o f cro p s. In te n s ity o f o p e ra tio n is d ic ta te d b y h ig h v a lu e o f la n d , u su a lly situ a ted in o r n ea r a la rg e city . M a n y citie s still h a v e fa rm e rs o p e r a tin g sm all acreages a n d ru n n in g h u ck ster routes. O p e ra to rs o f la r g e r a crea ges fa r th e r fr o m the cities m a y co n ce n tra te o n fe w e r v a rieties a n d q u a l ity p ro d u ce , se llin g in several cities a n d th ro u g h 386 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK outlets such as chain stores that take full loads. Soil types also may limit the vegetables grown and the advisability of intensive production. Some areas are particularly well adapted to certain crops, sold both for fresh market and for proc essing. Typical of these specialties are the peas, beans, and sweet corn of New Jersey and the cab bage area of northern New York. Among spe cialized potato areas, Aroostook County, Maine, is outstanding. Long Island, N. Y., also has many potato farms. The Job Vegetable production is concentrated in the summer months and requires long hours of hard physical work In the field, in the packing house, and in the street or market. Modern machinery eases some of this work. The family works, but the operator must also be a good hirer and super visor of seasonal help, mostly “ stoop'5 laborers. HANDBOOK Planning lay-out for the year, to prevent impos sible seasonal labor peaks at harvest and to maxi mize returns by “ hitting the market,” pays high dividends. Picking at the right time or, occasion ally, plowing a crop under and replanting require good judgment and managing ability. Outlook Dense population of the Northeast offers many opportunities for well-financed, intelligently op erated, and purchased market gardens. Vegeta ble growing for processing or distant shipment also is advantageous in those regions of good soils and topography that favor vegetables, particu larly the muck areas. While processing may ex pand more rapidly in other regions, the Northeast will at least hold its established acreage which is devoted to this purpose. /See Part-Time and Resort Farms, pp. 386, 387. Northeast States— Resort Farms A sound way of making the best of some bad farm locations. Resort farms can produce income ranging from hundreds of dollars to several thou sands on a correspondingly wide range of invest ment. Ideal resort locations are fairly numerous and may even be good farms of more common types, usually dairy or general. Success depends on farming ability, plus the knack of promotion and meeting the public. Primary factor for success is location. Recrea tional opportunities for winter and summer sports, such as swimming, hiking, skiing, golf, or just resting, are essential. Cabin or house sleeping accommodations and a large dining room must be furnished; On the farm side, as much food as possible must be home-grown; on most successful resort farms ( as distinguished from resorts), repu tation depends on production and good home cook ing of farm food. They vary from small shore poultry farms to hilly general farms having rambling homes in the mountains. Upland dairy farms, whose meadows T lead to steeply pitched hills and mountains, are excellently located for resort farming. Some farmers act as caretakers for cabins, summer homes, or residential estates, and sell products seasonally to the owners. The Job The resort farm is a logical extension of the summer-boarder enterprise, which has long been common in the Northeast. As such, its success depends more on the farm wife and her kitchen than on the husband’s barns and crops, because she meets the guests more often and, in the summer especially, he is busy on farm chores. Aside from guest attention, the job calls for farming skills to fit the type. For example, dairy work on a resort farm is just as hard and demand ing as on a dairy farm, and the operator should have learned his trade before he started. Resort farms are more likely to be in poorer agricultural areas where farming as such is a parttime occupation, and guest time is supplemental w ork for the farmer. However, the operator T should have a garden, poultry, dairy, and other small enterprises that will interest his guests and, also, reduce the cash costs of keeping them. These A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----N O R T H E A S T v a rie d en terp rises w ill ta x h is in g e n u ity an d , o c c a sio n a lly , his p h y sica l stren gth . Outlook W h ile n o t a c o m m o d ity ty p e , th is k in d o f fa r m w as stea d ily in crea sin g in n u m ber b e fo r e the w a r a n d w ill fu r th e r increase as the la rg e p o p u la tio n e x p lo its recrea tion a l a d va n ta ges o f sh orter w o r k STATES 387 weeks. Ideal locations (mountain, shore, lake, river) and good management can be combined to make this a fairly stable kind of farming. Com petition from roadside and “ airside” cabins and highly commercialized resorts will remain strong. The greatest present draw-back is the seasonality of such trade, limiting the profit to a few weeks in summer. Northeast States— Part-Time Farms Very common and usually quite successful. They usually have from 3 to 100 acres with a gar den, small pasture, a cow and pig or two, and a small flock of chickens. None of them offer either large cash results or the often advertised “ 5-acresand-independence.” Variations in part-time farming usually reflect resources o f the farm and work schedule of the operator and his family. In contrast to the residential farm, these produce for sale and aim for some net cash farm income. The Job F a ir ly lig h t w o r k o f a w id e v a rie ty is cu stom a ry on a p a rt-tim e unit. S om e o f th is is b u rd en som e on the operator, even though his main work is off the farm. His purpose is to add to his real income by well-directed use of spare time. Outlook More part-time units will develop as workweeks are reduced, as submarginal farms fail as commer cial units, as farmers get part-time jobs off the farm, as pensioners find suitable locations, and as urban people indulge their back-to-the-farm urge. Families which buy within the limits of their re sources and operate within their physical and financial limitations will be successful. CORN BELT STATES Corn Belt States— Corn-Livestock Farms This type includes many o f the best farms in the country. The livestock enterprises combined with corn and other feed grains include the hogs, hogsdairy, hogs-beef fattening, and hogs-beef raising. Acreage ranges from 60 to 440 with the more com mon size from 135 to 320 acres depending on type of operation. The corn-hog unit is typical but not exclusively so, of any large area. Actually, it is a general term used to describe the Corn Belt where corn is a highly important crop and hogs are the . major vehicle for selling the corn. The combination of hogs and dairy cattle is found in areas having good corn-small grain land and also land whose soil and topography favor hay and pasture. It is most common in northeastern Iowa and Indiana and northwestern Illinois and Ohio. Oats, wheat, barley, and soybeans are found to some extent on these farms. Major source of income lies in 10 to 15 cows and sales of around 12,000 pounds of hogs. Hog-beef fattening combinations are favored by operators with considerable corn and some roughage which they think can be sold best through rais ing hogs and some cattle and fattening both. In addition, they buy feeder cattle for fattening and often purchase additional grain for this fattening. Areas prominent in this type are in western and east central Iowa, in north-west-central Illinois and in northwestern Missouri. Hog-beef raising operators, on the other hand, place less emphasis on fattening their own cattle; they sell some stocker and feeder cattle, milk a few cows and are much like general farmers in their diversity. Ordinarily, these farms are not large in either acreage or volume of business and are typical in northeastern Missouri and the Iowa and Illinois areas adjacent to it, and southeastern Ohio. The Joh Corn-livestock operators must have a high de gree ,of skill in the handling of animals and in field work. Long, hard days are common, except for a few weeks in late winter. Versatility is es sential, and supervisory ability is very helpful at peak labor seasons. Experience, adequate capital, and good marketing sense have important eiiects on income. Outlook These farms are in our major farming region, and prospects are bright. Adequately sized, well financed, and well-operated units in this group have as good a future as farms anywhere else in the country. Corn Belt States— Cash Grain Farms These units are among the largest in acreage in the Corn Belt. They are most common in west north central Iowa and in east central Illinois. Corn, soybeans, and oats are their major crops; hogs and beef cattle their major livestock. Their operators, compared with livestock farmers, usu ally plan to sell a larger share of their grains and to market somewhat less grain through live stock. They have increased their acreages of soy beans faster than most other farmers in the region and now have 10 to 35 percent of their cropland 388 in beans. M e c h a n ica l h a r v e stin g a n d fa v o r a b le soils h ave fa v o r e d th is d ev elop m en t. The Job C ash g r a in s req u ire la rg e am ou nts o f la b o r d u r in g the g r o w in g seasons. M u ch o f th e w o r k is d o n e b y th e o p e r a to r a n d h is fa m ily . I t is v e r y d esira b le th a t th e o p e r a to r h a v e g o o d k n o w le d g e a n d w o r k in g e x p e rie n ce in field crop s. P la n tin g , g r o w in g , a n d h a r v e s tin g are h ig h ly m e ch a n ize d , A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S — C O R N and equipment use and care are very important. But some labor must be hired and supervised. Outlook The productivity of these units and the need for BELT feed to meet expected national increases in live stock products denote a bright future. Recent trends toward more livestock and more soybeans than before the war, but less oats, probably will continue. Co u r te s y Combining soybeans in the Midwest. 389 STATES of U. S. d e p a r tm e n t of a g r ic u l t u r e This type of harvester, originally developed for large-scale wheat farming, is now used on many other crops. Corn Belt States— Dairy Farms This is an important dairy region. Commer cial dairy farms are found around all urban areas. In addition, there are numerous areas where rough age-consuming livestock and feed-grain produc tion give operators their best income; in many cases, where this is true, dairy becomes the best livestock enterprise. Among these are northeast 793996°—49- -26 ern Iowa, southwestern Missouri, parts of north ern Indiana, northern Illinois, and much of eastern and southern Ohio. Variations in soil and topog raphy are great enough to make any generaliza tion about the location of “ dairy” areas hazardous; thus, in most of the above areas hogs, poultry, small grain, or other enterprises are also of major 390 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK importance on many farms. Also, some dairy farms will be found in all parts of this region. HANDBOOK repair. An understanding of livestock charac teristics is essential. Outlook The Job Requires an active, resourceful man who can do a variety of jobs with considerable skill and, also, paper and book work necessary for good farm planning. Mechanical aptitude is necessary be cause a milking machine, farm truck, tractor, mower, rake, and other field equipment must be kept in operating condition and buildings kept in Good opportunities in this region. In the wellestablished areas, much of the land is well suited to dairy farming and developed markets are avail able, although better markets are needed particu larly in the sour-cream areas. Experienced op erators on the better dairy farms can find profit able year-round employment with less fluctuation o f income than on more specialized farms. Corn Belt States— Fruit and Vegetable Farms Not primarily a fruit or vegetable region, al though considerable quantities of both are grown in certain areas. Various fruits are widely but sparsely grown. Commercial units are limited by better alterna tives. They are located mostly in southwestern, east central, and other hill areas of Missouri; southern Illinois, south central Indiana; north eastern and, to some extent, eastern Ohio. Apples are the largest enterprise, but peaches, cherries, and berry crops are heavy contributions to com mercial fruit production. Fruit farms are concentrated around urban dis tricts in the northern areas of States bordering on the Great Lakes, and in a few areas where one or two crops are heavily grown. Sweet corn and canning peas are widely grown as one enterprise on general or livestock farms, although peas are heavily concentrated in northern Illinois; melons are centered around St. Louis and in the bootheel o f Missouri, in southwestern Indiana, and at the western end o f Lake Erie; tomatoes in Indiana and northwestern Ohio. Many other vegetables are grown commercially in the northern areas of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and in alluvial soils particularly along the Wabash, Illinois, and Mis sissippi Rivers. Large centers of population in this region have resulted in a considerable number of market gar den units, similar to those in the Northeast. These are typified by small acreages and intensive pro duction on suburban land. The Job Production is concentrated in the summer months and requires long hours of hard physical work in the field, in the packing house, and in the street or market. Operators must also be good hirers and supervisors of seasonal help, mostly “ stoop” laborers. Planning lay-out for the year, to prevent unmanageable seasonal labor peaks at harvest and to maximize returns by “hitting the market,” pays high dividends. The job requires skill and experience to bring somewhat delicate crops through the year. Dis ease and weather must be constantly battled. Fruit growers are somewhat less tied down, except at harvest time, than are other farmers. Danger of bad investments is exceedingly great, because the cycle of growth of tree fruits covers such a long period. Outlook Good opportunities in market gardening for en ergetic operators. The remainder o f commercial vegetable farming on a family scale does not offer very good prospects, other than a living to the small operator. New processing and production methods favor continued increases in units larger and more expensive than those discussed here. Fruit farms are not likely to increase, and compe tition for land in the few favored areas is likely to require heavier investments than long-time mar ket prospects can justify. A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----C O R N BELT 391 STATES Corn Belt States— Poultry Farms Although this is the largest poultry producing region, there are relatively few commercial poul try farms. The large production of this region comes from 50-300 hen flocks which are found on nearly all farms. Either as scavengers or as wellfed family flocks, these hens add to family living and farm cash income. On many farms, turkeys are raised in the same minor enterprise manner. Commercial poultry farms have increased in number in the past 30 years. Operators of farms that are too small for successful grain-livestock farming often have found poultry a profitable major enterprise. A commercial unit houses from 1,000 to 2,000 laying hens, selling cockerels and culls for meat. Broilers, sold for meat at 3 to 5 months, are raised in annual units of from 10,000 to 25,000. Turkeys are sold.for meat at 5 to 7 months, usually in the fall, from flocks of 500 to 5,000. The Job W o r k is m ore s p ecia liz e d th an d a ir y o r g en era l fa r m in g . C erta in ch ores, such as p ic k in g u p and delivering eggs, feeding, watering, and cleaning, must be done every day. Seasonally, houses must be disinfected, repairs made, and birds marketed. Mechanical aptitude is not so important as on farms with much field work, but good management and planning are. Control of disease is unusually important in poultry farming. High mortality can very quickly wipe out a year’s profits. Among the best pro tections against disease are cleanliness, knowledge of diseases and their remedies, and establishment of disease-free stock. Outlook This area, compared with prewar, should be good for increases in commercial poultry produc tion. Poultrymen are in feed-grain areas and usually can grow much of their own feed or buy easily. Also, large urban populations offer good local markets, as low-cost poultry meat has a defi nite place in the protein diets of our steadily in creasing population. Probable increases in breed ing and hatching for sale in the region offer profit able investment for operators skilled in this work. Corn Belt States— General Farms G en eral fa rm s in clu d e a fe w o f the best and m a n y o f the avera ge t o p o o r e r fa rm s in th is r e g io n . T h e ir in com e is fr o m a w id e v a r ie ty o f cr o p s a n d liv e s to ck w ith n o o u ts ta n d in g co n tr ib u to r. S om e g en era l fa r m s are fo u n d a ll o v e r th e re g io n , b u t th e y are m ost n u m erou s in M is so u ri, w estcen tra l a n d sou th ern Illin o is , n o rth e a ste rn and the resou rces, a v a ila b le m arkets, and the o p e ra to r. T h e y are re la tiv e ly sm all in b o th a creage and cash receip ts. T h e sm a ller u n its are lik e ly to be se lfsufficing w ith little co m m e rcia l p ro d u ctio n . The Job O p e ra to rs m ust be v ig o r o u s , re so u rc e fu l, w e ll- sou th ern In d ia n a , n orth w estern and sou th eastern tra in e d O h io . v a rie ty o f jo b s m u st be w ell d on e o r w e ll su p e r M o st gen eral fa rm e rs use fa ir ly level la n d and sk illed in m a n agem ent. A w id e f o r fe e d a n d cash cro p s, r o llin g la n d f o r h a y , and vised. r o u g h la n d f o r p astu re a n d w ood s. a n d o p e r a tin g p ro b le m s, such as disease co n tr o l A m o n g en terp rises fo u n d on ge n e ra l fa r m s are S o m e k n o w le d g e o f p r o d u c tio n m e th o d s in ca ttle, h o g s, sheep, v eg etab les, and field cr o p s is d a ir y , p o u ltr y , ca ttle, h o g s, sheep, fe e d g ra in s, n ecessary. w h eat, p otatoes, fr u it , vegetables, a n d fo r e s t p r o d ties to p la n o p e ra tio n s to g e t the m ost fr o m fa m ily la b or. ucts. T h e actu al co m b in a tio n is d eterm in ed b y G en eral fa r m s o ffe r g o o d o p p o r t u n i 392 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K Outlook h is fa m ily . P la n n e d to g iv e e m p lo y m e n t all y e a r a n d to take a d va n ta ge o f so il a n d clim a tic re G o o d o p p o r tu n ity f o r p rofita b le fa r m op era sou rces, these fa r m s, i f w ell m a n a ged , sh o u ld be tion s, o n a sm aller scale a n d w itli less investm en t su ccessfu l. th a n o th e r ty p e s in th is re g io n . e x c e p tio n a lly sm all c o m p a r e d w ith o th e r typ es, T h e b etter lo ca te d u n its offer an adequ ate liv in g to the o p e r a to r and Y e a r -to -y e a r v a ria tio n s in in co m e are a lth o u g h in co m e a v e ra g e is lo w e r. Corn Belt States— Part-Time Farms Part-time units are common around urban areas which have much seasonal work. They have from 1 to 20 acres with a garden, small pasture, a cow and pig or two, small flock of chickens and maybe a few fruit trees. None of this offers large cash returns nor the often advertised “ 5-acres-and-independence.” Variations usually reflect soil resources of the farm and the whims of the operator. Some dis like livestock and have none. Some have seasonal jobs, which allow time for a small market garden. Others have large units, with poor soil, and sev eral dairy cows that are pastured on the farm, but which must be fed on feed and hay brought from the outside. In southern areas of Illinois, Ohio, and Missouri especially, there are numerous hilly areas where part-time units have developed, al though off-farm employment is very irregular. The Job Fairly light work of a wide variety is customary. N on e o f th is is to o d e m a n d in g o n th e o p e r a to r , w h ose m a in p u r p o se is to a d d to h is in c o m e b y w e ll-d ir e c te d use o f sp a re tim e. P’erh a p s the g rea test asset is the lo w e r co st o f liv in g th a t com es fr o m su b stitu tin g ru ra l f o r u rb a n m od es o f liv in g . Outlook M o re such u n its ca n be e x p e cte d as w o rk w e e k s are red u ced , su b m a rg in a l fa rm s fa il as co m m e rc ia l u n its, p en sion ers fin d su ita ble lo ca tio n s , a n d u rb a n p e o p le in d u lg e th e ir b a c k -to -th e -fa r m u rg e. S u c ce ssfu l ones w ill be o p e ra te d b y fa m ilie s w h ich b u y w ith in the lim its o f th e ir resou rces a n d o p e r ate w ith in th e lim its o f th eir a b ility , b o th p h y sica l a n d fin a n cia l. N u m b e r o f m a rk ets in th is area ten d to m ake it a g o o d p r o s p e c t f o r co m m e rcia l p a r t-tim e o p e ra tio n . C o w -c h ic k e n -h o g -g a r d e n units f o r fa m ily use o n ly w ill co n tin u e to be n u m erous as e n te rp r is in g fa m ilie s t r y to stretch m ea ger o ff-fa r m in com es to m eet fa m ily needs. LAKE STATES Lake States— Dairy Farms This is one of the principal dairy regions of the country. Soils, climate, topography, and experi ence in dairying in this region are a combination that has made it one of the greatest dairy areas in the world. In size, farms vary from 60 to several hundred acres. Products vary from fluid milk to rare cheese. They are in all areas of this region, but are centered in the southern half of Wisconsin and Michigan and in southeastern Minnesota. In southwestern Minnesota and, also, along the south ern border of the region, farming tends more to ward Corn Belt agriculture with emphasis on corn-oats-livestock. While incomes are much lower in the northern areas, dairying still is the most important source of revenue. It is accom panied by hay, pasture, and sometimes small grains. Potatoes, cabbage, rutabagas, and cucum bers are common cash crops. Fluid milk marketing and specialization in milk production is typical of areas adjacent to urban markets, particularly around Chicago, Detroit, Twin Cities, and other large centers, which are most numerous in the southern half of the region. Milk in excess of fluid needs goes into evaporated and dried milk, butter, cheese, and other manu factured products. Some areas also ship large quantities of cream to other regions. Farms range upward from one-man units of 10 to 20 cows on 80 to 120 acres, with larger herds on the larger farms. Nearly all, except the highly specialized fluid-milk units, have additional enter prises that vary in kind and importance with lay of the land. These include hogs, beef, cattle, sheep, poultry, potatoes, fruit, and vegetables. Soil, cli mate, and market determine the most effective combination. The Job An active, resourceful man who can do a variety of jobs with at least average skill is required. Mechanical aptitude is necessary because a milk ing machine, farm truck, tractor, mower, sprayer, and other field equipment must be kept in operat ing condition, and buildings kept in repair. An understanding of livestock is essential. Outlook Excellent opportunities in this region, as much of the land is well suited to dairy-farm needs and developed markets are available, although better markets are needed in sour-cream areas. Expe rienced operators can find profitable year-round employment with good prospects. Lake States— Crop Specialty Farms Specialties in this region include potatoes, sugar beets, beans, and tobacco. Potatoes are the most widely grown of crop specialties, for they are well adapted to the cool climate of this region. A l though grown to some extent in all areas, they are of major importance only in a few counties; the Red River Valley of Minnesota, the sandy lands o f central Wisconsin, and the central-Thumb and northwestern quarter of the lower peninsula of Michigan. Acreages vary widely, but from 75 to 125 acres are needed as an adequate unit in most areas. A few growers use overhead irrigation. Field crops and livestock enterprises are of con siderable importance on most potato farms, even in the heavy potato areas. Sugar beets and beans are not widely grown. The former are concentrated around Saginaw Bay in Michigan, in eastern Wisconsin, and the Red River Valley, and south-central Minnesota. In the Saginaw Valley and the Thumb, beans and sugar beets are grown on farms that are quite special ized in their production. Beans are rarely grown outside this area. Tobacco is a minor crop. A few counties in southern Wisconsin and a few farms in southern 393 394 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK Minnesota have tobacco as an enterprise in areas that are primarily grain-livestock. The Job Crop specialty farms have their own require ments for equipment and production skills. Hard work in the fields is necessary during the growing season and it must be skillfully performed because of the price-f or-quality nature of the crops. HANDBOOK Outlook This region has considerable land that is well suited to potatoes and sugar beets. Beans are much more limited in area and probably will be con siderably reduced in acreage during the reconver sion period. This is not a major tobacco area. Also, both tobacco and sugar beets have been allot ment crops and cannot be freely produced. Lake States— Fruit Farms In only a few areas of the region are found the fruit farms, which range from 20 to 120 acres. With the exception of apples, which are fairly widely grown in home orchards in the southern half of the region, fruit farming is largely con centrated in Berrien and Kent Counties of Michi gan. Fruit farms are also quite common along the western lake strip of southern Michigan. Cranberries are limited to the peat bogs of cen tral Wisconsin. Raspberries are found in the Michigan areas and around the Twin Cities of Minnesota. Cherries are centered in the northern part of the Michigan lake strip and in Door County, Wis. Strawberries, pears, peaches, grapes, and dewberries are hea vily concentrated in and near Berrien County, Mich. In spite of heavy fruit production, most of these areas have feed grain and livestock o f all kinds. Substantial acreages of fruit are grown by farmers who spend the majority of their time on field crops and livestock. This is particularly true of units having 80 or more acres. The Job A high degree of skill and experience is required to bring somewhat delicate crops through the year. Disease and weather must be constantly battled. Harvest and marketing must be timed to maximum returns. Fruit growers are less tied down, except in harvest, than are other farmers, but their work is quite hard, sometimes disagreeable, and good supervisory ability is essential. Daily work re quires considerable mechanical aptitude for equip ment used and, also, good judgment in timing sea sonal operations. Danger of bad investments is exceedingly great, because the cycle of growth cov ers such a long time. Due to this danger and be cause of soil and topographical limits of fruit farming, purchase should be most cautionsly made. Outlook Good opportunities, in areas having favorable soil and climate, for well-grounded, well-financed operators. Outside of the better areas, production and marketing situations are likely to force con tinual declines in fruit enterprises. Extremely limited production areas in this region make es tablishment of new farms or purchase of old ones quite difficult and expensive. Lake States— Livestock Cash Grain Farms Fairly common type in some parts of this re gion. Units range from 80 to 400 acres depending on the area and kind of farming. Com, wheat, oats, barley, flax, and potatoes are the most com mon crops. Hogs, beef and dairy cattle, sheep, and poultry are the livestock. In southern areas, most grain is marketed through livestock, espe cially hogs and beef cattle in southwestern Minne sota. Farther north, corn is usually for silage, more wheat and barley are grown, and more small grain is sold. In the grain-corn southern areas, intensive live- A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----L A K E stock-grain units of from 80 to 160 acres are quite common, but at least 160 acres should be operated to obtain an adequate income. Usual combina tions with grains include hogs, dairy-hogs, hogsbeef raising, and hogs-beef fattening. These units are extremely flexible and can shift their enter prises within a year or two. New soybean varie ties have in recent years become part of these organizations. The Job Livestock-cash grain farms require a high de gree of management skill and year-round work. 395 STATES Mechanical skills are necessary for operating com bines, tractors, and a variety of field equipment. Knowledge of livestock management is essential. Outlook A well-bought unit of this type offers good op portunity to an industrious, intelligent, and thor oughly trained operator for profitable employ ment. Continued increases in demand for meat and other livestock products are expected, and units of this type are an essential part of the meat production picture. Lake States— Poultry Farms Units on which poultry is a major enterprise are not numerous but have steadily increased in recent years so that a substantial amount of com mercial poultry is now produced in this region. From 1,500 to 2,500 laying hens are housed each fall, and cockerels and culls are marketed for meat. Broiler farms concentrate on meat rather than on egg production, selling somewhat heavily fed young birds at 3 to 5 months. One family can handle up to 25,000 broilers. Turkeys in flocks of 200 and up are raised for meat. They are kept longer (about 5 to 7 months) and have a shorter marketing season than broilers. Hatcheries are intensively commercial, require higher skills, and are far less common. In this region, the majority o f poultry products comes from farms of from 60 to 280 acres. These flocks have from 50 to 300 laying hens or about the same number of turkeys, and are definitely minor enterprises although they contribute a sig nificant proportion of the farm cash income. Commercial poultry is most common in the south ern areas, particularly around large cities with well-established jioultry markets. The Job T h e w o r k is m o re sp ecia lized and less h e a v y th a n d a iry o r g e n e ra l fa r m in g . A s in m ost fa r m in g , ce rta in ch ores, such as p ic k in g u p and d e liv e rin g egg s, fe e d in g , w a te rin g , and cle a n in g , m ust be d on e ev e ry d a y . S e a so n a lly , houses m ust be d is in fe cte d , re p a irs m ade, and b ird s m arketed. M e ch a n ica l a p titu d e is n o t so im p o rta n t as on fa r m s w ith m u ch field w o r k , b u t g o o d m a n agem en t a n d p la n n in g are. C o n tr o l o f disease is u n u su a lly im p o r ta n t in p o u ltr y fa r m in g , as h ig h m o r ta lity can v e r y q u ic k ly w ip e o u t a y e a r ’s p rofits. A m o n g the best p ro te c tio n s a g a in st disease are cleanlin ess, k n o w l ed ge o f diseases a n d th e ir rem edies, a n d estab lish m en t o f d ise a se -fre e stock. Outlook T h is area, w ith m a rk ets in the h e a v ily p o p u la te d u rb a n lo ca litie s o f th e M id w e s t a n d N orth ea st, offers g o o d o p p o r tu n itie s to efficient, w e ll-lo c a te d p o u ltr y m e n . B r o ile r p r o d u c tio n m ay e xp a n d . P o u ltry m e n w h o g r o w m u ch o f th e ir fe e d a n d have oth er fa r m en terp rises are in a g o o d co m p e titiv e p o sitio n . 396 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK HANDBOOK Lake States— Vegetable Farms Commercial units are limited to a small portion of this region. There are both market garden and wholesale vegetables farms scattered through southern Michigan and southeastern Wisconsin and Minnesota. However, a majority o f vegeta bles, particularly canning peas, are grown in com bination with livestock and, in Michigan, with fruit. Commercial units range from 40 to 120 acres and have wide annual fluctuations in income. Short growing seasons are characteristic. Canning peas and sweet corn are heavily produced in the veg etable areas, usually as a supplementary cash crop on livestock farms of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Cucumber pickles are raised in central and south ern Michigan. Celery is definitely concentrated in the muck areas of southwestern Michigan, on ions in the southern muck areas. Nearly all truck crops are grown commercially to some extent. The Job Vegetable production is concentrated in the summer months and requires long hours of hard physical work in the field, in the packing house, and in the street or market. The family works, and the operator must also be a good hirer and supervisor of seasonal help, mostly “ stoop” labor ers. Planning lay-out for the year to prevent im possible seasonal labor peaks at harvest and to maximize returns by “ hitting the market,” pays high dividends. Picking at the right time or, oc casionally, plowing a crop under and replanting, require good judgment and managing ability. Outlook Skillfully managed market gardens offer good opportunities for energetic operators. The re mainder of vegetable farming on a commercial scale does not extend very good prospects and is more likely to remain as another important cash enterprise on livestock and general farms. New processing and production methods favor con tinued increases in units larger and more expensive than those discussed here. Lake States— General Farms The better general farms of from 160 to 320 acres are found in the southern areas of the region, the Saginaw Valley of Michigan and the Red River Valley of Minnesota. Ordinarily, they re flect the farmers’ attempts to maximize income by utilizing all resources available to his farm. Income is received from some combination of cash grain, beans, sugar beets, potatoes, vegetable, dairy, beef cattle, hogs, sheep, and poultry. No one source of income is continuously dominant. Southern areas have productive prairie soils and, therefore, can ripen corn more easily. Corn-hogbeef cash-crop units are common in these areas. Farther north, less productive soils and shorter growing seasons tend to limit the number of cash crops, to increase acreages of small grains and hay, to force production of corn for silage rather th a n g r a in , a n d to en co u ra g e r o u g h a g e -co n s u m in g ra th e r th a n g r a in -c o n su m in g liv estock . T h e p o o r e r g e n e ra l fa r m s p r o d u c e a little o f several p ro d u cts and su ffer fr o m h a v in g n o p r o d u ction a d v a n ta g es. T h ese are fo u n d m ost o fte n in the sa n d y a n d c u t-o v e r areas, w h ere p o o r soils and lo w cash receip ts are p rev a len t. The Job O p e ra to rs m ust be v ig o r o u s , re s o u rc e fu l, w e lltra in e d and sk ille d in m an agem en t. A w id e v a rie ty o f jo b s m ust be w e ll clone o r w ell su p ervised . K n o w le d g e o f p r o d u c tio n m e th o d s and o p e r a tin g p ro b le m s, such as disease co n tr o l in ca ttle, p o u ltr y , sheep, fr u it , veg eta b les, a n d fields cr o p s, is n eces sary. G en era l fo r m s o fte n o ffe r g o o d o p p o r tu n i ties f o r re a liz in g the m ost fr o m fa m ily la b or. A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----L A K E Outlook I f planned to give full employment all year and to take advantage of their resources, these farms STATES 397 should be successful, but at a relatively lower level compared with more specialized units. Year-toyear variations in income are small compared with other types. Lake States— Part-Time Farms In the cut-over areas, many farms are part-time in the sense that they do not offer full employment to the operator. They are found most frequently in the suburban and northern areas of this region and are scattered around manufacturing districts, particularly in the southeastern area. Southern units are largely residential and have very small off-farm sales. The usual part-time farm has from 3 to 50 acres with garden, small pasture, a cow and pig or two, a small flock of chickens, and a few fruit trees. None of this offers large cash rewards or the often advertised “ 5-acres-and-independence.” When ever lay-out calls for full-time work by the operator and family or large cash expenses, the farm is no longer part-time. Increase in size of business, offfarm employment, or purchase by people with out side income seems the likely result, if these units are to remain in production. The Job Fairly light work of a wide, variety is custom ary. None of this is too demanding on the opera tor, whose main purpose is to add to his income by well-directed use of spare time. The operator and his family must be willing to accept the manner of living associated w ith part-time units: outside T work, few luxuries, slower living. Outlook An increase in number may be expected as work weeks are shortened, submarginal - farms fail as commercial units, pensioners find suitable loca tions, and urban people indulge their back-to-thefarm urge. Units operated by families which buy within their resources and operate within the lim its of their physical and financial ability will be successful. Cow-chicken-hog-garden units for family use only, will continue to be numerous as enterprising families try to stretch meager in comes to meet family needs. In addition, there are numerous desirable locations with good recrea tional opportunities for pensioners and retired workers, particularly in the better developed northern areas. A P P A L A C H IA N STATES Appalachian States— Tobacco Farms This area is the primary tobacco land of the country. Farms range from 50 to 200 acres in size with wide variations in productivity. Some dairy cattle, poultry, and hogs are found on most o f the farms in the area and provide a considerable portion of the family living and some income. Widest variations are in cash crops other than tobacco. In North Carolina, Tennessee, and to a lesser extent Virginia, small acreages of cotton are quite often grown. Fruit and vegetables are more common in southern Maryland and on the East ern Shore. Peanuts have become much more im portant recently, especially in Virginia and North Carolina. Many farms raise grain (wheat and corn), and some o f this is sold. Livestock as a cash enterprise is more common on the larger units, and hay and pasture become important. These units are most often found on the lower slopes of mountain areas. Many different kinds of tobacco are grown in the area. O f these, burley and flue-cured for cig arettes are the most important. Dark tobaccos have become steadily less popular since W orld War I , b u t are still g r o w n on m a n y fa r m s, p a r tic u la r ly in V ir g in ia . The Job I t is h a rd . M u ch field w o r k is n ecessary in r a is in g a n d h a r v e stin g a n d is fo llo w e d b y c u r in g a n d h a n d lin g a fte r h arvest. S o m e k n o w le d g e o f t o b a c co cu ltu re and c u r in g is essen tial, beca u se q u a l ity has a su bstan tia l effect on th e p rice . T h e level o f fa m ily liv in g is g r e a tly in flu en ced b y adequ ate p r o d u c tio n o f m ilk , eg g s, a n d v eg eta b les, w h ich requ ire versa tile sk ills on th e p a r t o f th e o p e ra to r. Outlook This area is the best suited in the country for this crop and will maintain its leadership in to bacco production. Production of cigarette to baccos has good prospects, especially when some diversification and raising of home-used foods sup plement the family income. In contrast, darktobacco demand has been decreasing for 25 years and only the most favorable lay-outs have even fair future prospects. Appalachian States— Fruit Farms This region is one of the more important fruit areas of the country. Apples, peaches, and straw berries are major fruit crops, with apple farms predominant. Farms range from 50 to over 500 acres with a majority of acreage in fruit, espe cially on the smaller farms. Apples are widely grown, but are most common in the Shenandoah and Tennessee Valleys, western Maryland, and western North Carolina. Fewer peaches are grown, and are best in about the same areas as ap ples. Strawberries are concentrated in selected areas of eastern North Carolina, western Tennes see and Kentucky, and the Norfolk-Eastern Shore area o f Virginia and Maryland. Strawberries often are one of several enterprises on truck-fruit farms, especially on the Eastern Shore. As in the Northeast, apples and peaches combine well with 39 8 d a iry , liv e sto ck , o r p o u ltr y . F r u it o f som e v a r ie ty is o fte n fo u n d o n th e g e n e ra l fa r m s o f th is re g io n . The Job I t req u ires sk ill and ex p erien ce to b r in g so m e w h a t d e lica te cr o p s th r o u g h th e yea r. D isea se and w ea th er m u st be co n sta n tly b a ttled . H arvest and m a rk e tin g m ust be tim e d to m a x im iz e return s. F r u it g r o w e rs are less tie d d o w n , e x c e p t in h a r vest, th a n are o th e r fa rm e rs, b u t la b o r is q uite h a r d a n d g o o d su p e r v iso r y a b ility is essential. D a ily w o r k requ ires con sid e ra b le m ech a n ica l a p ti tu d e f o r equ ip m en t used and g o o d ju d g m e n t in tim in g seasonal o p e ra tio n s. B a d in v estm en ts are e x c e e d in g ly d a n g e ro u s beca u se the c y cle o f g r o w th co v e rs such a lo n g p e rio d . D u e to th is d a n g e r a n d A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----A P P A L A C H IA N because o f soil and to p o g r a p h ic a l lim its o f fr u it fa r m in g , the p u rch a se sh ou ld be m ost ca u tiou sly fin anced o p e ra to rs. m ade. u n fa v o r a b le p r o d u c tio n a n d m a rk e tin g co n d itio n s Outlook good 399 STATES o p p o r tu n itie s fo r w e ll-in fo r m e d , w e ll- O u tsid e o f th e b etter areas, are lik e ly to fo r c e th e co n tin u a tio n o f recen t d e A re a s h a v in g fa v o r a b le soil and clim a te offer clin es in fr u it en terp rises. Appalachian States— Poultry Farms This region includes the Delmarva broiler area. Broiler production is a highly specialized business with considerable risk. Family broiler enterprises involve raising from 5,000 to 25,000 chicks to about 3 months of age. Started at different times of the year, such enterprises are full-time jobs. Farms of this type are concentrated in the Delmarva or Eastern Shore area and, also, are scattered through the region. Larger investment is required but more stable incomes are received from a broilerlayer combination in which 1,500 to 2,500 birds are housed for egg production. Many different kinds of poultry farms are found in this region. A big share of the poultry, much of which is con sumed on the farm, is produced as but one of sev eral enterprises on a general or livestock farm; turkeys are widely raised on general farms. The Joh T h e w o rk is m ore sp e cia lize d th a n d a ir y o r g e n eral fa r m in g . A s in m ost fa r m in g , certa in ch ores, su ch as p ic k in g u p a n d d e liv e r in g eg g s, fe e d in g , watering, and cleaning, must be done every day. Seasonally, houses must be disinfected, repairs made, birds killed and marketed. Mechanical aptitude is not so important as on farms with much field work, but good management and planning are essential. Cleanliness is unusually important. High mor tality, particularly among grown birds, can very quickly wipe out a year’s profits. Cleanliness, a knowledge o f diseases and their remedies, and establishment of disease-free stock are necessary to prevent high mortality. Outlook This area sells in the heavily populated North east and offers good opportunities to efficient, welllocated poultrymen. Competition from surplusfeed areas will make “ factory” broiler production less profitable but will have less effect on the poul trymen who grow some of their feed and have other farm enterprises. Further increases in breeding and hatching for sale offer profitable in vestment for operators skilled in this work. Appalachian States— Livestock Farms Many kinds of livestock farms are found in this region. Most common sources of income on live stock farms are cattle, hogs, poultry, sheep, and horses. Many livestock farms in Maryland, Vir ginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee also sell some wheat. Beef cattle and hogs do very well so far as grazing and roughages are concerned, but there are few areas in this region where they can be fattened as cheaply as in the Corn Belt. Horses are an important side line as a hobby; horses and mules are a business in Kentucky, Tennessee, and northern Virginia. Sheep have been diminish in g as an e n terp rise in th is re g io n . A fe w d a ir y ca ttle and p o u ltr y are k e p t on n e a r ly a ll liv e sto c k fa rm s. T h e b etter liv e sto c k u n its are fo u n d in a p p ro x im a te ly the sam e areas as the b etter g e n eral fa r m s— V ir g in ia v a lle y s and th e ir M a r y la n d exten sion , ce n tra l basin a n d riv e r v a lle y s o f T e n nessee, a n d the b lu egra ss co u n tr y o f K e n tu c k y . The Job A c t iv e re s o u rc e fu l m a n a gem en t and a c o n s id e r able a m ou n t o f h a r d p h y sica l w o r k is req u ired. R o u g h a g e cr o p s m u st be g r o w n and h arvested , 400 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K a n d liv e s to ck m ust be v e r y c a r e fu lly m a n aged . ators. G o o d k n o w le d g e o f liv e sto ck care, b re e d in g , and m a rk ets a re c o n d u civ e to su cce ssfu l o p e ra tio n . disease c o n tr o l is necessary. V e r y im p o r ta n t is e x p e rie n ce a n d m ark et sense, f o r m u ch o f the p ro fit in liv e s to ck fa r m in g results f r o m g o o d m a rk etin g . Outlook M ild clim a te, g o o d g ra ssla n d , a n d f a i r R e la tiv e ly h ig h fe e d -g r o w in g co sts p r e v a il in th e ro u g h e r la n d s, a n d fa tte n in g o p e r a tio n s are risk y , d e p e n d in g o n b u m p e r cr o p s in su rp lu s -fe e d p r o d u c in g areas. L iv e s to c k fa rm s on th e b etter r o llin g lan d s o f th is re g io n o ffe r g o o d o p p o r tu n itie s to g o o d o p e r I n the b etter situ a ted section s, w e ll- m a n a g e d liv e sto ck units can o ffe r g o o d and fa ir ly stable return s to o p e ra to rs. Appalachian States— Cotton Farms It is a difficult business to grow cotton in most parts of this region. Most of it is grown in North Carolina and Tennessee, and a little is found in Virginia. From 5 to 15 acres of cotton is usually the major source o f income. Other cash crops in clude peanuts, tobacco, vegetables, small grains, or seeds. Corn and hay are grown and fed to working livestock and to a few cows or chickens. Additional enterprises have been typical of cot ton farms during recent years because of reduced cotton acreage and a desire to operate better bal anced farms. Recent trends in mechanization are accelerating these shifts. Cotton-dairy combinations of from 100 to 200 acres are found in most cotton areas of the region. Cotton, tobacco, and peanuts are found in various combinations in some parts of North Carolina and Virginia, while cotton-livestock cultivation is more common in Tennessee. The Job C o tto n a n d o th e r e n terp rises th a t m a y b e c o m b in e d w ith it req u ire e x c e p tio n a lly lo n g d a y s o f w o r k d u r in g the g r o w in g season. h a rd est k in d s o f fa r m in g . I t is on e o f th e G o o d k n o w le d g e o f cu rre n t m eth od s is v e r y d esira b le because o f q u a l ity p rice p rem iu m s th a t a cco m p a n y im p r o v e d p ra ctice s. Outlook This is one of the oldest cotton regions and for quality production it is one of the best. Some cotton will probably always be grown and may be more profitable than in prewar years, if mechani zation is reflected in cheaper production. Cotton on 150- to 250-acre farms, balanced with other crop or livestock enterprises, offers fairly good possibilities to good operators. Appalachian States— Peanut Farms N o t a f u lly establish ed ty p e , f o r pean u ts are u su a lly g r o w n in co m b in a tio n w ith co tto n and t o b a cco , b oth h ig h v a lu e cro p s. P ea n u t a crea ge e x p a n d e d d u r in g the w a r, b u t less so in th is area a n d the need to rest peanut la n d , fa r m e rs w ill ten d to sell m o re d a ir y and p o u ltr y p ro d u cts. The Job P e a n u t fa r m s in the area are P e a n u ts, co tto n , and to b a c co req u ire u n u su a lly co n ce n tra te d in a re la tiv e ly sm all section a rou n d la r g e a m ou n ts o f h a n d la b o r d u r in g th e g r o w in g th an fa r th e r sou th . the eastern en d o f th e b o rd e r betw een V ir g in ia and seasons. N o rth C a rolin a . to r a n d h is fa m ily . F a rm ex p erien ce and p o ssib le M u c h o f .this m ust be d o n e b y th e o p e r a P la n tin g , g r o w in g , a n d h a r q u ota s f o r c o tto n an d to b a c c o w ill lim it th e q u a n v e stin g these cr o p s is tire so m e a n d o fte n v e r y h a rd tit y g r o w n . w o rk . P ea n u ts are s o ld as n u ts i f p o s s ib le ; but, in o ff yea rs, it m a y be a d v a n ta g e o u s to graze h o g s o v er p a r t o f th e p ea n u t crop s. N e a rly all S om e la b o r m u st b e h ir e d a n d su p ervised . F u tu r e p ro sp e c ts are f o r m o re m e ch a n ica l aid s, but these w ill req u ire la r g e r a crea ges a n d w ill fa r m s h av e som e liv e s t o c k ; la r g e ly f o r h om e use. b r in g m ore m a n a g em en t p rob lem s. W it h a g r o w in g d em a n d f o r liv e s to c k p ro d u cts a n d p r ic e -fo r -q u a lit y ch a ra cte ristics o f these cro p s H ig h v a lu e A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----A P P A L A C H IA N make it very desirable that the operator have good knowledge and working experience in their culture. im p o rta n ce a tta ch ed to it d u r in g th e w a r m ake it a f a i r p ro sp e c t f o r p o te n tia l fa rm ers. peanuts. The diversified nature of the peanut farm and At p resen t, th ere is som e d o u b t as to the best p ean u t areas and best co m b in a tio n Outlook 401 STATES of en terp rises w h ich in clu d e M e c h a n iza tio n and o th e r te c h n o lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n ts sh o u ld be c a r e fu lly co n sid e re d . Appalachian States— Vegetable Farms The Norfolk-Eastern Shore area of this region is one of the major truck areas of the country, but high incomes are unusual. Metropolitan market gardening is not so common as in the Northeast. Commercial units range from 50 to 150 acres with 150-acre units most common. Many kinds of vegetables are favored by climate in this region and are found to some extent on most farms. Vegetable areas are concentrated in the NorfolkEastern Shore of Virginia and Maryland, north eastern Maryland, tidewater North Carolina, and the plateau of western Tennessee. Among vege tables commonly grown are tomatoes, peas, sweet corn, snapbeans, lima beans, melons, potatoes, spinach, and cucumbers. A family farm on the Eastern Shore may have 20 acres of potatoes, 5 of snapbeans, 6 of tomatoes, and 3 of strawberries. A wider variety of vegetables and an increased proportion o f retail sales are found on market garden farms surrounding Baltimore, Louisville, Memphis, Norfolk, Washington, and other urban districts. Larger farms, with fewer vegetables and more livestock (particularly dairy and poul try), are more common in the rolling lands o f the higher Appalachian areas. The -Job Vegetable production is concentrated in the summer months and requires long hours of hard physical work in the field, in the packing house, and in the street or market. The family works, but the operator must also be a good hirer and supervisor of seasonal help, mostly “ stoop” la borers. Planning a combination of enterprises for the year, to prevent impossible seasonal labor peaks at harvest and to maximize returns by “hit ting the market,” pays high dividends. Picking at the right time or, occasionally, plowing a crop under and replanting require good judgment and managing ability. Outlook The skillfully operated market garden units offer good opportunities in this region for ener getic operators. Commercial vegetable farming on a family scale does not offer, other than family living, very good prospects to the small operator. New processing and production methods favor continued increases in units larger and more ex pensive than those discussed here. Appalachian States— Dairy Farms Specialized dairy farms are of two distinct types, depending on the method of marketing. Near urban areas the farms are more expensive but not necessarily larger in acreage; whole milk is sold under stringent sanitation regulations to city dealers at relatively high prices. These fluidmilk farms are all over the area, but are numerous in the Baltimore-Washington, Louisville, and Memphis milksheds. The second marketing type, under high but less stringent sanitation regula tio n s, sells m ilk o r b u tte r fa t to m a n u fa ctu rin g p la n ts w h ere it is p rocessed in to e v a p o r a te d m ilk , cheese, b u tter, a n d o th e r m ilk p ro d u cts. T h is ty p e is m ost n u m erou s on the r o llin g la n d o f K e n tu c k y and Tennessee. M a n y d a ir y fa r m s o f th is re g io n are n o t c o m p le te ly s p e cia liz e d , but d ep en d f o r som e in co m e on cash cr o p s a n d o th e r liv e sto ck p ro d u cts. O f these, fr u its, p o u ltr y , and veg eta b les are m ost com m on . G r a in a n d h a y are so ld fr o m som e fa rm s. In a 402 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK few areas, small acreages of cotton and tobacco are grown. While none of these is a major source of income, each assists in building up farm reve nue and adds to profitable employment of farm resources. HANDBOOK must be kept in operating condition, and buildings kept in repair. An understanding of livestock characteristics and weaknesses is essential, as well as skill in handling pasture and feed crops. Outlook The Job Requires an active, resourceful man who can do a variety of jobs with at least average skill and, also, book and paper work necessary for good farm planning. Mechanical aptitude is necessary be cause a milking machine, farm truck, light tractor, mower, rake, sprayer, and other field equipment Good opportunities in this region. Much of the land is well suited to dairy-farm needs, and de veloped markets are available. Experienced op erators on the better farms can find profitable yearround employment with less fluctuation of income than on specialized crop farms. Appalachian States— General Farms From 120 to 500 acres, but cropland is not cor respondingly larger in comparison with other types. Income is received from some combination of dairy, other cattle, horses, sheep, poultry, fruit, vegetables, tobacco, cotton, cash grain, peanuts, and other sources. Actual combination depends on soil, lay-out of farm, and preferences o f the operator. Among the best of this region are those in the Shenandoah area of Virginia and its Maryland extension, the central basin and Tennessee Valley in Tennessee, and the bluegrass country o f Ken tucky. All these areas emphasize livestock includ ing dairy, beef cattle, sheep, and horses. Virginia and Maryland areas have considerable fruit. P o tatoes and other vegetables are commonly grown as cash enterprises. Many general farms are found in other parts. Income combination varies with localities, with more livestock on rolling lands and more cash crops on flatlands of the river terrace and tide water. Cotton, tobacco, peanuts, potatoes, fruit, and vegetables are widely grown. The Job The operator must be vigorous, resourceful, well-trained and skilled in management. A wide variety of jobs must be well done and well super vised. Some knowledge of production methods and operating problems, such as disease control in cattle, poultry, sheep, fruit, vegetables and field crops, and fertilization, is necessary. Outlook General farms in this region offer good oppor tunities. The better located ones are among the best of their kind in the country. Planned to give full employment all year and to take advantage of their resources, these farms should be successful. Their year-to-year variations in income are excep tionally small compared with other types, but in come may often be lower than those of specialty units. A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----A P P A L A C H IA N STATES 403 Appalachian States— Part-Time Farms Part-time farms are common in the Appalach ian area. There are few urban areas, but much seasonal work in mines and forests. Units range from 5 to 25 acres with a garden, small pasture, probably a cow and pig or two, small flock of chickens, and maybe a few fruit trees. None o f this offers either large cash results or the often advertised “ 5-acres-and-independence.” Whenever the lay-out calls for full-time work by the operator and family or large cash ex penses, the farm is no longer part time. Varia tions usually reflect soil resources of the farms and whims of the operator. Some don’t like livestock and have none. Some have seasonal jobs, which allow time for a small market garden or livestock. Others have large units with poor soil and have several dairy cows that are pastured on the farm but must be fed on feed and hay brought from the outside. The Job Fairly light work of a wide variety is customary. However, lack of equipment makes some work harder than similar effort on commercial farms. This may demand considerable time of the oper ator, whose main purpose is to add to his real income by well-directed use of spare time. Outlook More part-time units can be expected as workweeks are reduced, submarginal farms fail as com mercial units, pensioners find suitable locations, and urban people indulge their back-to-the-farm urge. Successful ones will be operated by families which buy within the limits of their resources and operate within the limit of their ability, both physical and financial. Lack of markets in this area and the present lay-out with full-time farms, successfully operated around most cities, tend to limit prospects of commercial part-time opera tion. However, the cow-chicken-hog-garden units, for family use only, will continue to be numerous as enterprising families try to stretch meager in comes to meet their needs. SOUTHEAST STATES Southeast States— Cotton Farms This region is the older cotton South. Small units with small incomes are now typical. Cotton is the main cash enterprise of the South. Farms with from 5 to 15 acres of cotton, 5 to 10 of corn, some hay, a mule, a pig, a cow, and chickens are found in all States of the region. During recent years, the addition of more land and other cash enterprises has become the goal of many cotton farmers who formerly raised little else. In some areas, especially in the Coastal Plains of Florida, Georgia, and Alabama, pea nuts have been successfully substituted for part of Cotton is the biggest cash crop in the South. the cotton. Also, tobacco has been of increasing importance in some sections of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. In the northern hilly areas dairy cattle add cash income to a considerable number of farms. Truck crops and sweetpotatoes are other sources of additional income over most of the region. Poultry as a cash enterprise is slowly becoming more common. With the in creases in tractors during recent years, many units have added a considerable acreage of small grains. Well-managed forest land is a farm enterprise in selected areas. Much hard work such as the picking shown below limits the number of acres handled by any one farmer. Co u rtesy 404 of U. s . Departm e n t of a g r ic u l t u r e A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----S O U T H E A S T The Job Cotton and crops found in combination with it require exceptionally long days of work, especially during the harvesting season. Relative to the in come received, this is one of the hardest kinds of farming. Good knowledge of current methods is very desirable, because of quality price premiums on crops grown. Skill in handling of soils and use o f fertilizer also is necessary. Outlook This is one of the oldest cotton regions. Some STATES 405 cotton will probably always be grown. I f mech anization is reflected in cheaper production, fewer units and higher returns should be expected. Cot ton on 150- to 250-acre farms, balanced with other crop or livestock enterprises, offer fairly good pos sibilities to operators. Cotton-peanuts-liogs and cotton-vegetable combinations offer diversity and higher incomes to units lacking room to expand to the more extensive dairy or livestock enterprises. Good living is unlikely on very small specialized units. Southeast States— Peanut and Pecan Farms Peanut production is an important enterprise on many southeastern farms. Pecans, though much less important, are grown over a wider area. Peanuts are usually grown in combination with cotton and a little livestock. The four States in this region grow over half the peanuts of the coun try; most o f the production comes within a 200mile radius of the Georgia-Alabama-Florida boundary intersection. Peanut farms range from 30 to 125 acres and have 15 to 20 or more acres in cotton and peanuts. Important peanut varieties include the Spanish and Runners, which may be used for hogging off or dug for sale. Spanish are usually dug for edi ble sale. Cattle, poultry, truck crops, and sweetpotatoes add to cash income and farm family living on larger units or units having a limited acreage of soil suitable for peanuts. Corn and roughages are grown for home feed. Pecans, though more widely grown than pea nuts, are also limited by type pf soil. With few ex ceptions, pecans are but one of the enterprises on fairly large cotton-peanut or cotton-livestock farms. Pecan orchards are expensive to develop and operate. However, where well established, they usually are a good source of income. 793996°—49-----27 The Job Peanuts and cotton require unusually large amounts of labor during the summer and fall. Much of this must be done by the operator and his family. Planting, growing, and harvesting is tiresome and often very hard work. Some help must be hired and supervised. Future prospects are for more mechanical aids, but these will re quire larger acreages and greater management problems. Peanuts and pecans both require a high degree of skill and experience in production methods. High value and price-for-quality characteristics of these crops make it highly desirable that the operators have adequate knowledge and working experience in their culture. Outlook Diversified nature of peanut and pecan farms and important developments in the use of peanuts during the war make them a fair prospect for po tential farmers. For those interested in peanuts, this is one of the most favorable areas. However, large-scale mechanization and new production methods favor larger units than most of those now available. 406 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLO OK HANDBOOK Southeast States— General-Livestock Farms Livestock and general farms in this region are rare. Competition for good land has kept the land in high value per acre crops and not in feed for roughage-consuming livestock; most farms are too small for livestock farming and produc tion and marketing problems have been unusually difficult. Sheep numbers have been steadily de creasing, but cattle and hog volume has remained about the same for 30 years. There are some fair general farms in the Piedmont and Coastal Plains of Georgia and a few good livestock farms in areas like the Black Belt of Alabama. Some units in the Alabama Black Belt are very similar to livestock and general farms in the Mid west and in the North, with a few beef cattle, hogs, some poultry, and cropland in corn, hay, and pas ture. Small acreages of cotton and other cash crops are grown. In the Coastal Plains of Geor gia, Alabama, and Florida, cattle and hogs are grazed over waste and undeveloped land. Cattle gain weight very slowly and losses from parasites have been high. Also in the Coastal Plains are the peanut-hog farms, similar in organization but not in produe- Some farms are called general farms or just farms. On them, the operators may have a few cattle, hogs or chickens. livestock, have one or two cash crops, and may sell some firewood ortim ber from a relatively large woodland acreage. most to be self-sufficient. Co u rtesy o f U. s They raise feed for the Of all farms, these tend . departm en t o f a g r ic u l t u r e A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----S O U T H E A S T tivity to the corn-hog farms o f the Corn Belt. In the Piedmont, a few livestock units are found on land whose productivity is too low for cotton, peanuts, or other cash crops. The Job Requires active, resourceful management, and a considerable amount o f physically hard work. Roughage crops must be grown and harvested, and stock must be very carefully managed. Knowledge of livestock care, breeding, and dis ease control is necessary. Very important is ex perience and market sense, for much of the profit in livestock farming results from good marketing. STATES 407 Outlook It is fair for livestock farms in a few areas. General farms have slightly better prospects, for they have stability in income and can take advan tage of spotty land where a few acres of good cropland and more acres of rough land can be skillfully used for some combination of cash crops and grazing livestock. Recent developments in production techniques for improved pastures, feed crops, hay, and livestock are likely to improve this situation considerably. Income though stable is usually lower than that from specialty farms with comparable investments. Southeast States— Dairy Farms This is a stable but not too prosperous business for small operators. Most dairy units in this re gion have from 10 to 15 cows; raise fodder, hay, and some grain; buy more grain and hay; and sell milk on the relatively low-price processing market. These units have from 100 to 150 acres with about half in crops. Poultry and a few pigs are kept, and other cash enterprises, such as sweetpotatoes or other vegetables, add to cash income. Income varies with size of unit, location, type o f cattle and, most of all, with skill of operator. In contrast to the family units described above are the large dairy “ factories” common to areas near the larger cities in this region. These units have 100 or more cows, buy practically all feed, including roughage, and usually retail their milk. Unusually high investment and operating costs limit these units to operators with excellent ex perience and strong financial backing. The Job Requires an active, resourceful man who can do a variety of jobs with at least average skill and, also, paper and book work necessary for good farm planning. Mechanical aptitude is necessary because of milking machine, farm truck, light tractor, mower, rake, sprayer, and other field equipment must be kept in operating condition, and buildings kept in repair. An understanding of livestock characteristics is essential. Knowl edge of soils, feed crops, pasture use, and fertiliza tion is necessary. Outlook The opportunities for dairying are only fair even though most of this region is on an import basis for dairy products. An extremely low per capita consumption of milk and milk products should improve as purchasing power moves up with expected industrialization. Skilled opera tors will find good markets, but they must con tinue to face serious production difficulties in the raising of cheap roughages and they must com pete for land with high-value crops such as cot ton, peanuts, truck, and fruit. They should develope good pastures and strains of high-produc ing, hardy, dairy cattle. 408 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K Southeast States— Fruit Farms As a commercial venture, fruit is one of the most hazardous in this area. Citrus areas of central Florida are outstanding, although some fruit is grown throughout the region, including the wellknown peach area in central Georgia. Except for citrus and a few peach farms, most fruit is grown in combination with other crops or livestock. A p ples and peaches are grown in the northern, hilly parts of the region. Also grown, mostly in Flor ida, are persimmons, papayas, avocados, guavas, pears, and figs. Most of these fruits are grown on small acre ages. Even the small acreages are expensive to buy and operate. Citrus units of about 10 acres, peaches and pears of 20, and apples of 40 can be handled by one family, except for harvest. Crops can be grown in combination, especially when they supplement each other in demands for labor. For example, in Hillsborough County, Fla., citrus, strawberries, and peppers are grown on the same farm. Tomatoes and green beans can also be fitted to these organizations. The Job Commercial fruit farming requires skill and ex perience to bring somewhat delicate crops through the year. Disease, insects, and weather must be constantly battled. Harvest and marketing must be timed to maximize returns. Fruit growers are less tied down, except in harvest, than are other farmers, but the work is quite hard and good su pervisory ability is essential. Daily work requires considerable mechanical aptitude for equipment used and good judgment in timing seasonal opera tions. Bad investments are exceedingly dangerpus in tree-fruit farms, because the cycle o f growth covers such a long time. Due to this danger and because of soil and topographical limits of fruit farming, the purchase should be most cautiously made. Outlook Commercial fruit farming in areas having fa vorable soil and climate offer good opportunities for well-grouncled, well-financed operators. H igh er per capita fruit consumption, mild climate, and seasonal markets are particularly favorable to the smartly operated fruit farm. Southeast States— Poultry Farms Farm flocks are most typical iii this region; however, commercial poultry raising has been in creasing in recent years. A family broiler enter prise involves raising from 5,000 to 25,000 chicks to about 3 months of age. Started at different times of the year, such an enterprise is a full-time job. Farms of this type are scattered throughout the region, with a concentration in Northern Georgia. More investment is required but more stable incomes are received from a broiler-layer combination in which 1,500 to 2.500 birds are housed for egg production. A big share of the poultry in this region is in small flocks on crop farms. The Job T h e w o r k is q u ite sp e cia lize d . A s in m o st f a r m in g , ce rta in ch ores, su ch as g a th e r in g and d e liv e r in g eg g s, fe e d in g , w a te rin g , a n d cle a n in g , m ust be d on e e v e r y d a y . H ou ses m u st be d is in fe c te d a n d rep a irs m a d e ; b ird s k ille d a n d m a rk eted o r sep a ra ted f o r sale. N o n e o f th is is v e r y h a rd p h y s ic a lly but it is m o n o to n o u s. M e c h a n ica l a p ti tude is n o t so im p o r ta n t as o n fa r m s w ith m u ch field w o rk , but g o o d m a n a gem en t a n d p la n n in g are. C lea n lin ess is u n u su a lly im p o r ta n t in p o u ltr y fa r m in g in th is area. H ig h m o r ta lity , p a r tic u A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----S O U T H E A S T la r ly a m on g g r o w n b ird s , ca n v e r y q u ick ly w ip e o u t a y e a r’s p rofit. A m o n g the best p ro te ctio n s again st disease are cleanlin ess, k n o w le d g e o f d is eases and th eir rem edies, a n d establish m en t o f d isease-free stock. Outlook In creases in p er ca p ita co n s u m p tio n o f p o u ltr y a n d egg s are exp ected. I n spite o f re la tiv e ly h ig h STATES 409 feed costs, this region is likely to increase its poul try production somewhat, particularly broilers. In part, these increases represent a catching up with fast progress made in other regions, but they are to be expected because of recent improvements in production techniques and the small acreages needed for poultry. In part, additional progress will be limited by marketing facilities and outlets. Southeast States— Tobacco Farms South Carolina and Georgia are the im portant tobacco States of this region. The farms range from 50 to 250 acres in size. Supplementary sources of income include cotton, dairy, poultry, hogs, fruit, peanuts, sweetpotatoes, and other veg etables. Flue-cured tobacco is most commonly grown, although Georgia and Florida grow some heavier cigar tobaccos including a small acreage of high-priced shade-grown tobaccos. A k n o w le d g e o f to b a c co cu ltu re and c u r in g is es The Job b a cco. Much hard work is involved, and much hand la bor is necessary in the summer months. Labor requirements are often over 50 man-days per acre. Curing and handling are necessary after harvest. has g o o d p ro sp e cts— b e tte r in som e areas th a n c o t sen tial, because q u a lity has a su bstan tial effect o n its p rice . T h e level o f fa m ily liv in g on sm all units also d ep en d s on adequ ate p r o d u c tio n o f m ilk , eggs, and v eg etab les w h ich requ ire d iverse sk ills on the p a rt o f the o p e ra to r. Outlook S om e areas o f th is re g io n are w ell su ited to t o P r o d u c tio n o f lig h te r cig a re tte to b a cco s to n o r peanuts. A s th is is an a llo tm e n t cr o p , p u r chasers sh ou ld be sure o f a g o o d base a n d rea son able p rice. Southeast States— Vegetable Farms The Southeast has been an outstanding produc er o f fresh vegetables for early and “ out-of-sea son eastern markets.” Farms range from 20 to 300 acres, with most units from 50 to 125 acres. Intensity varies widely; for example, 30 acres in Sanford celery is quite likely^ to net an income equal to 200 in early potatoes. While vegetables are widely grown in small commercial acreages, the most concentrated production is on the Flor ida east coast, the Okeechobee area, and on the coastal plains of Georgia and South Carolina. Peppers are concentrated in central Georgia and the Florida coastal areas. Tomatoes are widely grown with large acreages in Florida. Watermel ons are also widely grown, but are heavily pro duced in the coastal plains of Georgia and South Carolina. Other vegetables include potatoes (ear ly Irish in Florida and Alabama), sweetpotatoes, asparagus, sweet corn, cucumbers, cabbage, peas, lettuce, onions, turnips, and less popular varieties. Most commercial production has been for early sales in metropolitan centers o f the Northeast and Midwest. A few vegetables, such as peppers, are grown almost exclusively in this area. The Job Vegetable production requires long hours of hard physical work in the field and in the packing house. The family works, but the operator must also be a good hirer and supervisor of seasonal help, mostly “stoop” laborers. Planning lay-out for the year, to prevent impossible seasonal labor 410 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK peaks at harvest and to maximize returns by “ hit ting the market,” pays high dividends and re quires good judgment and managing ability. HANDBOOK cia l ve g e ta b le fa r m in g does n ot o ffe r, o th e r th a n a liv in g t o the sm all o p e ra to r, v e r y g o o d p rosp ects. N ew p ro c e ss in g and p r o d u c tio n m e th o d s fa v o r co n tin u e d increases in u nits la r g e r a n d m ore e x Outlook p en sive th a n th ose d iscu ssed here. The early market and specialty or high-quality trade offer good opportunities in this region for energetic operators. The remainder o f commer T h ese d e v e lo p m ents also fa v o r m ore h ig h ly p r o d u c tiv e areas in the n o rth a n d cen tra l section s o f the c o u n tr y n o t fo r m e r ly in c o m p e titio n w ith th e S ou th east. Southeast States— Part-Time Farms The number of part-time farms in the South east has been increasing. They usually have from 5 to 25 acres with a garden, small pasture, a cow and pig or two, small flock o f chickens, and a few fruit trees. None of this offers either large cash results or the often advertised “ 5-acres-and-independence.” Whenever the lay-out calls for full time work by the operator and family or large cash expenditures, the farm is no longer part time. V a r ia tio n s u su a lly reflect soil resou rces o f the fa rm and w h im s o f the o p e ra to r. like liv estock and have none. crop s. S om e d o n ot O th ers d o not like S om e have jo b s w h ich a llo w tim e f o r a sm all m ark et g a rd en . The Joh Fairly light work of a wide variety is customary. Some of this work may be exacting, and the opera tor whose main purpose is to add to his real in come by well-directed use of his spare time has little leisure. Outlook Additional part-time units can be expected as workweeks are reduced, submarginal farms fail as commercial units, pensioners find suitable loca tions, and urban people indulge their back-to-thefarm urge. Units will be successfully operated by families who buy within the limits of their re sources and operate within the limits of their ability, both physical and financial. Cow-chickenhog-garden units, for family use only, will con tinue to be numerous as enterprising families try to stretch meager incomes to meet family needs. This is especially true in Florida where winter employment in resort areas can be combined with summer farming. MISSISSIPPI DELTA STATES Mississippi Delta States— Cotton Farms This region includes some of the best and some o f the poorest cotton farms. Delta soils are among the most productive in the country. Family units here range from 40 to 150 acres and are usually rented as a part of a former plantation with from 5 to 30 acres in cotton and somewhat more in corn. A ll units have been shifting from mule to tractor power and replacing part of their cotton with oats, hay, corn, and soybeans. Oats followed by lespedeza have become important on most Delta farms with over 50 acres of cropland. In the hill land of the Delta States, family units are larger and have more acres of cotton. Live stock is not much more important on these farms than in the Delta areas. Oats, lespedeza, soybeans, truck crops, dairy cattle, hogs, beef cattle, and sheep are found in combination with cotton throughout the region. Oats followed by lespedeza became very much more important on Delta soils during the war and are expected to stay. Soybeans for beans became important too, but low yields resulting from weather conditions indicate that other alternatives may be more desirable. Livestock offers diver sity and additional income. The Job Cotton and cash crops found in combination with it require long days o f work during the grow ing and harvest season. Relative to the income received, this is one of the hardest systems of farm ing. Knowledge of current methods is very de sirable, because of quality price premiums on the crops grown. On larger livestock-cotton units an understanding of general farming is essential, in cluding skill in use of fertilizer and handling of soils. Outlook The Delta lands offer one of the best opportuni ties for prospective farmers, although farms will be difficult to buy and opportunities for new farms are limited. Productive soils and adaptability to mechanization are found in excellent combination. Diversity in hay crops, soybeans, oats, and live stock (also benefiting from technological ad vances) add to the prospects for farms on this land. Upland cotton farms probably will shift steadily toward larger units and toward more of the alternatives mentioned above. Cotton, how ever, will continue as the major source of cash income. Mississippi Delta States— Fruit Farms Commercial fruits and vegetables of this region are grown in about the same areas. Strawberries are the big fruit crop of this region, accounting in 1943 for about half the fruit income from the re gion. Largest acreages of strawberries are in the Hammond area o f Louisiana and in western A r kansas. Grapes are grown mostly in northwestern Arkansas, oranges and tangerines in the extreme south of Louisiana, apples and blackberries in the hill land of Arkansas, and peaches on the uplands of both States. Most fruit is grown in combination with vegeta bles, a little cotton, and some livestock. Units range upward from 20 acres. Peach orchards are the main enterprise on a few farms largely in the hill areas of Arkansas. The Job Work is hard and requires both skill and ex perience to bring somewhat delicate crops through the year. Disease and weather must be constantly battled. Harvest and marketing must be timed to maximize returns. Fruit growers are fairly tied down to the farm, especially at harvest. Good supervisory ability is essential at harvest. Daily work requires mechanical aptitude for equipment 411 412 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK H A N D B O O K used. Bad buys are especially dangerous, because the cycle of growth covers such a long time. Due to this danger and because of soil and topographi cal limits of fruit farming, the purchase should be most cautiously made. vorable soil and climate offers a good opportunity for the well-grounded, well-financed operator. Farms geared only to the high-price early markets must compete with areas taking advantage of re cent advances in processing, particularly quick Outlook freezing. Further development in some areas will depend on market outlets and facilities. Commercial fruit farming in areas having fa Mississippi Delta States— Truck Farms The Delta States form an important early and late fresh vegetable area with some market gar dens and a large amount of shipping. Some vegetables are grown all over the region, but commercial production on an intensive scale is concentrated in southern and northern Louisiana, southwestern and central Mississippi, northwest ern, southwestern, and to some extent northeastern Arkansas. Units range from 20 to 200 acres with wide diversification, including tree fruits and live stock on the larger units. Wide variety of crops is grown in the southern Louisiana areas with some very intensive small units growing two or more crops on the same land. In some parts of this area strawberries and truck are combined; in others sugarcane, potatoes, and truck; sweetpotatoes are widely grown for sale, home use, and feed. Commercial vegetables in Arkansas have still more varied combinations with very heavy concen trations of tomatoes but considerable diversity, especially in the western areas. In the Fayette ville area, strawberries, peaches, dairy, poultry, and a broad range of vegetables are combined in many ways. In the more southern areas, some cotton is grown on the vegetable farms along with considerable fruit. Mississippi areas have fewer commercial vege table farms, but have many combinations with dairy, poultry, fruit, and cotton. Outside o f these concentrations, some vegetables ,on smaller acre ages are grown for sale. Among the most important vegetables are to matoes, beans, cabbage, cucumbers, shallots, onions, melons, watermelons, and potatoes. Peas, lima beans, beets, carrots, sweet corn, and a num ber of other vegetables are also grown. The Job It requires long hours o f hard physical work in the field and in the packing house. The family works, but the operator must also be a good hirer and supervisor of seasonal help, mostly “ stoop” laborers. Planning lay-out for the year, to pre vent impossible seasonal labor peaks at harvest and to maximize returns by “hitting the market,” pays high dividends and requires both good judg ment and managing ability. Outlook Early market and specialty or high-quality trade offer good opportunities in this region for energetic operators. The remainder o f commer cial vegetable farming does not offer, other than family living, very good prospects to the small op erator. New processing and production methods favor units larger and more expensive than those discussed here. A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----M I S S I S S I P P I DELTA STATES 413 Mississippi Delta States— Dairy Farms Fairly stable, but not too prosperous business, for the small operator. Most common units in this region have from 10 to 25 cows; raise grain, silage, hay, and some fodder; usually buy additional grain. They have from 50 to 150 acres with about half of it in crops with some cotton. Poultry and a few pigs are kept, and some other enterprise, such as truck crops, add to cash income. Income varies with size of unit, location, type of cattle and, most of all, with skill of the oper ator. Dairying in this region has slowly become an accepted farming system as other alternatives became less profitable and as technical problems in cattle disease and growth of roughages have been solved. Large producer-distributors are common to areas near the larger cities in this region. These units have 100 or more cows, buy much o f their feed including roughage and usually retail their own milk. Unusually high investment and oper ating costs limit these units to operators with excellent experience and strong financial backing. The Job Working dairy farms require an active, re sourceful manager who can do a variety of jobs with at least average skill and, also, paper and book work necessary for good farm planning. Mechanical aptitude is necessary because a milk ing machine, farm truck, medium tractor, mower, rake, sprayer, and other field equipment must be kept in operating condition, and buildings kept in repair. Skill in handling livestock and pastures is essential. Outlook Fair for dairying. An extremely low per capita consumption of milk and milk products will im prove. if purchasing power stays above prewar levels. Skilled operators will find good opportu nities, but must continue to face marketing prob lems and serious production difficulties in the rais ing of good roughages. They must compete for land with high value crops and develop good pas tures, as well as foster the breeding of strains of high-producing, hardy dairy cattle. Mississippi Delta States— Poultry Farms Commercial poultry has increased in this region in recent years, especially in Arkansas. Farm flocks for home use are still very common— in 1943, more than one-third of the chickens in the region were consumed on the farms compared with 10 percent in the Northeast. However, in recent years large broiler units have been increasing par ticularly in Arkansas and the number of turkeys have increased considerably in Arkansas and northern Mississippi. The Job The work is quite specialized. As in most farm ing, certain chores must be done every day; eggs must be picked up and delivered; feeding, water ing, and cleaning cannot be neglected. Houses must be disinfected, birds killed and marketed or separated for sale, and repairs made on equipment. None of this is very hard physically but it is exact ing work. Mechanical aptitude is not so important as on farms with much field work, but good man agement and planning are. Cleanliness is unusually important in poultry farming. High mortality, particularly among grown birds, can very quickly wipe out a year’s profits. Among the best protections against dis ease are cleanliness, knowledge of diseases and their remedies, and establishment of disease-free stock. Outlook An increase in per capita consumption of poul try and eggs is expected. In spite of present rela tively high feed costs, this region is likely to ex 414 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK panel production, particularly broilers and tur keys. In part, these increases represent a catching up with the progress made in other regions, but HANDBOOK they also are to be expected because of recent im provements in production techniques and small acreages needed for poultry. Mississippi Delta States— Rice Farms This is the major rice region of the country. Farms vary from 150 to 300 acres with roughly a third of the land in rice. Corn, oats, soybeans, and hay are also grown, largely for livestock feed. Rice farms are limited to fairly level lands with soil of the type suited to rice. Central Arkansas, the Louisiana-Gulf coast extending down along the coast of Texas, plus the Central Valley of Cali fornia are the areas which grow practically all the country’s rice. Large units are quite common and the number may increase with the introduction of mechaniza tion. Within limits of desirable rotations, this shift may also increase rice acreages on present farms, if land is no longer needed for raising feed for work stock. The Job The size of investment on rice farms determines management problems. On smaller units, there is a wide variety of mechanical and laboring jobs that require skill and a strong body. A knowledge of pumping-plant operation and irrigation are es sential. Rice growing is a highly specialized type of farming and should be thoroughly studied be fore commitments to buy or rent are made. Outlook The expansion of rice growing is limited by water and soil. There is little further prospect for new farms. Introduction of mechanization and relatively limited markets probably will establish rice prices lower than present levels and hold pro duction to the more efficient farms. Mississippi Delta States— Sugarcane Farms Cane production is concentrated in the lower part of the region, although some cane is grown in most of the humid south. Except for a small area near Lake Okeechobee, Fla., commercial sugarcane is concentrated on plantations and fam ily farms in southern Louisiana. Most family farms range from 50 to 200 acres with about half the land in crops. Some cotton, sweetpotatoes, and vegetables may be grown in a diversified farm ing program. Feed crops, usually corn, occupy about as much land as sugar, because of desirable rotation practices. A large part of the cane is produced on large plantations. The job Cultivation and harvesting of sugarcane is hard p h y sica l w o rk . U n less m o d e m m a ch ines are used, the o p e ra to r and h is fa m ily can d o o n ly a b o u t 10 p e rc e n t o f the to ta l w o rk . h ir e d a n d su pervised . S om e la b o r m u st be Q u a lity a n d to n n a g e d ep en d on th e o p e r a t o r ’s k n o w le d g e o f cane v a rie tie s and p r o p e r tech n iq u es in p r o d u c tio n . R a p id increases in m e ch a n iz a tio n p la ce a still h e a v ie r b u rd e n o n th e m a n a g e r ia l sk ills o f the o p e ra to r. Outlook F a m ily cane fa r m s w ith som e d iv e r s ific a tio n o ffe r a g o o d liv in g to a fe w e n e rg e tic o p e r a to r s w ith g o o d fin a n cia l b a c k in g . H o w e v e r , m ost c o m m e rcia l cane w ill co n tin u e to be g r o w n o n th e la r g e r p la n ta tio n s. A G R IC U L T U R A L O C C U P A T IO N S -----M IS S I S S I P P I DELTA STATES 415 Mississippi Delta States— Pecan Farms Pecans are quite widely grown in this area. Or chards are found principally in the Shreveport area o f Louisiana and the Mississippi-Gulf coast. Many orchards in the Gulf-coast areas are the main enterprise on farms of from 50 to 150 acres In the Shreveport area, farms are larger and grow cotton, corn, hay, and peanuts. The Job High value and price-for-quality characteristics of pecans especially make it very desirable that the operator have extensive knowledge and working experience in their culture. Outlook Pecans are more favorably grown outside the region, though they make a good additional enter prise in certain areas. Mississippi Delta States— Part-Time Farms A few- part-time farms are scattered around New Orleans and other urban areas. Lack of cropland and high land values tend to discourage part-time farming. Some successful units are found around mill town, but are largely confined to residence units with very small off-farm sales. They usually have from 5 to 50 acres, some com bination o f a garden, small pasture, a cow and a pig or two, small flock of chickens and a few fruit trees. None o f this offers large cash results or the often advertised “ 5-acres-and-independence.” Whenever lay-out calls for full-time work by the operator and family or large cash expenditures, the farm is no longer part time. The Job Fairly light work of a wide variety is custom ary. None of this is too demanding on the oper ator, whose main purpose is to add to his real in come by well-directed use of spare time. ) Outlook More such units can be expected as workweeks are reduced, submarginal farms fail as commercial units, pensioners find suitable locations, and urban people indulge their back-to-the-farm urge. Suc cessful units will be managed by families which T buy within the limits of their resources and oper ate within the limits o f their ability, both physical and financial. The lack of markets in this area and the limited number of desirable locations will discourage any great expansion in this field. However, the cow-chicken-hog-garden units for family use only will continue to be numerous as enterprising families try to stretch meager in comes to meet family need^. OK LAH O M A A N D T E X A S Oklahoma and Texas— Cash Grain Farms One o f the most fully mechanized types of farm. Those of family size vary from 160 to over 1,200 acres: about 400 acres is the minimum acreage needed for efficient operation. Wheat and grain sorghum are the main crops in the northwestern part of the section. Corn, oats, barley, and rye are also grown. Broomcorn is a specialty crop in Oklahoma. Low rainfall of the western part of this region limits clry-land farms to grains such as wheat, sorghums and rye. Some livestock is also kept as a complementary enterprise using wheat pasture, native pasture land and Sudan pasture. Sor ghums, corn, and wheat are sometimes used in feeding out cattle or sheep. Steady increase in acreages has resulted from low yields and mecha nization, mostly in the past 25 years. Today, the more successful dry-land farmers operate from 800 to 1,200 acres. In broken areas of the Panhandle, some cash grain-livestock combinations are successful; but specialization is still the more common. In the East and South, cotton and other cash crops re duce cash grains to minor enterprises. Rice production is limited to favorable soils in the coastal prairie of southeastern Texas. Rice units are more fully presented under Mississippi Delta types of farms. The Job Requires an active, resourceful man who can do many jobs with at least average skill and, also, paper and book work necessary for good farm planning. Mechanical aptitude is necessary, as the combine-harvester, truck, tractor, drill, and a wide variety of other field equipment must be kept in operating condition. Availability of workingequipment, when needed, is vital on these highly mechanized farms. An understanding of live stock is desirable. Outlook This region contains some o f the best wlieatland in the Nation. Although wheat has been a surplus crop, large acreages of it will continue to be grown. With sufficiently large acreage, well operated, farmers can provide their families with an ade quate living in all but drought years. New and more easily produced grain sorghums are steadily increasing in many sections. Rice probably will not hold its wartime peaks. Oklahoma and Texas— Cotton Farms Cotton is grown in all but the most arid and most northern areas. Even in the arid western and southern districts, cotton farms are found on the few favorable soil types. In the extreme west ern part of Texas, cotton is grown under irriga tion in the El Paso district. Acreages operated range from under 10 to over 1,000, but most common are those from 20 to 100 acres in cotton, on farms from 50 to 360 acres. A l though widely grown, cotton has definitely favor able areas. These are the Corpus Christi, High Cotton Plains, Rolling Plain, Black and Grand Prairies, and Rio Grande irrigated areas of Texas, 416 and southwestern and central Oklahoma. On some farms even in the best of these areas, soil or climate may make production impossible. Mechanization of cotton production has ad vanced more in this region than in any other. Large tractor operations are common, especially in the Corpus Christi High Plains and Black Waxy areas of Texas. There are great va riations in competing or supplementary enter prises. These include practically every enterprise of the area. Most common in the dry-land sections are wheat, grain sorghums, and livestock; rice, fruit, vegetables, small grains, and livestock are AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS---- OKLAHOMA AND TEXAS important in southeast Texas; peanuts are an im portant competitor on light, sandy land in both States. Livestock usually means beef cattle. However, dairy cattle and poultry enterprises have been considerably increased in recent years, particularly on farms with relatively small cotton allotments. The Job Cotton and crops found in combination with it require exceptionally long days o f work during the growing season. Relative to the income re ceived, this is one of the hardest kinds of farming. 417 Knowledge of current methods is very desirable, because of quality price premiums and wide vari ations in yield .and growing conditions and recent developments in mechanization. Outlook For large-scale production, this region contains some of the best cotton areas. Some cotton will always be grown. However, if mechanization is reflected in lower-cost production, large units and more stable returns should develop. Cotton on 150- to 400-acre farms, balanced with other crop or livestock enterprises, offers good possibilities to intelligent operators. Oklahoma and Texas— Range Livestock Farms Organizations vary widely in this type of oper ation common to the broken and arid lands. Some ranches are found in every type of farming region, but are concentrated in areas like the Edwards Plateau; “ Breaks'5 of the Rio Grande, Canadian, Brazos, Pecos, Colorado, Red, and Arkansas Riv ers; partly drained areas of the Coastal Plains, and rougher lands of the High and Rolling Plains of both States. Sheep and goats are most com mon on the Edwards Plateau. Cattle are every where. Hay is the usual ranch crop, and considerable wheat and sorghums (grain and forage) are grown. Most ranches have headquarters units raising a wide range of grains, hay, potatoes, and other vegetables. However, the usual ranch oper ator is interested in grazing a maximum number of livestock and maintaining only enough crop land to insure a supplemental and emergency feed. This practice is encouraged by lack of sufficiently large contiguous tracts of cropland in the grazing areas. Family units range from 100 to 500 cattle and 750 to 1,500 sheep. Stock is grazed on both public and private land. Large land ownership is con venient, but not necessary. Water rights are essential. The Job Range livestock does not demand unusually heavy or monotonous work. Management skill and knowledge of livestock are important both in raising and marketing. I f combined with irri gated farming, harder work and a still higher de gree of managerial skill in planning and operat ing are required. Outlook Steadily increasing markets for meat favor range livestock operation. Well-managed units, particularly in the Trans-Pecos and Edwards Plateau, are among the best ranches in the country. A high degree of skill and substantial assets are prime requisites, and with them this region holds good prospects. 418 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Oklahoma and Texas— Dairy Farms Although dairy cow numbers have been increas ing, there are still relatively few dairy farms. Most of them are in the East. Usually they are medium-sized farms from 160 to 300 acres, whose operators have increased their dairy at the ex pense o f other cash enterprises. Some wheat, corn, and oats are grown, and some sheep or cattle may be fed out. Occasionally, these other enterprises may contribute a major part of the income, but, during most years, the dairy herd of from 15 to 40 cows is the chief source of money. Milk is usually sold on a butterfat basis to creameries and process ing plants. A considerable number of the more specialized farms are concentrated near the larger towns and cities such as Tulsa, Oklahoma City, El Paso, Houston, Dallas, Fort Worth, San Antonio, and Galveston. Whole milk is sold under strict sani tary regulations for fluid use in town. More cows are milked and more feed is both raised and bought than on the butterfat type of farm, al though the fluid-milk farms may be smaller in acreage. They often include wheat and sometimes cotton farming. The Job A resourceful operator is required who can do a variety of jobs with at least average skill and, who also, is well-schooled in dairy husbandry. Mechanical aptitude is necessary because a farm truck, tractor, and a considerable quantity o f field and barn equipment must be kept in operating con dition, and buildings kept in repair. An under standing of livestock characteristics is essential. Outlook Good opportunities in the eastern part. Much prairie land is well suited to dairy farming, and developed markets are available. Experienced operators on the better properties can find profit able year-round employment with less fluctuation of income than on crop or livestock farms. Oklahoma and Texas— Fruit Farms Fruit is not a primary crop, although it is grown commercially on farms of widely varying size in a few areas. Irrigated citrus orchards (grapefruit and oranges) of the lower Rio Grande Valley are best known, but they cover a very limited area. A few cherries are grown in the coast prairie around Galveston. Peaches and a few apples are found in the rolling prairie, mostly in eastern Oklahoma but fairly well scattered through the northeastern part of the region. Other fruit crops include strawberries, blackberries, and papayas. The Job Requires skill and experience to bring somewhat delicate crops through the year. Disease and weather must be constantly battled. Harvest and marketing must be timed to maximize returns. Growers are less tied down, except during harvest and spraying, than are other farmers, but the work is quite hard and good supervisory ability is es sential at harvest. Daily work requires consider able mechanical aptitude for equipment used and, also, good judgment in timing seasonal operations. Bad investments are exceedingly dangerous in tree-fruit farms, because the cycle of growth cov ers such a long time. Outlook Good opportunities, in areas having favorable soil and climate for well-grounded, well-financed operators. Outside of these areas, many unfavor able production and marketing conditions make it difficult, if not impossible, to operate commercial fruit farms. Demand for fruit is still increasing in this country, but its production is difficult and marketing is highly competitive. AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS---- OKLAHOMA AND TEXAS 419 Oklahoma and Texas— Peanut and Pecan Farms Peanuts have been widely grown on the light sandy lands of the prairies and timbered lands of Texas and Oklahoma. During the war and, also, periods of cotton depression (price and boll weevil), peanuts received quite an impetus as a competing crop for cotton. Most commonly they are grown on cotton or cotton-livestock farms. Spanish varieties are used. Peanut hay is usually fed to livestock. Pecan orchards are scattered through northeast Texas. They are usually only one enterprise on fairly large farms growing cotton, corn, and peanuts. The Job Much of the commercial peanut cultivation in these States has been mechanized. Future pros pects are for more mechanical aids. Yields, how ever, are considerably lower than in the Southeast. These crops require a high degree of skill and expe rience in production methods. The high-value and price-for-quality characteristics of these crops make it desirable that the operator have good knowledge and working experience in their culture. Outlook Present experiments in mechanized production will make peanuts a more favorable crop in this region, but soil and erosion control is necessary for permanent farming. Oklahoma and Texas— Poultry Farms Much of the poultry in this region is not pro duced on specialized poultry farms. Farm flocks are most typical in this region. However, com mercial poultry has been increasing in recent years. A family broiler enterprise involves raising from 5,000 to 25,000 chicks to about 3 months of age, Started at different times of the year, such an enterprise is a full-time job. Farms o f this type are a recent development in southeast Texas and northeast Oklahoma. More investment is required but more stable incomes are received from a broil er-layer combination in which 1,500 to 2,500 birds are housed for egg production. A few such com binations are successfully operated in suburban areas. A big share of the poultry is in small flocks on crop farms. Turkey units are located in the prairie and timbered areas of both States, often a part of grain or general farming. The Job The work is quite specialized. Certain chores, such as gathering eggs, feeding, watering, and cleaning, must be done every day. Seasonally, houses must be disinfected, birds killed and mar keted or separated for sale, and repairs to equip ment made. Some of this is hard physically; much is monotonous. Mechanical aptitude is not so im portant as on farms with much field work, but good management and planning are. Cleanliness is unusually important in poultry farming. High mortality, particularly among grown birds, can very quickly wipe out a year’s profits. Among the best protections against disease and cleanliness, knowledge of diseases and their remedies, and establishment of disease-free stock. Outlook Increases in per capita consumption of poultry and eggs are expected to furnish good markets. Poultry production, particularly broilers and tur keys, should increase because of recent improve ments in production techniques and small acreages needed for poultry. 420 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Oklahoma and Texas— Vegetable Farms Texas, one o f the largest commercial vegetable States, grows both early and late vegetables. Veg etables are produced in the eastern part o f this region, but much of the production is for home use. One or two vegetables are often rotated in the cotton-peanut area as an additional cash enter prise. Intensive commercial vegetable farms of 30 acres and up are found in definite areas. These are parts o f the Rio Grande Plains, the Lower Rio Grande Valley, Corpus Christi, Houston, north east Texas, Tulsa, Oklahoma City, and to some extent eastern Oklahoma. Most cities in the humid areas have a few surrounding market gar den farms. All these areas produce tomatoes, watermelons, melons, and dry onions. Green and snap beans, spinach, carrots, beets, and cabbage are grown in the lower valley and plains of the Rio Grande. Corpus Christi has large acreages of cucumbers, beets, cabbage, and spinach. The Houston and Tulsa areas have cabbage, spinach, and sweet corn. Other vegetables include limas, broccoli, lettuce, peas, peppers, squash, turnips, and rad ishes. Melons and sweetpotatoes are widely raised for home use and for sale. Irish potatoes are grown only in the more humid eastern areas, and large acreages are uncommon. The Job Requires long hours o f hard physical work in the field and in the packing house. The family works, but the operator must also be a good hirer and supervisor of seasonal help, mostly “ stoop ’ laborers. Planning lay-out for the year, to pre vent impossible seasonal labor peaks at harvest and to maximize returns by “ hitting the market,’’ pays high dividends and requires both good judg ment and managing ability. Outlook Early market and specialty or high-quality trade offer good opportunities for energetic oper ators. Market gardens are stabilizing around larger cities. New processing and production methods favor continued increases in units larger and more expensive than those discussed here, with some possibility o f cooperative plants buying from smaller farms. Oklahoma and Texas— Part-Time Farms There are large and small part-time units in this region. Some suburban units from 1 to 50 acres have a garden, cowq pig, and chickens as the source of family food and some cash. Small retail routes to dispose of excess produce are not uncommon. Another kind of operation is the small commer cial unit, usually grain, found most often in the wheat areas. Some operators own or lease 160 to 320 acres o f cropland with a few buildings and oc casionally no equipment. For example, a smallbusiness man in a small town may seed 160 acres of wheat, return to town and wait for the harvest. I f it “ hits,” he has a substantial addition to his cash income. I f it does not, he lias lost but little. The Job Fairly light work of a wide variety is custom ary. None of this is too demanding on the oper ator, whose main purpose is to add to his real in come by well-directed use of spare time. As the operator usually hires most of his work done, his problem is largely supervision and waiting. Outlook More part-time units will be added to the area as workweeks are reduced, submarginal farms fail as commercial units, and pensioners find suitable lo cations. Successful ones will continue to be nu merous and will be operated by families which have bought within the limits of their resources and which plan to operate within the limits of their ability, both physical and financial. Small cash grain or range livestock units may become more numerous as supplements to pensions and an nuities. N ORTH ERN PLAIN S STATES Northern Plains States— Cash Grain Farms This is one of the most fully mechanized types of farms. Those of family size vary from 320 to over 1,200 acres, but about 480 acres are the mini mum necessary to provide an adequate level of liv ing for a farm family in the wheat areas. Wheat is the main crop; winter wheat in the southern area and spring wheat in most of the north. Corn, oats, barley, and rve are also widely grown and in some parts of the region one or more of these alter native crops may be more profitable than wheat. Flax is raised in the north, especially along the eastern border of the Dakotas. Wheat-livestock combinations are more common in the northern area, wheat-fallow or wheat-grain sorghums in the south. Low rainfall of the western part limits dry-land farms to hardy small grains— largely wheat, bar ley, and rye. Summer fallow tends to stabilize production. Livestock is often kept especially in the northern areas. In the winter-wheat areas sheep and cattle are fed as a complementary enter prise using wheat pasture. Steady increase in acreage has accompanied mechanization, mostly in the past 25 years. Today the more successful dry land farmers operate 800 to 1,200 or more acres. Wheat-corn combinations on smaller acreages are found on the more humid and better protected soils of the eastern portion. Wheat-grain sor ghum combinations have developed in southwest Kansas and adjacent areas. The Job It requires an active, resourceful man, who can do a variety of jobs with at least average skill. Mechanical aptitude is necessary because the com bine-harvester, truck, tractor, drill, and other field equipment must be kept in operating condition. Availability of working equipment, when needed, is vital on these highly mechanized farms. An understanding of livestock is desirable. Outlook This region contains some of the best wheat land in the world. Although wheat has been a surplus crop, large acreages will continue to be grown. With sufficiently large well-operated acreage, farmers can provide their families with an ade quate living in all but drought years. Northern Plains States— Cash Grain-Livestock Farms This is the Plains version of a Corn Belt prai rie farm. Range from 400 to 2,500 acres; the larger units with cattle more common in the west ern plains, and the smaller units with hogs more general in the east. Where soil and rainfall are consistently favorable, a wheat-corn-hog-beef cat tle combination gives diversity and fairly high in come. These units feed out the livestock or cut back on stock and sell their grain in accordance with their immediately best opportunities. Hay crops and rotation pasture are a permanent part of the farm plan. Farther west, there is more wheat and barley, but less corn. Hogs are fewer and cattle and sheep more common. More of the cattle are raised 793996°—49——28 rather than bought as feeders. Dairy cattle, which are fairly common in the Eastern Plains, give way to dual-purpose or beef types. The Job It requires more management skill and more year-round work than specialized cash grain farming. Mechanical aptitude is necessary for operating combines, tractors, and a variety of field equipment. Knowledge of livestock management is essential. Maintaining highest profit combina tion of grain and livestock sales requires a high degree of managerial skill. Work is more con tinuous and operators have less leisure time than strictly cash grain farmers. 421 422 OCCUPATIOXAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Co u r te s y of U . S. d e p a r tm e n t of a g r ic u l t u r e A bunch of Hereford yearlings running knee deep in Sudan grass in the eastern Plains. Outlook Addition of livestock to cash grain units gives more profitable employment to the operator and greater diversified outlet for his products. An nual fluctuation of income will be less than on spe cialized cash grain units. Well bought units of this type offer good opportunities to industrious intelligent operators. Northern Plains States— Range Livestock Farms Range livestock farms are a fairly limited type of operation. They usually have from 125 to 400 or more cattle and from T50 to 2,000 or more sheep. Cattle units are more common and are concen trated in the Sand Hills of Nebraska and the Black Hills of South Dakota. Acreage owned includes the ranch headquarters, with hay and a little grain the only crops har vested. Much of the hay is wild. Cattle are grazed over some of the owned acreage and over a larger area leased or held in State and Federal grazing districts. Indian lands may also be grazed under lease. On some ranches, small acre ages of irrigated land help furnish the wintering roughages. On ranches with good wheat land, this grain offers additional cash income to the operator. Livestock is sold as feeders or grass-fat cattle. Sheep may be sold as feeders or held for partial fattening when surplus grain is available. Unusu ally high acreages of grazing land and wild hay typify range livestock operating units. AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS---- NORTHERN PLAINS STATES 423 The Job Outlook Work is not unusually heavy or monotonous. Management skill and knowledge of livestock is essential both in raising and marketing. I f com bined with irrigated farming, harder work and still higher degree of managerial skill in planning and operating are required. These States with few exceptions are really the fringe of range livestock operations. Wellplanned operations can be successful in view of our steadily increasing needs for meat, but loca tion in the Plains should be carefully compared with possibilities farther west. Northern Plains States— Dairy Farms Limited type for this area. Fairly well scat tered in the eastern half of this region. Usually they are medium-sized farms, from 160 to 800 acres, whose operators have increased their dairy enterprise at the expense of cash grain and other livestock. Some wheat, corn and oats, hay, and pasture are grown; some sheep or cattle may be fed. Occasionally, these other enterprises may contribute a major part o f the income, but, during most years, the dairy enterprise of from 15 to 40 cows is more common. Milk is usually sold on a butterfat basis to creameries and processing plants. A considerable number of dairies are concen trated near the larger towns and cities, such as Kansas City, Omaha, Lincoln, Sioux Falls, Fargo, Topeka, and Wichita. These dairies sell whole milk under rigid sanitary regulations for fluid use in town. The number of cows milked is higher and more stock feed is both raised and bought on fluid milk farms, although these may be smaller than the butterfat type. I 1 Job he It requires resourceful operators who have good knowledge of dairy husbandry and can do a va riety of jobs with at least average skill. Mechani cal aptitude is necessary because a farm truck, tractor, and a considerable quantity of field and barn equipment must be kept in operating condi tion, and buildings kept in repair. An under standing of livestock characteristics is essential. Outlook Opportunities are rather limited, except near urban areas in the eastern part. Much of the land is well suited to dairy farm needs and developed markets are available. Experienced operators on the better farms can find profitable year-round employment with relatively low fluctuation of in come. Northern Plains States— General Farms General farms are a fairly stable type that offer a maximum of security and employment. They comprise front 160 to 800 acres or more. Income is received from some combination of beef cattle, hogs, sheep, dairy, poultry, small grain, corn, flax, potatoes, sugar beets, or vegetables. Actual com bination depends on soil, climate, lay-out of farm, and preference of the operator. Smaller acreages but additional skills are required in the irrigated areas in the western part. Among the best farms are those of the Red River Valley and the Corn Belt fringe in South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas. In the northern areas, beef cattle or dual purpose, hogs, and sheep are the most common livestock; wheat, barley, and corn for silage are the most common feed crops. Cash crops include potatoes, sugar beets, and flax. In the southern areas, general farms have more corn for grain, more hogs, and fewer sheep, and raise less cash crops and more feed crops. The Job The operator must be vigorous, resourceful, well-trained, and skilled in management. A wide variety of jobs must be well done or well super- * 424 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK vised. Some knowledge of production methods and operating problems, such as disease control in cattle, hogs, sheep, and field crops, is necessary. Outlook Good opportunities for profitable farm opera tions. The better located farms compare favor ably with similar units in the Corn Belt States. Planned to give full employment all year and to take advantage of soil and climatic resources, wellmanaged units should be successful. Their yearto-year variations in income are small compared with other types, although their average income will be lower. Northern Plains States— Part-Time Farms Comparatively few in number, but acreages are considerably higher than those farther east. Vary widely in size and kind. Suburban units from 1 to 50 acres are found around cities of the Eastern Plains with garden, cow, pig, and chickens as the source of family food and a few cash sales. Small retail routes offer outlets for some operators. Another kind is the small commercial unit, usually grain, found most often in the wheat areas. Some operators own or lease 160 to 320 acres of cropland with few buildings and occasionally no equipment. For example, a businessman in a small town may seed 160 acres of wheat, return to town and wait for the harvest. I f it “ hits,” he has a substantial addition to his cash income. I f it doesn’t, he has lost but little. The Job Work of a wide variety is customary on sub urban units. None of this is too demanding on the operator, whose main purpose is to add to his real income by well-directed use of spare time. The part-time grain farmer often hires most of his work done; his problem is largely supervision and waiting. Outlook More part-time farms will be added to the area as workweeks are reduced, submarginal farms fail as commercial units, and pensioners find suitable locations. Units will be operated successfully by families which buy within the limits of their resources and plan to operate within the limits of their ability, both physical and financial. M O U N TAIN STATES Mountain States— Cash Grain Farms Cash grain farms are a highly mechanized type, common to only a few areas. They vary from 80 to over 1,200 acres, bnt about 480 acres is the mini mum dry-land acreage likely to bring decent level of living to a family in the wheat area. Wheat alone or with some livestock is most common in the plains of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado. Wheat and dry peas are the main crops on cash grain farms in northern Idaho and western Mon tana. Barley and rye are also grown and, in some parts of the region, one or more of these alterna tive crops may be more profitably grown than wheat. Some flax is grown in Montana. Sor ghums are raised largely on the eastern slope of New Mexico and Colorado. Low rainfall limits dry-land farms to hardy small grains; largely wheat, barley, and rye. Some livestock is often kept, and in some areas sheep and cattle are fed as a complementary enter prise using wheat pasture. Steadily increased acreages have accompanied mechanization, mostly in the past 25 years. Today, the more successful dry-land farmers operate from 800 to 1,200 or more acres. The Job It requires an active, resourceful man who can do a variety of jobs with at least average skill. Mechanical aptitude is necessary because the com- H ay stackers of various types are found all over the Mountain States. Hay is the supplementary feed that helps carry range cattle through the rough winters of the high west. Co u r tesy of U . S. D e p a r t m ent of A g r ic u l t u r e 425 426 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK bine-harvester, truck, tractor, drill, and much other field equipment must be kept in operating condition. Availability of working equipment, when needed, is vital on these highly mechan ized farms. An understanding of livestock is desirable. Outlook Opportunities for dry-land cash grain farms in the best adapted specialized areas are among the best in the country. Relatively, there are fewer cash-grain units than farther east, but, of these few, some are excellent. Mountain States— Range Livestock Farms This region includes the most extensive range area of the country. On ranches the major source of income is from livestock. Large acreages are the rule, and cropland usually is limited to hay and grains for feed production. Principal variations include adaptability of the ranch to cattle or sheep production; number of acres of range necessary for each animal (carrying capacity) ; length of winter feeding season, which determines amount of hay required per head; winter-feed-producing ability which depends upon acreage adapted to crop production, quality of land and water rights belonging to the property. Few ranchers own all their range-land requirements, so availability of leases or public-land-grazing permits is important. While these are physical factors, each operator makes numerous personal decisions that vary the type of operation. Class of livestock sold by ranchers depends largely on type of operation for which the ranch is adapted. Relative market price for different classes of livestock determines type of operation at a particular time. Some ranchers sell calves, above heifer replacement needs, at weaning time in the fall. Others hold their calves over, selling them as long yearlings or as 2- or even 3-year-olds. All sell aged or defective cows as culls. While some ranchers produce grass-fat cattle in the more favorable years, most cattle sold from this region go on the market as feeders. Income from sheep ranches is largely from sale of wool and lambs. Sheep are shorn in the spring or early summer. Lambs are weaned and sold usually as feeders during the period August to October. To replace aged ewes and animals which die, ewe lambs numbering about 20 percent of the total of sheep run are retained each year. The Job Occasionally very hard, but probably is more interesting and less arduous than farm work. Management skill and knowledge of livestock are essential both in production and marketing. Irrigation of cropland used adds to managerial problems. Skill in handling stock is essential because low losses and high calf or lamb crops are the major determinants of annual income. Outlook Greater meat production will be necessary to meet demands of our steadily increasing popula tion. Wool outlook is less favorable. This region is basic to our livestock industry and offers good opportunities to industrious, intelligent operators. Investment necessary to return ade quate income to operators is among the highest. Sufficient financing and unusually thorough training are necessary. AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS---- MOUNTAIN STATES 427 Mountain States— Irrigated Farms Irrigated cropland is the major source of in come. Usual type has certain specific rotations in cluding alfalfa, small grain (nurse crops), and pasture. Aside from this, most farms have one or more specialty cash crops, developed from a com bination of natural advantages and available mar kets. They vary from 40-acre cash-crop hay units to thousands of acres in long-staple cotton. Common crop specialties include sugar beets, potatoes, field beans, small grains, and alfalfa. Cotton highly specialized under irrigation is grown only in a few’ counties along the Pecos, Rio Grande, Yuma, Gila, and Salt Rivers in Arizona and New Mexico. Sugar-beet acreage is concen trated along the Snake River in Idaho, the Plattes in Colorado and Wyoming, the Arkansas in Colo rado, and the Yellowstone and Milk Rivers in Montana; also, west of the Wasatch Range in Utah, particularly in the Salt Lake area, and in north-central Wyoming. Potatoes are quite wide ly grown but have large concentrations on upper and lower Snake River in Idaho, San Luis Valley, and Greeley areas of Colorado. Field beans and alfalfa have been grown in most irrigated areas. Some livestock is on most irrigated farms, and some farms in beet areas have intensive feeding operations. The Job Crop specialties require resourceful, vigorous operators with good training in field work and horticulture. Irrigation adds to the work and complexity of managerial problems. Both grav ity and pump irrigation are common to this region. Hard work is the rule, especially during the growing season. Hay rotations usually bring some livestock into the organization and more year-round work. Outlook Prospect for adequate income from hard work is quite good for crop specialty units in this region. Markets are usually good, and production, espe cially under irrigation, is fairly even year by year. The larger units with reasonable diversification furnish the better farming opportunities in the country. Mountain States— Dairy Farms Many farms have four to six cows and sell a little milk or cream. Larger commercial dairy farms are found mostly near cities and towns requiring fluid milk, such as Butte, Boise, Ogden, Denver, Cheyenne, Albuquerque, and Phoenix. Irrigated hay, feed crops, and pasture are oper ated with the dairy. However, many large dairies have few crops and buy most of their feed. A few commercial dairy farms, not primarily concerned with fluid milk markets, are on land that is too thin to be used for cash crops. Units of this type are found on the western slope in Colorado, around Boise, Idaho, and east of Great Salt Lake. The Job Requires an active, resourceful man who can do a variety of jobs with at least average skill and who also can do paper and book work necessary for good farm planning. Mechanical aptitude is necessary because a farm truck, tractor, and a con siderable quantity of field and farm equipment must be kept in operating condition, and buildings kept in repair. An understanding of livestock is essential. Outlook With the exception of local urban markets, 428 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK dairy farming in this area is limited to thin lands. Experienced operators can find profitable yearround employment with less fluctuation of income than on more specialized crop or livestock farms. As an enterprise on irrigated farms, a larger dairy may be developed to use labor and alfalfa. Mountain States— Vegetable Farms A wide variety o f fresh vegetables are grown in the irrigated valleys. Commercial vegetable units range from 40 acres upward, with the larg est units in the highly commercial valleys of southern Arizona, Salt Lake area, Lower Snake River in western Idaho, and irrigated valleys of Colorado. Many commercial vegetables come from general and crop-specialty farms that have one or two vegetables in their rotation. Lettuce is concentrated in Yuma and Salt River Valleys of Arizona, San Luis Valley and north west Colorado, and the Snake-Boise area in Idaho; net and smooth melons along the Arkansas River in southeastern Colorado and in the Salt River Valley near Phoenix, A riz.; cabbage in the San Luis and Greeley, Colo., areas; peas in these areas plus Salt Lake, Utah, and the Boise-Snake of Idaho; onions along the Arkansas, in San Luis Valley, and on the western slope of Colorado—■ also the Salt Lake and Boise-Snake areas; hot pep pers along the Rio Grande in northern and south ern New Mexico. Other vegetables grown to some extent include beans, carrots, cauliflower, celery, sweet corn, and cucumbers. The Job Long hours of hard physical work during the growing season are required. The family works, but the operator must also be a good hirer and su pervisor of seasonal help, mostly “ stoop" laborers. Planning lay-out for the year to prevent impossi ble seasonal labor peaks at harvest and to maxi mize returns by “ hitting the market,” pays high dividends and requires good judgment and man aging ability. Outlook Out-of-season deals and specialty or high-qual ity trade offer good opportunities for alert, ener getic operators. There also are good prospects for a few market garden units near urban areas. Many commercial vegetable farms offer little more than living to the small operator. New processing and production methods favor continued increases in units, larger and more expensive than those dis cussed here. These developments also favor in creased competition for the West from other com mercial vegetable areas. Mountain States— Part-Time Farms Part-time farms are scattered throughout this region. Gardens, beef and dairy cattle, sheep, hogs, chickens, and a very few acres of land are among the enterprises that can be part of such units. A larger acreage with considerable pasture and a few acres in feed crops is also possible, par ticularly in the foothills where rainfall is heavier. Actual enterprises followed usually reflect soil resources of the farm and desires of the operator. Some don’t like livestock and have none. Some have seasonable jobs, which allow time for a small market garden. Others, with large units, have cattle or sheep that are pastured but fed on feed and hay bought from the outside. The Job Fairly light work of a wide variety is custom ary. None of this is too demanding on the opera tor, whose main purpose is to add to his real income by well-directed use o f spare time. Outlook More units will be added to the area as work weeks are reduced, submarginal farms fail as com mercial units, pensioners find suitable locations, and urban people indulge their back-to-the-farm urge. Successful ones will be operated by families which buy within the limits of their resources and operate within the limits of their ability, both physical and financial. PACIFIC STATES Pacific States— Fruit Farms In parts of California and some of the irrigated valleys of Oregon and Washington, fruit farms dominate the agricultural economy. Most are on irrigated land, so family units are relatively small, from 15 to 50 acres. Oranges are concentrated in the southern San Joaquin Valley and on the south coast of California; lemons on the south coast, and grapefruit in the Imperial Valley and south coast. Deciduous fruits are more widely grown, for there are numerous areas where soil, climate, and topog raphy favor peaches, apples, pears, cherries, and the various berries. However, apples are concen trated in the Yakima and Wenatchee-Okanogan areas of Washington, the Hood River district of Oregon, and*on the central coast of California. Walnuts are centered in the Central Valley and south coast o f California and the Willamette Valley regions of Oregon. Almonds are a Cali fornia specialty, although grown to some extent in Oregon. There are numerous other specialty areas. Dates are found only in the Imperial and Coa chella Valleys. Pears are grown in several valley and foothill regions in California, in Hood River and Rouge River Valleys in Oregon, and in the Yakima Valley in Washington. Table, raisin, and wine grapes are specialized almost entirely in central California. As for figs, olives, plums, prunes, apricots, and peaches, each has regions where conditions are favorable. Briefly, this is a fruit region with a tremendous range in latitude and altitude. The Job Requires skill and experience to bring somewhat delicate crops to harvest and market. Disease and weather must be constantly battled. Harvest and marketing must be timed to maximize returns. Fruit farmers have quite a bit of seasonal work, much of it is hard. Good supervisory ability is essential at harvest. Daily work requires consid erable mechanical aptitude in caring for equip ment used and, also, good judgment in timing sea sonal operations. Investments should be made very carefully, because the cycle of growth covers such a long time. Due to this danger and because of soil and topographical limits of fruit farming, purchases should be most cautiously made. Outlook Good opportunities in favorable areas for wellgrounded, well-financed operators. Outside of the better areas, unfavorable production and mar keting conditions are likely to force continuation of recent decline and the continued adoption of a less specialized combination of enterprises. There is less opportunity than with most other types of farming for expanding total production because overproduction and low prices may quickly occur. .Outlook for future profits varies widely with d if ferent fruits, so the prospective fruit grower must look carefully into prospects for fruit under consideration. Pacific States— Vegetable Farms This region has several outstanding vegetable areas, largely under irrigation. Large-scale spe cialized operations are typical of commercial veg etable production, especially in California. Grower-shippers may, however, rent units of 20 to 50 acres to producers, whose main job is to get crops ready for harvest. Small-scale producers should be sure of a market outlet for their prod ucts. In irrigated areas of Washington and in the Willamette Valley o f Oregon, there are also small owner-operated units. There are relatively few market gardens in the region. Main vegetable producing areas are Spokane, Walla Walla, Yakima, and Puget Sound of Wash ington and the Willamette Valley; and, for green peas, Umatilla of Oregon; the Sacramento. San 429 430 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Co u r tesy Picking strawberries is a tedious job for the worker. U. S. d ep a r tm e n t o f a g r ic u l t u r e For the operator, it is his annual pay-off and requires managerial skill of the highest degree. Joaquin, and Imperial Valleys; and the central and south coast of California. Among the more heavily grown crops are let tuce, tomatoes, green peas, celery, onions, arti chokes, asparagus, green beans, melons, carrots, and sweet corn. Other vegetables include beets, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, cu cumbers, peppers, spinach, squash, watermelons, and rhubarb. Many lesser known and a few ex otic vegetables are grown particularly in southern California. The Job It requires long hours of hard physical work in the field, in the packing house, and sometimes in the market. Operator must be a good hirer and supervisor of seasonal help, mostly unskilled or semiskilled laborers. Planning lay-out for the year, to prevent extreme seasonal labor peaks at of harvest and to maximize returns by “hitting the market” pays high dividends. Picking at the right time or, occasionally, plowing a crop under and replanting require good judgment and man aging ability. Knowledge of horticulture, expe rience in its practical application, and smart mar ket sense are very essential in this highly competi tive business. Outlook Good opportunities in this region for energetic, skillful operators. While it is difficult to get in on a family scale, there are prospects for good liv ing to the small operator. New processing and production methods favor continued increases in units larger and more expensive than those dis cussed here. However, the smaller ones are fa vored in new and old irrigation developments un der Government regulations. AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATION’ S---- PACIFIC STATES 431 Pacific States— Irrigated Farms In value of products, irrigated cropland is pre dominant in this region. Much of this land is in a combination of crop specialties, field crops, and livestock. Units of from 20 to 120 acres are quite common in the Yakima, San Joaquin, Sacramento, Imperial, and smaller valleys. These units have some combinations of fruit, vegetables, dairy, poultry, beef, pasture, alfalfa, sugar beets, pota toes, and specialty crops. Actual combination varies with soil, climate, in clination of operator, and availability of markets. Vegetables, alfalfa, and sugar beets are usually grown for predetermined markets or under con tract with processors or dealers. For example, Imperial Valley alfalfa is sold largely to dealers or large dairies with dry-lot operations in the Los Angeles area. Usually, alfalfa, small-grain nurse crops, and some pasture are parts of irrigated ro tation, and specialties are developed in line with soil, climate, and markets. Specialized units include cotton, potato, alfalfa, and sugar beet. Most cotton units are located in the San Joaquin and Palo Verde Valleys. These are all irrigated areas; high per acre and per farm production is the rule, much of it under contract. Potato farms are found in both irrigated and dry-land areas. Most recent development has been expansion o f the early potato acreage in Kern County, Calif. Potatoes are important in Klam ath and Deschutes Counties of Oregon and, as a high-altitude crop, are one of the best cash crops in the Cascade foothills. Specialized potato units in the Yakima or Willamette areas are not com mon, but a few units are always found wherever the potato is a prominent cash enterprise. The Job Operator must be resourceful, well-trained, and skilled in management. A wide variety of jobs must be well done or well supervised. Some knowledge of production methods and operating problems, such as disease control in cattle, poultry, sheep, fruit, vegetables, and field crops, is neces sary. Skill in irrigation or a business large enough to hire such skill is essential. Outlook Good opportunities at rather high investment levels for profitable farm operation. Irrigated units, which are basic to the industry and well being of the area, have a definitely good future. Some specialities, such as fruit and cotton, are less desirable immediate prospects because of high in vestments and uncertain prices. Well-managed, well-financed units, having considerable fiexibility in production possibilities, should be sound in vestments. Pacific States— Range Livestock Farms Range areas are similar to the intermountain area to the east. Ranches have livestock, sheep, or cattle, as the major source o f income. Operating acreages are large and there is relatively little cropland. Ranchers in this region usually own a higher proportion of total land operated than do intermountain ranchers. This is particularly true where per acre carrying capacity is high. The nature of cattle and sheep operations varies widely with the kind of range and supplemental feed available. Some ranchers operate breeding herds and sell feeder cattle, calves and steers, or lambs. Others on better ranges, can market grassfat cattle. Some may buy feed and sell finished stock. Still others may buy feeders for partial finishing and resell them in the fall. Sheep ranch ers sell early or late lambs (the former being very common in California), mutton, and wool. Lambs may be sold as feeders or fat. 432 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The Job Outlook Ranching is occasionally hard, particularly dur ing lambing or emergency winter feeding. How ever, to many people, it is more interesting and less arduous than farming. Management skill and knowledge are essential both in production and marketing. In some areas, irrigation both of pas ture and cropland adds to managerial problems. Skill in handling stock is essential because low losses and high calf or lamb crops are major de terminants of income. Increase in meat consumption during the war and the marked growth in population on the Pa cific coast indicate that greater meat production is desirable. This region has several excellent range livestock areas, and cut-over land offers limited new possibilities where development costs are rea sonable. Wool prospects are less promising than meat. Difficulty in the stock business is not in poor future earnings but rather in the fact that range facilities in the West are already fully utilized and alloted to existing ranchers. Pacific States— Cash Grain Farms This region has some of the best small-grain areas of the country. Wheat, rice, oats, barley, flax, dry peas, and field beans are the most impor tant crops. Rice is limited by soil largely to the Sacramento Valley; flax to San Joaquin and Im perial Valleys. Wheat production is most con centrated in the Palouse-Big Bend of eastern Washington and Oregon. Peas are grown in rota tion in parts of the Palouse. Small grains are widely raised as a nurse crop in irrigated areas. There are important variations in size of farms. Adequate units need at least 80 acres irrigated or 800 dry-land, but irrigated ones have from 10 to 160 acres, dry-land units from 160 to 2,500 acres or more. There are numerous inadequate-sized dryland units in both the wheat-peas and wheat-fal low areas. Successful sizes also vary widely with rainfall, which has an average range in this region from 9 to TO inches, and higher in isolated moun tain areas. Some carry a substantial livestock enterprise. Cattle, both beef and dairy, sheep, and poultry are effectively combined with grain and add to income at small cost, as stubble, hay, and grazing are given their most profitable employment. The Job Requires an active, resourceful man who can do a variety of jobs with at least average skill and, also, paper work necessary for good farm plan ning. Mechanical aptitude is very necessary be cause the combine-harvester, picker, truck, trac tor, drill, and a wide variety of other field equip ment must be kept in operating condition. Avail ability of working equipment, when needed, is vi tal on these highly mechanized farms. An under standing of livestock is desirable. Outlook This region contains some of our best cash grain land. Although some cash grains, especially wheat, have been surplus crops, large acreages will continue to be grown. With sufficient well-oper ated acreage, farmers can usually provide their families with an adequate living. Pacific States— Dairy Farms Dairy farms in these States are of two distinct kinds, depending on the type of market outlets. Near urban areas, farms are more expensive, have a large number of cows, but are not necessarily larger in acreage; whole milk is sold to city dealers or retailed at relatively high prices but under stringent sanitation regulations. These fluid milk farms are all over the area, but are numerous in the Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco, Port land, Puget Sound, and other milksheds. The AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS---- PACIFIC STATES second marketing type, under high but less strin gent sanitation regulations, sells milk or butterfat to manufacturing plants where it is processed into evaporated milk, cheese, butter, and other milk products. This type is most numerous in western Oregon and Washington, where the number of cows is small. Many are not specialized, but depend for some income on cash crops and other livestock products. Of these, fruits, poultry, and vegetables are most common. Grain and hay are sold in some in stances. Each of these assists in building up farm income and adds to the profitable employment of farm resources. Size of unit varies from 20 to over 500 acres, depending on number of cows, kind of operation, and extent of irrigation. Where dairying is the only source of income, 15 to 20 cows with the required feed land is about the minimum satisfactory size. The Job Requires an active, resourceful man who can do 433 a variety of jobs with at least average skill and, also, paper and book work necessary for good farm planning. Mechanical aptitude is necessary be cause a milking machine, farm truck, light tractor, mower, rake, sprayer, and other field equipment must be kept in operating condition, and buildings kept in repair. An understanding of livestock characteristics is essential. Irrigated units de mand added skills in the use of water. Dairying requires twice-a-day milking and feeding every day of the year. Outlook It has a good future. Much of the land to be developed by irrigation is well suited to dairy farms, and some of it is poorly adapted to any thing else. Developed markets are available. Experienced operators on the better properties can find profitable year-round employment with less fluctuation of income than on more specialized crop or fruit farms. Pacific States— Poultry Farms This is an important egg-producing region with some highly specialized poultry farms. Small specialized chicken-egg farms are fairly well scat tered throughout California, though more com mon in the coastal half of the State. This is still more true in Oregon and Washington, where most poultry farms lie between the Cascade and Coast ranges. Adequate family units should have from 1,500 to 2,500 laying birds, which amounts require rais ing from 3,500 to 8,000 chicks. Meat sold is from culls and cockerels. Turkey and broiler units, which specialize in meat production, may raise from 1,000 turkeys to 25,000 broilers. Early de velopment of egg marketing associations, selling on eastern markets, has resulted in more emphasis on eggs than meat, but broilers and turkeys have increased considerably in the past 15 years. The Job Work is more specialized than dairy or general farming. Certain chores, such as gathering eggs, feeding, watering, and picking up sick birds, must be done every day. Seasonally, houses must be cleaned and disinfected, chicks brooded, birds killed and marketed, and repairs made. Mechani cal aptitude is not so important as on farms with much field work, but good management and plan ning are. Sanitation is unusually important, as high mor tality can very quickly wipe out a year’s profits. Among the best protections against disease are cleanliness, knowledge of diseases and their reme dies, and establishment of disease-free stock. Outlook Poultry farming in the West, if properly lo cated as to feed supply and markets, can hold its own in competition with other regions. The long time outlook is fairly good, but the poultry busi ness is one that frequently becomes overexpanded and resulting prices drop too low for any but the better producers to make a profit. But weaker ones are soon eliminated and profitable prices re turn within a year or two. The beginner will do well to time his entry into the business just before one of these profitable years rather than just after. 434 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Pacific States— Part-Time Farms T h e re is an u n u su a lly la rg e p r o p o r tio n o f p a rttim e units. T h ese u n its, w h eth er th ey be cu t-o v e r p o u ltr y fa rm s o r 5 acres o f ora n ges, h av e one th in g in com m on . quate O id y a fe w e x ce p tio n a l u n its, sta rted on a p a r t-tim e b asis, can be e x p a n d e d in to a fu ll-tim e fa m ily fa r m . T h ese are th e e x cep tion s. U n its are n u m erou s in th is re g io n f o r several bu t m a in ly because the clim a te has a ttra cte d m a n y re tire d co u p le s and because to o m a n y u n its w ere estab lish ed w ith less lan d and e q u ip m en t th a n is n o w n ecessary f o r fu ll-tim e o p e ra tio n . hom e use o n ly , are m ore n u m erou s th a n fa r m s d e sig n e d s o le ly to a dd to fa m ily cash incom e. T h e y are to o sm all to p ro d u ce an a d e liv in g . reason s, m ilk , eg g s, and g a rd e n p ro d u cts are p r o d u c e d f o r T h e y are lo ca te d in all areas, th o u g h The job F a ir ly lig h t w o r k o f a w id e v a r ie ty is cu sto m a ry on a p a r t-tim e u n it. A lt h o u g h m u ch o f th is is h a n d w o rk , due to absence o f c o m m e rc ia l fa r m eq u ip m en t, little o f it is to o d e m a n d in g on the o p e ra to r, w h ose m a in p u rp o se is to a d d to his real in co m e b y w ell d ir e cte d use o f spa re tim e. Outlook m ost com m on in v a lle y s n ear la r g e r cities and in fo o t h ills , p a r tic u la r ly o f the coa stal ra n ge. P e r M o r e u n its ca n be ex p e cte d as w ork w e e k s are h ap s the m ost a d v ertise d areas are sou th ern C a li red u ced , su b m a rg in a l fa rm s f a il as co m m e rc ia l fo r n ia an d P u g e t S o u n d , a n d each o f these has its units, p en sion ers fin d su ita ble lo ca tio n s, a n d u rb a n q uota. B eca u se o f m a rk e tin g a n d p r o d u c tio n difficu l p e o p le in d u lg e th e ir b a c k -to -th e -fa r m u rg e. ties, som e en terp rises are n o t w e ll su ited to p a rt- w h ich b u y w ith in th e lim its o f th e ir resou rces and tim e o p e ra tio n . H o w e v e r , th ere is a d efin ite p la ce op e ra te w ith in lim its o f th e ir a b ility , b o th p h y sica l f o r u n its w ith en terp rises such as fr u it , vegetab les, p o u ltr y , flow ers, and ra b bits. F a ir ly la rg e fr u it and fin a n cia l. H o w e v e r , the co w -c h ic k e n -g a r d e n u nits f o r fa m ily use o n ly w ill co n tin u e to be u n its are p art tim e because m uch o f th e w o rk is d on e b y con tra ct. S u bsisten ce units, fr o m w h ich n u m erou s as e n te rp r is in g fa m ilie s tr y to stretch m e a g e r in com es to m eet th e ir fa m ily needs. S u c ce ssfu l ones w ill be th ose o p e ra te d b y fa m ilie s 435 AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS---- FARM SERVICE JOBS Farm Service Jobs I n alm ost ev ery fa r m in g co m m u n ity th ere are v a riou s jo b s and services w h ich fa rm e rs w ant d on e and are w illin g to p a y fo r . S om e o f these ca ll f o r con sid erab le sk ill a n d e x p erien ce, som e can be d on e w ith alm ost no p re v io u s tr a in in g . p re p a r e d to m ix b a la n ce d ra tion s to the fa r m e r ’s ord e r, in som e cases a d d in g the n ecessary p r o te in con cen tra tes w h ich are ca rrie d in th e truck . I n p a rts o f the S o u th a n d elsew h ere the g r a in S om e re g r in d in g outfit m a y be in a fixed lo ca tio n , p e rh a p s q u ire exp en siv e equ ip m en t, oth ers v ir tu a lly none. ru n in co n n e c tio n w ith a store o r g a ra g e , and S u ch jo b s can som etim es be co m b in e d w ell w ith a fa rm e rs take th e ir g r a in to it. sm all p a rt-tim e fa rm , o r can be d on e to p iece ou t the in com e o f a man liv in g in a v illa g e and en g a g e d p art tim e in oth e r w ork . Fruit Spraying I n the o r c h a r d section s, such as W e n a tch e e and H o o d R iv e r V a lle y s o f the N o rth w e st, o r in C a li fo r n ia , o r in th e S h e n a n d o a h a n d H u d s o n V a lle y s Whitewashing Service I n th e d a ir y and p o u ltr y re g io n s p a r tic u la r ly , o f the E ast, and o th e r n ota ble f r u it section s, there the n ecessity f o r k e e p in g the in te r io r o f stables is a fr u it -s p r a y in g jo b w h ich m a y o c c u p y a m a n a n d ch ick en houses w h itew a sh ed m akes a yea r- w ith a m o b ile s p r a y in g outfit severa l m on th s o f rou n d jo b f o r a w h ite w a sh in g outfit. the year. T h is n eces T h e eq u ip m en t is u su a lly a lig h t tru ck sitates a lig h t tru ck w ith s p ra y r ig la rg e e n ou g h w ith a g o o d s p r a y rig , w h ich w ill rea ch to the to d o th is k in d o f w ork . O n e m an som etim es does the j o b ; o cca s io n a lly th e re is w o r k e n o u g h to keep a rig , w ith the h e lp o f the g r o w e r w h o e m p lo y s tw o m en bu sy. I n the o r d in a r y cou rse, such a w h itew a sh in g ou tfit w ill h av e a re g u la r route, w h ich cov ers a la rg e n u m b er o f fa r m s and goes back o v e r the sam e rou te p erh a p s on ce in 3 m on th s. In m ost m arket m ilk areas in the N o rth and E ast, the sa n ita ry reg u la tion s re q u ire th is w h ite w a sh in g o f co w stables. h e ig h t o f fr u it trees. him . O ne m an can op era te such T w o m en o fte n ow n and op e ra te to g eth er. T h e s p r a y ou tfit go e s fr o m o r c h a r d to o rch a rd , u su a lly o n a f a ir ly re g u la r rou te, and is p a id eith er b y the jo b o r so m uch p e r tree, o r in som e cases is p a id b y the season to keep the o r c h a r d p r o p e r ly sp ra y ed . O r d in a r ily the fa r m e r p a y s so m u ch f o r the jo b , p o ss ib ly $5 to $20. d e p e n d in g u p o n th e size o f the b u ild in g s . A n ou tfit can usu Fruit Caretaker Service al 1y d o several jo b s in a clay. taker se rv ice w ill o cc a s io n a lly be fo u n d . S om e o f these are q uite exten sive o r g a n iz a tio n s h a v in g Feed Grinding T h e m ob ile fe e d -g r in d in g outfit offers a j^ear- In the citru s fr u it re g io n s a m ore elab ora te ca re tra cto rs and all k in d s o f h ea v y tilla g e a n d s p r a y in g m a ch in e r y and e m p lo y in g a fo r c e o f m en. F o r The a fe e th e y w ill ta ke en tire care o f an o ra n g e o r outfit con sists o f a lig h t tr u c k e q u ip p e d w ith a g a s g r a p e fr u it g r o v e — tilla g e , p ru n in g , sp r a y in g , som e olin e en gin e and fe e d g r in d e r. even g o in g so fa r as to p ic k and m a rk et the fru it. rou n d jo b in d a iry and liv e sto ck reg ion s. S om e g o to fa rm s on call w h ile oth ers m a in ta in a re g u la r rou te, p la n n ed to a rriv e at certa in fa rm s on certa in days. Grain Elevator Jobs In eith er case, the fa rm e r w ill have his g rist rea d y T h r o u g h o u t the g r a in -g r o w in g re g io n s o f the and the g r in d in g is d on e w ith a m in im u m o f tim e M id w e st, c o u n tr y eleva tors are a lw a y s in need o f lost on the p art o f the ou tfit. m an agers and w ork ers. v isite d in one d ay. S everal fa rm s are T h e g r in d e r is u su a lly p a id so m u ch p er h u n d re d p o u n d s o f g ra in . T h e jo b as an e lev a tor m an d oes not need a g rea t deal o f tr a in in g , b u t S om e fe e d does req u ire a b a c k g ro u n d k n o w le d g e o f g r a in g rin d e rs also a d d a sk ille d m ix in g serv ice and are a n d the h a n d lin g th e r e o f, to g e th e r w ith som e u n 436 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK d e rs ta n d in g o f h o w fc»lie ra ilro a d s a n d m ark ets See also E le c tr ic ia n s (C o n s t r u c t io n ), p a g e 181: E le c tr ic a l R e p a ir m e n , p a g e 2 0 7 ; a n d R a d io S e r v op era te. icem en , p a g e 210. Mobile Blacksmith Shop I n re g io n s w h ere b la ck sm ith sh op s h a v e d is a p Artificial Insemination p eared , th e m o b ile b la ck sm ith jo b offers a g o o d liv T h e co m p a r a tiv e ly n ew h eld o f a rtificia l in se m i in g to a m a n w h o k n o w s h o w to sh oe h orses and n a tio n , in th e d a ir y re g io n s, has o p e n e d u p new d o o r d in a r y ro u g h w o r k w ith m etals. T h e ou tfit jo b s w h ich a m an can h ll w ith v e r y s h o rt tr a in in g . u su a lly con sists o f an o ld ca r o r lig h t tr u c k w ith U su a lly a g r o u p o f o w n e rs o f a p a r tic u la r b re e d o f rea r en d e q u ip p e d w ith a fo r g e , a n v il, a n d space co w s w ill o rg a n ize an a sso cia tio n a n d b u y one o r f o r n ecessary to o ls an d fu e l. m o re p u re b re d b u lls o f th a t b reed . W it h su ch an ou tfit, a m a n can co v e r a w id e ra n g e o f te r r ito r y , som e tim es p a rts o f m ore th a n one State. I n re g io n s T h e b u ll is k e p t in som e ce n tra l p la ce and w h en a c o w is to be b red on a n y o f the fa r m s in the o rg a n iz a tio n , the w h ere th ere are g o o d -s iz e d stables o f h orses a fe w su ch stables to g e th e r w ith th e lo c a l fa r m w o r k sem en to the fa r m a n d th e c o w is a r tific ia lly b red . w ill keep a m an b u sy th e y e a r ro u n d . T h is w o r k o f h a n d lin g the b u ll a n d th e b re e d in g S u ch b la ck sm ith n o w g e t fr o m $2 to $6 p e r h o rse f o r a c o m p lete s h o e in g jo b , rates v a r y in g w id e ly in d iffe re n t p arts o f th e co u n try . o p e ra tio n s w as fo r m e r ly d on e b y v e te rin a ria n s, but n o w m u ch o f it is d on e b y y o u n g m en w h o have h ad sh o rt tr a in in g f o r the jo b . I t is a stea d y , sa l a rie d jo b , a n d p a y s a c o m fo r ta b le liv in g . Garage and Repair Shop T h e co u n tr y g a ra g e a n d fa r m -m a c h in e r y r e p a ir sh op is a p ro fita b le en terp rise in a lm ost e v e ry p art o f the co u n try . fa r m e r telep h on es to the in se m in a to r w h o takes Cow Testers W h e r e v e r th ere is an o r g a n iz e d c o w -te s tin g as O f cou rse, th is requ ires som e c a p i so cia tio n there is a jo b f o r one o r m o re h e rd te st tal, e ith e r o w n e d o r b o r r o w e d — en o u g h to b u y o r rent a b u ild in g , acq u ire n ecessary to o ls and en o u g h ers. T h e tester is e m p lo y e d b y th e a sso cia tio n o f d a ir y fa rm ers. H e has a fixed ro u te , v is itin g each stock an d p a rts to d o o r d in a r y re p a ir jo b s. o f the fa r m s on ce a m on th . The H e g o e s t o a g iv e n eq u ip m en t d oes n ot h av e to be ela b o ra te to start w ith , bu t d oes n eed to c o v e r th e usual sm all tools. P r o b a b ly $1,000 to $2,000 w o u ld be n ecessary, in a d d itio n to th e b u ild in g a n d a ca r o r tru ck . T h e re is la r g e he m a y h av e to sp en d 2 d ays. H e w e ig h s the m ilk fr o m each co w , tests it f o r b u tte r fa t, is n o la ck o f w o r k in th is h eld . M o s t g a ra g e s a n d re p a ir sh op s o f th is k in d h a v e a w a itin g list o f cars, tra ctors, an d fa r m m a ch in es in f o r rep a irs. S o m e su ch p la ces are able to a d d to th e ir business b y g e tt in g an a g e n cy f o r fa r m m a ch in e r y , f e r t i s h o w in g the p o u n d s o f m ilk a n d fa t p r o d u c e d b y each co w a n d the am ou n t a n d cost o f fe e d . H e is lizer, o r o th e r su ch item s. w e ig h s the fe e d fe d t o each co w a n d com p u tes its cost. H e th en m akes out a r e p o r t f o r the fa r m e r, p a id on a basis w h ich g iv e s h im a s a la r y o f $100 to $200 a m o n th , th e lo w e r salaries b e in g in a d d i tio n to ro o m a n d b o a r d . See also A u to m o b ile M e ch a n ics, p a g e 198. T h e h erd tester u su a lly liv e s co n v e n ie n tly som ew h ere in the area o f his w o r k (w h ic h is u su a lly in sid e on e c o u n t y ). Electrical Service In m ost cases, he m u st h a v e a car. F o r th e e lectricia n th ere is a y e a r -r o u n d jo b in certa in ru ra l areas d o in g e lectrica l w ir in g , re p a ir w o rk , ra d io re p a ir, and the like. fa r m , u su a lly sp e n d in g a d a y th ere, o r i f the h erd U s u a lly th e elec Carpenters C o u n try ca rp e n te rs are in g reat d em a n d alm ost tr ica l-s e rv ice m an w ill liv e in a v illa g e o r o n a ev ery w h ere. sm all fa r m a n d d o w o r k b o th in h is v illa g e a n d in to o ls a n d k n o w s h o w to use th em ca n keep b u sy the s u rro u n d in g fa r m te r r ito r y . the y e a r ro u n d at b u ild in g a n d r e p a ir w o r k in S u ch a jo b r e A m a n w h o ow n s a k it o f ca rp e n te r qu ires a ca r and u su a lly a lso m eans a little sh op at fa r m areas. h om e w ith o r d in a r y re p a ir to o ls and a sm all stock to be an e x p e rt ca b in etm a k er, b y a n y m eans. o f w ire, fixtures, r a d io p a rts, and o th e r su pp lies. does n eed to k n o w the ru d im en ts o f fr a m in g a n d T h e c o u n tr y ca rp e n te r d oes n o t need He 437 AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS---- FARM SERVICE JOBS co n stru ctio n , be able to la y out fo u n d a tio n s , w alls, r o o fs , and be able to ta ck le p ra ctica l re p a ir job s. A t p resen t th ere is a trem en d ou s b a c k lo g o f re p a ir and new co n stru ctio n w o r k to be d on e o n fa r m b u ild in g s. T h is offers w e ll-p a y in g jo b s to m en w h o have reason able sk ill at ca rp e n tr y w ork . M en w ith m od era te c r a ft skills som etim es v a r y the ca rp e n te r’s jo b w ith sp ecia l w o r k in slack sea son. tu r n in g ou t such p ro d u cts as la d d e rs, p o ta to crates, fr u it baskets, etc. O f cou rse, th ere is also a stead y d em an d in the co u n tr y f o r m asons. See also C arp en ters, p a g e 175. Livestock Trucking O n e sp e cia liz e d tr u c k in g jo b in liv e sto c k reg ion s is th a t o f tr a n s p o r tin g h orses, ca ttle, o r sm aller anim als. T h is liv e s to c k tr u c k in g is so m e th in g o f a sp e cia lize d jo b and requ ires a tru ck w ith b o d y e sp e cia lly fitted to h a n d le b ig anim als. I t p r o v id e s v ir tu a lly a y e a r -r o u n d jo b in ce rta in reg ion s. Recreation Jobs I n the N o rth a n d W e st, a rou n d the G u lf, and elsew here w here recrea tion areas are p o p u la r , th ere are seasonal jo b s as g u id es, c a m p in g exp erts, o r recrea tion lead ers o f v a rio u s k in d s. Mobile Repair Shop T h e m o b ile re p a ir sh op m akes a y e a r-ro u n d jo b in som e fa r m reg ion s, esp e cia lly in the M id w est. T h is outfit u su a lly con sists o f a co v e re d tru ck , its in te rio r eq u ip p ed w ith to o ls f o r b o th m etal and H u n d re d s o f m en are so e m p lo y e d fr o m the b e g in n in g o f the s p r in g fish in g season to the close o f fa ll h u n tin g , m a n y o f these m en b e in g p a r t-tim e fa rm e rs o r sons o f lo ca l fa r m e rs o r ran ch ers. T h is w ill lo o m la r g e r as a p ro fita b le jo b , as the 5-clay w eek and T h ese m o m o re a u to m o b ile s m a ke it p o ssib le f o r m a n y m ore p e o p le t o in d u lg e th e ir lov e f o r o u td o o r recrea tion . bile re p a ir tru ck s w ill stop at a fa r m o r com e on ca ll an d fix a n y th in g fr o m a b rok en p lo w h an d le e x p e rt k n o w le d g e o f the re g io n and sk ill in o u t w oodw ork. I t m ust have a fo r g e as w ell as o r d i n a ry ben ch eq u ip m en t a n d su pplies. to a h ea v y tra cto r. S om e o f these ou tfits fu r n is h a g o o d in com e to the o w n e r, b u t an investm en t o f $1,000 to $3,000 is n ecessary in th e essential equipm en t. A v a ria tio n is the m o b ile w e ld in g ou tfit, som e F o r som e such jo b s a m an needs n o th in g m ore than d o o r m a tte rs; in o th e r cases one m a y o w n o r lease co n sid e ra b le eq u ip m en t, in c lu d in g boats, horses, gu n s, fish in g ta ck le. Well Drilling tim es op era ted v irtu a lly as a business b y itse lf, in co n ju n c tio n w ith a w e ld in g sh op in to w n , o r it m a y in g reg ion s. be a p a r t o f the g en era l re p a ir business. 8 o r 9 m on th s o f the yea r. W e ll d r illin g is a p a r t-tim e jo b in m a n y fa r m I n som e p la ces it keeps a m an busy It requ ires som e k n o w l e d g e a n d e x p erien ce o f the w o r k , a n d f o r d eep Custom Machine Work C u stom m a ch in e w o r k o f v a rio u s k in d s p ro v id e s jo b s f o r m a n y m en, o fte n p a rt-tim e w o r k f o r farm ers o r th eir sons. S u ch w o r k in clu d es th resh ing, tru ck in g , co m b in in g , tr a c to r p lo w in g , h a y and straw b a lin g , p o ta to d ig g in g , s p r a y in g , te rra cin g , w ells, eq u ip m en t co n sistin g at least o f a tr a c to r and a d e rr ic k o r d r illin g r ig , p lu s som e to o ls and su p p lies. O r d in a r ily the d r ille r gets so m u ch a fo o t , th is fee v a r y in g w id e ly in d iffe re n t p a rts o f the co u n tr y a n d d e p e n d in g on the n a tu re o f the soil and d e p th and ch a ra cte r o f the w ell. Of etc. O r d in a r ily , a m an w ill ow n ( o r som etim es ren t) th e th resh in g m a ch in e, com b in e, tru ck , o r w h atever m a ch in e he uses f o r such cu stom w ork . cou rse the o w n e r su p p lie s the p ip e a n d o fte n h elp and services o f v a riou s k in d s. F o r a w ell o f a H e w ill g o fr o m fa r m to fa r m d o in g the jo b , u su a lly $300 u p , and in a g o o d season m a y take in several th ou san d d o lla rs. h a v in g a list o f jo b s sch ed u led ahead. A g rea t deal o f tru ck in g esp e c ia lly is n ow d on e on a cu s tom b a sis; the tru ck er w ill haul fa r m p ro d u ce to h u n d red fo o t d e p th , the d r ille r m a y thus get fr o m Airplane Dusting o f Crops m ark et, som etim es a con sid e ra b le d ista n ce, a n d A ir p la n e d u stin g f o r insect c o n tr o l is a g r o w in g return loa d s o f fe rtiliz e r , fe e d , coa l, o r oth er s u p p ra ctice in certa in co tto n , tru ck cr o p , and o rch a rd p lies to the fa rm s. reg ion s. N e a rly all o f th is cu stom w o rk p a y s w ell, but m eans an investm en t in the one o r m ore m achines used. 79899fi°—49----- 29 I t m a y have la rg e fu tu re p ossib ilities. M a n ife s tly , th is w o r k can o n ly be d on e b y a m an w h o ow n s o r ca n get the use o f a pla n e eq u ip p ed 438 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK w ith d u s tin g ap p aratu s. I t offers p a y in g sid elin e “ flo a t” (file ) a h o rse ’s teeth, shear a flo ck o f sheep, w o r k f o r som e y o u n g p ilo ts w h o are u n d e r ta k in g o r d o o th e r jo b s re la tin g to the liv e sto ck . a irp la n e en terp rises o f one k in d o r a n oth er. n o t h av e to h av e m u ch eq u ip m en t oth er th a n a fe w See also A ir p la n e P ilo t s , p a g e 92. k n ives, m eat saw , a n d the lik e, but m u st h av e sk ill in s tic k in g a h o g , sk in n in g a n d d re ssin g m eat a n i Mobile Grocery Store m a ls, c a p o n iz in g , T h e m o b ile g r o c e r y store is an establish ed in s ti tu tio n in m a n y fa r m section s, p r o v id in g a g o o d in com e th e y e a r-ro u n d f o r the m erch an t. H e does and a gen era l k n o w -h o w in h a n d lin g anim als. See also M eat C u tters, p a g e 355. T h is en te rp rise requ ires a co v e re d tru ck , e q u ip p e d f o r c a r r y in g all k in d s o f g ro ce r ie s , o fte n in c lu d in g r e Sheep Shearing S h eep sh e a rin g m akes a season al jo b — 6 t o 8 fr ig e r a to r , p lu s som e k in d o f store o r w a reh ou se w eeks— in b u ild in g in tow n to serve as a base, o f op era tion s. reg ion s. T h e o n ly eq u ip m en t re q u ire d is a p a ir o f g o o d sheep shears, p lu s m eans o f tr a n sp o r ta tio n . T h e tr a v e lin g store co v e rs fixed rou tes each d a y , som etim es m a k in g the sam e rou te tw ice a w eek o r som etim es o n ly once. N o g rea t am ount o f e x p e r i ce n tra l and w estern s h e e p -g r o w in g U su a lly a fa r m o r ra n ch k e e p in g a n y n u m b er o f ence is n ecessary, a lth o u g h the p r o je c t w ill be sheep w ill h a v e p o w e r c lip p e r s , a n d in the W e st fr e q u e n tly sh e a r in g m ach in es. G o o d shearers, m ore su ccessfu l in p r o p o r tio n as the m e rch a n t has m ake up to $25 a w eek. a w o r k in g k n o w le d g e o f the p e cu lia r needs o f his cu stom ers, an d lik ew ise has p ro fita b le ou tlets f o r Salesman of Farm Supplies th e eg g s. fu rs, bu tter, h o n e y , o r o th e r fa r m p r o I n som e a ctiv e fa r m in g section s th e re are jo b s d u ce w h ich he w ill o fte n h a v e to o r w a n t to take in f o r m en se llin g o r se rv in g as d is trib u to rs o f h y b r id e x ch a n g e. seeds, fe r tiliz e r , lim e, s e e d -in o c u la tio n m a teria ls, fe n c in g , q u ic k -fr e e z in g u n its, a n d the like. Chick Hatchery C o m m ercia l h a tch in g o f ch ick s h as n o w b ecom e a re g u la r business. It is d on e on a la rg e scale in som e p la ces, but can also be done in a sm all w a y as a sid elin e. T h e eq u ip m en t n ecessary is an o u t b u ild in g o r d r y basem en t, in cu b a tors (u s u a lly e le c t r ic ), p lu s the n ecessary access b o th to a s u p p l y o f fe r tile e g g s and m ark et f o r the ch ick s. Small Poultry-Dressing Plant In the p o u ltr y -r a is in g re g io n s the sm all k illin g a n d d ressin g p la n t ca n o fte n find a p rofita b le p lace. A lm o s t an y o ld b a rn o r b u ild in g ca n be used, su b ject to lo ca l s a n ita ry reg u la tion s. A salesm an w o u ld need to h ave a ca r. T o take on a d is tr ib u tin g a g e n cy w o u ld p r o b a b ly a lso requ ire som e ca p ita l and a ce n tra l b u ild in g fo r a w areh ou se. Livestock Trader and Buyer T h is is a jo b f o r a m a n w h o k n o w s liv e s to c k and sto ck values. T o d o m u ch business he also n eeds a tr u c k that w ill h a n d le ca ttle o r h orses, p lu s a barn a n d p astu re. S h re w d stock tra d ers o fte n d o w e ll fin a n cia lly , but on e m ust n ot o n ly h av e som e f a c i l i ties f o r h a n d lin g stock but m ust be e x p e rie n ce d in ju d g in g a nim a ls, valu es, a n d m a rk et ou tlets. The S om e m en estab lish e g g a n d p o u ltr y b u y in g w o r k requ ires o n ly sm all ex p erien ce a n d m a y p a y rou tes and sp ecia lize in h a n d lin g p o u ltr y p r o d f a ir ly w e ll as a sid e-lin e jo b . Country Butcher season. I n liv e s to ck an d p o u ltr y re g io n s th ere is u su a lly som e m an in ev ery co m m u n ity w h o m akes a p a r ttim e o r m ore o r less y e a r -r o u n d jo b o f sla u g h te rin g a n d a llie d w o rk a n d w h o m akes a con sid e ra b le p a r t o f h is liv in g th ereb y . ucts, th o u g h th e y are lik e ly also to b u y w o o l, h on ey , m a p le siru p , o r o th e r n a tiv e p r o d u c ts in H e goes fr o m fa r m to fa r m on c a l l ; d e p e n d in g on the season, he m a y be ca lle d T h e re are jo b s also in som e section s f o r w ork e rs in cream - and p o u ltr y -b u y in g station s. Kennels E sp e c ia lly n ear the la r g e r cities a n d tow n s, the k en nel business offers p o ssib ilitie s w ith a c o m p a r a tiv e ly m od est o u tla y o f ca p ita l. S u ch p la ces m a y to b u tch er h o g s, veal ca lv es, o r ca ttle, o r p o ssib ly raise d o g s o r cats o r m a y sp ecia lize in b o a r d in g to ca p o n ize a flo ck o f co ck e re ls, ca strate som e p ig s , p ets f o r oth ers. 439 AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS---- FARM SERVICE JOBS L andseape Gardenin g g en era l fa r m service. I n va riou s su bu rban areas w here there are n u m erous la n d sca p e -g a rd e n in g con cern s a n d n u rser ies, va riou s jo b s becom e a v a ila b le w o r k in g f o r such con cern s. S u ch w o r k m a y be la r g e ly in the c o u n tr y o r m a y be d on e la r g e ly in to w n , d e p e n d in g on the clientele. I f one has som e lan d he m a y g r a d u a lly w o rk in to the n u rsery business f o r h im self. Farm Appraisers O ne such office has been es ta b lish ed b y tw o y o u n g veteran s in M o n tg o m e r y C ou n ty , M d . I n o rd e r to m ake such a service su c ceed one m u st h ave h a d p ra ctica l ex p e rie n ce , a th o ro u g h k n o w le d g e of lo ca l a g ricu ltu re , p r e fe r a b ly a g ricu ltu ra l co lle g e tr a in in g . and T h e tw o m en w h o op era te the M a ry la n d A d v is o r y S e rv ice m en tion ed a b ove, o ffe r a d v ice o n b re e d in g , fe e d in g , all phases o f c r o p g r o w in g a n d m a rk etin g , m a in ten a n ce o f eq u ip m en t, d r a w in g o f fa r m leases, etc. I f a su bu rb an d w e lle r w ith on e co w w ishes to I n som e p arts o f the co u n tr y a p r o p e r ly q u a li fin d a b u ll o f th e same b reed , th e y w ill a rra n g e f o r such b u ll service. I f a la rg e d a iry m a n w ish es to fied m an m a y find a fu ll-tim e o r p a rt-tim e jo b w o r k in g f o r p riv a te co u n tr y banks, F a r m C re d it b u y a ca rlo a d o f p u re b re d cow s, th ey w ill fin d them fo r h im . I f a n e w co m e r w ants a co m p le te p la n A d m in is tr a tio n , insurance a gen cies, a n d the like, a n d co n tin u in g o v e r sig h t o f h is fa r m m a n agem en t a p p ra is in g , th ey w ill s u p p ly it. s e rv icin g loan s, w r itin g insu ran ce, M a n ife s tly , th is ty p e o f se rv etc. ice requ ires a keen m in d , a g r e a t d ea l o f p ra ctica l General Farm Services e x p erien ce, a n d u su a lly p r o fe ss io n a l tr a in in g in In som e p ro g re ssiv e fa r m in g re g io n s, y o u n g m en have set u p w h at is v a r io u s ly k n o w n as a fa r m m a n a g em en t to b a ck it u p. I t has been k n ow n to p a y fa ir ly w ell, e sp e cia lly in the M id w est, a n d n ear som e o f the la r g e r cities. Index I— Occupational Reports Classified by Broad Fields of Work (Guide to Reports Through Entry Occupational Classifications; Part IV of D ictionary of Occupational Titles) O -X PROFESSIONAL, TECHNICAL, MANAGERIAL WORK AND O -X PROFESSIONAL, TECHNICAL, MANAGERIAL WORK— Continued Page O -X l A r t is t ic W o r k O -X 1.2 Commercial artists_______________ Industrial designers_______________ (See also Architects, 0 -X 7 .4 2 ) O -X 1.5 Fur designers_____________________ Furniture designers_______________ Interior decorators________________ Photographers____________________ 101 78 103 102 98 100 0 -X 3 L it e r a r y W o r k 0 -X 3 .5 Newspaper reporters and editors _ 110 0 -X 4 E n t e r t a in m e n t W o r k 0 -X 4 .2 Radio announcers________________ 111 0 -X 6 P u b l ic S e r v ic e W o r k O -X 6 .0 0 College and university teach ers-_ 35 H igh-sch oolteachers____ • ________ 37 Kindergarten and elementary38 school teachers________________ Librarians_______________________ 109 O -X 6 .0 6 Physical-education instructors__ 40 O— 6.12 X Social workers___________________ 106 0 -X 6 .2 5 D etectives_______________________ 143 F B I agents______________________ 145 Federal police and detectives____144 Policem en_______________________ 142 0 -X 7 T e c h O -X 7 .0 2 O -X 7 .0 3 O -X 7 .0 4 0 -X 7 .1 1 n ic a l W Page 0 -X 7 T e c h 0 -X 7 .1 2 O -X 7 .3 0 0 -X 7 .4 1 O X 7 . 42 0 -X 7 .4 4 0 -X 7 .4 8 o r k C hiropractors___________________ 55 Dental hygienists________________ 61 D entists__________: ______________ 45 M edical record librarians_______ 60 Medical X -ra y technicians______ 56 Occupational therapists_________ 57 Optom etrists_____________________ 53 Physical therapists______________ 58 Physicians__________________________43 Registered professional nurses_ _ Veterinarians____________________ M edical-laboratory technicians-Pharmacists_____________________ 49 51 52 47 Chemists________________________ Metallurgical engineers__________ A ccountants__________________ _ 74 71 96 0 -X 7 .4 9 — Continued Lawyers__________________________ 104 M eteorologists____________________ 82 Navigators (air transportation) __ 94 Weather observers_______________ 84 Ceramic engineers________________ 73 Chemical engineers______________ 68 Industrial engineers_____________ 72 M ining engineers________________ 69 Architects________________________ 77 Civil engineers___________________ 63 Mechanical engineers____________ 67 Electrical engineers______________ 65 Electronic technicians (com m er cial and industrial servicing) __ 212 Electronic technicians (electron ics m anufacturing)______________213 Flight radio operators___________ 88 Ground radio operators and tele typists (air transportation)____ 90 Radio operators (broadcasting) _ _ 87 Radio operators (telephone and telegraph in du stry)___________ 85 Ship radio operators_____________ 86 (See also Radar technicians, 4-X 6.185) (See also Radio servicemen, 4-X 6.1 85) Airplane p ilots___________________ 92 Airport and airway traffic con trollers________________________ 116 Draftsm en_______________________ 80 T ool designers___________________ 79 n ic a l W o r k 0 - X 7 .7 0 -X 7 .7 4 0 -X 8 M a n a g e r i a l W o r k 0 -X 8 .1 0 General-insurance agents and brokers________________________ 152 H otel managers and assistants_ 133 _ Personnel workers________________ 107 Restaurant and cafeteria man agers----------------------------------------- 135 Station agents (railroads)________ 341 (See also Filling-station atten dants, managers, and owners, 1 -X 5.7 .) 441 793996°—49 -30 AND 442 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK O -X PROFESSIONAL, TECHNICAL, MANAGERIAL WORK— Continued 0 - 1- AND P age X8 M a n a g e r ia l W o r k — Continued 0 -X 8 .2 5 Hotel housekeepers and assistants- 132 Hotel managers and assistants___ 133 Restaurant and cafeteria man agers_____________________________ 135 S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o f s e r v ic e (hotels)__________________________ 131 0 - X 8 .4 9 Conductors (railroads)_____335 Dispatchers and assistants (air transportation)_________________ 114 X CLERICAL AND SALES WORK 1- X1 C omputing W ork 1X 1 .1 Clerks (railroads)____________________342 1 -X 2 R ecording W ork 1 -X 2 .0 Clerks (railroads)____________________342 Bookkeepers________________________ 148 1 -X 2 .2 Ground radio operators and tele typists (air transportation)_____ 90 1 -X 2 .3 Secretaries, stenographers, and typists____________________________ 147 1 -X 2 .8 Stock and stores clerks (air trans portation)_________________________ 150 Clerks (railroads)____________________ 342 ( S e e a ls o Automobile parts sales men, 1 -X 5 .5 .) 1 -X 2 .9 Proofreaders________________________ 300 1 -X 4 -G e n e r a l C lerical W ork 1 -X 4 .0 Insurance underwriters____________ 97 Clerks (railroads)____________________ 342 1- X 5 P ublic C ontact W ork 1 -X 5 .0 Clerks (railroads)____________________ 342 1- X 5 .0 Front-office clerks (hotels)_________ 127 Traffic agents and clerks (air transportation)___________________ 151 1 -X 5 .5 Automobile parts salesmen__________155 Life-insurance agents_______________ 153 1 - X 5 .7 Filling-station attendants, man agers, and owners________________ 156 Front-office clerks (hotels)_________ 127 2- X SERVICE WORK 2- Xl 2- C ooking X 1.2 Cooks and chefs____________________ 2 -X 5 P erson al S ervice 2 -X 5 .2 Beverage-service workers__________ Waiters and waitresses_____________ 2 - X 5 .6 Airplane hostesses__________________ Barbers______________________________ Beauty operators_ ,________________ _ Flight stewards_____________________ Funeral directors and embalmers. Hospital attendants________________ Practical nurses_____________________ 2 - X 5 .9 Bell captains and head baggage porters____________________________ Bellmen and baggage porters______ 137 140 139 163 158 159 165 113 160 162 130 128 3-X AGRICULTURAL, MARINE, AND FOR ESTRY WORK (N ote .— For a complete listing of reports on types of farms in each major region, see List of Occupational Reports, p. I X ) P age 3 -X 1 F a r m in g 3 - X 1.0 3 - X 1.1 3 -X 1 .2 General farming Resort farm operating Livestock farming Crop farming 4 -X MECHANICAL WORK 4 -X 2 M achine T rades 4 -X 2 .0 M achining 4 -X 2 .0 1 Set-up men (machine sh op )_____244 4 -X 2 .0 1 0 All-round machinists_____________ 234 Lay-out men (machine sh o p )___ 245 M old makers (glass)_____________ 356 Patternmakers__________________ 258 T ool and die makers______________236 4-X 2.0 11 Engine lathe operators___________ 238 Turret lathe operators____________239 4-X 2 .0 1 2 Milling machine operators______ 242 4-X 2 .0 1 3 Shaper operators_________________ 243 4 -X 2 .0 1 5 Grinding machine operators____ 241 4 -X 2 .0 2 W ood carvers and spindle carvers. 313 4-X 2.0 21 W ood turners (furniture)_________ 313 4 -X 2 .0 3 5 Optical mechanics (ophthalm ic)- 367 Precision optical workers_________ 368 4— 2.1 Mechanical repairing X 4 -X 2 .1 0 0 Industrial m achinery repairm en. 201 M illwrights_____________________ 286 4 -X 2.1 03 Airplane mechanics_____________ 202 Autom obile m echanics__________ 196 Diesel mechanics________________ 200 4-X 2 .1 0 4 Airplane mechanics_____________ 202 Flight engineers_________________ 204 4 - X 2 .106 Accounting - bookkeeping m achine servicem en_____________ 220 Accounting - statistical machine servicem en_____________________ 221 Adding machine servicem en____ 217 Calculating machine servicem en. 218 Cash register servicem en_________ 219 Typewriter servicem en___________ 215 4 -X 2 .1 0 7 Gunsm iths________________________ 224 4-X 2 .1 0 9 Refrigerator servicemen and re frigeration and air-condition ing mechanics________________ 208 4 -X 2 .4 Complex machine operating 4-X 2 .4 6 3 Lithographic occupations_________304 Printing pressmen and assistants. 306 4-X 2.4 89 D rop hammer operators__________ 266 Forging press operators__________ 269 H am m ersm iths___________________ 267 U psetters_______________________ 270 443 INDEX I 4-X MECHANICAL WORK— Continued 4-X MECHANICAL WORK— Continued P age Page 4 -X 2 M achine T rades — C ontinued 4 -X 2.4 92 4— X2.493 Brakemen (railroads)_____________333 Hostlers (railroads)_______________336 Locom otive engineers____________ 332 Locom otive firemen and helpers. 331 Switch tenders (railroads)______ 337 Towerm en (railroads)___________ 340 Train baggagemen________________336 Construction machinery opera tors___________________________ 195 4~X6 C rafts 4 -X 6.1 Electrical repairing 4-X 6.181 Central-office-equipment install ers (telephone in du stry)______373 Electricians, construction_______ 181 Linemen (electric light and pow 371 e r )__________ Telephone installers, repairmen, and linem en____________________372 4 - X 6 .183 E lectrica l-h ou seh old -a p p lia n ce servicem en_____________________ 206 Electrical repairmen______________207 Signalmen and signal maintainers (railroads)____________________ 347 4-X 6.1 85 Electronic technicians (com m er cial and industrial servicing) __ 212 Electronic technicians (electronic m anufacturing)________________ 213 Radar technicians___________ J_ 214 Radio servicem en________________ 210 4— 6.2 Structural crafts X 4 -X 6.2 09 Bridge and building mechanics (railroads)____________________ 346 4-X 6.211 Assemblers, floor (machinery m anufacturing)________________ 275 Boilerm akers_____________________ 283 Carmen (railroads)_______________ 344 Structural and ornamental metal workers_______________________ 192 4 -X 6.2 17 Plumbers and pipe fitters_______ 185 4-X 6.2 20 Carmen (railroads)_____________ 344 Carpenters______________________ 175 4-X 6.2 32 Bricklayers______________________ 179 4 -X 6.2 33 Glaziers_________________________ 194 4 -X 6.2 44 Plasterers_______________________ 188 4 -X 6 .2 4 6 Painters_________________________ 177 Paperhangers___________________ 183 4 -X 6 .2 8 Arc and gas welders______________ 278 Resistance welders_______________ 280 4 -X 6.2 83 Acetylene burners________________ 282 4-X 6 .2 9 5 Blasters and pow derm en_________ 359 4 -X 6 .3 4 -X 6.3 10 Bench crafts 4 -X 6.3 13 4 -X 6.3 15 4^X6.318 Sheet-metal workers____________ 190 Blacksm iths____________________ 285 Jewelry repairmen________________228 W atch and clock factory workers. 370 W atch repairmen_________________ 226 4 -X 6 C r a f t s A -X 6.320 4-X 6 .3 4 3 4^X6.346 4-X 6 .3 4 8 4 -X 6.3 53 4 -X 6.3 55 4-X 6 .3 5 6 4-X 6.3 61 4 -X 6.3 76 4 -X 6 .3 8 4 -X 6.3 86 4 -X 6 .5 4-X 6 .5 0 8 4-X 6 .5 6 7 4 -X 6 .5 6 8 4 -X 6 .5 6 9 4 -X 6.5 88 — Continued Jewelry workers Cabinetmakers Pattern makers Hand coremakers Hand molders Machine core makers Machine molders Furniture finishers Dental mechanics M old makers (structural clay products) ___ Upholsterers Shoe repairmen Fur craftsmen (m anufacturing). Furriers, retail trade __ Bindery workers _ Bookbinders _ M eat cutters Inspectors, machinery parts____ Foundry technicians _ _____ 364 312 258 255 251 257 253 316 366 357 318 225 322 324 309 308 355 276 264 Graphic art work Lithographic occupations __ __ Linotype operators M onotype keyboard operators __ Hand compositors and typesetters Electrotypers and stereotvpers. _ M onotype caster operators Lithographic occupations Photoengravers Rotogravure photoengravers____ 4— 6.6 Processing X 4-X 6.611 Electroplaters 4 -X 6.6 18 Melters (foundry) 4-X 6.6 51 D rv cleaners Fleshers, fur dressing Fur blenders Spotters (drv cleaning) 4-X 6 .6 7 5 Bakers_____ _________ 304 297 298 296 301 299 304 302 302 349 262 362 320 321 363 354 MANUAL WORK >-X2 O b s e r v a t i o n a l W o r k 6 -X 2 .3 8 Inspectors, machinery parts____ 6 -X 2.3 85 Castings inspectors Foundrv technicians 6-X 2.4 11 Engine-lathe operators. 6-X 2 .4 1 2 6 -X 2.4 92 Turret-lathe operators Milling machine operators Brakemen (railroads). 6-X 2.6 15 Heaters, forge _ _ i-X 4 M a n i p u l a t i v e W o r k 6-X 4.281 Arc and gas welders Resistance welders 6-X 4 .2 8 4 Riveters, pneumatic turing) 276 261 264 238 239 242 333 271 278 280 (manufac284 444 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 6-X MANUAL WORK— Continued 6-X MANUAL W ORK— Continued Page Page 6 -X 4 M a n i p u 6 -X 4 .3 0 7 6 -X 4 .3 0 8 6-X 4 .3 1 0 6 -X 4 .3 1 9 6-X 4 .3 2 0 6 -X 4.3 46 6-X 4 .3 4 9 — Continued Armature winders______________ 374 Assemblers, bench (machinery m anufacturing)________________ 273 Assemblers, bench (machinery m anufacturing)________________ 273 Chippers and grinders (foundry) _ 260 Furniture assemblers_____________ 315 Furniture finishing room work ers_____________________________ 317 Painters, spray___________________ 358 Finishing jobs (plastics m olding). 352 l a t iv e W o r k 6 -X 4 M a n i p u 6-X 4 .3 5 2 6 -X 4 .4 2 9 6— 4.443 X 6-X 4 .4 4 9 — Continued Fur craftsmen (manufacturing) _ 322 Furniture woodworking machine operators______________________ 314 M achine coremakers______________257 Machine molders_________________ 253 Plastics molding machine opera tors___________________________ 351 Printing pressmen and assistants. 306 l a t iv e W o r k 6 -X 4 .4 6 3 6 -X 6 E l e m e n t a l W o r k 6 -X 6 .6 2 R edcaps___________________________ 343 6 -X 6 .6 9 Chainmen, rodmen, and axmen__ 361 Index II— Alphabetical Index to Occupations Page Page A ccountants________________________________________ Acetylene burners__________________________________ Accounting-bookkeeping machine servicem en______ Accounting-statistical machine servicemen_________ Adding or calculating machine operators (see Bookkeepers)_______________________________________ Adding machine servicem en_________________________ Advertising artists (see Commercial artists)________ Advisers, vocational (see Personnel workers)_________ Aerial engineers (see Flight engineers)_______________ Aerial photographers (see Photographers)____________ Aeronautical engineers (see Mechanical engineers). Agents and brokers, general insurance (see General insurance agents and brokers)_____________________ Agents, charity or welfare (see Social workers)_ _ Agents, FB I (see F B I agents)________________________ Agents, life insurance________________________________ Agricultural engineers (see Civil engineers)_________ Agricultural occupations (see-Table of Contents). Air conditioning mechanics (see Refrigerator service men and refrigeration and air-conditioning me chanics) __________________________________________ Airplane hostesses____________________________________ Airplane m echanics_________________________________ Airplane pilots_____________________________________ Airport and air route traffic controllers______________ All-round machinists_______________________________ Anglesmiths (see Blacksm iths)_____________________ Announcers, ra d io__________________________________ Arc and gas welders________________________________ Architects__________________________________________ Architectural engineers (see Civil engineers)________ Armature w inders____________________________________ Artificial insemination service______________________ Artists, advertising (see Commercial artists)_________ Artists, com m ercial___________________________________ Artists and letterers, lithographic (see Lithographic occupations)_______________________________________ Assemblers, bench (machinery m anufacturing)____ Assemblers, floor (machinery m anufacturing)_____ Athletic coaches (see Physical-education instruc tors) ______________________________________________ Attendants, filling station (see Filling-station at tendants, managers, and ow ners)________________ Attendants, hospital_______________________________ Attorneys (see L aw yers)______________________________ Auditors (see A ccountants)_________________________ A utom obile-body and fender repairmen (see Auto mobile m echanics)_________________________________ Autom obile mechanics_____________________________ Autom obile-parts salesmen__________________________ Automotive electricians (see Automobile mechanics) _ _ 96 282 222 221 148 217 101 107 204 100 67 152 106 145 153 63 208 163 202 92 116 234 285 111 278 77 63 374 436 101 101 304 273 275 40 156 160 104 96 198 198 155 198 A v ia t io n O c c u p a t io n s Airplane hostesses_____________________________ Airplane mechanics____________________________ Airplane p ilots_________________________________ Airport and air route traffic controllers_______ Dispatchers and assistants (air transportation). Flight engineers_______________________________ Flight radio operators_________________________ Flight stewards________________________________ Ground radio operators and teletypists (air transportation)______________________________ Instrument mechanics (see Airplane Mechanics). Mechanics, propeller (see Airplane M echanics). M eteorologists_________________________________ Navigators (air transportation)_______________ Stock and stores clerks (air transportation)___ Traffic agents and clerks (air transportation)__ Axmen (surveying) (see Chainmen, rodmen and axm en)________ Baggage porters, hotels (see Bellmen and baggage porters, p. 128, and Bell captains and head bag gage porters, p. 130) Baggagemen, railroad (see Train baggagemen)_____ Bakers______________________________________________ Bar boys (see Beverage-service w o rk e r s).__________ Barbers_____________________________________________ Bartenders (see Beverage-service w orkers)-------------Beauty operators. _______________________________ Bell captains and head baggage porters____________ Bellmen and baggage porters______________________ Benchhands, baking (see Bakers)__________________ Benchmen, glass (see M old makers—-glass)________ Benchmen, shoe (see Shoe repairm en)______________ Beverage-service workers___________________________ Binders, printing and publishing (see B ookbin ders). Bindery workers__________________.!________________ Blacksm iths_________________ ^_____________________ Blacksmith shop, m obile___________________________ Blasters and pow derm en___________________________ B ody and fender repairmen, autom obile (see A uto mobile m echanics)-----------------------------------------------Boilermakers_______________________________________ Bookbinders________________________________________ Bookbinding occupations (see Bindery workers and B ookbin der)_____________________________________ Bookkeepers_______________________________________ Border patrolmen (see Federal police and detectives).. Brakemen, (railroads)______________________________ Brick masons (see B ricklayers)____________________ Bricklayers_________________________________________ Bridge and building mechanics (railroads)_________ 445 163 202 92 116 114 204 88 165 90 202 202 82 94 150 151 361 336 354 140 158 140 159 130 128 354 356 225 140 308 309 285 436 359 198 283 308 309 148 144 333 179 179 346 446 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U TLO OK HANDBOOK Page Page Broadcasting operators (see Radio operators 87 broadcasting)____________________________________ Brokers, general insurance (see General-insurance agents and brokers)________________________________ 152 Bronze workers, ornamental (see Structural and or namental metal workers)----------------------------------------192 Burners, acetylene_____________________________________ 282 Butchers (see M eat cutters)---------------------------------------355 Butchers, cou n try ____________________________________ 438 Cabinetm akers_______________________________________ Cable splicers (see Telephone installers, repairmen and linem en)_____________________________________ Cafeteria managers (see Restaurant and cafeteria managers)________________________________________ Calculating machine servicem en___________________ Cameramen (see Photographers)___________________ Cameramen, lithographic (see Lithographic occu pa tions) ____________________________________________ Carmen (railroads)_________________________________ Carpenters_________________________________________ Carpenters, locom otive (see Carm en-railroads)-----Case fitters (see Furniture assemblers)_____________ Case workers, supervisors, or consultants (see Social workers)__________________________________ Cash register servicem en___________________________ Caster operators, m onotype (see M onotype caster operators)________________________________________ Castings inspectors_________________________________ Cataloguers (library) (see Librarians)------ -------------Central office equipm ent installers (telephone in du stry)___________________________________________ Ceram ic engineers__________________________________ Chainmen, rodmen, and axm en____________________ Chair makers (see Furniture assemblers)___________ Chambermaids, hotel (see H otel housekeepers and assistants)------------------------------------------------------------Chefs (see Cooks and chefs)------------------------------------Chemical engineers_________________________________ Chemists___________________________________________ Chick hatchery_____________________________________ Child-welfare workers (see Social workers)-------------Chippers and grinders (fou n dry)___________________ Chiropractors______________________________________ Civil engineers_____________________________________ Clay mold makers (see M old makers— structural clay p rodu cts)___________________________________ Cleaners, dry_ _ ____________________________________ Clerks, hotel (see Front-office clerks— hotels)----------Clerks (railroads)___________________________________ Clerks, reservation, air lines (see Traffic agents and clerks— air transportation)______________________ Clerks, stock and stores, a,ir transportation________ Clock and watch factory workers__________________ Coaches, athletic (see Physical-education instruc tors) ______________________________________________ Cobblers (see Shoe repairm en)_____________________ Coil winders (see Armature winders)_______________ 312 372 135 218 100 304 344 175 344 315 106 219 299 261 109 372 73 361 315 132 137 68 74 438 106 260 55 63 357 362 127 342 151 150 370 40 225 374 College and university teachers____________________ Columnists (see Newspaper reporters and editors) _ Commercial artists_________________________________ Commercial photographers (see Photographers)___ Com posing-machine operators (linotype) (see Lino type operators)____________________________________ Composing-machine operators (m onotype) (see M onotype keyboard operators)___________________ Com positors and typesetters, hand________________ Com ptrollers (see A ccou n ta n ts)____________________ Conductors (railroads)_____________________________ Construction machinery operators__________ Control-tow er operators, airport (see Airport and air route traffic controllers)______________________ C o n s t r u c t io n T 35 110 101 100 297 298 296 96 335 195 116 r a d e s Bricklayers____________________________________ Carpenters_____________________________________ Chainmen, rodmen, and axm en_________________ Civil engineers_________________________________ Construction machinery operators____________ Derrickmen (see Construction machinery operators)___________________________________ Electricians____________________________________ Glaziers________________________________________ Hoistmen (see Construction machinery opera tors)_________________________________________ Painters________________________________________ Paperhangers__________________________________ Plasterers______________________________________ Plumbers and pipe fitters_____________________ Sheet-metal workers___________________________ Shovelmen (see Construction machinery opera tors)_________________________________________ Steamfitters (see Plum bers)___________ Structural and ornamental metal workers_____ Cooks and chefs____________________________________ Coppersmiths (see Sheet-metal w orkers)___________ Core winders (see Armature w inders)______________ Coremakers, hand__________________________________ Coremakers, machine______________________________ Correspondents, news or foreign (see Newspaper reporters and editors)___________________________ Countermen, meat (see M eat cutters)______________ Court reporters (see Secretaries, stenographers and typists)___________________________________________ Cow-testing service_________________________________ Cranemen (see Construction machinery operators) _ Crop dusting service_______________________________ Cupola tenders, foundry (see Melters— foundry) _ _ Custom machine work, rural_______________________ Customs guards and agents (see Federal police and detectives)_______________________________________ Cutters, flame or gas (see Acetylene burners)______ Cutters, lithographic (see Lithographic occupations). Cutters, m eat_______________________________________ D ecorators, interior________________________________ Dental hygienists___________________________________ Dental mechanics (or technicians)_________________ 179 175 361 63 195 195 181 196 195 177 183 188 185 190 195 185 192 137 190 374 255 257 110 355 147 436 195 437 262 437 144 282 304 355 98 61 366 IN D E X 447 II P age Page Dentists____________________________________________ Derrickmen or derrick operators (see Construction machinery operators)____________________________ Designers, fur______________________________________ Designers, furniture________________________________ Designers, industrial_______________________________ Designers, to o l_____________________________________ Desk clerks, hotel (see Front-office clerks— hotels)_ _ D etectives__________________________________________ Die makers, die repairmen and die sinkers, (see T ool and die makers)____________________________ Diesel m echanics___________________________________ Dippers, paint (see Painters, sp ra y)_______________ Dispatchers and assistants (air transportation)____ D octors (see Physicians)___________________________ Dough mixers (see Bakers)_________________________ Draftsm en__________________________________________ Drawer makers (see Furniture assemblers)________ D rop hammer operators____________________________ Druggists (see Pharmacists)________________________ D ry cleaners________________________________________ Editors (see Newspaper reporters and editors)_ _ Efficiency experts (see Industrial engineers)_______ Electric crane operators (see Construction ma chinery operators)_______________________________ Electric light and power linem en__________________ Electric-range servicemen (see Electrical-household appliance servicem en)___________________________ Electric-signal linemen, railroad (see Signalmen and signal maintainers— railroads)__________________ Electrical engineers________________________________ Electrical-household-appliance servicem en_________ Electrical refrigerator servicemen or installers (see Pefrigerator servicemen and refrigeration and air-conditioning m echanics)______________________ Electrical repairm en_______________________________ Electrical service, rural_____________________________ Electricians, autom otive (see Autom obile me chanics). - ______________________________________ Electricians, construction__________________________ Electronic technicians (commercial and industrial servicing)________________________________________ Electronic technicians (electronics m anufacturing). Electroplaters______________________________________ Electrotypers and stereotypers_____________________ Elementary-school teachers (see Kindergarten and elementary-school teachers)_____________________ Emblamers (see Funeral directors and em balm ers).. Em ploym ent managers (see Personnel w orkers).. Enamelers (see Painters, spray)____________________ Engine lathe operators________________ ! ___________ _ Engineers, locom otive_________________ E n g in e e r s , P 45 195 103 102 78 79 127 143 236 200 358 114 43 354 80 315 266 47 362 110 72 195 371 206 347 65 206 208 207 436 198 181 212 213 349 301 38 113 107 358 238 332 Chemical_______________________________________ C ivil___________________________________________ Construction (see Civil engineers)_____________ Electrical______________________________________ Flight__________________________________________ Highway (see Civil engineers)_________________ Hydraulic (see Civil engineers)________________ Industrial______________________________________ Management (see Industrial engineers)________ M echanical____________________________________ M etallurgical__________________________________ M ining________________________________________ Radio (see Electrical engineers)_______________ Safety (see Industrial engineers)_______________ Sanitary (see Civil engineers)__________________ Structural (see Civil engineers)________________ Tim e study (see Industrial engineers)_________ Engravers, jew elry (see Jewelry workers)__________ Erectors, machine (see M illw rights)_______________ Erectors, structural metal (see Structural and orna mental metal workers)___________________________ 68 63 63 65 204 63 63 72 72 67 71 69 65 72 63 63 72 364 286 Farm appraisers____________________________________ Farm, service, general______________________________ Farmers and farm service occupations (see Agri cultural Occupations in Table of Contents) F B I agents_________________________________________ Federal police and detectives______________________ Feed grinding service______________________________ Feeders (forging) (see Heaters, forge)______________ Filling-station attendants, managers and owners_ _ Finishers, furniture________________________________ Finishing jobs (plastics m oldin g)__________________ Firemen, locom otive (see Locom otive firemen and helpers)__________________________________________ Flame cutters (see Acetylene burners)_____________ Fleshers, fur dressing______________________________ Flight engineers____________________________________ Flight radio operators______________________________ Flight stewards_____________________________________ Flight stewardesses (see Airplane hostesses)________ Flight superintendents (see Dispatchers and assist ants— air transportation)________________________ Floor layers (see Carpenters)_______________________ Foreign correspondents (see Newspaper reporters and editors,)_____________________________________ 439 439 F o r g e S h o p O 192 145 144 435 271 156 316 352 331 282 320 204 88 165 163 114 175 110 c c u p a t io n s Heaters, forge_________________________________ D rop hammer operators______________________ Ham mersm iths________________________________ Forging press operators_______________________ Upsetters______________________________________ 271 266 267 269 270 r o f e s s io n a l Aeronautical (see Mechanical engineers)_______ Agricultural (see Civil engineers)______________ Architectural (see Civil engineers, p. 63 and Architects, p. 77) Ceram ic_______________________________________ 67 63 73 F o u n d r y O c c u p a t io n s Castings inspectors____________________________ Chippers and grinders_________________________ Cupola tenders (see Melters— fou ndry,)_______ 261 260 262 Foundry technicians__________________________ . 264 448 O C C U P A T IO N A L OU TLOOK HANDBOOK P age F o u n d r y O perations -—C ontinued Furnacemen (see Melters— foundry)___________ Hand coremakers________________________________ Hand molders____________________________________ Machine core makers______________________________ Machine molders__________________________________ Melters_____________________________________________ Metal molders, hand (see Hand molders) Molders, machine (see Machine molders) Patternmakers_____________________________________ Snaggers (see Chippers and grinders— foundry) Frame makers (see Furniture assemblers,)____________ Freight car repairmen (see Carmen— railroads) Front-office clerks (hotels)_____________________________ Fruit caretaker service_________________________________ Fruit spraying__________________________________________ Funeral directors and embalmers_____________________ Fur blenders__________________________________ Fur craftsmen (manufacturing)________________________ Fur cutters (see Fur craftsmen— manufacturing) Fur designers____________________________________________ Fur finishers (see Fur craftsmen— manufacturing) Fur nailers (see Fur craftsmen— manufacturing) Fur sewing machine operators (see Fur craftsmen— manufacturing)_______________________________________ Furriers, retail trade____________________________________ Furnacemen, foundry (see Melters— foundry)---------Furnace operators, forging (see Heaters, forge) F ur nitu re M an u fac tu r in g O ccupations Cabinetmakers_____________________________________ Furniture assemblers______________________________ Furniture designers________________________________ Furniture finishers_________________________________ Furniture finishing room workers________________ Furniture repairmen (see Upholsterers)__________ Furniture woodworking machine operators____ Upholsterers_____________________________________ Wood carvers and spindle carvers_______________ Wood shapers (see Furniture woodworking machine operators)_____________________________ W ood turners______________________________________ 262 255 251 257 253 262 251 253 258 260 315 344 127 435 435 113 322 322 103 322 322 322 324 262 271 312 315 102 316 317 318 314 318 313 314 313 “ G ” men (see F B I agents)____________________________ Garage and repair shops, rural______________________ _ Garage mechanics (see Automobile mechanics)_____ Gas station attendants (see Filling station attend ants, managers and owners)_________________________ General-insurance agents and brokers________________ Glass mold makers_____________________________________ 145 436 198 Glaziers__________________________________________________ 196 Goldsmiths (see Jewelry workers)-------------------------------- 364 Grain elevator job s____ .________________________________ 435 Grinders, foundry (see Chippers and grinders— foundry)______________________________________________ Grinding machine operators (or metal grinders)___ Grocery store, mobile___________________________________ Ground radio operators and teletypists (air trans portation) ______________________________________ Groundmen (s e e Telephone installers, repairmen, and linemen)__________________________________________ P age Gunsmiths__________________________________________ 156 152 356 260 224 Haircutters (see Barbers)___________________________ Hairdressers (see Beauty operators)________________ Ham mersm iths_____________________________________ Hand com positors and typesetters_________________ Hand coremakers____________________________ : _____ Hand m olders______________________________________ Head baggage porters, hotels (see Bell captains and head baggage porters)_________________ Head bellmen, hotels (see Bell captains and head baggage porters)_________________________________ Heaters, forge (or metal heaters)___________________ High-school teachers_______________________________ H ighway engineers (see Civil engineers)___________ Hoistmen (see Construction m achinery operators) H ospital attendants________________________________ Hostesses, airplane_________________________________ 321 Hostlers (railroads)_________________________________ 158 159 267 296 255 251 H o t e l O 130 130 271 37 63 195 160 163 336 c c u p a t io n s Bell captains and head baggage porters_______ 130 Bellmen and baggage porters__________________ 128 Front-office clerks_______________________________ 127 H otel housekeepers and assistants_____ : ______ _ 132 H otel managers and assistants__________________ 133 Superintendents of service_______________________ 131 H ydraulic engineers (see Civil engineers)_____________ 63 IBM statistical machine servicemen (see A ccount ing-statistical machine servicem en)______________ Illustrators (see Com mercial artists)_________________ Industrial designers_______________________ Industrial engineers___________________________________ Industrial machinery repairm en_____________________ Industrial-relations directors (see Personnel work ers) _______________________________________________ Inspectors, castings, foundry_______________________ Inspectors, m achinery parts________________________ Inspectors, radio manufacturing (see Electronic technicians— electronics m anufacturing)_________ Inspectors, railroad equipm ent (see Carmen— rail roads)____________________________________________ Installers, central office equipm ent (telephone)____ Installers, telephone (see Telephone installers, re pairmen, and linemen)___________________________ Instructors, physical-education (or sp orts)___________ Instrument mechanics, air transportation (see Air plane m echanics)_________________________________ Insurance agents and brokers, general_______________ Insurance agents, life_________________________________ Insurance underwriters_____________________________ Interior decorators_________________________________ Iron or steel erectors (see Structural and ornamental metal w orkers)_____________________________________ 221 101 72 201 107 261 276 213 344 373 372 40 202 152 153 97 98 192 241 438 90 372 Jewelry repairmen (or jew elers)____________________ Jewelry workers____________________________________ 228 364 Job setters (see Set-up men— machine sh op )_______ Journalists (see Newspaper reporters and editors)— Judges (see Law yers__________________________________ 244 110 104 IN D E X II P age K ennel management_______________________________ Kindergarten and elem entary-school teachers_____ 438 38 Labor-relations directors (see Personnel workers) _ Laboratory technicians, m edical___________________ Lacquerers (see Painters, sp ra y )___________________ Landscape gardening_____________________________ Lawyers____________________________________________ Lay-out men (machine sh op)______________________ Lay-out men, structural steel (see Structural and ornamental metal w orkers)_____________________ Lens grinders and polishers, ophthalmic (see Optical mechanics— ophthalm ic)_________________________ Lens grinders and polishers, precision (see Precision optical w orkers)_________________________________ Levermen, railroads (see Towermen-— railroads)__ Librarians__________________________________________ Librarians, medical record_________________________ Life-insurance agents_______________________________ Linemen (electric light and pow er)________________ Linemen, surveying (see Chainmen, rodmen and axm en)___________________________________________ Linemen, telephone (see Telephone installers, repair men, and linem en)_______________________________ Linotype operators_________________________________ Lithographic occupations__________________________ Livestock trader and buyer____________________ Livestock trucking_________________________________ L ocom otive engineers______________________________ Locom otive firemen and helpers___________________ 107 52 358 439 104 245 M achine erectors (see M illwrights)________ 1_______ Machine corem akers_______________________________ Machine m olders___________________________________ M a c h in e S h o p O 192 367 368 340 109 60 153 371 361 372 297 304 438 437 332 331 286 257 253 c c u p a t io n s All-round machinists__________________________ Engine lathe operators________________________ Grinding machine operators___________________ Lay-out m en__________________________________ Milling machine operators____________________ Set-up m en____________________________________ Shaper operators_______________________________ T ool and die makers___________________________ Turret lathe operators_________________________ Machinery parts inspectors________________________ Machinery repairmen (see Industrial machinery repairm en)_______________________________________ Machinists (all-round)_____________________________ Machinists, maintenance (see All-round machinists) _ Maids, hotel (see Hotel housekeepers and assistants). Maintainers, railroad signals (see Signalmen and signal maintainers— railroads)___________________ Management engineers (.see Industrial engineers)-- 234 238 241 245 242 244 243 236 239 276 Manicurists (see Beauty operators)___ .____________ Masons, brick (see Bricklayers)____________________ 159 179 201 234 234 132 347 72 Masons, stucco (see Plasterers)------------------------------- 188 M eat cutters_______________________________________ M echanical engineers______________________________ 355 67 449 P age Mechanics, accounting machine (see Accounting bookkeeping machine servicemen, p. 222 and A c counting-statistical machine servicemen, p. 221). Mechanics, adding machine (see Adding machine servicem en)______________________________________ Mechanics, calculating machine (see Calculating machine servicem en)_____________________________ Mechanics, airplane________________________________ Mechanics, autom obile_____________________________ Mechanics, boiler (see Boilerm akers)_______________ Mechanics, cash register (see Cash register service m en)_____________________________________________ Mechanics, dental__________________________________ Mechanics, D iesel__________________________________ Mechanics, electrical household appliance (see Electrical-household-appliance servicem en)______ Mechanics, maintenance, industrial machinery (see Industrial machinery repairmen)________________ Mechanics, optical (see Optical mechanics— ophthal mic) ______________________________________________ Mechanics, propeller (see Airplane m echanics)______ Mechanics, radio (see Radio servicem en)___________ Mechanics, radio, air transportation (see Airplane m echanics)_______________________________________ Mechanics, refrigeration and air-conditioning (see Refrigerator servicemen and refrigeration and air-conditioning m echanics)______________________ Mechanics, typewriter (see Typewriter servicemen) _ M edical-laboratory technicians____________________ M edical-record librarians__________________________ M edical social workers (see Social w orkers)________ M edical X -ra y technicians_________________________ Melters (fou n dry)__________________________________ M etal molders (hand) (see Hand m olders)__________ M etal platers (see Electroplaters)_________________ M etal workers, sheet_______________________________ Metallurgical engineers_____________________________ M eteorologists_____________________________________ M idwives (see Practical nurses)____________________ Milling machine operators_________________________ M illwrights_________________________________________ M ining engineers___________________________________ M old rriakers (glass)_______________________________ M old makers (structural clay products)___________ Molders, hand (fou ndry)___________________________ Molders, m achine__________________________________ Molders, metal (see Hand molders, p. 251 and M a chine molders, p. 253). M olding machine operators, plastics (see Plastics molding machine operators)_____________________ M onotype caster operators________________________ M onotype keyboard operators_____________________ M orticians (see Funeral directors and embalmers)— 217 218 202 198 283 219 366 200 206 201 367 202 210 202 208 215 52 60 106 56 262 251 349 190 71 82 162 242 286 69 356 357 251 253 351 299 298 113 Navigators (air transportation)____________________ 94 Newspaper photographers (see Photographers)____ Newspaper reporters and editors___________________ Nickel platers (see Electroplaters)_________________ Nurses, practical___________________________________ 100 110 349 162 450 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Page Nurses, trained (or registered) (see Registered pro fessional nurses)__________________________________ 49 Occupational therapists____________________________ Office machine operators (see Bookkeepers)_______ Offset pressmen (see Lithographic occupations)____ Oil burner installers and servicemen (see Electricalhousehold-appliance servicem en)------------------------Optical mechanics, ophthalm ic_____________________ Optical workers, precision__________________________ Opticians (see Optical mechanics, ophthalm ic)-----Optom etrists_______________________________________ Ornamental metal workers (see Structural and ornamental metal w orkers)______________________ Orthodontists (see D entists)_______________________ Ovenmen, baking (see Bakers)_____________________ 57 148 304 Painters____________________________________________ Painters, spray_____________________________________ Painters, rough and finish (furniture manufactur ing) (see Furniture finishing room w orkers)______ Paper cutters, lithographic (see Lithographic occu pations) __________________________________________ Paperhangers_______________________________________ Passenger agents, air transportation (see Traffic agents and clerks— air transportation)__________ Patternm akers_____________________________________ Personnel workers (including personnel m anagers). Pharmacists________________________________________ Photographers______________________________________ Photoengravers_____________________________________ Photoengravers, rotogravure_______________________ Photolithographers (see Lithographic occupations)— Physical-education instructors_____________________ Physical therapists_________________________________ Physicians__________________________________________ Pilots, airplane_____________________________________ Pile driver operators (see Construction machinery operators)------------------------------------------------------------Pipe fitters (see Plum bers)--------------------------------------Plasterers___________________________________________ Plastics molding machine operators________________ Plastics finishing jobs (see Finishing jobs— plastics m oldin g)_________________________________________ Platemakers, lithographic (see lithograph ic occu pations) __________________________________________ Platers, electric (see E lectroplaters)-----------------------Platinumsmiths (see Jewelry workers)--------------------Plumbers and pipe fitters__________________________ Pneumatic riveters (see Riveters, pneumatic— man ufacturing, p. 284, and Structural and ornamental metal workers, p. 192) Pole framers (see Telephone installers, repairmen, and linem en)--------------------------------------------------------Policem en__________________________________________ 177 358 206 367 368 367 53 192 45 354 317 304 183 151 258 107 47 100 302 303 304 40 58 43 92 195 185 188 351 352 304 349 364 185 372 142 Porters, hotel (see Bellmen and baggage p o rte rs)-Porters, railroads (see R edcap s)------------------------------ 128 343 Poultry dressing p la n t_____________________________ 438 Powdermen (see Blasters and powdermen)-------------Power linemen ( s e e Linemen— electric light and power)___________________________________________ Power shovel operators (see Construction machin ery operators)______________________________________ Powers (Remington Rand) statistical machine serv icemen ( s e e Accounting-statistical machine serv icemen)______________________________________________ Practical nurses_______________________________________ Precision optical workers_____________________________ Press assistants and feeders, printing (see Printing pressmen and assistants)_________________________ Pressmen, offset (see Lithographic occupations) —. Pressmen, printing (see Printing pressmen and as sistants) _____________________________________________ 359 371 195 221 162 368 306 304 306 P rin tin g T rades Bindery workers_________________________________ 309 Bookbinders______________________________________ 308 Electrotypers and stereotvpers_________________ 301 Hand compositors and typesetters_____________ 296 Linotype operators______________________________ 297 Lithographic occupations_______________________ 304 Monotype caster operators_____________________ 299 Monotype keyboard operators__________________ 298 Photoengravers__________________________________ 302 Printing pressmen and assistants_______________ 306 Proofreaders__________________________________________300 Rotogravure photoengravers____________________ 303 Stereotypers ( s e e Electrotypers and stereo typers)_________________________________________ 301 Production managers ( s e e Industrial engineers) _ _ 72 Proofreaders___________________________________________ 300 Propeller mechanics, air transportation ( s e e Air plane mechanics)__________________________________ 202 P rotective - Service O ccupations Detectives________________________________________ FB I agents______________________________________ Federal police and detectives__________ 1 ________ Policemen________________________________________ 143 145 144 142 Psychiatric workers ( s e e Social workers)____________ 106 Radio and E lectronic O ccupations Electronic technicians (commercial and indus trial servicing)_________________________________ Electronic technicians (electronics manufac turing)--------------------------------------------------------------Flight radio operators___________________________ Ground radio operators and teletypists (air transportation)________________________________ Radar technicians_______________________________ Radio announcers_______________________________ Radio engineers ( s e e Electrical engineers)___ Radio mechanics, air transportation (s e e Air plane mechanics)______________________________ Radio operators (broadcasting)_________________ Radio operators (telephone and telegraph industry)_______________________________________ Radio servicemen________________________________ Ship radio operators_____________________________ 212 213 88 90 214 111 65 202 87 85 210 86 IN D E X 451 II P age R a il r o a d O c c u p a t io n s 333 Brakem en_______________________________________ Bridge and building mechanics__________________ 346 Carm en__________________________________________ 344 Clerks_____________________________________ C onductors__________________________ :_________ 335 Hostlers_________________________________________ 336 L ocom otive engineers___________________________ 332 Locom otive firemen and helpers________________ 331 R edcaps_________________________________________ 343 Signalmen and signal maintainers_______________ 347 Station agents___________________________________ 341 Switch tenders__________________________________ 337 Telegraphers and telephoners___________________ 338 Tow er men_______________________________________ 340 Train baggagemen_______________________________ 336 Recreation jo b s ______________________________________ 437 Redcaps (R ailroads)_________________________________ 343 Refrigerator servicemen and refrigeration and airconditioning mechanics____________________________ 208 Registered professional nurses______________________ 49 Repair shop, m obile---------------------------------------------------437 O 110 280 c c u p a t io n s Safety engineers (see Industrial engineers)_________ Salesmen, autom obile parts_______________________ Salesmen, farm supplies____________________________ Salesmen, general insurance (see General-insurance agents and brokers)_____________________________ Salesmen, life insurance (see Life-insurance agents)Sanders, hand (furniture manufacturing) (see Fur niture finishing room w orkers)__________________ Sanitary engineers (see Civil engineers)____________ Scaffold builders, metal (see Structural and orna mental metal w orkers)___________________________ Secret service agents (see Federal police and de tectives)__________________________________________ Secretaries, stenographers and typists_____________ Servicemen, filling station (see Filling station at tendants, managers, and ow ners)_______________ Servicemen— other types (see listings under Repair men and Mechanics) Settlement workers (see Social workers)____________ Set-up men (machine sh ops)_______________________ Shaper operators___________________________________ Shaper operators (furniture) (see Furniture w ood working machine operators)_____________________ Sheep shearing service_____________________________ Sheet-metal w orkers_______________________________ Ship radio operators_______________________________ Shoe repairm en____________________________________ Shovelmen (see Construction machinery operators). Signalmen and signal maintainers (railroads)______ Silver platers (see Electroplaters)_________________ Silversmiths (see Jewelry w orkers)_________________ 72 155 438 314 438 190 86 225 195 347 349 364 221 Snaggers, foundry (see Chippers and grinders—fou n dry)_________________________________________ 260 372 344 Social workers______________________________________ Solderers, armature (see Armature winders)_______ 106 374 215 Solicitors (see L aw yers)____________________________ 104 221). e s t a u r a n t 206 226 135 137 139 140 284 Repairmen, adding machine (see Adding machine Repairmen, typewriter (see Typewriter servicemen) _ R 206 Restaurant and cafeteria managers___________ Cooks and chefs_______________________________ Waiters and waitresses________________________ Beverage-service workers______________________ Riveters, pneumatic (m anufacturing)_____________ Rodm en, surveying (see Chainmen, rodmen and axm en)___________________________________________ R oom clerks, hotel (see Front-office clerks— hotels)__ Rotogravure photoengravers_______________________ Rough spotters (see Spotters— dry cleaning)______ Rubbers, hand and machine (furniture manufactur ing) (see Furniture finishing room w orkers)______ Repairmen, various types (s e e also listings under mechanics) Repairmen, accounting machine (see Accountingbookkeeping machine servicemen, p. 222, and Accounting-statistical machine servicemen, p. servicem en)______________________________________ Repairmen, calculating machine (see Calculating machine servicem en)_____________________________ Repairmen, car, railroads (see Carmen— railroads) _ Repairmen, cash register (see Cash register service men) _____________________________________________ Repairmen, central office equipment (see Central office equipment installers— telephone industry)Repairmen, Diesel engine (see Diesel mechanics) __ Repairmen, electrical_______________________________ Repairmen, electrical-household-appliance_________ Repairmen, furniture (see Upholsterers, p. 318, and Cabinetmakers, p. 312). Repairmen, gun (see Gunsm iths)__________ Repairmen, industrial m achinery__________________ Repairmen, jew elry_________________________________ Repairmen, radio (see R adio servicem en)_________ Repairmen, refrigeration and air-conditioning (see Refrigerator servicemen and refrigeration and Air-conditioning m echanics)_______________________ Repairmen, shoe___________________________________ Repairmen, signal service (see Signalmen and signal maintainers— railroads)__________________________ Repairmen, statistical machine (see Accountingstatistical machine servicem en)__________________ Repairmen, telephone (see Telephone installers, repairmen, and linem en)_________________________ Repairmen, tender (see Carmen— railroads)_______ Page Repairmen, vacuum cleaner (see Electrical-house hold-appliance servicem en)______________________ Repairmen, washing machine (see Electricalhousehold-appliance servicem en)_______________ Repairmen, w atch__________________________________ Reporters and editors (see Newspaper reporters and 342 editors)__________________________________________ Resistance welders_________________________________ 217 218 344 219 373 200 207 206 224 201 228 210 208 225 347 361 127 303 363 317 152 153 317 63 192 144 147 156 106 244 243 452 O C C U P A T IO N A L OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page P age Special agents, F B I (see F B I agents)______________ Spindle carvers (see W ood carvers and spindle carvers)__________________________________________ Sports instructors (see Physical-education instruc tors) _____________________________________________ Spotters (dry cleaning)_____________________________ Sprayers, paint (see Painters, spray)_______________ State policemen (see P olicem en )___________________ Station agents (railroads)__________________________ Station installers (see Telephone installers, repair men and linem en)_______________________1________ Statistical machine servicemen (see Accountingstatistical machine servicem en)__________________ Steamfitters (see Plum bers)________________________ Steam shovel operators (see Construction machinery operators)________________________________________ Steel door setters (see Structural and ornamental metal w orkers)___________________________________ Steel sash erectors (see Structural and ornamental metal w orkers)___________________________________ Stenographers (see Secretaries, stenographers and ty p ists)__________________________________________ Stenotype operators (see Secretaries, stenographers and ty pists)______________________________________ Stereotypers (see Electrotypers and stereotypers) _ _ Stewardesses, air line (see Airplane hostesses)______ Stewards, air line (see Flight stew ards)____________ Stock and stores clerks (air transportation)________ Stone setters (see Jewelry w orkers)________________ Structural and ornamental metal workers_________ Structural engineers (see Civil engineers)__________ Superintendents o f service (hotels)_________________ Surgeons (see Physicians)__________________________ Surveyor assistants (see Chainmen, rodmen and axm en)___________________________________________ Switchmen, railroad (see Brakemen— railroads)_ _ Switch tenders (railroads)__________________________ 145 313 40 363 358 142 341 372 221 185 195 192 192 147 147 301 163 165 150 364 192 63 131 43 361 333 337 “ T ” men (see Federal police and detectives)-----------Teachers, college or university_____________________ Teachers, elementary school (see Kindergarten and elem entary-school teachers)_____________________ Teachers, high-school______________________________ Teachers, kindergarten and elem entary-school-------Teachers, physical-education (see Physical-educa 144 35 tion instructors)_________________________________ Technicians, ceramic (see Ceramic engineers)---------Technicians, dental (see Dental mechanics)-----------Technicians, electronic (see Electronic techni cians— commercial and industrial servicing, p. 212, and Electronic technicians— electronics manu facturing, p. 213). Technicians, fou ndry_______________________________ Technicians, medical laboratory___________________ 40 73 366 38 37 38 264 52 Technicians, medical x-ray_________________________ 56 Telegraphers and telephoners (railroads)___________ Telephone installers, repairmen, and linemen-------- 338 372 Telephone and telegraph radio operators (see Radio operators— telephone and telegraph in du stry)_________________________________________ Telephone linemen (see Telephone installers, repair men and linem en)________________________________ Tender repairmen (see Carmen— railroads)________ Testers, armature (.see Armature w inders)_________ Therapists, occupational____________________________ Ticket agents, air transportation (see Traffic agents and clerks— air transportation)__________________ T icket clerks, railroad (see Clerks— railroads)_____ Tim bermen, construction (see Carpenters)_________ Tim e-study engineers (see Industrial engineers)____ Tim e-study men (see Personnel workers)__________ Tinsmiths (see Sheet-metal workers)_______________ T o o l designers______________________________________ T ool and die makers________________________________ Towermen (railroads)______________________________ Traffic agents and clerks (air transportation)______ Train baggagemen__________________________________ Trained nurses (see Registered professional nurses)— Trainers, athletic (see Physical-education instruc tors) ______________________________________________ Trainmen, railroad (see Brakemen— railroads, p. 333; Train baggagemen, p. 336). Transferrers, lithographic (see Lithographic occu pa tions) _____________________________________________ Transmitter operators, radio broadcasting (see Radio operators— broadcasting)_________________ Turning-lathe operators autom atic (see Furniture w oodworking machine operators)________________ Turret lathe operators______________________________ Typesetters, hand (see Hand Com positors and type setters) -----------------------------------------------------------------Typesetters, Linotype (see Linotype operators)____ Typesetters, m onotype (see M onotype keyboard operators, p. 298 and M onotype caster operators, p. 299). Typewriter servicem en_____________________________ Typists (see Secretaries, stenographers and typists)— 215 147 Undertakers (see Funeral directors and em balm ers). Underwriters, insurance____________________________ Upholsterers________________________________________ 113 97 318 Upsetters___________________________________________ 270 85 372 344 374 57 151 342 175 72 107 190 79 236 340 151 336 49 40 304 87 314 239 296 297 Vacuum cleaner repairmen (see Electrical-house hold-appliance servicem en)______________________ 206 Varnishers, armature (see Armature winders)_______ Vatmen (see Electro platers)________________________ Veterinarians_______________________________________ Vocational advisers (see Personnel workers)_______ 374 349 51 107 W aiters and waitresses_____________________________ Washing-machine servicemen (see Electrical-house hold-appliance servicem en)______________________ W atch and clock factory workers__________________ 139 206 370 W atch repairmen____________________________ 226 453 INDEX II P age W e a th e r m e n (see W e a th e r o b se r v e rs, p. 84 and W e a th e r o b s e r v e r s __________________________________________ 84 a u t o m a tic (ele ctric re sista n ce 374 278 W ir e m e n (sec E le c tric ia n s , c o n s tr u c tio n )______________ 181 W o o d c a rv e rs an d sp in d le c a r v e r s ______________________ W e ld e r s (e le c tric a r c o r o x y -a c e ty le n e gas) (see A r c a n d g a s w e ld e r s)__________________________________________ 435 W in d e r s , a r m a t u r e __________________________________________ M e te o r o lo g is ts , p . 8 2 ) . W e ld e r s , Page W h ite w a s h in g s e r v ic e ______________________________________ 313 W o o d la th e o p e ra to r s (see F u rn itu re w o o d w o r k in g m a c h in e o p e r a to r s )______________________________________ m a ch in e ) (see R e s is ta n c e w e ld e r s )________________________________ 280 W e ld e r s , c o m b in a tio n (see A r c a n d ga s w e ld e r s)____ 278 W e ld e r s , h a n d (see A r c a n d g a s w e ld e r s)_____________ 278 W e ld e r s ; s p o t, b u t t , s e a m o r flash (see R e sista n c e in g m a c h in e o p e r a t o r s ) _________________________________ 314 W o o d tu rn e rs (fu r n itu r e )_________________________________ 313 W o o l s p o tte r s (see S p o tte r s — d ry c le a n in g )____________ 363 W r ite r s , w e ld e r s )____________________________________________________ 280 W e lfa r e w o rk e rs (see S o c ia l w o r k e r s )__________________ 437 e d ito r ia l (see N ew sp ap er re p orte rs and 106 W e ll d rillin g se rv ic e ________________________________________ 314 W o o d sh a p e rs (fu rn itu re) (see F u rn itu re w o o d w o r k 793996°—49- -30 e d it o r s )_____________________________________________________ X-ray te c h n ic ia n s , m e d ic a l________________________________ 110 56 Occupations in the Armed Forces M a n y o ccu p a tio n s in the A r m e d F o r ce s o f the U n ite d States have c iv ilia n cou n te rp a rts, a n d m u ch service tr a in in g p rep a re s f o r civ ilia n jo b s. I n fo r m a t io n o n the o cc u p a tio n s in the A r m y , N a v y , A ir F o r ce , M a rin e C o rp s, a n d C oast G u a rd m a y be o b ta in e d fr o m th e ir resp ectiv e r e c r u itin g stations. T h e o cc u p a tio n a l stru ctu re o f th e p eacetim e N a v y has been a n a ly ze d f o r th e m a jo r jo b fields in the U n ite d S tates N a v y O c cu p a tio n a l H a n d b o o k . T h is H a n d b o o k con ta in s 66 v o c a tio n a l in fo r m a tio n b r ie fs on N a v y o ccu p a tio n s w h ich te ll w h a t th e j o b is, the d u ties a n d re sp o n sib ilitie s, w h ere the w o r k is don e, q u a lifica tion s a n d p re p a r a tio n , th e t r a in in g g iv e n , p a th o f a d va n cem en t, a n d re la te d civ ilia n job s. I n fo r m a t io n is also g iv e n on p ro m o tio n s, p a y , a n d o th er g en era l fa c ts to s u p p ly a c o m p le te u n d e r sta n d in g o f the N a v y ’s ca reer fields. T h ese b o o k s are a v a ila b le in all h ig h sch o o ls, co lle g e s, p u b lic lib ra ries, S tate e m p lo y m e n t offices and N a v y r e c r u itin g station s. T h e y w ill serve as su p p le m e n ta ry v o c a tio n a l in fo r m a tio n f o r rela ted civ ilia n fields. I n fo r m a tio n on the m a n y d ifferen t ty p e s o f o c c u p a tio n s in th e A r m y m a y be o b ta in e d in a series o f O rie n ta tio n P a m p h le ts o n each o f 50 ca reer fields. T h e first o f these, A C a re e r in A r m y F o o d S e rv ice , D A 2 0 -2 6 , w as issued in 1948 a n d th e oth ers w ill b e p u b lish e d in 1949 as th e b alan ce o f the ca reer fields are in tro d u ce d . E a c h p a m p h le t d escribes th e s p e c ific jo b s in ea ch b ro a d ca reer field , the tr a in in g o p p o rtu n itie s a n d q u a lifica tion s re q u ire d f o r e n tra n ce in to the field, o p p o r tu n itie s f o r a d va n cem en t (w ith a d ia g ra m o f the jo b p r o g r e s s io n ), a n d th e s e lf-s tu d y refe re n ce s a n d co r re sp o n d e n ce courses a p p ro p ria te to each field w h ich m a y be ob ta in e d th r o u g h the U n ite d S ta tes A r m e d F o r ce s In stitu te . T h e p a m p h lets w ill be a v a ila b le in A r m y r e c r u itin g station s, o r m a y be o b ta in e d b y w r itin g to T h e A d ju t a n t G en era l, U . S. A r m y , W a s h in g to n 25, D . C. T h e A i r F o r c e is p r e p a r in g a series o f b o o k le ts o n each o f a b ou t 35 ca reer fields in th a t b ra n ch o f the S erv ice. E a ch b o o k le t w ill d escribe th e w o r k a n d re sp o n sib ilitie s, the tr a in in g g iv e n , the lin es o f p r o m o tio n , a n d rela ted civ ilia n jo b s. T h ese b o o k le ts w ere to be m a de a v a ila b le a fte r the m id d le o f 1949 in A i r F o r c e r e c r u itin g station s o r b y w r it in g to the C h ie f o f S ta ff, A t t e n t io n : P M P H e a d q u arters, U . S. A i r F o r c e , W a s h in g to n 25, D . C. o
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