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Professional and Related Occupations 301 Art and Design Occupations Artists and Related Workers Significant Points • About 60 percent of artists and related workers are self-employed. • Keen competition is expected for both salaried jobs and freelance work because the arts attract many tal ented people with creative ability. • Artists usually develop their skills through a bach elor’s degree program or other postsecondary training in art or design. • Earnings for self-employed artists vary widely; some well-established artists earn more than salaried art ists, while others find it difficult to rely solely on in come earned from selling art. Nature of the Work Artists create art to communicate ideas, thoughts, or feel ings. They use a variety of methods—painting, sculpting, or illustration—and an assortment of materials, including oils, watercolors, acrylics, pastels, pencils, pen and ink, plaster, clay, and computers. Artists’ works may be realistic, stylized, or ab stract and may depict objects, people, nature, or events. Artists generally fall into one of four categories. Art directors formulate design concepts and presentation approaches for visual communications. Craft artists create or reproduce hand made objects for sale or exhibition. Fine artists, including paint ers, sculptors, and illustrators, create original artwork, using a variety of media and techniques. Multimedia artists and anima tors create special effects, animation, or other visual images on film, on video, or with computers or other electronic media. (Designers, including graphic designers, are discussed else where in the Handbook.) Art directors develop design concepts and review material that is to appear in periodicals, newspapers, and other printed or digital media. They control the overall visual direction of a project in fields such as advertising and publishing. They decide how best to present a concept visually, so that it is organized, eye catching, and appealing. Art directors decide which pho tographs or artwork to use and oversee the design, layout, and production of material to be produced. They may direct workers engaged in artwork, design, layout, and copywriting. Craft artists make a wide variety of objects, mostly by hand, that are sold in their own studios, in retail outlets, or at arts-andcrafts shows. Some craft artists display their works in galleries and museums. Craft artists work with many different materials, including ceramics, glass, textiles, wood, metal, and paper, to create unique pieces of art such as pottery, stained glass, quilts, tapestries, lace, candles, and clothing. Many craft artists also use fine-art techniques—for example, painting, sketching, and Digitized printing—to for FRASER add finishing touches to their art. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Fine artists typically display their work in museums, com mercial art galleries, corporate collections, and private homes. Some of their artwork may be commissioned (done on request from clients), but most is sold by the artist or through private art galleries or dealers. The gallery and the artist predetermine how much each will earn from the sale. Only the most success ful fine artists are able to support themselves solely through the sale of their works. Most fine artists have at least one other job to support their art careers. Some work in museums or art gal leries as fine-arts directors or as curators, planning and setting up art exhibits. A few artists work as art critics for newspapers or magazines or as consultants to foundations or institutional collectors. Other artists teach art classes or conduct workshops in schools or in their own studios. Some artists also hold full time or part-time jobs unrelated to art and pursue fine art as a hobby or second career. Usually, fine artists specialize in one or two art forms, such as painting, illustrating, sketching, sculpting, printmaking, and restoring. Painters, illustrators, cartoonists, and sketch artists work with two-dimensional art forms, using shading, perspec tive, and color to produce realistic scenes or abstractions. Illustrators usually create pictures for books, magazines, and other publications and for commercial products such as tex tiles, wrapping paper, stationery, greeting cards, and calendars. Increasingly, illustrators are working in digital format—for example, creating scenery or objects for a video game. This has created new opportunities for illustrators to work with anima tors and in broadcast media. Medical and scientific illustrators combine drawing skills with knowledge of biology or other sciences. Medical illustra tors work digitally or traditionally to create images of human anatomy and surgical procedures as well as three-dimensional models and animations. Scientific illustrators draw animal and plant life, atomic and molecular structures, and geologic and planetary formations. These illustrations are used in medical and scientific publications and in audiovisual presentations for teaching purposes. Illustrators also work for lawyers, producing exhibits for court cases. Cartoonists draw political, advertising, social, and sports car toons. Some cartoonists work with others who create the idea or story and write captions. Some cartoonists write captions them selves. Most cartoonists have comic, critical, or dramatic talents in addition to drawing skills. Sketch artists create likenesses of subjects with pencil, charcoal, or pastels. Sketches are used by law enforcement agencies to assist in identifying suspects, by the news media to depict courtroom scenes, and by individual patrons for their own enjoyment. Sculptors design three-dimensional artworks, either by mold ing and joining materials such as clay, glass, wire, plastic, fabric, or metal, or by cutting and carving forms from a block of plaster, wood, or stone. Some sculptors combine various ma terials to create mixed-media installations. Some incorporate light, sound, and motion into their works. 302 Occupational Outlook Handbook model objects in three dimensions by computer and work with programmers to make the images move. Work environment. Many artists work in fine art or com mercial art studios located in office buildings, warehouses, or lofts. Others work in private studios in their homes. Some fine artists share studio space, where they also may exhibit their work. Studio surroundings usually are well lighted and venti lated; however, fine artists may be exposed to fumes from glue, paint, ink, and other materials and to dust or other residue from filings, splattered paint, or spilled cleaners and other fluids. Artists who sit at drafting tables or who use computers for ex tended periods may experience back pain, eyestrain, or fatigue. Artists employed by publishing companies, advertising agencies, and design firms generally work a standard work week. During busy periods, they may work overtime to meet deadlines. Self-employed artists can set their own hours. They may spend much time and effort selling their artwork to poten tial customers or clients and building a reputation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many artists receive formal training in their specialty. Printmakers create printed images from designs cut or etched into wood, stone, or metal. After creating the design, the art ist uses a printing press to roll the image onto paper or fabric. Some make prints by pressing the inked surface onto paper by hand or by graphically encoding and processing data, using a computer. The digitized images can then be printed onto paper. Painting restorers preserve and restore damaged and faded paintings. They apply solvents and cleaning agents to clean the surfaces of the paintings, they reconstruct or retouch damaged areas, and they apply preservatives to protect the paintings. Restoration is highly detailed work and usually is reserved for experts in the field. Multimedia artists and animators work primarily in motion picture and video industries, advertising, and computer systems design services. They draw by hand and use computers to cre ate the series of pictures that form the animated images or spe cial effects seen in movies, television programs, and computer games. Some draw storyboards for television commercials, movies, and animated features. Storyboards present television commercials in a series of scenes similar to a comic strip and allow an advertising agency to evaluate commercials proposed by advertising companies. Storyboards also serve as guides to placing actors and cameras on the television or motion picture setforand to other production details. Many multimedia artists Digitized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Art directors usually have years of work experience and gener ally need at least a bachelor’s degree. Because of the level of technical expertise demanded, multimedia artists and animators also need a bachelor’s degree. Although formal schooling is not strictly required for craft and fine artists, it is very difficult to become skilled enough to make a living without some training. Education and training. Many colleges and universities offer programs leading to a bachelor’s or master’s degree in fine arts. Courses usually include core subjects such as English, social science, and natural science, in addition to art history and studio art. Independent schools of art and design also offer postsecondary studio training in the craft, fine, and multimedia arts leading to certificates in the specialties or to an associate or bachelor’s degree in fine arts. Typically, these programs focus more intensively on studio work than do the academic programs in a university setting. In 2009 the National Association of Schools of Art and Design accredited approximately 300 post secondary institutions with programs in art and design; most of these schools award a degree in art. Art directors usually begin as entry-level artists or designers in advertising, publishing, design, or motion picture production firms. An artist is promoted to art director after having demon strated artistic and leadership abilities. Depending on the scope of their responsibilities, some art directors may pursue a degree in art administration or management, which teaches business skills such as project management and finance. Many educational programs in art also provide training in computer techniques. Computers are used widely in the visual arts, and knowledge and training in computer graphics and other visual display software are critical elements of many jobs in these fields. Medical illustrators must have both a demonstrated artistic ability and a detailed knowledge of living organisms, surgical and medical procedures, and human and animal anatomy. A bachelor’s degree combining art and premedical courses usu ally is required. However, most medical illustrators also choose to pursue a master’s degree in medical illustration. This degree is offered in four accredited schools in the United States. Professional and Related Occupations 303 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Artists and related workers............................................. ... 27-1010 221,900 247,700 25,800 12 Art directors.................................................................. ... 27-1011 84,200 94,000 9,800 12 Craft artists......................................................................... ... 27-1012 13,600 14,600 7 1,000 Fine artists, including painters, sculptors, and illustrators......... ... 27-1013 23,600 25,700 9 2,100 Multi-media artists and animators........................................... ... 27-1014 79,000 90,200 14 11,200 Artists and related workers, all other.................................. ... 27-1019 21,500 23,200 1,700 8 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title soc Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. Those who want to teach fine arts at public elementary or secondary schools usually must have a teaching certificate in addition to a bachelor’s degree. An advanced degree in fine arts or arts administration is usually necessary for management or administrative positions in government or in foundations or for teaching in colleges and universities. (See the statements titled “teachers—postsecondary” and “teachers—kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school” elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other qualifications. Evidence of appropriate talent and skill, displayed in an artist’s portfolio, is an important factor used by art directors, clients, and others in deciding whether to hire an individual or contract for his or her work. A portfolio is a collection of samples of the artist’s best work. Assembling a successful portfolio requires skills usually developed through postsecondary training in art or visual communications. Intern ships also provide excellent opportunities for artists to develop and enhance their portfolios. Advancement. Artists hired by firms often start with rela tively routine work. While doing this work, however, they may observe other artists and practice their own skills. Craft and fine artists advance professionally as their work cir culates and as they establish a reputation for a particular style. Many of the most successful artists continually develop new ideas, and their work often evolves over time. Many artists do freelance work while continuing to hold a full-time job until they are established. Others freelance part time while still in school to develop experience and to build a portfolio of published work. Freelance artists try to develop a set of clients who regularly contract for work. Some freelance artists are widely recognized for their skill in specialties such as cartooning or children’s book illustration. These artists may earn high incomes and can choose the type of work they do. Employment Artists held about 221,900 jobs in 2008. About 60 percent were self-employed. Employment was distributed as follows: Art directors..................................................................84,200 Multimedia artists and animators.................................79,000 Fine artists, including painters, sculpters and illustrators.......................................................... 23,600 Craft artists....................................................................13,600 and related workers, allother.......................... 21,500 Digitized forArtists FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Of the artists who were not self-employed, many worked for advertising and related services; newspaper, periodical, book, and software publishers; motion picture and video industries; specialized design services; and computer systems design and related services. Some self-employed artists offered their ser vices to advertising agencies, design firms, publishing houses, and other businesses. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow about as fast as the average. Competition for jobs is expected to be keen for both salaried and freelance jobs in all specialties because the number of peo ple with creative ability and an interest in this career is expected to continue to exceed the number of available openings. Despite the competition, employers and individual clients are always on the lookout for talented and creative artists. Employment change. Employment of artists and related workers is expected to grow 12 percent through 2018, about as fast as the average for all occupations. An increasing reliance on artists to create digital or multimedia artwork will drive growth. Art directors will see an increase in jobs in advertising due to demand for the overall vision they bring to a project. How ever, declining opportunities in publishing will hold down job growth. With many magazines moving to an online-only for mat, art directors are used less in this field. Demand for illustrators who work on a computer will in crease as media companies use more detailed images and back grounds in their designs. However, illustrators and cartoonists who work in publishing may see job opportunities decline as newspapers continue to cut staffs. Many are instead opting to post their work on political Web sites and online publications. The small number of medical illustrators will also be in greater demand as medical research continues to grow. Demand for multimedia artists and animators will increase as consumers continue to demand more realistic video games, movie and television special effects, and 3D animated movies. Additional job openings will arise from an increasing need for computer graphics in the growing number of mobile technolo gies. The demand for animators is also increasing in alterna tive areas such as scientific research and design services. Some lower priority animation has been offshored, negatively affect ing employment of animators. Job prospects. Competition for jobs as artists and related workers will be keen because there are more qualified candi dates than available jobs. Employers in all industries should be able to choose from among the most qualified candidates. 304 Occupational Outlook Handbook Despite the competition, studios, galleries, and individual cli ents are always on the lookout for artists who display outstand ing talent, creativity, and style. Among craft and fine artists, talented individuals who have developed a mastery of artistic techniques and skills will have the best job prospects. Multime dia artists and animators should have better job opportunities than other artists but still will experience competition. Despite an expanding number of opportunities, art directors should experience keen competition for the available openings. Craft and fine artists work mostly on a freelance or commission basis and may find it difficult to earn a living solely by selling their artwork. Only the most successful craft and fine artists receive major commissions for their work. Competition among artists for the privilege of being shown in galleries is expected to re main intense, as will competition for grants from sponsors such as private foundations, State and local arts councils, and the National Endowment for the Arts. Because of their reliance on grants, and because the demand for artwork is dependent on consumers having disposable income, many of these artists will find that their income fluctuates with the overall economy. Earnings Median annual wages of salaried art directors were $76,980 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $54,490 and $108,090. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $40,730, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $154,840. Median an nual wages were $80,170 in advertising, public relations and related services. Median annual wages of salaried craft artists were $29,080. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,730 and $39,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,290, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $54,550. Median annual wages of salaried fine artists, including paint ers, sculptors, and illustrators, were $42,650. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,230 and $60,650. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,780, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $83,410. Median annual wages of salaried multimedia artists and ani mators were $56,330. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,710 and $77,010. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,570, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $100,390. Median annual wages were $65,600 in motion picture and video industries, and $52,530 in advertising and related services. Earnings for self-employed artists vary widely. Some charge only a nominal fee while they gain experience and build a repu tation for their work. Others, such as well-established freelance fine artists and illustrators, can earn more than salaried artists. Many, however, find it difficult to rely solely on income earned from selling paintings or other works of art. Like other selfemployed workers, freelance artists must provide their own benefits. Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers...................... 770 Photographers........................................................................... 347 Woodworkers........................................................................... 757 Some workers who use computers extensively and may re quire art skills are: Computer software engineers and computer programmers.......................................................134 Desktop publishers.................................................................. 579 Sources of Additional Information For general information about art and design and a list of ac credited college-level programs, contact: y National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http ://nasad.arts-accredit.org For information on careers in the craft arts and for a list of schools and workshops, contact: y American Craft Council Library, 72 Spring St., 6th Floor, New York, NY 10012. Internet: http://www.craftcouncil.org For information on careers in illustration, contact: y Society of Illustrators, 128 E. 63rd St., New York, NY 10065. Internet: http://www.societyillustrators.org For information on careers in medical illustration, contact: y Association of Medical Illustrators, P.O. Box 1897 Lawrence, KS 66044. Internet: http://www.ami.org For information on workshops, scholarships, internships, and competitions for art students interested in advertising careers, contact: y Art Directors Club, 106 W. 29th St., New York, NY 10001. Internet: http ://www.adcglobal.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos092.htm Commercial and Industrial Designers Significant Points • Commercial and industrial designers usually work closely with a range of specialists including engi neers, materials scientists, marketing and corporate strategy staff, cost estimators, and accountants. • A bachelor’s degree is usually required for entry. • Keen competition for jobs is expected. Related Occupations Nature of the Work Other workers who apply artistic skills include: Commercial and industrial designers combine the fields of art, business, and engineering to design the products people use every day. In fact, these designers are responsible for the style, function, quality, and safety of almost every manufactured good. Usually designers specialize in one particular product category, such as automobiles and other transportation vehicles, appli- Page Archivists, curators, and museum technicians........................ 265 Commercial and industrial designers.......................................304 Fashion designers.....................................................................307 designers..................................................................... 312 DigitizedGraphic for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 305 al .•.'.'••■Mr*j »*- St Many commercial and industrial designers use computer-aided design software to create new products. ances, technology goods, medical equipment, furniture, toys, tools and construction equipment, or housewares. The first steps in developing a new design, or altering an existing one, are to determine the requirements of the client, the purpose of the product, and the tastes of customers or us ers. When creating a new design, designers often begin by researching the product user or the context in which the product will be used. They ascertain desired product characteristics, such as size, shape, weight, color, materials used, cost, ease of use, fit, and safety. To gather this information, designers meet with clients, conduct market research, read design and con sumer publications, attend trade shows, and visit potential us ers, suppliers and manufacturers. Next, designers prepare conceptual sketches or diagrams— by hand or with the aid of a computer—to illustrate their vision of the product. After conducting research and consulting with a creative director or other members of the product develop ment team, designers then create detailed sketches or render ings using computer-aided design (CAD) tools. Computer mod els make it easier to adjust designs and to experiment with a greater number of alternatives, speeding and improving the de sign process. Industrial designers who work for manufacturing firms also use computer-aided industrial design (CAID) tools to create designs and machine-readable instructions that can direct automated production tools to build the designed product to ex specifications. Digitized act for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Designers present the designs and prototypes to their client or managers and incorporate any changes and suggestions. De signers often work with engineers, accountants, and cost esti mators to determine if a product can be made safer, easier to assemble or use, or cheaper to manufacture. Before a product is completed and manufactured, designers may participate in us ability and safety tests, watching consumers use prototypes and then making adjustments based on those observations. Increasingly, designers are working with corporate strategy staff to ensure that their designs fit into the company’s business plan and strategic vision. They work with marketing staff to develop plans to best market new product designs to consumers. They work to design products that accurately reflect the com pany’s image and values. And although designers have always tried to identify and design products that fit consumers’ needs, more designers are now focused on creating that product before a competitor does. More of today’s designers must also focus on creating innovative products as well as considering the style and technical aspects of the product. Work environment. Designers employed by manufacturing establishments, large corporations, or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Designers in smaller design consulting firms, or those who free lance, may work under a contract to do specific tasks or designs. They frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients’ sched ules and deadlines, meeting with the clients evenings or week ends when necessary. Consultants and self-employed designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested, envi ronments. Additional hours may be required to meet deadlines. Designers may work in their own offices or studios or in cli ents’ homes or offices. They also may travel to other locations, such as testing facilities, design centers, clients’ exhibit sites, users’ homes or workplaces, and manufacturing facilities. With the increased speed and sophistication of computers and ad vanced communications networks, designers may form interna tional design teams and serve a more geographically dispersed clientele. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is required for most entry-level commercial and industrial design positions. Experience through internships and a good portfolio of work are also important for jobseekers to have. Education and training. A bachelor’s degree in industrial design, architecture, or engineering is required for most entrylevel commercial and industrial design jobs. Coursework in cludes principles of design, sketching, computer-aided design, industrial materials and processes, manufacturing methods, and some classes in engineering, physical science, mathematics, psychology, and anthropology. Many programs also include in ternships at design or manufacturing firms. Because of the growing emphasis on strategic design and how products fit into a firm’s overall business plan, an increas ing number of designers are pursing a master’s degree in busi ness administration to gain business skills. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design ac credits approximately 300 postsecondary colleges, universities, and private institutes with programs in art and design. About 40 306 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Commercial and industrial designers......................... ................... soc Code Employment, 2008 27-1021 44,300 Projected Employment, 2018 48,300 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 4,000 9 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. of these schools award a bachelor’s degree in industrial design. Many schools require the successful completion of 1 year of ba sic art and design courses before entry into a bachelor’s degree program. Applicants also may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Other qualifications. Creativity and technical knowledge are crucial in this occupation. People in this field must have a strong sense of the esthetic—an eye for color and detail and a sense of balance and proportion. Employers expect new de signers to know computer-aided design software, but despite the advancement of this software, sketching ability remains im portant. Designers must also understand the technical aspects of how products function. The deciding factor in getting a job often is a good portfolio—examples of a person’s best work. Designers must be imaginative and persistent and must be able to communicate their ideas visually, verbally, and in writ ing. Because tastes and styles can change quickly, designers need to be well read, open to new ideas and influences, and quick to react to changing trends. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently and under pressure also are important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to meet dead lines and production schedules. As strategic design becomes more important, employers will seek designers with project management skills and knowledge of accounting, marketing, quality assurance, purchasing, and strategic planning. Good business sense and sales ability are important, especially for those who freelance or run their own business. Advancement. Beginning commercial and industrial de signers usually receive on-the-job training and normally need a few years of training before they can advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or other supervi sory positions. Some designers leave the occupation to become teachers in design schools or in colleges and universities. Many faculty members continue to consult privately or operate small design studios to complement their classroom activities. Some experienced designers open their own design firms. Employment Commercial and industrial designers held about 44,300 jobs in 2008. About 30 percent of designers were employed by manu facturing firms, 9 percent worked in architectural, engineering and related services and another 8 percent worked for special ized design services firms. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average. Keen competition for jobs is expected; those with strong back https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis grounds in engineering and computer-aided design and busi ness knowledge will have the best prospects. Employment change. Employment of commercial and in dustrial designers is expected to grow 9 percent between 2008 and 2018, as fast as the average for all occupations. Employ ment growth will arise from an increase in consumer and busi ness demand for new or upgraded products. The continued emphasis on the quality and safety of products, the increasing demand for new products that are easy and comfortable to use, and the development of high-technology products in consumer electronics, medicine, transportation, and other fields will in crease the demand for commercial and industrial designers. However, some companies use design firms overseas, espe cially for the design of high-technology products. These over seas design firms are located closer to their suppliers, which reduces the time it takes to design and sell a product—an im portant consideration when technology is changing quickly. This offshoring of design work could continue to slow employ ment growth of U.S. commercial and industrial designers. Despite the increase in design work performed overseas, most design jobs, particularly jobs not related to high-technol ogy product design, will still remain in the U.S. Design is es sential to a firm’s success, and firms will want to retain control over the design process. Job prospects. Competition for jobs will be keen because many talented individuals are attracted to the design field. The best job opportunities will be in specialized design firms which are used by manufacturers to design products or parts of prod ucts. Increasingly, manufacturers have been outsourcing design work to these design services firms to cut costs and to find the most qualified design talent, creating more opportunities in these firms. As the demand for design work becomes more consumerdriven, designers who can closely monitor, and react to, chang ing customer demands—and who can work with marking and strategic planning staffs to come up with new products—will also improve their job prospects. Employment of designers can be affected by fluctuations in the economy. For example, during periods of economic down turns, companies may cut research and development spending, including new product development. Earnings Median annual wage-and-salary wages for commercial and in dustrial designers were $57,350 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,550 and $76,700. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,400, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $97,770. Median annual wages of salaried Professional and Related Occupations 307 commercial and industrial designers in the largest industries that employed them in May 2008 were: Management of companies and enterprises...............$63,940 Architectural, engineering, and related services......... 61,450 Specialized design services.......................................... 59,150 Other miscellaneous manufacturing.............................50,990 Related Occupations Workers in other art and design occupations include: Page Artists and related workers.......................................................301 Fashion designers..................................................................... 307 Floral designers........................................................................ 310 Graphic designers..................................................................... 312 Interior designers...................................................................... 314 Some other occupations that require computer-aided design skills are: Architects, except landscape and naval....................................151 Computer software engineers and computer programmers.................................................. 161 Desktop publishers................................................................... 134 Drafters..................................................................................... 579 Engineers...................................................................................170 Sources of Additional Information For general career information on commercial and industrial design, contact: y Industrial Designers Society of America, 45195 Business Court, Suite 250, Dulles, VA 20166. Internet: http://www.idsa.org For general information about art and design and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: y National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos290.htm Fashion Designers Significant Points • The highest numbers of fashion designers were em ployed in New York and California. • Employers usually seek designers with a 2-year or 4-year degree who are knowledgeable about textiles, fabrics, ornamentation, and fashion trends. • Keen competition for jobs is expected as many ap plicants are attracted to the creativity and glamour as sociated with the occupation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Fashion designers help create the billions of dresses, suits, shoes, and other clothing and accessories purchased every year by consumers. Designers study fashion trends, sketch designs of clothing and accessories, select colors and fab rics, and oversee the final production of their designs. Cloth ing designers create and help produce men’s, women’s, and children’s apparel, including casual wear, suits, sportswear, formal wear, outerwear, maternity, and intimate apparel. Foot wear designers help create and produce different styles of shoes and boots. Accessory designers help create and produce items such as handbags, belts, scarves, hats, hosiery, and eye wear, which add the finishing touches to an outfit. (The work of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some fashion designers special ize in clothing, footwear, or accessory design, but others cre ate designs in all three fashion categories. The design process from initial design concept to final production takes between 18 and 24 months. The first step in creating a design is researching current fashion and mak ing predictions of future trends. Some designers conduct their own research, while others rely on trend reports published by fashion industry trade groups. Trend reports indicate what styles, colors, and fabrics will be popular for a particular sea son in the future. Textile manufacturers use these trend reports to begin designing fabrics and patterns while fashion design ers begin to sketch preliminary designs. Designers then visit manufacturers or trade shows to procure samples of fabrics and decide which fabrics to use with which designs. Once designs and fabrics are chosen, a prototype of the ar ticle using cheaper materials is created and then tried on a model to see what adjustments to the design need to be made. This also helps designers to narrow their choices of designs to offer for sale. After the final adjustments and selections have been made, samples of the article using the actual materials are sewn and then marketed to clothing retailers. Many de signs are shown at fashion and trade shows a few times a year. Retailers at the shows place orders for certain items, which are then manufactured and distributed to stores. Computer-aided design (CAD) is increasingly being used in the fashion design industry. Although most designers initially sketch designs by hand, a growing number also translate these hand sketches to the computer. CAD allows designers to view designs of clothing on virtual models and in various colors and shapes, thus saving time by requiring fewer adjustments of prototypes and samples later. Depending on the size of their design firm and their experi ence, fashion designers may have varying levels of involve ment in different aspects of design and production. In large design firms, fashion designers often are the lead designers who are responsible for creating the designs, choosing the colors and fabrics, and overseeing technical designers who turn the designs into a final product. They are responsible for creating the prototypes and patterns and work with the manu facturers and suppliers during the production stages. Large de sign houses also employ their own patternmakers, tailors, and sewers who create the master patterns for the design and sew the prototypes and samples. Designers working in small firms, 308 Occupational Outlook Handbook SSSflSSSfl |Mt w m *Nl N\ }M ‘-ft el «' Ml] Jin'* M| MIKMlMmujlWWM )£*** l ^ Ml -? ICMUAI M ■ ' ' fW\ - I14' ;,. :!i.: i, 4M—IIM.M n\ «mi -=m Fashion designers study trends and design clothing and acces sories for consumers. or those new to the job, usually perform most of the techni cal, patternmaking, and sewing tasks, in addition to designing the clothing. (The work of pattern makers, hand sewers, and tailors is covered in the statement on textile, apparel, and fur nishings occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Fashion designers working for apparel wholesalers or man ufacturers create designs for the mass market. These designs are manufactured in various sizes and colors. A small number of high-fashion (haute couture) designers are self-employed and create custom designs for individual clients, usually at very high prices. Other high-fashion designers sell their de signs in their own retail stores or cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. These designers create a mix ture of original garments and those that follow established fashion trends. Some fashion designers specialize in costume design for performing arts, motion picture, and television productions. The work of costume designers is similar to other fashion designers. Costume designers, however, perform extensive research on the styles worn during the period in which the performance takes place, or they work with directors to select and create appropriate attire. They make sketches of designs, select fabric and other materials, and oversee the production of the costumes. They also must stay within the costume bud get for the particular production item. Work environment. Fashion designers employed by manufacturing establishments, wholesalers, or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Designers who freelance generally work on a con tract, or by the job. They frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients’ schedules and deadlines, meeting with the clients during evenings or weekends when necessary. Free lance designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested, environments, and are under pressure to please cli ents and to find new ones in order to maintain a steady in come. Regardless of their work setting, all fashion designers occasionally work long hours to meet production deadlines or prepare for fashion shows. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The global nature of the fashion business requires constant communication with suppliers, manufacturers, and customers all over the United States and the world. Most fashion design ers travel several times a year to trade and fashion shows to learn about the latest fashion trends. Designers also may travel frequently to meet with fabric and materials suppliers and with manufacturers who produce the final apparel products. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In fashion design, employers usually seek individuals with a 2-year or 4-year degree who are knowledgeable about textiles, fabrics, ornamentation, and fashion trends. Education and training. Fashion designers typically need an associate or a bachelor’s degree in fashion design. Some fashion designers also combine a fashion design degree with a business, marketing, or fashion merchandising degree, especially those who want to run their own business or retail store. Basic coursework includes color, textiles, sewing and tailoring, pattern making, fashion history, computer-aided de sign (CAD), and design of different types of clothing such as menswear or footwear. Coursework in human anatomy, math ematics, and psychology also is useful. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design ac credits approximately 300 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design. Most of these schools award de grees in fashion design. Many schools do not allow formal en try into a program until a student has successfully completed basic art and design courses. Applicants usually have to sub mit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Aspiring fashion designers can learn these necessary skills through internships with design or manufacturing firms. Some designers also gain valuable experience working in retail stores, as personal stylists, or as custom tailors. Such experi ence can help designers gain sales and marketing skills while learning what styles and fabrics look good on different people. Designers also can gain exposure to potential employers by entering their designs in student or amateur contests. Because of the global nature of the fashion industry, experience in one of the international fashion centers, such as Milan or Paris, can be useful. Other qualifications. Designers must have a strong sense of the esthetic—an eye for color and detail, a sense of bal ance and proportion, and an appreciation for beauty. Fashion designers also need excellent communication and problem solving skills. Despite the advancement of computer-aided design, sketching ability remains an important advantage in fashion design. A good portfolio—a collection of a person’s best work—often is the deciding factor in getting a job. In addition to creativity, fashion designers also need to have sewing and patternmaking skills, even if they do not perform these tasks themselves. Designers need to be able to under stand these skills so they can give proper instruction in how the garment should be constructed. Fashion designers also need strong sales and presentation skills to persuade clients to purchase their designs. Good teamwork and communication skills also are necessary because increasingly the business requires constant contact with suppliers, manufacturers, and buyers around the world. Professional and Related Occupations 309 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Employment, 2018 22,900 Change, 2008-2018 Code Number Percent Fashion designers........................................ ................................. 27-1022 22,700 200 1 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Occupational Title Advancement. Beginning fashion designers usually start out as pattern makers or sketching assistants for more expe rienced designers before advancing to higher level positions. Experienced designers may advance to chief designer, design department head, or another supervisory position. Some de signers may start their own design company, or sell their de signs in their own retail stores. A few of the most successful designers can work for high-fashion design houses that offer personalized design services to wealthy clients. Employment Fashion designers held about 22,700 jobs in 2008. About 31 percent of fashion designers worked for apparel, piece goods, and notions merchant wholesalers; and 13 percent worked for apparel manufacturers. Many others were self employed. Employment of fashion designers tends to be concentrated in regional fashion centers. In 2008, the highest numbers of fash ion designers were employed in New York and California. Job Outlook Little or no change in employment is projected. Competition for jobs is expected to be keen as many applicants are attracted to the creativity and glamour associated with the occupation. Employment change. Employment of fashion designers is projected to grow by 1 percent between 2008 and 2018. Some new jobs will arise from an increasing population demanding more clothing, footwear, and accessories. Demand is increasing for stylish clothing that is affordable, especially among middleincome consumers which will increase the need for fashion designers among apparel wholesalers. However, job opportu nities in cut and sew manufacturing will continue to decline as apparel is increasingly manufactured overseas. Employment of fashion designers in this industry will not decline as fast as other occupations because firms are more likely to keep design work in house. Job prospects. Job competition is expected be keen as many applicants are attracted to the creativity and glamour associated with the occupation. The best job opportunities will be in de sign firms that design mass-market clothing sold in department stores and retail chain stores, such as apparel wholesale firms. Few employment opportunities are expected in design firms that cater to high-end department stores and specialty boutiques as demand for expensive, high-fashion design declines relative to other luxury goods and services. Earnings Median annual wages for salaried fashion designers were $61,160 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $42,150 and $87,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,150, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $124,780. Median annual wages of salaried fashion design ers in the largest industries that employed them in May 2008 Digitized were: for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 Management of companies and enterprises.............. $72,560 Cut and sew apparel manufacturing.............................66,000 Apparel, piece goods, and notions merchant wholesalers...............................................61,600 Specialized design services..........................................59,560 Earnings in fashion design can vary widely based on the em ployer and years of experience. Starting salaries in fashion de sign tend to be very low until designers are established in this occupation. Salaried fashion designers usually earn higher and more stable incomes than self-employed or freelance designers. However, a few of the most successful self-employed fashion designers may earn many times the salary of the highest paid salaried designers. Self-employed fashion designers must pro vide their own benefits and retirement. Related Occupations Workers in other art and design occupations include: Page Artists and related workers.......................................................301 Commercial and industrial designers...................................... 304 Floral designers........................................................................310 Graphic designers.....................................................................312 Interior designers......................................................................314 Workers who also design wearable accessories are: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers...................... 770 Other common occupations involved with fashion include: Demonstrators and product promoters.................................... 532 Models...................................................................................... 537 Photographers...........................................................................347 Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents.............. 79 Retail salespersons...................................................................543 Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations......................... 753 Sources of Additional Information For general information about art and design and a list of ac credited college-level programs, contact: V National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org For general information about careers in fashion design, con tact: > Fashion Group International, 8 West 40th St., 7th Floor, New York, NY 10018. Internet: http://www.fgi.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos291 .htm 310 Occupational Outlook Handbook Floral Designers Significant Points • Despite the projected decline in employment, job op portunities should be good as many people leave this occupation, due to relatively low wages and limited advancement opportunities. • Floral design is the only design specialty that does not require formal postsecondary training. • Many floral designers work long hours on weekends and holidays, filling orders and setting up decorations for weddings and other events. Nature of the Work Floral designers, or florists, cut live, dried, or silk flowers and other greenery and arrange them into displays of various sizes and shapes. These workers design displays by selecting flow ers, containers, and ribbons and arranging them into bouquets, corsages, centerpieces of tables, wreaths, etc. for weddings, funerals, holidays, and other special occasions. Some floral designers also use accessories such as balloons, candles, toys, candy, and gift baskets as part of their displays. Job duties often vary by employment setting. Most floral de signers work in small independent floral shops that specialize in custom orders and also handle large orders for weddings, caterers, or interior designers. Floral designers may meet with customers to discuss the arrangement or work from a written order. They note the occasion, the customer’s preferences, the price of the order, the time the floral display or plant is to be ready, and the place to which it is to be delivered. For spe cial occasions, floral designers usually will help set up floral decorations. Floral designers also will prearrange a few dis plays to have available for walk-in customers or last-minute orders. Some floral designers also assist interior designers in creating live or silk displays for hotels, restaurants, and private residences. A number of floral designers work in the floral departments of grocery stores or for Internet florists, which specialize in cre ating prearranged floral decorations and bouquets. These floral retailers also may fill small custom orders for special occasions and funerals, but most grocery store florists do not deliver to clients or handle large custom orders. Florists who work for wholesale flower distributors assist in the selection of different types of flowers and greenery to pur chase and sell to retail florists. Wholesale floral designers also select flowers for displays that they use as examples for retail florists. Self-employed floral designers must handle the various as pects of running their own businesses, such as selecting and purchasing flowers, hiring and supervising staff, and maintain ing financial records. Self-employed designers also may run gift shops or wedding consultation businesses in addition to provid ing floral design services. Some conduct design workshops for amateur gardeners or others with an interest in floral design. Work environment. Most floral designers work in comfort able well-lit spaces in retail outlets or at home, although Digitized forand FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis working outdoors sometimes is required. Designers also may make frequent short trips delivering flowers, setting up ar rangements for special events, and procuring flowers and other supplies. Floral designers have frequent contact with customers and must work to satisfy their demands, including last-minute holi day and funeral orders. Because many flowers are perishable, most orders cannot be completed too far in advance. Conse quently, some designers work long hours before and during hol idays. Some also work nights and weekends to complete large orders for weddings and other special events. Floral designers may suffer back strain from lifting and carrying heavy flower arrangements. Designers also may suf fer allergic reactions to certain types of pollen when working with flowers. In addition, they frequently use sharp objects— scissors, knives, and metal wire—that can cause injuries if handled improperly. However, injuries can be mitigated by fol lowing proper procedures. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Floral design is the only design occupation that does not re quire formal postsecondary training; most floral designers learn their skills on the job. Employers generally look for high school graduates who have creativity, a flair for arranging flowers, and a desire to learn. Education and training. Most floral designers have a high school diploma or equivalent and learn their skills on the job over the course of a few months. Although typically not required, some private floral schools, vocational schools, and community colleges award certificates in floral design. These programs generally require a high school diploma for admis sion and last from several weeks to 1 year. Floral design courses teach the basics of arranging flowers, including the different types of flowers, their color and texture, cutting and taping tech niques, tying bows and ribbons, proper handling and care of flowers, floral trends, and pricing. Some floral designers also can earn an associate or bachelor’s degree at a community college or university. Some programs offer formal degrees in floral design, while others offer degrees in floriculture, horticulture, or ornamental horticulture. In ad dition to floral design courses, these programs teach courses in Most floral designers work in small independent floral shops. Professional and Related Occupations 311 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Floral designers.......................................... 76,100 74,200 -1,900 -3 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title soc Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. botany, chemistry, hydrology, microbiology, pesticides, and soil management. Since many floral designers manage their own business, addi tional courses in business, accounting, marketing, and computer technology are helpful. Certification and other qualifications. The American Institute of Floral Designers offers an accreditation examina tion as an indication of professional achievement in floral de sign. The exam consists of a written part covering floral termi nology and an onsite floral-arranging part in which candidates have 4 hours to complete five floral designs: funeral tributes, table arrangements, wedding arrangements, wearable flowers, and a category of the candidate’s choosing. Floral designers must be creative, service oriented, and able to communicate their ideas visually and verbally. Because trends in floral design change fairly quickly, designers must be open to new ideas and react quickly to changing trends. Problem solving skills and the ability to work independently and under pressure also are important traits. Individuals in this field need self-discipline to budget their time and meet deadlines. Advancement. Many florists gain their initial experience working as cashiers or delivery people in retail floral stores. The completion of formal design training, however, is an asset for floral designers, particularly those interested in advancing to chief floral designer or in opening their own businesses. Advancement in the floral field is limited. After a few years of on-the-job training, designers can either advance to a super visory position or open their own floral shop. Mass merchandisers like grocery stores offer cheaper and simper flower arrangements, at much greater convenience, than small retail florists do. They have become more appealing when it comes to consumer’s daily needs. Specialty floral retail ers will continue to be needed for custom orders but are being steadily replaced when it comes to everyday sales. Job prospects. Job opportunities should be good, because many people leave their jobs, particularly in retail florists, due to comparatively low wages and limited opportunities for ad vancement. Opportunities should be good in grocery store and Internet floral shops, as sales of floral arrangements from these outlets grow. Prearranged displays and gifts available in these stores appeal to consumers because of the convenience and be cause of prices that are lower than can be found in independent floral shops. As mass marketers capture more of the small flower orders, independent floral shops are increasingly finding themselves under pressure to remain profitable. Many independent shops have added online ordering systems to compete with Internet florists. Others are trying to distinguish their services by spe cializing in certain areas of floral design or by combining floral design with event planning and interior design services. Some florists also are adding holiday decorating services in which they will set up decorations for businesses and residences. Discretionary spending on flowers and floral products is highly sensitive to the state of the economy, and during eco nomic downturns employment may fall off as floral expendi tures decline. Employment Earnings Floral designers held about 76,100 jobs in 2008. About 50 percent of all floral designers worked in florist shops. Another 12 percent worked in the floral departments of grocery stores. Median annual wages for wage and salary floral designers were $23,230 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,690 and $29,330. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,210, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $35,010. Median annual wages were $25,160 in grocery stores and $22,710 in florists. Job Outlook Despite the decline in employment, job opportunities are ex pected to be good as many people leave this occupation because of relatively low wages and limited advancement opportunities. Employment change. Employment of floral designers is ex pected to decline slowly, by 3 percent, between 2008 and 2018. The need for floral designers will decline as people purchase fewer elaborate floral decorations for their everyday lives. Even though more people will demand fresh flowers in their homes and offices, as competition from grocery stores lowers the cost of flowers and increases the convenience of buying them, these flower arrangements tend to be simpler than those from tradi tional retail florists and, therefore, require fewer designers. On the other hand, this decline may be moderated by the continued demand for floral decorations, due to increases in the number Digitizedand for lavishness FRASER of weddings and other special events. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Other art and design occupations include: Page Artists and related workers................................................... 301 Commercial and industrial designers...................................... 304 Fashion designers..................................................................... 307 Graphic designers.....................................................................312 Interior designers...................................................................... 314 Landscape architects................................................................ 154 Other occupations involved directly with plants and flowers include: Agricultural and food scientists...............................................177 Agricultural workers, other......................................................609 312 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in floral design, contact: > American Institute of Floral Designers, 720 Light St., Baltimore, MD 21230. Internet: http://www.aifd.org y Society of American Florists, 1601 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.safnow.org To learn more about designing flowers for weddings and funerals, see “Jobs in weddings and funerals: Work ing with the betrothed and the bereaved,” in the win ter 2006 Occupational Outlook Quarterly and online at http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2006/winter/art03.pdf. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos292.htm Graphic Designers Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average, with many new jobs associated with interac tive media. • A bachelor’s degree in graphic design is usually required. • Jobseekers are expected to face keen competition; individuals with Web site design and animation expe rience will have the best opportunities. Nature of the Work Graphic designers—or graphic artists—plan, analyze, and create visual solutions to communications problems. They find the most effective way to get messages across in print and electronic media using color, type, illustration, photog raphy, animation, and various print and layout techniques. Graphic designers develop the overall layout and production design of magazines, newspapers, journals, corporate reports, and other publications. They also produce promotional dis plays, packaging, and marketing brochures for products and services, design distinctive logos for products and businesses, and develop signs and signage systems—called environmen tal graphics—for business and government. An increasing number of graphic designers also develop material for Inter net Web pages, interactive media, and multimedia projects. Graphic designers also may produce the credits that appear before and after television programs and movies. The first step in developing a new design is to determine the needs of the client, the message the design should portray, and its appeal to customers or users. Graphic designers consider cognitive, cultural, physical, and social factors in planning and executing designs for the target audience. Designers gather relevant information by meeting with clients, creative or art directors, and by performing their own research. Identifying the needs of consumers is becoming increasingly important Digitizedfor for graphic FRASER designers as they continue to develop corporate https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis communication strategies in addition to creating designs and layouts. Graphic designers prepare sketches or layouts—by hand or with the aid of a computer—to illustrate their vision for the design. They select colors, sound, artwork, photography, ani mation, style of type, and other visual elements for the design. Designers also select the size and arrangement of the different elements on the page or screen. They may create graphs and charts from data for use in publications, and they often con sult with copywriters on any text that accompanies the design. Designers then present the completed design to their clients or art or creative director for approval. In printing and publishing firms, graphic designers also may assist the printers by select ing the type of paper and ink for the publication and reviewing the mock-up design for errors before final publication. Graphic designers use specialized computer software pack ages to help them create layouts and design elements and to program animated graphics. Graphic designers sometimes supervise assistants who fol low instructions to complete parts of the design process. De signers who run their own businesses also may devote a con siderable time to developing new business contacts, choosing equipment, and performing administrative tasks, such as re viewing catalogues and ordering samples. The need for up-todate computer and communications equipment is an ongoing consideration for graphic designers. Work environment. Working conditions and places of employment vary. Graphic designers employed by large ad vertising, publishing, or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Designers in smaller design consulting firms and those who freelance gen erally work on a contract, or job, basis. They frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients’ schedules and deadlines. Consultants and self-employed designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested, environments. Designers may work in their own offices or studios or in clients’ offices. Designers who are paid by the assignment are under pressure to please existing clients and to find new ones to maintain a steady income. All designers sometimes face frustration when their designs are rejected or when their Graphic designers must be familiar with computer graphics and design software. Professional and Related Occupations 313 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Graphic designers....................................... 286,100 323,100 13 36,900 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Occupational Title SOC Code Employment, 2008 Information Included in the Handbook. work is not as creative as they wish. Graphic designers may work evenings or weekends to meet production schedules, es pecially in the printing and publishing industries where dead lines are shorter and more frequent. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in graphic design is usually required. Cre ativity, communication, and problem-solving skills are impor tant, as are a familiarity with computer graphics and design software. Education and training. A bachelor’s degree in graphic design is usually required for most entry-level and advanced graphic design positions. Bachelor’s degree programs in fine arts or graphic design are offered at many colleges, univer sities, and private design schools. Most curriculums include studio art, principles of design, computerized design, com mercial graphics production, printing techniques, and Web site design. In addition to design courses, a liberal arts educa tion that includes courses in art history, writing, psychology, sociology, foreign languages and cultural studies, marketing, and business are useful in helping designers work effectively. Associate degrees and certificates in graphic design also are available from 2-year and 3-year professional schools, and graduates of these programs normally qualify as assis tants to graphic designers or for positions requiring technical skills only. Creative individuals who wish to pursue a career in graphic design—and who already possess a bachelor’s degree in another field—can complete a 2-year or 3-year program in graphic design to learn the technical requirements. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design ac credits about 300 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design. Most of these schools award a degree in graphic design. Many schools do not allow formal entry into a bachelor’s degree program until a student has successfully finished a year of basic art and design courses, which can be completed in high school. Applicants may be required to sub mit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Graphic designers must keep up with new and updated computer graphics and design software, either on their own or through formal software training programs. Other qualifications. In addition to postsecondary train ing in graphic design, creativity, communication, and prob lem-solving skills are crucial. Graphic designers must be cre ative and able to communicate their ideas visually, verbally, and in writing. They also must have an eye for details. Design ers show employers these traits by putting together a portfo lio—a collection of examples of a person’s best work. A good portfolio often is the deciding factor in getting a job. Because consumer tastes can change fairly quickly, design also need to be well read, open to new ideas and influ Digitized ers for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ences, and quick to react to changing trends. The ability to work independently and under pressure are equally important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to meet deadlines and production schedules. Good business sense and sales ability also are important, especially for those who freelance or run their own firms. Advancement. Beginning graphic designers usually need 1 to 3 years of working experience before they can advance to higher positions. Experienced graphic designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, art or creative director, or other supervisory positions. Some designers leave the occupation to become teachers in design schools or in colleges and universi ties. Many faculty members continue to consult privately or operate small design studios to complement their classroom activities. Some experienced designers open their own firms or choose to specialize in one area of graphic design. Employment Graphic designers held about 286,100 jobs in 2008. Most graphic designers worked in specialized design services; adver tising and related services; printing and related support activi ties; or newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers. A small number of designers produced computer graphics for computer systems design firms. Some designers do freelance work—full time or part time— in addition to holding a salaried job in design or in another occupation. Job Outlook Employment is expected grow about as fast as average. Keen competition for jobs is expected; individuals with Web site design and animation experience will have the best opportuni ties. Employment change. Employment of graphic designers is expected to grow 13 percent, as fast as the average for all occupations from 2008 to 2018, as demand for graphic design continues to increase from advertisers and computer design firms. Moreover, graphic designers with Web site design and ani mation experience will especially be needed as demand in creases for design projects for interactive media—Web sites, mobile phones, and other technology. Demand for graphic de signers also will increase as advertising firms create print and Web marketing and promotional materials for a growing num ber of products and services. Growth in Internet advertising, in particular, is expected to increase the number of designers. However, growth may be tempered by reduced demand in the print publishing, where many graphic designers are employed. Job prospects. Graphic designers are expected to face keen competition for available positions. Many talented indi- 314 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information viduals are attracted to careers as graphic designers. Individu als with Web site design and animation experience will have the best opportunities. Graphic designers with a broad liberal arts education and experience in marketing and business management will be best suited for positions developing communication strategies. For general information about art and design and a list of ac credited college-level programs, contact: y National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190-5248. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org Earnings For information about various design careers, contact: y American Institute of Graphic Arts, 164 Fifth Ave., New York, NY 10010. Internet: http://www.aiga.org Median annual wages for graphic designers were $42,400 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,600 and $56,620. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,110, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,660. May 2008 median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of graphic designers were: Computer systems design and related services....... $47,860 Specialized design services.........................................45,870 Advertising, public relations and related services..... 43,540 Newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers....................................................... 36,910 For information on workshops, scholarships, internships, and competitions for graphic design students interested in advertis ing careers, contact: > Art Directors Club, 106 West 29th St., New York, NY 10001. Internet: http://www.adcglobal.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos090.htm Printing and related support activities........................ 36,100 According to the American Institute of Graphic Arts, me dian annual cash compensation for entry-level designers was $35,000 in 2008. Staff-level graphic designers earned a me dian of $45,000. Senior designers, who may supervise junior staff or have some decision-making authority that reflects their knowledge of graphic design, earned a median of $60,000. Solo designers who freelanced or worked under contract to another company reported median earnings of $57,000. De sign directors, the creative heads of design firms or in-house corporate design departments, earned $95,000. Graphic de signers with ownership or partnership interests in a firm or who were principals of the firm in some other capacity earned $95,000. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations in the art and design field include: Page Artists and related workers....................................................... 301 Commercial and industrial designers.......................................304 Fashion designers..................................................................... 307 Floral designers........................................................................ 310 Interior designers...................................................................... 314 Other occupations that require computer-aided design skills include: Computer software engineers and computer programmers........................................................ 134 Desktop publishers................................................................... 579 Drafters..................................................................................... 170 Other occupations involved in the design, layout, and copy of publications include: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers..................................... 32 Authors, writers, and editors....................................................333 Photographers........................................................................... 347 technicians and workers.............................................748 DigitizedPrepress for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Interior Designers Significant Points • Keen competition is expected for jobs because many talented individuals are attracted to this occupation. • Self employment is common; many interior designers work in small firms or on a contract basis. • Postsecondary education—either an associate or a bachelor’s degree—is necessary for entry-level positions; some States license interior designers. Nature of the Work Interior designers draw upon many disciplines to enhance the function, safety, and aesthetics of interior spaces. Their main concerns are with how different colors, textures, furniture, light ing, and space work together to meet the needs of a building’s occupants. Designers plan interior spaces of almost every type of building, including offices, airport terminals, theaters, shop ping malls, restaurants, hotels, schools, hospitals, and private residences. Good design can boost office productivity, increase sales, attract a more affluent clientele, provide a more relaxing hospital stay, or increase a building’s market value. Traditionally, most interior designers focused on decorat ing—choosing a style and color palette and then selecting ap propriate furniture, floor and window coverings, artwork, and lighting. However, an increasing number of designers are be coming involved in architectural detailing, such as crown mold ing and built-in bookshelves, and in planning layouts of build ings undergoing renovation, including helping to determine the location of windows, stairways, escalators, and walkways. Interior designers must be able to read blueprints, understand building and fire codes, and know how to make space accessible to people who are disabled. Designers frequently collaborate with architects, electricians, and building contractors to ensure that designs are safe and meet construction requirements. Professional and Related Occupations 315 . An increasing number of interior designers are involved with architectural detailing. Whatever space they are working on, almost all designers fol low the same process. The first step, known as programming, is to determine the client’s needs and wishes. The designer usually meets face-to-face with the client to find out how the space will be used and to get an idea of the client’s preferences and budget. For example, the designer might inquire about a family’s cook ing habits if the family is remodeling a kitchen or ask about a store or restaurant’s target customer to pick an appropriate motif. The designer also will visit the space to take inventory of existing furniture and equipment and identify positive attributes of the space and potential problems. After collecting this information, the designer formulates a design plan and estimates costs. Today, designs often are cre ated with the use of computer-aided design (CAD) software, which provides more detail and easier corrections than sketches made by hand. Upon completing the design plan, the designer will present it to the client and make revisions based on the cli ent’s input. When the design concept is finalized, the designer will be gin specifying the materials, finishes, and furnishings required, such as furniture, lighting, flooring, wall covering, and artwork. Depending on the complexity of the project, the designer also might submit drawings for approval by a construction inspec tor to ensure that the design meets building codes. If a project requires structural work, the designer works with an architect or engineer for that part of the project. Most designs also require the hiring of contractors to do technical work, such as lighting, plumbing, and electrical wiring. Often designers choose con tractors and write work contracts. Finally, the designer develops a timeline for the project, co ordinates contractor work schedules, and makes sure work is completed on time. The designer oversees the installation of the design elements, and after the project is complete, the designer, together with the client, pay follow-up visits to the building site to ensure that the client is satisfied. If the client is not satisfied, the designer makes corrections. Designers who work for furniture or home and garden stores sell merchandise in addition to offering design services. In-store designers provide services, such as selecting a style and color scheme that fits the client’s needs or finding suitable accessories Digitizedand for lighting, FRASER similar to those offered by other interior designers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis However, in-store designers rarely visit clients’ spaces and use only a particular store’s products or catalogs. Interior designers sometimes supervise assistants who carry out their plans and perform administrative tasks, such as re viewing catalogues and ordering samples. Designers who run their own businesses also may devote considerable time to developing new business contacts, examining equipment and space needs, and attending to business matters. Although most interior designers do many kinds of projects, some specialize in one area of interior design. Some special ize in the type of building space—usually residential or com mercial—while others specialize in a certain design element or type of client, such as healthcare facilities. The most common specialties of this kind are lighting, kitchen and bath, and closet designs. However, designers can specialize in almost any area of design, including acoustics and noise abatement, security, electronics and home theaters, home spas, and indoor gardens. Three areas of design that are becoming increasingly popu lar are ergonomic design, elder design, and environmental— or green—design. Ergonomic design involves designing work spaces and furniture that emphasize good posture and minimize muscle strain on the body. Elder design involves planning inte rior space to aid in the movement of people who are elderly and disabled. Green design involves selecting furniture and carpets that are free of chemicals and hypoallergenic and selecting con struction materials that are energy-efficient or are made from renewable resources. Work environment. Working conditions and places of employment vary. Interior designers employed by large corporations or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Designers in smaller de sign consulting firms or those who freelance generally work on a contract, or job, basis. They frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients’ schedules and deadlines, meeting with clients during evening or weekend hours when necessary. Consultants and self-employed designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested environments. Interior designers may work under stress to meet deadlines, stay on budget, and please clients. Self-employed designers also are under pressure to find new clients to maintain a steady income. Designers may work in their own offices or studios or in cli ents’ homes or offices. They also may travel to other locations, such as showrooms, design centers, clients’ exhibit sites, and manufacturing facilities. With the increased speed and sophis tication of computers and advanced communications networks, designers may form international design teams, serve a more geographically dispersed clientele, research design alternatives by using information on the Internet, and purchase supplies electronically. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An associate or bachelor’s degree is needed for entry-level posi tions in interior design. Some States license interior designers. Education and training. Postsecondary education is nec essary for entry-level positions in interior design. Training programs are available from professional design schools or from colleges and universities and usually take 2 to 4 years to 316 Occupational Outlook Handbook complete. Graduates of 2-year or 3-year programs are awarded certificates or associate degrees in interior design and normally qualify as assistants to interior designers upon graduation. Graduates with a bachelor’s degree usually qualify for a formal design apprenticeship program. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design ac credits approximately 300 postsecondary institutions with pro grams in art and design. Most of these schools award a degree in interior design. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Basic coursework in cludes CAD, drawing, perspective, spatial planning, color and fabrics, furniture design, architecture, ergonomics, ethics, and psychology. The Council for Interior Design Accreditation also accredits interior design programs that lead to a bachelor’s or master’s degree. In 2008, there were over 150 accredited programs in interior design in the United States; most are part of schools or departments of art, architecture, and home economics. After the completion of formal training, interior designers can enter a 1-year to 3-year apprenticeship to gain experience before working on their own. Most apprentices work in design or architecture firms under the supervision of an experienced designer. Apprentices also may choose to gain experience working as an in-store designer in furniture stores. The National Council for Interior Design Qualification offers the Interior Design Experience Program, which helps entry-level interior designers gain valuable work experience by supervising their work and offering mentoring services to new designers. Licensure. A number of States register or license interior designers. The National Council for Interior Design Qualifica tion administers the licensing exam for interior design qualifica tion. To be eligible to take the exam, applicants must have at least 6 years of combined education and experience in interior de sign, of which at least 2 years must be postsecondary education. Once candidates have passed the qualifying exam, they are granted the title of Certified, Registered, or Licensed Interior Designer, depending on the State. Continuing education is often required to maintain licensure. Other qualifications. Employers increasingly prefer in terior designers who are familiar with computer-aided design software and the basics of architecture and engineering to en sure that their designs meet building safety codes. In addition to possessing technical knowledge, interior de signers must be creative, imaginative, and persistent and must be able to communicate their ideas visually, verbally, and in writing. Because tastes in style can change fairly quickly, designers need to be well read, open to new ideas and influ ences, and quick to react to changing trends. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently and under pressure are additional important traits. People in this field need self discipline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to meet deadlines and production schedules. Good business sense and sales ability also are important, especially for those who freelance or run their own business. Certification and advancement. Optional certifications in residential kitchen and bath design are available from the Na tional Kitchen and Bath Association. The association offers several different levels of certification for kitchen and bath designers, each achieved through training seminars and certi fication exams. Beginning interior designers receive on-the-job training and normally need 1 to 3 years of training before they can advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or some other supervisory position. Some experienced designers open their own firms or decide to specialize in one aspect of interior design. Other designers leave the occupation to become teachers in schools of design or in colleges and universities. Many faculty members continue to consult privately or operate small design studios to complement their classroom activities. Employment Interior designers held about 71,700 jobs in 2008. About 30 percent of interior designers worked in specialized design ser vices. Additionally, 14 percent of interior designers provided design services in architectural and landscape architectural ser vices and 9 percent worked in furniture and home-furnishing stores. Many interior designers also performed freelance work in addition to holding a salaried job in interior design or another occupation. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow faster than average; however, keen competition for jobs is expected. Employment change. Employment of interior designers is expected to grow 19 percent from 2008 to 2018, faster than the average for all occupations. An increasing interest in interior design and awareness of its benefits will increase demand for designers. As businesses realize the improvements that can be made to worker and customer satisfaction through good design, they will use interior designers to redesign their offices and stores. Homeowners are increasingly using the services of interior designers when they plan new additions, remodel aging kitch ens and bathrooms, and update the general decor of their home. Many homeowners also have requested design help in creating year-round outdoor living spaces and home theater systems. Demand for interior design services from the healthcare in dustry is expected to be high because of an anticipated increase in demand for facilities that will accommodate the aging popu lation. Designers will be needed to make these facilities as com fortable and homelike as possible for patients. There will also Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Code Employment, 2008 Projected Employment, 2018 85,600 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 13,900 19 71,700 27-1025 Interior designers................................................................................... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 317 be demand from businesses in the hospitality industry—hotels, resorts, and restaurants—where good design work can help at tract more business. Some interior designers choose to specialize in one design element to create a niche for themselves in an increasingly competitive market. The demand for kitchen and bath design is growing in response to the growing demand for home remodel ing. Designs using the latest technology in, for example, home theaters, state-of-the-art conference facilities, and security sys tems are expected to be especially popular. In addition, demand for home spas, indoor gardens, and outdoor living space should continue to increase. Extensive knowledge of ergonomics and green design are ex pected to be in demand. Ergonomic design has gained in popu larity with the growth in the elderly population and workplace safety requirements. The public’s growing awareness of envi ronmental quality and the growing number of individuals with allergies and asthma are expected to increase the demand for green design. Job prospects. Interior designers are expected to face keen competition for available positions because many talented in dividuals are attracted to this profession. Individuals with little or no formal training in interior design, as well as those lack ing creativity and perseverance, will find it very difficult to establish and maintain a career in this occupation. Designers with formal training or experience in green or energy efficientdesign in particular are expected to have better job prospects due to increased interest in this area. As the economy grows, more private businesses and consum ers will request the services of interior designers. However, design services are considered a luxury expense and may be subject to fluctuations in the economy. For example, decreases in consumer and business income and spending caused by a slow economy can have a detrimental effect on employment of interior designers. Earnings Median annual wages for interior designers were $44,950 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,620 and $61,880. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,230, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $82,750. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of interior designers in May 2008 were: Architectural, engineering, and related services.......$49,290 Specialized design services.......................................... 45,470 Furniture stores............................................................. 41,080 Building material and supplies dealers...................... 40,040 Interior design salaries vary widely with the specialty, type of employer, number of years of experience, and reputation of the individuals. Among salaried interior designers, those in large specialized design and architectural firms tend to earn higher and more stable salaries. Interior designers working in retail stores usually earn a commission, which can be irregular. For residential design projects, self-employed interior design ers and those working in smaller firms usually earn a per-hour https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis consulting fee, plus a percentage of the total cost of furniture, lighting, artwork, and other design elements. For commercial projects, they might charge a per-hour consulting fee, charge by the square footage, or charge a flat fee for the whole project. Also, designers who use specialty contractors usually earn a percentage of the contractor’s earnings on the project in return for hiring the contractor. Self-employed designers must provide their own benefits. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects to enhance their appearance and function include: Page Architects, except landscape and naval....................................151 Artists and related workers.......................................................301 Commercial and industrial designers...................................... 304 Fashion designers.....................................................................307 Floral designers........................................................................310 Graphic designers.....................................................................312 Landscape architects................................................................ 154 Sources of Additional Information For information on degrees, continuing education, and licen sure programs in interior design and interior design research, contact: V American Society of Interior Designers, 608 Massachusetts Ave. NE„ Washington, DC 20002. Internet: http://www.asid.org For a list of schools with accredited bachelor’s degree pro grams in interior design, contact: > Council for Interior Design Accreditation, 206 Granville Ave, Suite 350, Grand Rapids, MI 49503. Internet: http ://www.accredit-id.org For general information about art and design and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: y National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org For information on State licensing requirements and exams, and the Interior Design Experience Program, contact: y National Council for Interior Design Qualification, 1602 L St. NW„ Suite 200, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http ://www.ncidq.org For information on careers, continuing education, and certi fication programs in the interior design specialty of residential kitchen and bath design, contact: > National Kitchen and Bath Association, 687 Willow Grove St., Hackettstown, NJ 07840. Internet: http://www.nkba.org/student The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos293.htm 318 Occupational Outlook Handbook Entertainers and Performers, Sports and Related Occupations Actors, Producers, and Directors Significant Points • Actors endure long periods of unemployment, in tense competition for roles, and frequent rejections in auditions. • Formal training through a university or acting con servatory is typical; however, many actors, producers, and directors find work on the basis of their experi ence and talent alone. • Because earnings may be erratic, many actors, pro ducers, and directors supplement their incomes by holding jobs in other fields. Nature of the Work Actors, producers, and directors express ideas and create images in theater, film, radio, television, and other performing arts media. They interpret a writer’s script to entertain, inform, or instruct an audience. Although many actors, producers, and directors work in New York or Los Angeles, far more work in other places. They perform, direct, and produce in local or regional television stu dios, theaters, or film production companies, often creating adver tising or training films or small-scale independent movies. Actors perform in stage, radio, television, video, or motion picture productions. They also work in cabarets, nightclubs, and theme parks. Actors portray characters, and, for more complex roles, they research their character’s traits and circumstances so that they can better understand a script. Most actors struggle to find steady work and only a few achieve recognition as stars. Others work as “extras,” with no lines to deliver. Some actors do voiceover and narration work for advertisements, animated features, books on tape, and other electronic media. They also teach in high school or university drama departments, acting conservatories, or public programs. Producers are entrepreneurs who make the business and fi nancial decisions involving a motion picture, television show, or stage production. They select scripts, approve the develop ment of ideas, arrange financing, and determine the size and cost of the endeavor. Producers hire or approve directors, prin cipal cast members, and key production staff members. Large productions often have associate, assistant, or line pro ducers who share responsibilities. The number of producers and their specific job duties vary with the size and budget of each production; however, all work is done under the overall direc tion of an executive producer. Together the producers coordi nate the activities of writers, directors, managers, and agents to ensure that each project stays on schedule and within budget. Directors are responsible for the overall creative decisions of a production. They interpret scripts, audition and select cast members, conduct rehearsals, and direct the work of cast and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis crew. They approve the design elements of a production, in cluding the sets, costumes, choreography, and music. As with producers, large productions often have many levels of direc tors working on them. Assistant directors cue the performers and technicians, telling them when to make entrances or light, sound, or set changes. All directors must ultimately answer to the executive producer, who has the final say on all factors re lated to the production. Work environment. Actors, producers, and directors work under constant pressure. Many face stress from the continual need to find their next job. To succeed, actors, producers, and directors need patience and commitment to their craft. Actors strive to deliver flawless performances, often while working under undesirable and unpleasant conditions. Producers and directors organize rehearsals and meet with writers, designers, financial backers, and production technicians. They experience stress not only from these activities, but also from the need to adhere to budgets, union work rules, and production schedules. Work assignments typically are short term—ranging from 1 day to a few months—which means that workers frequently experience long periods of unemployment between jobs. The uncertain nature of the work results in unpredictable earnings and intense competition for jobs. Often, actors, producers, and directors must hold other jobs in order to sustain a living. Work hours are often long and irregular—evening and weekend work is a regular part of life in the performing arts. Actors, pro ducers, and directors who work in theater may travel with a tour ing show across the country, whereas those who work in film may work on location, sometimes under adverse weather conditions. Actors who perform in a television series often appear on camera with little preparation time, because scripts tend to be revised fre quently or even written moments before taping. Those who appear live or before a studio audience must be able to handle impromptu situations and calmly ad lib, or substitute, lines when necessary. mm • Actors, producers, and directors often work long, irregular hours. Professional and Related Occupations 319 Actors should be in good physical condition and have the necessary stamina and coordination to move about theater stages and large movie and television studio lots. They also need to maneuver about complex technical sets while staying in character and projecting their voices audibly. Actors must be fit to endure heat from stage or studio lights and the weight of heavy costumes. Producers and directors ensure the safety of actors by conducting extra rehearsals on the set so that the actors can learn the layout of set pieces and props, by allow ing time for warm-ups and stretching exercises to guard against physical and vocal injuries, and by providing an adequate num ber of breaks to prevent heat exhaustion and dehydration. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement People who become actors, producers, and directors follow many paths to employment. The most important qualities em ployers look for are creative instincts, innate talent, and the intellectual capacity to perform. The best way to prepare for a career as an actor, especially in the theater, is through formal dramatic training, preferably obtained as part of a bachelor’s degree program. Producers and especially directors need ex perience in the field, either as actors or in other related jobs. Education and training. Formal dramatic training, ei ther through an acting conservatory or a university program, generally is necessary for these jobs, but some people suc cessfully enter the field without it. Most people studying for a bachelor’s degree take courses in radio and television broad casting, communications, film, theater, drama, or dramatic lit erature. Many stage actors continue their academic training and receive a Master of Fine Arts (MFA) degree. Advanced curricula may include courses in stage speech and movement, directing, playwriting, and design, as well as intensive acting workshops. The National Association of Schools of Theatre accredits over 150 programs in theater arts. Most aspiring actors participate in high school and college plays, work at college radio or television stations, or perform with local community theater groups. Local and regional the ater experience may also help many young actors hone their skills. In television and film, actors and directors typically start in smaller roles or independent movie production com panies and then work their way up to larger productions. Ac tors, regardless of their level of experience, may pursue work shop training through acting conservatories or mentoring by a drama coach. There are no specific training requirements for producers. They come from many different backgrounds. Actors, writ ers, film editors, and business managers commonly enter the field. Producers often start in a theatrical management office, working for a press agent, managing director, or business manager. Some start in a performing arts union or service or ganization. Others work behind the scenes with successful di rectors, serve on the boards of art companies, or promote their own projects. Although there are no formal training programs for producers, a number of colleges and universities offer de gree programs in arts management and in managing nonprofit Digitizedorganizations. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Some directors have experience as actors or writers, while others gain experience in the field by assisting established directors. Many also have formal training in directing. Other qualifications. Actors need talent and creativity that will enable them to portray different characters. Because competition for parts is fierce, versatility and a wide range of related performance skills, such as singing, dancing, skating, juggling, acrobatics, or miming are especially useful. Actors must have poise, stage presence, the ability to affect an audience, and the ability to follow direction. Modeling experience also may be helpful. Physical appearance, such as having certain features and being the specified size and weight, often is a deciding factor in who gets a particular role. Some actors begin as movie extras. To become an extra, one usually must be listed by casting agencies that supply ex tras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Applicants are accepted only when the number of people of a particular type on the list—for example, athletic young women, old men, or small children—falls below what is needed. In recent years, only a very small proportion of applicants have succeeded in being listed. Like actors, directors and producers need talent and creativity. Directors need management ability because they are often in charge of a large number of people in a produc tion. Producers need business acumen. Advancement. As the reputations and box-office draw of actors, producers, and directors grow, some of them work on bigger budget productions, on network or syndicated broadcasts, in more prestigious theaters, or in larger markets. Actors may advance to lead roles and receive star billing. A few actors move into acting-related jobs, becoming drama coaches, directors, or producers. Some actors teach drama pri vately or in colleges and universities. Employment In May 2008, actors, producers, and directors held about 155,100 jobs, primarily in the motion picture and video, performing arts, and broadcast industries. This statistic does not capture large number of actors, producers, and directors who were available for work but were between jobs during the month in which data were collected. About 21 percent of ac tors, producers, and directors were self-employed. Employment in motion pictures and in films for television is centered in New York and Los Angeles. However, small stu dios exist throughout the country. Many films are shot on loca tion and may employ local professional and nonprofessional actors. In television, opportunities are concentrated in the net work centers of New York and Los Angeles, but cable televi sion services and local television stations around the country also employ many actors, producers, and directors. Employment in the theater, and in other performing arts companies, is cyclical—higher in the fall and spring sea sons—and concentrated in New York and other major cities with large commercial houses for musicals and touring pro ductions. Also, many cities support established professional regional theaters that operate on a seasonal or year-round ba sis. 320 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Code Number Percent 2018 16,900 172,000 11 155,100 27-2010 Actors, producers, and directors.......................................................... 13 7,200 63,700 27-2011 56,500 Actors.................................................................................................. 9,700 108,300 10 98,600 27-2012 Producers and directors..................................................................... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title soc Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. Actors, producers, and directors may find work in summer festivals, on cruise lines, and in theme parks. Many smaller, nonprofit professional companies, such as repertory companies, dinner theaters, and theaters affiliated with drama schools, acting conservatories, and universities, pro vide employment opportunities for local amateur talent and professional entertainers. Auditions typically are held in New York for many productions across the country and for shows that go on the road. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations. Competition for jobs will be keen. Although a growing number of people aspire to enter these professions, many will leave the field early because the work—when it is available—is hard, the hours are long, and the pay is often low. Employment change. Employment in these occupations is expected to grow 11 percent during the 2008-18 decade, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Expanding cable and satellite television operations and increasing box-office receipts of major studio and independent films will increase the need for workers. Additionally, a rising demand for U.S. films in other countries should create more employment opportunities for actors, producers, and directors. Also fueling job growth is the continued development of interactive media, online movies, and mobile content produced for cell phones or other portable electronic devices. Attendance at live theater performances should continue to be steady, and drive employ ment of stage actors, producers and directors. However, sta tion consolidation may restrict employment opportunities in the broadcasting industry for producers and directors. Job prospects. Competition for acting jobs is intense, as the number of actors auditioning for roles greatly exceeds the number of parts that become available. Only performers with the most stamina and talent will find regular employment. Venues for live entertainment, such as theaters, touring pro ductions, and repertory theaters in many major metropolitan areas, as well as theme parks and resorts, are expected to offer many job opportunities. However, prospects in these venues are variable because they fluctuate with economic conditions. Earnings Many of the most successful actors, producers, and directors have extraordinarily high earnings, but many more of these professionals, faced with erratic earnings, supplement their income by holding jobs in other fields. Median hourly wages of actors were $16.59 in May 2008. The Digitized for middle FRASER50 percent earned between $9.81 and $29.57. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median hourly wages were $14.48 in performing arts com panies and $28.72 in the motion picture and video industry. Annual wage data for actors were not available because of the wide variation in the number of hours worked by actors and the short-term nature of many jobs, which may last for 1 day or 1 week; it is extremely rare for actors to have guaranteed employment that exceeds 3 to 6 months. Median annual wages of producers and directors were $64,430 in 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,890 and $105,070. Median annual wages were $85,940 in the motion picture and video industry and $55,380 in radio and television broadcasting. Minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of employment are often covered in collective bargaining agreements between the producers and the unions representing workers. While these unions generally determine minimum salaries, any actor or director may negotiate for a salary higher than the minimum. A joint agreement between the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) and the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) guarantees all unionized motion picture and televi sion actors with speaking parts a minimum daily rate of $782 or $2,713 for a 5-day week as of June 2009. Actors also re ceive contributions to their health and pension plans and ad ditional compensation for reruns and foreign telecasts of the productions in which they appear. Some well-known actors earn well above the minimum; their salaries are many times the figures cited here, creating the false impression that all actors are highly paid. For exam ple, of the nearly 100,000 SAG members, only about 50 might fall into this category. The average income that SAG members earn from acting is low because employment is sporadic and most actors must supplement their incomes by holding jobs in other occupations. Actors Equity Association (AEA), which represents stage actors, has negotiated minimum weekly salary requirements for their members. Salaries vary depending on the theater or venue the actor is employed in. Many stage directors be long to the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers (SSDC), and most film and television directors belong to the Directors Guild of America. Earnings of stage directors vary greatly. The SSDC usually negotiates salary contracts which include royalties (additional income based on the number of performances) with smaller theaters. Regional theaters may hire directors for longer periods, increasing compensation ac cordingly. The highest paid directors work on Broadway; in addition to their contract fee, they also receive payment in the form of royalties—a negotiated percentage of gross box-office Professional and Related Occupations 321 receipts—that can exceed the contract fee for long-running box-office successes. Stage producers seldom receive a set fee; instead, they get a percentage of a show’s earnings or ticket sales. Related Occupations Other performing artists who may need acting skills include: Page Announcers.............................................................................. 331 Dancers and choreographers....................................................325 Musicians, singers, and related workers................................. 328 Others whose jobs are related to film and theater include: Fashion designers..................................................................... 307 Makeup artists, theatrical and performance............................ 526 Set and exhibit designers.......................................................... 825 Producers share many responsibilities with: Top executives............................................................................ 83 Sources of Additional Information For general information about theater arts and a list of accred ited college-level programs, contact: y National Association of Schools of Theater, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nast.arts-accredit.org For general information on actors, producers, and directors, contact the following organizations: y Actors’ Equity Association, 165 West 46th St., New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.actorsequity.org > Screen Actors Guild, 5757 Wilshire Blvd. 7th floor, Los Angeles, CA 90036-3600. Internet: http://www.sag.org y Producers Guild of America. Internet: http ://www.producersgui!d.org The Occupational Information Network (0**NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos093.htm Athletes, Coaches, Umpires, and Related Workers Significant Points • These jobs require immense overall knowledge of the game, usually acquired through years of experience at lower levels. • Career-ending injuries are always a risk for athletes. • Job opportunities will be best for part-time coaches, sports instructors, umpires, referees, and sports of ficials in high schools, sports clubs, and other set tings. • Aspiring professional athletes will continue to face keen competition. Digitized for extremely FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Few people who dream of becoming paid professional athletes, coaches, or sports officials beat the odds and make a full-time living from professional athletics. Professional athletes often have short careers with little job security. Even though the chances of employment as a professional athlete are slim, there are many opportunities for at least a part-time job as a coach, instructor, referee, or umpire in amateur athletics or in high school, college, or university sports. Athletes and sports competitors compete in organized, offici ated sports events to entertain spectators. When playing a game, athletes are required to understand the strategies of their game while obeying the rules and regulations of the sport. The events in which they compete include both team sports, such as base ball, basketball, football, hockey, and soccer, and individual sports, such as golf, tennis, and bowling. The level of play var ies from unpaid high school athletics to professional sports, in which the best from around the world compete in events broad cast on international television. Being an athlete involves more than competing in athletic events. Athletes spend many hours each day practicing skills and improving teamwork under the guidance of a coach or a sports instructor. They view videotapes to critique their own performances and techniques and to learn their opponents’ ten dencies and weaknesses to gain a competitive advantage. Some athletes work regularly with strength trainers to gain muscle and stamina and to prevent injury. Many athletes push their bodies to the limit during both practice and play, so career ending injury always is a risk; even minor injuries may put a player at risk of replacement. Because competition at all lev els is extremely intense and job security is always precarious, many athletes train year round to maintain excellent form and technique and peak physical condition. Very little downtime from the sport exists at the professional level. Some athletes must conform to regimented diets to supplement any physical training program. Coaches organize amateur and professional athletes and teach them the fundamental skills of individual and team sports. (In individual sports, instructors sometimes may fill this role.) Coaches train athletes for competition by holding practice ses sions to perform drills that improve the athletes’ form, technique, skills, and stamina. Along with refining athletes’ individual skills, coaches are responsible for instilling good sportsman ship, a competitive spirit, and teamwork and for managing their teams during both practice sessions and competitions. Before competition, coaches evaluate or scout the opposing team to determine game strategies and practice specific plays. Dur ing competition, coaches may call specific plays intended to surprise or overpower the opponent, and they may substitute players for optimum team chemistry and success. Coaches’ additional tasks may include selecting, storing, issuing, and tak ing inventory of equipment, materials, and supplies. Many coaches in high schools are primarily teachers of academic subjects who supplement their income by coaching part time. (For more information on high school teachers, see the statement on teachers—kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary, elsewhere in the Handbook.) College coaches consider coaching a full-time discipline and may be away from 322 Occupational Outlook Handbook Coaches organize amateur and professional athletes and teach them the fundamental skills of individual and team sports. home frequently as they travel to competitions and to scout and recruit prospective players. Sports instructors teach professional and nonprofessional athletes individually. They organize, instruct, train, and lead athletes in indoor and outdoor sports such as bowling, tennis, golf, and swimming. Because activities are as diverse as weight lifting, gymnastics, scuba diving, and karate, instructors tend to specialize in one or a few activities. Like coaches, sports instruc tors also may hold daily practice sessions and be responsible for any needed equipment and supplies. Using their knowledge of their sport and of physiology, they determine the type and level of difficulty of exercises, prescribe specific drills, and correct athletes’ techniques. Some instructors also teach and demonstrate the use of training apparatus, such as trampolines or weights, for correcting athletes’ weaknesses and enhancing their conditioning. Like coaches, sports instructors evaluate the athlete and the athlete’s opponents to devise a competitive game strategy. Coaches and sports instructors sometimes differ in their approaches to athletes because of the focus of their work. For example, while coaches manage the team during a game to optimize its chance for victory, sports instructors—such as those who work for professional tennis players—often are not permitted to instruct their athletes during competition. Sports instructors spend more of their time with athletes working one-on-one, which permits them to design customized training programs for each individual. Motivating athletes to play hard challenges most coaches and sports instructors but is vital for the athlete’s success. Many coaches and instructors derive great satisfaction working with children or young adults, helping them to learn new physical and social skills, improve their physical condition, and achieve success in their sport. Umpires, referees, and other sports officials officiate at com petitive athletic and sporting events. They observe the play and impose penalties for infractions as established by the rules and regulations of the various sports. Umpires, referees, and sports officials anticipate play and position themselves to best see the action, assess the situation, and determine any violations. Some sports officials, such as boxing referees, may work indepen dently, while others such as umpires work in groups. Regard https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis less of the sport, the job is highly stressful because officials are often required to make a decision in a split second, sometimes resulting in strong disagreement among competitors, coaches, and spectators. Professional scouts evaluate the skills of both amateur and pro fessional athletes to determine talent and potential. As a sports intelligence agent, the scout’s primary duty is to seek out top athletic candidates for the team he or she represents. At the pro fessional level, scouts typically work for scouting organizations or as freelance scouts. In locating new talent, scouts perform their work in secrecy so as not to “tip off’ their opponents about their interest in certain players. At the college level, the head scout often is an assistant coach, although freelance scouts may aid colleges by reporting to coaches about exceptional players. Scouts at this level seek talented high school athletes by reading newspapers, contacting high school coaches and alumni, attend ing high school games, and studying videotapes of prospects’ performances. They also evaluate potential players’ background and personal characteristics, such as motivation and discipline, by talking to the players’ coaches, parents, and teachers. Work environment. Irregular work hours are common for athletes, coaches, umpires, referees, and other sports officials. They often work Saturdays, Sundays, evenings, and holidays. Athletes and full-time coaches usually work more than 40 hours a week for several months during the sports season, if not most of the year. High school coaches in educational institutions of ten coach more than one sport. Athletes, coaches, and sports officials who participate in com petitions that are held outdoors may be exposed to all weather conditions of the season. Athletes, coaches, and some sports officials frequently travel to sporting events. Scouts also travel extensively in locating talent. Athletes, coaches, and sports of ficials regularly encounter verbal abuse. Officials also face pos sible physical assault and, increasingly, lawsuits from injured athletes based on their officiating decisions. Athletes and sports competitors had one of the highest rates of nonfatal on-the-job injuries. Coaches and sports’ officials also face the risk of injury, but the risk is not as great as that faced by athletes and sports competitors. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education and training requirements for athletes, coaches, um pires, and related workers vary greatly by the level and type of sport. Regardless of the sport or occupation, these jobs require immense overall knowledge of the game, usually acquired through years of experience at lower levels. Education and training. Most athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers get their training from having played in the sport at some level. All of these sports-related workers need to have an extensive knowledge of the way the sport is played, its rules and regulations, and strategies, which is often acquired by playing the sport in school or recreation center, but also with the help of instructors or coaches, or in a camp that teaches the fun damentals of the sport. Athletes get their training in several ways. For most team sports, athletes gain experience by competing in high school and collegiate athletics or on club teams. Although a high school or college degree may not be required to enter the sport, most ath- letes who get their training this way are often required to main tain specific academic standards to remain eligible to play, which often results in earning a degree. Other athletes, in gymnastics or tennis for example, learn their sport by taking private or group lessons. Although there may not be a specific education requirement, head coaches at public secondary schools and sports instruc tors at all levels usually must have a bachelor’s degree. For high school coaching and sports instructor jobs, schools usually pre fer, and may have to hire teachers willing to take on these part time jobs. If no suitable teacher is found, schools hire someone from outside. College coaches also usually are required to have a bachelor’s degree. Degree programs specifically related to coach ing include exercise and sports science, physiology, kinesiology, nutrition and fitness, physical education, and sports medicine. Some entry-level positions for coaches or instructors require only experience derived as a participant in the sport or activity. Each sport has specific requirements for umpires, referees, and other sports officials; some require these officials to pass a test of their knowledge of the sport. Umpires, referees, and other sports officials often begin their careers and gain needed experience by volunteering for intramural, community, and recreational league competitions. They are often required to attend some form of training course or academy. Scouting jobs often requires experience playing a sport at the college or professional level that makes it possible to spot young players who possess athletic ability and skills. Most beginning scouting jobs are as part-time talent spotters in a particular area or region. Licensure and certification. The need for athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers to be licensed or certified to prac tice varies by sport and by locality. For example, in drag racing, drivers need to graduate from approved schools in order to be licensed to compete in the various drag racing series. The govern ing body of the sport may revoke licenses and suspend players who do not meet the required performance, education, or train ing. In addition, athletes may have their licenses or certification suspended for inappropriate activity. Most public high school coaches need to meet State require ments for certification to become a head coach. Certification, however, may not be required for coaching and sports instruc tor jobs in private schools. College coaches may be required to be certified. For those interested in becoming scuba, tennis, golf, karate, or other kind of instructor, certification is highly desir able and may be required. There are many certifying organiza tions specific to the various sports, and their requirements vary. Coaches’ certification often requires that one must be at least 18 years old and certified in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Participation in a clinic, camp, or school also usually is required for certification. Part-time workers and those in smaller facilities are less likely to need formal education or training and may not need certification. To officiate at high school athletic events, umpires, referees, and other officials must register with the State agency that over sees high school athletics and pass an exam on the rules of the particular game. For college refereeing, candidates must be certi fied by an officiating school and be evaluated during a proba tionary period. Some larger college sports conferences require https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 323 officials to have certification and other qualifications, such as residence in or near the conference boundaries, along with sev eral years of experience officiating at high school, community college, or other college conference games. Other qualifications. Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers often direct teams or compete on them. Thus these work ers must relate well to others and possess good communication and leadership skills. They may need to pass a background check and applicable drug tests. Athletes who seek to compete profes sionally must have extraordinary talent, desire, and dedication to training. Coaches must be resourceful and flexible to success fully instruct and motivate individuals and groups of athletes. Officials need good vision, reflexes, and the ability to make deci sions quickly. Advancement. For most athletes, turning professional is the biggest advancement. They often begin to compete immediately, although some may spend more time “on the bench”, as a reserve, to gain experience. In some sports, such as baseball, athletes may begin their professional career on a minor league team before moving up to the major leagues. Professional athletes generally advance in their sport by winning and achieving accolades and earning a higher salary. Many coaches begin their careers as assistant coaches to gain the knowledge and experience needed to become a head coach. Flead coaches at large schools and colleges that strive to compete at the highest levels of a sport require substantial experience as a head coach at another school or as an assistant coach. To reach the ranks of professional coaching, a person usually needs years of coaching experience and a winning record in the lower ranks or experience as an athlete in that sport. Standards for umpires and other officials become more stringent as the level of competition advances. A local or State academy may be required to referee a school baseball game. Those seek ing to officiate at minor or major league games must attend a professional umpire training school. To advance to umpiring in Major League Baseball, umpires usually need 7 to 10 years of experience in various minor leagues before being considered for major league jobs. Finding talented players is essential for scouts to advance. Hard work and a record of success often lead to full-time jobs and responsibility for scouting in more areas. Some scouts ad vance to scouting director jobs or various administrative posi tions in sports. Employment Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers held about 258,100 jobs in 2008. Coaches and scouts held 225,700 jobs; athletes and sports competitors, 16,500; and umpires, referees, and other sports officials, 15,900. About half of all athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers worked part time or main tained variable schedules. Many sports officials and coaches receive such small and irregular payments for their services— occasional officiating at club games, for example—that they may not consider themselves employed in these occupations, even part time. Among those employed in wage and salary jobs, 52 percent held jobs in public and private educational services. About 13 percent worked in amusement, gambling, and recreation in- 324 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Code Number Percent 2018 23 59,600 317,700 258,100 27-2020 12 1,900 18,400 16,500 27-2021 25 56,000 281,700 225,700 27-2022 10 1,700 17,600 15,900 27-2023 Umnires. referees, and other sports officials.................................. (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa soc Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. Employment, 2008 ____________________________ dustries, including golf and tennis clubs, gymnasiums, health clubs, judo and karate schools, riding stables, swim clubs, and other sports and recreation facilities. Another 6 percent worked in the spectator sports industry. About 16 percent of workers in this occupation were self-em ployed, earning prize money or fees for lessons, scouting, or of ficiating assignments. Many other coaches and sports officials, although technically not self-employed, have such irregular or tenuous working arrangements that their working conditions re semble those of self-employment. in these sports. The expansion of nontraditional sports may cre ate some additional opportunities. Because most professional athletes’ careers last only a few years due to debilitating injuries and age, annual replacement needs for these jobs is high, creat ing some job opportunities. However, the talented young men and women who dream of becoming sports superstars greatly Job Outlook opportunities and face less competition for positions. Competition is expected for higher paying jobs at the college level and will be even greater for jobs in professional sports. Competition should be keen for paying jobs as scouts, particularly for professional teams, because the number of available positions is limited. Employment of athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupa tions through 2018. Very keen competition is expected for jobs at the highest levels of sports with progressively more favorable opportunities in lower levels of competition. Employment change. Employment of athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers is expected to increase by 23 per cent from 2008 to 2018, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. A larger population overall that will continue to participate in organized sports for entertainment, recreation, and physical conditioning will boost demand for these workers, particularly for coaches, umpires, sports instructors, and other related workers. Job growth also will be driven by the increas ing number of retirees who are expected to participate more in leisure activities such as golf and tennis, which require instruc tion. Additionally, the demand for private sports instruction is expected to grow among young athletes as parents try to help their children reach their full potential. Future expansion of new professional teams and leagues may create additional openings for all of these workers. Additional coaches and instructors are expected to be needed as school and college athletic programs expand. Population growth is expected to cause the construction of additional schools, but funding for athletic programs often is cut first when budgets become tight. Still, the popularity of team sports often enables shortfalls to be offset with the assistance from fundraisers, booster clubs, and parents. In colleges, most of the expansion is expected to be in women’s sports. Job prospects. Persons who are State-certified to teach academic subjects are likely to have the best prospects for obtaining coaching and instructor jobs in schools. The need to replace the many high school coaches will provide most coach ing opportunities. Competition for professional athlete jobs will continue to be extremely keen. In major sports, such as basketball and football, only about 1 in 5,000 high school athletes becomes professional https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis outnumber the number of openings. Opportunities should be best for persons seeking part-time umpire, referee, and other sports official jobs at the high school level. Coaches in girls’ and women’s sports may havd better Earnings Median annual wages of athletes and sports competitors were $40,480 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,760 and $93,710. The highest paid professional athletes earn much more. Median annual wages of umpires and related workers were $23,730 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,410 and $33,150. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $15,450, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $48,310. In May 2008, median annual wages of coaches and scouts were $28,340. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,220 and $43,440. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $15,530, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $62,660. How ever, the highest paid professional coaches earn much more. Me dian annual wages in the industries employing the largest num bers of coaches and scouts in May 2008 are shown below: Colleges, universities, and professional schools........$39,550 Other amusement and recreation industries...................28,720 Other schools and instruction............................................25,740 Elementary and secondary schools................................. 22,390 Wages vary by level of education, certification, and geo graphic region. Some instructors and coaches are paid a salary, while others may be paid by the hour, per session, or based on the number of participants. Professional and Related Occupations 325 Related Occupations Other occupations involved with athletes or sports include: Page Dietitians and nutritionists....................................................... 366 Fitness workers......................................................................... 513 Physical therapists.................................................................... 377 Recreation workers................................................................... 522 Recreational therapists............................................................. 389 Other workers who teach and motivate students include: Teachers—kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary....................................................................... 288 Sources of Additional Information For information about sports officiating for team and individual sports, contact: y National Association of Sports Officials, 2017 Lathrop Ave., Racine, WI 53405. Internet: http://www.naso.org For additional information related to individual sports, refer to the organization that represents the sport. The Occupational Information Network (0**NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos251.htm Dancers and Choreographers Significant Points • Many dancers stop performing by their late thirties, but some remain in the field as choreographers, dance teachers, or artistic directors. • Most dancers begin formal training at an early age—between 5 and 15—and many have their first professional audition by age 17 or 18; becoming a choreographer usually requires years of experience. • Dancers and choreographers face intense competi tion; only the most talented find regular work. Choreographers create original dances and develop new interpretations of existing dances. They work in theaters, dance schools, dance and movie studios, and at fashion shows, and are involved in auditioning performers for dance parts. Because few dance routines are written down, choreographers instruct performers at rehearsals to achieve the desired effect, often by demonstrating the exact technique. Choreographers also work with performers other than dancers. For example, the complex martial arts scenes in movies are arranged by choreographers who specialize in the martial arts. Choreographers also may help coordinate costume design and lighting, as well as choose the music and sound effects that convey the intended message. Work environment. Dance is strenuous. In fact, dancers have one of the highest rates of nonfatal on-the-job injury. Many dancers, as a result, stop performing by their late thirties because of the physical demands on the body. Nonetheless, some continue to work in the field as choreographers, artistic directors, and dance teachers and coaches, while a small number may move into administrative positions, such as company managers. A few celebrated dancers, however, continue per forming most of their lives. Many dance companies tour for part of the year to supple ment a limited performance schedule at home. Dancers who perform in musical productions and other family entertainment spend much of their time on the road; others work in nightclubs or on cruise ships. Most dance performances are in the evening, whereas rehearsals and practice usually take place during the day. As a result, dancers often work very long and late hours. Generally, dancers and choreographers work in modem and temperature-controlled facilities; however, some studios may be older and less comfortable. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dancers generally need long-term on-the-job training to be successful. Most dancers begin formal training at an early age—between 5 and 15—and many have their first profes sional audition by age 17 or 18. Some earn a bachelor’s de gree or attend dance school, although neither is required. Becoming a choreographer usually requires years of experi ence. • Earnings from dancing are usually low because em ployment is irregular; dancers often supplement their income. Nature of the Work Complex movements and dances on stage and screen do not happen without a lot of hard work. Dancers spend years learning dances and honing skills, as do most choreographers. Together, they then translate those skills into movement that expresses ideas and stories. Dancers perform in a variety of settings, including opera, musical theater, and other musical productions, and may present folk, ethnic, tap, jazz, or other popular kinds of dance. They also perform in television, movies, music videos, and commercials, in which they may sing and act. Dancers most often perform as part of a group, although a few top artists perform solo. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most dancers begin formal training at an early age and many have theirfirst professional audition by age 17 or 18. 326 Occupational Outlook Handbook Education and training. Training varies with the type of dance and is a continuous part of all dancers’ careers. Many believe that dancers should start with a good foundation in classical technique before selecting a particular style. Bal let training for girls usually begins between the ages of 5 to 8 with a private teacher or through an independent bal let school, with more serious training beginning between the ages of 10 and 12. Boys often begin their ballet training between the ages of 10 and 15. Students who demonstrate potential in their early teens may seek out more intensive and advanced professional training. At about this time, students should begin to focus their training on a particular style and decide whether to pursue additional training through a dance company’s school or a college dance program. Lead ing dance school companies often have summer training pro grams from which they select candidates for admission to their regular full-time training programs. Formal training for modern and culturally specific dances often begins later than training in ballet; however, many folk dance forms are taught to very young children. As a result, a good number of danc ers have their first professional auditions by age 17 or 18. Training is an important component of professional danc ers’ careers. Dancers normally spend 8 hours a day in class and rehearsal, keeping their bodies in shape and prepar ing for performances. Their daily training period usually includes time to warm up and cool down before and after classes and rehearsals. Because of the strenuous and time-consuming training required, some dancers view formal education as second ary. However, a broad, general education including music, literature, history, and the visual arts is helpful in the inter pretation of dramatic episodes, ideas, and feelings. Danc ers sometimes conduct research to learn more about the part they are playing. Many colleges and universities award bachelor’s or mas ter’s degrees in dance, typically through departments of dance, theater, or fine arts. The National Association of Schools of Dance is made up of 74 accredited dance pro grams. Many programs concentrate on modern dance, but some also offer courses in jazz, culturally specific dance, ballet, or classical techniques. Courses in dance composi tion, history and criticism, and movement analysis are also available. A college education is not essential for employment as a professional dancer; however, many dancers obtain degrees in unrelated fields to prepare themselves for careers after dance. The completion of a college program in dance and education is usually essential to qualify to teach dance in college, high school, or elementary school. (See the state ment on teachers—postsecondary and teachers—kinder garten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Colleges and conservatories sometimes require graduate degrees but may accept performance experience. A college background is not necessary for teaching dance or choreography in local recreational programs. Studio schools prefer teachers to have experience as performers. Choreographers should have a thorough understanding of the dance style that they arrange. This often is gained through https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis years of performing and practicing. Some dance conservato ries offer choreography courses. Other qualifications. Because of the rigorous practice schedules of most dancers and choreographers, self-disci pline, patience, perseverance, and a devotion to dance are essential for success in the field. Dancers and choreogra phers also must possess good problem-solving skills and an ability to work with people. Dancers, above all, must have good health and physical stamina, along with flexibility, agility, coordination, and grace, a sense of rhythm, a feel ing for music, and a creative ability to express themselves through movement. Choreographers should possess many of the same attributes while also being able to plan and coordi nate activities. Because dancers and choreographers are typically mem bers of an ensemble made up of other dancers, musicians, and directors or choreographers, they must be able to func tion as part of a team. They also should be highly motivated and prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when looking for work. Advancement. For dancers, advancement takes the form of a growing reputation, more frequent work, bigger and bet ter roles, and higher pay. Some dancers may take on added responsibilities, such as by becoming a dance captain in mu sical theater or ballet master/ballet mistress in concert dance companies, by leading rehearsals, or by working with less experienced dancers in the absence of a choreographer. Choreographers typically are experienced dancers with years of practice working in the theater. Through their per formance as dancers, they develop reputations that often lead to opportunities to choreograph productions. Employment Professional dancers and choreographers held about 29,200 jobs in 2008. Many others were between engagements; as a result, the total number of people available for work as danc ers over the course of the year was greater. Dancers and cho reographers worked in a variety of industries, such as public and private educational services, which includes dance stu dios and schools, as well as colleges and universities; food services and drinking establishments; performing arts compa nies, which include dance, theater, and opera companies; and amusement and recreation venues, such as casinos and theme parks. About 14 percent of dancers and choreographers were self-employed. Most major cities serve as home to major dance companies; however, many smaller communities across the Nation also support home-grown, full-time professional dance companies. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the aver age. Dancers and choreographers face intense competition for jobs. Only the most talented find regular employment. Employment change. Employment of dancers and chore ographers is expected to grow 6 percent during the 2008-18 decade, more slowly than the average for all occupations. The public’s interest in dance will sustain large and mid-size dance companies, but limited funding from public and private orga nizations is not expected to allow for additional dance com- Professional and Related Occupations 327 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Employment, 2018 30,900 1 'X onn 17,000 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent Dancers and choreographers........... 27-2030 29.200 1,700 6 Dancers................................ 13,000 / Choreographers.......................... 16.200 900 5 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Occupational Title panies. For many small organizations, the result will be fewer performances and more limited employment opportunities. Job prospects. Because many people enjoy dance and would like to make their careers in dance, dancers and cho reographers face intense competition for jobs. Only the most talented find regular employment. Although job openings will arise each year because dancers and choreographers retire or leave the occupation for other reasons, the number of applicants will continue to vastly ex ceed the number of job openings. National dance companies likely will continue to provide jobs in this field. Opera companies and dance groups affili ated with television and motion pictures also will offer some opportunities. Moreover, the growing popularity of dance for recreational and fitness purposes has resulted in increased op portunities to teach dance, especially for older dancers who may be transitioning to another field. Musicians will provide a small number of openings for both dancers and choreogra phers, and candidates are expected to face keen competition. Amusement parks and cruise ships should also provide some opportunities for dancers and choreographers. Earnings Median hourly wages of dancers were $12.22 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.03 and $18.82. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.28, and the high est 10 percent earned more than $27.26. Annual wage data for dancers were not available, because the wide variation in the number of hours worked by dancers and the short term nature of many jobs—which may last for 1 day or 1 week—make it rare for dancers to have guaranteed employ ment that exceeds a few months. Median hourly wages in the industries employing the largest number of dancers were as follows: Performing arts companies........................................... $15.30 Other amusement and recreation industries................... 11.56 Other schools and instruction......................................... 10.00 Drinking places (alcoholic beverages).............................8.01 Median annual wages of salaried choreographers were $38,520 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $25,320 and $55,360. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,880, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $67,160. Median annual wages were $37,570 in “other schools and instruction,” the North American Industry Clas sification System category that includes dance studios and schools. Dancers who were on tour usually received an additional allowance for room and board, as well as extra compensation https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2008 for overtime. Earnings from dancing are usually low because employment is irregular. Dancers often supplement their in come by working as guest artists with other dance compa nies, teaching dance, or taking jobs unrelated to the field. Earnings of dancers at some of the largest companies and in commercial settings are governed by union contracts. Some dancers in major opera ballet, classical ballet, and modern dance corps belong to the American Guild of Musi cal Artists, Inc. of the AFL-CIO; those who appear on live or videotaped television programs belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; those who per form in films and on television belong to the Screen Actors Guild; and those in musical theater are members of the Ac tors’ Equity Association. The unions and producers sign ba sic agreements specifying minimum salary rates, hours of work, benefits, and other conditions of employment. How ever, the contract each dancer signs with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement. Most salaried dancers and choreographers covered by union contracts receive some paid sick leave and various health and pension benefits, including extended sick pay and family-leave benefits provided by their unions. Employers contribute toward these benefits. Dancers and choreogra phers not covered by union contracts usually do not enjoy such benefits. Related Occupations Other occupations that perform before audiences include: Page Actors, producers, and directors.............................................318 Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers................... 321 Musicians, singers, and related workers................................ 328 Occupations directly involved in the production of dance pro grams include: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers..............................................................507 Fashion designers.....................................................................307 Set and exhibit designers..........................................................825 Sources of Additional Information For general information about dance and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: > National Association of Schools of Dance, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http ://nasd.arts-accredit.org For information about dance and dance companies, contact: 'y Dance/USA, 1111 16th St. NW., Suite 300, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.danceusa.org 328 Occupational Outlook Handbook The Occupational Information Network (0**NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos094.htm Musicians, Singers, and Related Workers Significant Points • Part-time schedules—typically at night and on week ends—intermittent unemployment, and rejection when auditioning for work are common; many musi cians and singers supplement their income with earn ings from other sources. • Aspiring musicians and singers begin studying an in strument or training their voice at an early age. • Competition for jobs, especially full-time jobs, is keen; talented individuals who can play several in struments and perform a wide range of musical styles should enjoy the best job prospects. Nature of the Work Musicians, singers, and related workers play musical instru ments, sing, compose or arrange music, or conduct groups in instrumental or vocal performances. They perform solo or as part of a group, mostly in front of live audiences in nightclubs, concert halls, and theaters. They also perform in recording or production studios for radio, TV, film, or video games. Regard less of the setting, they spend considerable time practicing alone and with their bands, orchestras, or other musical ensembles. Musicians play one or more musical instruments. Many musicians learn to play several related instruments and can perform equally well in several musical styles. Instrumental musicians, for example, may play in a symphony orchestra, rock group, or jazz combo one night, appear in another ensemble the next, and work in a studio band the following day. Some play a variety of string, brass, woodwind, or percussion instruments or electronic synthesizers. Singers use their knowledge of voice production, melody, and harmony to interpret music and text. They sing character parts or perform in their own individual styles. Singers often are clas sified according to their voice range—soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, or bass—or by the type of music they sing, such as rock, pop, folk, opera, rap, or country. Music directors and conductors conduct, direct, plan, and lead instrumental or vocal performances by musical groups such as orchestras, choirs, and glee clubs. These leaders audition and select musicians, choose the music most appropriate for their talents and abilities, and direct rehearsals and performances. Choral directors lead choirs and glee clubs, sometimes work ing with a band or an orchestra conductor. Directors audition and select singers and lead them at rehearsals and performances to achieve harmony, rhythm, tempo, shading, and other desired musical effects. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Composers create original music such as symphonies, op eras, sonatas, radio and television jingles, film scores, and pop ular songs. They transcribe ideas into musical notation, using harmony, rhythm, melody, and tonal structure. Although most composers and songwriters practice their craft on instruments and transcribe the notes with pen and paper, some use computer software to compose and edit their music. Arrangers transcribe and adapt musical compositions to a par ticular style for orchestras, bands, choral groups, or individuals. Components of music—including tempo, volume, and the mix of instruments needed—are arranged to express the composer’s message. Although some arrangers write directly into a musical composition, others use computer software to make changes. Work environment. Musicians typically perform at night and on weekends. They spend much additional time practic ing or in rehearsal. Full-time musicians with long-term em ployment contracts, such as those with symphony orchestras or television and film production companies, enjoy steady work and less travel. Nightclub, solo, or recital musicians frequently travel to perform in a variety of local settings and may tour na tionally or internationally. Because many musicians find only part-time or intermittent work and experience unemployment between engagements, they often supplement their income with other types of jobs. The stress of constantly looking for work leads many musicians to accept permanent full-time jobs in other occupations while working part time as musicians. Most instrumental musicians work closely with a variety of other people, including colleagues, agents, employers, spon sors, and audiences. Although they usually work indoors, some perform outdoors for parades, concerts, and festivals. In some nightclubs and restaurants, smoke and odors may be present and lighting and ventilation may be poor. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Long-term on-the-job training is the most common way people learn to become musicians or singers. Aspiring musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. They may gain valuable experience playing in a school or community band or orchestra or with a group of friends. Singers usually start training when their voices mature. Participation in school musicals or choirs often provides good early training and experience. Compos- ,1 Musicians face keen competition, especially forfull-time jobs. Professional and Related Occupations 329 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Musicians, singers, and related workers......................... ................... 27-2040 240,000 259,600 19,600 8 Music directors and composers.................................... ................... 27-2041 53,600 59,000 5,300 10 Musicians and singers................................................. ................... 27-2042 186,400 200.600 14.200 8 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title soc Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. ers and music directors usually require a bachelor’s degree in a related field. Education and training. Musicians need extensive and pro longed training and practice to acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to interpret music at a professional level. Like other artists, musicians and singers continually strive to improve their abilities. Formal training may be obtained through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or univer sity music program, or in a music conservatory. An audition generally is necessary to qualify for university or conservatory study. The National Association of Schools of Music is made up of 615 accredited college-level programs in music. Courses typically include music theory, music interpretation, composi tion, conducting, and performance, either with a particular in strument or a voice performance. Music directors, composers, conductors, and arrangers need considerable related work expe rience or advanced training in these subjects. A master’s or doctoral degree usually is required to teach advanced music courses in colleges and universities; a bach elor’s degree may be sufficient to teach basic courses. A degree in music education qualifies graduates for a State certificate to teach music in public elementary or secondary schools. (Infor mation related to teachers—postsecondary and teachers—kin dergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Musicians who do not meet pub lic school music education requirements may teach in private schools and recreation associations or instruct individual stu dents in private sessions. Other qualifications. Musicians must be knowledge able about a broad range of musical styles. Having a broader range of interest, knowledge, and training can help expand employment opportunities and musical abilities. Voice train ing and private instrumental lessons, especially when taken at a young age, also help develop technique and enhance one’s performance. Young persons considering careers in music should have musical talent, versatility, creativity, poise, and good stage presence. Self-discipline is vital because producing a quality performance on a consistent basis requires constant study and practice. Musicians who play in concerts or in night clubs and those who tour must have physical stamina to endure frequent travel and an irregular performance sched ule. Musicians and singers also must be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and of rejection when auditioning for work. Advancement. Advancement for musicians usually means becoming better known, finding work more easily, and per forming for higher earnings. Successful musicians often rely https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis on agents or managers to find them performing engagements, negotiate contracts, and develop their careers. Employment Musicians, singers, and related workers held about 240,000 jobs in 2008, of which 186,400 were held by musicians and singers; 53,600 were music directors and composers. Around 43 percent worked part time; 50 percent were self-employed. Many found jobs in cities in which entertainment and recording activities are concentrated, such as New York, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Chicago, and Nashville. Musicians, singers, and related workers are employed in a va riety of settings. Of those who earn a wage or salary, 33 percent were employed by religious, grantmaking, civic, professional, and similar organizations and 12 percent by performing arts companies, such as professional orchestras, small chamber mu sic groups, opera companies, musical theater companies, and ballet troupes. Musicians and singers also perform in nightclubs and restaurants and for weddings and other events. Well-known musicians and groups may perform in concerts, appear on ra dio and television broadcasts, and make recordings and music videos. The U.S. Armed Forces also offer careers in their bands and smaller musical groups. (Information related to job op portunities in the armed forces can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow as fast as average. Keen competition for jobs, especially full-time jobs, is expected to continue. Talented individuals who are skilled in mul tiple instruments and musical styles will have the best job prospects. Employment change. Employment of musicians, singers, and related workers is expected to grow 8 percent during the 2008-18 decade, as fast as the average for all occupations. Most new wage-and-salary jobs for musicians will arise in religious organizations. Slower than average employment growth is expected for self-employed musicians, who gener ally perform in nightclubs, concert tours, and other venues. The Internet and other new forms of media may provide in dependent musicians and singers alternative methods for dis tributing music. Job prospects. Growth in demand for musicians will gen erate a number of job opportunities, and many openings also will arise from the need to replace those who leave the field each year because they are unable to make a living solely as musicians or singers, as well as those who leave for other reasons. 330 Occupational Outlook Handbook Competition for jobs as musicians, singers, and related workers—especially full-time jobs—is expected to be keen. The vast number of people with the desire to perform will continue to greatly exceed the number of openings. New mu sicians or singers will have their best chance of landing a job with smaller, community-based performing arts groups or as freelance artists. Instrumentalists should have better opportunities than singers because of a larger pool of work. Talented individuals who are skilled in multiple instruments or musical styles will have the best job prospects. However, talent alone is no guarantee of success: many people start out to become musicians or singers but leave the profession because they find the work difficult, the discipline demand ing, and the long periods of intermittent unemployment a hardship. Earnings Median hourly wages of wage-and-salary musicians and sing ers were $21.24 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.49 and $36.36. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.64, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $59.92. Median hourly wages were $23.68 in performing arts compa nies and $12.50 in religious organizations. Annual wage data for musicians and singers were not available because of the wide variation in the number of hours worked by musicians and singers and the short-term nature of many jobs. It is rare for musicians and singers to have guaranteed employment that exceeds 3 to 6 months. Median annual wages of salaried music directors and com posers were $41,270 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,480 and $63,200. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,750, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $107,280. For self-employed musicians and singers, earnings typically reflect the number of jobs a freelance musician or singer played or the number of hours and weeks of contract work, in addition to a performer’s professional reputation and setting. Perform ers who can fill large concert halls, arenas, or outdoor stadiums generally command higher pay than those who perform in lo cal clubs. Soloists or headliners usually receive higher earnings than band members or opening acts. The most successful musi cians earn performance or recording fees that far exceed the median earnings. The American Federation of Musicians negotiates minimum contracts for major orchestras during the performing season. Each orchestra works out a separate contract with its local union, but individual musicians may negotiate higher salaries. In regional orchestras, minimum salaries often are less because https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis fewer performances are scheduled. Regional orchestra musi cians frequently are paid for their services without any guar antee of future employment. Community orchestras often have limited funding and offer salaries that are much lower for sea sons of shorter duration. Although musicians employed by some symphony orches tras work under master wage agreements, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks, many other musicians face relatively long periods of unemployment between jobs. Even when employed, many musicians and singers work part time in unrelated occupations. Thus, their earnings for music usu ally are lower than earnings in many other occupations. More over, because they may not work steadily for one employer, some performers cannot qualify for unemployment compen sation and few have typical benefits such as sick leave or paid vacations. For these reasons, many musicians give private les sons or take jobs unrelated to music to supplement their earn ings as performers. Many musicians belong to a local of the American Fed eration of Musicians. Professional singers who perform live often belong to a branch of the American Guild of Musical Artists; those who record for the broadcast industries may belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. Related Occupations Other occupations that require a technical knowledge of musical instruments include the following: Musical instrument repairers and tuners................................. 721 Musicians, singers, and related workers are involved in the performing arts, as are the following workers: Actors, producers, and directors............................................. 318 Announcers.............................................................................. 331 Dancers and choreographers....................................................325 Sources of Additional Information For general information about music and music teacher education and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: y National Association of Schools of Music, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasm.arts-accredit.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos095.htm Professional and Related Occupations 331 Media and Communication-Related Occupations Announcers Significant Points • Competition for announcer jobs will continue to be keen. • Jobs at small stations usually have low pay, but offer the best opportunities for inexperienced announcers. • Applicants who have completed internships or have related work experience, and those with more ad vanced computer skills, may have an advantage in the job market. • Employment is projected to decline slowly. Nature of the Work Radio and television announcers perform a variety of tasks on and off the air. They announce station program information, such as program schedules and station breaks for commer cials, or public-service information, and they introduce and close programs. Announcers read prepared scripts or make ad-lib commentary on the air as they present news, sports, the weather, the time, and commercials. If a written script is required, they may do the research and writing. Announcers also interview guests and moderate panels or discussions. Some provide commentary for the audience during sporting events, at parades, and on other occasions. Announcers often are well known to radio and television audiences and may make promotional appearances and do remote broadcasts for their stations. Announcers at smaller stations may have more off-air duties as well. They may operate the control board, monitor the trans mitter, sell commercial time to advertisers, keep a log of the station’s daily programming, and produce advertisements and other recorded material. At many radio stations, announcers do much of the work previously performed by editors and broad cast technicians, such as operating the control board, which is used to broadcast programming, commercials, and public-ser vice announcements according to the station’s schedule. (See the statement on broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Public radio and television announcers also are involved in station fundrais ing efforts. Announcers frequently participate in community activities. Sports announcers, for example, may serve as masters of cer emony at sports club banquets or may greet customers at open ings of sporting-goods stores. Radio announcers who broadcast music often are called disc jockeys (DJs). Some DJs specialize in one kind of music, an nouncing selections as they air them. Most DJs do not select much of the music they play (although they often did so in the past); instead, they follow schedules of commercials, talk, and music provided to them by management. While on the air, DJs comment on the music, weather, and traffic. They may take https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis requests from listeners, interview guests, and manage listener contests. Many radio stations now require DJs to update their station Web site. Some DJs announce and play music at clubs, dances, restau rants, and weddings. They often have their own equipment with which to play the music. Many are self-employed and rent their services out on a job-by-job basis. Show hosts may specialize in a certain area of interest, such as politics, personal finance, sports, or health. They contribute to the preparation of the program’s content, interview guests, and discuss issues with viewers, listeners, or the studio audience. Public-address system announcers provide information to the audience at sporting, performing arts, and other events. Work environment. Announcers usually work in well-lighted, air-conditioned, soundproof studios. Announcers often work within tight schedules, which can be physically and mentally stressful. For many announcers, the intangible rewards—creative work, many personal contacts, and the satisfaction of becoming widely known—far outweigh the disadvantages of irregular and often unpredictable hours, work pressures, and disrupted personal lives. The broadcast day is long for radio and TV stations—many are on the air 24 hours a day—so announcers can expect to work unusual hours. Many present early-morning shows, when most people are getting ready for work or commuting, while others do late-night programs. The shifts, however, are not as varied as in the past, because new technology has allowed sta tions to eliminate most of the overnight hours. Many announc ers work part time. I MIX Radio announcers who broadcast music often are called disc jockeys, or DJs. 332 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Announcers............................................................................................. Radio and television announcers...................................................... Public address system and other announcers................................. Projected Employment, ^ Change, 2008-2018 2018Number Percent 27-3010 67,400 65,000 -2,400 -4 27-3011 55,100 51,700 -3,400 -6 27-301212,30013,3001,0008 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry into this occupation is highly competitive, and postsec ondary education or long-term on-the-job training is common. Trainees usually must have several years of experience in the industry before receiving an opportunity to work on the air. An applicant’s delivery and—in television—appearance and style are important. Education and training. Formal training in broadcasting from college or a technical school is valuable. These programs prepare students to work with the computer equipment and software to which they might otherwise not have access. In radio, many announcers will also need Web site editing skills. It is common for announcers to have a bachelor’s degree in a subject such as communications, broadcasting, or journalism. High school and college courses in English, public speaking, drama, foreign languages, and computer science are valuable, and hobbies such as sports and music are additional assets. There are many broadcast programs available and they have varying reputations. Individuals considering enrolling in a broadcasting school should contact personnel managers of radio and television stations, as well as broadcasting trade organizations, to determine the school’s reputation for produc ing suitably trained candidates. Announcers are often required to complete long-term on-thejob training. This can be accomplished at campus radio or TV facilities and at commercial stations while students serve as in terns. Work experience at college or high school radio or TV stations is very valuable. Oftentimes, even for entry-level posi tions, employees need to have experience, which students can acquire at these stations. Paid or unpaid internships also provide students with hands-on training and the chance to establish con tacts in the industry. Unpaid interns frequently receive college credit and are allowed to observe and assist station employees. This experience sometimes leads to paid internships which are valuable because interns may do work ordinarily performed by regular employees. Once hired by a television station, an employee usually starts out as a production assistant, researcher, or reporter and is given a chance to move into announcing if he or she shows an aptitude for “on-air” work. A beginner’s chance of landing an on-air job is remote. The best chances for an on-air job for inexperienced announcers may be as a substitute for a familiar announcer at a small radio station. In radio, newcomers usually start out taping interviews and operating equipment. Other qualifications. Announcers must have a pleasant and well-controlled voice, good timing, excellent pronunciation, and correct grammar. College broadcasting programs offer courses, such as voice and diction, to help students improve their qualities. Television announcers need a neat, pleas Digitized forvocal FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ing appearance as well. Knowledge of theater, sports, music, business, politics, and other subjects likely to be covered in broadcasts improves one’s chances for success. Announcers, especially those seeking radio careers, should have good infor mation technology skills and be capable of using computers, editing equipment, and other broadcast-related devices because new advances in technology have made these abilities impor tant. Announcers also need strong writing skills, because they normally write their own material. In addition, they should be able to ad lib all or part of a show and to work under tight dead lines. The most successful announcers attract a large audience by combining a pleasing personality and voice with an appeal ing style. Advancement. Announcers usually begin at a station in a small community and, if they are qualified, may move to a bet ter paying job in a large city. They also may advance by hosting a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other spe cialist. Competition for employment by networks is particularly intense, and employees will need a college degree with at least several years of successful announcing experience if they wish to advance. Employment Announcers held about 67,400 jobs in 2008. About 51 percent were employed in radio and television broadcasting. Many other announcers were self-employed freelance announcers, who sold their services to networks and stations, advertising agencies, other independent producers, or to sponsors of local events. Job Outlook Competition for jobs as announcers will be keen because the broadcasting field attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs. Furthermore, employment of announcers is projected to decline slowly. In some cases, announcers leave the field be cause they cannot advance to better paying jobs. Changes in station ownership, format, and ratings frequently cause periods of unemployment for many announcers. Employment change. Employment of announcers is expected to decline by 4 percent from 2008 to 2018. Im proving technology continues to increase the productivity of announcers, reducing the time required to edit material or perform other off-air technical and production work. The ability of radio announcers to broadcast a program live and record a show for another time has eliminated most late-night shifts and allowed multiple stations to use material from the same announcer. Increasing consolidation among broadcast ing companies also may contribute to the increased use of syndicated programming and programs originating outside a station’s viewing or listening area. The growth of alternative Professional and Related Occupations 333 media sources, such as satellite radio, may contribute to the expected decline. A possible positive area for radio announcers is hybrid digital (HD) radio, which broadcasters hope will increase in the coming years. HD radio offers more channels and could result in higher demand for on-air personalities. There will always be some demand for this occupation, because the public continues to desire local radio and television broad casting and announcers play a necessary role in bringing it to them. Job prospects. Some job openings will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other kinds of work or leave the labor force. Nevertheless, competition for jobs as announc ers will be keen because the broadcasting field attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs. Small radio stations are more inclined to hire beginners, but the pay is low. Applicants who have completed internships and those with related work experience usually receive preference for available positions. Jobseekers with good computer and technical skills also will have an advantage. Large stations will seek announcers who have proven that they can attract and retain a sizable audience, because competition for ratings is so intense in major metropol itan areas. Announcers who are knowledgeable about business, consumer, and health news also may have an advantage over others. Although subject-matter specialization is more common at large stations and the networks, many small stations also en courage it. There will be some opportunities for self-employed DJs who provide music at clubs and special events, but most of these jobs will be part time. Earnings Salaries in broadcasting vary widely, but generally are rela tively low, except for announcers who work for large stations in major markets or for networks. Earnings are higher in tele vision than in radio and higher in commercial broadcasting than in public broadcasting. Median hourly wages of radio and television announcers in May 2008 were $12.95. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $9.05 and $20.31. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.45, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $36.42. Median hourly wages of announcers in the radio and television broadcasting industry were $12.61. Median hourly wages of public address and other system announcers in May 2008 were $13.18. The middle 50 per cent earned between $8.82 and $21.04. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.51 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33.58. Related Occupations The success of announcers depends upon how well they commu nicate. Others who must be skilled at oral communication include: Page Interpreters and translators....................................................... 340 News analysts, reporters, and correspondents......................... 344 Public relations specialists.......................................................350 and related workers, all other Digitized Sales for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many announcers also must entertain their audience, so their work is similar to that of other entertainment-related occupa tions, such as: Actors, producers, and directors............................................. 318 Musicians, singers, and related workers................................. 328 Some announcers write their own material, as do: Writers and authors..................................................................333 Announcers perform a variety of duties, including some tech nical operations similar to those performed by: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators..............................................................337 Sources of Additional Information General information on the broadcasting industry, in which many announcers are employed, is available from: y National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos087.htm Authors, Writers, and Editors Significant Points • Most jobs require a college degree, preferably in communications, journalism, or English. • Keen competition is expected for writing and editing jobs as many people are attracted to this occupation. • Online publications and services are growing in num ber and sophistication, spurring the demand for writ ers and editors with Web or multimedia experience. Nature of the Work Authors, writers and editors produce a wide variety of written materials in an increasing number of ways. They develop con tent using any number of multimedia formats that can be read, listened to, or viewed onscreen. Although many people write as part of their primary job, or on online chats or blogs, only writers and editors who are paid to primarily write or edit are included in this occupation. (News analysts, reporters and cor respondents, who gather information and prepare stories about newsworthy events, and technical writers, who help explain highly technical information to less technical audiences, are de scribed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Writers and authors develop original written materials for books, magazines, trade journals, online publications, company newsletters, and advertisements. Their works are classified broadly as either fiction or nonfiction and writers often are iden tified by the type of writing they do—for example, novelists, playwrights, biographers, and textbook writers. Writers such as songwriters, screenwriters, or scriptwriters, produce content for radio and television broadcasts, motion pictures, and other types of performance. An increasing number of writers are pro 334 Occupational Outlook Handbook ducing scripted material directly for the Web and other com munication devices. Copy writers prepare advertising copy for use in publications or for broadcasting and they write other materials to promote the sale of a good or service. They often must work with the client to produce advertising themes or slogans and may be in volved in the marketing of the product or service. All writers conduct research on their topics, which they gather through personal observation, library and Internet re search, and interviews. Some staff writers who work in the newspaper or magazine publishing industry are news ana lysts, reporters, and correspondents and like most writers are typically assigned articles to write by editors and publishers, and may propose their own story ideas. Writers, especially of nonfiction, are expected to establish their credibility with editors and readers through strong research and the use of appropriate sources and citations. Writers and authors then select the material they want to use, organize it, and use the written word to express story lines, ideas, or to convey infor mation. With help from editors, they may revise or rewrite sections, searching for the best organization or the right phrasing. Most writers and editors use desktop or electronic publish ing software, scanners, and other electronic communications equipment in the production of their material. In addition, be cause many writers today prepare material directly for the In ternet, such as online newspapers and text for video games, they should be knowledgeable about graphic design, page layout, and multimedia software. In addition, they should be familiar with interactive technologies of the Web so that they can blend text, graphics, and sound together. Some writers maintain blogs or issue text messages as a way of keeping in touch with read ers or providing information to them quickly, but only those who are paid to write their blogs or send text messages may be considered writers. An increasing number of writers today are freelance writ ers—that is, they are self-employed and make their living by selling their written content to book and magazine publishers, news organizations, advertising agencies, or movie, theater, or television producers or by working under contract with an organization. Some writers may be commissioned by a spon sor to write a script; others to write a book on the basis of a proposal in the form of a draft or an outline. Many freelance writers are hired to complete specific short-term or recurring assignments, such as contributing a column or a series of ar ticles on a specific topic to a news agency or for an organiza tion’s newsletter. Editors review, rewrite, and edit the work of writers. They also may do original writing. An editor’s responsibilities vary with the employer and type and level of editorial position held. Editorial duties may include planning the content of books, journals, magazines, and other general-interest publications. Editors also review story ideas proposed by staff and free lance writers then decide what material will appeal to readers. They review and edit drafts of books and articles, offer com ments to improve the work, and suggest possible titles. In ad dition, they may oversee the production of publications. In the book-publishing industry, an editor’s primary responsibility is https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Authors, writers, and editors check their sources and facts for accuracy. to review proposals for books and decide whether to buy the publication rights from the author. Most editors begin work as writers. Those who are particu larly adept at identifying stories, recognizing writing talent, and interacting with writers, may be interested in editing jobs. Major newspapers and newsmagazines usually employ sev eral types of editors. The executive editor oversees assistant editors, and generally has the final say about what stories are published and how they are covered. Assistant editors have re sponsibility for particular subjects, such as local news, inter national news, feature stories, or sports. The managing editor usually is responsible for the daily operation of the news depart ment. Assignment editors determine which reporters will cover a given story. In smaller organizations—such as small daily or weekly newspapers—a single editor may do everything or share responsibility with only a few other people. Executive and managing editors typically hire writers, reporters, and other employees. They also plan budgets and negotiate contracts with freelance writers, sometimes called “stringers” in the news industry. Copy editors, review copy for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling and check the copy for readability, style, and agreement with editorial policy. They suggest revisions, such as changing words and rearranging sentences and paragraphs, to improve clarity or accuracy. They may also carry out research and confirm sources for writers and verify facts, dates, and statistics. In addition, they may arrange page layouts of articles, photographs, and advertising; compose headlines; and prepare copy for printing. Editors often employ others, such as interns, fact checkers, or editorial assistants, for some entry-level positions. While gaining practical experience in a newsroom, they may carry out research and verify facts, dates, and statistics for other writ ers. In addition, they may arrange page layouts of articles, Professional and Related Occupations 335 photographs, and advertising; compose headlines; and prepare copy for printing. Publication assistants who work for book publishing houses may read and evaluate manuscripts submit ted by freelance writers, proofread printers’ galleys, and answer inquiries about published material. Assistants on small newspa pers or in smaller media markets may compile articles available from wire services or the Internet, answer phones, and proof read articles. Work environment. Advances in electronic communications have changed the work environment for many writers. Laptop computers and wireless communications technologies allow growing numbers of writers and authors to work from home and on the road. The ability to send e-mail or text messages, transmit and download stories, perform research, or review ma terials using the Internet allows writers and editors greater flex ibility in where and how they complete assignments. Still, some writers and authors work in offices and many travel to conduct on-site research on their topic. Some writers keep regular office hours, either to maintain contact with sources and editors or to establish a writing rou tine, but most writers set their own hours. Many writers—es pecially freelance writers—are paid per assignment; therefore, they work any number of hours necessary to meet a deadline. As a result, writers must be willing to work evenings, nights, or weekends to produce a piece acceptable to an editor or client by the deadline. While many freelance writers enjoy running their own busi nesses and the advantages of working flexible hours, most routinely face the pressures of juggling multiple projects with competing demands and the continual need to find new work. Deadline pressures and long, erratic work hours—often part of the daily routine in these jobs—may cause stress, fatigue, or burnout. In addition, the use of computers for extended periods may cause some individuals to experience back pain, eyestrain, or fatigue. Editors’ schedules generally are determined by the produc tion schedule and the type of editorial position. Most sala ried editors work in busy offices much of the time and have to deal with production deadline pressures and the stresses of ensuring that the information they publish is accurate. As a result, editors often work long hours, especially at those times leading up to a publication deadline, which can be daily or even more frequently when editing material for the Internet or for a live broadcast. Overseeing and coordinating multiple writing projects simultaneously is common in these jobs, which may lead to stress, fatigue, or other chronic prob lems. Freelance editors face the added pressures of finding work on an ongoing basis and continually adjusting to new work environments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree generally is required for a position as an au thor, writer, or editor. Good facility with computers and com munications equipment is necessary in order to stay in touch with sources, editors, and other writers while working on as signments, whether from home, an office, or while traveling. Education and training. A bachelor’s degree or higher is typically needed for a job as an author, writer, or editor. Be https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis cause writing skills are essential in this occupation, many em ployers like to hire people with degrees in communications, journalism, or English, but those with other backgrounds and who can demonstrate good writing skills may also find jobs as writers. Writers who want to focus on writing about a par ticular topic may need formal training or experience related to that topic. For example, textbook writers and fashion editors may need expertise in their subject areas that they acquired either through formal academic training or work experience. The Internet and other media allow some people to gain writ ing experience through blog posts, text messages, or self publishing software. Some of this writing may lead to paid assignments based upon the quality of the writing, unique per spective, or the size of the potential audience, without regard to the absence of a degree. Training and experience for author, writer, and editor jobs can be obtained by working on high school and college newspapers, community newspapers, and radio and television stations and submissions to literary magazines. College theater and music programs offer playwrights and songwriters an opportunity for them to have their work performed. Many magazines, newspa pers, and broadcast stations also have internships for students. Interns may write stories, conduct research and interviews, and learn about the publishing or broadcasting business. Other qualifications. Authors, writers and editors must be able to express ideas clearly and logically and should enjoy writing. Creativity, curiosity, a broad range of knowledge, self-motivation, and perseverance are also valuable. Authors, writers, and editors must demonstrate good judgment and a strong sense of ethics in deciding what material to publish. In addition, the ability to concentrate and to work under pressure is essential. Editors also need tact and the ability to guide and encourage others in their work. Familiarity with electronic publishing, graphics, Web de sign, and multimedia production increasingly is needed. Use of electronic and wireless communications equipment to send e-mail, transmit work, and review copy often is necessary. On line publications require knowledge of computer software and editing tools used to combine text with graphics, audio, video, and animation. Advancement. Writers and authors generally advance by building a reputation, taking on more complex writing assign ments, and getting published in more prestigious markets and publications. Examples of previously published work form the best route to advancement. Establishing a track record for meet ing deadlines also makes it easier to get future assignments. Writing for smaller businesses, local newspapers, advertising agencies, or not-for-profit organizations either as a staff writer or on a freelance basis, allows beginning writers and authors to begin writing right away and take credit for their work. Opportunities for advancement within these organizations may be limited, because they either do not have enough regular work or do not need more advanced writing. In larger businesses, jobs and promotions usually are more formally structured. Beginners often read submissions, do re search, fact check articles, or copy edit drafts, and advance to writing and editing more substantive stories and articles. 336 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Code Number Percent 2018 8 22,100 303,300 281,300 Authors, writers, and editors................................................................. 0 -400 129,200 129,600 27-3041 Editors........................................................................................... ..... 15 22,500 174,100 151,700 27-3043 Writers and authors........................................................................... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa lion Included in the Handbook. ______________________________________ _ Occupational Title Most editors begin work as writers. Those who are particu larly adept at identifying stories, recognizing writing talent, and interacting with writers, may be interested in editing jobs. Except for copy editors, most editors hold management posi tions and must also enjoy making decisions related to running a business. For them, advancement generally means moving up the corporate ladder or to publications with larger circulation or greater prestige. Copy editors may move into original writing or substantive editing positions or become freelancers. Employment Authors, writers and editors held about 281,300 jobs in 2008. Writers and authors held about 151,700 jobs and editors held about 129,600 jobs. About 70 percent of writers and authors were self-employed, while 12 percent of editors were selfemployed. Among the 30 percent of salaried writers and authors, about half work in the professional, scientific, and technical services and in publishing (except Internet) industries. These industries include advertising, public relations and related services and newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers, respec tively. Other salaried writers and authors work in broadcasting, professional and social organizations, and the motion picture and video industries. While 51 percent of salaried editors worked in the publish ing, except Internet industry (half of those for newspapers), a large number of editors were also employed in other industries. Business, professional and social organizations, information services, and educational institutions employed editors to work on their publications or Web content. Jobs are somewhat concentrated in major media and enter tainment markets—Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, and Washington, DC—but improved communications and In ternet capabilities allow writers to work from almost anywhere. Many prefer to work outside these cities and travel regularly to meet with publishers and clients and to do research or conduct interviews in person. As a result, job location is less of a require ment for many writing or editing positions than it once was. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow about as fast as average. Keen competition is expected for writing and editing jobs as many people are attracted to this occupation. At the same time, many employers are downsizing. Employment change. Employment of authors, writers, and editors is expected to grow 8 percent, about as fast as the average for all occupations, from 2008 to 2018. Employment in salaried writing and editing positions is expected to in slightly as jobs become more prevalent throughout the Digitizedcrease for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 economy. Companies in a wide array of industries are using newer multimedia technologies and online media to reach a more technology friendly consumer and meet the growing de mand for Web-based information. Online publications and ser vices are growing in number and sophistication, spurring the demand for authors, writers, and editors, especially those with Web or multimedia experience. Businesses and organizations are adding text messaging services to expanded newsletters and Web sites as a way of attracting new customers. They may hire writers or editors on either a salaried or freelance basis to con tribute additional content. Some publishing companies however, especially those that rely on advertising revenues and sales re ceipts to support large staffs of writers, will employ fewer writ ers and editors. But many experienced writers and editors will find work with nonprofit organizations and associations in their public relations offices, or in the public affairs departments of large companies or agencies. Others will find freelance work for newspaper, magazine, or journal publishers; some will write books. Job prospects. Competition is expected for writing and editing jobs as many people are attracted to this occupation. Competition for jobs with established newspaper and magazines will be particularly keen as many organizations move their publication focus from a print to an online presence and as the publishing industry continues to contract. Writers and editors who have adapted to the new media and are comfortable writing for and working with a variety of electronic and digital tools will have an advantage in finding new work. The declining costs of self-publishing and the growing popularity of electronic books and book readers will allow many freelancers to get their work published. Some job openings will arise as experienced workers retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual wages for salaried writers and authors were $53,070 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,150 and $75,060. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,020, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $106,630. Median annual wages were $58,740 for those working in advertising, public relations, and related services and $43,450 for those working for in newspaper, periodical, book and directory publishers. Median annual wages for salaried editors were $49,990 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,690 and $69,140. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,090, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $95,490. Median an nual wages of those working for newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers were $49,280. Professional and Related Occupations 337 Freelance writers earn income from their articles, books, and less commonly, television and movie scripts. While most work on an individual project basis for multiple publishers, many support themselves with income derived from other sources. Unless gotten from another job, freelancers generally have to provide for their own health insurance and pension. Related Occupations Writers and editors communicate ideas and information. Other communications occupations include: Page Announcers.............................................................................. 331 Interpreters and translators.......................................................340 News analysts, reporters, and correspondents......................... 344 Technical writers...................................................................... 353 Sources of Additional Information For information about freelance writing careers, contact: y American Society of Journalists and Authors, 1501 Broadway, Suite 302, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http ://www.asja.org For information about accredited creative writing programs and creative writing conferences, contact: y The Association of Writers and Writing Programs, George Mason University; MS 1E3, Fairfax, VA 22030-4444. Internet: http://www.awpwriter.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos320.htm Broadcast and Sound Engineering Technicians and Radio Operators Significant Points • Job applicants will face keen competition for jobs in major metropolitan areas, where pay generally is higher; prospects are expected to be better in small cities and towns. • Technical school, community college, or college training in broadcast technology, electronics, or com puter networking provides the best preparation. • About 29 percent of these workers are in broadcast ing, mainly in radio and television stations, and 15 percent work in the motion picture, video, and sound recording industries. • Evening, weekend, and holiday work is common. Nature of the Work Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio opera tors perform a wide variety of tasks. Their duties include setting and maintaining the electrical equipment used in nearly all Digitized up for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis radio and television broadcasts, concerts, plays, sound record ings, and movies. There are many specialized occupations in this field. Audio and video equipment technicians set up and operate audio and video equipment, including microphones, speakers, video screens, projectors, video monitors, and recording equip ment. They also connect wires and cables and set up and oper ate sound and mixing boards and related electronic equipment for concerts, sports events, meetings and conventions, presen tations, and news conferences. They may set up and operate associated spotlights and other custom lighting systems. They also are needed to install and maintain equipment in many large businesses and universities that are upgrading their facilities with audio and video equipment. Broadcast technicians set up, operate, and maintain equip ment that regulates the signal strength, the clarity, and the ranges of sounds and colors of radio or television broadcasts. These technicians also operate control panels to select the source of the material. Technicians may switch from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local programming. Sound engineering technicians operate machines and equip ment to record, synchronize, mix, or reproduce music, voices, or sound effects in recording studios, sporting arenas, theater productions, or movie and video productions. Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio op erators perform a variety of duties at small stations. At large stations and at the networks, technicians are more specialized, although job assignments may change from day to day. The terms “operator,” “engineer,” and “technician” often are used interchangeably to describe these workers. They may monitor and log outgoing signals and operate transmitters; set up, ad just, service, and repair electronic broadcasting equipment; and regulate fidelity, brightness, contrast, volume, and sound qual ity of television broadcasts. Technicians also work in program production. Recording en gineers operate and maintain video and sound recording equip ment. They may operate equipment designed to produce special effects, such as the illusion of a bolt of lightning or a police si ren. Sound mixers or re-recording mixers produce soundtracks for movies or television programs. After filming or recording is complete, these workers may use a process called “dubbing” to insert sounds. Field technicians set up and operate portable transmission equipment outside the studio. Because television news coverage requires so much electronic equipment and the technology is changing so rapidly, many stations assign techni cians exclusively to news. Chief engineers, transmission engi neers, and broadcast field supervisors oversee other technicians and maintain broadcasting equipment. Radio operators mainly receive and transmit communica tions using a variety of tools. These workers also repair equip ment, using such devices as electronic testing equipment, hand tools, and power tools. One of their major duties is to help en sure communication systems remain in good condition. Work environment. Broadcast and sound engineering tech nicians and radio operators generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. However, those who broadcast news and other programs from locations outside the studio may work outdoors 338 Occupational Outlook Handbook in all types of weather or in other dangerous conditions. Tech nicians doing maintenance may climb poles or antenna towers, and those setting up equipment do heavy lifting. Technicians at large stations and the networks usually work a 40-hour week under great pressure to meet broadcast deadlines, and may occasionally work overtime. Technicians at small stations routinely work more than 40 hours a week. Evening, weekend, and holiday work is usual because most stations are on the air 18 to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Some technicians need to be available on call whenever the station is broadcast ing; technicians must handle any problems that occur during this time. Technicians who work on motion pictures may be on a tight schedule and may work long hours to meet contractual deadlines. mmm lllfilifllilflfit wall i Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Broadcast and sound engineering technicians, as well as audio and video equipment technicians, should have some kind of formal training related to their field. Radio operators do not need an education beyond high school and can usually learn their jobs through several months of on-the-job training. Education and training. Audio and video equipment tech nicians should complete a technical-training program related to the field, which may take several months to a year to complete. Many recent entrants to the field have also received an asso ciate degree or bachelor’s degree, although it is generally not required for entry-level positions. In addition to coursework, experience in high school or college audiovisual clubs can pro vide a student with good training for this occupation. Working as an assistant is a useful way to gain experience and knowledge for an entry-level employee. For broadcast technicians an associate degree in broadcast technology, electronics, computer networking, or a related field is generally recommended. Because of the competitiveness of the broadcast industry, many jobs require a bachelor’s degree. A four-year degree also gives employees much better prospects for advancement in the field. Most entry-level employees find jobs in small markets or with small stations in big markets and can transfer to larger, better paying stations after gaining experience and learning the necessary skills. Small stations usually value more general skills since they have fewer employees doing less specialized work. Large stations almost never hire someone without previ ous experience, and they value more specialized skills. Working at a college radio or television station can be very advantageous for prospective employees. Sound engineering technicians usually complete a vocational program, which can take about a year, although there are shorter programs. Prospective technicians should take high school courses in math, physics, and electronics. Technicians need to have excellent computer training to be successful in this field. Radio operators are not usually required to complete any formal training. This is an entry-level position that generally requires on-the-job training. In the motion picture industry, people are hired as appren tice editorial assistants and work their way up to jobs requir ingfor higher level skills. Employers in the motion picture industry Digitized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Broadcast technicians set up, operate, and maintain electrical equipment. usually hire experienced freelance technicians on a picture-by picture basis. Reputation and perseverance are important in get ting jobs. Continuing education to become familiar with emerging technologies is recommended for all broadcast and sound engi neering technicians and radio operators. Other qualifications. Broadcast and sound engineering tech nicians and radio operators need skills in information technol ogy and electronics since most recording, editing, and broad casting are done on computers. Prospective technicians must have manual dexterity and an aptitude for working with electri cal, electronic, and mechanical systems and equipment. Certification and advancement. Licensing is not required for broadcast technicians. However, certification by the Soci ety of Broadcast Engineers is issued to experienced technicians who pass an examination, and the certification may help with advancement. Experienced technicians can become supervisory technicians or chief engineers. A college degree in engineering is needed to become chief engineer at large television stations. Employment Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio opera tors held about 114,600 jobs in 2008. Their employment was distributed among the following detailed occupations: Audio and video equipment technicians......................55,400 Broadcast technicians................................................... 38,800 Sound engineering technicians..................................... 19,500 Radio operators...............................................................1,000 About 29 percent of broadcast and sound engineering techni cians and radio operators worked in broadcasting (except Inter net broadcasting), and 15 percent worked in the motion picture, video, and sound recording industries. About 13 percent were Professional and Related Occupations 339 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Employment, Code 2008 Projected Employment, Change, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent 27-4010 114,600 123,600 9,000 8 27-4011 55,400 62,400 7,000 13 27-4012 38,800 39,400 700 2 27-4013 1,000 1,100 100 9 27-4014 19,500 20.700 1.200 6 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators .. Audio and video equipment technicians............................... Broadcast technicians........................................................... Radio operators........................................................ Sound engineering technicians............................................... tion Included in the Handbook. self-employed. Television stations employ, on average, many more technicians than radio stations. Some technicians are em ployed in other industries, producing employee communica tions, sales, and training programs. Technician jobs in television and radio are located in virtually all U.S. cities; jobs in radio also are found in many small towns. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los Ange les, Chicago, and Washington, DC—the headquarters of most network and news programs. Motion picture production jobs are concentrated in Los Angeles and New York City. An area in which technicians will be in increasing demand over the next several years is mobile broadcasting. Job prospects. People seeking entry-level jobs as broadcast technicians are expected to face keen competition because of the large number of people attracted by the glamour of working in television or radio. Competition will be stronger in large met ropolitan areas where pay is generally higher and the number of job seekers usually exceeds the number of openings. Prospects for entry-level positions are expected to be better in small cities and towns, provided that the jobseeker has appropriate training. Job Outlook Earnings Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average through 2018. But people seeking entry-level jobs as techni cians in broadcasting are expected to face keen competition in major metropolitan areas. Prospects are expected to be better in small cities and towns. Employment change. Overall employment of broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators is expected to grow by 8 percent over the 2008-18 decade, which is about as fast as the average of all occupations. Projected job growth varies among detailed occupations in this field. Employment of audio and video equipment technicians is expected to grow 13 percent, about as fast as average. Audio and video equip ment is in heavy demand in many new buildings, especially new schools, and in existing schools as well. Many new technicians will be needed, not only to install, but to maintain and repair the equipment as well. A growing number of companies will plan permanent departments employing audio and video techni cians. An increase in the use of digital signage will also lead to higher demand for audio and video equipment technicians. In the motion picture industry, employment for these workers will grow because they are needed to install digital movie screens. Employment of broadcast technicians is expected to grow by 2 percent, signifying little or no change, and employment of sound engineering technicians is expected to grow by 6 per cent, which is slower than average. Advancements in technol ogy will enhance the capabilities of technicians to produce higher quality radio and television programming; however, this improved technology will also increase the productivity of technicians, which may hold down employment growth. Jobs in radio and television broadcasting will also be limited by further consolidation of stations and by labor-saving ad vances, such as computer-controlled programming. In the ca ble and pay portion of the broadcasting industry, employment is expected to grow as the range of products and services ex including cable Internet access and video-on-demand. Digitizedpands, for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Television stations usually pay higher salaries than radio sta tions, commercial broadcasting usually pays more than non commercial broadcasting, and stations in large markets pay more than those in small markets. Median annual wages of audio and video equipment techni cians in May 2008 were $38,050. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,130 and $51,780. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,500, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $66,030. Median annual wages in motion picture and video in dustries, which employed the largest number of audio and video equipment technicians, were $39,410. Median annual wages of broadcast technicians in May 2008 were $32,900. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,900 and $49,340. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,510, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $66,550. Median annual wages in radio and television broadcasting, which employed the largest number of broadcast technicians, were $29,220. Median annual wages of sound engineering technicians in May 2008 were $47,490. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $32,770 and $69,700. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,790, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $92,700. Median annual wages of radio operators in May 2008 were $37,120. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,890 and $48,200. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,240, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $61,290. Related Occupations Other occupations that need the electronics training necessary to operate technical equipment include: Page Electrical and electronics installers and repairers..................675 Engineering technicians........................................................... 173 Science technicians..................................................................230 340 Occupational Outlook Handbook Broadcast and sound engineering technicians also may oper ate computer networks, as do: Computer support specialists.................................................. 138 Other occupations that screen incoming calls on some live radio and television programs are: Communications equipment operators....................................588 Sources of Additional Information For career information and links to employment resources, contact: V National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org For information on certification and links to employment in formation, contact: y Society of Broadcast Engineers, 9102 North Meridian St., Suite 150, Indianapolis, IN 46260. Internet: http://www.sbe.org For information on audio and video equipment technicians, contact: V InfoComm International, 11242 Waples Mill Rd., Suite 200, Fairfax, VA 22030. Internet: http://www.infocomm.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl09.htm Interpreters and Translators Significant Points • About 26 percent of interpreters and translators are self-employed; many freelance and work in this oc cupation only sporadically. • In addition to needing fluency in at least two lan guages, many interpreters and translators need a bachelor’s degree. • Employment is expected to grow much faster than average. • Job prospects vary by specialty and language. Nature of the Work Interpreters and translators facilitate the cross-cultural com munication necessary in today’s society by converting one language into another. However, these language specialists do more than simply translate words—they relay concepts and ideas between languages. They must thoroughly understand the subject matter in which they work in order to accurately convey information from one language into another. In addition, they must be sensitive to the cultures associated with their languages of expertise. Although some people do both, interpreting and translation are different professions. Interpreters deal with spoken words, with written words. Each task requires a distinct set Digitizedtranslators for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of skills and aptitudes, and most people are better suited for one or the other. While interpreters often interpret into and from both languages, translators generally translate only into their native language. Interpreters convert one spoken language into another—or, in the case of sign-language interpreters, between spoken com munication and sign language. Interpreting requires that one pay attention carefully, understand what is communicated in both languages, and express thoughts and ideas clearly. Strong research and analytical skills, mental dexterity, and an excep tional memory also are important. There are two modes of interpreting: simultaneous, and con secutive. Simultaneous interpreting requires interpreters to listen and speak (or sign) at the same time someone is speak ing or signing. Ideally, simultaneous interpreters should be so familiar with a subject that they are able to anticipate the end of the speaker’s sentence. Because they need a high degree of concentration, simultaneous interpreters work in pairs, with each interpreting for 20-minute to 30-minute periods. This type of interpreting is required at international conferences and is sometimes used in the courts. In contrast to the immediacy of simultaneous interpreting, consecutive interpreting begins only after the speaker has ver balized a group of words or sentences. Consecutive interpreters often take notes while listening to the speakers, so they must develop some type of note-taking or shorthand system. This form of interpreting is used most often for person-to-person communication, during which the interpreter is positioned near both parties. Translators convert written materials from one language into another. They must have excellent writing and analytical ability, and because the translations that they produce must be accurate, they also need good editing skills. Translating involves more than replacing a word with its equivalent in another language; sentences and ideas must be ma nipulated to flow with the same coherence as those in the source document so that the translation reads as though it originated in the target language. Translators also must bear in mind any cul tural references that may need to be explained to the intended audience, such as colloquialisms, slang, and other expressions that do not translate literally. Some subjects may be more dif ficult than others to translate because words or passages may have multiple meanings that make several translations possible. Not surprisingly, translated work often goes through multiple revisions before final text is submitted. Nearly all translation work is done on a computer, and most assignments are received and submitted electronically. This enables translators to work from almost anywhere, and a large percentage of them work from home. The Internet pro vides advanced research capabilities and valuable language resources, such as specialized dictionaries and glossaries. In some cases, use of computer-assisted translation—in cluding memory tools that provide comparisons of previous translations with current work—helps save time and reduce repetition. The services of interpreters and translators are needed in a number of subject areas. While these workers may not com pletely specialize in a particular field or industry, many do fo- Professional and Related Occupations 341 mm M Interpreters and translators must have a thorough understand ing of various languages. cus on one area of expertise. Some of the most common areas are described below; however, interpreters and translators may work in a variety of other areas also, including business, educa tion, social services, and entertainment. Judiciary interpreters and translators facilitate communi cation for people with limited English proficiency who find it challenging to communicate in a legal setting. Legal translators must be thoroughly familiar with the language and functions of the U.S. judicial system, as well as other countries’ legal systems. Court interpreters work in a variety of legal settings, such as attorney-client meetings, preliminary hearings, arraign ments, depositions, and trials. Success as a court interpreter requires an understanding of both legal terminology and collo quial language. In addition to interpreting what is said, court in terpreters also may be required to read written documents aloud in a language other than that in which they were written, a task known as sight translation. Medical interpreters and translator, sometimes referred to as healthcare interpreters and translators, provide language ser vices to healthcare patients with limited English proficiency. Medical interpreters help patients to communicate with doc tors, nurses, and other medical staff. Translators working in this specialty primarily convert patient materials and informa tional brochures issued by hospitals and medical facilities into the desired language. Interpreters in this field need a strong grasp of medical and colloquial terminology in both languages, along with cultural sensitivity to help the patient receive the information. Sign-language interpreters facilitate communication be tween people who are deaf or hard of hearing and people who can hear. Sign-language interpreters must be fluent in English and in American Sign Language (ASL), which combines sign ing, finger spelling, and specific body language. Most signlanguage interpreters either interpret, aiding communication between English and ASL, or transliterate, facilitating com munication between English and contact signing—a form of signing that uses a more English language-based word order. Some interpreters specialize in oral interpreting for people who are deaf or hard of hearing and lip-read instead of sign. Other specialties include tactile signing, which is interpreting forFRASER people who are blind as well as deaf by making manual Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis signs into their hands, using cued speech, and signing exact English. Conference interpreters work at conferences that have nonEnglish-speaking attendees. The work is often in the field of international business or diplomacy, although conference in terpreters can interpret for any organization that works with speakers of foreign languages. Employers prefer high-level interpreters who have the ability to translate from at least two languages into one native language—for example, the ability to interpret from Spanish and French into English. For some positions, such as those with the United Nations, this qualifica tion is mandatory. Guide or escort interpreters accompany either U.S. visitors abroad or foreign visitors in the United States to ensure that they are able to communicate during their stay. These specialists interpret on a variety of subjects, both on an informal basis and on a professional level. Most of their interpreting is consecutive, and work is generally shared by two interpreters when the assignment requires more than an 8-hour day. Frequent travel, often for days or weeks at a time, is common, and it is an aspect of the job that some find particularly appealing. Literary translators adapt written literature from one language into another. They may translate any number of documents, in cluding journal articles, books, poetry, and short stories. Liter ary translation is related to creative writing; literary translators must create a new text in the target language that reproduces the content and style of the original. Whenever possible, liter ary translators work closely with authors to best capture their intended meanings and literary characteristics. Localization translators completely adapt a product or service for use in a different language and culture. The goal of these specialists is to make it appear as though a product originated in the country where it will be sold and supported. At its earlier stages, this work dealt primarily with software localization, but the specialty has expanded to include the adaptation of Internet sites, marketing, publications, and products and services in manufacturing and other business sectors. Work environment. Interpreters work in a wide variety of settings, such as schools, hospitals, courtrooms, and confer ence centers. Translators usually work alone, and they must frequently perform under pressure of deadlines and tight sched ules. Technology allows translators to work from almost any where, and many choose to work from home. Because many interpreters and translators freelance, their schedules often vary, with periods of limited work interspersed with periods requiring long, irregular hours. For those who free lance, a significant amount of time must be dedicated to looking for jobs. Interpreters who work over the telephone or through videoconferencing generally work in call centers in urban areas and keep to a standard 5-day, 40-hour workweek. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Interpreters and translators must be fluent in at least two lan guages. Their educational backgrounds may vary widely, but many need a bachelor’s degree. Many also complete jobspecific training programs. Education and training. The educational backgrounds of interpreters and translators vary. Knowing at least two lan- 342 Occupational Outlook Handbook guages is essential. Although it is not necessary to have been raised bilingual to succeed, many interpreters and translators grew up speaking two languages. In high school, students can prepare for these careers by taking a broad range of courses that include English writing and comprehension, foreign languages, and basic computer proficiency. Other helpful pursuits include spending time abroad, engaging in direct contact with foreign cultures, and reading extensively on a variety of subjects in English and at least one other language. Beyond high school, there are many educational options. Although a bachelor’s degree is often required for jobs, ma joring in a language is not always necessary. An educational background in a particular field of study can provide a natural area of subject-matter expertise. However, specialized train ing in how to do the work is generally required. Formal pro grams in interpreting and translation are available at colleges nationwide and through nonuniversity training programs, con ferences, and courses. Many people who work as conference interpreters or in more technical areas—such as localization, engineering, or finance—have master’s degrees, while those working in the community as court or medical interpreters or translators are more likely to complete job-specific training programs. Other qualifications. Experience is an essential part of a successful career in either interpreting or translation. In fact, many agencies or companies use only the services of people who have worked in the field for 3 to 5 years or who have a degree in translation studies, or both. A good way for translators to learn firsthand about the profes sion is to start out working in-house for a translation company; however, such jobs are not very numerous. People seeking to enter interpreter or translator jobs should begin by getting expe rience whatever way possible—even if it means doing informal or volunteer work. Volunteer opportunities are available through community or ganizations, hospitals, and sporting events, such as marathons, that involve international competitors. The American Transla tors Association works with the Red Cross to provide volunteer interpreters in crisis situations. Any translation can be used as an example for potential clients, even translation done as practice. Paid or unpaid internships and apprenticeships are other ways for interpreters and translators to get started. Escort inter preting may offer an opportunity for inexperienced candidates to work alongside a more seasoned interpreter. Interpreters might also find it easier to break into areas with particularly high demand for language services, such as court or medical interpreting. Whatever path of entry they pursue, new interpreters and translators should establish mentoring relationships to build their skills, confidence, and professional network. Mentoring may be formal, such as through a professional association, or informal with a coworker or an acquaintance who has experi ence as an interpreter or translator. Both the American Transla tors Association and the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf offer formal mentoring programs. Translators working in localization need a solid grasp of the languages to be translated, a thorough understanding of technical concepts and vocabulary, and a high degree of knowledge about the intended target audience or users of the product. Because software often is involved, it is not uncommon for people who work in this area of translation to have a strong background in computer science or to have computer-related work experience. Self-employed and freelance interpreters and translators need general business skills to successfully manage their finances and careers. They must set prices for their work, bill customers, keep financial records, and market their services to attract new business and build their client base. Certification and advancement. There is currently no universal form of certification required of interpreters and translators in the United States. However there are a variety of different tests that workers can take to demonstrate proficiency, which may be helpful in gaining employment. For example, the American Translators Association provides certification in 24 language combinations involving English for its members. Federal courts have certification for Spanish, Navajo, and Haitian Creole interpreters, and many State and municipal courts offer their own forms of certification. The National As sociation of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators also offers certification for court interpreting. The U.S. Department of State has a three-test series for pro spective interpreters—one test in simple consecutive interpreting (for escort work), another in simultaneous interpreting (for court or seminar work), and a third in conference-level interpreting (for international conferences)—as well as a test for prospec tive translators. These tests are not considered a credential, but successful completion indicates that a person has a significant level of skill in the field. Additionally, the International Associa tion of Conference Interpreters offers certification for conference interpreters The National Association of the Deaf and the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID) jointly offer certification for general sign interpreters. In addition, the registry offers spe cialty tests in legal interpreting, speech reading, and deaf-todeaf interpreting—which includes interpreting among deaf speakers with different native languages and from ASL to tactile signing. Once interpreters and translators have gained sufficient expe rience, they may then move up to more difficult or prestigious assignments, may seek certification, may be given editorial respon sibility, or may eventually manage or start a translation agency. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Interpreters and translators............................................................ „„„ SOC C0de 27-3091 _ , Employment, 2008 50,900 Projected £m , 2018 62,200 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 11,300 22 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 343 Many self-employed interpreters and translators start busi nesses by submitting resumes and samples to many different translation and interpreting agencies and then wait to be con tacted when an agency matches their skills with a job. Work is often acquired by word of mouth or through referrals from existing clients. Employment Interpreters and translators held about 50,900 jobs in 2008. However, the actual number of interpreters and translators is probably significantly higher because many work in the occupation only sporadically. Interpreters and translators are employed in a variety of industries, reflecting the diversity of employment options in the field. About 28 percent worked in public and private educational institutions, such as schools, colleges, and universities. About 13 percent worked in health care and social assistance, many of whom worked for hospitals. Another 9 percent worked in other areas of government, such as Federal, State, and local courts. Other employers of interpreters and translators include interpreting and translation agencies, publishing companies, telephone companies, and airlines. About 26 percent of interpreters and translators are selfemployed. Many who freelance in the occupation work only part time, relying on other sources of income to supplement earnings from interpreting or translation. Job Outlook Interpreters and translators can expect much faster than aver age employment growth. Job prospects vary by specialty and language. Employment change. Employment of interpreters and translators is projected to increase 22 percent over the 2008-18 decade, which is much faster than the average for all occupa tions. Higher demand for interpreters and translators results directly from the broadening of international ties and the large increases in the number of non-English speaking people in the United States. Both of these trends are expected to continue throughout the projections period, contributing to relatively rapid growth in the number of jobs for interpreters and transla tors across all industries in the economy. Demand will remain strong for translators of frequently translated languages, such as Portuguese, French, Italian, Ger man, and Spanish. Demand should also be strong for translators of Arabic and other Middle Eastern languages and for the prin cipal East Asian languages—Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Demand for American Sign Language interpreters will grow rapidly, driven by the increasing use of video relay services, which allow individuals to conduct video calls using a sign lan guage interpreter over an Internet connection. Technology has made the work of interpreters and transla tors easier. However, technology is not likely to have a negative impact on employment of interpreters and translators because such innovations are incapable of producing work comparable with work produced by these professionals. Job prospects. Urban areas, especially Washington, DC, New York, and cities in California, provide the largest numbers of employment possibilities, especially for interpreters; how ever, as the immigrant population spreads into more rural areas, Digitizedjobs for FRASER in smaller communities will become more widely available. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job prospects for interpreters and translators vary by spe cialty and language. For example, interpreters and translators of Spanish should have good job opportunities because of expected increases in the Hispanic population in the United States. Demand is expected to be strong for interpreters and transla tors specializing in healthcare and law because it is critical that information be fully understood among all parties in these areas. Additionally, there should be demand for specialists in localiza tion, driven by the globalization of business and the expansion of the Internet; however, demand may be dampened somewhat by outsourcing of localization work to other countries. Given the shortage of interpreters and translators meeting the desired skill level of employers, interpreters for the deaf will continue to have favorable employment prospects. On the other hand, competition can be expected for both conference interpreter and literary translator positions because of the small number of job opportunities in these specialties. Earnings Wage and salary interpreters and translators had median hourly wages of $38,850 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,940 and $52,240. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,170, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,190. Individuals classified as language specialists in the Federal Government earned an average of $79,865 annually in March 2009. Earnings depend on language, subject matter, skill, ex perience, education, certification, and type of employer, and salaries of interpreters and translators can vary widely. Interpreters and translators who know languages for which there is a greater demand, or which relatively few people can translate, often have higher earnings, as do those who perform services requiring a high level of skill, such as conference interpreters. For those who are not salaried, earnings typically fluctuate, depending on the availability of work. Freelance interpreters usually earn an hourly rate, whereas translators who freelance typically earn a rate per word or per hour. Related Occupations Interpreters and translators use their multilingual skills, as do teachers of languages. These include: Page Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education................... 279 Teachers—kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary.......................................................................288 Teachers—postsecondary........................................................ 282 Teachers—self-enrichment education..................................... 292 Teachers—special education................................................... 294 Translators prepare texts for publicationor dissemination; other workers involved in this process include: Authors, writers, and editors....................................................333 Interpreters or translators working in a legal or healthcare environment are required to have a knowledge of terms and concepts that is similar to that of other workers in these fields, such as: Court reporters....................................................................250 Medical transcriptionists..................................................... 457 344 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Organizations dedicated to these professions can provide valu able advice and guidance to people interested in learning more about interpreting and translation. The language services divi sion of local hospitals or courthouses also may have informa tion about available opportunities. For general career information, contact: V American Translators Association, 225 Reinekers Ln., Suite 590, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.atanet.org For more detailed information by specialty, contact the as sociation affiliated with the subject area in question. See, for example, the following: y American Literary Translators Association, University of Texas at Dallas, 800 W. Campbell Rd., Mail Station J051, Richardson, TX 75080-3021. Internet: http://www.utdallas.edu/alta > International Medical Interpreters Association, 800 Washington Street, Box 271, Boston, MA 02111-1845. Internet: http://www.imiaweb.org > Localization Industry Standards Association, Domaine en Prael, CH-1323 RomainmUtier, Switzerland. Internet: http ://www.Iisa.org > National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators, 1707 L St. NW., Suite 570, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.najit.org y National Council on Interpreting in Health Care, 5505 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 119, Washington, DC 20015. Internet: http://www.ncihc.org y Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, 333 Commerce St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.rid.org For information about testing to become a contract interpreter or translator with the U.S. State Department, contact: y U.S. Department of State, Office of Language Services, 2401 E St. NW., SA-1, Room H1400, Washington, DC 20522. Internet: http://languageservices.state.gov Information on obtaining a position as an interpreter and translator with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment informa tion system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not toll free, and charges may result. For advice on how to find and apply for Fed eral jobs, see the Occupational Outlook Quarterly article “How to get a job in the Federal Government,” online at http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2004/summer/art01.pdf. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl75.htm https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis News Analysts, Reporters, and Correspondents Significant Points • Competition will be keen for jobs at large metropoli tan and national newspapers, broadcast stations, and magazines; small publications and broadcast stations and online newspapers and magazines should provide the best opportunities. • Most employers prefer individuals with a bachelor’s degree in journalism or mass communications and ex perience gained at school newspapers or broadcasting stations or through internships with news organiza tions. • Jobs often involve long, irregular hours and pressure to meet deadlines. Nature of the Work News analysts, reporters, and correspondents gather infor mation, prepare stories, and make broadcasts that inform the public about local, State, national, and international events; present points of view on current issues; and report on the actions of public officials, corporate executives, interest groups, and others who exercise power. News analysts—also called newscasters or news anchors— examine, interpret, and broadcast news received from various sources. News anchors present news stories and introduce vid eotaped news or live transmissions from on-the-scene reporters. News correspondents report on news occurring in the large U.S. and foreign cities where they are stationed. In covering a story, reporters, sometimes referred to as journalists, investigate leads and news tips, look at documents, observe events at the scene, and interview people. Reporters take notes and also may take photographs or shoot videos. At their office, they organize the material, determine the focus or emphasis, write their stories, and edit accompanying video material. Many reporters enter information or write stories on laptop computers and electronically submit the material to their offices from remote locations. Increasingly, reporters are asked to maintain and produce material for a newspaper’s Web site. In some cases, newswriters write a story from information col lected and submitted by reporters. Radio and television report ers often compose stories and report “live” from the scene. At times, they later tape an introduction to or commentary on their story in the studio. Some journalists also interpret the news or offer opinions to readers, viewers, or listeners. In this role, they are called commentators or columnists. Newscasters at large stations and networks usually special ize in a particular type of news, such as sports or weather. Weathercasters, also called weather reporters, report current and forecasted weather conditions. They gather information from national satellite weather services, wire services, and local and regional weather bureaus. Some weathercasters are trained meteorologists and can develop their own weather fore casts. (See the statement on atmospheric scientists elsewhere in Professional and Related Occupations 345 ers work in large rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers, as well as the voices of other reporters. Curi ous onlookers, police, or other emergency workers can distract those reporting from the scene for radio and television. Cover ing wars, political uprisings, fires, floods, and similar events can be dangerous; however, the rate of injuries for reporters and correspondents is relatively low. Work hours vary. Reporters on morning papers often work from late afternoon until midnight. Radio and television report ers usually are assigned to a day or evening shift. Magazine reporters usually work during the day. Reporters sometimes have to change their work hours to meet a deadline or to follow late-breaking developments. Their work may require long hours, irregular schedules, and some travel. Because many stations and networks are on the air 24 hours a day, newscasters can expect to work unusual hours. mu**"* ] * ** | Television reporters often compose stories and report "live” from the scene. the Handbook.) Sportscasters select, write, and deliver sports news, which may include interviews with sports personalities and coverage of games and other sporting events. General-assignment reporters write about newsworthy oc currences—such as accidents, political rallies, visits of celebri ties, or business closings—as assigned. Large newspapers and radio and television stations assign reporters to gather news about specific topics—for example, crime or education. Some reporters specialize in fields such as health, politics, foreign af fairs, sports, theater, consumer affairs, social events, science, business, or religion. Investigative reporters cover stories that may take many days or weeks of information gathering. Some publications use teams of reporters instead of assign ing each reporter one specific topic. As a member of a team, a reporter can cover a greater variety of stories. News teams may include reporters, editors, graphic artists, and photographers working together to complete a story. Reporters on small publications cover all aspects of the news. They take photographs, write headlines, lay out pages, edit wire-service stories, and write editorials. Some also solicit advertisements, sell subscriptions, and perform general office work. Work environment. The work of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents is usually hectic. They are under great pres sure to meet deadlines. Broadcasts sometimes are aired with little or no time for preparation. Some news analysts, reporters, Digitizedand for FRASER correspondents work in comfortable, private offices; oth https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer individuals with a bachelor’s degree in journalism or mass communications, but some hire graduates with other majors. They look for experience at school newspa pers or broadcasting stations, and internships with news orga nizations. Large-city newspapers and stations also may prefer candidates with a degree in a subject-matter specialty such as economics, political science, or business. Some large newspa pers and broadcasters may hire only experienced reporters. Education and training. More than 1,500 institutions offer programs in communications, journalism, and related programs. In 2008, more than 100 of these were accredited by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications. Most of the courses in a typical curriculum are in liberal arts; the remaining courses are in journalism. The most important skills for journalism students to learn are writing and communication. Students planning a career in broadcasting take courses in radio and television news and production. Those planning newspaper or magazine careers usually specialize in more specific forms of writing. To create stories for online media, they need to learn to use computer software to combine online story text with audio and video elements and graphics. Some schools also offer a master’s or Ph.D. degree in jour nalism. Some graduate programs are intended primarily as preparation for news careers, while others prepare journalism teachers, researchers and theorists, and advertising and publicrelations workers. High school courses in English, journalism, and social stud ies provide a good foundation for college programs. Useful col lege liberal arts courses include English, with an emphasis on writing; sociology; political science; economics; history; and psychology. Courses in computer science, business, and speech are useful as well. Fluency in a foreign language is necessary in some jobs. Employers report that practical experience is the most im portant part of education and training. Upon graduation, many students already have gained much practical experience through part-time or summer jobs or through internships with news organizations. Most newspapers, magazines, and broadcast news organizations offer reporting and editing internships. Work on high school and college newspapers, at broadcast- 346 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Code Employment, 2008 Projected Employment, 2018 64,900 8,000 56,900 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent -4,400 -6 300 4 -8 -4,700 69,300 27-3020 News analysts, reporters and correspondents..................... ............... 27-3021 7,700 Broadcast news analysts.................................................... ............... 61,600 27-3022 Reporters and correspondents.......................................... ............... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaHon Included in the Handbook. ing stations, or on community papers also provides practical training. In addition, journalism scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships awarded to college journalism students by univer sities, newspapers, foundations, and professional organizations are helpful. Experience as a freelancer or stringer—a part-time reporter who is paid only for stories printed—is advantageous. Other qualifications. Reporters typically need more than good word-processing skills. Computer graphics and desk top-publishing skills are essential as well. Students should be completely proficient in all forms of multimedia. Computerassisted reporting involves the use of computers to analyze data in search of a story. This technique and the interpretation of the results require computer skills and familiarity with databases. Knowledge of news photography also is valuable for entry-level positions, which sometimes combine the responsibilities of a reporter with those of a camera operator or photographer. Reporters should be dedicated to providing accurate and impartial news. Accuracy is important both to serve the public and because untrue or libelous statements can lead to lawsuits. A nose for news, persistence, initiative, poise, resourcefulness, a good memory, and physical stamina are important, as is the emotional stability to deal with pressing deadlines, irregular hours, and dangerous assignments. Broadcast reporters and news analysts must be comfortable on camera. All report ers must be at ease in unfamiliar places and with a variety of people. Positions involving on-air work require a pleasant voice and appearance. Advancement. Most reporters start at small publications or broadcast stations as general assignment reporters or copy editors. They are usually assigned to cover court proceedings and civic and club meetings, summarize speeches, and write obituaries. With experience, they report more difficult assign ments or specialize in a particular field. Large publications and stations generally require new reporters to have several years of experience. Some news analysts and reporters can advance by moving to larger newspapers or stations. A few experienced reporters become columnists, correspondents, writers, announcers, or public-relations specialists. Others become editors in print journalism or program managers in broadcast journalism, supervising reporters. Some eventually become broadcasting or publishing industry managers. Employment News analysts, reporters, and correspondents held about 69,300 jobs in 2008. About 53 percent worked for newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers. Another 21 percent worked in radio and television broadcasting. About 19 percent https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents were selfemployed (freelancers or stringers). Job Outlook Employment is expected to decline moderately through 2018. Competition will continue to be keen for jobs on large metropolitan and national newspapers, broadcast stations and networks, and magazines. Small broadcast stations and publications and online newspapers and magazines should provide the best opportunities. Talented writers who can handle highly specialized scientific or technical subjects will have an advantage. Employment change. Employment of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents is expected to decline 6 percent between 2008 and 2018. Many factors will contribute to the decline in this occupation. Consolidation and convergence should continue in the publishing and broadcasting industries. As a result, companies will be better able to allocate their news analysts, reporters, and correspondents to cover news stories. Since broadcasting and newspapers—the two industries employing most of these workers—are dependent on advertising revenue, employment growth will suffer during an economic downturn. Improving technology may eventually lead to more employment growth in this occupation by opening up new areas of work, such as online or mobile news divisions. The contin ued demand for news will create some job opportunities. Job openings also will result from the need to replace workers who leave their occupations permanently; some news analysts, re porters, and correspondents find the work too stressful and hec tic or do not like the lifestyle, and transfer to other occupations. Job prospects. Competition will continue to be keen for jobs at large metropolitan and national newspapers, broadcast stations and networks, and magazines. Job opportunities will be best for applicants in the expanding world of new media, such as online newspapers or magazines. Small local papers and news stations also will provide greater job prospects for potential reporters and news analysts. For beginning newspaper reporters, freelancing will supply more opportunities for em ployment as well. Students with a background in journalism as well as another subject, such as politics, economics, or biol ogy, will have an advantage over those without additional back ground knowledge in moving beyond an entry-level position. Journalism graduates have the background for work in closely related fields such as advertising and public relations or communications, and many take jobs in these fields. Other graduates accept sales, managerial, or other nonmedia positions. Professional and Related Occupations 347 Earnings Salaries for news analysts, reporters, and correspondents vary widely. Median annual wages of reporters and correspondents were $34,850 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,760 and $52,160. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,180, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $77,480. Median annual wages of reporters and correspondents were $33,430 in newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishing, and $37,710 in radio and television broadcasting. Median annual wages of broadcast news analysts were $51,260 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,000 and $88,630. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,470, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $156,200. Median annual wages of broadcast news analysts were $51,890 in radio and television broadcasting. Related Occupations News analysts, reporters, and correspondents must write clearly and effectively to succeed in their profession. Others for whom good writing ability is essential include: Page Authors, writers, and editors...................................................333 Public relations specialists......................................................350 Many news analysts, reporters, and correspondents also must communicate information orally. Others for whom oral com munication skills are important are: Announcers.............................................................................. 331 Interpreters and translators....................................................... 340 Retail salespersons................................................................... 543 Teachers—kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary..........................................................288 Teachers—postsecondary.........................................................282 Sources of Additional Information For information on broadcasting education and scholarship resources, contact: y National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org Information on careers in journalism, colleges and universi ties offering degree programs in journalism or communications, and journalism scholarships and internships may be obtained from: > Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, Inc., P.O. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08543-0300. Internet: https://www.newspaperfund.org For a list of schools with accredited programs in journal ism and mass communications, send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: V Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications, University of Kansas School of Journalism and Mass Communications, Stauffer-Flint Hall, 1435 Jayhawk Blvd., Lawrence, KS 66045. Internet: http://www.ku.edu/~acejmc/STUDENT/STUDENT.SHTML Names and locations of newspapers and a list of schools and departments of journalism are published in the Editor and Publisher International Year Book, available in most public and newspaper offices. Digitizedlibraries for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos088.htm Photographers Significant Points • Competition for jobs is expected to be keen because the work is attractive to many people. • Technical expertise, a “good eye,” and creativity, are essential, and some photographers need a college de gree. • More than half of all photographers are self-employed, a much higher proportion than for most occupations. Nature of the Work Photographers produce and preserve images that paint a picture, tell a story, or record an event. To create commer cial-quality photographs, photographers need technical expertise, creativity, and the appropriate professional equip ment. Producing a successful picture requires choosing and presenting a subject to achieve a particular effect, and select ing the right cameras and other photographic enhancing tools. For example, photographers may enhance the subject’s ap pearance with natural or artificial light, shoot the subject from an interesting angle, draw attention to a particular aspect of the subject by blurring the background, or use various lenses to produce desired levels of detail at various distances from the subject. Today, most photographers use digital cameras instead of traditional silver-halide film cameras, although some photog raphers use both types, depending on their own preference and the nature of the assignment. Regardless of the camera they use, photographers also employ an array of other equip ment—from lenses, filters, and tripods to flash attachments and specially constructed lighting equipment—to improve the quality of their work. Digital cameras capture images electronically, allowing them to be edited on a computer. Images can be stored on por table memory devices such as compact disks, memory cards, and flash drives. Once the raw image has been transferred to a computer, photographers can use processing software to crop or modify the image and enhance it through color correc tion and other specialized effects. As soon as a photographer has finished editing the image, it can be sent anywhere in the world over the Internet. Photographers also can create electronic portfolios of their work and display them on their own webpage, allowing them to reach prospective customers directly. Digital technology also allows the production of larger, more colorful, and more accurate prints or images for use in advertising, photographic art, and scientific research. Photographers who process their own digital images need to be proficient in the use of comput ers, high-quality printers, and editing software. 348 Occupational Outlook Handbook Photographers who use cameras with silver-halide film of ten send their film to laboratories for processing. Color film requires expensive equipment and exacting conditions for correct processing and printing. (See the statement on pho tographic process workers and processing machine operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other photographers, especially those using black and white film or creating special effects, develop and print their own photographs using their own fully equipped darkrooms,. Photographers who develop their own film must invest in additional developing and printing equip ment and acquire the technical skills to operate it. Some photographers specialize in areas such as portrait, commercial and industrial, scientific, news, or fine arts pho tography. Portrait photographers take pictures of individuals or groups of people and usually work in their own studios. Some specialize in weddings, religious ceremonies, or school photographs and they may work on location. Portrait photog raphers who own and operate their own business have many responsibilities in addition to taking pictures. They must ar range for advertising, schedule appointments, set and adjust equipment, purchase supplies, keep records, bill customers, pay bills, and—if they have employees—hire, train, and direct their workers. Many also process their own images, design albums, and mount and frame the finished photographs. Commercial and industrial photographers take pictures of various subjects, such as buildings, models, merchandise, artifacts, and landscapes. These photographs are used in a variety of media, including books, reports, advertisements, and catalogs. Industrial photographers often take pictures of equipment, machinery, products, workers, and company officials. The pictures are used for various purposes—for example, analysis of engineering projects, publicity, or re cords of equipment development or deployment. This photog raphy frequently is done on location. Scientific photographers take images of a variety of sub jects to record scientific or medical data or phenomena, using knowledge of scientific procedures. They typically possess additional knowledge in areas such as engineering, medicine, biology, or chemistry. News photographers, also called photojournalists, photo graph newsworthy people, places, and sporting, political, and community events for newspapers, journals, magazines, or television. Fine arts photographers sell their photographs as fine art work. In addition to technical proficiency, fine arts photogra phers need artistic talent and creativity. Self-employed, or freelance, photographers usually spe cialize in one of the above fields. In addition to carrying out assignments under direct contract with clients, they may li cense the use of their photographs through stock-photo agen cies or market their work directly to the public. Stock-photo agencies sell magazines and other customers the right to use photographs, and pay the photographer a commission. These agencies require an application from the photographer and a sizable portfolio of pictures. Once accepted, photographers usually are required to submit a large number of new pho tographs each year. Self-employed photographers must also https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis have a thorough understanding of copyright laws in order to protect their work. Most photographers spend only a small portion of their work schedule actually taking photographs. Their most common activities are editing images on a computer—if they use a digital camera—and looking for new business—if they are self-employed. Work environment. Working conditions for photographers vary considerably. Some photographers may work a 5-day, 40hour week. News photographers, however, often work long, irregular hours and must be available to work on short notice. Many photographers work part time or on variable schedules. Portrait photographers usually work in their own studios but also may travel to take photographs at the client’s location, such as a school, a company office, or a private home. News and commercial photographers frequently travel locally, stay overnight on assignments, or travel to distant places for long periods. Some photographers work in uncomfortable or even dan gerous surroundings, especially news photographers covering accidents, natural disasters, civil unrest, or military conflicts. Many photographers must wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to take place and stand or walk for long •r Portrait photographers take pictures of individuals or groups of people and often work out of their own studios. Professional and Related Occupations 349 periods while carrying heavy equipment. News photographers often work under strict deadlines. Self-employment allows for greater autonomy, freedom of expression, and flexible scheduling. However, income can be uncertain and the continuous, time-consuming search for new clients can be stressful. Some self-employed photographers hire assistants who help seek out new business. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually seek applicants with a “good eye,” imagina tion, and creativity, as well as a good technical understanding of photography. Photojournalists or industrial or scientific photog raphers generally need a college degree. Freelance and portrait photographers need technical proficiency, gained through a de gree, training program, or experience. Education and training. Entry-level positions in photojour nalism or in industrial or scientific photography generally re quire a college degree in photography or in a field related to the industry in which the photographer seeks employment. Entrylevel freelance or portrait photographers need technical profi ciency. Some complete a college degree or vocational training programs. Photography courses are offered by many universities, com munity and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and private trade and technical schools. Basic courses in photogra phy cover equipment, processes, and techniques. Learning good business and marketing skills is important and some bachelor’s degree programs offer courses focusing on them. Art schools offer useful training in photographic design and composition. Photographers may start out as assistants to experienced pho tographers. Assistants acquire the technical knowledge needed to be a successful photographer and also learn other skills nec essary to run a portrait or commercial photography business. Individuals interested in a career in photography should try to develop contacts in the field by subscribing to photographic newsletters and magazines, joining camera clubs, and seeking summer or part-time employment in camera stores, newspa pers, or photo studios. Other qualifications. Photographers need good eyesight, ar tistic ability, and good hand-eye coordination. They should be patient, accurate, and detail-oriented and should be able to work well with others, as they frequently deal with clients, graphic designers, and advertising and publishing specialists. Photog raphers need to know how to use computer software programs and applications that allow them to prepare and edit images, and those who market directly to clients should know how to use the Internet to display their work. Portrait photographers need the ability to help people relax in front of the camera. Commercial and fine arts photographers must be imaginative and original. News photographers must not only be good with a camera, but also understand the story be hind an event so that their pictures match the story. They must be decisive in recognizing a potentially good photograph and act quickly to capture it. Many photographers have websites which highlight an online portfolio that they use to attract work from magazines or adver tising agencies. For freelance photographers, maintaining their website is essential. Photographers who operate their own business, or freelance, need business skills as well as talent. These individuals must know how to prepare a business plan; submit bids; write con tracts; keep financial records; market their work; hire models, if needed; get permission to shoot on locations that normally are not open to the public; obtain releases to use photographs of people; license and price photographs; and secure copyright protection for their work. To protect their rights and their work, self-employed photographers require basic knowledge of li censing and copyright laws, as well as knowledge of contracts and negotiation procedures. Freelance photographers also should develop an individual style of photography to differentiate themselves from the com petition. Advancement. After several years of experience, magazine and news photographers may advance to photography or pic ture editor positions. Some photographers teach at technical schools, film schools, or universities. Employment Photographers held about 152,000 jobs in 2008. More than half were self-employed, a much higher proportion than for most occupations. Some self-employed photographers have con tracts with advertising agencies, magazine publishers, or other businesses to do individual projects for a set fee, while others operate portrait studios or provide photographs to stock-photo agencies. Most salaried photographers work in portrait or commercial photography studios; most of the others work for newspapers, magazines, and advertising agencies. Photographers work in all areas of the country, but most are employed in metropolitan areas. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations. Photographers can expect keen competition for job openings because the work is attractive to many people. Employment change. Employment of photographers is ex pected to grow 12 percent over the 2008-18 period, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Demand for portrait photographers should increase as the population grows. More over, growth of Internet versions of magazines, journals, and newspapers will require increasing numbers of commercial photographers to provide digital images. The Internet and im- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Employment, Change, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Photographers........................................................................................ 27-4021 152,000 169,500 17,500 12 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis SOC Code Employment, 2008 350 Occupational Outlook Handbook proved data management programs also should make it easier for freelancers to market directly to their customers, increasing opportunities for self-employment and decreasing reliance on stock photo agencies. Job growth, however, will be constrained somewhat by the widespread use of digital photography and the falling price of digital equipment. Improvements in digital technology reduce barriers of entry into this profession and allow more individual consumers and businesses to produce, store, and access photo graphic images on their own. News and commercial photog raphers may be the most adversely affected by this increase in amateur photographers and non-copyrighted photos. Declines in the newspaper industry also will reduce demand for news photographers to provide still images for print. Job prospects. Photographers can expect keen competition for job openings because the work is attractive to many people. The number of individuals interested in positions as commer cial and news photographers is usually much greater than the number of openings. Salaried jobs in particular may be difficult to find as more companies contract with freelancers rather than hire their own photographers. Those who succeed in landing a salaried job or attracting enough work to earn a living by free lancing are likely to be adept at operating a business and to be among the most creative. They will be able to find and exploit the new opportunities available from rapidly changing technol ogies. Related work experience, job-related training, or some unique skill or talent—such as a background in computers or electronics or knowledge of a second language—also improve a photographer’s job prospects. Earnings Median annual wages of salaried photographers were $29,440 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,620 and $43,530. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,920, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $62,430. Median annual wages in the photographic services industry, which em ployed the largest numbers of salaried photographers, were $26,160. Salaried photographers—most of whom work full time—tend to earn more than those who are self-employed. Because most freelance and portrait photographers purchase their own equip ment, they incur considerable expense acquiring and maintain ing cameras and accessories. Unlike news and commercial pho tographers, few fine arts photographers are successful enough to support themselves solely through their art. Related Occupations Other occupations requiring artistic talent and creativity in clude: Page Architects, except landscape and naval....................................151 Artists and related workers.......................................................301 Commercial and industrial designers......................................304 Fashion designers..................................................................... 307 Graphic designers..................................................................... 312 Television, video, and motion picture camera Digitized foroperators FRASER and editors...........................................................356 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Photojoumalists are often required to cover news stories much the same as: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents......................... 344 The processing work that photographers do on computers is similar to the work of: Desktop publishers................................................................... 579 Prepress technicians and workers............................................ 748 Sources of Additional Information Career information on photography is available from: y Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 229 Peachtree St. NE, Suite 2200, Atlanta, GA 30303. Internet: http://www.ppa.com > National Press Photographers Association, Inc., 3200 Croasdaile Dr., Suite 306, Durham, NC 27705. Internet: http://www.nppa.org > American Society of Media Photographers, Inc., 150 North Second St., Philadelphia, PA 19106. Internet: http://www.asmp.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos264.htm Public Relations Specialists Significant Points • Although employment is projected to grow much faster than average, keen competition is expected for entry-level jobs. • Opportunities should be best for college graduates who combine a degree in public relations, journalism, or another communications-related field with a public relations internship or other related work experience. • Strong communication skills are essential. Nature of the Work An organization’s reputation, profitability, and its continued existence can depend on the degree to which its targeted public supports its goals and policies. Public relations special ists—also referred to as communications specialists and media specialists, among other titles—serve as advocates for clients seeking to build and maintain positive relationships with the public. Their clients include businesses, nonprofit associations, universities, hospitals, and other organizations, and build and maintain positive relationships with the public. As managers recognize the link between good public relations and the suc cess of their organizations, they increasingly rely on public re lations specialists for advice on the strategy and policy of their communications. Public relations specialists handle organizational functions, such as media, community, consumer, industry, and govern mental relations; political campaigns; interest-group represen Professional and Related Occupations 351 tation; conflict mediation; and employee and investor relations. Public relations specialists must understand the attitudes and concerns of community, consumer, employee, and public inter est groups to establish and maintain cooperative relationships between them and representatives from print and broadcast journalism. Public relations specialists draft press releases and contact people in the media who might print or broadcast their material. Many radio or television special reports, newspaper stories, and magazine articles start at the desks of public relations special ists. Sometimes, the subject of a press release is an organization and its policies toward employees or its role in the community. For example, a press release might describe a public issue, such as health, energy, or the environment, and what an organization does to advance that issue. Public relations specialists also arrange and conduct pro grams to maintain contact between organization representatives and the public. For example, public relations specialists set up speaking engagements and prepare speeches for officials. These media specialists represent employers at community projects; make film, slide, and other visual presentations for meetings and school assemblies; and plan conventions. In government, public relations specialists may be called press secretaries. They keep the public informed about the ac tivities of agencies and officials. For example, public affairs specialists in the U.S. Department of State alert the public of travel advisories and of U.S. positions on foreign issues. A press secretary for a member of Congress informs constituents of the representative’s accomplishments. In large organizations, the key public relations executive, who often is a vice president, may develop overall plans and policies with other executives. In addition, public relations de partments employ public relations specialists to write, research, prepare materials, maintain contacts, and respond to inquiries. People who handle publicity for an individual or who direct public relations for a small organization may deal with all as pects of the job. These public relations specialists contact peo ple, plan and research, and prepare materials for distribution. They also may handle advertising or sales promotion work to support marketing efforts. Work environment. Public relations specialists work in busy offices. The pressures of deadlines and tight work schedules can be stressful. Some public relations specialists work a standard 35- to 40hour week, but overtime is common, and work schedules can be irregular and are frequently interrupted. Occasionally, they must be at the job or on call around the clock, especially if there is an emergency or crisis. Schedules often have to be rearranged so workers can meet deadlines, deliver speeches, attend meet ings and community activities, and travel. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in a communications-related field com bined with public relations experience is excellent preparation for a person interested in public relations work. Education and training. Many entry-level public relations specialists have a college degree in public relations, journalism, marketing, or communications. Some firms seek college gradu https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis T V m I—"¥£. A.f managers recognize the importance of good public rela tions, they increasingly rely on the advice of public relations specialists. ates who have worked in electronic or print journalism. Other employers seek applicants with demonstrated communication skills and training or experience in a field related to the firm’s business—information technology, health care, science, engi neering, sales, or finance, for example. Many colleges and universities offer bachelor’s and postsec ondary programs leading to a degree in public relations, usually in a journalism or communications department. In addition, many other colleges offer courses in this field. Courses in ad vertising, business administration, finance, political science, psychology, sociology, and creative writing also are helpful. Specialties may be offered in public relations for business, gov ernment, and nonprofit organizations. Internships in public relations provide students with valuable experience and training and are the best route to finding entrylevel employment. Membership in local chapters of the Public Relations Student Society of America (affiliated with the Pub lic Relations Society of America) or in student chapters of the International Association of Business Communicators provides an opportunity for students to exchange views with public re lations specialists and to make professional contacts that may help them to find a full-time job after graduation. Some organizations, particularly those with large public relations staffs, have formal training programs for new em ployees. In smaller organizations, new employees work under the guidance of experienced staff members. Entry-level work ers often maintain files of material about company activities, skim newspapers and magazines for appropriate articles to clip, and assemble information for speeches and pamphlets. New workers also may answer calls from the press and the public, prepare invitation lists and details for press conferences, or escort visitors and clients. After gaining experience, they write news releases, speeches, and articles for publication or plan and 352 Occupational Outlook Handbook carry out public relations programs. Public relations specialists in smaller firms usually get well-rounded experience, whereas those in larger firms become more specialized. Other qualifications. In addition to the ability to commu nicate thoughts clearly and simply, public relations specialists must show creativity, initiative, and good judgment. Decision making, problem-solving, and research skills also are impor tant. People who choose public relations as a career should have an outgoing personality, self-confidence, an understanding of human psychology, and an enthusiasm for motivating people. They should be assertive but able to participate as part of a team and be open to new ideas. Certification and advancement. The Universal Accredi tation Board accredits public relations specialists who are members of the Public Relations Society of America and who participate in the Examination for Accreditation in Public Rela tions process. This process includes both a readiness review and an examination, which are designed for candidates who have at least 5 years of full-time work or teaching experience in public relations and who have earned a bachelor’s degree in a communications-related field. The readiness review includes a written submission by each candidate, a portfolio review, and dialogue between the candidate and a three-member panel. Candidates who successfully advance through readiness review and pass the computer-based examination earn the Accredited in Public Relations (APR) designation. The International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) also has an accreditation program for professionals in the communications field, including public relations specialists. Those who meet all the requirements of the pro gram earn the Accredited Business Communicator (ABC) designation. Candidates must have at least 5 years of experi ence and a bachelor’s degree in a communications field and must pass written and oral examinations. They also must submit a portfolio of work samples that demonstrate involvement in a range of communications projects and a thorough understand ing of communications planning. Employers may consider professional recognition through accreditation as a sign of competence in this field, and such designations could be especially helpful in a competitive job market. Public relations specialists who show that they can handle more demanding assignments are more likely to be promoted to supervisory jobs than those who are unable to do so. In public relations firms, an entry-level worker might be hired as a junior account executive and be promoted over the course of a career to account executive, senior account executive, account man ager, and, eventually, vice president. Specialists in corporate public relations follow a similar career path, although the job titles may differ. Some experienced public relations specialists start their own consulting firms. (For more information on public relations managers, see the Handbook statement on advertising, market ing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers.) Employment Public relations specialists held about 275,200 jobs in 2008. They are concentrated in service-providing industries, such as advertising and related services; health care and social assis tance; educational services; and government. Others work for communications firms, financial institutions, and government agencies. Public relations specialists are concentrated in large cities, where press services and other communications facilities are readily available and where many businesses and trade associa tions have their headquarters. Many public relations consulting firms, for example, are in New York, Los Angeles, San Fran cisco, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. There is a trend, how ever, toward public relations jobs to be dispersed throughout the Nation, closer to clients. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow much faster than average; however, keen competition is expected for entry-level jobs. Employment change. Employment of public relations specialists is expected to grow 24 percent from 2008 to 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. The need for good public relations in an increasingly competitive and global business environment should spur demand for these workers, especially those with specialized knowledge or international experience. Employees who possess additional language capabilities also are in great demand. The recent emergence of social media in the public rela tions is expected to increase job growth as well. Many public relations firms are expanding their use of these tools, and spe cialists with skills in them will be needed. Employment in public relations firms is expected to grow as firms hire contractors to provide public relations services, rather than support more full-time staff when additional work is needed. Among detailed industries, the largest job growth will con tinue to be in advertising and related services. Job prospects. Keen competition likely will continue for en try-level public relations jobs, as the number of qualified appli cants is expected to exceed the number of job openings. Many people are attracted to this profession because of the high-pro file nature of the work. Opportunities should be best for college graduates who combine a degree in journalism, public relations, or another communications-related field with a public relations internship or other related work experience. Applicants who do Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Public relations specialists...................................... ............................. soc Code 27-3031 Employment, 2008 275,200 Projected Employment, 2018 341,300 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 66,200 24 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 353 not have the appropriate educational background or work expe rience will face the toughest obstacles. Additional job opportunities should result from the need to replace public relations specialists who retire or leave the oc cupation for other reasons. Earnings Median annual wages for salaried public relations specialists were $51,280 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $38,400 and $71,670; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,140, and the top 10 percent earned more than $97,910. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of public relations specialists in May 2008 were: Management of companies and enterprises...............$55,530 Business, professional, labor, political, and similar organizations.......................................... 55,460 Advertising, public relations and related services........55,290 Local government......................................................... 51,340 Colleges, universities, and professional schools......... 46,660 Related Occupations Public relations specialists create favorable attitudes among various organizations, interest groups, and the public through effective communication. Other workers with similar jobs in clude: Page Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers......................................32 Demonstrators and product promoters.................................... 532 Lawyers.............................................................................................. 257 Market and survey researchers.................................................212 News analysts, reporters, and correspondents......................... 344 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing.............. 547 Sources of Additional Information A comprehensive directory of schools offering degree pro grams, a sequence of study in public relations, a brochure on careers in public relations, and an online brochure entitled Where Shall I Go to Study Advertising and Public Relations? are available from: y Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 33 Maiden Lane, New York, NY 10038-5150. Internet: http://www.prsa.org For information on accreditation for public relations profes sionals and the IABC Student Web site, contact: y International Association of Business Communicators, 601 Montgomery St. Suite 1900, San Francisco, CA 94111. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos086.htm https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technical Writers Significant Points • Most jobs in this occupation require a college de gree—preferably in communications, journalism, or English—but a degree in a technical subject may be useful. • Job prospects for most technical writing jobs are expected to be good, particularly for those with Web or multimedia experience. • Excellent communications skills, curiosity, and atten tion to detail are highly desired traits. Nature of the Work Technical writers, also called technical communicators, put technical information into easily understandable language. They work primarily in information-technology-related industries, coordinating the development and dissemination of technical content for a variety of users; however, a growing number of technical communicators are using technical content to resolve business communications problems in a diversifying number of industries. Included in their products are operating instructions, how-to manuals, assembly instructions, and other documenta tion needed for online help and by technical support staff, con sumers, and other users within the company or industry. Techni cal writers also develop documentation for computer programs and set up communications systems with consumers to assess customer satisfaction and quality control matters. In addition, they commonly work in engineering, scientific, healthcare, and other areas in which highly specialized material needs to be explained to a diverse audience, often of laypersons. Technical writers often work with engineers, scientists, com puter specialists, and software developers to manage the flow of information among project workgroups during development and testing. They also may work with product liability specialists and customer service or call center managers to improve the quality of product support and end-user assistance. Technical writers also oversee the preparation of illustrations, photographs, diagrams, and charts. Technical writers increasingly are using a variety of multimedia formats to convey information in such a way that complex concepts can be understood easily by users of the information. Applying their knowledge of the user of the product, technical writers may serve as part of a team conducting usability studies to help improve the design of a product that is in the prototype stage. Technical writers may conduct research on their topics through personal observation, library and Internet research, and discussions with technical specialists. They also are expected to demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter and establish their credibility with their colleagues. Technical writers use computers and other electronic com munications equipment extensively in performing their work. They also work regularly with desktop and other electronic publishing software and prepare material directly for the In ternet. Technical writers may work with graphic design, page layout, and multimedia software; increasingly, they are prepar- 354 Occupational Outlook Handbook mg documents by using the interactive technologies of the Web to blend text, graphics, multidimensional images, and sound. Some technical writers work on a freelance or contract basis. They either are self-employed or work for a technical consult ing firm and may be hired to complete specific short-term or recurring assignments, such as writing about a new product or coordinating the work and communications of different units to keep a project on track. Whether a project is to be coordinated among an organization’s departments or among autonomous companies, technical writers ensure that the different entities share information and mediate differences in favor of the end user in order to bring a product to market sooner. Work environment. Advances in computer and communica tions technologies make it possible for technical writers to work from almost anywhere. Laptop computers and wireless commu nications permit technical writers to work from home, an office, or on the road. The ability to use the Internet to e-mail, transmit, and download information and assignments, conduct research, or review materials allows them greater flexibility in where and how they complete assignments. Many technical writers work with people located around the world and with specialists in highly technical fields, such as sci ence and engineering. As a result, they must be able to assimi late complex information quickly and be comfortable working with people from diverse professional and cultural backgrounds. Although most technical writers are employed directly by the companies that use their services, many freelance writers are paid on a project basis and routinely face the pressures of jug gling multiple projects and the continual need to find new work. Technical writers may be expected to work evenings, nights, or weekends to coordinate with those in other time zones, meet deadlines, or produce information that complies with project requirements and is acceptable to the client. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree is required for a position as a technical writer. In addition, knowledge in a technical subject, as well as experi ence in Web design and computer graphics, is important. Education and training. Employers look for candidates with a bachelor’s degree, often preferring those with a major in communications, journalism, or English. Some technical writ ing jobs may require both experience and either a degree or knowledge in a specialized field—for example, engineering, medicine, or one of the sciences; others have broader require ments, such as a background in liberal arts. Knowledge of a second language is helpful for some positions. Experience in Web design and computer graphics also is helpful, because of the growing use of online technical documentation. Other qualifications. Technical writers must have excellent writing and communication skills and be able to express ideas clearly and logically in a variety of media. Increasingly, techni cal writers need familiarity with electronic publishing, graph ics, and sound and video production. Also needed is knowledge of computer software for combining online text with graphics, audio, video, and animation, as well as the ability to manage large, complex, and interconnected files. Technical writers must be detail oriented, curious, persistent in solving problems, self-motivated, and able to understand complex material and explain it clearly. Technical writers also must demonstrate good working relationships and sensitivity toward others, especially those from different backgrounds. In addition, the ability to work under pressure and in a variety of work settings is essential. Advancement. Some technical writers begin their careers not as writers, but as specialists in a technical field or as re search assistants or trainees in a technical information depart ment. By transferring or developing technical communication skills, they eventually assume primary responsibilities for tech nical writing. In small firms, beginning technical writers may work on projects right away; in larger companies with more standard procedures, beginners may observe experienced tech nical writers and interact with specialists before being assigned projects. Prospects for advancement generally include working on more complex projects, leading or training junior staff, and getting enough work to make it as a freelancer. Many firms and freelancers provide technical writing services on a contract basis, often to small or not-for-profit organizations that do not have enough regular work to employ technical writ ers full time. Building a reputation and establishing a record for meeting deadlines also makes it easier to get future assign ments. An experienced, credible, and reliable freelance techni cal writer or editor often is able to establish long-term dealings with the same companies. Employment ; * ... Technical writers use computer and communications technolo gies extensively, which allows them to workfrom home or wher ever their work takes them. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technical writers held about 48,900 jobs in 2008. There are technical writers in almost every industry, but they are concen trated in industries related to computer systems and software, publishing (except Internet), science, and engineering. The in dustry that employed the most technical writers in 2008 was the computer systems design industry, which had 18 percent of these workers. The second-largest employer was the computer and electronic manufacturing industry, with 8 percent of work ers. Software publishers; architectural, engineering, and related services; management, scientific, and technical consulting ser vices; and scientific research and development services indus tries also employed a sizeable number of technical writers. Two percent of technical writers were self-employed in 2008. Professional and Related Occupations 355 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Code Employment, 2008 Technical writers......................................... 48,900 Projected Employment, 2018 57,800 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 8,900 18 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Jobs usually are concentrated in areas with high informa tion technology or scientific and technical research industry employment, such as San Francisco and San Jose, CA; Bos ton, MA; and Washington, DC. However, technology permits technical writers to work in one location while communicating with clients and colleagues in another. As a result, geographic concentration is less of a requirement than it once was. ing positions with more desirable companies and for workers who are new to the occupation. In addition to job openings created by employment growth, some openings will arise as experienced workers retire, trans fer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. Also, many freelancers may not earn enough money by freelancing to re main in the occupation, thus generating additional job open Job Outlook Employment of technical writers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations as the need to explain a grow ing number of electronic and scientific products increases. Job prospects are expected to be good for those with solid writing and communications skills and a technical background. Employment change. Employment of technical writers is expected to grow 18 percent, or faster than the average for all occupations, from 2008 to 2018. Demand over this decade is expected to increase because of the continuing expansion of scientific and technical information and the growing pres ence of customer service and Web-based product support net works. Legal, scientific, and technological developments and discoveries will generate demand for people who can interpret technical information for a general audience. Rapid growth and change in the high-technology and electronics industries will result in a greater need for people who can write users’ guides, instruction manuals, and training materials in a vari ety of formats and communicate information clearly to others. This occupation requires workers who are both skilled writers and effective communicators and familiar with a specialized subject area. Increasing acceptance of interactive media to provide nearly real-time information will create employment opportu nities for technical writers because of the need to revise online information. Businesses and organizations are making more material available online often in formats that permit greater scrutiny and comparison of detailed information. The growing amount and complexity of information available on the Web will spur demand for technical writers. Professional, scien tific, and technical services firms will continue to grow and should be a good source of new jobs even as the occupation finds acceptance in a broader range of industries, including data processing, hosting, and related services and educational services. Job prospects. Job prospects, especially for applicants with solid communication and technical skills, are expected to be good. The growing reliance on technologically sophisti cated products in the home and the workplace and the increas ing complexity of medical or scientific information needed for daily living will create many new job opportunities for techni cal writers. However, competition will exist for technical writ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ings. Earnings Median annual wages for salaried technical writers were $61,620 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,100 and $78,910. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,500, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $97,460. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest number of technical writers were: Software publishers.................................................... $71,640 Computer systems design and related services........... 64,380 Management, scientific, and technical consulting services................................................... 62,920 Employment services................................................... 61,810 Architectural, engineering, and related services......... 60,140 Related Occupations Technical writers communicate ideas and information. Other occupations requiring good communications skills include the following: Page Announcers.............................................................................. 331 Authors, writers, and editors....................................................333 Interpreters and translators.......................................................340 Public relations specialists.......................................................350 Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in technical writing, contact: y Society for Technical Communication, Inc., 9401 Lee Highway, Suite 300, Fairfax, VA 22031. Internet: http ://www.stc.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos319.htm 356 Occupational Outlook Handbook Television, Video, and Motion Picture Camera Operators and Editors Significant Points • Keen competition for jobs is expected due to the large number of people who wish to enter the broadcasting and motion picture industries. • Opportunities will be best for those with a bachelor’s degree or postsecondary training. Nature of the Work Television, video, and motion picture camera operators pro duce images that tell a story, inform or entertain an audience, or record an event. Film and video editors edit soundtracks, film, and video for the motion picture, cable, and broadcast televi sion industries. Some camera operators do their own editing. Camera operators use television, video, or motion picture cameras to shoot a wide range of material, including televi sion series, studio programs, news and sporting events, music videos, motion pictures, documentaries, and training sessions. This material is constmcted from many different shots by film and video editors. With the increase in digital technology, the editing work is now done on a computer. Many camera opera tors and editors are employed by independent television sta tions; local affiliate stations of television networks; large cable and television networks; or smaller, independent production companies. Making commercial-quality movies and video programs re quires technical expertise and creativity. Producing successful images requires choosing and presenting interesting material, selecting appropriate equipment, and applying a steady hand to ensure smooth, natural movement of the camera. Videographers film or videotape private ceremonies and spe cial events, such as weddings. Some record and post short vid eos on Web sites for businesses. Studio camera operators work in a broadcast studio and usually videotape their subjects from a fixed position. News camera operators, also called electronic news-gathering (ENG) operators, work as part of a reporting team, following newsworthy events as they unfold. To capture live events, they must anticipate the action and act quickly. ENG operators sometimes edit raw footage on the spot for relay to a television affiliate for broadcast. Camera operators employed in the entertainment field use motion picture cameras to film movies, television programs, and commercials. Those who film motion pictures also are known as cinematographers. Some specialize in filming car toons or special effects. Cinematographers may be an integral part of the action, using cameras in any of several different mounts. For example, the camera can be stationary and shoot whatever passes in front of the lens, or it can be mounted on a track, with the camera operator responsible for shooting the scene from different angles or directions. Wider use of digital cameras has enhanced the number of angles and the clarity that a camera operator can provide. Other camera operators sit on cranes and follow the action while crane operators move them into position. Steadicam operators mount a harness and carry https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the camera on their shoulders to provide a clear picture while they move about the action. Camera operators who work in the entertainment field often meet with a director of photography to discuss ways of filming, editing, and improving scenes. Work environment. ENG operators and those who cover major events, such as conventions or sporting events, frequently travel locally and stay overnight or travel to distant places for longer periods. Camera operators filming television programs or motion pictures may travel to film on location. Some camera operators—especially ENG operators covering accidents, natural disasters, civil unrest, or military conflicts— work in uncomfortable or even dangerous surroundings; how ever the occupation as a whole does not tend to suffer more work related injuries than other occupations. Many camera operators must wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to take place and must stand or walk for long periods while carrying heavy equipment. ENG operators often work under strict deadlines. Hours of work and working schedules for camera operators and editors vary considerably. Those employed by television and cable networks or advertising agencies may work long hours to meet production schedules. ENG operators often work long, irregular hours and must be available to work on short notice. Camera operators and editors working in motion picture production also may work long, irregular hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and edi tors usually acquire their skills through formal postsecondary training at film schools, colleges, universities, or photographic institutes. A bachelor’s degree is required for most positions. Employers usually seek applicants with a good eye, imagina tion, and creativity, as well as a good technical understanding of how the camera operates. Education and training. Many universities, community and junior colleges, and private trade and technical schools offer courses in camera operation and videography. Basic courses cover equipment, processes, and techniques. It is very impor tant for camera operators to have a good understanding of com puter technology and knowledge of digital cameras. Bachelor’s degree programs, especially those including business courses, Film and video editors edit soundtracks, film, and video for the motion picture and cable and broadcast television industries. Professional and Related Occupations 357 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors Camera operators, television, video, and motion picture............ Film and video editors........................................................ SOC Code 27-4030 27-4031 27-4032 Employment, 2008 51,900 26,300 25,500 Projected Employment, 2018 57,300 28,800 28,600 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 5,400 11 2,400 9 3,000 12 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. provide a well-rounded education. Film schools also may provide training on the artistic aspects of filmmaking. Individuals interested in camera operations should subscribe to videographic newsletters and magazines, join audio-video clubs, and seek summer or part-time employment in cable and television networks, motion picture studios, or camera and video stores. To enter the occupation, many camera operators first become production assistants, to learn how film and video production works. In entry-level jobs they learn to set up lights, cameras, and other equipment. They also may receive routine assign ments requiring adjustments to their cameras or decisions on what subject matter to capture. Camera operators in the film and television industries usually are hired for a project on the basis of recommendations from individuals such as producers, directors of photography, and camera assistants from previous projects or through interviews with the producer. A good pro fessional reputation is important in finding employment. ENG and studio camera operators who work for television affiliates usually start in small markets to gain experience. Other qualifications. Camera operators need good eyesight, artistic ability, and hand-eye coordination. They should be patient, accurate, and detail oriented. Camera operators also should have good communication skills and, if needed, the ability to hold a camera by hand for extended periods. Camera operators who run their own businesses or do freelance work need business skills as well as talent. These individuals must know how to submit bids, write contracts, get permission to shoot on locations that normally are not open to the public, obtain legal permission to use film or tape of people, price their services, secure copyright protection for their work, and keep financial records. Advancement. With experience, operators may advance to more demanding assignments or to positions with larger or network television stations. Advancement for ENG operators may mean moving to larger media markets. Other camera operators and editors may become directors of photography for movie studios, advertising agencies, or television programs. Some teach at technical schools, film schools, or universities. Employment Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and edi tors held about 51,900 jobs in 2008. About 26,300 were camera operators, and film and video editors held about 25,500 jobs. Many are employed by independent television stations, local affiliate stations of television networks or broadcast groups, large cable and television networks, or smaller, independent production companies. There also are a large number of self em ployed camera operators and film editors. Some self-employed https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis camera operators contract with television networks, documen tary or independent filmmakers, advertising agencies, or trade show or convention sponsors to work on individual projects for a set fee, often at a daily rate. Most of the salaried camera operators and editors were em ployed by television broadcasting stations or motion picture studios. 37 percent of the salaried camera operators and editors worked for motion picture and video industry while 18 percent worked in television broadcasting. Most camera operators and editors worked in large metropolitan areas. Job Outlook Keen competition for jobs is expected due to the large num ber of people who wish to enter the broadcasting and motion picture industries, in which many camera operators and editors are employed. Those with the most experience and the most advanced computer skills will have the best job opportunities. Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Employment change. Employment of camera operators and editors is expected to grow 11 percent over the 2008-18 decade, which is as fast as the average for all occupations through 2018. As the motion picture industry expands, demand for camera op erators and editors will expand also. Camera operators will be needed to film made-for-Internet broadcasts, such as music vid eos, digital movies, sports features, and general entertainment programming. As the market for professional Internet video grows, camera operators may see increases in employment. Growth will be tempered, however, by the increased offshore production of motion pictures. Job growth for studio camera operators in television broadcasting will be slowed by the use of automated cameras under the control of a single person work ing either on the studio floor or in a director’s booth. For ENG camera operators and editors, growth may be tempered by the combination of roles and other cost-cutting measures at broad cast stations. For videographers, computer and Internet services will provide new outlets for interactive productions. Job prospects. Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors can expect keen competition for job open ings because of the large number of people who wish to enter the broadcasting and motion picture industries, in which many of these workers are employed. The number of individuals in terested in positions as videographers and movie camera opera tors usually is much greater than the number of openings. Those who succeed in landing a salaried job or attracting enough work to earn a living by freelancing are likely to be the most creative and highly motivated people, able to adapt to rapidly changing technologies and adept at operating a business. The change to digital cameras has increased the importance of strong com 358 Occupational Outlook Handbook puter skills. Those with the most experience and the most ad vanced computer skills will have the best job opportunities. Earnings Median annual wages for television, video, and motion picture camera operators were $41,670 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,020 and $59,970. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $79,440. Median annual wages were $40,910 in the motion picture and video industries and $36,250 in radio and television broadcasting. Median annual wages for film and video editors were $50,560 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,060 and $77,700. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,640, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $112,410. Median annual wages were $56,170 in the motion picture and video in dustries, which employed the largest numbers of film and video editors. Freelance camera operators’ earnings tend to fluctuate each year. Because most freelance camera operators purchase their own equipment, they incur considerable expense acquiring and maintaining cameras and accessories. Some camera operators belong to unions, including the International Alliance of Theat rical Stage Employees and the National Association of Broad cast Employees and Technicians. Related Occupations Related arts and media occupations include: Page Artists and related workers.......................................................301 Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators...............................................................337 Graphic designers..................................................................... 312 Photographers........................................................................... 347 Sources of Additional Information For information about careers as a camera operator, contact: y International Cinematographer’s Guild, 80 Eighth Ave., 14th Floor, New York, NY 10011. y National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians, 501 Third St. NW., 6th floor, Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.nabetcwa.org Information about career and employment opportunities for camera operators and film and video editors also is available from local offices of State employment service agencies, local offices of the relevant trade unions, and local television and film production companies that employ these workers. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the Inter net version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos091.htm Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners Audiologists Significant Points • About 64 percent worked in health care facilities; many others were employed by educational services. • All States regulate licensure of audiologists; require ments vary by State. • A master’s degree in audiology (hearing) is the standard level of education required; however, a doc toral degree is becoming more common for new en trants. • Job prospects will be favorable for those possessing the doctoral (Au.D.) degree. Nature of the Work Audiologists work with people who have hearing, balance, and related ear problems. They examine individuals of all ages and identify those with the symptoms of hearing loss and other auditory, balance, and related sensory and neural prob lems. They then assess the nature and extent of the problems and help the individuals manage them. Using audiometers, computers, and other testing devices, they measure the loudness https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis at which a person begins to hear sounds, the ability to distin guish between sounds, and the impact of hearing loss on an individual’s daily life. In addition, audiologists use computer equipment to evaluate and diagnose balance disorders. Audi ologists interpret these results and may coordinate them with medical, educational, and psychological information to make a diagnosis and determine a course of treatment. Hearing disorders can result from a variety of causes including trauma at birth, viral infections, genetic disorders, exposure to loud noise, certain medications, or aging. Treatment may include examining and cleaning the ear canal, fitting and dispensing hearing aids, and fitting and programming cochlear implants. Audiologic treatment also includes counseling on adjusting to hearing loss, training on the use of hearing instruments, and teaching communication strategies for use in a variety of environments. For example, they may provide instruction in listening strategies. Audiologists also may recommend, fit, and dispense personal or large-area amplification systems and alerting devices. In audiology clinics, audiologists may independently develop and carry out treatment programs. They keep records on the initial evaluation, progress, and discharge of patients. In other settings, audiologists may work with other health and education providers as part of a team in planning and implementing services for children and adults. Audiologists who diagnose and Professional and Related Occupations 359 treat balance disorders often work in collaboration with physi cians, and physical and occupational therapists. Some audiologists specialize in work with the elderly, children, or hearing-impaired individuals who need special treatment programs. Others develop and implement ways to protect workers’ hearing from on-the-job injuries. They measure noise levels in workplaces and conduct hearing protection programs in factories and in schools and communities. Audiologists who work in private practice also manage the business aspects of running an office, such as developing a patient base, hiring employees, keeping records, and ordering equipment and supplies. Some audiologists conduct research on types of, and treatment for, hearing, balance, and related disorders. Others design and develop equipment or techniques for diagnosing and treating these disorders. Work environment. Audiologists usually work at a desk or table in clean, comfortable surroundings. The job is not physically demanding but does require attention to detail and intense concentration. The emotional needs of patients and their families may be demanding. Most full-time audiologists work about 40 hours per week, which may include weekends and evenings to meet the needs of patients. Those who work on a contract basis may spend a substantial amount of time traveling between facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States regulate licensure of audiologists; requirements vary by State. At least a master’s degree in audiology is required, but a doctoral degree is increasingly necessary. Education and training. Individuals pursuing a career will need to earn a doctoral degree. In 2009, 18 States required a doctoral degree or its equivalent for new applicants to prac tice audiology. The doctoral degree in audiology is a graduate program typically lasting 4 years and resulting in the Au.D. designation. The Council on Academic Accreditation (CAA) is an entity of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) that accredits education programs in audiology. In 2009, the CAA accredited 70 doctoral programs in audiology. Graduation from an accredited program may be required to obtain a license in some States and professional credentialing. Requirements for admission to programs in audiology include courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, and communication. Graduate coursework in audiology includes anatomy; physiology; physics; genetics; normal and abnormal communication development; auditory, balance, and neural systems assessment and treat ment; diagnosis and treatment; pharmacology; and ethics. Graduate curriculums also include supervised clinical practicum and externships. Licensure and certification. Audiologists are regulated by licensure in all 50 States. Eighteen of those States require a doctoral degree for licensure. Some States regulate the practice of audiology and the dispensing of hearing aids separately, meaning some States will require an additional license called a Hearing Aid Dispenser license. Many States require that audi ologists complete continuing education for license renewal. Eli gibility requirements, hearing aid dispensing requirements, and continuing education requirements vary from State to State. For specific requirements, contact your State’s medical or health board. Audiologists can earn the Certificate of Clinical Compe tence in Audiology (CCC-A) offered by the American SpeechLanguage-Hearing Association; they may also be credentialed through the American Board of Audiology. Professional cre dentialing may satisfy some or all of the requirements for State licensure. Other qualifications. Audiologists should be able to ef fectively communicate diagnostic test results, diagnoses, and proposed treatments in a manner easily understood by their patients. They must be able to approach problems objectively and provide support to patients and their families. Because a patient’s progress may be slow, patience, compassion, and good listening skills are necessary. It is important for audiologists to be aware of new diagnos tic and treatment technologies. Most audiologists participate in continuing education courses to learn new methods and technologies. Advancement. With experience, audiologists can advance to open their own private practice. Audiologists working in hos pitals and clinics can advance to management or supervisory positions. Employment Audiologists held about 12,800 jobs in 2008. About 64 percent of all jobs were in healthcare facilities—offices of physicians or other health practitioners, including audiologists; hospitals; and outpatient care centers. About 14 percent of jobs were in educational services. Other jobs for audiologists were in health and personal care stores and in State and local governments. V A.'” Audiologists examine individuals and identify symptoms of hearing loss and other auditory, balance, and related sensory and neural problems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Much faster than average employment growth is projected. However, because of the small size of the occupation, few job openings are expected. Job prospects will be favorable for those possessing the Au.D. degree. Employment change. Employment of audiologists is ex pected to grow 25 percent from 2008 to 2018, much faster than 360 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Audiologists................................................ ................................. soc Code 29-1121 Projected Employment, 2018 16,000 Employment, 2008 12,800 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 3,200 25 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ____ average for all occupations. Hearing loss is strongly associated with aging, so increased growth in older population groups will cause the number of people with hearing and balance impair ments to increase markedly. Medical advances also are improving the survival rate of pre mature infants and trauma victims, who then need assessment and sometimes treatment. Greater awareness of the importance of early identification and diagnosis of hearing disorders in infants also will increase employment. In addition to medical advances, technological advances in hearing aids may drive de mand. Digital hearing aids have become smaller in size and also have quality improving technologies like reducing feedback. Demand may be spurred by those who switch from analog to digital hearing aids, as well as those who will desire new or first-time hearing aids because they are becoming less visible. Employment in educational services will increase along with growth in elementary and secondary school enrollments, in cluding enrollment of special education students. Growth in employment of audiologists will be moderated by limitations on reimbursements made by third-party payers for the tests and services they provide. Job prospects. Job prospects will be favorable for those possessing the Au.D. degree. Only a few job openings for au diologists will arise from the need to replace those who leave the occupation, because the occupation is relatively small and workers tend to stay in this occupation until they retire. De mand may be greater in areas with large numbers of retirees, so audiologists who are willing to relocate may have the best job prospects. Earnings Median annual wages of audiologists were $62,030 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $50,470 and $78,380. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $40,360, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $98,880. Some em ployers may pay for continuing education courses. About 15 percent of audiologists were union members or covered under union contracts in 2008. Related Occupations Audiologists specialize in the prevention, diagnosis, and treat ment of hearing problems. Workers who treat other problems related to physical or mental health include: Page Occupational therapists............................................................ 369 Optometrists............................................................................. 371 Physical therapists.................................................................... 377 Psychologists............................................................................ 215 Speech-language pathologists..................................................399 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information State licensing boards can provide information on licensure requirements. State departments of education can supply in formation on certification requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. For information on the specific requirements of your State, contact that State’s licensing board. Career information, a de scription of the CCC-A credential, and information on State li censure is available from: y American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2200 Research Blvd., Rockville, MD 20850. Internet: http://www.asha.org For information on the Au.D. degree, contact: V Audiology Foundation of America, 8 N. 3rd St., Suite 301, Lafayette, IN 47901. Internet: http://www.audfound.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos085.htm Chiropractors Significant Points • Job prospects should be good. • Chiropractors must be licensed, requiring 2 to 4 years of undergraduate education, the completion of a 4-year chiropractic college course, and passing scores on national and State examinations. • About 44 percent of chiropractors are self-employed. • Earnings typically are relatively low in the beginning but increase as the practice grows. Nature of the Work Chiropractors, also known as doctors of chiropractic or chi ropractic physicians, diagnose and treat patients with health problems of the musculoskeletal system and treat the effects of those problems on the nervous system and on general health. Many chiropractic treatments deal specifically with the spine and the manipulation of the spine. Chiropractic is based on the principle that spinal joint misalignments interfere with the nervous system and can result in lower resistance to disease and many different conditions of diminished health. The chiropractic approach to healthcare focuses on the pa tient’s overall health. Chiropractors provide natural, drugless, nonsurgical health treatments, relying on the body’s inherent recuperative abilities. They also recognize that many factors Professional and Related Occupations 361 In addition to general chiropractic practice, some chiroprac tors specialize in sports injuries, neurology, orthopedics, pe diatrics, nutrition, internal disorders, or diagnostic imaging. Many chiropractors are solo or group practitioners who also have the administrative responsibilities of running a practice. In larger offices, chiropractors delegate these tasks to office managers and chiropractic assistants. Chiropractors in private practice are responsible for developing a patient base, hiring employees, and keeping records. Work environment. Chiropractors work in clean, comfort able offices. Like other health practitioners, chiropractors are sometimes on their feet for long periods. Chiropractors who take X rays must employ appropriate precautions against the dangers of repeated exposure to radiation. Chiropractors work, on average, about 40 hours per week, although longer hours are not uncommon. Solo practitioners set their own hours but may work evenings or weekends to accommodate patients. Like other healthcare practitioners, chiropractors in a group practice will sometimes be on call or treat patients of other chiropractors in the group. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Chiropractors analyze the patient’s posture and spine and may manually adjust the spinal column. affect health, including exercise, diet, rest, environment, and heredity. Chiropractors recommend changes in lifestyle that affect those factors. In some situations, chiropractors refer pa tients to or consult with other health practitioners. Like other health practitioners, chiropractors follow a stan dard routine to get information needed to diagnose and treat patients. They take the patient’s health history; conduct physi cal, neurological, and orthopedic examinations; and may or der laboratory tests. X rays and other diagnostic images are important tools because of the chiropractor’s emphasis on the spine and its proper function. Chiropractors also analyze the patient’s posture and spine using a specialized technique. For patients whose health problems can be traced to the muscu loskeletal system, chiropractors manually adjust the spinal column. Some chiropractors use additional procedures in their prac tices, including therapies using heat, water, light, massage, ul trasound, electric currents, and acupuncture . They may apply supports such as straps, tape, braces, or shoe inserts. Chiro practors often counsel patients about health concepts such as nutrition, exercise, changes in lifestyle, and stress manage ment, but chiropractors do not prescribe drugs or perform sur gery. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Chiropractors must be licensed, which requires 2 to 4 years of undergraduate education, the completion of a 4-year chiro practic college course, and passing scores on national and State examinations. Education and training. In 2009, 16 chiropractic programs in the United States were accredited by the Council on Chiro practic Education. Applicants must have at least 90 semester hours of undergraduate study leading toward a bachelor’s de gree, including courses in English, the social sciences or hu manities, organic and inorganic chemistry, biology, physics, and psychology. Many applicants have a bachelor’s degree, which may eventually become the minimum entry requirement. Sev eral chiropractic colleges offer prechiropractic study, as well as a bachelor’s degree program. Recognition of prechiropractic education offered by chiropractic colleges varies among the States. Chiropractic programs require a minimum of 4,200 hours of combined classroom, laboratory, and clinical experience. Dur ing the first 2 years, most chiropractic programs emphasize classroom and laboratory work in sciences such as anatomy, physiology, public health, microbiology, pathology, and bio chemistry. The last 2 years focus on courses in manipulation and spinal adjustment and provide clinical experience in physi cal and laboratory diagnosis, neurology, orthopedics, geriatrics, physiotherapy, and nutrition. Chiropractic programs and insti tutions grant the degree of Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.). Chiropractic colleges also offer postdoctoral training in or thopedics, neurology, sports injuries, nutrition, rehabilitation, radiology, industrial consulting, family practice, pediatrics, and applied chiropractic sciences. Once such training is complete, chiropractors may take specialty exams leading to “diplomate” status in a given specialty. Exams are administered by chiro practic specialty boards. Licensure. All States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chiropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet the educational and examination requirements estab- 362 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Chiropractors............................................... ................................. soc Code Employment, 2008 29-1011 49,100 Projected Employment, 2018 58,700 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 9,600 20 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. lished by the State. Chiropractors can practice only in States where they are licensed. Some States have agreements permit ting chiropractors licensed in one State to obtain a license in another without further examination, provided that their educa tional, examination, and practice credentials meet State speci fications. Most State licensing boards require at least 2 years of under graduate education, but an increasing number are requiring a 4-year bachelor’s degree. All boards require the completion of a 4-year program at an accredited chiropractic college leading to the Doctor of Chiropractic degree. For licensure, most State boards recognize either all or part of the four-part test administered by the National Board of Chiro practic Examiners. State examinations may supplement the Na tional Board tests, depending on State requirements. All States except New Jersey require the completion of a specified number of hours of continuing education each year in order to maintain licensure. Chiropractic associations and accredited chiropractic programs and institutions offer continuing education programs. Other qualifications. Chiropractic requires keen observa tion to detect physical abnormalities. It also takes considerable manual dexterity, but not unusual strength or endurance, to per form adjustments. Chiropractors should be able to work inde pendently and handle responsibility. As in other health-related occupations, empathy, understanding, and the desire to help others are good qualities for dealing effectively with patients. Advancement. Newly licensed chiropractors can set up a new practice, purchase an established one, or enter into partner ship with an established practitioner. They also may take a sala ried position with an established chiropractor, a group practice, or a healthcare facility. Employment Chiropractors held about 49,100 jobs in 2008. Most chiroprac tors work in a solo practice, although some are in group practice or work for other chiropractors. A small number teach, conduct research at chiropractic institutions, or work in hospitals and clinics. Approximately 44 percent of chiropractors were selfemployed. Many chiropractors are located in small communities. How ever, the distribution of chiropractors is not geographically uniform. This occurs primarily because new chiropractors fre quently establish their practices in close proximity to one of the few chiropractic educational institutions. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow much faster than average. Job prospects should be good. Employment change. Employment of chiropractors is ex pected to increase 20 percent between 2008 and 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. Projected job growth https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis stems from increasing consumer demand for alternative health care. Because chiropractors emphasize the importance of healthy lifestyles and do not prescribe drugs or perform sur gery, chiropractic care is appealing to many health-conscious Americans. Chiropractic treatment of the back, neck, extremi ties, and joints has become more accepted as a result of research and changing attitudes about alternative, noninvasive healthcare practices. Chiropractors who specialize in pediatric care will be in demand as chiropractic spinal treatment is very gentle and children enjoy subsequent visits. The rapidly expanding older population, with its increased likelihood of mechanical and structural problems, also will increase demand for chiroprac tors. Demand for chiropractic treatment, however, is related to the ability of patients to pay, either directly or through health insur ance. Although more insurance plans now cover chiropractic services, the extent of such coverage varies among plans. Chi ropractors must educate communities about the benefits of chi ropractic care in order to establish a successful practice. Job prospects for new chiropractors are Job prospects. expected to be good, especially for those who enter a multidisciplined practice, consisting of, for example, a chiropractor, physical therapist, and medical doctor. Multi-disciplined prac tices are cost effective and allow patients to remain in-house. Should a patient be referred to a medical doctor, they may use the “in-house” doctor or one of their own choosing. Chiroprac tors usually remain in the occupation until they retire and few transfer to other occupations, so replacement needs arise almost entirely from retirements. Establishing a new practice will be easiest in areas with a low concentration of chiropractors. Earnings Median annual wages of salaried chiropractors were $66,490 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,540 and $96,700 a year. In 2009, the mean salary for chiropractors was $94,454 ac cording to a survey conducted by Chiropractic Economics magazine. In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning and increase as the practice grows. Geographic location and the characteristics and qualifications of the practitioner also may influence earnings. Salaried chiropractors typically receive heath insurance and retirement benefits from their employers, whereas self-em ployed chiropractors must provide for their own health insur ance and retirement. Professional and Related Occupations 363 Related Occupations Nature of the Work Chiropractors treat patients and work to prevent bodily disor ders and injuries. So do: Dentists diagnose and treat problems with teeth and tissues in the mouth, along with giving advice and administering care to help prevent future problems. They provide instruction on diet, brushing, flossing, the use of fluorides, and other aspects of dental care. They remove tooth decay, fill cavities, exam ine x rays, place protective plastic sealants on children’s teeth, straighten teeth, and repair fractured teeth. They also perform corrective surgery on gums and supporting bones to treat gum diseases. Dentists extract teeth and make models and measure ments for dentures to replace missing teeth. They also adminis ter anesthetics and write prescriptions for antibiotics and other medications. Dentists use a variety of equipment, including x-ray ma chines, drills, mouth mirrors, probes, forceps, bmshes, and scalpels. Lasers, digital scanners, and other computer technolo gies also may be used. Dentists wear masks, gloves, and safety glasses to protect themselves and their patients from infectious diseases. Dentists in private practice oversee a variety of administrative tasks, including bookkeeping and the buying of equipment and supplies. They may employ and supervise dental hygienists, dental assistants, dental laboratory technicians, and reception- Page Athletic trainers........................................................................ 405 Massage therapists................................................................... 452 Occupational therapists............................................................ 369 Physical therapists.................................................................... 377 Physicians and surgeons........................................................... 381 Podiatrists................................................................................. 385 Veterinarians............................................................................. 402 Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a chiropractor is available from the following organizations: >■ American Chiropractic Association, 1701 Clarendon Blvd., Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.acatoday.org >• International Chiropractors Association, 1110 North Glebe Rd„ Suite 650, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http ://www.chiropractic.org y World Chiropractic Alliance, 2950 N. Dobson Rd., Suite 3, Chandler, AZ 85224. For a list of chiropractic programs and institutions, as well as general information on chiropractic education, contact: >• Council on Chiropractic Education, 8049 North 85th Way, Scottsdale, AZ 85258-4321. Internet: http://www.cce-usa.org For information on State education and licensure require ments, contact: V Federation of Chiropractic Licensing Boards, 5401 W. 10th St., Suite 101, Greeley, CO 80634-4400. Internet: http ://www.fclb.org For more information on the national chiropractic licensing exam, contact: y National Board of Chiropractic Examiners, 901 54th Ave., Greeley, CO 80634. Internet: http://www.nbce.org For information on admission requirements to a specific chi ropractic college, as well as scholarship and loan information, contact the college’s admissions office. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos071 .htm Dentists Significant Points • About 3 out of 4 dentists are solo practitioners. • Dentists must graduate from an accredited dental school and pass written and practical examinations; competition for admission to dental school is keen. • Faster than average employment growth is projected. • Job prospects should be good, reflecting the need to replace the large number of dentists expected to retire. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Jw i&rzprztSTt Dentists remove tooth decay, fill cavities, and repair fractu red teeth. 364 Occupational Outlook Handbook ists. (These occupations are described elsewhere in the Hand book.) Most dentists are general practitioners, handling a variety of dental needs. Other dentists practice in any of nine specialty areas. Orthodontists, the largest group of specialists, straighten teeth by applying pressure to the teeth with braces or other ap pliances. The next largest group, oral and maxillofacial sur geons, operates on the mouth, jaws, teeth, gums, neck, and head. The remainder may specialize as pediatric dentists (focusing on dentistry for children and special-needs patients); periodontists (treating gums and bone supporting the teeth); prosthodon tists (replacing missing teeth with permanent fixtures, such as crowns and bridges, or with removable fixtures such as den tures); endodontists (performing root-canal therapy); oral pa thologists (diagnosing oral diseases); oral and maxillofacial radiologists (diagnosing diseases in the head and neck through the use of imaging technologies); or dental public health spe cialists (promoting good dental health and preventing dental diseases within the community). Work environment. Most dentists are solo practitioners, meaning that they own their own businesses and work alone or with a small staff. Some dentists have partners, and a few work for other dentists as associate dentists. Most dentists work 4 or 5 days a week. Some work eve nings and weekends to meet their patients’ needs. The number of hours worked varies greatly among dentists. Most full-time dentists work between 35 and 40 hours a week. However, oth ers, especially those who are trying to establish a new practice, work more. Also, experienced dentists often work fewer hours. It is common for dentists to continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Dentists usually work in the safety of an office environment. However, work-related injuries can occur, such as those result ing from the use of hand-held tools when performing dental work on patients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require dentists to be licensed. To qualify for a license in most States, candidates must graduate from an accredited dental school and pass writ ten and practical examinations. Education and training. In 2008, there were 57 dental schools in the United States accredited by the American Dental Association’s (ADA’s) Commission on Dental Accreditation. Dental schools require a minimum of 2 years of college-level predental education prior to admittance. Most dental students have at least a bachelor’s degree before entering dental school, although a few applicants are accepted to dental school after 2 or 3 years of college and complete their bachelor’s degree while attending dental school. According to the ADA, 85 percent of dental students had a bachelor’s degree prior to beginning their dental program in the 2006-07 academic year. High school and college students who want to become den tists should take courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, and mathematics. College undergraduates planning on applying to dental school are required to take many science courses. Be cause of this, some choose a major in a science, such as biology or chemistry, whereas others take the required science coursework while pursuing a major in another subject. All dental schools require applicants to take the Dental Ad missions Test (DAT). When selecting students, schools consider scores earned on the DAT, applicants’ grade point averages, and information gathered through recommendations and interviews. Competition for admission to dental school is keen. Dental school usually lasts 4 academic years. Studies begin with classroom instruction and laboratory work in science, in cluding anatomy, microbiology, biochemistry, and physiology. Beginning courses in clinical sciences, including laboratory techniques, are also completed. During the last 2 years, students treat patients, usually in dental clinics, under the supervision of licensed dentists. Most dental schools award the degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS). Others award an equivalent degree, Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD). Licensure. Licensing is required to practice as a dentist. In most States, licensure requires passing written and practi cal examinations in addition to having a degree from an ac credited dental school. Candidates may fulfill the written part of the State licensing requirements by passing the National Board Dental Examinations. Individual States or regional test ing agencies administer the written or practical examinations. Individuals can be licensed to practice any of the 9 recog nized specialties in all 50 States and the District of Columbia. Requirements include 2 to 4 years of postgraduate education and, in some cases, the completion of a special State examina tion. A postgraduate residency term also may be required, usu ally lasting up to 2 years. Most State licenses permit dentists to engage in both general and specialized practice. Other qualifications. Dentistry requires diagnostic ability and manual skills. Dentists should have good visual memory; excellent judgment regarding space, shape, and color; a high degree of manual dexterity; and scientific ability. Good busi- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, 2018 Number Percent 164,000 22,100 16 29-1020 141,900 Dentists.......................................................................... ........................ 15 138,600 18,400 29-1021 120,200 Dentists, general........................................................ ........................ 15 29-1022 6,700 7,700 1,000 Oral and maxillofacial surgeons............................. ........................ 20 7,700 9,200 1,500 29-1023 Orthodontists............................................................. ........................ 28 700 100 29-1024 500 Prosthodontists.......................................................... ........................ 7,900 1,000 15 29-1029 6,900 Dentists, all other specialists.................................... ........................ (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2008 Professional and Related Occupations 365 ness sense, self-discipline, and good communication skills are helpful for success in private practice. Advancement. Dentists and aspiring dentists who want to teach or conduct research full time usually spend an additional 2 to 5 years in advanced dental training, in programs operated by dental schools or hospitals. Many private practitioners also teach part time, including supervising students in dental school clinics. (See the statement on teachers—postsecondary else where in the Handbook.) Some dental school graduates work for established dentists as associates for 1 to 2 years to gain experience and save money to equip an office of their own. Most dental school graduates, however, purchase an established practice or open a new one immediately after graduation. However, employment of dentists is not expected to keep pace with the increased demand for dental services. Productiv ity increases from new technology, as well as the tendency to assign more tasks to dental hygienists and assistants, will allow dentists to perform more work than they have in the past. As their practices expand, dentists are likely to hire more hygien ists and dental assistants to handle routine services. Dentists will increasingly provide care and instruction aimed at preventing the loss of teeth, rather than simply providing treatments such as fillings. Improvements in dental technology also will allow dentists to offer more effective and less painful treatment to their patients. Job prospects. As an increasing number of dentists from Employment the baby-boom generation reach retirement age, many of them Dentists held about 141,900 jobs in 2008. Employment was dis tributed among general practitioners and specialists as follows: will retire or work fewer hours and stop taking on new patients. Dentists, general..........................................................120,200 Orthodontists...................................................................7,700 Oral and maxillofacial surgeons..................................... 6,700 Prosthodontists.................................................................. 500 Dentists, all other specialists.......................................... 6,900 Approximately 15 percent of all dentists were specialists. About 28 percent of dentists were self-employed and not incor porated. Very few salaried dentists worked in hospitals and of fices of physicians. Almost all dentists work in private practice. According to the American Dental Association, about 3 out of 4 dentists in private practice are solo proprietors, and almost 15 percent belonged to a partnership. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow faster than the average. Job prospects should be good, reflecting the need to replace the large number of dentists expected to retire. Employment change. Employment of dentists is projected to grow by 16 percent through 2018, which is faster than the average for all occupations. The demand for dental services is expected to continue to increase. The overall U.S. population is growing, and the elderly segment of the population is grow ing even faster; these phenomena will increase the demand for dental care. Many members of the baby-boom generation will need complicated dental work. In addition, elderly people are more likely to retain their teeth than were their predecessors, so they will require much more care than in the past. The younger generation will continue to need preventive checkups despite an overall increase in the dental health of the public over the last few decades. Recently, some private insurance providers have increased their dental coverage. If this trend continues, people with new or expanded dental insurance will be more likely to visit a dentist than in the past. Also, although they are currently a small proportion of dental expenditures, cosmetic dental ser vices, such as providing teeth-whitening treatments, will be come increasingly popular. This trend is expected to continue as new technologies allow these procedures to take less time and be much less invasive. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Furthermore, the number of applicants to, and graduates from, dental schools has increased in recent years. Job prospects should be good, because younger dentists will be able to take over the work of older dentists who retire or cut back on hours, as well as provide dental services to accommodate the growing demand. Demand for dental services tends to follow the business cy cle, primarily because these services usually are paid for either by the patient or by private insurance companies. As a result, during slow times in the economy, demand for dental services can decrease; consequently, dentists may have difficulty finding employment, or if already in an established practice, they may work fewer hours because of reduced demand. Earnings Median annual wages of salaried general dentists were $ 142,870 in May 2008. Earnings vary according to number of years in practice, location, hours worked, and specialty. Self-employed dentists in private practice tend to earn more than salaried den tists. Dentists who are salaried often receive benefits paid by their employer, with health insurance and malpractice insurance be ing among the most common. However, like other business owners, self-employed dentists must provide their own health insurance, life insurance, retirement plans, and other benefits. Related Occupations Dentists examine, diagnose, prevent, and treat diseases and ab normalities. Other workers who perform similar tasks include: Page Chiropractors............................................................................ 360 Optometrists.............................................................................371 Physicians and surgeons...........................................................381 Podiatrists................................................................................. 385 Veterinarians.............................................................................402 366 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For information on dentistry as a career, a list of accredited dental schools, and a list of State boards of dental examiners, contact: y American Dental Association, Commission on Dental Accreditation, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org For information on admission to dental schools, contact: y American Dental Education Association, 1400 K St. NW„ Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.adea.org For more information on general dentistry or on a specific dental specialty, contact: y Academy of General Dentistry, 211 East Chicago Ave., Suite 900, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.agd.org y American Association of Orthodontists, 401 North Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63141. Internet: http://www.braces.org y American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons, 9700 West Bryn Mawr Ave., Rosemont, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.aaoms.org y American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry, 211 East Chicago Ave., Suite 1700, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http ://www.aapd.org y American Academy of Periodontology, 737 North Michigan Ave., Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http ://www.perio.org y American Academy of Prosthodontists, 211 East Chicago Ave., Suite 1000, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http ://www.prosthodontics.org Dietitians and Nutritionists Significant Points • Most jobs are in hospitals, nursing care facilities, out patient care centers, and offices of physicians or other health practitioners. • Dietitians and nutritionists need at least a bachelor’s degree; licensure, certification, or registration re quirements vary by State. • Applicants with specialized training, an advanced degree, or certifications beyond the particular State’s minimum requirement should enjoy the best job opportunities. Nature of the Work Dietitians and nutritionists plan food and nutrition programs, supervise meal preparation, and oversee the serving of meals. They prevent and treat illnesses by promoting healthy eating habits and recommending dietary modifications. For example, dietitians might teach a patient with high blood pressure how to use less salt when preparing meals, or create a diet reduced in fat and sugar for an overweight patient. Dietitians manage food service systems for institutions such as hospitals and schools, promote sound eating habits through education, and conduct research. Many dietitians specialize, be coming a clinical dietitian, community dietitian, management dietitian, or consultant. Clinical dietitians provide nutritional services to patients in hospitals, nursing care facilities, and other institutions. They assess patients’ nutritional needs, develop and implement nutri tion programs, and evaluate and report the results. They also y American Association of Endodontists, 211 East Chicago Ave., Suite 1100, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.aae.org y American Academy of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology, P.O. Box 1010, Evans, GA 30809. Internet: http ://www.aaomr.org y American Association of Public Health Dentistry, 3085 Stevenson Dr., Suite 200, Springfield, IL 62703. Internet: http://www.aaphd.org People interested in practicing dentistry should obtain the re quirements for licensure from the board of dental examiners of the State in which they plan to work. To obtain information on scholarships, grants, and loans, including Federal financial aid, prospective dental students should contact the office of student financial aid at the schools to which they apply. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos072.htm https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis fm ________________ Dietitians counsel individuals and groups on nutritional prac tices designed to prevent disease and promote health. Professional and Related Occupations 367 confer with doctors and other healthcare professionals to coor dinate medical and nutritional needs. Some clinical dietitians specialize in managing the weight of overweight patients or in the care of renal (kidney), diabetic, or critically ill patients. In addition, clinical dietitians in nursing care facilities, small hos pitals, or correctional facilities may manage the food service department. Community dietitians counsel individuals and groups on nutritional practices designed to prevent disease and promote health. Working in places such as public health clinics, home health agencies, and health maintenance organizations, com munity dietitians evaluate individual needs, develop nutritional care plans, and instruct individuals and their families. Dietitians working in home health agencies provide instruction on grocery shopping and food preparation to the elderly, children, and indi viduals with special needs. Increased public interest in nutrition has led to job opportuni ties in food manufacturing, advertising, and marketing. In these areas, dietitians analyze foods, prepare literature for distribu tion, or report on issues such as dietary liber, vitamin supple ments, or the nutritional content of recipes. Management dietitians oversee large-scale meal planning and preparation in healthcare facilities, company cafeterias, prisons, and schools. They hire, train, and direct other dietitians and food service workers; budget for and purchase food, equip ment, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare records and reports. Consultant dietitians work under contract with healthcare facilities or in their own private practice. They perform nutri tion screenings for their clients and offer advice on diet-related concerns such as weight loss and cholesterol reduction. Some work for wellness programs, sports teams, supermarkets, and other nutrition-related businesses. They may consult with food service managers, providing expertise in sanitation, safety pro cedures, menu development, budgeting, and planning. Work environment. Dietitians and nutritionists usually work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. However, some work in hot, congested kitchens. Many dietitians and nutrition ists are on their feet for much of the workday. Most full-time dietitians and nutritionists work a standard 40hour week, although some work weekends. About 19 percent worked part time in 2008. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dietitians and nutritionists need at least a bachelor’s degree. Licensure, certification, or registration requirements vary by State. Education and training. Becoming a dietitian or nutritionist usually requires at least a bachelor’s degree in dietetics, foods and nutrition, food service systems management, or a related area. Graduate degrees also are available. College students in these majors take courses in foods, nutrition, institution man agement, chemistry, biochemistry, biology, microbiology, and physiology. Other suggested courses include business, mathe matics, statistics, computer science, psychology, sociology, and economics. High school students interested in becoming a di etitian or nutritionist should take courses in biology, chemistry, Digitizedmathematics, for FRASER health, and communications. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis As of 2008, there were 279 bachelor’s degree programs and 18 master’s degree programs approved by the American Dietetic Association’s Commission on Accreditation for Dietet ics Education. Licensure. Of the 48 States and jurisdictions with laws gov erning dietetics, 35 require licensure, 12 require statutory certi fication, and 1 require registration. Specific requirements vary by State. As a result, interested candidates should determine the requirements of the State in which they want to work before sitting for any exam. In States that require licensure, only people who are licensed can work as dietitians and nutritionists. States that require statu tory certification limit the use of occupational titles to people who meet certain requirements; individuals without certifica tion can still practice as a dietitian or nutritionist but without using certain titles. Registration is the least restrictive form of State regulation of dietitians and nutritionists. Unregistered people are permitted to practice as a dietitian or nutritionist. Certification and other qualifications. Although not re quired, the Commission on Dietetic Registration of the Ameri can Dietetic Association awards the Registered Dietitian credential to those who pass an exam after completing aca demic coursework and a supervised internship. This certifica tion is different from the statutory certification regulated by some States and discussed in the previous section. To maintain a Registered Dietitian status, workers must complete at least 75 credit hours in approved continuing education classes every 5 years. A supervised internship, required for certification, can be completed in one of two ways. The first requires the comple tion of a program accredited by the Commission on Dietetic Registration. As of September 2009, there were 51 accredited programs that combined academic and supervised practice ex perience and generally lasted 4 to 5 years. The second option requires the completion of 900 hours of supervised practice experience in any of the 243 accredited internships. These in ternships may be full-time programs lasting 6 to 12 months or part-time programs lasting 2 years. Advancement. Experienced dietitians may advance to management positions, such as assistant director, associate director, or director of a dietetic department, or may become self-employed. Some dietitians specialize in areas such as re nal, diabetic, cardiovascular, or pediatric dietetics. Others leave the occupation to become sales representatives for equipment, pharmaceutical, or food manufacturers. A master’s degree can help some workers to advance their careers, particularly in ca reer paths related to research, advanced clinical positions, or public health. Employment Dietitians and nutritionists held about 60,300 jobs in 2008. More than half of all jobs were in hospitals, nursing care facili ties, outpatient care centers, or offices of physicians and other health practitioners. State and local government agencies pro vided additional jobs—mostly in correctional facilities, health departments, and other public-health-related areas. Some dieti tians and nutritionists were employed in special food services, an industry made up of firms providing food services on con- 368 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, 2008-2018 Employment, 2018 Number Percent 5,600 9 60,300 65,800 29-1031 Dietitians and nutritionists..................................... .............................. (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title SOC Code Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. tract to facilities such as colleges and universities, airlines, cor rectional facilities, and company cafeterias. Other jobs were in public and private educational services, community care facilities for the elderly (which includes assisted-living facilities), individual and family services, home healthcare services, and the Federal Government—mostly in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. Some dietitians were self-employed, working as consultants to facilities such as hos pitals and nursing care facilities or providing dietary counseling to individuals. Job Outlook Average employment growth is projected. Applicants with spe cialized training, an advanced degree, or certifications beyond the particular State’s minimum requirement should enjoy the best job opportunities. Employment change. Employment of dietitians and nutri tionists is expected to increase 9 percent during the 2008-18 projection decade, about as fast as the average for all occupa tions. Job growth will result from an increasing emphasis on disease prevention through improved dietary habits. A grow ing and aging population will boost demand for nutritional counseling and treatment in hospitals, residential care facili ties, schools, prisons, community health programs, and home healthcare agencies. Public interest in nutrition and increased emphasis on health education and prudent lifestyles also will spur demand, especially in food service management. Also, with increased public awareness of obesity and diabe tes, Medicare coverage has been expanded to include medical nutrition therapy for renal and diabetic patients, creating job growth for dietitians and nutritionists specializing in those diseases. Employment growth, however, may be constrained if some employers substitute other workers, such as health educators, food service managers, and dietetic technicians, to do work re lated to nutrition. Also, demand for nutritional therapy services is related to the ability of patients to pay, either out-of-pocket or through health insurance, and although more insurance plans now cover nutritional therapy services, the extent of such cover age varies among plans. Growth may be curbed by limitations on insurance reimbursement for dietetic services. Hospitals will continue to employ a large number of dietitians and nutritionists to provide medical nutritional therapy and plan meals. But hospitals also will continue to contract with outside agencies for food service and move medical nutritional therapy to outpatient care facilities, slowing job growth in hospitals rel ative to food service, outpatient facilities, and other employers. Finally, the number of dietitian positions in nursing care fa cilities is expected to decline, as these establishments continue to contract with outside agencies for food services. However, is expected to grow rapidly in contract providers employment https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of food services, in outpatient care centers, and in offices of physicians and other health practitioners. Job prospects. In addition to employment growth, job open ings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Applicants with specialized training, an advanced degree, or certifications beyond the particular State’s minimum requirement should en joy the best job opportunities. Demand for dietitians should be particularly strong in outpatient care facilities, offices of phy sicians, and food service management. Applicants without a bachelor’s degree will face keen competition for jobs. Dietitians with specialized training, an advanced degree, or certifications beyond the particular State’s minimum require ment will experience the best job opportunities. Those special izing in renal and diabetic nutrition or gerontological nutrition will benefit from the growing number of diabetics and the aging of the population. Earnings Median annual wages of dietitians and nutritionists were $50,590 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,060 and $61,790. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,460, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $73,410. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of dietitians and nutritionists in May 2008 were: Outpatient care centers............................................... $52,120 General medical and surgical hospitals........................51,390 Nursing care facilities.................................................. 51,110 Local government......................................................... 47,390 Special food services.................................................... 45,410 According to the American Dietetic Association, median an nual wages for registered dietitians in 2007 varied by practice area as follows: $60,008 in consultation and business; $64,002 in food and nutrition management; $66,061 in education and re search; $52,000 in clinical nutrition/ambulatory care; $53,997 in clinical nutrition/long-term care; $48,006 in community nu trition; and $48,984 in clinical nutrition/acute care. Salaries also vary by years in practice, education level, and geographic region. Related Occupations Other workers who may apply the principles of dietetics in clude: Page Dietetic technicians..................................................................824 Food service managers...............................................................55 Health educators.......................................................................238 Registered nurses.....................................................................392 Professional and Related Occupations 369 Sources of Additional Information For a list of academic programs, scholarships, and other infor mation about dietitians, contact: y The American Dietetic Association, 120 South Riverside Plaza, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60606-6995. Internet: http://www.eatright.org For information on the Registered Dietitian exam and other specialty credentials, contact: y The Commission on Dietetic Registration, 120 South Riverside Plaza, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60606-6995. Internet: http://www.cdrnet.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos077.htm Occupational Therapists Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow much faster than average, and job opportunities should be good, espe cially for therapists treating the elderly. • Occupational therapists are regulated in all 50 States; requirements vary by State. • Occupational therapists are increasingly taking on supervisory roles, allowing assistants and aides to work more closely with clients under the guidance of a therapist. Nature of the Work Occupational therapists help patients improve their ability to perform tasks in living and working environments. They work with individuals who suffer from a mentally, physically, devel opmentally, or emotionally disabling condition. Occupational therapists use treatments to develop, recover, or maintain the daily living and work skills of their patients. The therapist helps clients not only to improve their basic motor functions and rea soning abilities, but also to compensate for permanent loss of function. The goal is to help clients have independent, produc tive, and satisfying lives. Occupational therapists help clients to perform all types of activities, from using a computer to caring for daily needs such as dressing, cooking, and eating. Physical exercises may be used to increase strength and dexterity, while other activities may be chosen to improve visual acuity or the ability to discern patterns. For example, a client with short-term memory loss might be encouraged to make lists to aid recall, and a person with coordination problems might be assigned exercises to im prove hand-eye coordination. Occupational therapists also use computer programs to help clients improve decision-making, abstract-reasoning, problem-solving, and perceptual skills, as well as memory, sequencing, and coordination—all of which Digitizedare for important FRASER for independent living. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Occupational therapists help patients learn to perform all types of activities, from using a computer to caring for daily needs such as dressing, cooking, and eating. Patients with permanent disabilities, such as spinal cord inju ries, cerebral palsy, or muscular dystrophy, often need special instruction to master certain daily tasks. For these individuals, therapists demonstrate the use of adaptive equipment, including wheelchairs, orthoses, eating aids, and dressing aids. They also design or build special equipment needed at home or at work, including computer-aided adaptive equipment. They teach cli ents how to use the equipment to improve communication and control various situations in their environment. Some occupational therapists treat individuals whose ability to function in a work environment has been impaired. These practitioners might arrange employment, evaluate the work space, plan work activities, and assess the client’s progress. Therapists also may collaborate with the client and the em ployer to modify the work environment so that the client can succeed at work. Assessing and recording a client’s activities and progress is an important part of an occupational therapist’s job. Accurate records are essential for evaluating clients, for billing, and for reporting to physicians and other healthcare providers. Occupational therapists may work exclusively with individu als in a particular age group or with a particular disability. In schools, for example, they evaluate children’s capabilities, rec ommend and provide therapy, modify classroom equipment, and help children participate in school activities. A therapist may work with children individually, lead small groups in the classroom, consult with a teacher, or serve on an administrative committee. Some therapists provide early intervention therapy to infants and toddlers who have, or are at risk of having, de velopmental delays. Therapies may include facilitating the use of the hands and promoting skills for listening, following direc tions, social play, dressing, or grooming. 370 Occupational Outlook Handbook Other occupational therapists work with elderly patients. These therapists help the elderly lead more productive, active, and independent lives through a variety of methods. Therapists with specialized training in driver rehabilitation assess an in dividual’s ability to drive using both clinical and on-the-road tests. The evaluations allow the therapist to make recommen dations for adaptive equipment, training to prolong driving independence, and alternative transportation options. Occupa tional therapists also work with clients to assess their homes for hazards and to identify environmental factors that contribute to falls. Occupational therapists in mental health settings treat in dividuals who are mentally ill, developmentally challenged, or emotionally disturbed. To treat these problems, therapists choose activities that help people learn to engage in and cope with daily life. Activities might include time management skills, budgeting, shopping, homemaking, and the use of public transportation. Occupational therapists also work with individ uals who are dealing with alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, eating disorders, or stress-related disorders. Work environment. In large rehabilitation centers, therapists may work in spacious rooms equipped with machines, tools, and other devices generating noise. The work can be tiring be cause therapists are on their feet much of the time. Therapists also face hazards such as back strain from lifting and moving clients and equipment. Occupational therapists working for one employer full-time usually work a 40-hour week. Around 31 percent of occupa tional therapists worked part-time. It is not uncommon for occupational therapists to work for more than one employer at multiple facilities, which may involve significant travel time. Those in schools may participate in meetings and other activi ties during and after the school day. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Occupational therapists are regulated in all 50 States. Individu als pursuing a career as an occupational therapist usually need to earn a post-baccalaureate degree from an accredited college or university or education deemed equivalent. Education and training. A master’s degree or higher in occupational therapy is the typical minimum requirement for entry into the field. In addition, occupational therapists must attend an academic program accredited by the Accreditation Council for Occupational Therapy Education (ACOTE) in or der to sit for the national certifying exam. In 2009,150 master’s degree programs or combined bachelor’s and master’s degree programs were accredited, and 4 doctoral degree programs were accredited. Most schools have full-time programs, although a growing number are offering weekend or part-time programs as well. Coursework in occupational therapy programs include the physical, biological, and behavioral sciences as well as the ap plication of occupational therapy theory and skills. All accred ited programs require at least 24 weeks of supervised fieldwork as part of the academic curriculum. People considering this profession should take high school courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, art, and the so cial sciences. College admissions offices also look favorably on paid or volunteer experience in the healthcare field. Relevant undergraduate majors include biology, psychology, sociology, anthropology, liberal arts, and anatomy. Licensure. All States regulate the practice of occupational therapy. To obtain a license, applicants must graduate from an accredited educational program and pass a national certification examination. Those who pass the exam are awarded the title “Occupational Therapist Registered (OTR).” Specific eligibility requirements for licensure vary by State; contact your State’s licensing board for details. Some States have additional requirements for therapists who work in schools or early intervention programs. These require ments may include education-related classes, an education practice certificate, or early intervention certification. Certification and other qualifications. Certification is voluntary. The National Board for Certifying Occupational Therapy certifies occupational therapists through a national certifying exam. Those who pass the test are awarded the title Occupational Therapist Registered (OTR). In some States, the national certifying exam meets requirements for regulation while other States have their own licensing exam. Occupational therapists are expected to continue their pro fessional development by participating in continuing education courses and workshops. In fact, a number of States require con tinuing education as a condition of maintaining licensure. Occupational therapists need patience and strong interper sonal skills to inspire trust and respect in their clients. Patience is necessary because many clients may not show immediate im provement. Ingenuity and imagination in adapting activities to individual needs are assets. Those working in home healthcare services also must be able to adapt to a variety of settings. Advancement. Therapists are increasingly taking on su pervisory roles in addition to their supervision of occupational therapy assistants and aides. Occupational therapists may ad vance their careers by taking on administrative duties at hospi tals or rehabilitation centers. Occupational therapists also can advance by specializing in a clinical area and gaining expertise in treating a certain type of patient or ailment. Therapists may specialize in gerontology, mental health, pediatrics, and physical rehabilitation. In addi tion, some occupational therapists choose to teach classes in accredited occupational therapy educational programs. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, 2018 Number Percent Occupational therapists........................................... ............................. 29-1122 104,500 131,300 26,800 26 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2008 Professional and Related Occupations 371 Employment Occupational therapists held about 104,500 jobs in 2008. The largest number of occupational therapist jobs was in ambula tory health care services, which employed about 29 percent of occupational therapists. Other major employers were hospitals, offices of other health practitioners (including offices of oc cupational therapists), public and private educational services, and nursing care facilities. Some occupational therapists were employed by home health care services, outpatient care centers, offices of physicians, individual and family services, commu nity care facilities for the elderly, and government agencies. A small number of occupational therapists were selfemployed in private practice. These practitioners treated clients referred by other health professionals. They also provided con tract or consulting services to nursing care facilities, schools, adult day care programs, and home healthcare agencies. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than average. Job opportunities should be good, especially for occupational thera pists treating the elderly. Employment change. Employment of occupational thera pists is expected to increase by 26 percent between 2008 and 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. The increasing elderly population will drive growth in the demand for occupational therapy services. The demand for occupational therapists should continue to rise as a result of the increasing number of individuals with disabilities or limited function who require therapy services. Older persons have an increased incidence of heart attack and stroke, which will spur demand for therapeutic services. Growth in the population 75 years and older—an age group that suffers from high incidences of disabling conditions—also will increase demand for therapeu tic services. In addition, medical advances now enable more patients with critical problems to survive—patients who ulti mately may need extensive therapy. However, growth may be dampened by the impact of Federal legislation imposing limits on reimbursement for therapy services. Hospitals will continue to employ a large number of occupa tional therapists to provide therapy services to acutely ill inpa tients. Hospitals also will need occupational therapists to staff their outpatient rehabilitation programs. Employment growth in schools will result from the expan sion of the school-age population and the federally funded extension of services for disabled students. Therapists will be needed to help children with disabilities prepare to enter special education programs. Job prospects. Job opportunities should be good for licensed occupational therapists in all settings, particularly in acute hos pital, rehabilitation, and orthopedic settings because the elderly receive most of their treatment in these settings. Occupational therapists with specialized knowledge in a treatment area also will have increased job prospects. Driver rehabilitation, training for the elderly, and ergonomic consulting are emerging practice areas for occupational therapy. Earnings Median annual wages of occupational therapists were $66,780 DigitizedinforMay FRASER 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $55,090 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and $81,290. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $42,820, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $98,310. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of occupational therapists in May 2008 were: Home health care services..........................................$74,510 Nursing care facilities..................................................72,790 Offices of other health care practitioners.................... 69,360 General medical and surgical hospitals........................68,100 Elementary and secondary schools..............................60,020 Related Occupations Occupational therapists use specialized knowledge to help indi viduals perform daily living skills and achieve maximum inde pendence. Other occupations performing similar duties include: Page Athletic trainers........................................................................405 Physical therapists....................................................................377 Recreational therapists.............................................................389 Respiratory therapists...............................................................397 Speech-language pathologists..................................................399 Sources of Additional Information For more information on occupational therapy as a career, contact: y American Occupational Therapy Association, 4720 Montgomery Lane, PO Box 31220, Bethesda, MD 20824 1220. Internet: http://www.aota.org For information regarding the requirements to practice as an occupational therapist in schools, contact the appropriate occu pational therapy regulatory agency for your State. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos078.htm Optometrists Significant Points • Admission to optometry school is competitive; only about 1 in 3 applicants was accepted in 2007. • Graduation from an accredited college of Optom etry and a State license administered by the National Board of Examiners in Optometry are required. • Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average in response to the vision care needs of a growing and aging population. • Job opportunities are likely to be excellent. Nature of the Work Optometrists, also known as doctors of optometry, or ODs, are the main providers of vision care. They examine people’s eyes to diagnose vision problems, such as nearsightedness and farsightedness, and they test patients’ depth and color percep- 372 Occupational Outlook Handbook ft * Some may specialize in occupational vision, developing ways to protect workers’ eyes from on-the-job strain or injury. Oth ers may focus on sports vision, head trauma, or ocular disease and special testing. A few optometrists teach optometry, per form research, or consult. Most optometrists are private practitioners who also handle the business aspects of running an office, such as developing a patient base, hiring employees, keeping paper and electronic records, and ordering equipment and supplies. Optometrists who operate franchise optical stores also may have some of these duties. Optometrists should not be confused with ophthalmologists or dispensing opticians. Ophthalmologists are physicians who perform eye surgery, as well as diagnose and treat eye diseases and injuries. Like optometrists, they also examine eyes and prescribe eyeglasses and contact lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses and, in some States, may fit contact lenses according to prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. (See the sections on physicians and surgeons; and opticians, dispensing, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Work environment. Optometrists usually work in their own offices that are clean, well lighted, and comfortable. Al though most full-time optometrists work standard business hours, some work weekends and evenings to suit the needs of patients. Emergency calls, once uncommon, have increased with the passage of therapeutic-drug laws expanding optom etrists’ ability to prescribe medications. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Doctor of Optometry degree requires the completion of a 4-year program at an accredited optometry school. tion and ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. Optometrists may prescribe eyeglasses or contact lenses, or they may pro vide other treatments, such as vision therapy or low-vision rehabilitation. Optometrists also test for glaucoma and other eye diseases and diagnose conditions caused by systemic diseases such as diabetes and high blood pressure, referring patients to other health practitioners as needed. They prescribe medication to treat vision problems or eye diseases, and some provide pre operative and postoperative care to cataract patients, as well as to patients who have had corrective laser surgery. Like other physicians, optometrists encourage preventative measures by promoting nutrition and hygiene education to their patients to minimize the risk of eye disease. Although most work in a general practice as a primary care optometrist, some optometrists prefer to specialize in a particular field, such as contact lenses, geriatrics, pediatrics, or vision therapy. As a result, an increasing number of op tometrists are forming group practices in which each group member specializes in a specific area while still remaining a full scope practitioner. For example, an expert in low-vision rehabilitation may help legally blind patients by custom fitting them with a magnifying device that will enable them to read. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The Doctor of Optometry degree requires the completion of a 4-year program at an accredited school of optometry, preceded by at least 3 years of preoptometric study at an ac credited college or university. All States require optometrists to be licensed. Education and training. Optometrists need a Doctor of Optometry degree, which requires the completion of a 4-year program at an accredited school of optometry. In 2009, there were 19 colleges of optometry in the U.S. and 1 in Puerto Rico that offered programs accredited by the Accreditation Coun cil on Optometric Education of the American Optometric As sociation. Requirements for admission to optometry schools include college courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. Because a strong background in sci ence is important, many applicants to optometry school major in a science, such as biology or chemistry, as undergraduates. Other applicants major in another subject and take many sci ence courses offering laboratory experience. Admission to optometry school is competitive; about 1 in 3 applicants was accepted in 2007. All applicants must take the Optometry Admissions Test (OAT), a standardized exam which measures academic ability and scientific comprehen sion. The OAT consists of four tests: survey of the natural sciences, such as biology, general chemistry, and organic chemistry; reading comprehension; physics; and quantitative reasoning. As a result, most applicants take the test after their sophomore or junior year in college, allowing them an op portunity to take the test again and raise their score. A few applicants are accepted to optometry school after 3 years of Professional and Related Occupations 373 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Code Employment, 2008 Projected Employment, 2018 43,200 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 8,500 24 29-1041 34,800 Optometrists........................................................................................... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. college and complete their bachelor’s degree while attend ing optometry school. However, most students accepted by a school or college of optometry have completed an under graduate degree. Each institution has its own undergraduate prerequisites, so applicants should contact the school or col lege of their choice for specific requirements. Optometry programs include classroom and laboratory study of health and visual sciences and clinical training in the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. Courses in phar macology, optics, vision science, biochemistry, and systemic diseases are included. One-year postgraduate clinical residency programs are available for optometrists who wish to obtain advanced clini cal competence within a particular area of optometry. Spe cialty areas for residency programs include family practice optometry, pediatric optometry, geriatric optometry, vision therapy and rehabilitation, low-vision rehabilitation, cornea and contact lenses, refractive and ocular surgery, primary eye care optometry, and ocular disease. Licensure. All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists be licensed. Applicants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited op tometry school and must pass both a written National Board examination and a National, regional, or State clinical exami nation. The written and clinical examinations of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry usually are taken during the student’s academic career. Many States also require appli cants to pass an examination on relevant State laws. Licenses must be renewed every 1 to 3 years and, in all States, continu ing education credits are needed for renewal. Other qualifications. Business acumen, self-discipline, and the ability to deal tactfully with patients are important for success. The work of optometrists also requires attention to detail and manual dexterity. Advancement. Optometrists who wish to teach or con duct research may study for a master’s degree or Ph.D. in visual science, physiological optics, neurophysiology, public health, health administration, health information and commu nication, or health education. Employment Optometrists held about 34,800 jobs in 2008. Salaried jobs for optometrists were primarily in offices of optometrists; of fices of physicians, including ophthalmologists; and health and personal care stores, including optical goods stores. A few salaried jobs for optometrists were in hospitals, the Fed eral Government, or outpatient care centers, including health maintenance organizations. About 25 percent of optometrists are self-employed. According to a 2008 survey by the Ameri can Optometric Association, most self-employed optometrists Digitized worked for FRASER in private practice or in partnership with other health https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis care professionals. A small number worked for optical chains or franchises or as independent contractors. Job Outlook Employment of optometrists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2018, in response to the vision care needs of a growing and aging population. Excellent job opportunities are expected. Employment change. Employment of optometrists is pro jected to grow 24 percent between 2008 and 2018. A grow ing population that recognizes the importance of good eye care will increase demand for optometrists. Also, an increas ing number of health insurance plans that include vision care should generate more job growth. As the population ages, there will likely be more visits to optometrists and ophthalmologists because of the onset of vision problems that occur at older ages, such as cataracts, glaucoma, and macular degeneration. In addition, increased incidences of diabetes and hypertension in the general popu lation as well as in the elderly will generate greater demand for optometric services as these diseases often affect eyesight. Employment of optometrists would grow more rapidly if not for productivity gains expected to allow each optometrist to see more patients. These expected gains stem from greater use of optometric assistants and other support personnel, who can reduce the amount of time optometrists need with each patient. The increasing popularity of laser surgery to correct some vision problems was previously thought to have an adverse effect on the demand for optometrists as patients often do not require eyeglasses afterward. However, optometrists will still be needed to provide preoperative and postoperative care for laser surgery patients, therefore laser eye surgery will likely have little to no impact on the employment of optometrists. Job prospects. Excellent job opportunities are expected over the next decade because there are only 19 schools of op tometry in the United States, resulting in a limited number of graduates—about 1,200—each year. This number is not expected to keep pace with demand. However, admission to optometry school is competitive. In addition to job growth, the need to replace optometrists who retire will also create many employment opportunities. Ac cording to the American Optometric Association, nearly onequarter of practicing optometrists are approaching retirement age. As they begin to retire, many opportunities will arise, par ticularly in individual and group practices. Earnings Median annual wages of salaried optometrists were $96,320 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $70,140 and $125,460. Median annual wages of salaried optometrists 374 Occupational Outlook Handbook in offices of optometrists were $92,670. Salaried optometrists tend to earn more initially than do optometrists who set up their own practices. In the long run, however, those in private practice usually earn more. According to the American Optometric Association, av erage annual income for self-employed optometrists was $175,329 in 2007. Self-employed optometrists, including those in individual, partnerships, and group practice, continue to earn higher in come than those in other settings. Earnings also vary by group size. For example, practitioners in large groups—six or more— earn $159,300; practitioners in mid-sized groups—three to five people—earn $179,205; those in small practices—two people—earn $176,944; and individual practitioners earn an average of $134,094. Self-employed optometrists must also provide their own benefits. Practitioners associated with opti cal chains earn $100,704 on average. However, they typically enjoy paid vacation, sick leave, and pension contributions. Related Occupations Other workers who apply scientific knowledge to prevent, di agnose, and treat disorders and injuries include the following: Page Chiropractors............................................................................ 360 Dentists..................................................................................... 363 Physicians and surgeons........................................................... 381 Podiatrists................................................................................. 385 Psychologists............................................................................ 215 Veterinarians............................................................................. 402 Sources of Additional Information For information on optometry as a career and a list of accredited optometric institutions of education, contact: Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry, 6110 Executive Blvd., Suite 420, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http ://www.opted.org Pharmacists Significant Points • Excellent job opportunities are expected. • Earnings are relatively high, but some pharmacists are required to work nights, weekends, and holidays. • Pharmacists are becoming more involved in counsel ing patients and planning drug therapy programs. • Pharmacists must graduate from an accredited col lege of pharmacy and pass a series of examinations to be licensed. Nature of the Work Pharmacists distribute prescription drugs to individuals. They also advise their patients, physicians, and other health practi tioners on the selection, dosages, interactions, and side effects of medications, as well as monitor the health and progress of those patients to ensure that they are using their medications safely and effectively. Compounding—the actual mixing of in gredients to form medications—is a small part of a pharmacist’s practice, because most medicines are produced by pharmaceu tical companies in standard dosages and drug delivery forms. Most pharmacists work in a community setting, such as a retail drugstore, or in a healthcare facility, such as a hospital. Pharmacists in community pharmacies dispense medica tions, counsel patients on the use of prescription and over-thecounter medications, and advise physicians about medication therapy. They also advise patients about general health topics, such as diet, exercise, and stress management, and provide information on products, such as durable medical equipment or home healthcare supplies. In addition, they often complete third-party insurance forms and other paperwork. Those who own or manage community pharmacies may sell non-healthrelated merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and over see the general operation of the pharmacy. Some community pharmacists provide specialized services to help patients with conditions such as diabetes, asthma, smoking cessation, or high Additional career information is available from: y American Optometric Association, Educational Services, 243 N. Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63141. Internet: http://www.aoa.org The board of optometry in each State can supply information on licensing requirements. For information on specific admission requirements and sources of financial aid, contact the admissions officers of indi vidual optometry schools. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos073.htm https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Pharmacists provide prescription medications to patients in hospitals, grocery stores, and a variety of other settings. Professional and Related Occupations 375 blood pressure. Some pharmacists are trained to administer vaccinations. Pharmacists in healthcare facilities dispense medications and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs. They may make sterile solutions to be administered intrave nously. They also plan, monitor, and evaluate drug programs or regimens. They may counsel hospitalized patients on the use of drugs before the patients are discharged. Some pharmacists specialize in specific drug therapy areas, such as intravenous nutrition support, oncology (cancer), nu clear pharmacy (used for chemotherapy), geriatric pharmacy, and psychiatric pharmacy (the use of drugs to treat mental disorders). Most pharmacists keep confidential computerized records of patients’ drug therapies to prevent harmful drug interactions. Pharmacists are responsible for the accuracy of every prescrip tion that is filled, but they often rely upon pharmacy techni cians to assist them in the dispensing medications. (Pharmacy technicians are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) Thus, the pharmacist may delegate prescription-filling and administra tive tasks and supervise their completion. Pharmacists also fre quently oversee pharmacy students serving as interns. Some pharmacists are involved in research for pharmaceuti cal manufacturers, developing new drugs and testing their ef fects. Others work in marketing or sales, providing clients with expertise on the use, effectiveness, and possible side effects of drugs. Some pharmacists work for health insurance companies, developing pharmacy benefit packages and carrying out costbenefit analyses on certain drugs. Other pharmacists work for the government, managed care organizations, public healthcare services, or the armed services. Finally, some pharmacists are employed full time or part time as college faculty, teaching classes and performing research in a wide range of areas. Work environment. Pharmacists work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Many pharmacists spend most of their workday on their feet. When working with sterile or dangerous pharmaceutical products, pharmacists wear gloves, masks, and other protective equipment. Most pharmacists work about 40 hours a week, but about 12 percent worked more than 50 hours per week in 2008. In addition, about 19 percent of pharmacists worked part-time. Many community and hospital pharmacies are open for ex tended hours, so pharmacists may be required to work nights, weekends, and holidays. Consultant pharmacists may travel to healthcare facilities to monitor patients’ drug therapies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license is required in all States and the District of Columbia, as well as in Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In order to obtain a license, pharmacists generally must earn a Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree from a college of phar macy and pass several examinations. Education and training. Pharmacists who are trained in the United States must earn a Pharm.D. degree from an accred ited college or school of pharmacy. The Pharm.D. degree has replaced the Bachelor of Pharmacy degree, which is no longer being awarded. To be admitted to a Pharm.D. program, an ap plicant must have completed at least 2 years of specific pro fessional study. This requirement generally includes courses in mathematics and natural sciences, such as chemistry, biology, and physics, as well as courses in the humanities and social sci ences. In addition, most applicants have completed 3 or more years at a college or university before moving on to a Pharm.D. program, although this is not specifically required. Pharm.D. programs generally take 4 years to complete. The courses offered are designed to teach students about all aspects of drug therapy. In addition, students learn how to communicate with patients and other healthcare providers about drug infor mation and patient care. Students also learn professional ethics, concepts of public health, and business management. In addi tion to receiving classroom instruction, students in Pharm.D. programs spend time working with licensed pharmacists in a variety of practice settings. Some Pharm.D. graduates obtain further training through 1 -year or 2-year residency programs or fellowships. Pharmacy residencies are postgraduate training programs in pharmacy practice and usually require the completion of a research project. The programs are often mandatory for pharmacists who wish to work in a clinical setting. Pharmacy fellowships are highly in dividualized programs that are designed to prepare participants to work in a specialized area of pharmacy, such clinical practice or research laboratories. Some pharmacists who own their own pharmacy obtain a master’s degree in business administration (MBA). Others may obtain a degree in public administration or public health. Licensure. A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States and the District of Columbia, as well as in Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. To obtain a license, a prospective pharmacist generally must obtain a Pharm.D. de gree from a college of pharmacy that has been approved by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education. After obtaining the Pharm.D. degree, the individual must pass a series of exami nations. All States, U.S. territories, and the District of Columbia require the North American Pharmacist Licensure Exam (NAPLEX), which tests pharmacy skills and knowledge. Forty-four States and the District of Columbia also require the Multistate Pharmacy Jurisprudence Exam (MPJE), which tests pharmacy law. Both exams are administered by the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP). Each of the eight States and territories that do not require the MJPE has its own pharmacy law exam. Besides requiring the NAPLEX and law examina- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Pharmacists............................................................... ............................. 29-1051 269.900 315,800 45,900 17 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 376 Occupational Outlook Handbook tion, some States and territories require additional exams that are unique to their jurisdictions. All jurisdictions also require a specified number of hours of experience in a practice setting be fore a license is awarded. In most jurisdictions, this requirement can be met while obtaining the Pharm.D. In many States, ap plicants must meet an age requirement before a license can be obtained, and some States require a criminal background check. All States and U.S. territories except Puerto Rico permit li censure for graduates of foreign pharmacy schools. These indi viduals must apply for certification from the Foreign Pharmacy Graduate Examination Committee (FPGEC). Once certified, they must pass the Foreign Pharmacy Graduate Equivalency Examination (FPGEE), Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) exam, and Test of Spoken English (TSE) exam. Then they must pass all of the exams required by the licensing juris diction, such as the NAPLEX and MJPE, and meet the require ments for practical experience. In some States, applicants who graduated from programs accredited by the Canadian Council for Accreditation of Pharmacy Programs (CCAPP) between 1993 and 2004 are exempt from FPGEC certification and ex amination requirements. Other qualifications. Prospective pharmacists should have scientific aptitude, good interpersonal skills, and a desire to help others. They also must be conscientious and pay close attention to detail, because the decisions they make affect human lives. Advancement. In community pharmacies, pharmacists usu ally begin at the staff level. Pharmacists in chain drugstores may be promoted to pharmacy supervisor or store manager. Some pharmacists may be promoted to manager at the district or regional level and, later, to an executive position within the chain’s headquarters. Hospital pharmacists may advance to supervisory or administrative positions. Some pharmacists be come owners or part owners of independent pharmacies. Phar macists in the pharmaceutical industry may advance in market ing, sales, research, quality control, production, or other areas. Employment Pharmacists held about 269,900 jobs in 2008. About 65 percent worked in retail settings. Most of these were salaried employ ees, but a small number were self-employed owners. About 22 percent of pharmacists worked in hospitals. A small proportion worked in mail-order and Internet pharmacies, pharmaceutical wholesalers, offices of physicians, and the Federal Government. Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase faster than the average. As a result of job growth, the need to replace workers who leave the occupation, and the limited capacity of training programs, job prospects should be excellent. Employment change. Employment of pharmacists is ex pected to grow by 17 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is faster than the average for all occupations. The increasing numbers of middle-aged and elderly people—who use more prescription drugs than younger people—will continue to spur demand for pharmacists throughout the projection period. In addition, as scientific advances lead to new drug products, and as an increasing number of people obtain prescription drug cov erage, the need for these workers will continue to expand. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Pharmacists also are becoming more involved in patient care. As prescription drugs become more complex, and as the num ber of people taking multiple medications increases, the poten tial for dangerous drug interactions will grow. Pharmacists will be needed to counsel patients on the proper use of medication, assist in drug selection and dosage, and monitor complex drug regimens. This need will lead to rapid growth for pharmacists in medical care establishments, such as doctors’ offices, outpatient care centers, and nursing care facilities. Demand also will increase in mail-order pharmacies, which often are more efficient than pharmacies in other practice set tings. Employment also will continue to grow in hospitals, drugstores, grocery stores, and mass retailers, because pharma cies in these settings will continue to process the majority of all prescriptions and increasingly will offer patient care services, such as the administration of vaccines. Job prospects. Job prospects are expected to be excellent over the 2008-18 period. Employers in many parts of the coun try report difficulty in attracting and retaining adequate num bers of pharmacists—primarily the result of the limited training capacity of Pharm.D. programs. In addition, as a larger percent age of pharmacists elects to work part time, more individuals will be needed to fill the same number of prescriptions. Job openings also will result from faster than average employment growth and from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Earnings Median annual wages of wage and salary pharmacists in May 2008 were $106,410. The middle 50 percent earned between $92,670 and $121,310 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $77,390, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $131,440 a year. Related Occupations Other workers who are employed in pharmacies, work with pharmaceutical compounds, or are involved in patient care include: Page Biological scientists................................................................. 181 Medical scientists..................................................................... 189 Pharmacy technicians and aides.............................................. 436 Physicians and surgeons...........................................................381 Registered nurses.....................................................................392 Sources of Additional Information For information on pharmacy as a career, preprofessional and professional requirements, programs offered by colleges of pharmacy, and student financial aid, contact: y American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 1727 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.aacp.org General information on careers in pharmacy is available from: y American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 7272 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.ashp.org y National Association of Chain Drug Stores, 413 N. Lee St., Alexandria, VA 22313. Internet: http://www.nacds.org Professional and Related Occupations 377 y Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy, 100 North Pitt St., Suite 400, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.amcp.org y American Pharmacists Association, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20037. Internet: http://www.pharmacist.com Information on the North American Pharmacist Licensure Exam (NAPLEX) and the Multistate Pharmacy Jurisprudence Exam (MPJE) is available from: y National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, 1600 Feehanville Dr., Mount Prospect, IL 60056. Internet: http ://www.nabp.net State licensure requirements are available from each State’s board of pharmacy. Information on specific college entrance re quirements, curricula, and financial aid is available from any college of pharmacy. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos079.htm Physical Therapists Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow much faster than average. • Job opportunities should be good. • Today’s entrants to this profession need a post baccalaureate degree from an accredited physical therapist program. and supervision of a physical therapist. Physical therapists evalu ate and diagnose movement dysfunction and use interventions to treat patient/clients. Interventions may include therapeutic ex ercise, functional training, manual therapy techniques, assistive and adaptive devices and equipment, and physical agents and electrotherapeutic modalities. Physical therapists often consult and practice with a variety of other professionals, such as physicians, dentists, nurses, educa tors, social workers, occupational therapists, speech-language pathologists, and audiologists. Work environment. Physical therapists practice in hospitals, outpatient clinics, and private offices that have specially equipped facilities. These jobs can be physically demanding, because ther apists may have to stoop, kneel, crouch, lift, and stand for long periods. In addition, physical therapists move heavy equipment and lift patients or help them turn, stand, or walk. In 2008, most full-time physical therapists worked a 40-hour week; some worked evenings and weekends to fit their patients’ schedules. About 27 percent of physical therapists worked part-time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Today’s entrants to this profession need a post-baccalaureate degree from an accredited physical therapy program. All States regulate the practice of physical therapy, which usually requires passing scores on national and State examinations. Education and training. The American Physical Therapy As sociation’s accrediting body, called the Commission on Accredi tation of Physical Therapy Education (CAPTE), accredits entrylevel academic programs in physical therapy. In 2009, there were 212 physical therapist education programs. Of these accredited programs, 12 awarded master’s degrees; and 200 awarded doc toral degrees. Currently, only graduate degree physical therapist programs are accredited. Master’s degree programs typically are • About 60 percent of physical therapists work in hos pitals or in offices of other health practitioners. Nature of the Work Physical therapists, sometimes referred to as simply PTs, are healthcare professionals who diagnose and treat individuals of all ages, from newborns to the very oldest, who have medical problems or other health-related conditions, illnesses, or injuries that limits their abilities to move and perform functional activities as well as they would like in their daily lives. Physical therapists examine each individual and develop a plan using treatment tech niques to promote the ability to move, reduce pain, restore func tion, and prevent disability. In addition, PTs work with individu als to prevent the loss of mobility before it occurs by developing fitness and wellness-oriented programs for healthier and more active lifestyles. Physical therapists provide care to people of all ages who have functional problems resulting from, for example, back and neck injuries, sprains/strains and fractures, arthritis, bums, amputa tions, stroke, multiple sclerosis, conditions such as cerebral palsy and spina bifida, and injuries related to work and sports. Physi cal therapy care and services are provided by physical therapists Digitizedand for FRASER physical therapist assistants who work under the direction https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Physical therapists may practice in hospitals, clinics, private offices, private homes, or schools. 378 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, 2008-2018 Employment, Code 2018 Number Percent Physical therapists............................................ ..................................... 29-1123 185,500 241,700 56,200 30 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title soc Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. 2 to 2.5 years in length, while doctoral degree programs last 3 years. Physical therapist education programs include foundational science courses, such as biology, anatomy, physiology, cellu lar histology, exercise physiology, neuroscience, biomechanics, pharmacology, pathology, and radiology/imaging, as well as behavioral science courses, such as evidence-based practice and clinical reasoning. Some of the clinically-based courses include medical screening, examination tests and measures, diagnostic process, therapeutic interventions, outcomes assessment, and practice management. In addition to classroom and laboratory instmction, students receive supervised clinical experience. Among the undergraduate courses that are useful when one applies to a physical therapist education program are anatomy, biology, chemistry, physics, social science, mathematics, and sta tistics. Before granting admission, many programs require volun teer experience in the physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic. Licensure. All States regulate the practice of physical ther apy. Eligibility requirements vary by State. Typical requirements for physical therapists include graduation from an accredited physical therapy education program; passing the National Physi cal Therapy Examination; and fulfilling State requirements such as jurisprudence exams. A number of States require continuing education as a condition of maintaining licensure. Other qualifications. Physical therapists should have strong interpersonal and communication skills, so they can educate pa tients about their condition and physical therapy treatments and communicate with patients’ families. Physical therapists also should be compassionate and possess a desire to help patients. Advancement. Physical therapists are expected to continue their professional development by participating in continuing education courses and workshops. Some physical therapists be come board certified in a clinical specialty. Opportunities for physical therapists exist in academia and research. Some become self-employed, providing contract services or opening a private practice. Employment Physical therapists held about 185,500 jobs in 2008. The number of physical therapist jobs is probably greater than the number of practicing physical therapists, because some physical therapists work part time, holding two or more jobs. For example, some may work in a private practice, but also work part time in another healthcare facility. About 60 percent of physical therapists worked in hospitals or in offices of other health practitioners. Other jobs were in the home health care services industry, nursing care facilities, outpa tient care centers, and offices of physicians. Some physical thera pists were self-employed in private practices, seeing individual patients and contracting to provide services in hospitals, rehabili https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tation centers, nursing care facilities, home healthcare agencies, adult day care programs, and schools. Physical therapists also teach in academic institutions and conduct research. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than average. Job opportunities should be good. Employment change. Employment of physical therapists is expected to grow by 30 percent from 2008 to 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. Changes to restrictions on reimbursement for physical therapy services by third-party pay ers will increase patient access to services and, thus, increase de mand. The increasing elderly population will drive growth in the demand for physical therapy services. The elderly population is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions that require therapeutic services. Also, the baby-boom generation is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. Medical and technological developments will permit a greater percentage of trauma victims and newborns with birth defects to survive, creat ing additional demand for rehabilitative care. In addition, growth may result from advances in medical technology and the use of evidence-base practices, which could permit the treatment of an increasing number of disabling conditions that were untreatable in the past. In addition, the federally mandated Individuals with Disabili ties Education Act guarantees that students have access to ser vices from physical therapists and other therapeutic and rehabili tative services. Demand for physical therapists will continue in schools. Job prospects. Job opportunities will be good for licensed physical therapists in all settings. Job opportunities should be particularly good in acute hospital, skilled nursing, and ortho pedic settings, where the elderly are most often treated. Job prospects should be especially favorable in rural areas as many physical therapists tend to cluster in highly populated urban and suburban areas. Earnings Median annual wages of physical therapists were $72,790 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $60,300 and $85,540. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $50,350, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $104,350. Median an nual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of physical therapists in May 2008 were; Home health care services.......................................... $77,630 Nursing care facilities..................................................76,680 General medical and surgical hospitals........................73,270 Offices of physicians.................................................... 72,790 Offices of other health practitioners.............................71,400 Professional and Related Occupations 379 Related Occupations Physical therapists rehabilitate people with physical disabilities and provide wellness and prevention programs. Others who work in the rehabilitation field include: Page Audiologists.......................................................................................358 Chiropractors............................................................................ 360 Occupational therapists............................................................369 Recreational therapists............................................................. 389 Speech-language pathologists..................................................399 Sources of Additional Information Additional career information and a list of accredited educa tional programs in physical therapy are available from: > American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314-1488. Internet: http://www.apta.org y In addition, the American Physical Therapy Association has developed the PT Centralized Application Service (PTCAS) that allows one to apply to some of the accredited physical therapist programs. Internet: http://www.ptcas.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos080.htm Physician Assistants Significant Points • Requirements for admission to training programs vary; most applicants have a college degree and some health-related work experience. • Physician assistants must complete an accredited education program and pass a national exam in order to obtain a license. certain medications. In some establishments, a PA is responsi ble for managerial duties, such as ordering medical supplies or equipment and supervising medical technicians and assistants. Physician assistants work under the supervision of a physi cian. However, PAs may be the principal care providers in rural or inner-city clinics where a physician is present for only 1 or 2 days each week. In such cases, the PA confers with the su pervising physician and other medical professionals as needed and as required by law. PAs also may make house calls or go to hospitals and nursing care facilities to check on patients, after which they report back to the physician. The duties of physician assistants are determined by the supervising physician and by State law. Aspiring PAs should investigate the laws and regulations in the States in which they wish to practice. Many PAs work in primary care specialties, such as general internal medicine, pediatrics, and family medicine. Other spe cialty areas include general and thoracic surgery, emergency medicine, orthopedics, and geriatrics. PAs specializing in sur gery provide preoperative and postoperative care and may work as first or second assistants during major surgery. Work environment. Although PAs usually work in a com fortable, well-lighted environment, those in surgery often stand for long periods. At times, the job requires a considerable amount of walking. PA’s work schedules may vary according to the practice set ting and often depend on the hours of the supervising physician. The workweek of hospital-based PAs may include weekends, nights, or early morning hospital rounds to visit patients. These workers also may be on call. PAs in clinics usually work about a 40-hour week. 3=1- • Employment is projected to grow much faster than the average. • Job opportunities should be good, particularly in rural and inner-city healthcare facilities. Nature of the Work Physician assistants (PAs) practice medicine under the supervi sion of physicians and surgeons. They should not be confused with medical assistants, who perform routine clinical and cleri cal tasks. (Medical assistants are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) PAs are formally trained to provide diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive healthcare services, as delegated by a physician. Working as members of a healthcare team, they take medical histories, examine and treat patients, order and in terpret laboratory tests and x rays, and make diagnoses. They also treat minor injuries by suturing, splinting, and casting. PAs record progress notes, instruct and counsel patients, and order out therapy. Physician assistants also may prescribe Digitizedorforcarry FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Physician assistants are formally trained to provide diagnos tic, therapeutic, and preventive healthcare services, under the supervision of a physician. 380 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Code 2018 Number Percent 29,200 39 103,900 74,800 29-1071 Physician assistants........................................... .................................... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ________ Occupational Title Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Requirements for admission to training programs vary; most applicants have a college degree and some health-related work experience. All States require physician assistants to complete an accredited, formal education program and pass a national exam to obtain a license. Education and training. Physician assistant educational programs usually take at least 2 years to complete for full-time students. Most programs are at schools of allied health, aca demic health centers, medical schools, or 4-year colleges; a few are at community colleges, are part of the military, or are at hospitals. Many accredited PA programs have clinical teaching affiliations with medical schools. In 2008, 142 education programs for physician assistants were accredited or provisionally accredited by the Accreditation Review Commission on Education for the Physician Assistant. Eighty percent, or 113, of these programs offered the option of a master’s degree, 21 of them offered a bachelor’s degree, 3 awarded associate degrees, and 5 awarded a certificate. Most applicants to PA educational programs already have a college degree and some health-related work experience; how ever, admissions requirements vary from program to program. Many PAs have prior experience as registered nurses, emer gency medical technicians, and paramedics. PA education includes classroom and laboratory instruc tion in subjects like biochemistry, pathology, human anatomy, physiology, clinical pharmacology, clinical medicine, physical diagnosis, and medical ethics. PA programs also include super vised clinical training in several areas, including family medi cine, internal medicine, surgery, prenatal care and gynecology, geriatrics, emergency medicine, and pediatrics. Sometimes, PA students serve in one or more of these areas under the supervi sion of a physician who is seeking to hire a PA. The rotation may lead to permanent employment in one of the areas where the student works. Licensure. All States and the District of Columbia have legislation governing the practice of physician assistants. All jurisdictions require physician assistants to pass the Physician Assistant National Certifying Examination, administered by the National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants (NCCPA) and open only to graduates of accredited PA educa tion programs. Only those who have successfully completed the examination may use the credential “Physician AssistantCertified.” To remain certified, PAs must complete 100 hours of continuing medical education every 2 years. Every 6 years, they must pass a recertification examination or complete an alterna tive program combining learning experiences and a take-home examination. Other qualifications. Physician assistants must have a de sire to serve patients and be self-motivated. PAs also must have a good bedside manner, emotional stability, and the ability to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 make decisions in emergencies. Physician assistants should have an enthusiasm for lifelong learning, because their eligibil ity to practice depends on continuing education. Advancement. Some PAs pursue additional education in a specialty. PA postgraduate educational programs are available in areas such as internal medicine, rural primary care, emer gency medicine, surgery, pediatrics, neonatology, and occupa tional medicine. Candidates must be graduates of an accredited program and be certified by the NCCPA. As they attain greater clinical knowledge and experience, PAs can earn new responsibilities and higher wages. However, by the very nature of the profession, clinically practicing PAs always are supervised by physicians. Employment Physician assistants held about 74,800 jobs in 2008. The num ber of jobs is greater than the number of practicing PAs because some hold two or more jobs. For example, some PAs work with a supervising physician but also work in another healthcare fa cility. According to the American Academy of Physician As sistants, about 15 percent of actively practicing PAs worked in more than one clinical job concurrently in 2008. More than 53 percent of jobs for PAs were in the offices of physicians. About 24 percent were in general medical and sur gical hospitals, public or private. The rest were mostly in outpa tient care centers, including health maintenance organizations; the Federal Government; and public or private colleges, univer sities, and professional schools. Very few were self-employed. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. Job opportunities for PAs should be good, particularly in rural and inner-city healthcare facilities. Employment change. Employment of physician assistants is expected to grow by 39 percent from 2008 to 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. Projected rapid job growth reflects the expansion of healthcare industries and an emphasis on cost containment, which results in increasing use of PAs by healthcare establishments. Physicians and institutions are expected to employ more PAs to provide primary care and to assist with medical and surgi cal procedures because PAs are cost-effective and productive members of the healthcare team. Physician assistants can re lieve physicians of routine duties and procedures. Healthcare providers will use more physician assistants as States continue to expand PAs’ scope of practice by allowing them to perform more procedures. Besides working in traditional office-based settings, PAs should find a growing number of jobs in institutional settings such as hospitals, academic medical centers, public clinics, and prisons. Professional and Related Occupations 381 Job prospects. Job opportunities for PAs should be good, particularly in rural and inner-city clinics because those settings have difficulty attracting physicians. Job openings will result both from employment growth and from the need to replace physician assistants who retire or leave the occupation perma nently. Opportunities will be best in States that allow PAs a wider scope of practice. acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos081.htm Physicians and Surgeons Significant Points Earnings The median annual wage of physician assistants was $81,230 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent of physician assistants earned between $68,210 and $97,070. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $51,360, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $110,240. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of physician assistants in May 2008 were: General medical and surgical hospitals......................$84,550 Outpatient care centers................................................. 84,390 Offices of physicians.................................................... 80,440 Federal Executive Branch............................................ 78,200 Colleges, universities, and professional schools......... 74,200 According to the American Academy of Physician Assistants’ 2008 Census Report, median income for physician assistants in full-time clinical practice was $85,710 in 2008; median income for first-year graduates was $74,470. Income varies by specialty, practice setting, geographical location, and years of experience. Employers often pay for their employees’ professional liability insurance, registration fees with the Drug Enforcement Admin istration, State licensing fees, and credentialing fees. Related Occupations Occupations with similar educational backgrounds, healthcare experience, and/or responsibilities include: Page Audiologists............................................................................. 358 Occupational therapists............................................................ 369 Physical therapists.................................................................... 377 Registered nurses..................................................................... 392 Speech-language pathologists..................................................399 Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a physician assistant, including a list of accredited programs, contact: y American Academy of Physician Assistants Information Center, 950 North Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.aapa.org For a list of accredited physician assistant programs, contact: y Accreditation Review Commission on Education for the Physician Assistants, 12000 Findley Road, Suite 240, Johns Creek, Georgia 30097. Internet: http://www.arc-pa.org For eligibility requirements and a description of the Physi cian Assistant National Certifying Examination, contact: y National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants, Inc., 12000 Findley Rd., Suite 200, Duluth, GA 30097. Internet: http://www.nccpa.net The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro Digitizedvides for FRASER information on a wide range of occupational char https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • Many physicians and surgeons work long, irregular hours. • Acceptance to medical school is highly competitive. • Formal education and training requirements—typi cally 4 years of undergraduate school, 4 years of medical school, and 3 to 8 years of internship and residency—are among the most demanding of any occupation, but earnings are among the highest. • Job opportunities should be very good, particularly in rural and low-income areas. Nature of the Work Physicians and surgeons diagnose illnesses and prescribe and administer treatment for people suffering from injury or dis ease. Physicians examine patients, obtain medical histories, and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They counsel pa tients on diet, hygiene, and preventive health care. There are two types of physicians: M.D. (Medical Doctor) and D.O. (Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine). M.D.s also are known as allopathic physicians. While both M.D.s and D.O.s may use all accepted methods of treatment, including drugs and surgery, D.O.s place special emphasis on the body’s musculo skeletal system, preventive medicine, and holistic patient care. D.O.s are most likely to be primary care specialists although they can be found in all specialties. About half of D.O.s prac tice general or family medicine, general internal medicine, or general pediatrics. Physicians work in one or more of several specialties, includ ing, but not limited to, anesthesiology, family and general med icine, general internal medicine, general pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, and surgery. Anesthesiologists focus on the care of surgical patients and pain relief. Like other physicians, they evaluate and treat pa tients and direct the efforts of their staffs. Through continual monitoring and assessment, these critical care specialists are responsible for maintenance of the patient’s vital life func tions—heart rate, body temperature, blood pressure, breath ing—during surgery. They also work outside of the operating room, providing pain relief in the intensive care unit, during labor and delivery, and for those who suffer from chronic pain. Anesthesiologists confer with other physicians and surgeons about appropriate treatments and procedures before, during, and after operations. Family and general physicians often provide the first point of contact for people seeking health care, by acting as the tra ditional family physician. They assess and treat a wide range of conditions, from sinus and respiratory infections to broken bones. Family and general physician typically have a base of 382 Occupational Outlook Handbook Physicians examine patients, obtain medical histories, and or der, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. regular, long-term patients. These doctors refer patients with more serious conditions to specialists or other health care facili ties for more intensive care. General internists diagnose and provide nonsurgical treat ment for a wide range of problems that affect internal organ systems, such as the stomach, kidneys, liver, and digestive tract. Internists use a variety of diagnostic techniques to treat patients through medication or hospitalization. Like general practitio ners, general internists commonly act as primary care special ists. They treat patients referred from other specialists and, in turn, they refer patients to other specialists when more complex care is required. General pediatricians care for the health of infants, children, teenagers, and young adults. They specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of a variety of ailments specific to young people and track patients’ growth to adulthood. Like most physicians, pediatricians work with different health care workers, such as nurses and other physicians, to assess and treat children with various ailments. Most of the work of pediatricians involves treating day-to-day illnesses—minor injuries, infectious dis eases, and immunizations—that are common to children, much as a general practitioner treats adults. Some pediatricians spe cialize in pediatric surgery or serious medical conditions, such as autoimmune disorders or serious chronic ailments. Obstetricians and gynecologists (OB/GYNs) specialize in women’s health. They are responsible for women’s general medical care, and they also provide care related to pregnancy and the reproductive system. Like general practitioners, OB/ GYNs attempt to prevent, diagnose, and treat general health problems, but they focus on ailments specific to the female anatomy, such as cancers of the breast or cervix, urinary tract and pelvic disorders, and hormonal disorders. OB/GYNs also specialize in childbirth, which includes treating and counseling women throughout their pregnancy, from giving prenatal diag noses to assisting with delivery and providing postpartum care. Psychiatrists are the primary mental health caregivers. They assess and treat mental illnesses through a combination of psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, hospitalization, and medica tion. Psychotherapy involves regular discussions with patients about their problems; the psychiatrist helps them find solutions through changes in their behavioral patterns, the exploration of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis their past experiences, or group and family therapy sessions. Psychoanalysis involves long-term psychotherapy and counsel ing for patients. In many cases, medications are administered to correct chemical imbalances that cause emotional problems. Surgeons specialize in the treatment of injury, disease, and deformity through operations. Using a variety of instruments, and with patients under anesthesia, a surgeon corrects physical deformities, repairs bone and tissue after injuries, or performs preventive surgeries on patients with debilitating diseases or disorders. Although a large number perform general surgery, many surgeons choose to specialize in a specific area. One of the most prevalent specialties is orthopedic surgery: the treat ment of the musculoskeletal system. Others include neurologi cal surgery (treatment of the brain and nervous system), car diovascular surgery, otolaryngology (treatment of the ear, nose, and throat), and plastic or reconstructive surgery. Like other physicians, surgeons also examine patients, perform and inter pret diagnostic tests, and counsel patients on preventive health care. Other physicians and surgeons work in a number of other medical and surgical specialists, including allergists, cardiolo gists, dermatologists, emergency physicians, gastroenterolo gists, ophthalmologists, pathologists, and radiologists. Work environment. Many physicians—primarily general and family practitioners, general internists, pediatricians, OB/ GYNs, and psychiatrists—work in small private offices or clin ics, often assisted by a small staff of nurses and other admin istrative personnel. Increasingly, physicians are practicing in groups or health care organizations that provide backup cover age and allow for more time off. Physicians in a group practice or health care organization often work as part of a team that coordinates care for a number of patients; they are less inde pendent than the solo practitioners of the past. Surgeons and anesthesiologists usually work in well-lighted, sterile environ ments while performing surgery and often stand for long peri ods. Most work in hospitals or in surgical outpatient centers. Many physicians and surgeons work long, irregular hours. In 2008, 43 percent of all physicians and surgeons worked 50 or more hours a week. Nine percent of all physicians and surgeons worked part-time. Physicians and surgeons travel between office and hospital to care for their patients. While on call, a physician will deal with many patients’ concerns over the phone and make emergency visits to hospitals or nursing homes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The common path to practicing as a physician requires 8 years of education beyond high school and 3 to 8 additional years of internship and residency. All States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories license physicians. Education and training. Formal education and training re quirements for physicians are among the most demanding of any occupation—4 years of undergraduate school, 4 years of medical school, and 3 to 8 years of internship and residency, depending on the specialty selected. A few medical schools of fer combined undergraduate and medical school programs that last 6 or 7 years rather than the customary 8 years. Premedical students must complete undergraduate work in physics, biology, mathematics, English, and inorganic and organic chemistry. Students also take courses in the humani ties and the social sciences. Some students volunteer at local hospitals or clinics to gain practical experience in the health professions. The minimum educational requirement for entry into medi cal school is 3 years of college; most applicants, however, have at least a bachelor’s degree, and many have advanced degrees. In 2008, there were 129 medical schools accredited by the Li aison Committee on Medical Education (LCME). The LCME is the national accrediting body for M.D. medical education programs. The American Osteopathic Association accredits schools that award a D.O. degree; there were 25 schools ac credited in 31 locations in 2008. Acceptance to medical school is highly competitive. Most ap plicants must submit transcripts, scores from the Medical Col lege Admission Test, and letters of recommendation. Schools also consider an applicant’s character, personality, leadership qualities, and participation in extracurricular activities. Most schools require an interview with members of the admissions committee. Students spend most of the first 2 years of medical school in laboratories and classrooms, taking courses such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, psychology, microbi ology, pathology, medical ethics, and laws governing medicine. They also learn to take medical histories, examine patients, and diagnose illnesses. During their last 2 years, students work with patients under the supervision of experienced physicians in hos pitals and clinics, learning acute, chronic, preventive, and reha bilitative care. Through rotations in internal medicine, family practice, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, psychiatry, and surgery, they gain experience in the diagnosis and treatment of illness. Following medical school, almost all M.D.s enter a resi dency—graduate medical education in a specialty that takes the form of paid on-the-job training, usually in a hospital. Most D.O.s serve a 12-month rotating internship after graduation and before entering a residency, which may last 2 to 6 years. A physician’s training is costly. According to the Association of American Medical Colleges, in 2007 85 percent of public medical school graduates and 86 percent of private medical school graduates were in debt for educational expenses. Licensure and certification. To practice medicine as a phy sician, all States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories require licensing. All physicians and surgeons practicing in the United States must pass the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE). To be eligible to take the USMLE in its entirety, physicians must graduate from an accredited medical school. Although physicians licensed in one State usually can get a license to practice in another without further examina tion, some States limit reciprocity. Graduates of foreign medi cal schools generally can qualify for licensure after passing an examination and completing a U.S. residency. For specific information on licensing in a given State, contact that State’s medical board. M.D.s and D.O.s seeking board certification in a specialty may spend up to 7 years in residency training, depending on the specialty. A final examination immediately after residency or after 1 or 2 years of practice is also necessary for certification member board of the American Board of Medical Special Digitizedbyfora FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 383 ists (ABMS) or the American Osteopathic Association (AOA). The ABMS represents 24 boards related to medical specialties ranging from allergy and immunology to urology. The AOA has approved 18 specialty boards, ranging from anesthesiology to surgery. For certification in a subspecialty, physicians usually need another 1 to 2 years of residency. Other qualifications. People who wish to become physi cians must have a desire to serve patients, be self-motivated, and be able to survive the pressures and long hours of medical education and practice. Physicians also must have a good bed side manner, emotional stability, and the ability to make deci sions in emergencies. Prospective physicians must be willing to study throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. Advancement. Some physicians and surgeons advance by gaining expertise in specialties and subspecialties and by de veloping a reputation for excellence among their peers and pa tients. Physicians and surgeons may also start their own prac tice or join a group practice. Others teach residents and other new doctors, and some advance to supervisory and managerial roles in hospitals, clinics, and other settings. Employment Physicians and surgeons held about 661,400 jobs in 2008; ap proximately 12 percent were self-employed. About 53 percent of wage-and-salary physicians and surgeons worked in offices of physicians, and 19 percent were employed by hospitals. Oth ers practiced in Federal, State, and local governments, educa tional services, and outpatient care centers. According to 2007 data from the American Medical Associa tion (AMA), 32 percent of physicians in patient care were in primary care, but not in a subspecialty of primary care. (See table 1.) Table 1. Percent distribution of active physicians in patient care by specialty, 2007 SpecialtyPercent Internal medicine................................................................... 20 Family medicine/general practice........................................ 12 Pediatrics................................................................................. 10 Obstetrics and gynecology................................................... 6 Anesthesiology....................................................................... 6 Psychiatry..................................................................................... 5 General Surgery ......................................................................... 5 Emergency Medicine.................................................................. 4 SOURCE: American Medical Association, 2009 Physican Characteristic and Distribution in the US. A growing number of physicians are partners or wage-andsalary employees of group practices. Organized as clinics or as associations of physicians, medical groups can more easily afford expensive medical equipment, share support staff, and benefit from other business advantages. According to the AMA, the New England and Middle Atlan tic States have the highest ratios of physicians to population; the South Central and Mountain States have the lowest. Physicians tend to locate in urban areas, close to hospitals and education centers. AMA data showed that in 2007, about 75 percent of physicians in patient care were located in metropolitan areas while the remaining 25 percent were located in rural areas. 384 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Code 2018 Number Percent 144,100 22 661,400 805,500 29-1060 Physicians and surgeons........................................................................ (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ___________________________ Occupational Title Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. Job opportunities should be very good, par ticularly in rural and low-income areas. Employment change. Employment of physicians and sur geons is projected to grow 22 percent from 2008 to 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. Job growth will oc cur because of continued expansion of health care-related in dustries. The growing and aging population will drive overall growth in the demand for physician services, as consumers con tinue to demand high levels of care using the latest technolo gies, diagnostic tests, and therapies. Many medical schools are increasing their enrollments based on perceived new demand for physicians. Despite growing demand for physicians and surgeons, some factors will temper growth. For example, new technologies al low physicians to be more productive. This means physicians can diagnose and treat more patients in the same amount of time. The rising cost of health care can dramatically affect de mand for physicians’ services. Physician assistants and nurse practitioners, who can perform many of the routine duties of physicians at a fraction of the cost, may be increasingly used. Furthermore, demand for physicians’ services is highly sen sitive to changes in health care reimbursement policies. If changes to health coverage result in higher out-of-pocket costs for consumers, they may demand fewer physician services. Job prospects. Opportunities for individuals interested in becoming physicians and surgeons are expected to be very good. In addition to job openings from employment growth, openings will result from the need to replace the relatively high number of physicians and surgeons expected to retire over the 2008-18 decade. Job prospects should be particularly good for physicians willing to practice in rural and low-income areas because these medically underserved areas typically have difficulty attracting these workers. Job prospects will also be especially good for physicians in specialties that afflict the rapidly growing elderly population. Examples of such specialties are cardiology and ra diology because the risks for heart disease and cancer increase as people age. Earnings Earnings of physicians and surgeons are among the highest of any occupation. According to the Medical Group Management Association’s Physician Compensation and Production Survey, median total compensation for physicians varied by their type of practice. In 2008, physicians practicing primary care had to tal median annual compensation of $186,044, and physicians practicing in medical specialties earned total median annual compensation of $339,738. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 Self-employed physicians—those who own or are part own ers of their medical practice—generally have higher median incomes than salaried physicians. Earnings vary according to number of years in practice, geographic region, hours worked, skill, personality, and professional reputation. Self-employed physicians and surgeons must provide for their own health in surance and retirement. Related Occupations Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, dis orders, and injuries. Other health care practitioners who need similar skills and who exercise critical judgment include: Page Chiropractors............................................................................ 360 Dentists..................................................................................... 363 Optometrists............................................................................. 371 Physician assistants..................................................................379 Podiatrists................................................................................. 385 Registered nurses.....................................................................392 Veterinarians.............................................................................402 Sources of Additional Information For a list of medical schools and residency programs, as well as general information on premedical education, financial aid, and medicine as a career contact: y Association of American Medical Colleges, Section for Student Services, 2450 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20037. Internet: http://www.aamc.org/students For information on licensing, contact: y Federation of State Medical Boards, P.O. Box 619850 Dallas, TX 75261-9850. Internet: http://www.fsmb.org For general information on physicians, contact: y American Medical Association, 515 N. State St., Chicago, IL 60654. Internet: http://www.ama-assn.org/go/becominganmd y American Osteopathic Association, Department of Communications, 142 East Ontario St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.osteopathic.org For information about various medical specialties, contact: y American Academy of Family Physicians, Resident Student Activities Department, P.O. Box 11210, Shawnee Mission, KS 66207-1210. Internet: http://fmignet.aafp.org y American Board of Medical Specialties, 222 N. LaSalle St., Suite 1500, Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http ://www.abms.org y American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, P.O. Box 96920, Washington, DC 20090. Internet: http://www.acog.org Professional and Related Occupations 385 y American College of Surgeons, Division of Education, 633 North Saint Clair St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http ://www.facs.org y American Psychiatric Association, 1000 Wilson Blvd., Suite 1825, Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.psych.org mm ' y American Society of Anesthesiologists, 520 N. Northwest Hwy., Park Ridge, IL 60068. Internet: http://www.asahq.org/career/homepage.htm Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the directors of student financial aid at schools of medi cine. Information on licensing is available from State boards of examiners. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos074.htm Podiatrists Significant Points • Podiatrists must be licensed, requiring 3 to 4 years of undergraduate education, the completion of a 4-year podiatric college program, and passing scores on na tional and State examinations. • Job opportunities should be good for entry-level grad uates of accredited podiatric medicine programs. • Opportunities will be better in group medical prac tices, clinics, and health networks than in traditional, solo practices. • Podiatrists enjoy very high earnings. Nature of the Work Americans spend a great deal of time on their feet. As the Na tion becomes more active across all age groups, the need for foot care will become increasingly important. Podiatrists, also known as doctors ofpodiatric medicine (DPMs), diagnose and treat disorders, diseases, and injuries of the foot and lower leg. Podiatrists treat corns, calluses, ingrown toenails, bunions, heel spurs, and arch problems; ankle and foot injuries, defor mities, and infections; and foot complaints associated with diabetes and other diseases. To treat these problems, podiatrists prescribe drugs and physical therapy, set fractures, and perform surgery. They also fit corrective shoe inserts called orthotics, design plaster casts and strappings to correct deformities, and design custom-made shoes. Podiatrists may use a force plate or scanner to help design the orthotics: patients walk across a plate connected to a computer that “reads” their feet, picking up pres sure points and weight distribution. From the computer readout, podiatrists order the correct design or recommend another kind of treatment. To diagnose a foot problem, podiatrists also may order X rays and Digitized for laboratory FRASER tests. The foot may be the first area to show signs https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Podiatrists diagnose and treat disorders, diseases, and injuries of the foot and lower leg. of serious conditions such as arthritis, diabetes, and heart dis ease. For example, patients with diabetes are prone to foot ul cers and infections because of poor circulation. Podiatrists con sult with and refer patients to other health practitioners when they detect symptoms of these disorders. Most podiatrists have a solo practice, although more are forming group practices with other podiatrists or health practi tioners. Some specialize in surgery, orthopedics, primary care, or public health. Besides these board-certified specialties, po diatrists may practice other specialties, such as sports medicine, pediatrics, dermatology, radiology, geriatrics, or diabetic foot care. Podiatrists who are in private practice are responsible for run ning a small business. They may hire employees, order sup plies, and keep records, among other tasks. In addition, some educate the community on the benefits of foot care through speaking engagements and advertising. Work environment. Podiatrists usually work in small private offices or clinics, sometimes supported by a small staff of assis tants and other administrative personnel. They also may spend time visiting patients in nursing homes or performing surgery at hospitals or ambulatory surgical centers. Work hours vary from 30-60 hours per week. Podiatrists with private practices may set their own hours but may work evenings and weekends to accommodate their patients. Podiatrists usually treat fewer emergencies than other doctors. 386 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Podiatrists must be licensed, requiring 3 to 4 years of under graduate education, the completion of a 4-year podiatric college program, and passing scores on national and State examinations. Education and training. Prerequisites for admission to a college of podiatric medicine include the completion of at least 90 semester hours of undergraduate study, an acceptable grade point average, and suitable scores on the Medical College Admission Test. (Some colleges also may accept the Dental Admission Test or the Graduate Record Exam.) Admission to podiatric colleges usually requires at least 8 semester hours each of biology, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics and at least 6 hours of English. The sci ence courses should be those designed for premedical students. Extracurricular and community activities, personal interviews, and letters of recommendation are also important. About 95 percent of podiatric students have at least a bachelor’s degree. In 2008, there were eight colleges of podiatric medicine fully accredited by the Council on Podiatric Medical Education. Col leges of podiatric medicine offer a 4-year program whose core curriculum is similar to that in other schools of medicine. Dur ing the first 2 years, students receive classroom instruction in basic sciences, including anatomy, chemistry, pathology, and pharmacology. Third-year and fourth-year students have clini cal rotations in private practices, hospitals, and clinics. During these rotations, they learn how to take general and podiatric histories, perform routine physical examinations, interpret tests and findings, make diagnoses, and perform therapeutic pro cedures. Graduates receive the degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM). Most graduates complete a hospital-based residency program after receiving a DPM. Residency programs last from 2 to 4 years. Residents receive advanced training in podiatric medi cine and surgery and serve clinical rotations in anesthesiology, internal medicine, infectious disease, pediatrics, emergency medicine, and orthopedic and general surgery. Residencies last ing more than 1 year provide more extensive training in spe cialty areas. Licensure. All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatric medicine. Each State defines its own licensing requirements, although many States grant reciprocity to podiatrists who are licensed in another State. Applicants for licensure must be graduates of an accred ited college of podiatric medicine and must pass written and oral examinations. Some States permit applicants to substitute the examination of the National Board of Podiatric Medical Examiners, given in the second and fourth years of podiatric medical college, for part or all of the written State examination. In general, States require a minimum of 2 years of postgradu ate residency training in an approved healthcare institution. For licensure renewal, most States require continuing education. Other qualifications. People planning a career in podiatry should have scientific aptitude, manual dexterity, interpersonal skills, and a friendly bedside manner. In private practice, podia trists also should have good business sense. Certification and advancement. There are a number of certifying boards for the podiatric specialties of orthopedics, primary medicine, and surgery. Certification has requirements beyond licensure. Each board requires advanced training, the completion of written and oral examinations, and experience as a practicing podiatrist. Most managed-care organizations prefer board-certified podiatrists. Podiatrists may advance to become professors at colleges of podiatric medicine, department chiefs in hospitals, or general health administrators. Employment Podiatrists held about 12,200 jobs in 2008. About 19 percent of podiatrists were self-employed. Most podiatrists were solo practitioners, although more are entering group practices with other podiatrists or other health practitioners. Solo practitioners were either unincorporated self-employed workers or incorpo rated wage and salary workers in offices of other health prac titioners. Other podiatrists were employed by hospitals and the Federal Government. Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase about as fast as average. Job prospects should be good. Employment change. Employment of podiatrists is expected to increase by 9 percent from 2008 to 2018, about as fast as the average for all occupations. More people will turn to po diatrists for foot care because of the rising number of injuries sustained by a more active and increasingly older population. Also, demand for podiatrists will increase because of the rising number of Americans who are diagnosed with diabetes and who are severely overweight. People with diabetes have circulatory problems that create the need for them to seek the aid of po diatrists; persons who experience rapid weight gain may have intense pressure on the foot and ankle, and therefore need the services of podiatrists. Medicare and most private health insurance programs cover acute medical and surgical foot services, as well as diagnostic X rays and leg braces. Details of such coverage vary among plans. However, routine foot care, including the removal of corns and calluses, is not usually covered unless the patient has a systemic condition that has resulted in severe circulatory problems or ar eas of desensitization in the legs or feet. Like dental services, podiatric care is often discretionary and, therefore, more depen dent on disposable income than some other medical services. Employment of podiatrists would grow even faster were it not for continued emphasis on controlling the costs of specialty Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Podiatrists.................................................................. ............................. soc Code 29-1081 Employment, 2008 12,200 Projected Employment, 2018 13,300 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 1,100 9 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 387 healthcare. Insurers will balance the cost of sending patients to podiatrists against the cost and availability of substitute practitioners, such as physicians, chiropractors, and physical therapists. Job prospects. Although the occupation is small and most podiatrists continue to practice until retirement, job opportuni ties should be good for entry-level graduates of accredited podiatric medicine programs. Job growth, coupled with the need to replace podiatrists who stop practicing, should create enough job openings for the supply of new podiatric medicine gradu ates. Opportunities will be better for board-certified podiatrists because many managed-care organizations require board certi fication. Newly trained podiatrists will find more opportunities in group medical practices, clinics, and health networks than in traditional solo practices. Establishing a practice will be most difficult in the areas surrounding colleges of podiatric medi cine, where podiatrists concentrate. acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos075.htm Earnings Radiation therapy is used to treat cancer in the human body. As part of a medical radiation oncology team, radiation ther apists use machines called linear accelerators to administer radiation treatment to patients. Linear accelerators are most commonly used in a procedure called external beam therapy, which projects high-energy x-rays at targeted cancer cells. As the X-rays collide with human tissue, they produce highly en ergized ions that can shrink and eliminate cancerous tumors. Radiation therapy is sometimes used as the sole treatment for cancer, but it is usually used in conjunction with chemother Podiatrists enjoy very high earnings. Median annual wages of salaried podiatrists were $113,560 in May 2008. Additionally, a survey by Podiatry Management Magazine reported median net income of $114,768 in 2008. Podiatrists in partnerships tended to earn higher net incomes than those in solo practice. Sala ried podiatrists typically receive heath insurance and retirement benefits from their employer, whereas self-employed podiatrists must provide for their own health insurance and retirement. Also, solo practitioners must absorb the costs of running their own offices. Related Occupations Other workers who apply medical knowledge to prevent, diag nose, and treat muscle and bone disorders and injuries include: Page Athletic trainers.................................................................................405 Chiropractors..................................................................................... 360 Massage therapists........................................................................... 452 Occupational therapists................................................................... 369 Physical therapists............................................................................ 377 Physicians and surgeons.................................................................. 381 Workers who specialize in developing orthopedic shoe in serts, braces, and prosthetic limbs are: Orthotists and prosthetists...............................................................825 Radiation Therapists Significant Points • A bachelor’s degree, associate degree, or certificate in radiation therapy is generally required. • Employment is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. • Good job opportunities are expected. • Earnings are relatively high. Nature of the Work apy or surgery. Before treatment can begin, the oncology team has to de velop a treatment plan. To create this plan, the radiation ther apist must first use an X-ray imaging machine or computer tomography (CT) scan to pinpoint the location of the tumor. Then, a radiation oncologist (a physician who specializes in therapeutic radiology) and a radiation physicist (a worker who calibrates the linear accelerator) determine the best way to ad minister treatment. The therapist completes the plan by posi tioning the patient and adjusting the linear accelerator to the specifications developed by the team, recording the details so that these conditions can be replicated during treatment. The Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in podiatric medicine, contact: y American Podiatric Medical Association, 9312 Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-1621. Internet: http ://www.apma.org Information on colleges of podiatric medicine and their en trance requirements, curricula, and student financial aid is available from: y American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 15850 Crabbs Branch Way, Suite 320, Rockville, MD 20855. Internet: http://www.aacpm.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Radiation therapists have goodjob prospects. 388 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Occupational Title Number Percent 2018 4,100 27 19,400 15,200 29-1124 Radiation therapists................................................................................ (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ____________________________________________________________ __ SOC Code t i o 1:1 pit later explains the treatment plan to the patient and answers any questions that the patient may have. The next step in the process is treatment. To begin each treatment session, the radiation therapist uses the guidelines developed during the planning phase to position the patient and adjust the linear accelerator. Then, from a separate room that is protected from the X-ray radiation, the therapist oper ates the linear accelerator and monitors the patient’s condition through a TV monitor and an intercom system. Treatment can take anywhere from 10 to 30 minutes. During the treatment phase, the radiation therapist moni tors the patient’s physical condition to determine whether the patient is having any adverse reactions to the treatment. The therapist must also be aware of the patient’s emotional well being. Because many patients are under stress and are emo tionally fragile, it is important for the therapist to maintain a positive attitude and provide emotional support. Radiation therapists keep detailed records of their patients’ treatments. These records include information such as the dose of radiation used for each treatment, the total amount of radiation used to date, the area treated, and the patient’s reactions. Radiation oncologists and dosimetrists (technicians who calculate the dose of radiation that will be used for treat ment) review these records to ensure that the treatment plan is working, to monitor the amount of radiation exposure that the patient has received, and to keep side effects to a minimum. Therapists also may assist dosimetrists with routine aspects of dosimetry, the process used to calculate radiation dosages. Work environment. Radiation therapists work in hospi tals or in cancer treatment centers. These places are clean, well lighted, and well ventilated. Therapists do a considerable amount of lifting and must be able to help disabled patients get on and off treatment tables. They spend most of their time on their feet. Radiation therapists generally work 40 hours a week, and unlike workers in some other healthcare occupations, they nor mally work only during the day. However, because radiation therapy emergencies do occur, some therapists are required to be on call and may have to work outside of their normal hours. Working with cancer patients can be stressful, but many ra diation therapists also find it rewarding. Because they work around radioactive materials, radiation therapists take great care to ensure that they are not exposed to dangerous levels of radiation. By following standard safety procedures, radiation therapists can prevent overexposure. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree, associate degree, or certificate in ra diation therapy generally is required. Many States require radiation therapists to be licensed, and most employers re https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment, 2008 quire certification. With experience, therapists can advance to managerial positions. Education and training. Employers usually require ap plicants to complete an associate or a bachelor’s degree program in radiation therapy. Individuals also may become qualified by completing an associate or a bachelor’s degree program in radiography, which is the study of radiologi cal imaging, and then by completing a 12-month certificate program in radiation therapy. Radiation therapy programs include core courses on radiation therapy procedures and the scientific theories behind them. In addition, such pro grams often include courses on human anatomy and physiol ogy, physics, algebra, precalculus, writing, public speaking, computer science, and research methodology. In 2009, there were 102 radiation therapy programs in the U.S. that were accredited by the American Registry of Radiologic Tech nologists (ARRT). Licensure. In 2009, 33 States required radiation thera pists to be licensed by a State accrediting board. Licensing requirements vary by State, but many States require appli cants to pass the ARRT certification examination. Further information is available from individual State licensing of fices. Certification and other qualifications. Some States, as well as many employers, require radiation therapists to be certified by ARRT. To become ARRT-certified, an applicant must complete an accredited radiation therapy program, ad here to ARRT ethical standards, and pass the ARRT certifi cation examination. The examination covers radiation pro tection and quality assurance, clinical concepts in radiation oncology, treatment planning, treatment delivery, and patient care and education. Candidates also must demonstrate com petency in several clinical practices including patient care activities; simulation procedures; dosimetry calculations; fabrication of beam modification devices; low-volume, highrisk procedures; and the application of radiation. ARRT certification is valid for 1 year, after which ther apists must renew their certification. Requirements for renewal include abiding by the ARRT ethical standards, paying annual dues, and satisfying continuing education requirements. Continuing education requirements must be met every 2 years and include either the completion of 24 course credits related to radiation therapy or the attainment of ARRT certification in a discipline other than radiation therapy. Certification renewal, however, may not be required by all States or employers that require initial certification. All radiation therapists need good communication skills because their work involves a great deal of interaction with patients. Individuals interested in becoming radiation thera pists should be psychologically capable of working with cancer patients. They should be caring and empathetic be- Professional and Related Occupations 389 cause they work with patients who are ill and under stress. They should be able to keep accurate, detailed records. They also should be physically fit because they work on their feet for long periods and lift and move disabled patients. Advancement. Experienced radiation therapists may ad vance to manage radiation therapy programs in treatment centers or other health care facilities. Managers generally continue to treat patients while taking on management re sponsibilities. Other advancement opportunities include teaching, technical sales, and research. With additional train ing and certification, therapists also can become dosimetrists, who use complex mathematical formulas to calculate proper radiation doses. Employment Radiation therapists held about 15,200 jobs in 2008. About 70 percent worked in hospitals, and about 18 percent worked in the offices of physicians. A small proportion worked in outpatient care centers and medical and diagnostic laboratories. Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase much faster than the aver age, and job prospects should be good. Employment change. Employment of radiation therapists is projected to grow by 27 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. The growing elderly population is expected to cause an increase in the number of people needing treatment. In addition, as ra diation technology becomes safer and more effective, it will be prescribed more often, leading to an increased demand for radiation therapists. Growth is likely to be rapid across all practice settings, including hospitals, physicians’ offices, and outpatient centers. Job prospects. Job prospects are expected to be good. Job openings will result from employment growth and from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Applicants with a bachelor’s degree and related work experience may have the best opportunities. Earnings Median annual wages of radiation therapists were $72,910 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $59,050 and $87,910. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $47,910, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $104,350. Some em ployers also reimburse their employees for the cost of continu ing education. Related Occupations Other occupations that administer medical treatment to patients include Page Cardiovascular technologists and technicians......................... 408 Dental hygienists...................................................................... 414 Diagnostic medical sonographers............................................416 Nuclear medicine technologists...............................................426 Nursing and psychiatric aides..................................................460 Physical therapist assistants and aides.................................... 465 Radiologic technologists and technicians............................... 438 Registered nurses..................................................................... 392 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information on certification by the American Registry of Ra diologic Technologists and on accredited radiation therapy pro grams may be obtained from: > American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St. Paul, MN 55120. Internet: http://www.arrt.org Information on careers in radiation therapy may be obtained from: > American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. SE., Albuquerque, NM 87123. Internet: http ://www.asrt.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bIs.gov/ooh/ocos299.htm Recreational Therapists Significant Points • Applicants for recreational therapist jobs will experi ence competition. • A bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation is the usual educational requirement. • Some States regulate recreational therapists through licensure, registration, or regulation of titles, but re quirements vary. • Recreational therapists should be comfortable work ing with persons who are ill or who have disabilities. Nature of the Work Recreational therapists, also referred to as therapeutic recre ation specialists, provide treatment services and recreation activities for individuals with disabilities or illnesses. Using a variety of techniques, including arts and crafts, animals, sports, games, dance and movement, drama, music, and community outings, therapists improve and maintain the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of their clients. Therapists help in dividuals reduce depression, stress, and anxiety; recover basic motor functioning and reasoning abilities; build confidence; and socialize effectively so that they can enjoy greater inde pendence and reduce or eliminate the effects of their illness or disability. In addition, therapists help people with disabilities integrate into the community by teaching them how to use com munity resources and recreational activities. Recreational thera pists are different from recreation workers, who organize recre ational activities primarily for enjoyment. (Recreation workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) In acute healthcare settings, such as hospitals and rehabilita tion centers, recreational therapists treat and rehabilitate indi viduals with specific health conditions, usually in conjunction or collaboration with physicians, nurses, psychologists, social workers, and physical and occupational therapists. In long-term and residential care facilities, recreational therapists use leisure 390 Occupational Outlook Handbook activities—especially structured group programs—to improve and maintain their clients’ general health and well-being. They also may provide interventions to prevent the client from suffer ing further medical problems and complications. Recreational therapists assess clients using information from observations, medical records, standardized assessments, the medical staff, the clients’ families, and the clients themselves. They then develop and carry out therapeutic interventions con sistent with the clients’ needs and interests. For example, they may encourage clients who are isolated from others or who have limited social skills to play games with others, and they may teach right-handed people with right-side paralysis how to use their unaffected left side to throw a ball or swing a racket. Recreational therapists may instruct patients in relaxation tech niques to reduce stress and tension, stretching and limbering ex ercises, proper body mechanics for participation in recreational activities, pacing and energy conservation techniques, and team activities. As they work, therapists observe and document a pa tient’s participation, reactions, and progress. Community-based recreational therapists may work in park and recreation departments, special education programs for school districts, or assisted living, adult day care, and substance abuse rehabilitation centers. In these programs, therapists use interventions to develop specific skills, while providing op portunities for exercise, mental stimulation, creativity, and fun. Those few who work in schools help counselors, teachers, and parents address the special needs of students, including easing disabled students’ transition into adult life. Work environment. Recreational therapists provide services in special activity rooms but also plan activities and prepare documentation in offices. When working with clients during community integration programs, they may travel locally to teach clients how to use public transportation and other pub- ftBm n ■ 1 i Recreational therapists observe and document a patient’s par ticipation, reaction, and progress. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis lie areas, such as parks, playgrounds, swimming pools, restau rants, and theaters. Therapists often lift and carry equipment. Recreational therapists generally work a 40-hour week. Work hours may include some evenings, weekends, and holidays. Some therapists may work part time and for more than one em ployer, requiring travel. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major or concentration in therapeu tic recreation is the usual requirement. Some States regulate recreational therapists, but requirements vary. Education and training. Most entry-level recreational ther apists need a bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation, or in recreation with a concentration in therapeutic recreation. A few may qualify with some combination of education, training, and work experience that would be equivalent to what is considered competent in the field. There are more than 100 academic pro grams that prepare students to become recreational therapists. Most offer bachelor’s degrees, although some offer associate’s, master’s, or doctoral degrees. Therapeutic recreation programs include courses in assessment, treatment and program planning, intervention design, and evaluation. Students also study human anatomy, physiology, abnormal psychology, medical and psy chiatric terminology, characteristics of illnesses and disabili ties, professional ethics, and the use of assistive devices and technology. Bachelor’s degree programs include an internship in the field as part of their curriculum. Some States regulate recreational therapists Licensure. through licensure, registration, or regulation of titles. Require ments vary by State. In 2009, Oklahoma, North Carolina, Utah, and New Hampshire required licensure to practice as a recre ational therapist. For specifics on regulations and requirements, contact the State’s medical board. Certification and other qualifications. Although certifica tion is voluntary, most employers prefer to hire candidates who are certified therapeutic recreation specialists. Work in clinical settings often requires certification by the National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification. The council offers the Certified Therapeutic Recreation Specialist credential to candi dates who pass a written certification examination and complete a supervised internship of at least 480 hours. A minimum of a bachelor’s degree in recreational therapy from an accredited institution is required for credentialing, but some may qualify with equivalent education, training, and experience. Therapists must meet additional requirements to maintain certification. For specific details on credentialing, contact the National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification. (See Sources of Ad ditional Information below for address.) Recreational therapists may dedicate themselves to a certain type of therapy. Therapists wanting to practice a concentration can also earn certifications in specific therapies, such as art therapy and aquatic therapy. Recreational therapists must be comfortable working with people who are ill or disabled. Therapists must be patient, tact ful, and persuasive when working with people who have a vari ety of special needs. Ingenuity, a sense of humor, and imagina tion are needed to adapt activities to individual needs, and good Professional and Related Occupations 391 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Recreational therapists.................................. ?q_ 11 ? s 23.300 26.700 3 400 15 (NOTH) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- Occupational Title SOC Code Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. physical coordination is necessary to demonstrate or participate in recreational activities. Advancement. Therapists may advance to supervisory or administrative positions. Some teach, conduct research, or con sult for health or social services agencies. and the highest 10 percent earned more than $60,280. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of recreational therapists in May 2008 were: General medical and surgical hospitals..... ............... $42,210 Employment State government................................ Recreational therapists held about 23,300 jobs in 2008. About 24 percent were in nursing care facilities. Others worked pri marily in hospitals, residential care facilities, and State and lo cal government agencies. Psychiatric and substance abuse hospitals . ................. 40,150 Nursing care facilities.................... ......... 33 920 Community care facilities for the elderly... ................. 33,490 Related Occupations Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow faster than the average. Ap plicants will face competition for jobs. Employment change. Employment of recreational thera pists is expected to increase 15 percent from 2008 to 2018, faster than the average for all occupations. Job growth will stem from the therapy needs of the aging population. With age comes an inevitable decrease in physical ability and, in some cases, mental ability, which can be limited or managed with recreation therapy. In nursing care facilities—the largest industry employ ing recreational therapists—employment will grow faster than the occupation as a whole as the number of older adults contin ues to grow. Employment growth in schools will result from the expan sion of the school-age population and the federally funded ex tension of services for disabled students. Reimbursement for recreational therapy services will con tinue to affect how and where therapeutic recreation is pro vided. As payers and employers try to contain costs, recreation therapy services will shift to outpatient settings and away from hospitals. Job prospects. Recreational therapists will experience com petition for jobs. Lower paid recreational therapy aides may be increasingly used in an effort to contain costs. Job oppor tunities should be best for people with a bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation and the Certified Therapeutic Recreation Specialist credential. Recreational therapists might experience more competition for jobs in certain regions of the country as jobs in therapeutic recreation tend to cluster in more densely populated areas. Earnings Median annual wages of recreational therapists were $38,370 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,660 and $49,140. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,150, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Recreational therapists primarily design activities to help peo ple with disabilities lead more fulfilling and independent lives. Other occupations in therapy and rehabilitation include: Page Counselors........................ Occupational therapists................... Physical therapists....................... 377 Speech-language pathologists.................... Teachers—special education............ 2Q4 Sources of Additional Information For information and materials on careers and academic programs in recreational therapy, contact: y American Therapeutic Recreation Association, 629 N. Main St., Hattiesburg, MS 39401. Internet: http://atra-online.com/ y National Therapeutic Recreation Society, 22377 Belmont Ridge Rd„ Ashburn, VA 20148-4501. Internet: http://www.nrpa.org/ Information on certification may be obtained from: y National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification, 7 Elmwood Dr., New City, NY 10956. Internet: http://www.nctrc.org For information on licensure requirements, contact the ap propriate recreational therapy regulatory agency for your State. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos082.htm 392 Occupational Outlook Handbook Registered Nurses Significant Points • Registered nurses (RNs) constitute the largest health care occupation, with 2.6 million jobs. • About 60 percent of RN jobs are in hospitals. • The three typical educational paths to registered nurs ing are a bachelor’s degree, an associate degree, and a diploma from an approved nursing program; ad vanced practice nurses—clinical nurse specialists, nurse anesthetists, nurse-midwives, and nurse practi tioners—need a master’s degree. • Overall job opportunities are expected to be excellent, but may vary by employment and geographic setting; some employers report difficulty in attracting and re taining an adequate number of RNs. Nature of the Work Registered nurses (RNs), regardless of specialty or work set ting, treat patients, educate patients and the public about various medical conditions, and provide advice and emotional support to patients’ family members. RNs record patients’ medical his tories and symptoms, help perform diagnostic tests and analyze results, operate medical machinery, administer treatment and medications, and help with patient follow-up and rehabilitation. RNs teach patients and their families how to manage their ill nesses or injuries, explaining post-treatment home care needs; diet, nutrition, and exercise programs; and self-administration of medication and physical therapy. Some RNs may work to promote general health by educating the public on warning signs and symptoms of disease. RNs also might run general health screening or immunization clinics, blood drives, and public seminars on various conditions. When caring for patients, RNs establish a care plan or con tribute to an existing plan. Plans may include numerous activi ties, such as administering medication, including careful check ing of dosages and avoiding interactions; starting, maintaining, and discontinuing intravenous (IV) lines for fluid, medication, blood, and blood products; administering therapies and treat ments; observing the patient and recording those observations; and consulting with physicians and other healthcare clinicians. Some RNs provide direction to licensed practical nurses and nursing aides regarding patient care. (See the statements on licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses; nursing and psychiatric aides; and home health aides elsewhere in the Hand book). RNs with advanced educational preparation and training may perform diagnostic and therapeutic procedures and may have prescriptive authority. Specific work responsibilities will vary from one RN to the next. An RN’s duties and title are often determined by their work setting or patient population served. RNs can special ize in one or more areas of patient care. There generally are four ways to specialize. RNs may work a particular setting or type of treatment, such as perioperative nurses, who work in operating rooms and assist surgeons. RNs may specialize in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis specific health conditions, as do diabetes management nurses, who assist patients to manage diabetes. Other RNs specialize in working with one or more organs or body system types, such as dermatology nurses, who work with patients who have skin disorders. RNs may also specialize with a well-defined popula tion, such as geriatric nurses, who work with the elderly. Some RNs may combine specialties. For example, pediatric oncology nurses deal with children and adolescents who have cancer. The opportunities for specialization in registered nursing are exten sive and are often determined on the job. There are many options for RNs who specialize in a work setting or type of treatment. Ambulatory care nurses provide preventive care and treat patients with a variety of illnesses and injuries in physicians’ offices or in clinics. Some ambu latory care nurses are involved in telehealth, providing care and advice through electronic communications media such as videoconferencing, the Internet, or by telephone. Critical care nurses provide care to patients with serious, complex, and acute illnesses or injuries that require very close monitoring and extensive medication protocols and therapies. Critical care nurses often work in critical or intensive care hospital units. Emergency, or trauma, nurses work in hospital or stand-alone emergency departments, providing initial assessments and care for patients with life-threatening conditions. Some emergency nurses may become qualified to serve as transport nurses, who provide medical care to patients who are transported by heli copter or airplane to the nearest medical facility. Holistic nurses provide care such as acupuncture, massage and aroma therapy, and biofeedback, which are meant to treat patients’ mental and spiritual health in addition to their physical health. Home health care nurses provide at-home nursing care for patients, often as follow-up care after discharge from a hospital or from a reha bilitation, long-term care, or skilled nursing facility. Hospice and palliative care nurses provide care, most often in home or hospice settings, focused on maintaining quality of life for terminally ill patients. Infusion nurses administer medications, fluids, and blood to patients through injections into patients’ veins. Long-term care nurses provide healthcare services on a recurring basis to patients with chronic physical or mental disorders, often in long-term care or skilled nursing facilities. Medical-surgical nurses provide health promotion and basic medical care to patients with various medical and surgical diag noses. Occupational health nurses seek to prevent job-related injuries and illnesses, provide monitoring and emergency care services, and help employers implement health and safety stan dards. Perianesthesia nurses provide preoperative and postop erative care to patients undergoing anesthesia during surgery or other procedure. Perioperative nurses assist surgeons by select ing and handling instruments, controlling bleeding, and sutur ing incisions. Some of these nurses also can specialize in plas tic and reconstructive surgery. Psychiatric-mental health nurses treat patients with personality and mood disorders. Radiology nurses provide care to patients undergoing diagnostic radiation procedures such as ultrasounds, magnetic resonance imaging, and radiation therapy for oncology diagnoses. Rehabilitation nurses care for patients with temporary and permanent disabili ties. Transplant nurses care for both transplant recipients and living donors and monitor signs of organ rejection. Professional and Related Occupations 393 DRSFI Registered nurses teach patients and theirfamilies how to man age their illness or injury. RNs specializing in a particular disease, ailment, or health care condition are employed in virtually all work settings, in cluding physicians’ offices, outpatient treatment facilities, home healthcare agencies, and hospitals. Addictions nurses care for patients seeking help with alcohol, drug, tobacco, and other addictions. Intellectual and developmental disabilities nurses provide care for patients with physical, mental, or behavioral disabilities; care may include help with feeding, controlling bodily functions, sitting or standing independently, and speak ing or other communication. Diabetes management nurses help diabetics to manage their disease by teaching them proper nu trition and showing them how to test blood sugar levels and administer insulin injections. Genetics nurses provide early de tection screenings, counseling, and treatment of patients with genetic disorders, including cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease. HIV/AIDS nurses care for patients diagnosed with HIV and AIDS. Oncology nurses care for patients with various types of cancer and may assist in the administration of radiation and chemotherapies and follow-up monitoring. Wound, ostomy, and continence nurses treat patients with wounds caused by trau matic injury, ulcers, or arterial disease; provide postoperative care for patients with openings that allow for alternative meth ods of bodily waste elimination; and treat patients with urinary and fecal incontinence. RNs specializing in treatment of a particular organ or body system usually are employed in hospital specialty or criti cal care units, specialty clinics, and outpatient care facilities. Cardiovascular nurses treat patients with coronary heart dis ease and those who have had heart surgery, providing services such as postoperative rehabilitation. Dermatology nurses treat patients with disorders of the skin, such as skin cancer and psoriasis. Gastroenterology nurses treat patients with digestive and intestinal disorders, including ulcers, acid reflux disease, and abdominal bleeding. Some nurses in this field also assist in specialized procedures such as endoscopies, which look inside the gastrointestinal tract using a tube equipped with a light and a camera that can capture images of diseased tissue. Gynecol ogy nurses provide care to women with disorders of the repro ductive system, including endometriosis, cancer, and sexually transmitted diseases. Nephrology nurses care for patients with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis kidney disease caused by diabetes, hypertension, or substance abuse. Neuroscience nurses care for patients with dysfunctions of the nervous system, including brain and spinal cord injuries and seizures. Ophthalmic nurses provide care to patients with disorders of the eyes, including blindness and glaucoma, and to patients undergoing eye surgery. Orthopedic nurses care for pa tients with muscular and skeletal problems, including arthritis, bone fractures, and muscular dystrophy. Otorhinolaryngology nurses care for patients with ear, nose, and throat disorders, such as cleft palates, allergies, and sinus disorders. Respiratory nurses provide care to patients with respiratory disorders such as asthma, tuberculosis, and cystic fibrosis. Urology nurses care for patients with disorders of the kidneys, urinary tract, and male reproductive organs, including infections, kidney and bladder stones, and cancers. RNs who specialize by population provide preventive and acute care in all healthcare settings to the segment of the popu lation in which they specialize, including newborns (neonatol ogy), children and adolescents (pediatrics), adults, and the el derly (gerontology or geriatrics). RNs also may provide basic healthcare to patients outside of healthcare settings in such ven ues as including correctional facilities, schools, summer camps, and the military. Some RNs travel around the United States and throughout the world providing care to patients in areas with shortages of healthcare workers. Most RNs work as staff nurses as members of a team provid ing critical healthcare. However, some RNs choose to become advanced practice nurses, who work independently or in col laboration with physicians, and may focus on the provision of primary care services. Clinical nurse specialists provide direct patient care and expert consultations in one of many nursing spe cialties, such as psychiatric-mental health. Nurse anesthetists provide anesthesia and related care before and after surgical, therapeutic, diagnostic and obstetrical procedures. They also provide pain management and emergency services, such as airway management. Nurse-midwives provide primary care to women, including gynecological exams, family planning ad vice, prenatal care, assistance in labor and delivery, and neona tal care. Nurse practitioners serve as primary and specialty care providers, providing a blend of nursing and healthcare services to patients and families. The most common specialty areas for nurse practitioners are family practice, adult practice, women’s health, pediatrics, acute care, and geriatrics. However, there are a variety of other specialties that nurse practitioners can choose, including neonatology and mental health. Advanced practice nurses can prescribe medications in all States and in the District of Columbia. Some nurses have jobs that require little or no direct patient care, but still require an active RN license. Forensics nurses participate in the scientific investigation and treatment of abuse victims, violence, criminal activity, and traumatic accident. Infection control nurses identify, track, and control infectious outbreaks in healthcare facilities and develop programs for out break prevention and response to biological terrorism. Nurse educators plan, develop, implement, and evaluate educational programs and curricula for the professional development of student nurses and RNs. Nurse informaticists manage and com municate nursing data and information to improve decision 394 Occupational Outlook Handbook making by consumers, patients, nurses, and other healthcare providers. RNs also may work as healthcare consultants, public policy advisors, pharmaceutical and medical supply researchers and salespersons, and medical writers and editors. Work environment. Most RNs work in well-lit, comfortable healthcare facilities. Home health and public health nurses travel to patients’ homes, schools, community centers, and other sites. RNs may spend considerable time walking, bending, stretching, and standing. Patients in hospitals and nursing care facilities require 24-hour care; consequently, nurses in these institutions may work nights, weekends, and holidays. RNs also may be on call—available to work on short notice. Nurses who work in offices, schools, and other settings that do not provide 24-hour care are more likely to work regular business hours. About 20 percent of RNs worked part time in 2008. RNs may be in close contact with individuals who have infec tious diseases and with toxic, harmful, or potentially hazard ous compounds, solutions, and medications. RNs must observe rigid, standardized guidelines to guard against disease and other dangers, such as those posed by radiation, accidental needle sticks, chemicals used to sterilize instruments, and anesthetics. In addition, they are vulnerable to back injury when moving patients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The three typical educational paths to registered nursing are a bachelor’s degree, an associate degree, and a diploma from an approved nursing program. Nurses most commonly enter the occupation by completing an associate degree or bachelor’s de gree program. Individuals then must complete a national licens ing examination in order to obtain a nursing license. Advanced practice nurses—clinical nurse specialists, nurse anesthetists, nurse-midwives, and nurse practitioners—need a master’s degree. Education and training. There are three typical educational paths to registered nursing—a bachelor’s of science degree in nursing (BSN), an associate degree in nursing (ADN), and a diploma. BSN programs, offered by colleges and universities, take about 4 years to complete. ADN programs, offered by community and junior colleges, take about 2 to 3 years to com plete. Diploma programs, administered in hospitals, last about 3 years. Generally, licensed graduates of any of the three types of educational programs qualify for entry-level positions as a staff nurse. There are hundreds of registered nursing programs that result in an ADN or BSN; however, there are relatively few diploma programs. Individuals considering a career in nursing should carefully weigh the advantages and disadvantages of enrolling in each type of education program. Advancement opportunities may be more limited for ADN and diploma holders compared to RNs who obtain a BSN or higher. Individuals who complete a bach elor’s degree receive more training in areas such as communica tion, leadership, and critical thinking, all of which are becom ing more important as nursing practice becomes more complex. Additionally, bachelor’s degree programs offer more clinical experience in nonhospital settings. A bachelor’s or higher de gree is often necessary for administrative positions, research, consulting, and teaching Many RNs with an ADN or diploma later enter bachelor’s degree programs to prepare for a broader scope of nursing prac tice. Often, they can find an entry-level position and then take advantage of tuition reimbursement benefits to work toward a BSN by completing an RN-to-BSN program. Accelerated master’s degree in nursing (MSN) programs also are available. They typically take 3-4 years to complete full time and result in the award of both the BSN and MSN. There are education programs available for people interested in switching to a career in nursing as well. Individuals who already hold a bachelor’s degree in another field may enroll in an accelerated BSN program. Accelerated BSN programs last 12 to 18 months and provide the fastest route to a BSN for in dividuals who already hold a degree. MSN programs also are available for individuals who hold a bachelor’s or higher degree in another field; master’s degree programs usually last 2 years. All nursing education programs include classroom instruc tion and supervised clinical experience in hospitals and other healthcare facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physiol ogy, microbiology, chemistry, nutrition, psychology and other behavioral sciences, and nursing. Coursework also includes the liberal arts for ADN and BSN students. Supervised clinical experience is provided in hospital depart ments such as pediatrics, psychiatry, maternity, and surgery. A number of programs include clinical experience in nursing care facilities, public health departments, home health agencies, and ambulatory clinics. Licensure and certification. In all States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories, students must graduate from an approved nursing program and pass a national licensing exami nation, known as the National Council Licensure Examination, or NCLEX-RN, in order to obtain a nursing license. Other eli gibility requirements for licensure vary by State. Contact your State’s board of nursing for details. Other qualifications. Nurses should be caring, sympathetic, responsible, and detail oriented. They must be able to direct or supervise others, correctly assess patients’ conditions, and determine when consultation is required. They need emotional stability to cope with human suffering, emergencies, and other stresses. RNs should enjoy learning because continuing education credits are required by some States and/or employers at regular intervals. Career-long learning is a distinct reality for RNs. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title SOC Code Employment, 2008 Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018________Number Percent 3,200,200 581,500_________ 22_ 29-1111 2,618,700 Registered nurses (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. _____________________________________ ____________ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 395 Some nurses may become credentialed in specialties such as ambulatory care, gerontology, informatics, pediatrics, and many others. Credentialing for RNs is available from the American Nursing Credentialing Center, the National League for Nursing, and many others. Although credentialing is usually voluntary, it demonstrates adherence to a higher standard and some employ ers may require it. Advancement. Most RNs begin as staff nurses in hospitals and, with experience and good performance, often move to other settings or are promoted to positions with more responsi bility. In management, nurses can advance from assistant unit manager or head nurse to more senior-level administrative roles of assistant director, director, vice president, or chief of nurs ing. Increasingly, management-level nursing positions require a graduate or an advanced degree in nursing or health services ad ministration. Administrative positions require leadership, com munication and negotiation skills, and good judgment. Some RNs choose to become advanced practice nurses, who work independently or in collaboration with physicians, and may focus on providing primary care services. There are four types of advanced practice nurses: clinical nurse special ists, nurse anesthetists, nurse-midwives, and nurse practitio ners. Clinical nurse specialists provide direct patient care and expert consultations in one of many nursing specialties, such as psychiatric-mental health. Nurse anesthetists provide anes thesia and related care before and after surgical, therapeutic, diagnostic, and obstetrical procedures. They also provide pain management and emergency services, such as airway manage ment. Nurse-midwives provide primary care to women, includ ing gynecological exams, family planning advice, prenatal care, assistance in labor and delivery, and neonatal care. Nurse prac titioners serve as primary and specialty care providers, provid ing a blend of nursing and healthcare services to patients and families. All four types of advanced practice nurses require at least a master’s degree. In addition, all States specifically define re quirements for registered nurses in advanced practice roles. Advanced practice nurses may prescribe medicine, but the au thority to prescribe varies by State. Contact your State’s board of nursing for specific regulations regarding advanced practice nurses. Some nurses move into the business side of healthcare. Their nursing expertise and experience on a healthcare team equip them to manage ambulatory, acute, home-based, and chronic care businesses. Employers—including hospitals, insurance companies, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and managed care organizations, among others—need RNs for health planning and development, marketing, consulting, policy development, and quality assurance. Other nurses work as college and univer sity faculty or conduct research. Employment As the largest healthcare occupation, registered nurses held about 2.6 million jobs in 2008. Hospitals employed the major ity of RNs, with 60 percent of such jobs. About 8 percent of jobs were in offices of physicians, 5 percent in home health care services, 5 percent in nursing care facilities, and 3 percent in employment services. The remainder worked mostly in govhttps://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis emment agencies, social assistance agencies, and educational services. Job Outlook Overall job opportunities for registered nurses are expected to be excellent, but may vary by employment and geographic setting. Some employers report difficulty in attracting and re taining an adequate number of RNs. Employment of RNs is expected to grow much faster than the average and, because the occupation is very large, 581,500 new jobs will result, among the largest number of new jobs for any occupation. Addition ally, hundreds of thousands of job openings will result from the need to replace experienced nurses who leave the occupation. Employment change. Employment of registered nurses is expected to grow by 22 percent from 2008 to 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. Growth will be driven by technological advances in patient care, which permit a greater number of health problems to be treated, and by an increasing emphasis on preventive care. In addition, the number of older people, who are much more likely than younger people to need nursing care, is projected to grow rapidly. However, employment of RNs will not grow at the same rate in every industry. The projected growth rates for RNs in the industries with the highest employment of these workers are: Offices of physicians........................................................48% Home health care services................................................... 33 Nursing care facilities......................................................... 25 Employment services.......................................................... 24 Hospitals, public and private............................................... 17 Employment is expected to grow more slowly in hospitals— healthcare’s largest industry—than in most other healthcare in dustries. While the intensity of nursing care is likely to increase, requiring more nurses per patient, the number of inpatients (those who remain in the hospital for more than 24 hours) is not likely to grow by much. Patients are being discharged ear lier, and more procedures are being done on an outpatient basis, both inside and outside hospitals. Rapid growth is expected in hospital outpatient facilities, such as those providing same-day surgery, rehabilitation, and chemotherapy. More and more sophisticated procedures, once performed only in hospitals, are being performed in physicians’ offices and in outpatient care centers, such as freestanding ambulatory surgical and emergency centers. Accordingly, employment is expected to grow fast in these places as healthcare in general expands. Employment in nursing care facilities is expected to grow because of increases in the number of older persons, many of whom require long-term care. Many elderly patients want to be treated at home or in residential care facilities, which will drive demand for RNs in those settings. The financial pressure on hospitals to discharge patients as soon as possible should pro duce more admissions to nursing and residential care facilities and referrals to home healthcare. Job growth also is expected in units that provide specialized long-term rehabilitation for stroke and head injury patients, as well as units that treat Al zheimer’s victims. 396 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment in home healthcare is expected to increase in response to the growing number of older persons with func tional disabilities, consumer preference for care in the home, and technological advances that make it possible to bring in creasingly complex treatments into the home. The type of care demanded will require nurses who are able to perform complex procedures. Job prospects. Overall job opportunities are expected to be excellent for registered nurses. Employers in some parts of the country and in certain employment settings report difficulty in attracting and retaining an adequate number of RNs, primarily because of an aging RN workforce and a lack of younger work ers to fill positions. Qualified applicants to nursing schools are being turned away because of a shortage of nursing faculty. The need for nursing faculty will only increase as many instructors near retirement. Despite the slower employment growth in hos pitals, job opportunities should still be excellent because of the relatively high turnover of hospital nurses. To attract and retain qualified nurses, hospitals may offer signing bonuses, familyfriendly work schedules, or subsidized training. Although faster employment growth is projected in physicians’ offices and out patient care centers, RNs may face greater competition for these positions because they generally offer regular working hours and more comfortable working environments. Generally, RNs with at least a bachelor’s degree will have better job prospects than those without a bachelor’s. In addition, all four advanced practice specialties—clinical nurse specialists, nurse practitio ners, nurse-midwives, and nurse anesthetists—will be in high demand, particularly in medically underserved areas such as inner cities and rural areas. Relative to physicians, these RNs increasingly serve as lower-cost primary care providers. Earnings Median annual wages of registered nurses were $62,450 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $51,640 and $76,570. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $43,410, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $92,240. Median an nual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of registered nurses in May 2008 were: Employment services................................................. $68,160 General medical and surgical hospitals........................63,880 Offices of physicians.................................................... 59,210 Home health care services............................................ 58,740 Nursing care facilities.................................................. 57,060 Many employers offer flexible work schedules, child care, educational benefits, and bonuses. About 21 percent of regis tered nurses are union members or covered by union contract. Related Occupations Because of the number of specialties for registered nurses, and the variety of responsibilities and duties, many other healthcare occupations are similar in some aspects of their job. Some https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis healthcare occupations with similar levels of responsibility that work under the direction of physicians or dentists are: Page Dental hygienists......................................................................414 Diagnostic medical sonographers........................................... 416 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.................... 419 Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses.................. 421 Physician assistants..................................................................379 Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a registered nurse and nursing education, contact: V National League for Nursing, 61 Broadway, 33rd Floor, New York, NY 10006. Internet: http://www.nln.org For information on baccalaureate and graduate nursing edu cation, nursing career options, and financial aid, contact: > American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 1 Dupont Circle NW„ Suite 530, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http ://www.aacn.nche.edu For additional information on registered nurses, including credentialing, contact: y American Nurses Association, 8515 Georgia Ave., Suite 400, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Internet: http://nursingworld.org For information on the National Council Licensure Exami nation (NCLEX-RN) and a list of individual State boards of nursing, contact: > National Council of State Boards of Nursing, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 2900, Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http://www.ncsbn.org For a list of accredited clinical nurse specialist programs, contact: y National Association of Clinical Nurse Specialists, 2090 Linglestown Rd., Suite 107, Harrisburg, PA 17110. Internet: http://www.nacns.org For information on nurse anesthetists, including a list of ac credited programs, contact: y American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, 222 S. Prospect Ave., Park Ridge, IL 60068. Internet: http ://www.aana.com/ For information on nurse-midwives, including a list of ac credited programs, contact: y American College of Nurse-Midwives, 8403 Colesville Rd., Suite 1550, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Internet: http ://w ww.midwife.org For information on nurse practitioners, including a list of ac credited programs, contact: y American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, P.O. Box 12846, Austin, TX 78711. Internet: http://www.aanp.org For additional information on registered nurses in all fields and specialties, contact: y American Society of Registered Nurses, 1001 Bridgeway, Suite 233, Sausalito, CA 94965. Internet: http ://www.asrn.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In- Professional and Related Occupations 397 temet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos083.htm Respiratory Therapists Significant Points • Job opportunities should be very good. • Hospitals will account for the vast majority of job openings, but a growing number of openings will arise in other settings. • An associate degree is the minimum educational re quirement, but a bachelor’s or master’s degree may be important for advancement. • All States, except Alaska and Hawaii, require respira tory therapists to be licensed. Nature of the Work Respiratory therapists—also known as respiratory care prac titioners—evaluate, treat, and care for patients with breathing or other cardiopulmonary disorders. Practicing under the di rection of a physician, respiratory therapists assume primary responsibility for all respiratory care therapeutic treatments and diagnostic procedures, including the supervision of respi ratory therapy technicians. They consult with physicians and other healthcare staff to help develop and modify patient care plans. Therapists also provide complex therapy requiring con siderable independent judgment, such as caring for patients on life support in intensive-care units of hospitals. Respiratory therapists evaluate and treat all types of pa tients, ranging from premature infants whose lungs are not fully developed to elderly people whose lungs are diseased. They provide temporary relief to patients with chronic asthma or emphysema and give emergency care to patients who are victims of a heart attack, stroke, drowning, or shock. Respiratory therapists interview patients, perform limited physical examinations, and conduct diagnostic tests. For ex- I Respiratory therapists interview patients, perform limited phys ical and conduct diagnostic tests. Digitized for examinations, FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ample, respiratory therapists test a patient’s breathing capac ity and determine the concentration of oxygen and other gases in a patient’s blood. They also measure a patient’s pH, which indicates the acidity or alkalinity of the blood. To evaluate a patient’s lung capacity, respiratory therapists have the patient breathe into an instrument that measures the volume and flow of oxygen during inhalation and exhalation. By comparing the reading with the norm for the patient’s age, height, weight, and sex, respiratory therapists can provide information that helps determine whether the patient has any lung deficiencies. To analyze oxygen, carbon dioxide, and blood pH levels, ther apists draw an arterial blood sample, place it in a blood gas analyzer, and relay the results to a physician, who then makes treatment decisions. To treat patients, respiratory therapists use oxygen or oxy gen mixtures, chest physiotherapy, and aerosol medications— liquid medications suspended in a gas that forms a mist which is inhaled. They teach patients how to inhale the aerosol properly to ensure its effectiveness. When a patient has dif ficulty getting enough oxygen into his or her blood, therapists increase the patient’s concentration of oxygen by placing an oxygen mask or nasal cannula on the patient and setting the oxygen flow at the level prescribed by a physician. Therapists also connect patients who cannot breathe on their own to ven tilators that deliver pressurized oxygen into the lungs. The therapists insert a tube into the patient’s trachea, or windpipe; connect the tube to the ventilator; and set the rate, volume, and oxygen concentration of the oxygen mixture entering the patient’s lungs. Therapists perform regular assessments of patients and equipment. If a patient appears to be having difficulty breath ing or if the oxygen, carbon dioxide, or pH level of the blood is abnormal, therapists change the ventilator setting according to the doctor’s orders or check the equipment for mechanical problems. Respiratory therapists perform chest physiotherapy on pa tients to remove mucus from their lungs and make it easier for them to breathe. Therapists place patients in positions that help drain mucus, and then vibrate the patients’ rib cages, of ten by tapping on the chest, and tell the patients to cough. Chest physiotherapy may be needed after surgery, for example, because anesthesia depresses respiration. As a result, physio therapy may be prescribed to help get the patient’s lungs back to normal and to prevent congestion. Chest physiotherapy also helps patients suffering from lung diseases, such as cystic fi brosis, that cause mucus to collect in the lungs. Therapists who work in home care teach patients and their families to use ventilators and other life-support systems. In addition, these therapists visit patients in their homes to in spect and clean equipment, evaluate the home environment, and ensure that patients have sufficient knowledge of their dis eases and the proper use of their medications and equipment. Therapists also make emergency visits if equipment problems arise. In some hospitals, therapists perform tasks that fall out side their traditional role. Therapists are becoming involved in areas such as pulmonary rehabilitation, smoking-cessation counseling, disease prevention, case management, and poly- 398 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Code Number Percent 2018 22.100 21 128,100 105,900 29-1126 Respiratory therapists............................................................................ (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ______________________________________________________ Occupational Title somnography—the diagnosis of breathing disorders during sleep, such as apnea. Respiratory therapists also increasingly treat critical-care patients, either as part of surface and air transport teams or as part of rapid-response teams in hospitals. Work environment. Respiratory therapists generally work between 35 and 40 hours a week. Because hospitals operate around the clock, therapists can work evenings, nights, or weekends. They spend long periods standing and walking be tween patients’ rooms. In an emergency, therapists work under the stress of the situation. Respiratory therapists employed in home healthcare must travel frequently to patients’ homes. Respiratory therapists are trained to work with gases stored under pressure. Adherence to safety precautions and regular maintenance and testing of equipment minimize the risk of injury. As in many other health occupations, respiratory thera pists are exposed to infectious diseases, but by carefully fol lowing proper procedures, they can minimize these risks. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An associate degree is the minimum educational requirement, but a bachelor’s or master’s degree may be important for ad vancement. All States, except Alaska and Hawaii, require re spiratory therapists to be licensed. Education and training. An associate degree is required to become a respiratory therapist. Training is offered at the post secondary level by colleges and universities, medical schools, vocational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Most programs award associate or bachelor’s degree and prepare graduates for jobs as advanced respiratory therapists. A lim ited number of associate degree programs lead to jobs as en try-level respiratory therapists. According to the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP), 31 entry-level and 346 advanced respiratory therapy programs were accredited in the United States in 2008. Among the areas of study in respiratory therapy programs are human anatomy and physiology, pathophysiology, chem istry, physics, microbiology, pharmacology, and mathematics. Other courses deal with therapeutic and diagnostic procedures and tests, equipment, patient assessment, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, the application of clinical practice guidelines, patient care outside of hospitals, cardiac and pulmonary re habilitation, respiratory health promotion and disease preven tion, and medical recordkeeping and reimbursement. High school students interested in applying to respira tory therapy programs should take courses in health, biol ogy, mathematics, chemistry, and physics. Respiratory care involves basic mathematical problem solving and an under standing of chemical and physical principles. For example, respiratory care workers must be able to compute dosages of medication and calculate gas concentrations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 Licensure and certification. A license is required to prac tice as a respiratory therapist, except in Alaska and Hawaii. Also, most employers require respiratory therapists to main tain a cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) certification. Licensure is usually based, in large part, on meeting the requirements for certification from the National Board for Respiratory Care (NBRC). The board offers the Certified Re spiratory Therapist (CRT) credential to those who graduate from entry-level or advanced programs accredited by CAAHEP or the Committee on Accreditation for Respiratory Care (CoARC) and who also pass an exam. The board also awards the Registered Respiratory Therapist (RRT) to CRTs who have graduated from advanced programs and pass two separate examinations. Supervisory positions and intensive-care specialties usually require the RRT. Other qualifications. Therapists should be sensitive to a patient’s physical and psychological needs. Respiratory care practitioners must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. In addition, operating advanced equipment requires proficiency with computers. Advancement. Respiratory therapists advance in clinical practice by moving from general care to the care of critically ill patients who have significant problems in other organ sys tems, such as the heart or kidneys. Respiratory therapists, es pecially those with a bachelor’s or master’s degree, also may advance to supervisory or managerial positions in a respiratory therapy department. Respiratory therapists in home healthcare and equipment rental firms may become branch managers. Some respiratory therapists advance by moving into teaching positions. Some others use the knowledge gained as a respira tory therapist to work in another industry, such as developing, marketing, or selling pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Employment Respiratory therapists held about 105,900 jobs in 2008. About 81 percent of jobs were in hospitals, mainly in departments of respiratory care, anesthesiology, or pulmonary medicine. Most of the remaining jobs were in offices of physicians or other health practitioners, consumer-goods rental firms that supply respiratory equipment for home use, nursing care facilities, em ployment services, and home healthcare services. Job Outlook Much faster than average growth is projected for respiratory therapists. Job opportunities should be very good. Employment change. Employment of respiratory thera pists is expected to grow by 21 percent from 2008 to 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. The increas ing demand will come from substantial growth in the mid dle-aged and elderly population—a development that will heighten the incidence of cardiopulmonary disease. Growth in Professional and Related Occupations 399 demand also will result from the expanding role of respiratory therapists in case management, disease prevention, emergency care, and the early detection of pulmonary disorders. Older Americans suffer most from respiratory ailments and cardiopulmonary diseases, such as pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and heart disease. As the number of older persons increases, the need for respiratory therapists is expected to increase as well. In addition, advances in inhalable medications and in the treatment of lung transplant pa tients, heart attack and accident victims, and premature in fants—many of whom depend on a ventilator during part of their treatment—will increase the demand for the services of respiratory care practitioners. Job prospects. Job opportunities are expected to be very good, especially for those with a bachelor’s degree and certi fication, and those with cardiopulmonary care skills or experi ence working with infants. The vast majority of job openings will continue to be in hospitals. However, a growing number of openings are expected to be outside of hospitals, especially in home health care services, offices of physicians or other health practitioners, consumer-goods rental firms, or in the employment services industry as a temporary worker in vari ous settings. Earnings Median annual wages of wage-and-salary respiratory thera pists were $52,200 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,490 and $61,720. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,920 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,800. y Commission on Accreditation for Allied Health Education Programs, 1361 Park St., Clearwater, FL 33756. Internet: http ://www.caahep.org y Committee on Accreditation for Respiratory Care, 1248 Harwood Rd., Bedford, TX 76021. Information on gaining credentials in respiratory care and a list of State licensing agencies can be obtained from: y National Board for Respiratory Care, Inc., 18000 W. 105th St., Olathe, KS 66061. Internet: http://www.nbrc.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos321 .htm Speech-Language Pathologists Significant Points • About 48 percent worked in educational services; most others were employed by health care and social assistance facilities. • A master’s degree in speech-language pathology is the standard educational requirement; almost all States regulate these workers, and licensing require ments vary. • Favorable job opportunities are expected. Nature of the Work Related Occupations Under the supervision of a physician, respiratory therapists ad minister respiratory care and life support to patients with heart and lung difficulties. Other workers who care for, treat, or train people to improve their physical condition include: Page Athletic trainers.................................................................................405 Occupational therapists............................................................ 369 Physical therapists............................................................................ 377 Radiation therapists.................................................................. 387 Registered nurses............................................................................. 392 Respiratory care practitioners workwith advanced medical technology, as do other healthcare technicians including: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians......................... 408 Diagnostic medical sonographers............................................416 Nuclear medicine technologists...............................................426 Radiologic technologists and technicians............................... 438 Sources of Additional Information Information concerning a career in respiratory care is available from: y American Association for Respiratory Care, 9425 N. MacArthur Blvd., Suite 100, Irving, TX 75063. Internet: http ://www.aarc.org For a list of accredited educational programs for respiratory care practitioners, contact either of the following organizations: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Speech-language pathologists, sometimes called speech ther apists, assess, diagnose, treat, and help to prevent disorders related to speech, language, cognitive-communication, voice, swallowing, and fluency. Speech-language pathologists work with people who cannot produce speech sounds or cannot produce them clearly; those with speech rhythm and fluency problems, such as stuttering; people with voice disorders, such as inappropriate pitch or harsh voice; those with problems understanding and produc ing language; those who wish to improve their communica tion skills by modifying an accent; and those with cognitive communication impairments, such as attention, memory, and problem-solving disorders. They also work with people who have swallowing difficulties. Speech, language, and swallowing difficulties can result from a variety of causes including stroke, brain injury or deteriora tion, developmental delays or disorders, learning disabilities, cerebral palsy, cleft palate, voice pathology, mental retardation, hearing loss, or emotional problems. Problems can be congeni tal, developmental, or acquired. Speech-language pathologists use special instruments and qualitative and quantitative assess ment methods, including standardized tests, to analyze and di agnose the nature and extent of impairments. Speech-language pathologists develop an individualized plan of care, tailored to each patient’s needs. For individuals with little or no speech capability, speech-language pathologists may select augmentative or alternative communication methods, in- 400 Occupational Outlook Handbook medical settings, they may work at the patient’s bedside and assist in positioning the patient. In schools, they may work with students in an office or classroom. Some work in the client’s home. Although the work is not physically demanding, it requires at tention to detail and intense concentration. The emotional needs of clients and their families may be demanding. Most full-time speech-language pathologists work 40 hours per week. About 20 percent of speech-language pathologists worked part-time in 2008. Those who work on a contract basis may spend a substan tial amount of time traveling between facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Speech-language pathologists usually work at desks or tables in clean comfortable surroundings. eluding automated devices and sign language, and teach their use. They teach patients how to make sounds, improve their voices, or increase their oral or written language skills to com municate more effectively. They also teach individuals how to strengthen muscles or use compensatory strategies to swallow without choking or inhaling food or liquid. Speech-language pathologists help patients develop, or recover, reliable commu nication and swallowing skills so patients can fulfill their edu cational, vocational, and social roles. Speech-language pathologists keep records on the initial evaluation, progress, and discharge of clients. This helps pin point problems, tracks client progress, and justifies the cost of treatment when applying for reimbursement. They counsel indi viduals and their families concerning communication disorders and how to cope with the stress and misunderstanding that often accompany them. They also work with family members to rec ognize and change behavior patterns that impede communica tion and treatment and show them communication-enhancing techniques to use at home. Most speech-language pathologists provide direct clinical services to individuals with communication or swallowing disorders. In medical facilities, they may perform their job in conjunction with physicians, social workers, psychologists, and other therapists. Speech-language pathologists in schools collaborate with teachers, special educators, interpreters, other school personnel, and parents to develop and implement in dividual or group programs, provide counseling, and support classroom activities. Some speech-language pathologists conduct research on how people communicate. Others design and develop equipment or techniques for diagnosing and treating speech problems. Work environment. Speech-language pathologists usually work at a desk or table in clean comfortable surroundings. In A master’s degree is the most common level of education among speech-language pathologists. Licensure or certification requirements also exist, but vary by State. Education and training. Most speech-language patholo gist jobs require a master’s degree. The Council on Academic Accreditation is an entity of the American Speech-Language Hearing Association; it accredits postsecondary academic pro grams in speech-language pathology. While graduation from an accredited program is not always required, it is required by some States for licensure and is mandatory for professional credentialing from the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. In 2009, about 240 colleges and universities of fered graduate programs, at both the master’s and doctoral levels, in speech-language pathology accredited by the Coun cil on Academic Accreditation. Speech-language pathology courses cover anatomy, physiology, and the development of the areas of the body involved in speech, language, and swallow ing; the nature of disorders; principles of acoustics; and psycho logical aspects of communication. Graduate students may also learn to evaluate and treat speech, language, and swallowing disorders as part of curriculum in supervised clinical practicum. Licensure and certification. In 2009, 47 States regulated speech-language pathologists. Typical licensing requirements are a master’s degree from an accredited college or university; a passing score on the national examination on speech-language pathology, offered through the Praxis Series of the Educational Testing Service; 300 to 375 hours of supervised clinical experience; and 9 months of postgraduate professional clini cal experience. Most States have continuing education require ments for licensure renewal. Medicaid, Medicare, and private health insurers generally require a practitioner to be licensed to qualify for reimbursement. For specific regulation and eligibil ity requirements contact your State’s regulatory board. State regulation of speech-language pathologists may differ for pathologists practicing in schools. For information on State regulation of speech-language pathologists in public schools contact your State’s Department of Education. The Certificate of Clinical Competence in Speech-Language Pathology (CCC- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Code Number Percent 2018 22,100 19 141,400 119,300 29-1127 Speech-language pathologists.............................................................. (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 Professional and Related Occupations 401 SLP) credential offered by the American Speech-Language Hearing Association is a voluntary credential; however, the CCC-SLP meets some or all of the requirements for licensure in some States. To earn a CCC, a person must have a graduate degree from an accredited university, which typically includes a 400-hour supervised clinical practicum, complete a 36-week full-time postgraduate clinical fellowship, and pass the Praxis Series examination in speech-language pathology administered by the Educational Testing Service. Other qualifications. Speech-language pathologists should be able to effectively communicate diagnostic test results, diag noses, and proposed treatment in a manner easily understood by their patients and their families. They must be able to approach problems objectively and be supportive. Because a patient’s progress may be slow, patience, compassion, and good listen ing skills are necessary. Advancement. As speech-language pathologists gain clini cal experience and engage in continuing professional educa tion, many develop expertise with certain populations, such as preschoolers and adolescents, or disorders, such as aphasia and learning disabilities. Some may obtain board recognition in a specialty area, such as child language, fluency, or feeding and swallowing. Experienced clinicians may become mentors or su pervisors of other therapists or be promoted to administrative positions. Employment Speech-language pathologists held about 119,300 jobs in 2008. About 48 percent were employed in educational services. Others were employed in hospitals; offices of other health prac titioners, including speech-language pathologists; nursing care facilities; home health care services; individual and family ser vices; outpatient care centers; and child day care centers. Nine percent of speech-language pathologists were selfemployed in 2008. They contract to provide services in schools, offices of physicians, hospitals, or nursing care facilities, or work as consultants to industry. Job Outlook Faster than average employment growth is projected. Job op portunities are expected to be favorable. Employment change. Employment of speech-language pa thologists is expected to grow by 19 percent from 2008 to 2018, faster than the average for all occupations. As the members of the baby-boom generation continue to age, the possibility of neurological disorders and associated speech, language, and swallowing impairments increases. Medical advances also are improving the survival rate of premature infants and trauma and stroke victims, who then need assessment and sometimes treatment. Employment in educational services will increase with the growth in elementary and secondary school enrollments, in cluding enrollment of special education students. The 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is a Federal law that guarantees special education and related services to all eligible children with disabilities. Greater awareness of the importance of early identification and diagnosis of speech and language disorders in young children will also increase employment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In healthcare facilities, restrictions on reimbursement for therapy services may limit the growth of speech-language pa thologist jobs in the near term. However, the long-run demand for therapists should continue to rise as growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited function spurs demand for therapy services. The number of speech-language pathologists in private prac tice should increase because hospitals, schools, and nursing care facilities will contain costs by increasingly contracting out for these services. Job prospects. In addition to job growth, a number of job openings in speech-language pathology will be due to retire ments. Opportunities should be favorable, particularly for those with the ability to speak a second language, such as Spanish. Demand for speech-language pathologists can be regional so job prospects are expected to be favorable for those who are willing to relocate, particularly to areas experiencing difficulty in attracting and hiring speech-language pathologists. Earnings Median annual wages of speech-language pathologists were $62,930 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $50,330 and $79,620. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $41,240, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $99,220. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of speech-language pathologists were: Nursing care facilities................................................$79,120 Home health care services............................................77,030 General medical and surgical hospitals........................68,430 Offices of other health practitioners.............................67,910 Elementary and secondary schools..............................58,140 Some employers may reimburse speech-language patholo gists for their required continuing education credits. About 40 percent of speech-language pathologists were union members or covered by union contract in 2008. Related Occupations Speech-language pathologists specialize in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of speech and language problems. Workers who treat other physical and mental health problems include: Page Audiologists...................................................................................... 358 Occupational therapists...................................................................369 Physical therapists............................................................................ 377 Psychologists..................................................................................... 215 Recreational therapists.................................................................... 389 Sources of Additional Information State licensing boards can provide information on licensure requirements. State departments of education can supply in formation on certification requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. For information on careers in speech-language pathology, a description of the CCC-SLP credential, and a listing of accred ited graduate programs in speech-language pathology, contact: 402 Occupational Outlook Handbook y American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2200 Research Blvd., Rockville, MD 20850. Internet: http://www.asha.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos099.htm Veterinarians Significant Points • Veterinarians should love animals and be able to get along with their owners. • Graduation from an accredited college of veterinary medicine and a State license are required; admission to veterinary school is competitive. • Job opportunities should be excellent. • About 80 percent of veterinarians work in private practice. Nature of the Work Veterinarians diagnose and treat diseases and dysfunctions of animals. Specifically, they care for the health of pets, livestock, and animals in zoos, racetracks, and laboratories. Some veteri narians use their skills to protect humans against diseases car ried by animals and conduct clinical research on human and animal health problems. Others work in basic research, broad ening our knowledge of animals and medical science, and in applied research, developing new ways to use knowledge. Most veterinarians diagnose animal health problems, vacci nate against diseases, medicate animals suffering from infec tions or illnesses, treat and dress wounds, set fractures, perform surgery, and advise owners about animal feeding, behavior, and breeding. According to the American Medical Veterinary Association, 77 percent of veterinarians who work in private medical prac tices treat pets. These practitioners usually care for dogs and cats but also treat birds, reptiles, rabbits, ferrets, and other ani mals that can be kept as pets. About 16 percent of veterinarians work in private mixed and food animal practices, where they see pigs, goats, cattle, sheep, and some wild animals in addition to farm animals. A small proportion of private-practice veteri narians, about 6 percent, work exclusively with horses. Veterinarians who work with food animals or horses usu ally drive to farms or ranches to provide veterinary services for herds or individual animals. These veterinarians test for and vaccinate against diseases and consult with farm or ranch own ers and managers regarding animal production, feeding, and housing issues. They also treat and dress wounds, set fractures, and perform surgery, including cesarean sections on birthing animals. Other veterinarians care for zoo, aquarium, or labora tory animals. Veterinarians of all types euthanize animals when necessary. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Veterinarians who treat animals use medical equipment such as stethoscopes, surgical instruments, and diagnostic equipment, including radiographic and ultrasound equipment. Veterinarians working in research use a full range of sophisti cated laboratory equipment. Some veterinarians contribute to human as well as animal health. A number of veterinarians work with physicians and scientists as they research ways to prevent and treat various human health problems. For example, veterinarians contributed greatly to conquering malaria and yellow fever, solved the mys tery of botulism, produced an anticoagulant used to treat some people with heart disease, and defined and developed surgical techniques for humans, such as hip and knee joint replacements and limb and organ transplants. Today, some determine the ef fects of drug therapies, antibiotics, or new surgical techniques by testing them on animals. Some veterinarians are involved in food safety and inspec tion. Veterinarians who are livestock inspectors, for example, check animals for transmissible diseases such as E. coli, advise owners on the treatment of their animals, and may quarantine animals. Veterinarians who are meat, poultry, or egg product inspectors examine slaughtering and processing plants, check live animals and carcasses for disease, and enforce government regulations regarding food purity and sanitation. More veteri narians are finding opportunities in food security as they ensure that the Nation has abundant and safe food supplies. Veterinar ians involved in food security often work along the country’s borders as animal and plant health inspectors, where they ex amine imports and exports of animal products to prevent dis ease here and in foreign countries. Many of these workers are employed by the Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service division, or the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s Center for Veterinary Medicine. Work environment. Veterinarians in private or clinical practice often work long hours in a noisy indoor environment. Sometimes they have to deal with emotional or demanding pet owners. When working with animals that are frightened or in pain, veterinarians risk being bitten, kicked, or scratched. Veterinarians who work with food animals or horses spend time driving between their offices and farms or ranches. They Employment opportunities for veterinarians are expected to be very good, but competition for admission to veterinary school is keen. Professional and Related Occupations 403 work outdoors in all kinds of weather and may have to treat animals or perform surgery, often under unsanitary conditions. Veterinarians working in nonclinical areas, such as public health and research, work in clean, well-lit offices or labora tories and have working conditions similar to those of other professionals who work in these environments. Veterinarians in nonclinical areas spend much of their time dealing with people rather than animals. Veterinarians often work long hours. Those in group prac tices may take turns being on call for evening, night, or week end work; solo practitioners may work extended hours (includ ing weekend hours), responding to emergencies or squeezing in unexpected appointments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Veterinarians must obtain a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree and a State license. Admission to veterinary school is competitive. Education and training. Prospective veterinarians must graduate with a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree from a 4-year program at an accredited college of veterinary medicine. There are 28 colleges in 26 States that meet accreditation standards set by the Council on Education of the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). The prerequisites for admission to veterinary programs vary. Many programs do not require a bachelor’s degree for entrance, but all require a significant number of credit hours—ranging from 45 to 90 semester hours—at the undergraduate level. How ever, most of the students admitted have completed an under graduate program and earned a bachelor’s degree. Applicants without a degree face a difficult task in gaining admittance. Preveterinary courses should emphasize the sciences. Veteri nary medical colleges typically require applicants to have taken classes in organic and inorganic chemistry, physics, biochemis try, general biology, animal biology, animal nutrition, genetics, vertebrate embryology, cellular biology, microbiology, zool ogy, and systemic physiology. Some programs require calculus; some require only statistics, college algebra and trigonometry, or pre-calculus. Most veterinary medical colleges also require some courses in English or literature, other humanities, and the social sciences. Increasingly, courses in general business man agement and career development have become a standard part of the curriculum to teach new graduates how to effectively run a practice. In addition to satisfying preveterinary course requirements, applicants must submit test scores from the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), the Veterinary College Admission Test (VCAT), or the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), de pending on the preference of the college to which they are ap plying. Currently, 22 schools require the GRE, 4 require the VCAT, and 2 accept the MCAT. Admission to veterinary school is competitive. The number of accredited veterinary colleges has remained largely the same since 1983, but the number of applicants has risen significantly. Only about 1 in 3 applicants was accepted in 2007. New graduates with a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree may begin to practice veterinary medicine once they receive their license, but many new graduates choose to enter a 1-year internship. Interns receive a small salary but often find that their internship experience leads to better paying opportunities later, relative to those of other veterinarians. Veterinarians who then seek board certification also must complete a 3-year to 4-year residency program that provides intensive training in one of the 39 AVMA-recognized veterinary specialties including internal medicine, oncology, pathology, dentistry, nutrition, radiology, surgery, dermatology, anesthesiology, neurology, cardiology, ophthalmology, preventive medicine, and exotic-small-animal medicine. Licensure. All States and the District of Columbia require that veterinarians be licensed before they can practice. The only exemptions are for veterinarians working for some Federal agencies and some State governments. Licensing is controlled by the States and is not uniform, although all States require the successful completion of the D.V.M. degree—or equivalent education—and a passing grade on a national board exami nation, the North American Veterinary Licensing Exam. This 8-hour examination consists of 360 multiple-choice questions covering all aspects of veterinary medicine as well as visual materials designed to test diagnostic skills. The Educational Commission for Foreign Veterinary Graduates grants certification to individuals trained outside the United States who demonstrate that they meet specified require ments for English language and clinical proficiency. This certi fication fulfills the educational requirement for licensure in all States. Most States also require candidates to pass a State jurispru dence examination covering State laws and regulations. Some States do additional testing on clinical competency as well. There are few reciprocal agreements between States, so veteri narians who wish to practice in a different State usually must first pass that State’s examinations. Other qualifications. When deciding whom to admit, some veterinary medical colleges place heavy consideration on can didates’ veterinary and animal experience. Formal experience, such as work with veterinarians or scientists in clinics, agribusi ness, research, or some area of health science, is particularly advantageous. Less formal experience, such as working with animals on a farm, or at a stable or animal shelter, also can be helpful. Students must demonstrate ambition and an eagerness to work with animals. Prospective veterinarians should love animals and have the ability to get along with their owners, especially pet owners, Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Veterinarians.......................................................................................... soc Code 29-1131 Employment, 2008 59,700 Projected Employment, 2018 79,400 Change, 2008-2018 Number 19,700 Percent 33 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 404 Occupational Outlook Handbook who usually have strong bonds with their pets. They need good manual dexterity. Veterinarians who intend to go into private practice should possess excellent communication and business skills, because they will need to successfully manage their prac tice and employees and promote, market, and sell their services. Advancement. Most veterinarians begin as employees in established group practices. Despite the substantial financial investment in equipment, office space, and staff, many veteri narians with experience eventually set up their own practice or purchase an established one. Newly trained veterinarians can become U.S. Government meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control workers, animal welfare and safety workers, epidemiologists, research as sistants, or commissioned officers in the U.S. Public Health Service or various branches of the U.S. Armed Forces. A State license may be required. Nearly all States have continuing education requirements for licensed veterinarians. Requirements differ by State and may involve attending a class or otherwise demonstrating knowl edge of recent medical and veterinary advances. Employment Veterinarians held about 59,700 jobs in 2008. According to the American Veterinary Medical Association, 80 percent of veteri narians were employed in a solo or group practice. Most oth ers were salaried employees of colleges or universities; medi cal schools; private industry, such as research laboratories and pharmaceutical companies; and Federal, State, or local govern ment. The Federal Government employed about 1,300 civilian vet erinarians, chiefly in the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s Center for Veterinary Medicine. A few veterinarians work for zoos, but most veteri narians caring for zoo animals are private practitioners who contract with the zoos to provide services, usually on a part time basis. In addition, many veterinarians hold veterinary faculty posi tions in colleges and universities and are classified as teachers. (See the statement on teachers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase much faster than average. Excellent job opportunities are expected. Employment change. Employment of veterinarians is ex pected to increase 33 percent over the 2008-18 decade, much faster than the average for all occupations. Veterinarians usually practice in animal hospitals or clinics and care primarily for small pets. Recent trends indicate particularly strong interest in cats as pets. Faster growth of the cat population is expected to increase the demand for feline medicine and veterinary ser vices, while demand for veterinary care for dogs should con tinue to grow at a more modest pace. Many pet owners consider their pets as members of the fam ily, which serves as evidence that people are placing a higher value on their pets and is an example of the human-animal bond. These pet owners are becoming more aware of the avail ability of advanced care and are more willing to pay for in Digitizedtensive for FRASER veterinary care than owners in the past. Furthermore, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the number of pet owners purchasing pet insurance is rising, increasing the likelihood that considerable money will be spent on veterinary care. More pet owners also will take advantage of nontraditional veterinary services, such as cancer treatment and preventive dental care. Modem veterinary services have caught up to hu man medicine; certain procedures, such as hip replacement, kidney transplants, and blood transfusions, which were once only available for humans, are now available for animals. Continued support for public health and food and animal safety, national disease control programs, and biomedical re search on human health problems will contribute to the demand for veterinarians, although the number of positions in these ar eas is smaller than the number in private practice. Homeland se curity also may provide opportunities for veterinarians involved in efforts to maintain abundant food supplies and minimize ani mal diseases in the United States and in foreign countries. Excellent job opportunities are expected Job prospects. because there are only 28 accredited schools of veterinary medicine in the United States, resulting in a limited number of graduates—about 2,500—each year. However, admission to veterinary school is competitive. New graduates continue to be attracted to companion-animal medicine because they usually prefer to deal with pets and to live and work near heavily populated areas, where most pet owners live. Employment opportunities are very good in cities and suburbs but even better in rural areas because fewer veteri narians compete to work there. Beginning veterinarians may take positions requiring evening or weekend work to accommodate the extended hours of opera tion that many practices are offering. Some veterinarians take salaried positions in retail stores offering veterinary services. Self-employed veterinarians usually have to work hard and long to build a sufficient client base. The number of jobs for farm-animal veterinarians is likely to grow more slowly than the number of jobs for companionanimal veterinarians. Nevertheless, job prospects should be excellent for farm-animal veterinarians because of their lower earnings and because many veterinarians do not want to work outside or in rural or isolated areas. Veterinarians with training in food safety and security, ani mal health and welfare, and public health and epidemiology should have the best opportunities for a career in the Federal Government. Earnings Median annual wages of veterinarians were $79,050 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $61,370 and $104,110. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $46,610, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $143,660. The average annual salary for veterinarians in the Federal Government was $93,398 in March 2009. According to a survey by the American Veterinary Medical Association, average starting salaries of veterinary medical col lege graduates in 2008 varied by type of practice as follows: Small animals, exclusively.........................................$64,744 Large animals, exclusively...........................................62,424 Small animals, predominantly......................................61,753 Professional and Related Occupations 405 Mixed animals...............................................................58,522 Large animals, predominantly...................................... 57,745 Equine (horses)............................................................. 41,636 Related Occupations Page Animal care and service workers.............................................504 Biological scientists................................................................. 181 Chiropractors............................................................................ 360 Dentists......................................................................................363 Medical scientists......................................................................189 Optometrists............................................................................. 371 Physicians and surgeons........................................................... 381 Podiatrists................................................................................. 385 Veterinary technologists and technicians................................ 443 Sources of Additional Information For additional information on careers in veterinary medicine, a list of U.S. schools and colleges of veterinary medicine, and ac creditation policies, send a letter-size, self-addressed, stamped envelope to: y American Veterinary Medical Association, 1931 N. Meacham Rd., Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173. Internet: http://www.avma.org For information on veterinary education, contact: y Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, 1101 Vermont Ave. NW„ Suite 301, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.aavmc.org For information on scholarships, grants, and loans, contact the financial aid officer at the veterinary schools to which you wish to apply. For information on veteri narians working in zoos, see the Occu pational Outlook Quarterly article “Wild jobs with wildlife,” on line at http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2001/spring/art01.pdf. Information on obtaining a veterinary position with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s of ficial employment information system. This resource for locat ing and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an in teractive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not toll free, so charges may result. For advice on how to find and apply for Federal jobs, see the Occupational Outlook Quarterly article “How to get a job in the Federal Government,” available online at http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2004/summer/art01.pdf. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos076.htm Health Technologists and Technicians Athletic Trainers Significant Points • A bachelor’s degree is usually the minimum require ment, but many athletic trainers hold a master’s or doctoral degree. • Long hours, sometimes including nights and week ends, are common. • Job prospects should be good in the healthcare indus try and in high schools, but competition is expected for positions with professional and college sports teams. Nature of the Work Athletic trainers help prevent and treat injuries for people of all ages. Their patients and clients include everyone from professional athletes to industrial workers. Recognized by the American Medical Association as allied health profes sionals, athletic trainers specialize in the prevention, diag nosis, assessment, treatment, and rehabilitation of muscle and bone injuries and illnesses. Athletic trainers, as one of the first healthcare providers on the scene when injuries oc cur, must be able to recognize, evaluate, and assess injuries and provide immediate care when needed. Athletic trainers should not be confused with fitness trainers or personal train who are not healthcare workers, but rather train people Digitizeders, for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to become physically fit. (Fitness workers are discussed else where in the Handbook.) Athletic trainers try to prevent injuries by educating peo ple on how to reduce their risk for injuries and by advising them on the proper use of equipment, exercises to improve balance and strength, and home exercises and therapy pro grams. They also help apply protective or injury-preventive devices such as tape, bandages, and braces. Athletic trainers may work under the direction of a li censed physician, and in cooperation with other healthcare providers. The extent of the direction ranges from discuss ing specific injuries and treatment options with a physician to performing evaluations and treatments as directed by a physician. Some athletic trainers meet with the team physi cian or consulting physician once or twice a week; others interact with a physician every day. Athletic trainers often have administrative responsibilities. These may include reg ular meetings with an athletic director, physician practice manager, or other administrative officer to deal with bud gets, purchasing, policy implementation, and other businessrelated issues. Work environment. The industry and individual employer are significant in determining the work environment of ath letic trainers. Many athletic trainers work indoors most of the time; others, especially those in some sports-related jobs, spend much of their time working outdoors. The job also might require standing for long periods, working with medi- 406 Occupational Outlook Handbook Athletic trainers are responsible for their clients’ health, and sometimes have to make quick decisions that could affect the health or career of their clients. Athletics trainers also can be affected by the pressure to win that is typical of competitive sports teams. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement i . :lSu. ■ Athletic trainers apply protective devices such as tape, ban dages, and braces. cal equipment or machinery, and being able to walk, run, kneel, stoop, or crawl. Travel may be required. Schedules vary by work setting. Athletic trainers in nons ports settings generally have an established schedule—usu ally about 40 to 50 hours per week—with nights and week ends off. Athletic trainers working in hospitals and clinics may spend part of their time working at other locations do ing outreach services. The most common outreach programs include conducting athletic training services and speaking at high schools, colleges, and commercial businesses. Athletic trainers in sports settings have schedules that are longer and more variable. These athletic trainers must be present for team practices and competitions, which of ten are on evenings and weekends, and their schedules can change on short notice when games and practices have to be rescheduled. In high schools, athletic trainers who also teach may work 60 to 70 hours a week, or more. In National Col legiate Athletic Association Division I colleges and universi ties, athletic trainers generally work with one team; when that team’s sport is in season, working at least 50 to 60 hours a week is common. Athletic trainers in smaller colleges and universities often work with several teams and have teaching responsibilities. During the off-season, a 40-hour to 50-hour work week may be normal in most settings. Athletic trainers for professional sports teams generally work the most hours per week. During training camps, practices, and competi tions, they may be required to work up to 12 hours a day. There is some stress involved with being an athletic trainer. The work of athletic trainers requires frequent in teraction with others. They consult with physicians as well as have frequent contact with athletes and patients to dis cuss and administer treatments, rehabilitation programs, injury-preventive practices, and other health-related issues. A bachelor’s degree is usually the minimum requirement, but many athletic trainers hold a master’s or doctoral degree. In 2009,47 States required athletic trainers to be licensed or hold some form of registration. Education and training. A bachelor’s degree from an ac credited college or university is required for almost all jobs as an athletic trainer. In 2009, there were about 350 accred ited undergraduate programs nationwide. Students in these programs are educated both in the classroom and in clinical settings. Formal education includes many science and healthrelated courses, such as human anatomy, physiology, nutri tion, and biomechanics. According to the National Athletic Trainers’ Association, almost 70 percent of athletic trainers have a master’s degree or higher. Athletic trainers may need a master’s or higher degree to be eligible for some positions, especially those in colleges and universities, and to increase their advancement opportuni ties. Because some positions in high schools involve teaching along with athletic trainer responsibilities, a teaching certifi cate or license could be required. Licensure and certification. In 2009, 47 States required athletic trainers to be licensed or registered; this requires certi fication from the Board of Certification, Inc. (BOC). For BOC certification, athletic trainers need a bachelor’s or master’s degree from an accredited athletic training program and must pass a rigorous examination. To retain certification, credential holders must continue taking medical-related courses and ad here to the BOC standards of practice. In Alaska, California, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia where licensure is not required, certification is voluntary but may be helpful for those seeking jobs and advancement. Other qualifications. Because all athletic trainers deal directly with a variety of people, they need good social and communication skills. They should be able to manage difficult situations and the stress associated with them, such as when disagreements arise with coaches, patients, clients, or parents regarding suggested treatment. Athletic trainers also should be organized, be able to manage time wisely, be inquisitive, and have a strong desire to help people. Advancement. There are a few ways for athletic trainers to advance. Some athletic trainers advance by switching teams or sports to gain additional responsibility or pay. Assistant ath letic trainers may become head athletic trainers and, eventu ally, athletic directors or physician, hospital or clinic practice Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Employment, Code 2008 Projected Employment, Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 2018 6,000 37 22,400 16,300 Athletic trainers........................................................ .......................... 29-9091 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 407 administrators where they assume a management role. Some athletic trainers move into sales and marketing positions, us ing their expertise to sell medical and athletic equipment. Employment Athletic trainers held about 16,300 jobs in 2008 and are found in every part of the country. Most athletic trainer jobs are re lated to sports, although an increasing number also work in nonsports settings. About 39 percent were found in public and private educational services, primarily in colleges, universities, and high schools. Another 38 percent of athletic trainers worked in healthcare, including jobs in hospitals, offices of physicians, and offices of other health practitioners. About 13 percent worked in fitness and recreational sports centers. Around 5 per cent work in spectator sports. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow much faster than average. Job prospects should be good in the healthcare industry and in high schools, but competition is expected for positions with profes sional and college sports teams. Employment change. Employment of athletic trainers is pro jected to grow 37 percent from 2008 to 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations, because of their role in preventing in juries and reducing healthcare costs. Job growth will be concen trated in the healthcare industry, including hospitals and offices of health practitioners. Fitness and recreation sports centers also will provide new jobs, as these establishments grow and continue to need additional athletic trainers to provide support for their clients. Growth in positions with sports teams will be somewhat slower, however, as most professional sports clubs and colleges and universities already have complete athletic training staffs. The demand for healthcare, with an emphasis on preventive care, should grow as the population ages and as a way to re duce healthcare costs. Increased licensure requirements and regulation has led to a greater acceptance of athletic trainers as qualified healthcare providers. As a result, third-party reim bursement is expected to continue to grow for athletic training services. Athletic trainers will benefit from this expansion be cause they provide a cost-effective way to increase the number of health professionals in an office or other setting. In some States, there are efforts underway to have an ath letic trainer in every high school to work with student-athletes, which may lead to growth in the number of athletic trainers employed in high schools. In addition, as more young athletes specialize in certain sports, there is increasing demand for ath letic trainers to deal with repetitive stress injuries. As athletic trainers continue to expand their services, more employers are expected to use these workers to reduce health care costs by preventing work-related injuries. Athletic trainers can help prevent injuries and provide immediate treatment for many injuries that do occur. For example, some athletic trainers may be hired to increase the fitness and performance of police and firefighters. Job prospects. Job prospects should be good for athletic trainers in the healthcare industry and in high schools. Those looking for a position with a professional or college sports team may face competition. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Because of relatively low turnover, the settings with the best job prospects will be the ones that are expected to have the most job growth, primarily positions in the healthcare and fitness and recreational sports centers industries. Additional job opportuni ties may arise in elementary and secondary schools as more positions are created. Some of these positions also will require teaching responsibilities. There are relatively few positions for professional and col legiate sports teams in comparison to the number of applicants. Turnover among professional sports team athletic trainers is also limited. Many athletic trainers prefer to continue to work with the same coaches, administrators, and players when a good working relationship already exists. There also are opportunities for athletic trainers to join the military, although they would not be classified as an athletic trainer. Enlisted soldiers and officers who are athletic trainers are usually placed in another program, such as health educator or training specialist, in which their skills are useful. (For infor mation on military careers, see the Handbook statement on job opportunities in the Armed Forces.) This occupation is expected to continue to change over the next decade, including more administrative responsibilities, adapting to new technology, and working with larger popula tions, and jobseekers must be prepared to adapt to these changes. Earnings Most athletic trainers work in full-time positions, and typically receive benefits. The salary of an athletic trainer depends on experience and job responsibilities, and varies by job setting. Median annual wages for athletic trainers were $39,640 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,070 and $49,250. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,450, while the top 10 percent earned more than $60,960. Many employers pay for some of the continuing education required for athletic trainers to remain certified, although the amount covered varies from employer to employer. Related Occupations Other American Medical Association allied health profession als include: Page Chiropractors............................................................................360 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.................... 419 Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses..................421 Massage therapists...................................................................452 Occupational therapists............................................................369 Physical therapists....................................................................377 Physician assistants..................................................................379 Physicians and surgeons...........................................................381 Podiatrists................................................................................. 385 Recreational therapists.............................................................389 Registered nurses.....................................................................392 Respiratory therapists...............................................................397 408 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For further information on careers in athletic training, contact: V National Athletic Trainers’ Association, 2952 Stemmons Freeway, Suite 200, Dallas, TX 75247. Internet: http://www.nata.org For further information on certification, contact: y Board of Certification, Inc., 1415 Harney St., Suite 200, Omaha, NE 68102. Internet: http://www.bocatc.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos294.htm Cardiovascular Technologists and Technicians Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow much faster than average. • Technologists and technicians with multiple profes sional credentials, trained to perform a wide range of procedures, will have the best prospects. • About 77 percent of jobs are in hospitals. • Workers typically need a 2-year associate degree at a junior or community college; most employers also require a professional credential. Nature of the Work Cardiovascular technologists and technicians assist physicians in diagnosing and treating cardiac (heart) and peripheral vascu lar (blood vessel) ailments. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians schedule ap pointments, review physicians’ interpretations and patient files, and monitor patients’ heart rates. They also operate and care for testing equipment, explain test procedures, and compare find ings to a standard to identify problems. Other day-to-day activi ties vary significantly between specialties. Technologists may specialize in different areas of prac tice: invasive cardiology, non-invasive—which includes echocardiography—or vascular technology. Technicians spe cialize in electrocardiograms and stress testing. Invasive cardiology. Cardiovascular technologists specializ ing in invasive procedures are called cardiology technologists. They assist physicians with cardiac catheterization procedures in which a small tube, or catheter, is threaded through a pa tient’s artery from a spot on the patient’s groin to the heart. The procedure can determine whether a blockage exists in the blood vessels that supply the heart muscle or help to diagnose other problems. Some of these procedures may involve balloon an gioplasty, which can be used to treat blockages of blood vessels or heart valves without the need for heart surgery. Cardiology technologists assist physicians as they insert a catheter with a balloon on the end to the point of the obstruction. Catheters are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis also used in electrophysiology tests, which help locate the spe cific areas of heart tissue that give rise to the abnormal electrical impulses that cause arrhythmias. Technologists prepare patients for cardiac catheterization by first positioning them on an examining table and then shaving, cleaning, and administering anesthesia to the top of their leg near the groin. During the procedures, they monitor patients’ blood pressure and heart rate with EKG equipment and notify the physician if something appears to be wrong. Some cardi ology technologists also prepare and monitor patients during open-heart surgery and during the insertion of pacemakers and stents that open up blockages in arteries to the heart and major blood vessels. Noninvasive technology. Technologists who specialize in echocardiography or vascular technology perform noninvasive tests. Tests are called “noninvasive” if they do not require the insertion of probes or other instruments into the patient’s body. For example, procedures such as Doppler ultrasound transmit high-frequency sound waves into areas of the patient’s body and then processes reflected echoes of the sound waves to form an image. Technologists view the ultrasound image on a screen and may record the image on videotape or photograph it for interpretation and diagnosis by a physician. (See the statement on diagnostic medical sonographers elsewhere in the Handbook to learn more about other sonographers.) Echocardiographers. Technologists who use ultrasound to examine the heart chambers, valves, and vessels are referred to as cardiac sonographers, or echocardiographers. They use ultrasound instrumentation to create images called echocardio grams. An echocardiogram may be performed while the patient is either resting or physically active. Technologists may ad minister medication to physically active patients to assess their heart function. Cardiac sonographers also may assist physicians who perform other procedures. w® -___ asff tB m Cardiovascular technologists may specialize in invasive cardi ology, echocardiography, and vascular technology. Professional and Related Occupations 409 Vascular technologists. Technologists who assist physicians in the diagnosis of disorders affecting the circulation are known as vascular technologists or vascular sonographers. Vascu lar technologists complete patients’ medical history, evaluate pulses and assess blood flow in arteries and veins by listening to the vascular flow sounds for abnormalities, and assure the appropriate vascular test has been ordered. Then they perform a noninvasive procedure using ultrasound instruments to re cord vascular information such as vascular blood flow, blood pressure, oxygen saturation, cerebral circulation, peripheral circulation, and abdominal circulation. Many of these tests are performed during or immediately after surgery. Vascular tech nologists then provide a summary of findings to the physician to aid in patient diagnosis and management. Cardiographic technicians. Technicians who specialize in electrocardiography, or EKG, stress testing, and perform Holter monitor procedures are known as cardiographic or electrocardiograph (or EKG) technicians. Technicians take EKGs, which trace electrical impulses transmitted by the heart, attach electrodes to the patient’s chest, arms, and legs, and then manipulate switches on an EKG ma chine to obtain a reading. An EKG is printed out for interpreta tion by the physician. This test is done before most kinds of surgery or as part of a routine physical examination. EKG technicians with advanced training perform Holter monitor and stress testing. For Holter monitoring, technicians place electrodes on the patient’s chest and attach a portable EKG monitor to the patient’s belt. Following 24 or more hours of normal activity by the patient, the technician removes a tape from the monitor and places it in a scanner. After checking the quality of the recorded impulses on an electronic screen, the technician usually prints the information from the tape for analysis by a physician. Physicians use the output from the scanner to diagnose heart ailments, such as heart rhythm abnor malities or problems with pacemakers. For a treadmill stress test, EKG technicians document the patient’s medical history, explain the procedure, connect the patient to an EKG monitor, and obtain a baseline reading and resting blood pressure. Next, they monitor the heart’s perfor mance while the patient is walking on a treadmill, gradually in creasing the treadmill’s speed to observe the effect of increased exertion. Like vascular technologists and cardiac sonographers, cardiographic technicians who perform EKGs, Holter monitor ing, and stress tests are known as “noninvasive” technicians. Work environment. Cardiovascular technologists and techni cians spend a lot of time walking and standing. Heavy lifting may be involved to move equipment or transfer patients. Those who work in catheterization laboratories may face stressful working conditions because they are in close contact with patients with serious heart ailments. For example, some patients may encoun ter complications that have life-or-death implications. Some cardiovascular technologists and technicians may have the potential for radiation exposure. However, exposure is kept to a minimum by strict adherence to radiation safety guidelines, such as wearing heavy protective aprons while conducting cer tain procedures. In addition, those who use sonography can be at an increased risk for musculoskeletal disorders such as carpel tunnel syndrome, neck and back strain, and eye strain. How ever, greater use of ergonomic equipment and an increasing awareness will continue to minimize such risks. Technologists and technicians generally work a 5-day, 40hour week that may include weekends. Those in catheterization laboratories tend to work longer hours and may work evenings. They also may be on call during the night and on weekends. About 18 percent worked part-time in 2008. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cardiovascular technologists typically need an associate degree for entry-level employment. Most employers also require a pro fessional credential. Technicians also receive on-the-job training. Education and training. The majority of cardiovascular technologists, vascular technologists, and cardiac sonographers complete a 2-year junior or community college program result ing in an associate degree. However, 4-year programs are in creasingly available. The first year is dedicated to core courses and is followed by a year of specialized instruction in either invasive cardiovascular, noninvasive cardiovascular, or nonin vasive vascular technology. Those who are qualified in an allied health profession need to complete only the year of specialized instruction. The Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Pro fessionals (CAAHEP) accredits cardiovascular technology education programs. In January 2009, there were 34 accredited programs. Similarly, those who want to study echocardiography or vascular sonography may also attend CAAHEP-accredited programs in diagnostic medical sonography. In 2009, there were 168 such accredited programs. Those who attend these accred ited programs are eligible to obtain professional certification. Unlike most other cardiovascular technologists and techni cians, most EKG technicians are trained on the job by an EKG supervisor or a cardiologist. On-the-job training for EKG tech nicians usually takes about 4 to 6 weeks. Most employers prefer to train people already in the healthcare field—nursing aides, for example. Some EKG technicians are students enrolled in 2-year programs to become technologists, working part time to gain experience and make contact with employers. For techni cians who perform Holter monitoring on-the-job training may last around 18 to 24 months. One-year certification programs also exist for basic EKGs, Holter monitoring, and stress testing and can be an alternative to on-the-job training. Licensure and certification. Credentialing is voluntary. However, it is the professional standard and most employ- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Cardiovascular technologists and technicians..................... .............. 29-2031 49,500 61,400 11,900 24 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title tionFRASER Included in the Handbook. Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 410 Occupational Outlook Handbook ers require credentialing. Credentialing for cardiovascular technologists is available from Cardiovascular Credentialing International (CCI) and the American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (ARDMS). Most credentials require that technologists complete an accredited education program to qualify to sit for credentialing examination. Continuing educa tion is required in most cases to maintain certification. For spe cific requirements, contact the credentialing body. Other qualifications. Cardiovascular technologists and tech nicians must be reliable, have mechanical aptitude, and be able to follow detailed instructions. A pleasant, relaxed manner for putting patients at ease is an asset. They must be articulate as they must communicate technically with physicians and also explain procedures simply to patients. Advancement. Technicians may advance to the technolo gist level of practice with supplemental formal education and credentialing. Technologists can advance to higher levels of the profession as many institutions structure the occupation with multiple levels, each having an increasing amount of responsibility. Advancement may occur through multiple credentialing in more than one cardiovascular specialty or through work ex perience. Technologists may also advance into supervisory or management positions. Other possibilities include working in an educational setting or conducting laboratory work. The rules governing reimbursement by Medicare and Medic aid for medical procedures will affect the frequency of their use and demand for imaging technologists. Job prospects. In addition to job growth, job openings for car diovascular technologists and technicians will arise from replace ment needs as individuals transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Job prospects will be best for those with multiple profes sional credentials, trained to perform a wide range of procedures. Those willing to relocate or work irregular hours also will have better job opportunities. It is not uncommon for cardiovascular technologists and tech nicians to move between the specialties within the occupation by obtaining certification in more than one specialty. Technologists with multiple credentials will be the most marketable to employ ers. Earnings Median annual wages of cardiovascular technologists and tech nicians were $47,010 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,800 and $61,580. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,510, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,760. Median annual wages of cardiovascular technologists and technicians in 2008 were $48,590 in offices of physicians and $46,670 in general medical and surgical hospitals. Employment Cardiovascular technologists and technicians held about 49,500 jobs in 2008. About 77 percent of jobs were in hospitals (public and private), primarily in cardiology departments. The remain ing jobs were mostly in offices of physicians, including cardi ologists, or in medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average; technologists and technicians with multiple professional creden tials, trained to perform a wide range of procedures, will have the best prospects. Employment change. Employment of cardiovascular technol ogists and technicians is expected to increase 24 percent through the year 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. Demand will stem from the prevalence of heart disease and the aging population, because older people have a higher incidence of heart disease and other complications of the heart and vascular system. Procedures such as ultrasound imaging and radiology are being performed more often as a replacement for more expensive and more invasive procedures. Due to advances in medicine and greater public awareness, signs of vascular disease can be de tected earlier, creating demand for cardiovascular technologists and technicians to perform various procedures. Employment of vascular technologists and echocardiographers will grow as advances in vascular technology and sonography re duce the need for more costly and invasive procedures. However, fewer EKG technicians will be needed, as hospitals train nursing aides and others to perform basic EKG procedures. Individuals trained in Holter monitoring and stress testing are expected to have more favorable job prospects than those who can perform only basic EKG. Digitized for aFRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Cardiovascular technologists and technicians operate so phisticated equipment that helps physicians and other health practitioners to diagnose and treat patients. Similar occupations include: Page Diagnostic medical sonographers........................................... 416 Nuclear medicine technologists.............................................. 426 Radiation therapists..................................................................387 Radiologic technologists and technicians............................... 438 Respiratory therapy technicians.............................................. 446 Sources of Additional Information For general information about a career in cardiovascular tech nology, contact: y Alliance of Cardiovascular Professionals, P.O. Box 2007 Midlothian, VAf23113. Internet: http://www.acp-online.org For a list of accredited programs in cardiovascular technology, contact: y Committee on Accreditation for Allied Health Education Programs, 1361 Park St., Clearwater, FL 33756. Internet: http ://www.caahep.org y Society for Vascular Ultrasound, 4601 Presidents Dr., Suite 260, Lanham, MD 20706. Internet: http://www.svunet.org For information regarding registration and certification, contact: y Cardiovascular Credentialing International, 1500 Sunday Dr., Suite 102, Raleigh, NC 27607. Internet: http ://www.cci-online.org Professional and Related Occupations 411 V American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, Nature of the Work 51 Monroe St., Plaza East One, Rockville, MD 20850-2400. Internet: http://www.ardms.org Clinical laboratory testing plays a crucial role in the detection, di agnosis, and treatment of disease. Clinical laboratory technolo gists, also referred to as clinical laboratory scientists or medical technologists, and clinical laboratory technicians, also known as medical technicians or medical laboratory technicians, perform most of these tests. Clinical laboratory personnel examine and analyze body fluids, and cells. They look for bacteria, parasites, and other microor ganisms; analyze the chemical content of fluids; match blood for transfusions; and test for drug levels in the blood that show how a patient is responding to treatment. Technologists also prepare specimens for examination, count cells, and look for abnormal cells in blood and body fluids. They use microscopes, cell coun ters, and other sophisticated laboratory equipment. They also use automated equipment and computerized instmments capable of performing a number of tests simultaneously. After testing and examining a specimen, they analyze the results and relay them to physicians. With increasing automation and the use of computer technol ogy, the work of technologists and technicians has become less hands-on and more analytical. The complexity of tests performed, the level of judgment needed, and the amount of responsibility workers assume depend largely on the amount of education and experience they have. Clinical laboratory technologists usually do more complex tasks than clinical laboratory technicians do. Clinical laboratory technologists perform complex chemical, biological, hematological, immunologic, microscopic, and bac teriological tests. Technologists microscopically examine blood and other body fluids. They make cultures of body fluid and tissue samples, to determine the presence of bacteria, fungi, para sites, or other microorganisms. Technologists analyze samples for chemical content or a chemical reaction and determine con centrations of compounds such as blood glucose and cholesterol levels. They also type and cross match blood samples for transfu sions. Clinical laboratory technologists evaluate test results, develop and modify procedures, and establish and monitor programs, to ensure the accuracy of tests. Some technologists supervise clini cal laboratory technicians. Technologists in small laboratories perform many types of tests, whereas those in large laboratories generally specialize. Clinical chemistry technologists, for example, prepare speci mens and analyze the chemical and hormonal contents of body fluids. Microbiology technologists examine and identify bac teria and other microorganisms. Blood bank technologists, or immunohematology technologists, collect, type, and prepare blood and its components for transfusions. Immunology tech nologists examine elements of the human immune system and its response to foreign bodies. Cytotechnologists prepare slides of body cells and examine these cells microscopically for abnor malities that may signal the beginning of a cancerous growth. Molecular biology technologists perform complex protein and nucleic acid testing on cell samples. Clinical laboratory technicians perform less complex tests and laboratory procedures than technologists do. Technicians may prepare specimens and operate automated analyzers, for example, or they may perform manual tests in accordance with The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl00.htm Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians Significant Points • Excellent job opportunities are expected. • Clinical laboratory technologists usually have a bach elor’s degree with a major in medical technology or in one of the life sciences; clinical laboratory techni cians generally need either an associate degree or a certificate. • Most jobs will continue to be in hospitals, but em ployment will grow rapidly in other settings, as well. ■ : Clinical laboratory personnel examine and analyze body fluids and Digitized for cells. FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 412 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Number Percent 2018 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.............................. 29-2010 328,100 373,600 45,600 14 Medical and clinical laboratory technologists............................... 29-2011 172,400 193,000 20,500 12 Medical and clinical laboratory technicians.................................. 29-2012155,600180,70025,00016 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ______________ Occupational Title detailed instructions. They usually work under the supervision of medical and clinical laboratory technologists or laboratory man agers. Like technologists, clinical laboratory technicians may work in several areas of the clinical laboratory or specialize in just one. Phlebotomists collect blood samples, for example, and histotechnicians cut and stain tissue specimens for microscopic examination by pathologists. Work environment. Clinical laboratory personnel are trained to work with infectious specimens. When proper methods of in fection control and sterilization are followed, few hazards exist. Protective masks, gloves, and goggles often are necessary to en sure the safety of laboratory personnel. Working conditions vary with the size and type of employment setting. Laboratories usually are well lighted and clean; however, specimens, solutions, and reagents used in the laboratory some times produce fumes. Laboratory workers may spend a great deal of time on their feet. Hours of clinical laboratory technologists and technicians vary with the size and type of employment setting. In large hospitals or in independent laboratories that operate continuously, person nel usually work the day, evening, or night shift and may work weekends and holidays. Laboratory personnel in small facilities may work on rotating shifts, rather than on a regular shift. In some facilities, laboratory personnel are on call several nights a week or on weekends, in case of an emergency. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Clinical laboratory technologists generally require a bachelor’s degree in medical technology or in one of the life sciences; clini cal laboratory technicians usually need an associate degree or a certificate. Education and training. The usual requirement for an entry-level position as a clinical laboratory technologist is a bachelor’s degree with a major in medical technology or one of the life sciences; however, it is possible to qualify for some jobs with a combination of education and on-the-job and specialized training. Universities and hospitals offer medical technology pro grams. Bachelor’s degree programs in medical technology include courses in chemistry, biological sciences, microbiology, math ematics, and statistics, as well as specialized courses devoted to knowledge and skills used in the clinical laboratory. Many pro grams also offer or require courses in management, business, and computer applications. The Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act requires technologists who perform highly complex tests to have at least an associate degree. Medical and clinical laboratory technicians generally have ei ther associate degree from a community or junior college or Digitized for an FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis SOC Code Employment, 2008 a certificate from a hospital, a vocational or technical school, or the Armed Forces. A few technicians learn their skills on the job. The National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sci ences (NAACLS) fully accredits about 479 programs for medi cal and clinical laboratory technologists, medical and clinical laboratory technicians, histotechnologists and histotechnicians, cytogenetic technologists, and diagnostic molecular scientists. NAACLS also approves about 60 programs in phlebotomy and clinical assisting. Other nationally recognized agencies that ac credit specific areas for clinical laboratory workers include the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools. Licensure. Some States require laboratory personnel to be licensed or registered. Licensure of technologists often requires a bachelor’s degree and the passing of an exam, but requirements vary by State and specialty. Information on licensure is available from State departments of health or boards of occupational li censing. Certification and other qualifications. Many employers pre fer applicants who are certified by a recognized professional as sociation. Associations offering certification include the Board of Registry of the American Society for Clinical Pathology, the American Medical Technologists, the National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel, and the Board of Registry of the American Association of Bioanalysts. These agencies have different requirements for certification and different organiza tional sponsors. In addition to certification, employers seek clinical labora tory personnel with good analytical judgment and the ability to work under pressure. Technologists in particular are expected to be good at problem solving. Close attention to detail is also essential for laboratory personnel because small differences or changes in test substances or numerical readouts can be crucial to a diagnosis. Manual dexterity and normal color vision are highly desirable, and with the widespread use of automated laboratory equipment, computer skills are important. Advancement. Technicians can advance and become tech nologists through additional education and experience. Technol ogists may advance to supervisory positions in laboratory work or may become chief medical or clinical laboratory technologists or laboratory managers in hospitals. Manufacturers of home di agnostic testing kits and laboratory equipment and supplies also seek experienced technologists to work in product development, marketing, and sales. Professional certification and a graduate degree in medical technology, one of the biological sciences, chemistry, manage ment, or education usually speeds advancement. A doctorate usu ally is needed to become a laboratory director. Federal regulation Professional and Related Occupations 413 requires directors of moderately complex laboratories to have ei ther a master’s degree or a bachelor’s degree, combined with the appropriate amount of training and experience. Employment Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians held about 328,100 jobs in 2008. More than half of jobs were in hospitals. Most of the remaining jobs were in offices of physicians and in medical and diagnostic laboratories. A small proportion was in educational services and in all other ambulatory health care services. Job Outlook Rapid job growth and excellent job opportunities are expected. Most jobs will continue to be in hospitals, but employment will grow rapidly in other settings, as well. Employment change. Employment of clinical laboratory workers is expected to grow by 14 percent between 2008 and 2018, faster than the average for all occupations. The volume of laboratory tests continues to increase with both population growth and the development of new types of tests. Technological advances will continue to have opposing effects on employment. On the one hand, new, increasingly powerful diagnostic tests and advances in genomics—the study of the ge netic information of a cell or organism—will encourage addi tional testing and spur employment. On the other hand, research and development efforts targeted at simplifying and automating routine testing procedures may enhance the ability of nonlabo ratory personnel—physicians and patients in particular—to per form tests now conducted in laboratories. Although hospitals are expected to continue to be the major employer of clinical laboratory workers, employment is expected also to grow rapidly in medical and diagnostic laboratories, of fices of physicians, and all other ambulatory health care services. Job prospects. Job opportunities are expected to be excel lent because the number of job openings is expected to continue to exceed the number of jobseekers. Although significant, job growth will not be the only source of opportunities. As in most occupations, many additional openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for some other reason. Willingness to relocate will further enhance one’s job prospects. Earnings Median annual wages of medical and clinical laboratory tech nologists were $53,500 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,560 and $63,420. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,180, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,680. Median annual wages in the industries em ploying the largest numbers of medical and clinical laboratory technologists were: Federal Executive Branch.......................................... $59,800 General medical and surgical hospitals........................54,220 Medical and diagnostic laboratories.............................53,360 Offices of physicians.................................................... 49,080 Colleges, universities, and professional schools......... 47,890 Median annual wages of medical and clinical laboratory Digitizedtechnicians for FRASERwere $35,380 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis earned between $28,420 and $44,310. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,480, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $53,520. Median annual wages in the industries em ploying the largest numbers of medical and clinical laboratory technicians were: General medical and surgical hospitals..................... $36,840 Colleges, universities, and professional schools......... 36,290 Offices of physicians.................................................... 33,980 Medical and diagnostic laboratories.............................32,630 Other ambulatory health care services.........................31,320 According to the American Society for Clinical Pathology, median hourly wages of staff clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, in various specialties and laboratory types, in 2007 were: Table 1. Median hourly wages by specialties and laborartory type, 2007. Occupation Hospital Private clinic Cytotechnologist................ ..... $27.55 $28.75 Histotechnologist............... ..... 22.93 23.35 Medical technologist.......... ..... 23.45 23.00 Histotechnician.................. ..... 20.00 20.00 Medical laboratory technician ....................... ..... 18.54 17.00 Phlebotomist....................... ..... 12.50 12.50 .SOURCRAmericanSociet^forCIinic^Patholog^ Physician office laboratory $26.24 25.00 20.00 21.00 16.96 13.00 Related Occupations Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians analyze body fluids, tissue, and other substances, using a variety of tests. Sim ilar or related procedures are performed by: Page Chemists and materials scientists.............................................195 Science technicians..................................................................230 Veterinary technologists and technicians................................ 443 Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited and approved educational programs for clinical laboratory personnel, contact: V National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences, 5600 N. River Rd., Suite 720, Rosemont, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.naacls.org Information on certification is available from: y American Association of Bioanalysts, Board of Registry, 906 Olive St., Suite 1200, St. Louis, MO 63101. Internet: http://www.aab.org y American Medical Technologists, 10700 W. Higgins Rd., Suite 150, Rosemont, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.amtl.com y American Society for Clinical Pathology, 33 West Monroe St., Suite 1600, Chicago, IL 60603. Internet: http://www.ascp.org y National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel, P.O. Box 15945-289, Lenexa, KS 66285. Internet: http ://www.nca-info.org 414 Occupational Outlook Handbook Additional career information is available from: y American Association of Blood Banks, 8101 Glenbrook Rd„ Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.aabb.org y American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science, 6701 Democracy Blvd., Suite 300, Bethesda, MD 20817. Internet: http ://ww w.ascls.org y American Society for Cytopathology, 100 West 10th St., Suite 605, Wilmington, DE 19801. Internet: http ://ww w.cytopathology.org y Clinical Laboratory Management Association, 993 Old Eagle School Rd., Suite 405, Wayne, PA 19087. Internet: http://www.clma.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos096.htm Dental Hygienists Significant Points • A degree from an accredited dental hygiene school and a State license are required for this job. • Dental hygienists rank among the fastest growing occupations. • Job prospects are expected to be favorable in most ar eas, but strong competition for jobs is likely in some areas. • About half of all dental hygienists work part time, and flexible scheduling is a distinctive feature of this job. how to select toothbrushes and show them how to brush and floss their teeth. Hygienists sometimes make a diagnosis and other times prepare clinical and laboratory diagnostic tests for the dentist to interpret. Hygienists sometimes work chair-side with the dentist during treatment. Work environment. Dental hygienists work in clean, welllighted offices. Important health safeguards include strict adherence to proper radiological procedures and the use of appropriate protective devices when administering anes thetic gas. Dental hygienists also wear safety glasses, surgi cal masks, and gloves to protect themselves and patients from infectious diseases. Dental hygienists also should be careful to avoid possible shoulder and neck injury from sitting for long periods of time while working with patients. Flexible scheduling is a distinctive feature of this job. Full time, part-time, evening, and weekend schedules are common. Dentists frequently hire hygienists to work only 2 or 3 days a week, so hygienists may hold jobs in more than one dental office. In 2008, about half of all dental hygienists worked part time—less than 35 hours a week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A degree from an accredited dental hygiene school and a State license are required for this job. Education and training. A high school diploma and col lege entrance test scores are usually required for admission to a dental hygiene program. High school students interested in becoming dental hygienists should take courses in biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Some dental hygiene programs also require applicants to have completed at least one year of college. Specific entrance requirements typically vary from one school to another. Nature of the Work Dental hygienists remove soft and hard deposits from teeth, teach patients how to practice good oral hygiene, and provide other preventive dental care. They examine patients’ teeth and gums, recording the presence of diseases or abnormalities. Dental hygienists use an assortment of tools to complete their tasks. Hand and rotary instruments and ultrasonic devices are used to clean and polish teeth, which includes removing tartar, stains, and plaque. Hygienists use x-ray machines to take dental pictures, and sometimes develop the film. They may use models of teeth to explain oral hygiene, perform root planning as a periodontal therapy, or apply cavity-preventative agents such as fluorides and pit and fissure sealants. Other tasks hygienists may perform vary by State. In some States, hygienists are allowed to administer anesthetics, while in others they administer local anesthetics using syringes. Some States also allow hygienists to place and carve filling materials, temporary fillings, and periodontal dressings; re move sutures; and smooth and polish metal restorations. Dental hygienists also help patients develop and main tain good oral health. For example, they may explain the relationship between diet and oral health or inform patients https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis r Dental hygienists remove soft and hard deposits from teeth and teach patients how to practice good oral hygiene. Professional and Related Occupations 415 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Dental hygienists.............................................. ..................................... 29-2021 174,100 237,000 62,900 36 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title soc Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. In 2008, there were 301 dental hygiene programs accred ited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Most dental hygiene programs grant an associate degree, although some also offer a certificate, a bachelor’s degree, or a master’s de gree. A minimum of an associate degree or certificate in dental hygiene is generally required for practice in a private dental office. A bachelor’s or master’s degree usually is required for research, teaching, or clinical practice in public or school health programs. Schools offer laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, chemistry, microbi ology, pharmacology, nutrition, radiography, histology (the study of tissue structure), periodontology (the study of gum diseases), pathology, dental materials, clinical dental hygiene, and social and behavioral sciences. Licensure. Dental hygienists must be licensed by the State in which they practice. Nearly all States require candidates to graduate from an accredited dental hygiene school and pass both a written and clinical examination. The American Dental Association’s (ADA) Joint Commission on National Dental Examinations administers the written examination, which is accepted by all States and the District of Columbia. State or regional testing agencies administer the clinical examina tion. In addition, most States require an examination on the legal aspects of dental hygiene practice. Alabama is the only State that does not require candidates to take the ADA writ ten exam. Instead, they require that candidates meet the re quirements of the Alabama Dental Hygiene Program, which mandates taking courses, completing on-the-job training at a dentist’s office, and passing a separate State administered li censing examination. Other qualifications. Dental hygienists should work well with others because they work closely with dentists and dental assistants, as well as dealing directly with patients. Hygien ists also need good manual dexterity, because they use dental instruments within patients’ mouths, with little room for error. Advancement. Advancement opportunities usually come from working outside a typical dentist’s office, and usually re quire a bachelor’s or master’s degree in dental hygiene. Some dental hygienists may choose to pursue a career teaching at a dental hygiene program, working in public health, or working in a corporate setting. Employment Dental hygienists held about 174,100 jobs in 2008. Because multiple job holding is common in this field, the number of jobs exceeds the number of hygienists. About 51 percent of dental hygienists worked part time. Almost all jobs for dental hygienists—about 96 percent—were in offices of dentists. A very small number worked for employment services, in physi offices, or in other industries. Digitizedcians’ for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Dental hygienists rank among the fastest growing occupa tions. Job prospects are expected to be favorable in most ar eas, but competition for jobs is likely in some areas. Employment change. Employment of dental hygienists is expected to grow 36 percent through 2018, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. This projected growth ranks dental hygienists among the fastest growing oc cupations, in response to increasing demand for dental care and more use of hygienists. The demand for dental services will grow because of popu lation growth, older people increasingly retaining more teeth, and a growing emphasis on preventative dental care. To help meet this demand, facilities that provide dental care, particu larly dentists’ offices, will increasingly employ dental hygien ists, often to perform services that have been performed by dentists in the past. Ongoing research indicating a link be tween oral health and general health also will spur the demand for preventative dental services, which are typically provided by dental hygienists. Job prospects. Job prospects are expected to be favorable in most areas, but will vary by geographical location. Because graduates are permitted to practice only in the State in which they are licensed, hygienists wishing to practice in areas that have an abundance of dental hygiene programs may experi ence strong competition for jobs. Older dentists, who have been less likely to employ dental hygienists, are leaving the occupation and will be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to employ one or more hygienists. In addition, as dentists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more hygienists to perform preventive dental care, such as cleaning, so that they may devote their own time to more complex procedures. Earnings Median annual wages of dental hygienists were $66,570 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $55,220 and $78,990. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $44,180, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $91,470. Earnings vary by geographic location, employment setting, and years of experience. Dental hygienists may be paid on an hourly, daily, salary, or commission basis. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting and may be contingent upon full-time employment. According to a 2009 survey conducted by the American Dental Hygienist Associa tion, about half of all hygienists reported receiving some form of employment benefits. Of those receiving benefits, paid va cation, sick leave, and retirement plans were the most com mon. 416 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Other workers supporting health practitioners in an office set ting include: Page Dental assistants....................................................................... 447 Medical assistants.................................................................... 455 Occupational therapist assistants and aides............................ 462 Physical therapist assistants and aides.................................... 465 Physician assistants.................................................................. 379 Registered nurses..................................................................... 392 Others who work with radiation technology include: Radiation therapists.................................................................. 387 Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in dental hygiene, including edu cational requirements, and on available accredited programs, contact: y American Dental Hygienists Association, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 3400, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http ://www.adha.org For information about accredited programs and educational requirements, contact: y Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org/prof/ed7accred/commission/index.asp The State Board of Dental Examiners in each State can sup ply information on licensing requirements. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos097.htm Diagnostic medical sonographers usually use diagnostic imag ing machines in dark moms, but may also perform procedures at a patient’s bedside. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Diagnostic Medical Sonographers Significant Points • Job opportunities should be favorable. • Employment will grow as sonography becomes an increasingly attractive alternative to radiological pro cedures. • Hospitals employed about 59 percent of all sono graphers. • Sonographers may receive education and training in hospitals, vocational-technical institutions, colleges or universities, or the Armed Forces. Nature of the Work Diagnostic imaging embraces several procedures that aid in diagnosing ailments. The most familiar procedures are the x ray and magnetic resonance imaging; however, not all im aging technologies use ionizing, radiation, or radio waves. Sonography, or ultrasonography, is the use of sound waves to generate an image for the assessment and diagnosis of vari ous medical conditions. Sonography is commonly associated with obstetrics and the use of ultrasound imaging during preg nancy, but this technology has many other applications in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions throughout the body. Diagnostic medical sonographers use special equipment to direct high frequency sound waves into areas of the patient’s body. Sonographers operate the equipment, which collects re flected echoes and forms an image that may be videotaped, transmitted, or photographed for interpretation and diagnosis by a physician. Sonographers begin by explaining the procedure to the pa tient and recording any medical history that may be relevant to the condition being viewed. They then select appropriate equipment settings and direct the patient to move into posi tions that will provide the best view. To perform the exam, sonographers use a transducer, which transmits sound waves in a cone-shaped or rectangle-shaped beam. Although tech niques vary by the area being examined, sonographers usu ally spread a special gel on the skin to aid the transmission of sound waves. Viewing the screen during the scan, sonographers look for subtle visual cues that contrast healthy areas with unhealthy ones. They decide whether the images are satisfactory for di agnostic purposes and select which ones to store and show to the physician. Sonographers take measurements, calculate values, and analyze the results in preliminary findings for the physicians. In addition to working directly with patients, diagnostic medical sonographers keep patient records and adjust and maintain equipment. They also may prepare work schedules, evaluate equipment purchases, or manage a sonography or di agnostic imaging department. Diagnostic medical sonographers may specialize in obstetric and gynecologic sonography (images of the female reproduc Professional and Related Occupations 417 tive system), abdominal sonography (images of the liver, kidneys, gallbladder, spleen, and pancreas), neurosonography (images of the brain and other parts of the nervous system), or breast sonography. In addition, sonographers may spe cialize in vascular sonography or cardiac sonography. (Vas cular sonographers and cardiac sonographers are covered in the Handbook statement on cardiovascular technologists and technicians.) Obstetric and gynecologic sonographers specialize in the imaging of the female reproductive system. Included in the discipline is one of the more well-known uses of sonography: examining the fetus of a pregnant woman to track the baby’s growth and health. Abdominal sonographers inspect a patient’s abdominal cav ity to help diagnose and treat conditions primarily involving the gallbladder, bile ducts, kidneys, liver, pancreas, spleen, and male reproductive system. Abdominal sonographers also are able to scan parts of the chest, although studies of the heart using sonography usually are done by echocardiographers. Neurosonographers focus on the nervous system, including the brain. In neonatal care, neurosonographers study and diag nose neurological and nervous system disorders in premature infants. Like other sonographers, neurosonographers operate transducers to perform the sonogram, but they use frequencies and beam shapes different from those used by obstetric and abdominal sonographers. Breast sonographers use sonography to study diseases of the breasts. Sonography aids mammography in the detection of breast cancer. Breast sonography also is used to track tu mors, monitor blood supply conditions, and assist in the ac curate biopsy of breast tissue. Breast sonographers use highfrequency transducers made exclusively to study breast tissue. Work environment. Sonographers typically work in health care facilities that are clean. They usually work at diagnostic imaging machines in darkened rooms, but they also may per form procedures at patients’ bedsides. Sonographers may be on their feet for long periods of time and may have to lift or turn disabled patients. Some sonographers work as contract employees and may travel to several healthcare facilities in an area. Similarly, some sonographers work with mobile imaging service provid ers and travel to patients and use mobile diagnostic imaging equipment to provide service in areas that otherwise would not have access to such services. Most full-time sonographers work about 40 hours a week. Some sonographers work overtime. Also, sonographers may have evening and weekend hours when the^are"on call and must be ready to report to work on short notice. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Diagnostic medical sonography is an occupation to which there are multiple paths of entry. Formal education in sonog raphy, training, or a combination of these are accepted by em ployers. Employers do prefer sonographers who have received education from an accredited program or completed training in an accredited practice, and who are registered. Education and training. There are several avenues for entry into the field of diagnostic medical sonography. Sonog raphers may train in hospitals, vocational-technical institu tions, colleges or universities, or the Armed Forces. Some training programs prefer applicants with experience in other health care professions or high school graduates with courses in mathematics, health, and science. Colleges and universities offer formal training in both 2-year and 4-year programs, resulting in either an associate or a bachelor’s degree. Two-year programs are the most preva lent. Coursework includes classes in anatomy, physiology, in strumentation, basic physics, patient care, and medical ethics. In 2008, the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) accredited over 150 training programs. Accredited programs are offered by colleges and universities. Some hospital programs are accredited as well. A few 1-year programs that typically result in a vocational certificate also are accepted as proper education by employ ers. These programs are useful usually only for workers al ready employed in a healthcare occupation who seek to in crease their marketability by training in sonography. One-year vocational-certificate programs are not accredited by the CAAHEP. Certification and other qualifications. No States require licensure in diagnostic medical sonography. However, sonog raphers may become credentialed by one of the professional certifying bodies. Most employers prefer to hire registered sonographers because registration provides an objective mea sure of an individual’s professional standing. To become reg istered, one must first become eligible to take the examination by completing the proper education, training, or work experi ence. The exam typically includes a physics and instrumenta tion exam in a sonography specialty. Typically, sonographers must complete a required number of continuing-education hours to maintain registration. For specific details on credentialing, contact the certifying organization. The American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography (ARDMS) certifies each person who passes the exam as a Registered Diagnostic Medical Sonographer (RDMS). This credential can be obtained for several different specialty ar eas like the abdomen, breast, or nervous system. The AR DMS also credentials cardiac and vascular sonographers. The American Registry of Radiologic Technologist offers creden tials in breast and vascular sonography. The Cardiovascular Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Diagnostic medical sonographers............................... soc Employment, Code 2008 50,300 Projected Employment, 2018 59.500 Change, 2008-2018 Number 9,200 Percent 18 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 418 Occupational Outlook Handbook Credentialing International credentials cardiac sonographers. (Vascular sonographers and cardiac sonographers are covered in the Handbook statement on cardiovascular technologists and technicians.) Sonographers should have good communication and inter personal skills, because they must be able to explain techni cal procedures and results to their patients, some of whom may be nervous. Good hand-eye coordination is particularly important to obtaining quality images. It is very important that sonographers enjoy lifelong learning, because continuing education is crucial to workers in the ever-changing field of diagnostic medicine. Advancement. Sonographers can seek advancement by obtaining competency in more than one specialty. For exam ple, obstetric sonographers might seek training in abdominal sonography to broaden their opportunities and increase their marketability. Sonographers also may seek multiple creden tials—for example, being both a registered diagnostic medical sonographer and a registered diagnostic cardiac sonographer. Sonographers may advance by taking supervisory, managerial, or administrative positions. Employment tiple specialties or multiple credentials also will have good prospects. Earnings The median annual wage of diagnostic medical sonographers was $61,980 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent of sonogra phers earned wages between $52,570 and $73,680 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $43,600, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $83,950. Median annual wages of di agnostic medical sonographers in May 2008 were $62,340 in offices of physicians and $61,870 in general medical and surgi cal hospitals. Related Occupations Health care occupations with similar diagnostic and treatment responsibilities include: Page Cardiovascular technologists and technicians......................... 408 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians................... 411 Nuclear medicine technologists.................................................... 426 Radiologic technologists and technicians............................... 438 Sources of Additional Information Diagnostic medical sonographers held about 50,300 jobs in 2008. About 59 percent of all sonographer jobs were in pub lic and private hospitals. The remaining jobs were typically in offices of physicians, medical and diagnostic laboratories, and outpatient care centers. For information on a career as a diagnostic medical sonogra pher, contact: y Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonography, 2745 Dallas Pkwy., Suite 350, Plano, TX 75093-8730. Internet: http://www.sdms.org Job Outlook For information on becoming a registered diagnostic medical sonographer, contact: y American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography, 51 Monroe St., Plaza East One, Rockville, MD 20850-2400. Internet: http://www.ardms.org Faster than average employment growth is expected. Job op portunities should be favorable. Employment change. Employment of diagnostic medi cal sonographers is expected to increase by about 18 percent through 2018—faster than the average for all occupations. As the population continues to age, there will be an increas ing demand for diagnostic imaging. Additional job growth is expected as healthcare providers increasingly utilize ultra sound imaging as a safer and more cost-effective alternative to radiological procedures. Ultrasound imaging technology is expected to evolve rapidly and spawn many new sonography procedures, enabling sonographers to scan and image areas of the body where ultrasound has not traditionally been used. Hospitals will remain the principal employer of diagnostic medical sonographers. However, employment is expected to grow more rapidly in offices of physicians and in medical and diagnostic laboratories. Health care facilities such as these are expected to increase in number because of the strong shift to ward outpatient care, encouraged by third-party payers and made possible by technological advances and less expensive ultrasound equipment that permit more procedures to be per formed outside of hospitals. Job prospects. Job opportunities should be favorable. In addition to job openings from growth, some openings will arise from the need to replace sonographers who retire or leave the occupation permanently. However, job opportunities will vary by geographic area. Sonographers willing to relocate will the best job opportunities. Sonographers with mul Digitized forhave FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For certification information, contact: y American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St. Paul, MN 55120-1155. Internet: http://www.arrt.org For more information on ultrasound in medicine and accred ited practices, contact: y American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine, 14750 Sweitzer Lane, Suite 100, Laurel, MD 20707. Internet: http://www.aium.org For a current list of accredited education programs in diag nostic medical sonography, contact: y Joint Review Committee on Education in Diagnostic Medical Sonography, 2025 Woodlane Dr., St. Paul, MN 55125-2998. Internet: http://www.jrcdms.org y Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs, 1361 Park St., Clearwater, FL 33756. Internet: http://www.caahep.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos273.htm Professional and Related Occupations 419 Emergency Medical Technicians and Paramedics Significant Points • Employment is projected to grow as fast as the aver age for all occupations. • Emergency medical technicians and paramedics need formal training and certification or licensure, but re quirements vary by State. • Emergency services function 24 hours a day, so emer gency medical technicians and paramedics have ir regular working hours. • Opportunities will be best for those who have earned advanced certifications. Nature of the Work People’s lives often depend on the quick reaction and com petent care of emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics. Incidents as varied as automobile accidents, heart attacks, slips and falls, childbirth, and gunshot wounds require immediate medical attention. EMTs and paramedics provide this vital service as they care for and transport the sick or in jured to a medical facility. In an emergency, EMTs and paramedics are typically dis patched by a 911 operator to the scene, where they often work with police and fire fighters. (Police and fire fighters are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Once they arrive, EMTs and paramedics assess the nature of the patient’s condition, while trying to determine whether the patient has any pre existing medical conditions. Following protocols and guide lines, they provide emergency care and transport the patient to a medical facility. EMTs and paramedics operate in emergency medical services systems where a physician provides medical direction and oversight. EMTs and paramedics use special equipment, such as back boards, to immobilize patients before placing them on stretchers and securing them in the ambulance for transport to a medi cal facility. These workers generally work in teams. During the transport of a patient, one EMT or paramedic drives, while the other monitors the patient’s vital signs and gives additional care, as needed. Some paramedics work as part of a helicopter’s flight crew to quickly transport critically ill or injured patients to hospital trauma centers. At the medical facility, EMTs and paramedics help transfer patients to the emergency department, report their observations and actions to emergency department staff, and may provide additional emergency treatment. After each run, EMTs and paramedics document the trip, replace used supplies and check equipment. If a transported patient has a contagious disease, EMTs and paramedics decontaminate the interior of the ambu lance and report cases to the proper authorities. EMTs and paramedics also provide transportation for patients from one medical facility to another, particularly if they work for private ambulance services. Patients often need to be trans ferred to a hospital that specializes in treating their injury or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis illness or to facility that provides long-term care, like nursing homes. Beyond these general duties, the specific responsibilities of EMTs and paramedics depend on their level of qualification and training. The National Registry of Emergency Medical Techni cians (NREMT) certifies emergency medical service providers at five levels: First Responder; EMT-Basic; EMT-Intermediate (which has two levels called 1985 and 1999) and Paramedic. Some States, however, have their own certification programs and use distinct names and titles. The EMT-Basic represents the first response of the emer gency medical system. An EMT trained at this level is prepared to care for patients at the scene of an accident and while trans porting patients by ambulance to the hospital under the direc tion of more highly trained medical personnel. The EMT-Basic has the emergency skills to assess a patient’s condition and manage respiratory, cardiac, and trauma emergencies. The EMT-Intermediate has more advanced training. However, the specific tasks that those certified at this level are allowed to perform varies greatly from State to State. Paramedics provide more extensive pre-hospital care than do EMTs. In addition to carrying out the procedures of the other levels, paramedics administer medications orally and intravenously, interpret electrocardiograms (EKGs), perform endotracheal intubations, and use monitors and other complex equipment. However, like the EMT-Intermediate level, what paramedics are permitted to do varies by State. Work environment. EMTs and paramedics work both in doors and out, in all types of weather. They are required to do considerable kneeling, bending, and heavy lifting. These workers are at a higher risk for contracting illnesses or expe riencing injuries on the job than workers in other occupations. They risk noise-induced hearing loss from sirens and back in juries from lifting patients. In addition, EMTs and paramedics may be exposed to communicable diseases, such as hepatitis-B and AIDS, as well as to violence from mentally unstable or combative patients. The work is not only physically strenuous but can be stressful, sometimes involving life-or-death situa tions and suffering patients. Nonetheless, many people find the Lives often depend on the quick reaction and competent care of emergency medical technicians and paramedics. 420 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Code Number Percent 2018 19,000 9 229,700 29-2041 210,700 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics............................... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. _______________________________________ Occupational Title work exciting and challenging and enjoy the opportunity to help others. These workers experienced a larger than average number of work-related injuries or illnesses Many EMTs and paramedics are required to work more than 40 hours a week. Because emergency services function 24 hours a day, EMTs and paramedics may have irregular working hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, a high school diploma is required to enter a train ing program to become an EMT or paramedic. Workers must complete a formal training and certification process. Education and training. A high school diploma is usu ally required to enter a formal emergency medical technician training program. Training is offered at progressive levels: EMT-Basic, EMT-Intermediate, and Paramedic. At the EMT-Basic level, coursework emphasizes emer gency skills, such as managing respiratory, trauma, and car diac emergencies, and patient assessment. Formal courses are often combined with time in an emergency department or ambulance. The program provides instruction and practice in dealing with bleeding, fractures, airway obstruction, cardiac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Students learn how to use and maintain common emergency equipment, such as back boards, suction devices, splints, oxygen delivery systems, and stretchers. Graduates of approved EMT-Basic training pro grams must pass a written and practical examination adminis tered by the State licensing agency or the NREMT. At the EMT-Intermediate level, training requirements vary by State. The nationally defined levels, EMT-Intermediate 1985 and EMT-Intermediate 1999, typically require 30 to 350 hours of training based on scope of practice. Students learn advanced skills such the use of advanced airway devices, in travenous fluids, and some medications. The most advanced level of training for this occupation is Paramedic. At this level, the caregiver receives training in anatomy and physiology as well as advanced medical skills. Most commonly, the training is conducted in community col leges and technical schools and may result in an associate’s degree. These programs may take up to one to two years. Such education prepares the graduate to take the NREMT exami nation to become certified as a Paramedic. Extensive related coursework and clinical and field experience is required. Re fresher courses and continuing education are available for EMTs and paramedics at all levels. Licensure. All 50 States require EMTs and Paramedics to be licensed, but the levels and titles vary from State to State. In most States and the District of Columbia certification by the NREMT is required at some or all levels. Some States administer their own certification examination or provide the option of taking either the NREMT or State examination. In most States, licensure renewal is required every two to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 three years and generally, EMTs and Paramedics must take refresher training courses or complete continuing education requirements. Many States restrict licensure based on an indi vidual’s criminal history. Other qualifications. EMTs and paramedics should be emotionally stable, have good dexterity, agility, and physi cal coordination, and be able to lift and carry heavy loads. They also need good eyesight (corrective lenses may be used) with accurate color vision. Many employers require a criminal background check. Advancement. Paramedics can become supervisors, op erations managers, administrative directors, or executive di rectors of emergency services. Some EMTs and paramedics become instructors, dispatchers, or physician assistants; oth ers move into sales or marketing of emergency medical equip ment. A number of people become EMTs and paramedics to test their interest in health care before training as registered nurses, physicians, or other health workers. Employment EMTs and paramedics held about 210,700 jobs in 2008. Most career EMTs and paramedics work in metropolitan areas. Volunteer EMTs and paramedics are more common in small cities, towns, and rural areas. These individuals volunteer for fire departments, emergency medical services, or hospitals and may respond to only a few calls per month. Paid EMTs and paramedics were employed in a number of industries. About 45 percent worked as employees of ambu lance services. About 29 percent worked in local government. Another 20 percent worked in hospitals. Job Outlook Employment for EMTs and paramedics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2018. Job prospects should be good, particularly in cities and private ambulance services. Employment change. Employment of emergency medical technicians and paramedics is expected to grow 9 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is about as fast as the aver age for all occupations. Growth in this occupation is due in large part to increasing call volume due to aging population. As a large segment of the population—aging members of the baby boom generation—becomes more likely to have medical emergencies, demand will increase for EMTs and paramedics. In addition, the time that EMTs and paramedics must spend with each patient is increasing as emergency departments across the country are experiencing overcrowding. As a re sult, when an ambulance arrives, it takes longer to transfer the patient from the care of the EMTs and paramedics to the staff of the emergency department. In addition, some emergency departments divert ambulances to other hospitals when they Professional and Related Occupations 421 are too busy to take on new patients. As a result, ambulances may not be able to go to the nearest hospital, which increases the amount of time spent in transit. Both these factors result in EMTs and paramedics spending more time with each patient, which means more workers are needed to meet demand. In addition, hospitals are increasingly specializing in treat ing a particular illness or injury. This results in more patients needing to be transferred to the hospital best able to treat them. Most patients must be transferred by ambulance, so their condition can be monitored en route. Therefore, more demand for transfers between hospitals increases the demand for the services of EMTs and paramedics. There also still will be demand for part-time, volunteer EMTs and paramedics in rural areas and smaller metropolitan areas. Job prospects. Job prospects should be favorable. Many job openings will arise from growth and from the need to re place workers who leave the occupation because of the limited potential for advancement, as well as the modest pay and ben efits in private-sector jobs. In addition, full-time paid EMTs and paramedics will be needed to replace unpaid volunteers. Emergency medical service agencies find it increasingly dif ficult to recruit and retain unpaid volunteers because of the amount of training and the large time commitment these posi tions require. As a result, more paid EMTs and paramedics are needed. Competition will be greater for jobs in local government, including fire, police, and independent third-service rescue squad departments that tend to have better salaries and bene fits. EMTs and paramedics who have advanced education and certifications should enjoy the most favorable job prospects, as clients and patients demand higher levels of care before arriving at the hospital. Earnings Earnings of EMTs and paramedics depend on the employment setting and geographic location of their jobs, as well as their training and experience. Median hourly wages of EMTs and paramedics were $14.10 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.13 and $18.28. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.08, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.77. Median hourly wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of EMTs and paramedics in May 2008 were $12.99 in other ambulatory health care services and $15.45 in local government. In 2008, about 27 percent of EMTs and paramedics belonged to a union or were covered by a union contract. Related Occupations Other workers in occupations that require quick and level headed reactions to life-or-death situations are: I ... Licensed practical nurses may assist patients with bathing, dressing, standing, and walking. Sources of Additional Information General information about emergency medical technicians and paramedics is available from: y National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians, P.O. Box 1400, Clinton, MS 39060-1400. Internet: http ://www.naemt.org y National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Office of Emergency Medical Services, 1200 New Jersey Ave., SE, NTI140, Washington, DC 20590. Internet: http://www.ems.gov y National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians, Rocco V. Morando Bldg., 6610 Busch Blvd., P.O. Box 29233, Columbus, OH 43229. Internet: http://www.nremt.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos 101.htm Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses Significant Points • Most training programs last about 1 year and are of fered by vocational or technical schools or commu nity or junior colleges. • Overall job prospects are expected to be very good, but job outlook varies by industry. • Replacement needs will be a major source of job openings, as many workers leave the occupation per manently. Page Air traffic controllers........................................................................784 Fire fighters....................................................................................... 470 Physician assistants.......................................................................... 379 Police and detectives........................................................................473 Registered nurses............................................................................. 392 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (LPNs), or licensed vocational nurses (LVNs), care for people who are sick, injured, convalescent, or disabled under the direction of physicians and registered nurses. (The work of physicians and surgeons and of registered nurses 422 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Code Number Percent 2018 21 155,600 909,200 753,600 29-2061 Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses................. ........... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. __________________________ Occupational Title is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) The nature of the di rection and supervision required varies by State and job setting. LPNs care for patients in many ways. Often, they provide basic bedside care. Many LPNs measure and record patients’ vital signs such as height, weight, temperature, blood pressure, pulse, and respiration. They also prepare and give injections and enemas, monitor catheters, dress wounds, and give alco hol rubs and massages. To help keep patients comfortable, they assist with bathing, dressing, and personal hygiene, moving in bed, standing, and walking. They might also feed patients who need help eating. Experienced LPNs may supervise nursing as sistants and aides. As part of their work, LPNs collect samples for testing, per form routine laboratory tests, and record food and fluid intake and output. They clean and monitor medical equipment. Some times, they help physicians and registered nurses perform tests and procedures. Some LPNs help to deliver, care for, and feed infants. LPNs also monitor their patients and report adverse reactions to medications or treatments. LPNs gather information from pa tients, including their health history and how they are currently feeling. They may use this information to complete insurance forms, pre-authorizations, and referrals, and they share infor mation with registered nurses and doctors to help determine the best course of care for a patient. LPNs often teach family members how to care for a relative or teach patients about good health habits. Most LPNs are generalists and will work in any area of healthcare. However, some work in a specialized setting, such as a nursing home, a doctor’s office, or in home health care. LPNs in nursing care facilities help to evaluate residents’ needs, develop care plans, and supervise the care provided by nursing aides. In doctors’ offices and clinics, they may be responsible for making appointments, keeping records, and performing other clerical duties. LPNs who work in home health care may prepare meals and teach family members simple nursing tasks. In some States, LPNs are permitted to administer pre scribed medicines, start intravenous fluids, and provide care to ventilator-dependent patients. Work environment. Most licensed practical nurses work a 40-hour week. In some work settings where patients need round-the-clock care, LPNs may have to work nights, week ends, and holidays. About 18 percent of LPNs and LVN’s worked part-time in 2008. They often stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk. LPNs may face hazards from caustic chemicals, radiation, and infectious diseases. They are subject to back injuries when moving patients. They often must deal with the stress of heavy workloads. In addition, the patients they care for may be con fused, agitated, or uncooperative. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most practical nursing training programs last about 1 year, and are offered by vocational and technical schools or com munity or junior colleges. LPNs must be licensed to practice. Education and training. LPNs must complete a Stateapproved training program in practical nursing to be eligible for licensure. Contact your State’s board of nursing for a list of approved programs. Most training programs are avail able from technical and vocational schools or community and junior colleges. Other programs are available through high schools, hospitals, and colleges and universities. A high school diploma or its equivalent usually is required for entry, although some programs accept candidates without a diploma, and some programs are part of a high school curriculum. Most year-long practical nursing programs include both classroom study and supervised clinical practice (patient care). Classroom study covers basic nursing concepts and sub jects related to patient care, including anatomy, physiology, medical-surgical nursing, pediatrics, obstetrics nursing, phar macology, nutrition, and first aid. Clinical practice usually is in a hospital but sometimes includes other settings. Licensure. The National Council Licensure Examination, or NCLEX-PN, is required in order to obtain licensure as an LPN. The exam is developed and administered by the Na tional Council of State Boards of Nursing. The NCLEX-PN is a computer-based exam and varies in length. The exam covers four major Client Needs categories: safe and effective care en vironment, health promotion and maintenance, psychosocial integrity, and physiological integrity. Eligibility for licensure may vary by State; for details, contact your State’s board of nursing. Other qualifications. LPNs should have a caring, sym pathetic nature. They should be emotionally stable because working with the sick and injured can be stressful. They also need to be observant, and to have good decision-making and communication skills. As part of a healthcare team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. LPNs should enjoy learning because continuing educa tion credits are required by some States and/or employers at regular intervals. Career-long learning is a distinct reality for LPNs. Advancement. In some employment settings, such as nurs ing homes, LPNs can advance to become charge nurses who oversee the work of other LPNs and nursing aides. LPNs may become credentialed in specialties like IV ther apy, gerontology, long-term care, and pharmacology. Some LPNs also choose to become registered nurses through LPN-to-RN training programs. Employment Professional and Related Occupations 423 Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses held about 753,600 jobs in 2008. About 25 percent of LPNs worked in hospitals, 28 percent in nursing care facilities, and another 12 percent in offices of physicians. Others worked for home health care services; employment services; residential care facilities; community care facilities for the elderly; outpatient care cen ters; and Federal, State, and local government agencies. Job Outlook Employment of LPNs is projected to grow much faster than av erage. Overall job prospects are expected to be very good, but job outlook varies by industry. The best job opportunities will occur in nursing care facilities and home health care services. Employment change. Employment of LPNs is expected to grow by 21 percent between 2008 and 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations, in response to the long-term care needs of an increasing elderly population and the general increase in demand for healthcare services. Demand for LPNs will be driven by the increase in the share of the older population. Older persons have an increased inci dence of injury and illness, which will increase their demand for healthcare services. In addition, with better medical tech nology, people are living longer, increasing the demand for long-term healthcare. Job growth will occur over all healthcare settings but especially those that service the geriatric popula tion like nursing care facilities, community care facilities, and home health care services. In order to contain healthcare costs, many procedures once performed only in hospitals are being performed in physi cians’ offices and in outpatient care centers, largely because of advances in technology. As a result, the number of LPNs should increase faster in these facilities than in hospitals. Nevertheless, hospitals will continue to demand the services of LPNs and will remain one of the largest employer of these workers. Job prospects. In addition to projected job growth, job openings will result from replacement needs, as many work ers leave the occupation permanently. Very good job oppor tunities are expected. Rapid employment growth is projected in most health care industries, with the best job opportunities occurring in nursing care facilities and in home health care ser vices. There is a perceived inadequacy of available healthcare in many rural areas, so LPNs willing to locate in rural areas should have good job prospects. Earnings Median annual wages of licensed practical and licensed voca tional nurses were $39,030 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,360 and $46,710. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,260, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $53,580. Median annual wages in the industries em ploying the largest numbers of licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses in May 2008 were: Employment services................................................. $44,690 Nursing care facilities.................................................. 40,580 Home health care services............................................ 39,510 General medical and surgical hospitals........................38,080 Offices of physicians.................................................... 35,020 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations LPNs work closely with people while helping them. Other healthcare occupations that work closely with patients include: Page Athletic trainers........................................................................405 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.................. 419 Home health aides and personal andhome care aides............. 449 Medical assistants....................................................................455 Nursing and psychiatric aides................................................. 460 Registered nurses.....................................................................392 Sources of Additional Information For information about practical nursing and specialty credentialing, contact the following organizations: y National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service, Inc., 1940 Duke St., Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.napnes.org >• National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., 605 Poole Dr., Gamer, NC 27529. Internet: http://www.nflpn.org y National League for Nursing, 61 Broadway, 33rd floor, New York, NY 10006. Internet: http://www.nln.org Information on the NCLEX-PN licensing exam is available from: y National Council of State Boards of Nursing, 111 East Wacker Dr., Suite 2900, Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http://www.ncsbn.org Lists of State-approved LPN programs are available from in dividual State boards of nursing. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl 02.htm Medical Records and Health Information Technicians Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average. • Job prospects should be very good, particularly for technicians with strong computer software skills. • Entrants usually have an associate degree. • This is one of the few health-related occupations in which there is no direct hands-on patient care. Nature of the Work Medical records and health information technicians assemble patients’ health information including medical history, symp toms, examination results, diagnostic tests, treatment meth ods, and all other healthcare provider services. Technicians organize and manage health information data by ensuring its quality, accuracy, accessibility, and security. They regularly 424 Occupational Outlook Handbook communicate with physicians and other healthcare profes sionals to clarify diagnoses or to obtain additional informa tion. The increasing use of electronic health records (EHR) will continue to broaden and alter the job responsibilities of health information technicians. For example, with the use of EHRs, technicians must be familiar with EHR computer software, maintaining EHR security, and analyzing electronic data to improve healthcare information. Health information techni cians use EHR software to maintain data on patient safety, patterns of disease, and disease treatment and outcome. Tech nicians also may assist with improving EHR software usabil ity and may contribute to the development and maintenance of health information networks. Medical records and health information technicians’ duties vary with the size of the facility where they work. Technicians can specialize in many aspects of health information. Some medical records and health information technicians specialize in codifying patients’ medical information for re imbursement purposes. Technicians who specialize in coding are called medical coders or coding specialists. Medical cod ers assign a code to each diagnosis and procedure by using classification systems software. The classification system de termines the amount for which healthcare providers will be reimbursed if the patient is covered by Medicare, Medicaid, or other insurance programs using the system. Coders may use several coding systems, such as those required for ambulatory settings, physician offices, or long-term care. Medical records and health information technicians also may specialize in cancer registry. Cancer (or tumor) registrars maintain facility, regional, and national databases of cancer patients. Registrars review patient records and pathology re ports, and assign codes for the diagnosis and treatment of dif ferent cancers and selected benign tumors. Registrars conduct annual followups to track treatment, survival, and recovery. This information is used to calculate survivor rates and suc cess rates of various types of treatment, to locate geographic areas with high incidences of certain cancers, and to identify potential participants for clinical drug trials. Work environment. Medical records and health informa tion technicians work in pleasant and comfortable offices. Some medical records and health information technicians spe cialize in coding medical information for insurance purposes. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis This is one of the few health-related occupations in which there is no direct hands-on patient care. Medical records and health information technicians usually work a typical 40-hour week. Some overtime may be required. In health facilities that are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, technicians may work day, evening, and night shifts. About 14 percent of technicians worked part-time in 2008. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry-level medical records and health information techni cians usually have an associate degree. Many employers fa vor technicians who have a Registered Health Information Technicians (RHIT) credential. Education and training. Medical records and health in formation technicians generally have an associate degree. Typical coursework in health information technology in cludes medical terminology, anatomy and physiology, health data requirements and standards, clinical classification and coding systems, data analysis, health care reimbursement methods, database security and management, and quality im provement methods. Applicants can improve their chances of admission into a postsecondary program by taking biol ogy, math, chemistry, health, and computer science courses in high school. Certification and other qualifications. Most employers prefer to hire credentialed medical record and health infor mation technicians. A number of organizations offer creden tials typically based on passing a credentialing exam. Most credentialing programs require regular recertification and continuing education to maintain the credential. Many cod ing credentials require an amount of time in coding experi ence in the work setting. The American Health Information Management Association (AHIMA) offers credentialing as a Registered Health Information Technicians (RHIT). To obtain the RHIT credential, an individual must graduate from a 2-year as sociate degree program accredited by the Commission on Accreditation for Health Informatics and Information Man agement Education (CAHIIM) and pass an AHIMA-administered written examination. In 2008, there were more than 200 CAHIIM-accredited health information technology col leges and universities programs. The American Academy of Professional Coders (AAPC) offers coding credentials. The Board of Medical Specialty Coding (BMSC) and Professional Association of Health care Coding Specialists (PAHCS) both offer credentialing in specialty coding. The National Cancer Registrars Associa tion (NCRA) offers a credential as a Certified Tumor Reg istrar (CTR). To learn more about the credentials available and their specific requirements, contact the credentialing organization. Health information technicians and coders should possess good oral and written communication skills as they often serve as liaisons between healthcare facilities, insurance companies, and other establishments. Candidates proficient with computer software and technology will be appealing to employers as healthcare facilities continue to adopt elec tronic health records. Medical records and health informa- Professional and Related Occupations 425 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Medical records and health information technicians............... ......... 29-2071 172,500 207,600 35,100 20 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title SOC Code Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. tion technicians should enjoy learning, as continuing educa tion is important in the occupation. Advancement. Experienced medical records and health information technicians usually advance their careers by ob taining a bachelor’s or master’s degree or by seeking an ad vanced specialty certification. Technicians with a bachelor’s or master’s degree can advance and become a health infor mation manager. (See the statement on medical and health services managers elsewhere in the Hankdbook for more information on health information managers.) Technicians can also obtain advanced specialty certification. Advanced specialty certification is typically experience-based, but may require additional formal education depending on the certi fying organization. Employment Medical records and health information technicians held about 172,500 jobs in 2008. About 39 percent of jobs were in hospi tals. Health information technicians work at a number of health care providers such as offices of physicians, nursing care fa cilities, outpatient care centers, and home health care services. Technicians also may be employed outside of health care facili ties, such as in Federal Government agencies. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than the aver age. Job prospects should be very good; technicians with a strong understanding of technology and computer software will be in particularly high demand. Employment change. Employment of medical records and health information technicians is expected to increase by 20 percent, much faster than the average for all occupa tions through 2018. Employment growth will result from the increase in the number of medical tests, treatments, and pro cedures that will be performed. As the population continues to age, the occurrence of health-related problems will increase. Cancer registrars should experience job growth as the inci dence of cancer increases from an aging population. In addition, with the increasing use of electronic health re cords, more technicians will be needed to complete the new responsibilities associated with electronic data management. Job prospects. Job prospects should be very good. In ad dition to job growth, numerous openings will result from the need to replace medical record and health information techni cians who retire or leave the occupation permanently. Techni cians that demonstrate a strong understanding of technology and computer software will be in particularly high demand. Earnings The median annual wage of medical records and health infor mation technicians was $30,610 in May 2008. The middle 50 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis percent earned between $24,290 and $39,490. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,440, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $50,060. Median annual wages in the indus tries employing the largest numbers of medical records and health information technicians in May 2008 were: Federal Executive Branch..........................................$42,760 General medical and surgical hospitals........................32,600 Nursing care facilities..................................................30,660 Outpatient care centers................................................. 29,160 Offices of physicians.................................................... 26,210 Related Occupations Health care occupations with similar responsibilities include: Page Medical and health services managers..................................... 73 Medical transcriptionists........................................................ 457 Sources of Additional Information A list of accredited training programs is available from: >• The Commission on Accreditation for Health Informatics and Information Management Education, 233 N. Michigan Ave, 21st Floor, Chicago, IL 60601-5800. Internet: http://www.cahiim.org For information careers and credentialing, contact: y American Health Information Management Association, 233 N. Michigan Ave., 21st Floor, Chicago, IL 60601-5809. Internet: http://www.ahima.org or http://himcareers.ahima.org y American Academy of Professional Coders, 2480 South 3850 West, Suite B, Salt Lake City, UT 84120. Internet: http://www.aapc.com y Practice Management Institute, 9501 Console Dr., Suite 100, San Antonio, TX 78229. Internet: http://www.pmimd.com y Professional Association of Healthcare Coding Specialists, 218 E. Bearss Ave., #354, Tampa, FL 33613. Internet: http://www.pahcs.org y National Cancer Registrars Association, 1340 Braddock Place, Suite 203, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.ncra-usa.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl03.htm 426 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nuclear Medicine Technologists Significant Points • Keen competition is expected for most positions. • Technologists with training in multiple diagnostic methods, or in nuclear cardiology, should have the best prospects. • Nuclear medicine technology programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. • About 66 percent of nuclear medicine technologists work in hospitals. s> m Nuclear medicine technologists operate complicated equipment that requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. Nature of the Work Diagnostic imaging embraces several procedures that aid in diagnosing ailments, the most familiar imaging being the x ray. In nuclear medicine, radionuclides—unstable atoms that emit radiation spontaneously—are used to diagnose and treat disease. Radionuclides are purified and compounded to form radiopharmaceuticals. Nuclear medicine technologists administer radiopharmaceuticals to patients and then moni tor the characteristics and functions of tissues or organs in which the drugs localize. Abnormal areas show higher-thanexpected or lower-than-expected concentrations of radioactiv ity. Nuclear medicine differs from other diagnostic imaging technologies because it determines the presence of disease on the basis of metabolic changes, rather than changes in organ structure. Nuclear medicine technologists operate cameras that detect and map the radioactive drug in a patient’s body to create di agnostic images. After explaining test procedures to patients, technologists prepare a dosage of the radiopharmaceutical and administer it by mouth, injection, inhalation, or other means. They position patients and start a gamma scintillation camera, or “scanner,” which creates images of the distribution of a ra diopharmaceutical as it localizes in and emits signals from the patient’s body. The images are produced on a computer screen or on film for a physician to interpret. When preparing radiopharmaceuticals, technologists adhere to safety standards that keep the chance of radiation exposure as low as possible to workers and patients. Technologists keep patient records and document the amount and type of radionu clides that they receive, use, and discard. There are two areas of specialty for nuclear medicine technologists—nuclear cardiology and positron emission to mography (PET). Nuclear cardiology typically involves myo cardial perfusion imaging, which, like most nuclear medicine, uses radiopharmaceuticals and cameras to image the body. Myocardial perfusion imaging, however, requires that pa tients perform exercise so the technologist can image the heart and blood flow. Technologists specializing in PET operate a special medical imaging device that produces a 3-D image of the body. Work environment. Physical stamina is important because nuclear medicine technologists are on their feet much of the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis day and may have to lift or turn disabled patients. In addi tion, technologists must operate complicated equipment that requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. Although the potential for radiation exposure exists in this field, it is minimized by the use of shielded syringes, gloves, and other protective devices and by adherence to strict radia tion safety guidelines. The amount of radiation in a nuclear medicine procedure is comparable to that received during a diagnostic x ray procedure. Technologists also wear badges that measure radiation levels. Because of safety precautions, badge measurements rarely exceed established safety levels. Nuclear medicine technologists generally work a 40-hour week. Some technologists also may have on-call hours, in cluding evening or weekend hours, in departments that oper ate on an extended schedule. Opportunities for part-time and shift work also are available. Those employed by mobile im aging services may be required to travel to several locations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nuclear medicine technology programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. Many employers and an increasing number of States require certification or licensure. Aspiring nuclear medicine technologists should check the requirements of the State in which they plan to work. Education and training. Generally, certificate programs are offered in hospitals, associate degree programs in com munity colleges, and bachelor’s degree programs in 4-year colleges and universities. Courses cover the physical sciences, biological effects of radiation exposure, radiation protection and procedures, the use of radiopharmaceuticals, imaging techniques, and computer applications. One-year certificate programs are typically for health pro fessionals who already possess an associate or bachelor’s degree—especially radiologic technologists and diagnostic medical sonographers—but who wish to specialize in nuclear medicine. The programs also attract medical technologists, registered nurses, and others who wish to change fields or specialize. The Joint Review Committee on Education Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology accredits associate and bach- Professional and Related Occupations 427 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Nuclear medicine technologists............................ .......................... 29-2033 21,800 25,400 3,600 16 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title soc Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. dor’s degree training programs in nuclear medicine technol ogy. In 2008, there were more than 100 accredited programs available. Licensure. Requirements for licensure of nuclear medicine technologists vary from State to State, so it is important that aspiring technologists check the requirements of the State in which they plan to work. In 2008, 25 States licensed nuclear medicine technologists. In addition, many third-party payers require nuclear medicine technologists to be certified in order for the healthcare facility to receive reimbursement for imag ing procedures. Certification and other qualifications. Certification is voluntary but it has become the generally accepted standard for nuclear medicine technologists and those who employ them. Certification is available from the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) and from the Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board (NMTCB). Some technologists receive certification from both agencies. ARRT and NMTCB have different eligibility requirements, but both require that workers pass a comprehensive exam to become certified. In addition to the general certification requirements, cer tified technologists also must complete a certain number of continuing education hours to retain certification. Continu ing education is required primarily because of the frequent technological and innovative changes in the field of nuclear medicine. Technologists must have good communication skills to ef fectively interact with patients and their families and should be sensitive to patients’ physical and psychological needs. Nuclear medicine technologists must be able to work indepen dently as they may have little direct supervision. Technolo gists also need to be detailed-oriented and meticulous when performing procedures to assure that all regulations are being followed. Advancement. Technologists may advance to supervisory positions or to chief technologist with significant work experi ence. With advanced education, it is possible for some tech nologists to become department administrators or directors. Some technologists specialize in clinical areas, such as nuclear cardiology or PET scanning. Some become instructors in, or directors of, nuclear medicine technology programs, a step that usually requires a bachelor’s or master’s degree in the subject. Others may leave the occupation to work as sales or training representatives for medical equipment or radio pharmaceutical manufacturing firms; some become radiation safety officers in regulatory agencies or hospitals. Employment Nuclear medicine technologists held about 21,800 jobs in 2008. About 66 percent of all nuclear medicine technologist jobs were https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in hospitals—private and public. A majority of the rest were in offices of physicians or in medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers. Job Outlook Faster than average job growth is projected. However, keen competition is expected for most positions. Employment change. Employment of nuclear medicine technologists is expected to increase by 16 percent from 2008 to 2018, faster than the average for all occupations. Growth will arise from technological advancement, the development of new nuclear medicine treatments, and an increase in the number of middle-aged and elderly persons, who are the pri mary users of diagnostic and treatment procedures. Technological innovations may increase the diagnostic uses of nuclear medicine. New nuclear medical imaging technolo gies, including PET and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), are expected to be used increasingly. Cost considerations will affect the speed with which these new applications of nuclear medicine grow. Healthcare fa cilities contemplating these procedures will have to consider equipment costs, reimbursement policies, and the number of potential users. Although these new imaging technologies will be used more often, they will likely replace older technolo gies, not supplement them. Thus, only a small amount of job growth will stem from the adoption of new technologies. Job prospects. In spite of growth in nuclear medicine, the number of openings into the occupation each year will be rela tively low. Job competition will be keen because the supply of properly trained nuclear medicine technologists is expected to exceed the number of job openings for technologists. Technol ogists who have training in multiple diagnostic methods, such as radiologic technology and diagnostic medical sonography, or in nuclear cardiology, should have the best prospects. Earnings The median annual wage of nuclear medicine technologists was $66,660 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $57,270 and $78,240. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $48,450, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $87,770. The median annual wage of nuclear medicine technologists in general medical and surgical hospitals was $66,320. Related Occupations Other healthcare occupations that use radiation or do diagnostic imaging are: Page Cardiovascular technologists and technicians............................ 408 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians..................... 411 Diagnostic medical sonographers................................................ 416 Radiation therapists..........................................................................387 Radiologic technologists and technicians...................................438 428 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a nuclear medicine tech nologist is available from: y Society of Nuclear Medicine Technologists, 1850 Samuel Morse Dr., Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://www.snm.org For a list of accredited programs in nuclear medicine technol ogy, contact: y Joint Review Committee on Educational Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology, 2000 W. Danforth Rd., Suite 130 #203, Edmond, OK 73003. Internet: http ://www.jrcnmt.org Information on certification is available from: y Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board, 3558 Habersham at Northlake, Building 1, Tucker, GA 30084. Internet: http://www.nmtcb.org y American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St. Paul, MN 55120-1155. Internet: http ://www.arrt.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl04.htm r. . ■S'. : : is i/Ji! Occupational Health and Safety Specialists SHE Significant Points • About 41 percent of occupational health and safety specialists work in Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies that enforce rules on safety, health, and the environment. • Most jobs require a bachelor’s degree in occupational health, safety, or a related field; some require ad vanced degrees. • Projected average employment growth reflects a balance of continuing public demand for a safe and healthy work environment against the desire for smaller government and fewer regulations. • Individuals with a well-rounded breadth of knowl edge in more than one health and safety specialty will have the best job prospects. Nature of the Work Occupational health and safety specialists, also known as safety and health professionals or occupational health and safety in spectors, help prevent harm to workers, property, the environ ment, and the general public. For example, they may design safe work spaces, inspect machines, or test air quality. In addition to making workers safer, specialists aim to increase worker produc tivity by reducing absenteeism and equipment downtime—and to save money by lowering insurance premiums and workers’ compensation payments, and preventing government fines. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Occupational health and safety specialists may conduct inspec tions and inform an organization’s managers of areas not in compliance with State and Federal laws and employer policies. Specialists working for governments conduct safety inspections and impose fines. Specialists often work with occupational health and safety technicians to ensure work place safety. (See the state ment on occupational health and safety technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Occupational health and safety specialists analyze work environments and design programs to control, eliminate, and pre vent disease or injury. They look for chemical, physical, radiolog ical, and biological hazards. They also work to make more equip ment ergonomic—designed to promote proper body positioning, increase worker comfort, and decrease fatigue. Specialists may conduct inspections and inform an organization’s management of areas not in compliance with State and Federal laws or employer policies. They also advise management on the cost and effective ness of safety and health programs. Some provide training on new regulations and policies or on how to recognize hazards. Some specialists develop methods to predict hazards from his torical data and other information sources. They use these meth ods and their own knowledge and experience to evaluate current equipment, products, facilities, or processes and those planned for future use. For example, they might uncover patterns in injury data that show that many injuries are caused by a specific type of system failure, human error, or weakness in procedures. They Professional and Related Occupations 429 evaluate the probability and severity of accidents and identify where controls need to be implemented to reduce or eliminate risk. If a new program or practice is required, they propose it to management and monitor results if it is implemented. Specialists may also conduct safety training. Training sessions might show how to recognize hazards, for example, or explain new regula tions, production processes, and safe work methods. If an injury or illness occurs, occupational health and safety specialists help investigate, studying its causes and recommending remedial ac tion. Some occupational health and safety specialists help work ers to return to work after accidents and injuries. Some specialists, often called loss prevention specialists, work for insurance companies, inspecting the facilities that they insure and suggesting and helping to implement improvements. Occupational health and safety specialists frequently com municate with management about the status of health and safety programs. They also might consult with engineers or physicians. Specialists monitor safety measurements in order to advise management of safety performance to correct existing safety hazards and to avoid future hazards; they write reports, including accident reports, and enter information on Occupational Safety and Health Administration recordkeeping forms. They also may prepare documents used in legal proceedings and give testimony in court. Those who develop expertise in specific areas may de velop occupational health and safety systems, including policies, procedures, and manuals. Some specialists plan budgets needed to implement programs that help achieve safe work practices. The responsibilities of occupational health and safety special ists vary by industry, workplace, and types of hazards affecting employees. Environmental protection officers evaluate and coor dinate the storage and handling of hazardous waste, the cleanup of contaminated soil or water, or other activities that affect the en vironment. Ergonomists consider the design of industrial, office, and other equipment to maximize worker comfort, safety, and productivity. Health physicists work in places that use radiation and radioactive material, helping to protect people and the envi ronment from hazardous radiation exposure. Industrial hygienists examine the workplace for health hazards, such as exposure to lead, asbestos, noise, pesticides, or communicable diseases. Work environment. Occupational health and safety specialists work in a variety of settings such as offices, factories, and mines. Their jobs often involve considerable fieldwork and travel. Occupational health and safety specialists may be exposed to many of the same strenuous, dangerous, or stressful conditions faced by industrial employees. The majority of occupational health and safety specialist work the typical 40 hour week. Some specialists may work over-time, and often irregular, hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most jobs require a bachelor’s degree in occupational health, safety, or a related field; some require advanced degrees. All spe cialists are trained in the applicable laws or inspection procedures through some combination of classroom and on-the-job training. Education and training. Most employers require occupa tional health and safety specialists to have a bachelor’s degree in occupational health, safety, or a related field, such as engi neering, biology, or chemistry. For some positions, a master’s degree in industrial hygiene, health physics, or a related subject is required. High school students interested in enrolling in a col lege program should complete courses in English, mathematics, chemistry, biology, and physics. College courses may include radiation science, hazardous material management and control, risk communications, principles of ergonomics, and respiratory protection. Course work will vary depending on the degree pur sued. For example, course requirements for students seeking a degree in industrial hygiene will differ from course requirements for health physics degree seekers. In order to become credentialed, most accrediting bodies re quire that specialists have attended either a regional or nationally accredited educational institution. Work experience is important in this occupation; it is typically beneficial for prospective stu dents to select an education program that offers opportunities to complete internships. All occupational health and safety specialists are trained in the applicable laws or inspection procedures through some combina tion of classroom and on-the-job training. Certification and other qualifications. Credentialing is vol untary, although many employers encourage it. Credentialing is available through several organizations depending on the special ists’ field of work. Organizations credentialing health and safety professionals include the American Board of Health Physicists; the American Indoor Air Quality Council; the American Board of Industrial Hygiene; and the Board of Certified Safety Profes sionals. Requirements for credentials vary. Most require specific edu cation and experience in order to be eligible to sit for the certi fication exam. Once certified, specialists are usually required to complete periodic continuing education for recertification. For information on credentials offered and requirements contact the credentialing organization. People interested in this occupation should be responsible and enjoy detailed work. Occupational health and safety specialists also should be able to communicate well. Work experience as an occupational health and safety professional may also be a prereq uisite for many positions. Advancement. Occupational health and safety specialists who work for the Federal Government advance through their ca reer ladder to a specified full-performance level if their work is satisfactory. For positions above this level, usually supervisory positions, advancement is competitive and based on agency needs and individual merit. Advancement opportunities in State Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Occupational health and safety specialists........................ ................ soc Employment, Code 2008 29-9011 55,800 Projected Employment, 2018 62,000 Change, 2008-2018 Number 6.200 Percent 11 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 430 Occupational Outlook Handbook and local governments and the private sector are often similar to those in the Federal Government. Specialists with broad education and experience and those who are well versed in numerous business functions usually have the best advancement opportunities. One way to keep up with current professional developments is to join a professional membership society. These organizations offer journals, continuing education courses, and conferences, which provide learning and network ing opportunities and can help workers and students to advance. Typically an advanced degree and substantial work experience are needed to compete for leadership or senior roles Employment Occupational health and safety specialists held about 55,800 jobs in 2008. While the majority of jobs were spread throughout the private sector; about 41 percent of specialists worked for Federal, State, and local government agencies. Within the Federal Government, most jobs are as Occupational Safety and Health Administration inspectors, who enforce U.S. Department of Labor regulations and impose fines. Within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health hires occupational health and safety specialists to offer companies help in evaluating safety without the risk of fines. Most large government agencies also employ occupational health and safety specialists who work to protect agency employees. Most private companies either employ their own occupational health and safety workers or contract with them. Most contract work is done through consulting companies, but some specialists are self-employed. In addition to working for governments, occupational health and safety specialists were employed in manufacturing firms; hospitals; educational services; scientific and technical consult ing services; mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction, and construction. Job Outlook Average employment growth is expected; additional opportuni ties will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the oc cupation. Individuals with a well-rounded breadth of knowledge in more than one health and safety specialty will have the best job prospects. Employment change. Employment of occupational health and safety specialists is expected to increase 11 percent during the 2008-18 decade, about as fast as the average for all occupa tions, reflecting a balance of continuing public demand for a safe and healthy work environment against the desire for fewer gov ernment regulations. More specialists will be needed to cope with technological advances in safety equipment and threats, changing regulations, and increasing public expectations. In private industry, employ ment growth will reflect continuing self-enforcement of govern ment and company regulations and policies. Insurance and worker’s compensation costs have become a fi nancial concern for many employers and insurance companies. As a result, job growth should be good for those specializing in loss prevention, especially in construction safety and in ergo nomics. Growth for occupational health and safety specialists may be hampered by the number of manufacturing and other industry firms offshoring their operations. In addition, the number of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis workers who telecommute is increasing. Since occupational health and safety specialists do not have access to home offices, their ability to ensure health and safety of workers in home of fices is limited. Job prospects. In addition to job openings from growth, job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave for other reasons. As the lines continue to blur between specific health and safety specialties like industrial hygiene, health physics, and loss pre vention, individuals with a well-rounded breadth of knowledge in more than one health and safety specialty will have the best job prospects. Employment of occupational health and safety specialists in the private sector is somewhat affected by general economic fluc tuations. Federal, State, and local governments provide consider able job security; these workers are less likely to be affected by changes in the economy. Earnings Median annual wages of occupational health and safety special ists were $62,250 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,490 and $77,880. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $35,870, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $93,620. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of occupational health and safety specialists in May 2008 were: Federal Executive Branch..........................................$73,180 General medical and surgical hospitals........................63,910 Management, scientific, and technicial consulting services................................................... 57,600 Local government......................................................... 56,300 State government.......................................................... 55,600 Most occupational health and safety specialists work in large private firms or for Federal, State, and local governments, most of which generally offer benefits more generous than those of fered by smaller firms. Related Occupations Occupational health and safety specialists help to ensure that safety and health laws and regulations are obeyed. Other occupations that inspect and enforce laws and regulations include: Page Agricultural inspectors.............................................................612 Construction and building inspectors...................................... 628 Fire inspectors and investigators............................................. 525 Occupational health and safety technicians............................ 431 Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs in Federal, State, and local governments and in private industry is available from State employment ser vice offices. For information on a career as an industrial hygienist, con tact: y American Industrial Hygiene Association, 2700 Prosperity Ave., Suite 250, Fairfax, VA 22031. Internet: http://www.aiha.org For information on credentialing in industrial hygiene, contact: Professional and Related Occupations 431 y American Board of Industrial Hygiene, 6015 West St. Joseph Hwy., Suite 102, Lansing, MI 48917. Internet: http ://www.abih.org For more information on professions in safety, a list of safety and related academic programs, and credentialing, contact: y Board of Certified Safety Professionals, 208 Burwash Ave., Savoy, IL 61874. Internet: http://www.bcsp.org -; S.. " ; For information on a career as a health physicist, contact: y Health Physics Society, 1313 Dolley Madison Blvd., Suite 402, McLean, VA 22101. Internet: http://www.hps.org For additional career information, contact: y U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, 395 E Street SW., Suite 9200, Patriots Plaza Building, Washington, DC 20201. Internet: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh w I’ 1 1 ,1. 831 s II y U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Office of Communication, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Internet: http ://www.osha.gov Information on obtaining positions as occupational health and safety specialists with the Federal Government is avail able from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.gov/or through an interactive voice re sponse telephone system at (703) 724-1850, (866) 204-2858 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not all toll free, and charges may result. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos323.htm Occupational Health and Safety Technicians Significant Points • About 22 percent of technicians worked in govern ment agencies that enforce rules on safety, health, and the environment. • Technicians attend postsecondary school or enter the occupation through work experience and training. • Individuals with a well-rounded breadth of knowl edge in more than one health and safety specialty will have the best job prospects. Nature of the Work Occupational health and safety technicians work with occupational health and safety specialists to help prevent harm to workers, property, the environment, and the general (See the statement on occupational health and safety Digitized public. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Occupational health and safety technicians prepare and cali brate scientific equipment. specialists elsewhere in the Handbook.) For example, they might help design safe work spaces, inspect machines, or test air quality. In addition to making workers safer, techni cians work with specialists to increase worker productivity by reducing absenteeism and equipment downtime, and to save money by lowering insurance premiums and workers’ compensation payments, and preventing government fines. Some technicians work for governments conducting safety inspections and imposing fines. Occupational health and safety technicians take measure ments and collect workplace data either for routine inspec tion or as directed by a specialist. Technicians often focus on testing air, water, machines, and other elements of the work environment. They collect data that occupational health and safety specialists then analyze. Usually working under the supervision of specialists, they also help to implement and evaluate safety programs. To measure hazards, such as noise or radiation, occupa tional health and safety technicians prepare and calibrate scientific equipment. They must properly collect and handle samples of dust, gases, vapors, and other potentially toxic materials to ensure personal safety and accurate test results. To ensure that machinery and equipment complies with ap propriate safety regulations, occupational health and safety technicians may examine and test machinery and equipment, such as lifting devices, machine guards, or scaffolding. They may check that personal protective equipment, such as masks, respirators, protective eyewear, or hardhats, is be ing used according to regulations. They also check that haz ardous materials are stored correctly. They test and identify work areas for potential accident and health hazards, such as toxic vapors, mold, mildew, and explosive gas-air mixtures and help implement appropriate control measures, such as adjustments to ventilation systems. Their inspection of the 432 Occupational Outlook Handbook workplace might involve talking with workers and observ ing their work, as well as inspecting elements in their work environment, such as lighting, tools, and equipment. The responsibilities of occupational health and safety technicians vary by industry, workplace, and types of haz ards affecting employees. Mine examiners, for example, are technicians who inspect mines for proper air flow and health hazards such as the buildup of methane or other nox ious gases. Environmental protection technicians evaluate and coordinate the storage and handling of hazardous waste, the cleanup of contaminated soil or water, or other activities that affect the environment. Health physics technicians work in places that use radiation and radioactive material, help ing to protect people and the environment from hazardous radiation exposure. Industrial hygiene technicians examine the workplace for health hazards, such as exposure to lead, asbestos, pesticides, or communicable diseases. Work environment. Occupational health and safety tech nicians work in a variety of settings from offices and facto ries to mines. Their jobs often involve considerable field work, and some require frequent travel. Occupational health and safety technicians may be ex posed to many of the same strenuous, dangerous, or stress ful conditions faced by industrial employees. They may find themselves in an adversarial role if an organization disagrees with their recommendations. Most technicians work the typical 40 hour week. Some occupational health and safety technicians may be required to work overtime, and often ir regular, hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Technicians attend postsecondary school or enter the occupa tion through work experience and training. All occupational health and safety technicians are trained in the applicable laws or inspection procedures through some combination of classroom and on-the-job training. Education and training. There are multiple paths to entry-level employment as an occupational health and safety technicians. Some technicians attend postsecondary school and typically earn an associate degree or certificate. Other technicians enter the occupation through work experience and training. In this case, an individual typically already works in the industry and may volunteer with their employer to take on health and safety responsibilities. These workers then usually receive on-the-job training coupled with some formal education. All occupational health and safety techni cians are trained in the applicable laws or inspection proce dures through some combination of classroom and on-thejob training. Recommended high school courses include English, math ematics, chemistry, biology, and physics. Certification and other qualifications. Although volun tary, many employers encourage credentialing. The Council on Certification of Health, Environmental, and Safety Tech nologists offers credentialing at the technician level. For specific requirements for each credential, contact the certi fying body. Most certifications require completing periodic continuing education for recertification. In general, people who want to enter this occupation should be responsible and like detailed work. Occupational health and safety technicians also should be able to com municate well. Advancement. Occupational health and safety technicians who work for the Federal Government advance through their career ladder to a specified full-performance level if their work is satisfactory. For positions above this level, usually supervisory positions, advancement is competitive and based on agency needs and individual merit. Advancement oppor tunities in State and local governments and the private sector are often similar to those in the Federal Government. Technicians with broad education and experience and those who are well versed in numerous business functions usually have the best advancement opportunities. One way to keep up with current professional developments is to join a professional society. These organizations offer journals, continuing education courses, and conferences that provide learning and networking opportunities and can help workers and students to advance. With a bachelor’s or advanced degree, technicians can be come occupational health and safety specialists. Employment Occupational health and safety technicians held about 10,900 jobs in 2008. While the majority of jobs were spread through out the private sector, about 22 percent of technicians worked for government agencies. Most private companies either employ their own occupa tional health and safety workers or contract with them. Most contract work is done through consulting companies. In addition to working for governments, occupational health and safety technicians were employed in manufacturing firms; public and private hospitals; educational services; scientific and technical consulting services; administrative and support services; and support activity for mining. Job Outlook Faster than average employment growth is expected; ad ditional opportunities will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Individuals with a well- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Code Employment, 2008 Projected Employment, 2018 12,500 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 1,600 14 29-9012 10,900 Occupational health and safety technicians........................................ (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 433 rounded breadth of knowledge in more than one health and safety specialty will have the best job prospects. Employment change. Employment of occupational health and safety technicians is expected to increase 14 percent dur ing the 2008-18 decade, faster than the average for all oc cupations, reflecting a balance of continuing public demand for a safe and healthy work environment against the desire for fewer government regulations. More technicians will be needed to cope with techno logical advances in safety equipment and threats, changing regulations, and increasing public expectations. In private industry, employment growth will reflect overall business growth and continuing self-enforcement of government and company regulations and policies. Although most occupational health and safety technicians work under supervision of specialists, technicians can com plete many of the routine job tasks with little or no supervi sion. As a result in order to contain costs, some employers operate with more technicians and fewer specialists. Growth for occupational health and safety technicians may be hampered by the number of manufacturing and other in dustry firms offshoring their operations. Also, the increasing popularity of telecommuting, or working at home, will result in less work space for technicians to inspect. Job prospects. In addition to job openings from growth, job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave for other rea sons. Health and safety technicians with a wide breadth of knowledge in more than one area of health and safety along with general business functions will have the best prospects. Employment of occupational health and safety technicians in the private sector is somewhat affected by general eco nomic fluctuations. Federal, State, and local governments provide considerable job security; workers are less likely to be affected by changes in the economy. Earnings Median annual wages of occupational health and safety tech nicians were $45,360 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,160 and $57,110. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,540, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $73,050. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of occupational health and safety specialists and technicians in May 2008 were: Support activities for mining...................................... $56,060 Local government......................................................... 45,320 Colleges, universities, and professional schools..........44,990 General medical and surgical hospitals........................41,490 Management, scientific, and technical consulting....... 41,100 Most occupational health and safety technicians work in large private firms or for Federal, State, and local governments, most of which generally offer benefits more generous than those of fered by smaller firms. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Occupational health and safety technicians help to inspect and ensure that safety and health laws and regulations are obeyed. Others who enforce regulations include: Page Agricultural inspectors.............................................................612 Construction and building inspectors...................................... 628 Fire inspectors and investigators............................................. 525 Occupational health and safety specialists.............................. 428 Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs in Federal, State, and local governments and in private industry is available from State employment ser vice offices. For information on industrial hygiene, contact: y American Industrial Hygiene Association, 2700 Prosperity Ave., Suite 250, Fairfax, VA 22031. Internet: http://www.aiha.org For more information on careers in safety and a list of safety and related academic programs, contact: y Board of Certified Safety Professionals, 208 Burwash Ave., Savoy, IL 61874. Internet: http://www.bcsp.org For information on credentialing, contact: y Council on Certification of Health, Environmental, and Safety Technologists, 208 Burwash Ave., Savoy, IL 61874. Internet: http://www.cchest.org For information on health physics, contact: y Health Physics Society, 1313 Dolley Madison Blvd., Suite 402, McLean, VA 22101. Internet: http://www.hps.org For additional career information, contact: y U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, 395 E Street SW., Suite 9200, Patriots Plaza Building, Washington, DC 20201. Internet: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh > U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Office of Communication, 200 Constitution Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20210. Internet: http://www.osha.gov Information on obtaining positions as occupational health and safety specialists and technicians with the Federal Govern ment is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employ ment information system. This resource for locating and apply ing for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.gov/ or through an interactive voice re sponse telephone system at (703) 724-1850, (866) 204-2858 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not all toll free, and charges may result. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos324.htm 434 Occupational Outlook Handbook Opticians, Dispensing Significant Points • Employers increasingly prefer dispensing opticians to complete certification or graduate from an accred ited 2-year associate’s degree program in opticianry; some large employers may provide an apprenticeship. • A license to practice is required by 22 States. • Employment growth is projected to be average and reflect the steady demand for corrective lenses and fashionable eyeglass frames. • Job opportunities are likely to be very good. Nature of the Work Helping people see better and look good at the same time is the job of a dispensing optician. Dispensing opticians help select and fit eyeglasses and contact lenses for people with eye prob lems, following prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. (The work of optometrists is described elsewhere in the Handbook. See the section on physicians and surgeons for information about ophthalmologists.) Dispensing opticians recommend eyeglass frames, lenses, and lens coatings after considering the prescription and the customer’s occupation, habits, and facial features. When fitting new eyeglasses, opti cians use sophisticated diagnostic instruments to measure vari ous characteristics of a client’s eyes, including the thickness, width, curvature, and surface topography of the cornea. They also obtain a customer’s prescription history to re-make eye glasses or contact lenses, or they may verify a prescription with the examining optometrist or ophthalmologist. Dispensing opticians prepare work orders that give ophthal mic laboratory technicians the information they need to grind and insert lenses into a frame. (See the section on ophthalmic laboratory technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) The work order includes prescriptions for lenses and information on their size, material, color, and style. Some dispensing opticians grind and insert lenses themselves. They may also apply tint to lenses. After the glasses are made, dispensing opticians verify that the lenses meet the specifications, and then they may reshape or bend the frames with pliers for a custom fit. Many opticians also spend time fixing and refitting broken frames, as well as instructing clients about wearing or caring for eyeglasses. Additionally, administrative duties have become a major part of their work, including keeping records on cus tomers’ prescriptions, work orders, and payments, and tracking inventory and sales. Some dispensing opticians, after additional education and training, specialize in fitting contacts, artificial eyes, or cos metic shells to cover blemished eyes. To fit contact lenses, dispensing opticians measure the shape and size of the eye, select the type of contact lens material, and prepare work orders specifying the prescription and lens size. Dispensing opticians observe customers’ eyes, corneas, lids, and contact lenses with sophisticated instruments and microscopes. During several https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis followup visits, opticians teach proper insertion, removal, and care of contact lenses. Work environment. Dispensing opticians work indoors mainly in medical offices, optical stores, or in large depart ment or club stores. Opticians spend a fair amount of time on their feet. If they prepare lenses, they need to take precautions against the hazards of glass cutting, chemicals, and machinery. Although most dispensing opticians work during regular busi ness hours, those in retail stores may work evenings and week ends. Some work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many employers increasingly prefer dispensing opticians to complete certification or graduate from an accredited 2-year associate’s degree program in opticianry; some large employ ers may provide an apprenticeship that may last two years or longer. Education and training. Although a high school diploma is all that is required to get into this occupation, most work ers have completed at least some college courses or a degree. Classes in physics, basic anatomy, algebra, and trigonometry as well as experience with computers are particularly valuable. These classes prepare dispensing opticians to learn job skills, including optical mathematics, optical physics, and the use of precision measuring instruments and other machinery and tools. Structured apprenticeship programs are more commonly available in States where licensing is not mandatory, and these programs are usually offered by large employers. Apprentices receive technical instruction along with training in office man agement and sales. Under the supervision of an experienced optician, optometrist, or ophthalmologist, apprentices work di rectly with patients, fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses. Formal training in the field is offered in community colleges and in a few 4-year colleges and universities. As of 2008, the Commission on Opticianry Accreditation accredited 22 associ ate degree programs in 13 states. Graduation from an accredited program in opticianry can be advantageous as it provides a na tionally recognized credential. Licensure. As of 2009, twenty-two States require dispens ing opticians to be licensed. States may require individuals to pass one or more of the following for licensure: a State practi■ nwr - f ■ Iff®;! Dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, so they should be tactful, pleasant, and communicate well. Professional and Related Occupations 435 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title SOC Code Employment, 2008 Opticians, dispensing..................................... 59,800 Projected Employment, 2018 67,800 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 8,000 13 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. cal examination, a State written examination, and certification examinations offered by the American Board of Opticianry (ABO) and the National Contact Lens Examiners (NCLE). To qualify for the examinations, States often require applicants to complete postsecondary training or work as apprentices for 2 to 4 years. Some States allow graduates of opticianry programs to take the licensure exam immediately upon graduation; others re quire a few months to a year of experience. Continuing educa tion is commonly required for licensure renewal. Information about specific licensing requirements is available from the State board of occupational licensing. Certification and other qualifications. Any optician can ap ply to the ABO and the NCLE for certification of their skills. Certification signifies to customers and employers that an opti cian has a certain level of expertise. Certification must be re newed every 3 years through continuing education. The State of Texas offers voluntary registration for the occupation. Dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, so they should be tactful, pleasant, and able to communicate well. Fitting contact lenses requires considerable skill, care, and patience, so manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work are essential. Advancement. A few experienced dispensing opticians open their own optical stores. Some become managers of opti cal stores or sales representatives for wholesalers or manufac turers of eyeglasses or lenses. Employment Dispensing opticians held about 59,800 jobs in 2008. About 40 percent worked in offices of optometrists. Another 33 per cent worked in health and personal care stores, including opti cal goods stores. Many of these stores offer one-stop shopping where customers can have their eyes examined, choose frames, and have glasses made on the spot. Some opticians work in opti cal departments of department stores or other general merchan dise stores, such as warehouse clubs and superstores. About 13 percent worked in offices of physicians, primarily ophthalmolo gists, who sell glasses directly to patients. One percent were self-employed and ran their own unincorporated businesses. Job Outlook Employment of dispensing opticians is expected to grow about as fast as average for all occupations through 2018, as the pop ulation ages and demand for corrective lenses increases. Very good job prospects are expected. Employment change. Employment in this occupation is expected to rise 13 percent over the 2008-18 decade. Middle age is a time when many individuals use corrective lenses for the first time, and elderly persons generally require more vision than others. As the share of the population in these older Digitizedcare for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis age groups increases and as people live longer, more opticians will be needed to provide service to them. In addition, aware ness of the importance of regular eye exams is increasing across all age groups, especially children and those over the age of 65. Recent trends indicate a movement toward a “low vision” society, where a growing number of people view things that are closer in distance, such as computer monitors, over the course of an average day. This trend is expected to increase the need for eye care services. Fashion also influences demand. Frames come in a growing variety of styles, colors, and sizes, encourag ing people to buy more than one pair. Somewhat moderating the need for optician services is the increasing use of laser surgery to correct vision problems. Al though the surgery remains relatively more expensive than eye wear, patients who successfully undergo this surgery may not require glasses or contact lenses for several years. Also, new technology is allowing workers to make the measurements needed to fit glasses and therefore allowing dispensing opti cians to work faster, limiting the need for more workers. Job prospects. Overall, the need to replace dispensing op ticians who retire or leave the occupation will result in very good job prospects. Employment opportunities for opticians in offices of optometrists—the largest employer—will be par ticularly good as an increasing number of ophthalmologists are expected to utilize better trained opticians to handle more tasks, allowing ophthalmologists to see more patients. Job opportunities also will be good at general merchandise stores because this segment is expected to experience much faster than average growth, as well as high turnover due to less favorable working conditions, such as long hours and manda tory weekend shifts. Nonetheless, the number of job openings overall will be somewhat limited because the occupation is small. Also, dis pensing opticians are vulnerable to changes in the business cycle because eyewear purchases often can be deferred for a time. Job prospects will be best for those who have certification and those who have completed a formal opticianry program. Job candidates with extensive knowledge of new technology, including new refraction systems, framing materials, and edg ing techniques, should also experience favorable conditions. Earnings Median annual wages of dispensing opticians were $32,810 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,170 and $41,930. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,250, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $50,580. Median an 436 Occupational Outlook Handbook .... nual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of dispensing opticians in May 2008 were: - Other general merchandise stores..............................$40,080 Health and personal care stores.................................... 34,700 Offices of physicians.................................................... 34,090 Department stores......................................................... 33,750 Offices of optometrists................................................. 30,460 Benefits for opticians are generally determined by the indus tries in which they are employed. In general, those who work part-time or in small retail shops have fewer benefits than those who may work for large optical chains or department stores. Self-employed opticians must provide their own benefits. Related Occupations Other workers who deal with customers and perform delicate work include the following: Page Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers...................... 770 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians..........................................774 Orthotists and prosthetists........................................................ 825 Sources of Additional Information To learn about apprenticeship programs and State licensing re quirements, contact: y Opticians Association of America, 4064 E. Fir Hill Drive, Lakeland, TN 38002. Internet: http://www.oaa.org To learn about voluntary certification for opticians who fit eyeglasses, as well as a list of State licensing boards for opti cians, contact: y American Board of Opticianry, 6506 Loisdale Rd., Suite 209, Springfield, VA 22150. Internet: http://www.abo.org For information on voluntary certification for dispensing op ticians who fit contact lenses, contact: > National Contact Lens Examiners, 6506 Loisdale Rd., Suite 209, Springfield, VA 22150. Internet: http ://ww w.abo-ncle.org For a list of the 22 associate’s degree programs accredited by the Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, contact: y National Federation of Opticianry Schools, 2800 Springport Road, Jackson, MI 49202. Internet: http://www.nfos.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos098.htm Pharmacy Technicians and Aides Significant Points • Job opportunities are expected to be good, espe cially for those with certification or previous work experience. • Many technicians and aides work evenings, week ends, and holidays. • FRASER About 75 percent of jobs were in a retail setting. Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis — iPPTti , JK • • • • ~ » <TV~i~' T-ST-r-................................. f Pharmacy technicians and aides answer phones, operate cash registers, and prepare medications for patients. Nature of the Work Pharmacy technicians and aides help licensed pharmacists prepare prescription medications, provide customer service, and perform administrative duties within a pharmacy setting. Pharmacy technicians generally are responsible for receiving prescription requests, counting tablets, and labeling bottles, while pharmacy aides perform administrative functions such as answering phones, stocking shelves, and operating cash regis ters. In organizations that do not have aides, however, pharmacy technicians may be responsible for these clerical duties. Pharmacy technicians who work in retail or mail-order phar macies have various responsibilities, depending on State rules and regulations. Technicians receive written prescription re quests from patients. They also may receive prescriptions sent electronically from doctors’ offices, and in some States they are permitted to process requests by phone. They must verify that the information on the prescription is complete and accurate. To prepare the prescription, technicians retrieve, count, pour, weigh, measure, and sometimes mix the medication. Then they prepare the prescription labels, select the type of container, and affix the prescription and auxiliary labels to the container. Once the prescription is filled, technicians price and file the prescrip tion, which must be checked by a pharmacist before it is given to the patient. Technicians may establish and maintain patient profiles, as well as prepare insurance claim forms. Technicians always refer any questions regarding prescriptions, drug infor mation, or health matters to a pharmacist. (See the section on pharmacists elsewhere in the Handbook.) In hospitals, nursing homes, and assisted-living facilities, technicians have added responsibilities, including preparing sterile solutions and delivering medications to nurses or phy sicians. Technician may also record the information about the prescribed medication onto the patient’s profile. Pharmacy aides work closely with pharmacy technicians. They primarily perform administrative duties such as answer ing telephones, stocking shelves, and operating cash registers. They also may prepare insurance forms and maintain patient profiles. Unlike pharmacy technicians, pharmacy aides do not prepare prescriptions or mix medications. Work environment. Pharmacy technicians and aides work in clean, organized, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Most Professional and Related Occupations 437 of their workday is spent on their feet. They may be required to lift heavy boxes or to use stepladders to retrieve supplies from high shelves. Technicians and aides often have varying schedules that in clude nights, weekends, and holidays. In facilities that are open 24 hours a day, such as hospital pharmacies, technicians and aides may be required to work nights. Many technicians and aides work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There is no national training standard for pharmacy technicians, but employers favor applicants who have formal training, certi fication, or previous experience. There also are no formal train ing requirements for pharmacy aides, but a high school diploma may increase an applicant’s prospects for employment. Education and training. There are no standard training re quirements for pharmacy technicians, but some States require a high school diploma or its equivalent. Although most pharmacy technicians receive informal on-the-job training, employers fa vor those who have completed formal training and certification. On-the-job training generally ranges between 3 and 12 months. Formal technician education programs are available through a variety of organizations, including community colleges, vo cational schools, hospitals, and the military. These programs range from 6 months to 2 years and include classroom and laboratory work. They cover a variety of subject areas, such as medical and pharmaceutical terminology, pharmaceutical cal culations, pharmacy recordkeeping, pharmaceutical techniques, and pharmacy law and ethics. Technicians also are required to leam the names, actions, uses, and doses of the medications they work with. Many training programs include internships, in which students gain hands-on experience in actual pharmacies. After completion, students receive a diploma, a certificate, or an associate’s degree, depending on the program. There are no formal education requirements for pharmacy aides, but employers may favor applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent. Experience operating a cash register, interacting with customers, managing inventory, and using computers may be helpful. Pharmacy aides also receive infor mal on-the-job training that generally lasts less than 3 months. Certification and other qualifications. In most States, pharmacy technicians must be registered with the State board of pharmacy. Eligibility requirements vary, but in some States applicants must possess a high school diploma or its equivalent and pay an application fee. Most States do not require technicians to be certified, but vol untary certification is available through several private organi zations. The Pharmacy Technician Certification Board (PTCB) and the Institute for the Certification of Pharmacy Technicians (ICPT) administer national certification examinations. Certifi cation through such programs may enhance an applicant’s pros pects for employment and is required by some States and em ployers. To be eligible for either exam, candidates must have a high school diploma or its equivalent and no felony convictions of any kind. In addition, applicants for the PTCB exam must not have had any drug-related or pharmacy-related convictions, including misdemeanors. Many employers will reimburse the cost of the exams. Under these programs, technicians must be recertified every 2 years. Recertification requires 20 hours of continuing educa tion within the 2-year certification period. Continuing education hours can be earned from several different sources, including colleges, pharmacy associations, and pharmacy technician training programs. Up to 10 hours of continuing education also can be earned on the job under the direct supervision and in struction of a pharmacist. Good customer service and communication skills are needed because pharmacy technicians and aides interact with patients, coworkers, and healthcare professionals. Basic mathematics, spelling, and reading skills also are important, as technicians must interpret prescription orders and verify drug doses. Tech nicians also must be precise: details are sometimes a matter of life and death. Advancement. Advancement opportunities generally are limited, but in large pharmacies and health systems pharmacy technicians and aides with significant training or experience can be promoted to supervisory positions. Some may advance into specialty positions such as chemotherapy technician or nuclear pharmacy technician. Others may move into sales. With a sub stantial amount of formal training, some technicians and aides go on to become pharmacists. Employment Pharmacy technicians and aides held about 381,200 jobs in 2008. Of these, about 326,300 were pharmacy technicians and about 54,900 were pharmacy aides. About 75 percent of jobs were in a retail setting, and about 16 percent were in hospitals. Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase much faster than the aver age, and job opportunities are expected to be good. Employment change. Employment of pharmacy technicians and aides is expected to increase by 25 percent from 2008 to 2018, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. The increased number of middle-aged and elderly people— who use more prescription drugs than younger people—will spur demand for pharmacy workers throughout the projection period. In addition, as scientific advances lead to new dmgs, Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occunational Title Occupational title Pharmacy technicians and aides........................................................... Pharmacy technicians........................................................................ __ Pharmacy aides.................................................................................. S0C Employment, Projected Change, Codg Employment, 2008-2018 ________________________________________________________________ 20 _ 381,200 477,500 96,300 25 29-2052 326,300 426,000 99,800 31 31-909554,90051,500 -3^500-6 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 438 Occupational Outlook Handbook and as more people obtain prescription drug coverage, phar macy workers will be needed in growing numbers. Employment of pharmacy technicians is expected to increase by 31 percent. As cost-conscious insurers begin to use phar macies as patient-care centers and pharmacists become more involved in patient care, pharmacy technicians will continue to see an expansion of their role in the pharmacy. In addition, they will increasingly adopt some of the administrative duties that were previously performed by pharmacy aides, such as an swering phones and stocking shelves. As a result of this de velopment, demand for pharmacy aides should decrease, and employment is expected to decline moderately, decreasing by 6 percent over the projection period. Job prospects. Job opportunities for pharmacy technicians are expected to be good, especially for those with previous experience, formal training, or certification. Job openings will result from employment growth, as well as the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Despite declining employment, job prospects for pharmacy aides also are expected to be good. As people leave this occu pation, new applicants will be needed to fill the positions that remain. Earnings Median hourly wages of wage and salary pharmacy technicians in May 2008 were $13.32. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $10.95 and $15.88. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.27, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.98. Median hourly wages of wage and salary pharmacy aides were $9.66 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $8.47 and $11.62. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.69, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $14.26. Certified technicians may earn more than non-certified tech nicians. Some technicians and aides belong to unions represent ing hospital or grocery store workers. Related Occupations Other occupations related to healthcare include the following: Page Dental assistants.......................................................................447 Medical assistants....................................................................455 Medical records and health information technicians.............. 423 Medical transcriptionists..........................................................457 Pharmacists.............................................................................. 374 Sources of Additional Information For information on pharmacy technician certification programs, contact: V Pharmacy Technician Certification Board, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington DC 20037-2985. Internet: http ://www.ptcb.org > Institute for the Certification of Pharmacy Technicians, 2536 S. Old Hwy. 94, Suite 224, St. Charles, MO 63303. Internet: http://www.nationaltechexam.org For a list of accredited pharmacy technician training pro grams, contact: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis > American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 7272 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.ashp.org For pharmacy technician career information, contact: y National Pharmacy Technician Association, P.O. Box 683148, Houston, TX 77268. Internet: http://www.pharmacytechnician.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos325.htm Radiologic Technologists and Technicians Significant Points • Employment is projected to grow faster than average; those with knowledge of more than one diagnostic imaging procedure will have the best employment opportunities. • Formal training programs in radiography are offered in hospitals or colleges and universities and lead to a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s de gree. • Most States require licensure, and requirements vary. • Although hospitals will remain the primary employer, a number of new jobs will be found in physicians’ of fices and diagnostic imaging centers. Nature of the Work Radiologic technologists and technicians perform diagnostic imaging examination. Radiologic technicians perform imaging examinations like x rays while technologists use other imaging modalities such as computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and mammography. Radiologic technicians, sometimes referred to as radiographers, produce x-ray films (radiographs) of parts of the human body for use in diagnosing medical problems. They prepare patients for radiologic examinations by explaining the procedure, removing jewelry and other articles through which x rays cannot pass, and positioning patients so that the parts of the body can be appropriately radiographed. To prevent unneces sary exposure to radiation, these workers surround the exposed area with radiation protection devices, such as lead shields, or limit the size of the x-ray beam. Radiographers position radio graphic equipment at the correct angle and height over the ap propriate area of a patient’s body. Using instruments similar to a measuring tape they may measure the thickness of the sec tion to be radiographed and set controls on the x-ray machine to produce radiographs of the appropriate density, detail, and contrast. Radiologic technologists and technicians must follow physi cians’ orders precisely and conform to regulations concerning Professional and Related Occupations 439 the use of radiation to protect themselves, their patients, and their coworkers from unnecessary exposure. In addition to preparing patients and operating equipment, ra diologic technologists and technicians keep patient records and adjust and maintain equipment. They also may prepare work schedules, evaluate purchases of equipment, or manage a radi ology department. Radiologic technologists perform more complex imaging procedures. When performing fluoroscopies, for example, radiologic technologists prepare a solution for the patient to drink, allowing the radiologist (a physician who interprets radiographs) to see soft tissues in the body. Some radiologic technologists specialize in computed to mography (CT), as CT technologists. CT scans produce a sub stantial amount of cross-sectional x rays of an area of the body. From those cross-sectional x rays, a three-dimensional image is made. The CT uses ionizing radiation; therefore, it requires the same precautionary measures that are used with x rays. Radiologic technologists also can specialize in Magnetic Res onance Imaging (MR) as MR technologists. MR, like CT, pro duces multiple cross-sectional images to create a 3-dimensional image. Unlike CT and x rays, MR uses non-ionizing radio fre quency to generate image contrast. Radiologic technologists might also specialize in mammog raphy. Mammographers use low dose x-ray systems to produce images of the breast. In addition to radiologic technologists, others who conduct diagnostic imaging procedures include cardiovascular technol ogists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, and nuclear medicine technologists. (Each is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Work environment. Physical stamina is important in this occupation because technologists and technicians are on their feet for long periods and may lift or turn disabled patients. Technologists and technicians work at diagnostic machines but also may perform some procedures at patients’ bedsides. Some travel to patients in large vans equipped with sophisticated di agnostic equipment. Although radiation hazards exist in this occupation, they are minimized by the use of lead aprons, gloves, and other shielding devices, and by instruments monitoring exposure to radiation. Technologists and technicians wear badges measuring radiation levels in the radiation area, and detailed records are kept on their cumulative lifetime dose. Most full-time radiologic technologists and technicians work about 40 hours a week. They may, however, have evening, weekend, or on-call hours. Some radiologic technologists and technicians work part time for more than one employer; for those, travel to and from facilities must be considered. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are multiple paths to entry into this profession offered in hospitals or colleges and universities. Most States require licen sure, and requirements vary. Education and training. Formal training programs in radi ography lead to a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. An associate degree is the most prevalent form of edu cational attainment among radiologic technologists and tech https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 ililill : Radiologic technologists prepare patients for radiologic exami nations by explaining the procedures, removing jewelry, and positioning patients. nicians. Some may receive a certificate. Certificate programs typically last around 21-24 months. The Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology accredits formal training programs in radiography. The committee accredited 213 programs resulting in a cer tificate, 397 programs resulting in an associate degree, and 35 resulting in a bachelor’s degree in 2009. The programs provide both classroom and clinical instruction in anatomy and physiol ogy, patient care procedures, radiation physics, radiation protec tion, principles of imaging, medical terminology, positioning of patients, medical ethics, radiobiology, and pathology. Students interested in radiologic technology should take high school courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. Licensure. Federal legislation protects the public from the hazards of unnecessary exposure to medical and dental radia tion by ensuring that operators of radiologic equipment are properly trained. However, it is up to each State to require licen sure of radiologic technologists. Most States require licensure for practicing radiologic technologists. Licensing requirements vary by State; for specific requirements contact your State’s health board. Certification and other qualifications. The American Reg istry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) offers voluntary cer tification for radiologic technologists. In addition, a number of States use ARRT-administered exams for State licensing pur poses. To be eligible for certification, technologists must gradu ate from an ARRT-approved accredited program and pass an examination. Many employers prefer to hire certified radiologic technologists. In order to maintain an ARRT certification, 24 hours of continuing education must be completed every 2 years. Radiologic technologists should be sensitive to patients’ physical and psychological needs. They must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. In ad 440 Occupational Outlook Handbook dition, operating complicated equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. Advancement. With experience and additional training, staff technologists may become specialists, performing CT scan ning, MR, mammography, or bone densitometry. Technologists also may advance, with additional education and certification, to become a radiologist assistant. The ARRT offers specialty certification in many radiologic specialties as well as a credentialing for radiologist assistants. Experienced technologists also may be promoted to supervi sor, chief radiologic technologist, and, ultimately, department administrator or director. Depending on the institution, courses or a master’s degree in business or health administration may be necessary for the director’s position. Some technologists progress by specializing in the occupa tion to become instructors or directors in radiologic technology educational programs; others take jobs as sales representatives or instructors with equipment manufacturers. nology advances many imaging modalities are becoming less expensive and more feasible to have in a physician’s office Job prospects. In addition to job growth, job openings also will arise from the need to replace technologists who leave the occupation. Those with knowledge of more than one diagnostic imaging procedure—such as CT, MR, and mammography— will have the best employment opportunities as employers seek to control costs by using multi-credentialed employees. Demand for radiologic technologists and technicians can tend to be regional with some areas having large demand, while other areas are saturated. Technologists and technicians willing to relocate may have better job prospects. CT is continuing to become a frontline diagnosis tool. Instead of taking x rays to decide whether a CT is needed, as was the practice before, it is often the first choice for imaging because of its accuracy. MR also is increasingly used. Technologists with credentialing in either of these specialties will be very marketable to employers. Earnings Employment Radiologic technologists held about 214,700 jobs in 2008. About 61 percent of all jobs were in hospitals. Most other jobs were in offices of physicians; medical and diagnostic laborato ries, including diagnostic imaging centers; and outpatient care centers. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow faster than average. Those with knowledge of more than one diagnostic imaging procedure—such as CT, MR, and mammography—will have the best employment opportunities. Employment change. Employment of radiologic technolo gists is expected to increase by about 17 percent from 2008 to 2018, faster than the average for all occupations. As the popu lation grows and ages, there will be an increasing demand for diagnostic imaging. With age comes increased incidence of ill ness and injury, which often requires diagnostic imaging for di agnosis. In addition to diagnosis, diagnostic imaging is used to monitor the progress of disease treatment. With the increasing success of medical technologies in treating disease, diagnos tic imaging will increasingly be needed to monitor progress of treatment. The extent to which diagnostic imaging procedures are performed depends largely on cost and reimbursement consid erations. However, accurate early disease detection allows for lower cost of treatment in the long run, which many third-party payers find favorable. Although hospitals will remain the principal employer of ra diologic technologists, a number of new jobs will be found in offices of physicians and diagnostic imaging centers. As tech The median annual wage of radiologic technologists was $52,210 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $42,710 and $63,010. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $35,100, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,970. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of radiologic technologists in 2008 were: Medical and diagnostic laboratories...........................$55,210 Federal Executive Branch............................................53,650 General medical and surgical hospitals........................52,890 Outpatient care centers................................................. 50,840 Offices of physicians.................................................... 48,530 Related Occupations Radiologic technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians, dentists, and other health practitioners diag nose and treat patients. Workers in related healthcare occupa tions include: Page Cardiovascular technologists and technicians......................... 408 Diagnostic medical sonographers........................................... 416 Nuclear medicine technologists.............................................. 426 Radiation therapists..................................................................387 Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in radiologic technology, contact: 'y American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. SE., Albuquerque, NM 87123. Internet: http://www.asrt.org For the current list of accredited education programs in radi ography, contact: Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Number Percent 2018 17 37,000 251,700 214,700 Radiologic technologists and technicians........................................... 29-2034 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. _________ Occupational Title https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis SOC Code Employment, 2008 Professional and Related Occupations 441 >• Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Suite 2850, Chicago, IL 60606-3182. Internet: http://www.jrcert.org For certification information, contact: > American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St. Paul, MN 55120-1155. Internet: http://www.arrt.org U % If ;£ 5. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl05.htm Surgical Technologists Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow much faster than average. • Job opportunities will be best for technologists who are certified and for those who are willing to relocate. • Training programs last 9 to 24 months and lead to a certificate, diploma, or associate’s degree. • Hospitals will continue to be the primary employer, although much faster employment growth is expected in other healthcare industries. Nature of the Work Surgical technologists, also called scrubs and surgical or operating room technicians, assist in surgical operations under the supervision of surgeons, registered nurses, or other surgi cal personnel. Surgical technologists are members of operating room teams, which most commonly include surgeons, anesthe siologists, and circulating nurses. Before an operation, surgical technologists help prepare the operating room by setting up surgical instruments and equip ment, sterile drapes, and sterile solutions. They assemble both sterile and nonsterile equipment, as well as check and adjust it to ensure that it is working properly. Technologists also get patients ready for surgery by washing, shaving, and disinfect ing incision sites. They transport patients to the operating room, help position them on the operating table, and cover them with sterile surgical drapes. Technologists also observe patients’ vi tal signs, check charts, and help the surgical team put on sterile gowns and gloves. During surgery, technologists pass instruments and other sterile supplies to surgeons and surgical assistants. They may hold retractors, cut sutures, and help count sponges, needles, supplies, and instruments. Surgical technologists help prepare, care for, and dispose of specimens taken for laboratory analysis and help apply dressings. Some operate sterilizers, lights, or suction machines and help operate diagnostic equipment. After an operation, surgical technologists may help transfer patients to the recovery room and clean and restock the operat ingFRASER room. Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Before an operation, surgical technologists help prepare the operating room by setting up surgical instruments and equip ment, sterile drapes, and sterile solutions. Certified surgical technologists with additional specialized education or training also may act in the role of the surgical first assistant or circulator. Under the surgeon’s direction, the surgical first assistant, as defined by the American College of Surgeons (ACS), provides aid in exposure, hemostasis (controlling blood flow and stopping or preventing hemorrhage), and other techni cal functions that help the surgeon carry out a safe operation. A circulating technologist is the “unsterile” member of the surgi cal team who interviews the patient before surgery, prepares the patient for surgery, helps with anesthesia, obtains and opens packages for the “sterile” people to remove the sterile contents during the procedure, keeps a written account of the surgical procedure, and answers the surgeon’s questions about the pa tient during the surgery. Work environment. Surgical technologists work in clean, well-lighted, cool environments. They must stand for long pe riods and remain alert during operations. At times, they may be exposed to communicable diseases and unpleasant sights, odors, and materials. Most surgical technologists work a regular 40-hour week, although they may be on call or work nights, weekends, and holidays on a rotating basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training programs last 9 to 24 months and lead to a certificate, diploma, or associate’s degree. Professional certification can help in getting jobs and promotions. Education and training. Surgical technologists receive their training in formal programs offered by community and junior colleges, vocational schools, universities, hospitals, and the military. In 2008, the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) recognized more than 450 accredited training programs. Programs last from 9 to 24 months and lead to a certificate, diploma, or associate’s degree. High school graduation normally is required for admission. Recommended high school courses include health, biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Programs provide classroom education and supervised clini cal experience. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, pharmacology, professional ethics, and medical 442 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Occupational Title Code Number Percent 2018 23,200 25 114,700 91,500 29-2055 Surgical technologists........................................................................... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ________ soc terminology. Other topics covered include the care and safety of patients during surgery, sterile techniques, and surgical proce dures. Students also learn to sterilize instruments; prevent and control infection; and handle special drugs, solutions, supplies, and equipment. Certification and other qualifications. Most employers pre fer to hire certified technologists. Technologists may obtain vol untary professional certification from the Liaison Council on Certification for the Surgical Technologist by graduating from a CAAHEP-accredited program and passing a national certifi cation examination. They may then use the Certified Surgical Technologist (CST) designation. In order to maintain certifi cation, certified surgical technologists must earn 60 hours of approved continuing education over a 4-year period or retake and pass the certifying exam at the end of the 4-year period. Certification also may be obtained from the National Center for Competency Testing (NCCT). To qualify to take the exam, candidates follow one of three paths: complete an accredited training program, undergo a 2-year hospital on-the-job train ing program, or acquire 7 years of experience working in the field. After passing the exam, individuals may use the designa tion Tech in Surgery-Certified, TS-C (NCCT). This certification must be renewed every 5 years through either continuing educa tion or reexamination. Surgical technologists need manual dexterity to handle instru ments quickly. They also must be conscientious, orderly, and emotionally stable to handle the demands of the operating room environment. Technologists must respond quickly and must be familiar with operating procedures in order to have instruments ready for surgeons without having to be told to do so. They are expected to keep abreast of new developments in the field. Advancement. Technologists advance by specializing in a particular area of surgery, such as neurosurgery or open-heart surgery. They also may work as circulating technologists. With additional training, some technologists advance to first assis tant. Some surgical technologists manage central supply depart ments in hospitals or take positions with insurance companies, sterile supply services, and operating equipment firms. Employment Surgical technologists held about 91,500 jobs in 2008. About 71 percent of jobs for surgical technologists were in hospitals, mainly in operating and delivery rooms. Other jobs were in of fices of physicians or dentists who perform outpatient surgery and in outpatient care centers, including ambulatory surgical centers. A few technologists, known as private scrubs, are em ployed directly by surgeons who have special surgical teams, as those for liver transplants. Digitizedsuch for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment, 2008 Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than average. Job opportunities will be best for technologists who are certified and for those who are willing to relocate. Employment change. Employment of surgical technologists is expected to grow 25 percent between 2008 and 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations, as the volume of sur geries increases. The number of surgical procedures is expected to continue to rise as the population grows and ages. Older people, including the baby-boom generation, which generally requires more surgical procedures, will continue to account for a larger portion of the U.S. population. In addition, technologi cal advances, such as fiber optics and laser technology, have permitted an increasing number of new surgical procedures to be performed and also have allowed surgical technologists to assist with a greater number of procedures. Hospitals will continue to be the primary employer of surgi cal technologists, as they try to reduce costs by replacing nurses in the operating room. However, because of better paying op portunities, much faster employment growth is expected in offices of physicians and in outpatient care centers, including ambulatory surgical centers. Job prospects. Job opportunities will be best for technolo gists who are certified and for those who are willing to relocate. Earnings Median annual wages of wage-and-salary surgical technolo gists were $38,740 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,490 and $46,910. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,510, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $54,300. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of surgical technologists were as follows: Specialty (except psychiatric and substance abuse) hospitals......................................$40,880 Outpatient care centers................................................. 39,660 General medical and surgical hospitals........................38,640 Offices of physicians.................................................... 38,520 Offices of dentists......................................................... 36,380 Wages of surgical technologists vary with their experience and education, the responsibilities of the position, the working hours, and the economy of a given region of the country. Ben efits provided by most employers include paid vacation and sick leave; health, medical, vision, dental, and life insurance; and a retirement program. A few employers also provide tuition reim bursement and child care benefits. Professional and Related Occupations 443 Related Occupations Other health occupations requiring approximately 1 year of training after high school include the following: mm ■',i’ 1 Page Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians................... 411 Dental assistants....................................................................... 447 Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses................. 421 Medical assistants.................................................................... 455 Sources of Additional Information For additional information on a career as a surgical technolo gist, and for a list of CAAHEP-accredited programs, contact: y Association of Surgical Technologists, 6 West Dry Creek Circle, Suite 200, Littleton, CO 80120. Internet: http://www.ast.org For information on becoming a Certified Surgical Technolo gist, contact: y Liaison Council on Certification for the Surgical Technologist, 6 West Dry Creek Circle, Suite 100, Littleton, CO 80120. Internet: http://www.lcc-st.org For information on becoming a Tech in Surgery-Certified, contact: y National Center for Competency Testing, 7007 College Blvd., Suite 705, Overland Park, KS 66211. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl06.htm Veterinary Technologists and Technicians Significant Points • Animal lovers get satisfaction from this occupation, but aspects of the work can be unpleasant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes danger ous. • There are primarily two levels of education and train ing for entry to this occupation: a 2-year program for veterinary technicians and a 4-year program for vet erinary technologists. • Employment is expected to grow much faster than average. • Overall job opportunities should be excellent; how ever, keen competition is expected for jobs in zoos and aquariums. Nature of the Work Owners of pets and other animals today expect superior veteri nary care. To provide this service, veterinarians use the skills of veterinary technologists and technicians, who perform many of FRASER the same duties for a veterinarian that a nurse would for a Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Veterinary technologists and technicians often assist veterinar ians by conducting tests. physician. Although specific job duties vary by employer, there is often little difference between the tasks carried out by techni cians and technologists, despite differences in formal education and training. However, most technicians work in private clinical practice while many technologists have the option to work in more advanced research-related jobs. Veterinary technologists and technicians typically conduct clinical work in a private practice under the supervision of a licensed veterinarian. Veterinary technologists and techni cians often perform various medical tests and treat and diag nose medical conditions and diseases in animals. For example, they may perform laboratory tests such as urinalysis and blood counts, assist with dental care, prepare tissue samples, take blood samples, and assist veterinarians in a variety of other di agnostic tests. While most of these duties are performed in a laboratory setting, many are not. For example, some veterinary technicians record patients’ case histories, expose and develop x rays and radiographs, and provide specialized nursing care. In addition, experienced veterinary technicians may discuss a pet’s condition with its owners and train new clinic personnel. Veterinary technologists and technicians assisting small-animal practitioners usually care for small pets, such as cats and dogs, but can perform a variety of duties with mice, rats, sheep, pigs, cattle, monkeys, birds, fish, and frogs. Very few veterinary tech nologists work in mixed animal practices where they care for both small pets and large, nondomestic animals. Besides working in private clinics and animal hospitals, some veterinary technologists and technicians work in research facili ties under the guidance of veterinarians or physicians. In this role, they may administer medications, prepare samples for laboratory examinations, or record information on an animal’s genealogy, diet, weight, medications, food intake, and clini cal signs of pain and distress. Some may sterilize laboratory and surgical equipment and provide routine postoperative care. Occasionally, veterinary technologists vaccinate newly admit ted animals and may have to euthanize seriously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals. While the goal of most veterinary technologists and techni cians is to promote animal health, some contribute to human health, as well. Veterinary technologists occasionally assist vet erinarians in implementing research projects as they work with 444 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Code Number Percent 2018 28,500 36 108,100 79,600 29-2056 Veterinary technologists and technicians............................................ (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title soc Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. other scientists in medical-related fields such as gene therapy and cloning. Some find opportunities in biomedical research, wildlife medicine, livestock management, pharmaceutical sales, and increasingly, in biosecurity and disaster preparedness. Work environment. While people who love animals get sat isfaction from helping them, some of the work may be unpleas ant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. Data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics show that full-time veterinary technologists and technicians expe rienced a work-related injury and illness rate that was much higher than the national average. At times, veterinary techni cians must clean cages and lift, hold, or restrain animals, risking exposure to bites or scratches. These workers must take pre cautions when treating animals with germicides or insecticides. The work setting can be noisy. Veterinary technologists and technicians who witness abused animals or who euthanize unwanted, aged, or hopelessly in jured animals may experience emotional stress. Those working for humane societies and animal shelters often deal with the public, some of whom might react with hostility to any implica tion that the owners are neglecting or abusing their pets. Such workers must maintain a calm and professional demeanor while they enforce the laws regarding animal care. In some animal hospitals, research facilities, and animal shel ters, a veterinary technician is on duty 24 hours a day, which means that some work night shifts. Most full-time veterinary technologists and technicians work about 40 hours a week, al though some work 50 or more hours a week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are primarily two levels of education and training for en try to this occupation: a 2-year program for veterinary techni cians and a 4-year program for veterinary technologists. Education and training. Most entry-level veterinary tech nicians have a 2-year associate degree from an American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)-accredited commu nity college program in veterinary technology in which courses are taught in clinical and laboratory settings using live animals. Currently, about 20 colleges offer veterinary technology pro grams that are longer and that culminate in a 4-year bachelor’s degree in veterinary technology. These 4-year colleges, in ad dition to some vocational schools, also offer 2-year programs in laboratory animal science. About 10 schools offer distance learning. In 2009, about 160 veterinary technology programs in 45 States were accredited by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). Graduation from an AVMA-accredited veterinary technology program allows students to take the credentialing exam in any State in the country. Those interested in careers as veterinary technologists and technicians should take as many high school science, biology, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and math courses as possible. Science courses taken beyond high school, in an associate or bachelor’s degree program, should emphasize practical skills in a clinical or laboratory setting. Technologists and technicians usually begin work as train ees under the direct supervision of a veterinarian. Entry-level workers whose training or educational background encom passes extensive hands-on experience with diagnostic and med ical equipment usually require a shorter period of on-the-job training. Licensure and certification. Each State regulates veterinary technicians and technologists differently; however, all States re quire them to pass a credentialing exam following coursework. Passing the State exam assures the public that the technician or technologist has sufficient knowledge to work in a veteri nary clinic or hospital. Candidates are tested for competency through an examination that includes oral, written, and practical portions and that is regulated by the State Board of Veterinary Examiners or the appropriate State agency. Depending on the State, candidates may become registered, licensed, or certified. Most States, however, use the National Veterinary Technician (NVT) exam. Prospects usually can have their passing scores transferred from one State to another, so long as both States use the same exam. Employers recommend American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS) certification for those seeking em ployment in a research facility. AALAS offers certification for three levels of technician competence, with a focus on three principal areas—animal husbandry, facility management, and animal health and welfare. Those who wish to become certi fied must satisfy a combination of education and experience requirements prior to taking the AALAS examination. Work experience must be directly related to the maintenance, health, and well-being of laboratory animals and must be gained in a laboratory animal facility as defined by AALAS. Candidates who meet the necessary criteria can begin pursuing the desired certification on the basis of their qualifications. The lowest level of certification is Assistant Laboratory Animal Technician (ALAT), the second level is Laboratory Animal Technician (LAT), and the highest level of certification is Laboratory Animal Technologist (LATG). The AALAS examination con sists of multiple-choice questions and is longer and more dif ficult for higher levels of certification, ranging from 2 hours and 120 multiple choice questions for the ALAT, to 3 hours and 180 multiple choice questions for the LATG. Other qualifications. As veterinary technologists and technicians often deal with pet owners, communication skills are very important. In addition, technologists and technicians should be able to work well with others, because teamwork with veterinarians and other veterinary technicians is common. Professional and Related Occupations 445 Organizational ability and the ability to pay attention to detail also are important. Advancement. As they gain experience, technologists and technicians take on more responsibility and carry out more as signments with little veterinary supervision. Some eventually may become supervisors. Employment Veterinary technologists and technicians held about 79,600 jobs in 2008. About 91 percent worked in veterinary services. The remainder worked in boarding kennels, animal shelters, rescue leagues, and zoos. Job Outlook Excellent job opportunities will stem from the need to replace veterinary technologists and technicians who leave the occupa tion and from the limited output of qualified veterinary techni cians from 2-year programs, which are not expected to meet the demand over the 2008-18 period. Employment is expected to grow much faster than average. Employment change. Employment of veterinary technolo gists and technicians is expected to grow 36 percent over the 2008-18 projection period, which is much faster than the aver age for all occupations. Pet owners are becoming more affluent and more willing to pay for advanced veterinary care because many of them consider their pet to be part of the family. This growing affluence and view of pets will continue to increase the demand for veterinary care. The vast majority of veterinary technicians work at private clinical practices under veterinar ians. As the number of veterinarians grows to meet the demand for veterinary care, so will the number of veterinary technicians needed to assist them. The number of pet owners who take advantage of veterinary services for their pets is expected to grow over the projection period, increasing employment opportunities. The availability of advanced veterinary services, such as preventive dental care and surgical procedures, also will provide opportunities for workers specializing in those areas as they will be needed to assist licensed veterinarians. The growing number of cats kept as companion pets is expected to boost the demand for feline medicine and services. Further demand for these workers will stem from the desire to replace veterinary assistants with more highly skilled technicians in animal clinics and hospitals, shel ters, boarding kennels, animal control facilities, and humane societies. Continued support for public health, food and animal safety, and national disease control programs, as well as biomedical research on human health problems, also will contribute to the demand for veterinary technologists, although the number of positions in these areas is fewer than in private practice Job prospects. Excellent job opportunities are expected because of the relatively few veterinary technology gradu ates each year. The number of 2-year programs has recently grown to about 160, but due to small class sizes, fewer than 3,800 graduates are anticipated each year, a number that is not expected to meet demand. Additionally, many veterinary tech nicians remain in the field less than 10 years, so the need to replace workers who leave the occupation each year also will produce many job opportunities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Veterinary technologists also will enjoy excellent job op portunities due to the relatively few graduates from 4- year programs—about 500 annually. However, unlike veterinary technicians who usually work in private clinical practice, vet erinary technologists will have better opportunities for research jobs in a variety of settings, including biomedical facilities, di agnostic laboratories, wildlife facilities, drug and food manu facturing companies, and food safety inspection facilities. Despite the relatively few number of graduates each year, keen competition is expected for veterinary technician jobs in zoos and aquariums, due to expected slow growth in facility capacity, low turnover among workers, the limited number of positions, and the fact that the work in zoos and aquariums at tracts many candidates. Employment of veterinary technicians and technologists is relatively stable during periods of economic recession. Lay offs are less likely to occur among veterinary technologists and technicians than in some other occupations because animals will continue to require medical care. Earnings Median annual wages of veterinary technologists and techni cians were $28,900 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,580 and $34,960. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $19,770, and the top 10 percent earned more than $41,490. Veterinary technologists in research jobs may earn more than veterinary technicians in other types of jobs. Related Occupations Others who work extensively with animals include: Page Animal care and service workers..................................................504 Veterinarians......................................................................................402 Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers.............826 Sources of Additional Information For information on certification as a laboratory animal techni cian or technologist, contact: y American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, 9190 Crestwyn Hills Dr., Memphis, TN 38125. Internet: http://www.aalas.org For information on careers in veterinary medicine and a list ing of AVMA-accredited veterinary technology programs, con tact: > American Veterinary Medical Association, 1931 N. Meacham Rd., Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360. Internet: http://www.avma.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl83.htm 446 Occupational Outlook Handbook Other Professional and Related Occupations Respiratory Therapy Technicians Epidemiologists Nature of the Work Nature of the Work Epidemiologists investigate and describe the causes and spread of disease, and develop the means for prevention or control. Applied epidemiologists, who usually work for State health agencies, re spond to disease outbreaks, determining their causes and helping to contain them. Research epidemiologists study diseases in laborato ries and in the field to determine how to prevent future outbreaks. Respiratory therapy technicians follow specific, well-defined respiratory care procedures under the direction of respiratory therapists and physicians. They help to evaluate, treat, and care for patients with breathing or other cardiopulmonary disorders. Education and Training An associate degree generally is required to work as a respira tory therapy technician. However, the entry-level requirement is Most applied epidemiologists are required to have a master’s degree from a school of public health. Some research epidemi ologists may need a Ph.D. or medical degree, depending on the work they perform. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment.......................................................... 4,800 2018 Employment.......................................................... 5,500 Employment change.......................................................... 700 Growth rate....................................................................... 15% Employment change. Faster than average employment growth is projected for epidemiologists. A heightened aware ness of bioterrorism and rare but infectious diseases, such as West Nile Virus or Avian flu, should spur demand for these workers. Job prospects. Epidemiologists can expect excellent oppor tunities. Many States report shortages of qualified workers for applied epidemiology positions. There is greater competition for jobs as research epidemiologists. Earnings Median annual wages for epidemiologists were $61,360 in May 2008. Education and Training a postsecondary certificate from an accredited school. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment........................................................ 16,500 2018 Employment.........................................................16,400 Employment change.........................................................-200 Growth rate........................................................................-1% Employment change. Little or no change in employment growth is projected for respiratory therapy technicians. Most work in respiratory care is being done by respiratory thera pists, resulting in limited demand for respiratory therapy technicians. Job prospects. Respiratory therapy technicians can expect keen competition. Very few openings for respiratory therapy technicians are expected, as the work is increasingly performed by respiratory therapists. Earnings Median annual wages for respiratory therapy technicians were $42,430 in May 2008. Related Occupations Biological scientists...... Health educators............ Medical scientists.......... Physicians and surgeons Page .. 181 ..238 .. 189 ..381 Sources of Additional Information > Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30333. Internet: http://www.cdc.gov/phtrain/epidemiology.html The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos310.htm https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Physicians and surgeons Respiratory therapists.... Page ..381 ..397 Sources of Additional Information > American Association for Respiratory Care, 9425 N. MacArthur Blvd., Suite 100, Irving, TX 75063. Internet: http://www.aarc.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos322.htm Service Occupations Healthcare Support Occupations Dental Assistants Significant Points • Job prospects should be excellent. • Dentists are expected to hire more assistants to per form routine tasks so dentists may devote their time to more complex procedures. • Many assistants learn their skills on the job, although an increasing number are trained in dental-assisting programs; most programs take 1 year or less to com plete. • More than one-third of dental assistants worked part time in 2008. Nature of the Work Dental assistants perform a variety of patient care, office, and laboratory duties. They sterilize and disinfect instruments and equipment, prepare and lay out the instruments and materials re quired to treat each patient, and obtain and update patients’ dental records. Assistants make patients comfortable in the dental chair and prepare them for treatment. During dental procedures, assis tants work alongside the dentist to provide assistance. They hand instruments and materials to dentists and keep patients’ mouths dry and clear by using suction hoses or other devices. They also instmct patients on postoperative and general oral health care. Dental assistants may prepare materials for impressions and restorations, and process dental x rays as directed by a den tist. They also may remove sutures, apply topical anesthetics to gums or cavity-preventive agents to teeth, remove excess cement used in the filling process, and place dental dams to isolate teeth for treatment. Many States are expanding dental assistants’ duties to include tasks such as coronal polishing and restorative dentistry functions for those assistants who meet specific training and experience requirements. Dental assistants with laboratory duties make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions, clean and polish removable appliances, and make temporary crowns. Those with office du ties schedule and confirm appointments, receive patients, keep treatment records, send bills, receive payments, and order den tal supplies and materials. Dental assistants must work closely with, and under the su pervision of, dentists. (See the statement on dentists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Additionally, dental assistants should not be confused with dental hygienists, who are licensed to perform a different set of clinical tasks. (See the statement on dental hygienists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Work environment. Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. Their work area is usually near the den tal chair so that they can arrange instruments, materials, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis medication and hand them to the dentist when needed. Dental assistants must wear gloves, masks, eyewear, and protective clothing to protect themselves and their patients from infectious diseases. Assistants also follow safety procedures to minimize the risks associated with the use of x-ray machines. Almost half of dental assistants had a 35- to 40-hour work week in 2008. More than one-third worked part time, or less than 35 hours per week, and many others have variable schedules. Depending on the hours of the dental office where they work, assistants may have to work on Saturdays or evenings. Some dental assistants hold multiple jobs by working at dental offices that are open on different days or by scheduling their work at a second office around the hours they work at their primary office. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many assistants learn their skills on the job, although an increasing number are trained in dental-assisting programs of fered by community and junior colleges, trade schools, techni cal institutes, or the Armed Forces. Most programs take 1 year to complete. For assistants to perform more advanced functions, or to have the ability to complete radiological procedures, many States require assistants to obtain a license or certification. Education and training. In most States, there are no for mal education or training requirements to become an entry-level dental assistant. High school students interested in a career as a dental assistant should take courses in biology, chemistry, health, and office practices. For those wishing to pursue further educa tion, the Commission on Dental Accreditation (CODA) approved 281 dental-assisting training programs in 2009. Programs in clude classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruction in dentalassisting skills and related theory. Most programs take close to 1 year to complete and lead to a certificate or diploma. Two-year programs offered in community and junior colleges lead to an as sociate degree. All programs require a high school diploma or its equivalent, and some require science or computer-related courses for admission. A number of private vocational schools offer 4- to 6-month courses in dental assisting, but the Commission on Den tal Accreditation does not accredit these programs. A large number of dental assistants learn through on-the-job training. In these situations, the employing dentist or other den tal assistants in the dental office teach the new assistant dental terminology, the names of the instruments, how to perform daily duties, how to interact with patients, and other things necessary to help keep the dental office running smoothly. While some things can be picked up easily, it may be a few months before new dental assistants are completely knowledgeable about their duties and comfortable doing all their tasks without assistance. A period of on-the-job training is often required even for those who have completed a dental-assisting program or have some pre vious experience. Different dentists may have their own styles of doing things that need to be learned before an assistant can be comfortable working with them. Office-specific information, such 447 448 Occupational Outlook Handbook Dental assistants sterilize and disinfect instruments and equipment. as where files and instruments are kept, will need to be learned at each new job. Also, as dental technology changes, dental assistants need to stay familiar with the instruments and procedures that they will be using or helping dentists to use. On-the-job training may be sufficient to keep assistants up-to-date on these matters. Licensure and certification. Most States regulate the du ties that dental assistants are allowed to perform. Some States require licensure or registration to perform expanded functions or to perform radiological procedures within a dentist’s office. Licensure may include attending an accredited dental assisting program and passing a written or practical examination. Many States also require continuing education to maintain licensure or registration. However, a few States allow dental assistants to perform any function delegated to them by the dentist. Since re quirements vary widely by State, it is recommended to contact the appropriate State board directly for specific requirements. The Certified Dental Assistant (CDA) credential, adminis tered by the Dental Assisting National Board (DANB), is recog nized or required in more than 37 States toward meeting various requirements. Candidates may qualify to take the DANB certi fication examination by graduating from a CODA-accredited dental assisting education program or by having 2 years of full time, or 4 years of part-time, experience as a dental assistant. In addition, applicants must have current certification in cardio pulmonary resuscitation. For annual recertification, individuals must earn continuing education credits. Other organizations of fer registration, most often at the State level. Individual States have also adopted different standards for dental assistants who perform certain advanced duties. In some States, dental assistants who perform radiological procedures must complete additional training distinct from that required to perform other expanded functions. Completion of the Ra diation Health and Safety examination or the Certified Dental Assistant examination offered by Dental Assisting National Board (DANB) meets the standards in 30 States and the Dis trict of Columbia. Some States require completion of a Stateapproved course in radiology as well. Twelve States have no formal requirements to perform radiological procedures. Other qualifications. Dental assistants must be a second pair of hands for a dentist; therefore, dentists look for people who are reliable, work well with others, and have good manual dexterity. Certification and advancement. Without further education, advancement opportunities are limited. Some dental assistants be come office managers, dental-assisting instructors, dental product sales representatives, or insurance claims processors for dental insurance companies. Others go back to school to become dental hygienists. For many, this entry-level occupation provides basic training and experience and serves as a steppingstone to more highly skilled and higher paying jobs. Assistants wishing to take on expanded functions or perform radiological procedures may choose to complete coursework in those functions allowed under State regulation or, if required, obtain a State-issued license. Employment Dental assistants held about 295,300 jobs in 2008. About 93 percent of all jobs for dental assistants were in offices of dentists. A small number of jobs were in the Federal, State, and local governments or in offices of physicians. Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase much faster than average; job prospects are expected to be excellent. Employment change. Employment is expected to grow 36 percent from 2008 to 2018, which is much faster than the av erage for all occupations. In fact, dental assistants are expected to be among the fastest growing occupations over the 2008-18 projection period. Population growth, greater retention of nat ural teeth by middle-aged and older people, and an increased focus on preventative dental care for younger generations will fuel demand for dental services. Older dentists, who have been less likely to employ assistants or have employed fewer, are leaving the occupation and will be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to use one or more assistants. In addition, as dentists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more assistants to perform routine tasks, so that they may devote their own time to more complex procedures. Job prospects. Job prospects should be excellent, as dentists continue to need the aid of qualified dental assistants. There will be many opportunities for entry-level positions, but some dentists prefer to hire experienced assistants, those who have completed a dental-assisting program, or have met State re quirements to take on expanded functions within the office. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, 2008-2018 Employment, Code Number Percent 2018 105,600 36 295,300 400,900 31-9091 Dental assistants..................................................................................... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ____________________________________ _ Occupational Title https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 Service Occupations 449 In addition to job openings due to employment growth, some job openings will arise out of the need to replace assistants who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave for other reasons. Earnings Median annual wages of dental assistants were $32,380 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,980 and $38,960. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,270, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $46,150. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting and may be contingent upon full-time employment. According to a 2008 survey conducted by the Dental Assisting National Board (DANB), 86 percent of Certified Dental Assistants (CDA) Home Health Aides and Personal and Home Care Aides Significant Points • Job opportunities are expected to be excellent be cause of rapid growth in home healthcare and high replacement needs. • Training requirements vary from State to State, the type of home services agency, and funding source covering the costs of services. • Many of these workers work part time and weekends or evenings to suit the needs of their clients. reported receiving paid vacation from their employers, and Nature of the Work more than half of CDAs received health benefits. Home health aides and personal and home care aides help people who are disabled, chronically ill, or cognitively im paired and older adults, who may need assistance, live in their own homes or in residential facilities instead of in health facilities or institutions. They also assist people in hospices and day programs and help individuals with disabilities go to work and remain engaged in their communities. Most aides work with elderly or physically or mentally disabled clients who need more care than family or friends can provide. Oth ers help discharge hospital patients who have relatively short term needs. Aides provide light housekeeping and homemaking tasks such as laundry, change bed linens, shop for food, plan and pre pare meals. Aides also may help clients get out of bed, bathe, dress, and groom. Some accompany clients to doctors’ appoint ments or on other errands. Home health aides and personal and home care aides pro vide instruction and psychological support to their clients. They may advise families and patients on nutrition, cleanliness, and household tasks. Aides’ daily routine may vary. They may go to the same home every day or week for months or even years, and often visit four or five clients on the same day. However, some aides may work solely with one client who is in need of more care and attention . In some situations, this may involve working with other aides in shifts so that the client has an aide throughout the day and night. Aides also work with clients, particularly younger adults at schools or at the client’s work site. In general, home health aides and personal and home care aides have similar job duties. However, there are some small differences. Home health aides typically work for certified home health or hospice agencies that receive government funding and therefore must comply with regulations from to receive funding. This means that they must work under the direct supervision of a medical professional, usually a nurse. These aides keep records of services performed and of clients’ condition and progress. They report changes in the client’s condition to the supervi sor or case manager. Aides also work with therapists and other medical staff. Home health aides may provide some basic health-related services, such as checking patients’ pulse rate, temperature, and Related Occupations Other workers support health practitioners, including: Page Dental hygienists...................................................................... 414 Medical assistants.................................................................... 455 Occupational therapist assistants andaides............................462 Pharmacy technicians and aides...............................................436 Physical therapist assistants and aides.................................... 465 Surgical technologists.............................................................. 441 Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities and accredited dental assistant programs is available from: y Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 East Chicago Ave., Suite 1900, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org/prof/ed/accred/commission/index.asp For information on becoming a Certified Dental Assistant and a list of State boards of dentistry, contact: y Dental Assisting National Board, Inc., 444 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 900, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http ://www.danb.org For more information on a career as a dental assistant and general information about continuing education, contact: y American Dental Assistants Association, 35 East Wacker Dr., Suite 1730, Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http ://www.dentalassistant.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl63.htm https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 450 Occupational Outlook Handbook i: . . . . . X? Home health aides and personal and home care aides help peo ple in their own homes or in residential facilities. respiration rate. They also may help with simple prescribed ex ercises and assist with medications administration. Occasion ally, they change simple dressings, give massages, provide skin care, or assist with braces and artificial limbs. With special train ing, experienced home health aides also may assist with medical equipment such as ventilators, which help patients breathe. Personal and home care aides—also called homemakers, caregivers, companions, and personal attendants—work for various public and private agencies that provide home care ser vices. In these agencies, caregivers are likely supervised by a licensed nurse, social worker, or other non-medical managers. Aides receive detailed instructions explaining when to visit cli ents and what services to perform for them. However, personal and home care aides work independently, with only periodic visits by their supervisors. These caregivers may work with only one client each day or five or six clients once a day every week or every 2 weeks. Some aides are hired directly by the patient or the patient’s family. In these situations, personal and home care aides are supervised and assigned tasks directly by the patient or the pa tient’s family. Aides may also work with individuals who are developmen tally or intellectually disabled. These workers are often called direct support professionals and they may assist in implement ing a behavior plan, teaching self-care skills and providing employment support, as well as providing a range of other per sonal assistance services. Work environment. Work as an aide can be physically de manding. Aides must guard against back injury because they may have to move patients into and out of bed or help them to stand or walk. Aides also may face hazards from minor infec tions and exposure to communicable diseases, such as hepati tis, but can avoid infections by following proper procedures. Because mechanical lifting devices available in institutional https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis settings are not as frequently available in patients’ homes, home health aides must take extra care to avoid injuries result ing from overexertion when they assist patients. These workers experienced a larger than average number of work-related inju ries or illnesses Aides also perform tasks that some may consider unpleasant, such as emptying bedpans and changing soiled bed linens. The patients they care for may be disoriented, irritable, or uncoop erative. Although their work can be emotionally demanding, many aides gain satisfaction from assisting those in need. Most aides work with a number of different patients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks. They often visit multiple patients on the same day. Surroundings differ by case. Some homes are neat and pleasant, whereas others are untidy and de pressing. Some clients are pleasant and cooperative; others are angry, abusive, depressed, or otherwise difficult. Home health aides and personal and home care aides gener ally work alone, with periodic visits from their supervisor. They receive detailed instructions explaining when to visit patients and what services to perform. Aides are responsible for getting to patients’ homes, and they may spend a good portion of the work day traveling from one patient to another. Many of these workers work part time and weekends or eve nings to suit the needs of their clients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Home health aides must receive formal training and pass a com petency test to work for certified home health or hospice agen cies that receive reimbursement from Medicare or Medicaid. Personal and home care aides, however, face a wide range of requirements, which vary from State to State. Education and training. Home health aides and personal and home care aides are generally not required to have a high school diploma. They usually are trained on the job by reg istered nurses, licensed practical nurses, experienced aides, or their supervisor. Aides are instructed on how to cook for a client, including on special diets. Furthermore, they may be trained in basic housekeeping tasks, such as making a bed and keeping the home sanitary and safe for the client. Generally, they are taught how to respond to an emergency, learning basic safety techniques. Employers also may train aides to conduct themselves in a professional and courteous manner while in a client’s home. Some clients prefer that tasks are done a certain way and will teach the aide. A competency evaluation may be required to ensure that the aide can perform the required tasks. Licensure. Home health aides who work for agencies that receive reimbursement from Medicare or Medicaid must re ceive a minimum level of training. They must complete both a training program consisting of a minimum of 75 hours and a competency evaluation or state certification program. Training includes information regarding personal hygiene, safe transfer techniques, reading and recording vital signs, infection control, and basic nutrition. Aides may take a competency exam to be come certified without taking any of the training. At a mini mum, 16 hours of supervised practical training are required before an aide has direct contact with a resident. These certifi cation requirements represent the minimum, as outlined by the Federal Government. Some States may require additional hours of training to become certified. Personal and home care aides are not required to be certified. Service Occupations 451 Other qualifications. Aides should have a desire to help people. They should be responsible, compassionate, patient, emotionally stable, and cheerful. In addition, aides should be tactful, honest, and discreet, because they work in private homes. Aides also must be in good health. A physical examina tion, including State-mandated tests for tuberculosis and other diseases, may be required. A criminal background check and a good driving record also may be required for employment. Certification and advancement. The National Association for Home Care and Hospice (NAHC) offers national certifica tion for aides. Certification is a voluntary demonstration that the individual has met industry standards. Certification requires the completion of 75 hours of training; observation and documenta tion of 17 skills for competency, assessed by a registered nurse; and the passing of a written exam developed by NAHC. Advancement for home health aides and personal and home care aides is limited. In some agencies, workers start out per forming homemaker duties, such as cleaning. With experience and training, they may take on more personal care duties. Some aides choose to receive additional training to become nursing aides, licensed practical nurses, or registered nurses. Some may start their own home care agency or work as a self-employed aide. Self-employed aides have no agency affiliation or super vision and accept clients, set fees, and arrange work schedules on their own. Employment Home health aides and personal and home care aides held about 1.7 million jobs in 2008. The majority of jobs were in home healthcare services, individual and family services, residential care facilities, and private households. Job Outlook Excellent job opportunities are expected for this occupation be cause rapid employment growth and high replacement needs are projected to produce a large number of job openings. Employment change. Employment of home health aides is projected to grow by 50 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. Employ ment of personal and home care aides is expected to grow by 46 percent from 2008 to 2018, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. For both occupations, the expected growth is due, in large part, to the projected rise in the number of elderly people, an age group that often has mounting health problems and that needs some assistance with daily activities. The elderly and other clients, such as the mentally disabled, increasingly rely on home care. This trend reflects several developments. Inpatient care in hospitals and nursing homes can be extremely expensive, so more patients return to their homes from these facilities as quickly as possible in order to contain costs. Patients, who need assistance with everyday tasks and household chores rather than medical care, can reduce medical expenses by returning to their homes. Furthermore, most patients—particularly the el derly—prefer care in their homes rather than in nursing homes or other in-patient facilities. This development is aided by the realization that treatment can be more effective in familiar sur roundings. Job prospects. In addition to job openings created by the increased demand for these workers, replacement needs are expected to lead to many openings. The relatively low skill re quirements, low pay, and high emotional demands of the work result in high replacement needs. For these same reasons, many people are reluctant to seek jobs in the occupation. Therefore, persons who are interested in and suited for this work—particu larly those with experience or training as personal care, home health, or nursing aides—should have excellent job prospects. Earnings Median hourly wages of wage-and-salary personal and home care aides were $9.22 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.81 and $10.98 an hour. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $6.84, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $12.33 an hour. Median hourly wages in the indus tries employing the largest numbers of personal and home care aides were as follows: Individual and family services............................................$9.77 Employment services..............................................................9.76 Residential mental retardation, mental health and substance abuse facilities................................................... 9.70 Vocational rehabilitation services......................................... 9.58 Home health care services...................................................... 7.94 Median hourly wages of home health aides were $9.84 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.52 and $11.69 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.65, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.93 an hour. Median hourly wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of home health aides in May 2008 were: Nursing care facilities........................................................$10.20 Residential mental retardation, mental health and substance abuse facilities..................................................10.02 Home health care services......................................................9.70 Individual and family services..............................................9.48 Community care facilities for the elderly............................9.44 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Home health aides and personal and home care aides.............. 1,738,800 2.575.600 836,700 48 Home health aides........................................ 5i-irti i 921,700 1.382.600 460,900 JU Personal and home care aides..................................... ........ 39-9021 817,200 1.193.000 375.800 40 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2008 452 Occupational Outlook Handbook Aides receive slight pay increases with experience and added responsibility. Usually, they are paid only for the time worked in the home, not for travel time between jobs, and must pay for their travel costs from their earnings. Most employers hire only on-call hourly workers. Related Occupations Home health aides and personal and home care aides combine the duties of caregivers and social service workers. Workers in related occupations that involve personal contact to help others include: Page Child care workers................................................................... 510 Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses.................. 421 Medical assistants....................................................................455 Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants.................................. 460 Occupational therapist assistants and aides............................ 462 Physical therapist assistants and aides.................................... 465 Psychiatric aides....................................................................... 460 Radiation therapists.................................................................. 387 Registered nurses..................................................................... 392 Social and human service assistants.........................................244 Sources of Additional Information Information on licensing requirements for nursing and home health aides, as well as lists of State-approved nursing aide pro grams, are available from State departments of public health, departments of occupational licensing, boards of nursing, and home care associations. For information about voluntary credentials for personal and home care aides, contact: > National Association for Home Care and Hospice, 228 Seventh St. SE., Washington, DC 20003. Internet: http://www.nahc.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos326.htm Massage Therapists sports injuries, and promoting general health. Clients often seek massage for its medical benefit and for relaxation purposes, and there is a wide range of massage treatments available. Massage therapists can specialize in more than 80 different types of massage, called modalities. Swedish massage, deeptissue massage, reflexology, acupressure, sports massage, and neuromuscular massage are just a few of the many approaches to massage therapy. Most massage therapists specialize in several modalities, which require different techniques. Some use exag gerated strokes ranging the length of a body part, while others use quick, percussion-like strokes with a cupped or closed hand. A massage can be as long as 2 hours or as short as 5 or 10 min utes. Usually, the type of massage given depends on the client’s needs and physical condition. For example, therapists may use special techniques for elderly clients that they would not use for athletes, and they would use approaches for clients with inju ries that would not be appropriate for clients seeking relaxation. Also, some forms of massage are given solely to one type of cli ent; for example, prenatal massage and infant massage are given to pregnant women and new mothers, respectively. Massage therapists work by appointment. Before begin ning a massage therapy session, therapists conduct an infor mal interview with the client to learn the person’s medical history and desired results from the massage. This interview gives therapists a chance to discuss which techniques could be beneficial to the client and which could be harmful. Be cause massage therapists tend to specialize in only a few ar eas of massage, customers will often be referred to or seek a therapist with a certain type of massage in mind. Based on the person’s goals, ailments, medical history, and stress-related or pain-related problem areas, a massage therapist will conclude whether a massage would be harmful and if not, move forward with the session. While giving the massage, therapists alter their approach or concentrate on areas of particular discomfort as necessary. Many modalities of massage therapy use massage oils, lo tions, or creams to massage and rub the client’s muscles. Most massage therapists, particularly those who are self-employed, supply their own table or chair, sheets, pillows, and body lo tions or oils. Most modalities of massage require clients to be covered in a sheet or blanket and to be undressed or wear loose- Significant Points • This occupation includes a large percentage of part time and self-employed workers. • Many States require formal training and licensure in order to practice massage therapy. • Employment is expected to grow faster than average as more people learn about the benefits of massage therapy. s. » Nature of the Work Massage therapy is the practice of using touch to manipulate the soft-tissue muscles of the body. It is performed for a variety of reasons, including treating painful ailments, decompressing tired and overworked muscles, reducing stress, rehabilitating https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis _______ Massage therapists apply pressure to relieve stress and promote health. Service Occupations 453 fitting clothing. The therapist exposes only the body part being massaged. Some types of massage are done without oils or lo tions and are performed with the client fully clothed. Massage therapists must develop a rapport with their clients if repeat customers are to be secured. Because those who seek a therapist tend to make regular visits, developing a loyal clien tele is an important part of becoming successful. Work environment. Massage therapists work in an array of settings, both private and public: private offices, studios, hos pitals, nursing homes, fitness centers, sports medicine facili ties, airports, and shopping malls, for example. Some massage therapists also travel to clients’ homes or offices to provide a massage. It is common for full-time massage therapists to di vide their time among several different settings, depending on the clients and locations scheduled. Most massage therapists give massages in dimly lit settings. Using candles and/or incense is not uncommon. Ambient or other calm, soothing music is often played. The dim lighting, smells, and background noise are meant to put clients at ease. However, when visiting a client’s office, a massage therapist may not have those amenities. The working conditions depend heavily on a therapist’s location and what the client wants. Because massage is physically demanding, massage thera pists can succumb to injury if the proper technique is not used. Repetitive-motion problems and fatigue from standing for ex tended lengths of time are most common. These risks can be limited by the use of good techniques, proper spacing between sessions, exercise, and, in many cases, by the therapists them selves receiving a massage on a regular basis. Because of the physical nature of the work and the time needed in between sessions, massage therapists typically work less than 40 hours per week. Most therapists who work 15 to 30 hours per week consider themselves to be full-time work ers, because when time for travel, for setting up equipment, and for completing business functions, such as billing, are added, a massage therapist’s hours per week may very well be more than 40 hours. About 48 percent of all massage therapists worked part time and 19 percent had variable schedules in 2008. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In 2009, 42 States and the District of Columbia had laws regu lating massage therapy in some way. Most of the boards govern ing massage therapy in these States require practicing massage therapists to complete a formal education program and pass an examination. As of 2009, States without licensure requirements were Alaska, Idaho, Kansas, Minnesota, Montana, Oklahoma, Vermont, and Wyoming. In these States, massage therapy may be regulated at the local level. Because laws often change, it is best to check information on licensing, certification, and ac creditation on a State-by-State basis. Education and training. Training standards and require ments for massage therapists vary greatly by State and locality. Education programs are typically found in private or public postsecondary institutions and can require 500 hours of study or more to complete. A high school diploma or equivalent de gree is usually required for admission. Massage therapy pro grams generally cover subjects such as anatomy; physiology, the study of organs and tissues; kinesiology, the study of mo tion and body mechanics; business management; ethics; and the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis hands-on practice of massage techniques. Training programs may concentrate on certain modalities of massage. Several pro grams also provide alumni services such as post-graduate job placement and continuing educational services. Both full-time and part-time programs are available. Massage therapy programs vary in accreditation. Generally, they are approved by a State board, and they also may be ac credited by an independent accrediting agency. In States that regulate massage therapy, graduation from an approved school or training program usually is required in order to practice. Some State regulations require that therapists keep up on their knowledge and technique through continuing education. Licensure. In States with massage therapy regulations, workers must obtain a license after graduating from a training program and prior to practicing massage. Passage of an exami nation is usually required for licensure. The examination may be solely a State exam or one of two nationally recognized tests: the National Certification Examination for Therapeu tic Massage and Bodywork (NCETMB) and the Massage and Bodywork Licensing Examination (MBLEx). Massage therapy licensure boards decide which certifications and tests to accept on a State-by-State basis. Therefore, those wishing to practice massage therapy should look into legal requirements for the State and locality in which they intend to practice. A fee and periodic renewal of licensure also may be required. Other qualifications. Strong communication skills and a friendly, empathetic personality are extremely helpful qualities for fostering a trusting relationship with clients and, in turn, expanding one’s client base. Massage can be a delicate issue for some clients, and because of this, making clients feel comfort able is one of the most important skills for massage therapists. Advancement. Because of the nature of massage therapy, opportunities for advancement are limited. However, with in creased experience and an expanding client base, there are op portunities for therapists to increase client fees and, therefore, income. Therapists also may become managers of the office in which they work and may teach in a training program. In addi tion, those who are well organized and have an entrepreneurial spirit may go into business for themselves. Self-employed mas sage therapists with a large client base have the highest earnings. Employment Massage therapists held about 122,400 jobs in 2008. About 57 percent were self-employed. Many more people practice massage therapy as a secondary source of income. Of those who were self-employed, most owned their own businesses or worked as independent contractors. Others found employment in personal care services establishments, the offices of physi cians and chiropractors, fitness and recreational sports centers and hotels. Although massage therapists can find jobs through out the country, employment is concentrated in metropolitan areas, as well as resort and destination locales. Job Outlook Employment of massage therapists is expected to grow faster than average. Opportunities should be available to those who complete formal training programs and pass a professionally recognized examination, but new massage therapists should ex- 454 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Occupational Title Code Number Percent 2018 23,200 19 145,600 122,400 31-9011 Massage therapists................................................................................. (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. _____________________________________________ ___________ soc pect to work only part time until they can build a client base of their own. Employment change. Employment of massage therapists is expected to increase by 19 percent from 2008 to 2018, faster than the average for all occupations. Employment will grow as more people learn about the benefits of massage therapy. Continued growth in the demand for massage services will lead to new openings for massage therapists. The number of spas, which employ a large number of therapists, has in creased in recent years and will continue to do so. At the same time, there are an increasing number of massage clinic fran chises, many of which offer massages cheaper than at spas and resorts, making them available to a wider range of customers. In addition, as an increasing number of States adopt licensing requirements and standards for therapists, the practice of mas sage is likely to be respected and accepted by more and more people. Massage also offers specific benefits to particular groups of people, whose continued demand for massage services will lead to overall growth for the occupation. For example, as workplaces try to distinguish themselves as employee-friendly, providing professional in-office, seated massages for employ ees is becoming a popular on-the-job benefit. Older citizens in nursing homes or assisted-living facilities also are finding benefits from massage, such as increased energy levels and re duced health problems. Demand for massage therapy should grow among older age groups because they increasingly are enjoying longer, more active lives and persons aged 55 years and older are projected to be the most rapidly growing segment of the U.S. population over the next decade. However, demand for massage therapy is presently greatest among young adults, who lack the concerns about massage that previous genera tions had. Job prospects. In States that regulate massage therapy, op portunities should be available to those who complete formal training programs and pass a professionally recognized ex amination. However, new massage therapists should expect to work only part time in spas, hotels, hospitals, physical therapy centers, and other businesses until they can build a client base of their own. Because referrals are a very important source of work for massage therapists, networking will increase the num ber of job opportunities. Joining a professional association also can help build strong contacts and further increase the likeli hood of steady work. Earnings Median hourly wages of massage therapists, including gratu ities, were $16.78 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.36 and $25.14. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.01, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33.47. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment, 2008 Because many therapists work part time, yearly earnings can vary considerably, depending on the therapist’s schedule. Gen erally, massage therapists earn some portion of their income as gratuities. For those who work in a hospital or other clinical setting, however, tipping is not common. As is typical for most workers who are self-employed and work part time, few benefits are provided. Related Occupations Massage therapists provide services that promote relaxation or physical well-being for clients. Other workers who provide similar services include: Page Athletic trainers........................................................................405 Chiropractors............................................................................ 360 Physical therapist assistants and aides.................................... 465 Physical therapists....................................................................377 Sources of Additional Information General information on becoming a massage therapist is avail able from State regulatory boards. For more information on becoming a massage therapist, contact: y Associated Bodywork & Massage Professionals, 25188 Genesee Trail Road, Suite 200 Golden, CO 80401. Internet: http://www.massagetherapy.com/careers/index.php y American Massage Therapy Association, 500 Davis St., Suite 900, Evanston, IL 60201. Internet: http://www.amtamassage.org For a directory of schools providing accredited massage ther apy training programs, contact: y Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http ://www.accsc.org y Commission on Massage Therapy Accreditation, 5335 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Suite 440, Washington, DC, 20015. Internet: http://www.comta.org Information on national testing and national certification is available from: > Federation of State Massage Therapy Boards, 7111 W 151st St., Suite 356, Overland Park, Kansas 66223. Internet: http://www.fsmtb.org y National Certification Board for Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork, 1901 S. Meyers Rd., Suite 240, Oakbrook Terrace, IL 60181. Internet: http://www.ncbtmb.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos295.htm Service Occupations 455 Medical Assistants Significant Points • Employment is projected to grow much faster than average, ranking medical assistants among the fastest growing occupations over the 2008-18 decade. • Job prospects should be excellent. • About 62 percent of medical assistants work in of fices of physicians. • Some medical assistants are trained on the job, but many complete 1-year or 2-year programs. Nature of the Work Medical assistants perform administrative and clinical tasks to keep the offices of physicians, podiatrists, chiropractors, and other health practitioners running smoothly. The duties of medical assistants vary from office to office, depending on the location and size of the practice and the practitioner’s specialty. In small practices, medical assistants usually do many different kinds of tasks, handling both administrative and clinical duties and reporting directly to an office manager, physician, or other health practitioner. Those in large practices tend to specialize in a particular area, under the supervision of department adminis trators. Medical assistants should not be confused with physi cian assistants, who examine, diagnose, and treat patients under the direct supervision of a physician. (Physician assistants are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Administrative medical assistants update and file patients’ medical records, fill out insurance forms, and arrange for hospi tal admissions and laboratory services. They also perform tasks less specific to medical settings, such as answering telephones, greeting patients, handling correspondence, scheduling ap pointments, and handling billing and bookkeeping. Clinical medical assistants have various duties, depending on State law. Some common tasks include taking medical histories and recording vital signs, explaining treatment procedures to pa tients, preparing patients for examinations, and assisting physi cians during examinations. Medical assistants collect and prepare ' ' Medical assistants often take medical histories and record vital signs ofpatients. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis laboratory specimens and sometimes perform basic laboratory tests, dispose of contaminated supplies, and sterilize medical instruments. As directed by a physician, they might instruct pa tients about medications and special diets, prepare and adminis ter medications, authorize drug refills, telephone prescriptions to a pharmacy, draw blood, prepare patients for x rays, take elec trocardiograms, remove sutures, and change dressings. Medical assistants also may arrange examining room instruments and equipment, purchase and maintain supplies and equipment, and keep waiting and examining rooms neat and clean. Ophthalmic medical assistants, optometric assistants, and podiatric medical assistants are examples of specialized assis tants who have additional duties. Ophthalmic medical assistants help ophthalmologists provide eye care. They conduct diagnos tic tests, measure and record vision, and test eye muscle func tion. They apply eye dressings and also show patients how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses. Under the direction of the physician, ophthalmic medical assistants may administer eye medications. They also maintain optical and surgical instru ments and may assist the ophthalmologist in surgery. Optomet ric assistants also help provide eye care, working with optome trists. They provide chair-side assistance, instruct patients about contact lens use and care, conduct preliminary tests on patients, and otherwise provide assistance while working directly with an optometrist. Podiatric medical assistants make castings of feet, expose and develop x rays, and assist podiatrists in surgery. Work environment. Medical assistants work in well-lighted, clean environments. They constantly interact with other people and may have to handle several responsibilities at once. Most full time medical assistants work a regular 40-hour week. However, medical assistants may work part time, evenings, or weekends. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some medical assistants are trained on the job, but many com plete 1- or 2-year programs. Almost all medical assistants have at least a high school diploma, although there are no formal education or training requirements. Education and training. Medical assisting programs are offered in vocational-technical high schools, postsecondary vo cational schools, and community and junior colleges. Postsecond ary programs usually last either 1 year and result in a certificate or diploma, or 2 years and result in an associate degree. Courses cover anatomy, physiology, and medical terminology, as well as keyboarding, transcription, recordkeeping, accounting, and insur ance processing. Students learn laboratory techniques, clinical and diagnostic procedures, pharmaceutical principles, the admin istration of medications, and first aid. They study office practices, patient relations, medical law, and ethics. There are two accredit ing bodies that accredit medical assisting programs. Accredited programs often include an internship that provides practical expe rience in physicians’ offices or other healthcare facilities. Formal training in medical assisting, while generally pre ferred, is not required. Many medical assistants are trained on the job, and usually only need to have a high school diploma or the equivalent. Recommended high school courses include mathematics, health, biology, keyboarding, bookkeeping, com puters, and office skills. Volunteer experience in the healthcare field also is helpful. Medical assistants who are trained on the 456 Occupational Outlook Handbook job usually spend their first few months attending training ses sions and working closely with more experienced workers. Some States allow medical assistants to perform more ad vanced procedures, such as giving injections or taking x rays, after passing a test or taking a course. Other qualifications. Medical assistants deal with the pub lic; therefore, they must be neat and well groomed and have a courteous, pleasant manner and they must be able to put patients at ease and explain physicians’ instructions. They must respect the confidential nature of medical information. Clinical duties require a reasonable level of manual dexterity and visual acuity. Certification and advancement. Although not required, cer tification indicates that a medical assistant meets certain stan dards of knowledge. It may also help to distinguish an experi enced or formally trained assistant from an entry-level assistant, which may lead to a higher salary or more employment oppor tunities. There are various associations—such as the American Association of Medical Assistants (AAMA) and Association of Medical Technologists (AMT)—that award certification cre dentials to medical assistants. The certification process varies by association. It is also possible to become certified in a spe cialty, such as podiatry, optometry, or ophthalmology. Medical assistants may also advance to other occupations through experience or additional training. For example, some may go on to teach medical assisting, and others pursue addi tional education to become nurses or other healthcare workers. Administrative medical assistants may advance to office manag ers, or qualify for a variety of administrative support occupations. Employment Medical assistants held about 483,600 jobs in 2008. About 62 percent worked in offices of physicians; 13 percent worked in public and private hospitals, including inpatient and outpatient facilities; and 11 percent worked in offices of other health prac titioners, such as chiropractors and optometrists. Most of the remainder worked in other health care industries, such as out patient care centers and nursing and residential care facilities. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow much faster than average, rank ing medical assistants among the fastest growing occupations over the 2008-18 decade. Job opportunities should be excellent, particu larly for those with formal training or experience, and certification. Employment change. Employment of medical assistants is expected to grow 34 percent from 2008 to 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. As the health care industry expands because of technological advances in medicine and the growth and aging of the population, there will be an increased need for all health care workers. The increasing prevalence of certain conditions, such as obesity and diabetes, also will in crease demand for health care services and medical assistants. Increasing use of medical assistants to allow doctors to care for more patients will further stimulate job growth. Helping to drive job growth is the increasing number of group practices, clinics, and other health care facilities that need a high proportion of support personnel, particularly medical as sistants who can handle both administrative and clinical duties. In addition, medical assistants work mostly in primary care, a consistently growing sector of the health care industry. Job prospects. Jobseekers who want to work as a medical assistant should find excellent job prospects. Medical assistants are projected to account for a very large number of new jobs, and many other opportunities will come from the need to re place workers leaving the occupation. Medical assistants with formal training or experience—particularly those with certifica tion—should have the best job opportunities, since employers generally prefer to hire these workers. Earnings The earnings of medical assistants vary, depending on their experience, skill level, and location. Median annual wages of wage-and-salary medical assistants were $28,300 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,700 and $33,050. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,600, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $39,570. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical assis tants in May 2008 were: General medical and surgical hospitals......................$29,720 Colleges, universities, and professional schools......... 28,820 Offices of physicians.................................................... 28,710 Outpatient care centers.................................................28,570 Offices of other health practitioners.............................25,240 Related Occupations Medical assistants perform work similar to the tasks completed by other workers in medical support occupations. Administra tive medical assistants do work similar to that of: Page Medical records and health information technicians.............. 423 Medical secretaries...................................................................583 Medical transcriptionists..........................................................457 Clinical medical assistants perform duties similar to those of: Dental assistants.......................................................................447 Dental hygienists......................................................................414 Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses.................. 421 Nursing and psychiatric aides................................................. 460 Occupational therapist assistants and aides............................ 462 Pharmacy technicians and aides.............................................. 436 Physical therapist assistants and aides.................................... 465 Surgical technologists..............................................................441 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Code Employment, 2008 Projected Employment, 2018 647,500 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 163.900 34 483,600 31-9092 Medical assistants.................................................................................. (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 457 Sources of Additional Information Nature of the Work Information about career opportunities and certification for medical assistants is available from: y American Association of Medical Assistants, 20 North Medical transcriptionists listen to dictated recordings made by physicians and other healthcare professionals and transcribe them into medical reports, correspondence, and other adminis trative material. They generally listen to recordings on a head set, using a foot pedal to pause the recording when necessary, and key the text into a personal computer or word processor, editing as necessary for grammar and clarity. The documents they produce include discharge summaries, medical history and physical examination reports, operative reports, consul tation reports, autopsy reports, diagnostic-imaging studies, progress notes, and referral letters. Medical transcriptionists return transcribed documents to the physicians or other health care professionals who dictated them for review and signature or correction. These documents eventually become part of pa tients’ permanent files. To understand and accurately transcribe dictated reports, medical transcriptionists must understand medical terminol ogy, anatomy and physiology, diagnostic procedures, pharma cology, and treatment assessments. They also must be able to translate medical jargon and abbreviations into their expanded forms. To help identify terms appropriately, transcriptionists refer to standard medical reference materials—both printed and electronic; some of these are available over the Internet. Medical transcriptionists must comply with specific stan dards that apply to the style of medical records and to the le gal and ethical requirements for keeping patient information confidential. Experienced transcriptionists spot mistakes or inconsisten cies in a medical report and check to correct the information. Their ability to understand and correctly transcribe patient assessments and treatments reduces the chance of patients receiving ineffective or even harmful treatments and ensures high-quality patient care. Currently, most healthcare providers use either digital or analog dictating equipment to transmit dictation to medical transcriptionists. The Internet has grown to be a popular mode for transmitting documentation. Many transcriptionists re ceive dictation over the Internet and are able to quickly return transcribed documents to clients for approval. Also, because of the popularity of using the Internet to transmit documenta tion, many medical transcription departments are beginning to work closely with programmers and information systems staff to stream in voice communication that provides seamless data transfers through network interfaces. This practice allows medi cal transcriptionists the convenience of having hand-held per sonal computers or personal data assistants (PDAs) that utilize software for dictation. Another increasingly popular method uses speech recog nition technology, which electronically translates sound into text and creates drafts of reports. Transcriptionists then format the reports; edit them for mistakes in translation, punctuation, or grammar; and check for consistency and any wording that doesn’t make sense medically. Transcriptionists working in specialties such as radiology or pathology, which have stan dardized terminology, are more likely to use speech recogni tion technology, a medium that will become more widespread in all specialties as it becomes more sophisticated and is better Wacker Dr., Suite 1575, Chicago, IL 60606. Internet: http ://www.aama-ntl.org y American Medical Technologists, 10700 West Higgins Rd., Suite 150, Rosemont, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.amtl.com y National Healthcareer Association, 7 Ridgedale Ave., Suite 203, Cedar Knolls, NJ 07927. Internet: http ://www.nhanow.com For lists of accredited educational programs in medical as sisting, contact: y Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, 7777 Leesburg Pike, Suite 314 N, Falls Church, VA 22043. Internet: http://www.abhes.org y Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs, 1361 Park St., Clearwater, FL 33756. Internet: http://www.caahep.org Information about career opportunities, training programs, and certification for ophthalmic medical personnel is available from: > Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology, 2025 Woodlane Dr., St. Paul, MN 55125. Internet: http://www.jcahpo.org Information about career opportunities, training programs, and certification for optometric assistants is available from: y American Optometric Association, 243 N. Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63141. Internet: http://www.aoa.org Information about certification for podiatric assistants is available from: y American Society of Podiatric Medical Assistants, 2124 South Austin Blvd., Cicero, IL 60804. Internet: http ://www.aspma.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl64.htm Medical Transcriptionists Significant Points • Job opportunities will be good, especially for those who are certified. • Employers prefer medical transcriptionists who have completed a postsecondary training program. • Many medical transcriptionists telecommute from home-based offices. • About 36 percent worked in hospitals, and another 23 percent worked in offices of physicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 458 Occupational Outlook Handbook ' -<s§ ;■ • | Transcriptionists receive dictation over the Internet and are able to quickly return transcribed documents to clients for approval. able to recognize and more accurately transcribe diverse modes of speech. Medical transcriptionists who work in physicians’ offices may have other office duties, such as receiving patients, sched uling appointments, answering the telephone, and handling incoming and outgoing mail. Medical secretaries, discussed in the statement on secretaries and administrative assistants else where in the Handbook, also may perform transcription as part of their jobs. Work environment. The majority of these workers are employed in comfortable settings, such as hospitals, physi cians’ offices, transcription service offices, clinics, laborato ries, medical libraries, government medical facilities, or their own homes. Many medical transcriptionists telecommute from home-based offices. Workers usually sit in the same position for long periods. They can suffer wrist, back, neck, or eye problems caused by strain and risk repetitive motion injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome. The constant pressure to be accurate and productive also can be stressful. Many medical transcriptionists work a standard 40-hour week. Self-employed medical transcriptionists are more likely to work irregular hours—including part time, evenings, and weekends. Some may be on call at any time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postsecondary training in medical transcription is preferred by employers; writing and computer skills also are important. Education and training. Employers prefer to hire transcrip tionists who have completed postsecondary training in medical transcription offered by many vocational schools, community colleges, and distance-learning programs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Completion of a 2-year associate’s degree or 1-year certificate program—including coursework in anatomy, medical terminology, legal issues relating to healthcare docu mentation, and English grammar and punctuation—is highly recommended, but not always required. Many of these pro grams include supervised on-the-job experience. Some tran scriptionists, especially those already familiar with medical terminology from previous experience as a nurse or medical secretary, become proficient through refresher courses and training. Formal accreditation is not required for medical transcrip tion programs. However, the Approval Committee for Cer tificate Programs (AACP)—established by the Association for Healthcare Documentation Integrity (AHDI) and the American Health Information Management Association— offers voluntary accreditation for medical transcription pro grams. Although voluntary, the completion of an ACCPapproved program may be required for transcriptionists seeking certification. Certification and other qualifications. The AHDI awards two voluntary designations; Registered Medical Transcriptionist (RMT) and Certified Medical Transcriptionist (CMT). Medical transcriptionists who are recent graduates of medical transcription educational programs or who have fewer than 2 years’ experience in acute care may become a registered RMT. The credential is awarded upon successfully passing the AHDI level-1 registered medical transcription exam. The CMT designation requires at least 2 years of acute care ex perience using different format, report, and dictation types in multiple-specialty surgery areas. Candidates also must earn a passing score on a certification examination. Because medicine is constantly evolving, medical transcriptionists are encouraged to update their skills regularly. In order to be recertified, RMTs and CMTs must pay a recertification fee. In addition to the fee, RMTs must earn a minimum of 30 continuing education credits in required categories dur ing their 3-year cycle. CMTs must successfully complete an online course and final exam during the 3-year cycle. As in many other fields, certification is recognized as a sign of competence. Graduates of an ACCP-approved program who earn the RMT credential are eligible to participate in the Registered Appren ticeship Program sponsored by the Medical Transcription In dustry Association through the U.S. Department of Labor. The program offers structured on-the-job learning and related tech nical instruction for qualified medical transcriptionists entering the profession. In addition to understanding medical terminology, transcrip tionists must have good English grammar and punctuation skills and proficiency with personal computers and word-processing software. Normal hearing acuity and good listening skills also are necessary. Employers usually require applicants to take pre employment tests. Advancement. With experience, medical transcriptionists can advance to supervisory positions, home-based work, edit ing, consulting, or teaching. Some become owners of medical transcription businesses. With additional education or training, some become medical records and health information techni- Service Occupations 459 cians, medical coders, or medical records and health informa tion administrators. Employment Medical transcriptionists held about 105,200 jobs in 2008. About 36 percent worked in hospitals and another 23 percent worked in offices of physicians. Others worked for business support services; medical and diagnostic laboratories; outpa tient care centers; offices of physical, occupational, and speech therapists; and offices of audiologists. Job Outlook Employment of medical transcriptionists is projected to grow about as fast as the average; job opportunities should be good, especially for those who are certified. Employment change. Employment of medical transcrip tionists is projected to grow by 11 percent from 2008 to 2018, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Demand for medical transcription services will continue to be spurred by a growing and aging population. Older age groups receive pro portionally greater numbers of medical tests, treatments, and procedures that require documentation. A high level of demand for transcription services also will be sustained by the contin ued need for electronic documentation that can be shared eas ily among providers, third-party payers, regulators, consumers, and health information systems. Growing numbers of medical transcriptionists will be needed to amend patients’ records, edit documents from speech recognition systems, and identify dis crepancies in medical reports. Contracting out transcription work overseas and advance ments in speech recognition technology are not expected to significantly reduce the need for well-trained medical transcrip tionists. Outsourcing transcription work abroad—to countries such as India, Pakistan, Philippines, Barbados, and Canada— has grown more popular as transmitting confidential health in formation over the Internet has become more secure; however, the demand for overseas transcription services is expected only to supplement the demand for well-trained domestic medical transcriptionists. In addition, reports transcribed by overseas medical transcription services usually require editing for ac curacy by domestic medical transcriptionists before they meet U.S. quality standards. Speech recognition technology allows physicians and other health professionals to dictate medical reports to a computer, which immediately creates an electronic document. In spite of the advances in this technology, the software has been slow to grasp and analyze the human voice, the English language, and the medical vernacular with all its diversity. As a result, there will continue to be a need for skilled medical transcrip tionists to identify and appropriately edit the inevitable errors created by speech recognition systems and to create a final document. Job prospects. Job opportunities will be good, especially for those who are certified. Hospitals will continue to employ a large percentage of medical transcriptionists, but job growth will be in other industries. An increasing demand for standard ized records should result in rapid employment growth in phy sicians’ offices, especially in large group practices. Earnings Wage-and-salary medical transcriptionists had median hourly wages of $15.41 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.02 and $18.55. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.76, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.81. Median hourly wages in the industries employ ing the largest numbers of medical transcriptionists were as follows: Medical and diagnostic laboratories.............................$17.26 General medical and surgical hospitals..........................15.88 Outpatient care centers....................................................15.46 Offices of physicians...................................................... 15.02 Business support services............................................... 14.52 Compensation arrangements for medical transcriptionists vary. Some are paid on the basis of the number of hours they work or the number of lines they transcribe. Others receive a base pay per hour, with incentives for extra production. Em ployees of transcription services and independent contractors almost always receive production-based pay. Independent contractors earn more than do transcriptionists who work for others, but independent contractors have higher expenses than their corporate counterparts, receive no benefits, and may face a higher risk of termination than do wage-and-salary transcriptionists. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations also type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these workers are the following: Page Court reporters.........................................................................250 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping...................................................................592 Receptionists and information clerks...................................... 570 Secretaries and administrative assistants................................ 583 Other workers who provide medicalsupport include the following: Medical assistants....................................................................455 Medical records and health information technicians..............423 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Medical transcriptionists....................................................................... SOC Code 31-9094 Employment, 2008 105,200 Projected Employment, 2018 116,900 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 11,700 11 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 460 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a medical transcriptionist, contact: > Association for Healthcare Documentation Integrity, 4230 Kiernan Ave., Suite 130, Modesto, CA 95356. Internet: http://www.ahdionline.org State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for medical transcriptionists. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos271.htm Nursing and Psychiatric Aides Significant Points • Numerous job openings and excellent job opportuni ties are expected. • Most jobs are in nursing and residential care facilities and in hospitals. • A high school diploma is required for many jobs; specific qualifications vary by occupation, State laws, and work setting. • This occupation is characterized by modest entry re quirements, low pay, high physical and emotional de mands, and limited advancement opportunities. Nature of the Work Nursing and psychiatric aides help care for physically or men tally ill, injured, disabled, or infirm individuals in hospitals, nursing care facilities, and mental health settings. Nursing aides and home health aides are among the occupations commonly referred to as direct care workers, due to their role in working with patients who need long-term care. The specific care they give depends on their specialty. Nursing aides, also known as nurse aides, nursing assistants, certified nursing assistants, geriatric aides, unlicensed assistive personnel, orderlies, or hospital attendants, provide hands-on care and perform routine tasks under the supervision of nurs ing and medical staff. Specific tasks vary, with aides handling many aspects of a patient’s care. They often help patients to eat, dress, and bathe. They also answer calls for help, deliver messages, serve meals, make beds, and tidy up rooms. Aides sometimes are responsible for taking a patient’s temperature, pulse rate, respiration rate, or blood pressure. They also may help provide care to patients by helping them get out of bed and walk, escorting them to operating and examining rooms, or providing skin care. Some aides help other medical staff by set ting up equipment, storing and moving supplies, and assisting with some procedures. Aides also observe patients’ physical, mental, and emotional conditions and report any change to the nursing or medical staff. Nursing aides employed in nursing care facilities often are the principal caregivers and have more contact with residents https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis than do other members of the staff. Because some residents may stay in a nursing care facility for months or even years, aides develop positive, caring relationships with their patients. Psychiatric aides, also known as mental health assistants or psychiatric nursing assistants, care for mentally impaired or emotionally disturbed individuals. They work under a team that may include psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric nurses, social workers, and therapists. In addition to helping patients to dress, bathe, groom themselves, and eat, psychiat ric aides socialize with them and lead them in educational and recreational activities. Psychiatric aides may play card games or other games with patients, watch television with them, or participate in group activities, such as playing sports or going on field trips. They observe patients and report any physical or behavioral signs that might be important for the professional staff to know. They accompany patients to and from therapy and treatment. Because they have such close contact with patients, psychiatric aides can have a great deal of influence on their out look and treatment. Work environment. Work as an aide can be physically de manding. Aides spend many hours standing and walking, and they often face heavy workloads. Aides must guard against back injury, because they may have to move patients into and out of bed or help them stand or walk. It is important for aides to be trained in and to follow the proper procedures for lifting and moving patients. Aides also may face hazards from minor infections and major diseases, such as hepatitis, but can avoid infections by following proper procedures. Nursing aides, or derlies, and attendants and psychiatric aides have some of the highest non-fatal injuries and illness rates for all occupations, in the 98th and 99th percentiles in 2007. Aides also perform tasks that some may consider unpleasant, such as emptying bedpans and changing soiled bed linens. The patients they care for may be disoriented, irritable, or uncoop erative. Psychiatric aides must be prepared to care for patients whose illnesses may cause violent behavior. Although their work can be emotionally demanding, many aides gain satisfac tion from assisting those in need. Most full-time aides work about 40 hours per week, but be cause patients need care 24 hours a day, some aides work eve nings, nights, weekends, and holidays. In 2008 about 24 percent HHH Nursing aides often help patients to eat, dress, and bathe. Service Occupations 461 of nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants and psychiatric aides worked part-time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In many cases, a high school diploma or equivalent is necessary for a job as a nursing or psychiatric aide. Specific qualifications vary by occupation, State laws, and work setting. Advancement opportunities are limited. Education and training. Nursing and psychiatric aide training is offered in high schools, vocational-technical cen ters, some nursing care facilities, and some community col leges. Courses cover body mechanics, nutrition, anatomy and physiology, infection control, communication skills, and resident rights. Personal care skills, such as how to help pa tients bathe, eat, and groom themselves, also are taught. Hos pitals may require previous experience as a nursing aide or home health aide. Some States also require psychiatric aides to complete a formal training program. However, most psy chiatric aides learn their skills on the job from experienced workers. Some employers provide classroom instruction for newly hired aides, while others rely exclusively on informal on-thejob instruction by a licensed nurse or an experienced aide. Such training may last from several days to a few months. Aides also may attend lectures, workshops, and in-service training. Licensure and certification. Federal Government require ments exist for nursing aides who work in nursing care fa cilities. These aides must complete a minimum of 75 hours of State-approved training and pass a competency evaluation. Aides who complete the program are known as certified nurse assistants (CNAs) and are placed on the State registry of nurse aides. Additional requirements may exist, but vary by State. Therefore, individuals should contact their State board directly for applicable information. Other qualifications. Aides must be in good health. A physi cal examination, including State-regulated disease tests, may be required. A criminal background check also is usually required for employment. Applicants should be tactful, patient, understanding, emo tionally stable, and dependable and should have a desire to help people. They also should be able to work as part of a team, have good communication skills, and be willing to perform repeti tive, routine tasks. Advancement. Opportunities for advancement within these occupations are limited. Aides generally need additional for mal training or education to enter other health occupations. The most common healthcare occupations for former aides are li censed practical nurse, registered nurse, and medical assistant. For some individuals, these occupations serve as entry-level jobs. For example, some high school and college students gain experience working in these occupations while attending school. And experience as an aide can help individuals decide whether to pursue a career in healthcare. Employment Nursing and psychiatric aides held about 1.5 million jobs in 2008. Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants held the most jobs—approximately 1.5 million, and psychiatric aides held about 62,500 jobs. About 41 percent of nursing aides, order lies, and attendants worked in nursing care facilities and an other 29 percent worked in hospitals. About 50 percent of all psychiatric aides worked in hospitals. Others were employed in residential care facilities, government agencies, outpatient care centers, and individual and family services. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow faster than the average. Ex cellent job opportunities are expected. Employment change. Overall employment of nursing and psychiatric aides is projected to grow 18 percent between 2008 and 2018, faster than the average for all occupations. However, growth will vary for individual occupations. Employment for nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants will grow 19 percent, faster than the average for all occupations, predominantly in response to the long-term care needs of an increasing elderly population. Financial pressures on hospitals to discharge pa tients as soon as possible should boost admissions to nursing care facilities. As a result, new jobs will be more numerous in nursing and residential care facilities than in hospitals, and growth will be especially strong in community care facilities for the elderly. Modem medical technology will also drive de mand for nursing aides, because as the technology saves and extends more lives, it increases the need for long-term care provided by aides. However, employment growth is not ex pected to be as fast as for other healthcare support occupations, largely because nursing aides are concentrated in the relatively slower growing nursing and residential care facilities industry sector. In addition, growth will be hindered by nursing facili ties’ reliance on government funding, which does not increase as fast as the cost of patient care. Government funding lim its the number of nursing aides nursing facilities can afford to have on staff. Psychiatric aides are expected to grow 6 percent, more slowly than average. Psychiatric aides are a small occupation compared to nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants. Most psychiatric aides currently work in hospitals, but the industries most likely to see growth will be residential facilities for people with developmental Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Nursing and psychiatric aides............................. Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants..................... ................. Psychiatric aides........................................ soc Code Employment, 2008 Projected Employment, 2018 1,811,800 1,745,800 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 279,600 276,000 3.600 1,532,300 1,469,800 62,500 66.100 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 31-1012 462 Occupational Outlook Handbook disabilities, mental illness, and substance abuse problems. There is a long-term trend toward treating psychiatric patients outside of hospitals, because it is more cost effective and allows patients greater independence. Demand for psychiatric aides in residential facilities will rise in response to increases in the number of older persons, many of whom will require mental health services. De mand for these workers will also grow as an increasing number of mentally disabled adults, formerly cared for by their elderly par ents, will need care. Job growth also could be affected by changes in government funding of programs for the mentally ill. Job prospects. High replacement needs for nursing and psy chiatric aides reflect modest entry requirements, low pay, high physical and emotional demands, and limited opportunities for advancement within the occupation. For these same reasons, the number of people looking to enter the occupation will be limited. Many aides leave the occupation to attend training programs for other healthcare occupations. Therefore, people who are interested in, and suited for, this work should have ex cellent job opportunities. Earnings Median hourly wages of nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants were $11.46 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $9.71 and $13.76 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.34, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.97 an hour. Median hourly wages in the industries employ ing the largest numbers of nursing aides, orderlies, and atten dants in May 2008 were: Employment services................................................... $12.10 General medical and surgical hospitals.......................... 12.05 Nursing care facilities.....................................................11.13 Commumity care facilities for the elderly..................... 10.91 Home health care services.............................................. 10.58 Median hourly wages of psychiatric aides were $12.77 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.00 and $15.63 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.35, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.77 an hour. Median hourly wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of psychiatric aides in May 2008 were: Psychiatric and substance abuse hospitals...................$13.43 General medical and surgical hospitals.......................... 13.29 Nursing care facilities.....................................................11.66 Individual and family services....................................... 10.78 Residential mental retardation, mental health and substance abuse facilities.............................................. 9.89 Related Occupations Other occupations that help people who need routine care or treatment include: Page Child care workers.................................................................. 510 Home health aides and personal and home care aides........... 449 Licensed practical and licensedvocational nurses................... 421 Medical assistants....................................................................455 Occupational therapist assistants and aides............................462 Registered nurses..................................................................... 392 and human service assistants.........................................244 DigitizedSocial for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities may be obtained from local hospitals, nursing care facilities, home healthcare agencies, psychiatric facilities, State boards of nursing, and lo cal offices of the State employment service. Information on licensing requirements for nursing aides, and lists of State-approved nursing aide programs are available from State departments of public health, departments of occupational licensing, and boards of nursing. For more information on nursing aides, orderlies, and atten dants, contact: y National Association of Health Care Assistants, 1201 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nahcacares.org V National Network of Career Nursing Assistants 3577 Easton Rd., Norton, OH 44203. Internet: http://www.cna-network.org For more information on the assisted living, nursing facility, developmentally-disabled, and subacute care provider industry, contact: > American Health Care Association, 1201 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.ahca.org/ The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos327.htm Occupational Therapist Assistants and Aides Significant Points • Typical entry-level education for occupational thera pist assistants is an associate degree; in contrast, oc cupational therapist aides usually receive their train ing on the job. • Many States regulate the practice of occupational therapist assistants either by licensing, registration, or certification; requirements vary by State. • Employment is projected to grow much faster than average as demand for occupational therapist services rises and as occupational therapists increasingly use assistants and aides. • Job prospects should be very good for occupational therapist assistants; jobseekers holding only a high school diploma might face keen competition for oc cupational therapist aide jobs. Nature of the Work Occupational therapist assistants and aides work under the supervision of occupational therapists to provide rehabilitative services to persons with mental, physical, emotional, or devel opmental impairments. The ultimate goal is to improve clients’ Service Occupations 463 quality of life and ability to perform daily activities. For ex ample, occupational therapist assistants help injured workers re-enter the labor force by teaching them how to compensate for lost motor skills or help individuals with learning disabili ties increase their independence. Occupational therapist assistants help clients with rehabilita tive activities and exercises outlined in a treatment plan devel oped in collaboration with an occupational therapist. Activities range from teaching the proper method of moving from a bed into a wheelchair to the best way to stretch and limber the mus cles of the hand. Assistants monitor an individual’s activities to make sure that they are performed correctly and to provide en couragement. They also record their client’s progress for the oc cupational therapist. If the treatment is not having the intended effect, or the client is not improving as expected, the therapist may alter the treatment program in hopes of obtaining better results. In addition, occupational therapist assistants document the billing of the client’s health insurance provider. Occupational therapist aides typically prepare materials and assemble equipment used during treatment. They are re sponsible for a range of clerical tasks, including scheduling appointments, answering the telephone, restocking or ordering depleted supplies, and filling out insurance forms or other pa perwork. Aides are not regulated by States, so the law does not allow them to perform as wide a range of tasks as occupational therapist assistants. Work environment. Occupational therapist assistants and aides need to have a moderate degree of strength because of the physical exertion required to assist patients. For example, as sistants and aides may need to lift patients. Constant kneeling, stooping, and standing for long periods also are part of the job. The hours and days that occupational therapist assistants and aides work vary by facility and whether they are full time or part time. For example, many outpatient therapy offices and clinics have evening and weekend hours to coincide with pa tients’ schedules. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An associate degree from an accredited academic program is generally required to qualify for occupational therapist assistant jobs. In contrast, occupational therapist aides usually receive most of their training on the job. Many States regulate the prac tice of occupational therapist assistants either by licensing, reg istration, or certification; requirements vary by State. Education and training. Occupational therapist assistants must attend a school accredited by the Accreditation Council for Occupational Therapy Education (ACOTE) in order to sit for the national certifying exam for occupational therapist assis tants. There were 135 ACOTE accredited occupational therapist assistant programs in 2009. The first year of study typically involves an introduction to healthcare, basic medical terminology, anatomy, and physiol ogy. In the second year, courses are more rigorous and usually include occupational therapy courses in areas such as mental health, adult physical disabilities, gerontology, and pediatrics. Students also must complete at least 16 weeks of supervised fieldwork in a clinic or community setting. Applicants to occupational therapist assistant programs can improve their chances of admission by taking high school in biology and health and by performing volunteer Digitized courses for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 4 i Occupational therapy assistants and aides need a moderate de gree of strength because of the physical exertion required to assist patients. work in nursing care facilities, occupational or physical thera pists’ offices, or other healthcare settings. Occupational therapist aides usually receive most of their training on the job. Qualified applicants must have a high school diploma, strong interpersonal skills, and a desire to help people in need. Applicants may increase their chances of getting a job by volunteering their services, thus displaying initiative and ap titude to the employer. Licensure. Forty States, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Dis trict of Columbia regulate the practice of occupational therapist assistants either by licensing, registration, or certification. In addition, eligibility requirements vary by State. Contact your State’s licensing board for specific regulatory requirements on occupational therapist assistants. Some States have additional requirements for therapist as sistants who work in schools or early intervention programs. These requirements may include education-related classes, an education practice certificate, or early intervention certification. Certification and other qualifications. Certification is voluntary. The National Board for Certifying Occupational Therapy certifies occupational therapist assistants through a national certifying exam. Those who pass the test are awarded the title Certified Occupational Therapy Assistant (COTA). In some States, the national certifying exam meets requirements for regulation, but other States have their own licensing exam. 464 Occupational Outlook Handbook centage of trauma victims to survive, creating added demand for therapy services. Demand for therapy may be dampened by Federal legislation imposing limits on reimbursement for therapy services. Demand from adolescents will increase due to expansion of the school-age population and Federal legislation mandating funding for education for the disabled. Occupational therapists are expected to increasingly employ assistants to reduce the cost of occupational therapy services. Once a patient is evaluated and a treatment plan is designed by the therapist, the occupational therapist assistant can provide many aspects of treatment, as prescribed by the therapist. Job prospects. Opportunities for occupational therapist as sistants should be very good. However, individuals with only a high school diploma may face keen competition for occupational therapist aide jobs. Occupational therapist assistants and aides with prior experience working in an occupational therapy office or other healthcare setting will have the best job opportunities. In addition to employment growth, job openings will result from the need to replace occupational therapist assistants and aides who leave the occupation permanently over the 2008-18 period. Occupational therapist assistants are expected to continue their professional development by participating in continuing education courses and workshops in order to maintain certifi cation. A number of States require continuing education as a condition of maintaining licensure. Assistants and aides must be responsible, patient, and willing to take directions and work as part of a team. Furthermore, they should be caring and want to help people who are not able to help themselves. Advancement. Occupational therapist assistants may ad vance into administration positions. They might organize all the assistants in a large occupational therapy department or act as the director for a specific department such as sports medicine. Some assistants go on to teach classes in accredited occupa tional therapist assistant academic programs or lead health risk reduction classes for the elderly. With proper formal education, occupational therapist aides can become occupational therapist assistants. Employment Occupational therapist assistants and aides held about 34,400 jobs in 2008, with assistants holding about 26,600 jobs and aides holding approximately 7,800 jobs. About 28 percent of jobs for assistants and aides were in offices of other health prac titioners, 27 percent were in hospitals, and 20 percent were in nursing care facilities. The rest were primarily in community care facilities for the elderly, home healthcare services, indi vidual and family services, and government agencies. Earnings Median annual wages of occupational therapist assistants were $48,230 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,240 and $57,810. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,150, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $65,160. Median annual wages in the industries employ ing the largest numbers of occupational therapist assistants in May 2008 were: Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than average as demand for occupational therapy services rises and as occupa tional therapists increasingly use assistants and aides. Job pros pects should be very good for occupational therapist assistants. Jobseekers holding only a high school diploma might face keen competition for occupational therapist aide jobs. Employment change. Employment of occupational thera pist assistants and aides is expected to grow by 30 percent from 2008 to 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. Demand for occupational therapist assistants and aides will continue to rise because of the increasing number of individu als with disabilities or limited function. The growing elderly population is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions that require therapeu tic services. These patients often need additional assistance in their treatment, making the roles of assistants and aides vital. Also, the large baby-boom generation is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, further increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. In addition, future medical developments should permit an increased per- Home health care services.......................................... $53,090 Offices of other health practitioners.............................50,810 Nursing care facilities.................................................. 50,790 General medical and surgical hospitals........................45,760 Elementary and secondary schools..............................41,850 Median annual wages of occupational therapist aides were $26,960 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,930 and $33,340. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,850, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $46,910. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of occupational therapist aides in May 2008 were: Specialty (except psychiatric and substance abuse) hospitals......................................$30,400 General medical and surgical hospitals........................27,750 Offices of other health practitioners.............................26,850 Elementary and secondary schools..............................26,820 Nursing care facilities..................................................25,790 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Occupational therapist assistants and aides........................................ Occupational therapist assistants..................................................... Occupational therapist aides............................................................ Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 0(1_________________________________________________________________ 31-2010 34,400 44,800 10,300 30 31-2011 26,600 34,600 7,900 30 31-20127,80010.2002,40031_ f , (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ____________________________________________________ ___ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 465 Related Occupations Occupational therapist assistants and aides work under the su pervision and direction of occupational therapists. Other work ers in the healthcare field who work under similar supervision include: Page Dental assistants....................................................................... 447 Medical assistants.................................................................... 455 Pharmacy technicians andaides................................................436 Physical therapist assistantsand aides......................................465 Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as an occupational therapist assis tant or aide, and a list of accredited programs, contact: > American Occupational Therapy Association, 4720 Montgomery Lane, PO Box 31220, Bethesda, MD 20824 1220. Internet: http://www.aota.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl66.htm Physical Therapist Assistants and Aides Significant Points • Employment is projected to grow much faster than average. • Physical therapist assistants should have very good job prospects; on the other hand, aides may face keen competition from the large pool of qualified appli cants. • Aides usually learn skills on the job, while physical therapist assistants have an associate degree; most States require licensing for assistants. apist assistants record the patient’s responses to treatment and report the outcome of each treatment to the physical therapist. Physical therapist aides help make therapy sessions produc tive, under the direct supervision of a physical therapist or phys ical therapist assistant. They usually are responsible for keeping the treatment area clean and organized and for preparing for each patient’s therapy. When patients need assistance moving to or from a treatment area, aides assist in their transport. Be cause they are not licensed, aides do not perform the clinical tasks of a physical therapist assistant in States where licensure is required. The duties of aides include some clerical tasks, such as or dering depleted supplies, answering the phone, and filling out insurance forms and other paperwork. The extent to which an aide or an assistant performs clerical tasks depends on the needs and organization of the facility. Work environment. Physical therapist assistants and aides need a moderate degree of strength because of the physical exertion required in assisting patients with their treatment. In some cases, assistants and aides need to lift patients. Frequent kneeling, stooping, bending, and standing for long periods also are part of the job. The hours and days that physical therapist assistants and aides work vary with the facility. About 28 percent of all physical therapist assistants and aides work part-time. Many outpatient physical therapy offices and clinics have evening and weekend hours, to coincide with patients’ personal schedules. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most physical therapy aides are trained on the job, while almost all physical therapist assistants earn an associate degree from an accredited physical therapist assistant program. Most States require licensing for physical therapist assistants. Education and training. Employers typically require physical therapy aides to have a high school diploma. They are trained on the job, and most employers provide clinical on-thejob training. In most States, physical therapist assistants are required by law to hold an associate degree. The American Physical Ther apy Association’s Commission on Accreditation in Physical • Most jobs are in offices of other health practitioners and in hospitals. Nature of the Work Physical therapist assistants and aides help physical therapists to provide treatment that improves patient mobility, relieves pain, and prevents or lessens physical disabilities of patients. A physical therapist might ask a physical therapist assistant to help patients exercise or learn to use crutches, for example, or an aide to gather and prepare therapy equipment. Patients include accident victims and individuals with disabling condi tions such as lower-back pain, arthritis, heart disease, fractures, head injuries, and cerebral palsy. Physical therapist assistants assist physical therapists in pro viding care to patients. Under the direction and supervision of physical therapists, they provide exercise, instruction; therapeutic methods like electrical stimulation, mechanical traction, and ul massage; and gait and balance training. Physical ther Digitizedtrasound; for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Physical therapist assistants and aides provide treatment that improves patient mobility, relieves pain, and prevents or lessens physical disabilities, under the direction ofphysical therapists. 466 Occupational Outlook Handbook Therapy Education accredits postsecondary physical therapy assistant programs. In 2009, there were 223 accredited pro grams, which usually last 2 years and culminate in an associate degree. Programs are divided into academic coursework and handson clinical experience. Academic coursework includes algebra, English, anatomy and physiology, and psychology. Clinical work includes certifications in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and other first aid, and field experience in treatment cen ters. Both educators and prospective employers view clinical experience as essential to ensuring that students understand the responsibilities of a physical therapist assistant. Licensure. Licensing is not required to practice as a physi cal therapy aide. However, most States regulate physical thera pist assistants through licensure, registration, or certification. Most States require physical therapist assistants to graduate from an accredited education program and pass the National Physical Therapy Exam. Some States may require physical therapy assistants to pass State exams. Many States also require continuing education credits for physical therapist assistants to maintain licensure. Complete information on regulations can be obtained from State licensing boards. Other qualifications. Physical therapist assistants and aides should be well-organized, detail oriented, and caring. They should be able to take direction and work well in a team situa tion. They usually have strong interpersonal skills and a desire to help people in need. Advancement. Some physical therapist aides advance to be come therapist assistants after gaining experience and complet ing an accredited education program. Some physical therapist assistants advance their knowledge and skills in a variety of clinical areas after graduation. The American Physical Therapy Association recognizes physical therapist assistants who have gained additional skills in geriat ric, pediatric, musculoskeletal, neuromuscular, integumentary, and cardiopulmonary physical therapy. Physical therapist as sistants may also advance in non-clinical areas, like admin istrative positions. These positions might include organizing all the assistants in a large physical therapy organization or acting as the director for a specific department such as aquatic therapy. Physical therapist assistants may also pursue a career in teaching at an accredited physical therapist assistant aca demic program. in offices of other health practitioners and in hospitals. Others worked primarily in nursing care facilities, home health care services, and outpatient care centers. Job Outlook Employment Employment is expected to grow much faster than average be cause of increasing demand for physical therapy services. Job prospects for physical therapist assistants are expected to be very good. Aides may experience keen competition for jobs. Employment change. Employment of physical therapist as sistants and aides is expected to grow by 35 percent from 2008 through 2018, much faster than the average for all occupations. Changes to restrictions on reimbursement for physical therapy services by third-party payers will increase patient access to services and, thus, increase demand. The increasing number of people who need therapy reflects, in part, the increasing elderly population. The elderly population is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions that require therapeutic ser vices. These patients often need additional assistance in their treatment, making the roles of assistants and aides vital. In ad dition, the large baby-boom generation is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, further increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. Medical and technological developments should permit an increased percentage of trauma victims and newborns with birth defects to survive, creating added demand for therapy and rehabilitative services. Physical therapists are expected to increasingly use assistants and aides to reduce the cost of physical therapy services. Once a patient is evaluated and a treatment plan is designed by the physical therapist, the physical therapist assistant can provide many parts of the treatment, as directed by the therapist. Job prospects. Opportunities for individuals interested in becoming physical therapist assistants are expected to be very good; with help from physical therapist assistants, physical therapists are able to manage more patients. However, physical therapy aides may face keen competition from the large pool of qualified individuals. In addition to employment growth, job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation permanently. Job opportunities should be par ticularly good in acute hospital, skilled nursing, and orthopedic settings, where the elderly are most often treated. Job prospects should be especially favorable in rural areas, as many physi cal therapists tend to cluster in highly populated urban and suburban areas. Physical therapist assistants and aides held about 109,900 jobs in 2008. Physical therapist assistants held about 63,800 jobs; physical therapist aides held 46,100. Both work with physical therapists in a variety of settings. About 72 percent of jobs were Median annual wages of physical therapist assistants were $46,140 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between Earnings Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Physical therapist assistants and aides........................................... Physical therapist assistants....................................................... Physical therapist aides............................................................. Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018Number Percent 31-2020 109,900 147,800 37,900 35 31-2021 63,800 85,000 21,200 33 31 -202246.10062,80016,70036 AT ’ (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. _____________________________________ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 467 $37,170 and $54,900. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,580, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $63,830. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of physical therapist assistants in May 2008 were: Home health care services.......................................... $51,950 Nursing care facilities.................................................. 51,090 General medical and surgical hospitals........................45,510 Offices of other health practitioners.............................44,580 Offices of physicians.................................................... 43,390 Median annual wages of physical therapist aides were $23,760 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,910 and $28,670. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,270, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33,540. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of physical therapy aides in May 2008 were: Nursing care facilities................................................ $26,530 General medical and surgical hospitals........................24,780 Specialty (except psychiatric and substance abuse) hospitals........................................ 24,590 Offices of physicians.................................................... 23,730 Offices of other health practitioners.............................22,550 Related Occupations Physical therapist assistants and aides work under the super vision of physical therapists. Other workers in the health care field who work under similar supervision include: Page Dental assistants.......................................................................447 Medical assistants............................................................................455 Nursing and psychiatric aides................................................. 460 Occupational therapist assistants and aides............................ 462 Pharmacy technicians and aides.............................................. 436 Sources of Additional Information Career information on physical therapist assistants and a list of schools offering accredited programs can be obtained from: ^ The American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314-1488. Internet: http://www.apta.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl67.htm Protective Service Occupations Correctional Officers Significant Points • The work can be stressful and hazardous; correctional officers have one of the highest rates of nonfatal onthe-job injuries. • Most jobs are in State and local government prisons and jails. • Job opportunities are expected to be favorable. Nature of the Work Correctional officers, also known as detention officers when they work in pretrial detention facilities, are responsible for overseeing individuals who have been arrested and are awaiting trial or who have been convicted of a crime and sentenced to serve time in a jail, reformatory, or penitentiary. The jail population changes constantly as some prisoners are released, some are convicted and transferred to prison, and new offenders are arrested and enter the system. Correctional offi cers in local jails admit and process about 13 million people a year, with nearly 800,000 offenders in jail at any given time. Correctional officers in State and Federal prisons watch over the approximately 1.6 million offenders who are incarcerated there at any given time. Typically, offenders serving time at county jails are sentenced to a year or less. Those serving a year or more are usually housed in state or federal prisons. Correctional officers maintain security and inmate account to prevent disturbances, assaults, and escapes. Officers Digitized ability for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis have no law enforcement responsibilities outside of the institu tion where they work. (For more information on related occupa tions, see the statements on police and detectives and on proba tion officers and correctional treatment specialists, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Regardless of the setting, correctional officers maintain or der within the institution and enforce rules and regulations. To help ensure that inmates are orderly and obey rules, correctional officers monitor the activities and supervise the work assign ments of inmates. Sometimes, officers must search inmates and their living quarters for contraband like weapons or drugs, settle disputes between inmates, and enforce discipline. Correctional officers periodically inspect the facilities, checking cells and other areas of the institution for unsanitary conditions, con traband, fire hazards, and any evidence of infractions of rules. In addition, they routinely inspect locks, window bars, grilles, doors, and gates for signs of tampering. Finally, officers inspect mail and visitors for prohibited items. Correctional officers report orally and in writing on inmate conduct and on the quality and quantity of work done by in mates. Officers also report security breaches, disturbances, violations of rules, and any unusual occurrences. They usually keep a daily log or record of their activities. Correctional of ficers cannot show favoritism and must report any inmate who violates the rules. If a crime is committed within their institu tion or an inmate escapes, they help the responsible law en forcement authorities investigate or search for the escapee. In jail and prison facilities with direct supervision of cellblocks, officers work unarmed. They are equipped with communica tions devices so that they can summon help if necessary. These 468 Occupational Outlook Handbook Because prison and jail security must be provided around the clock, officers work all hours of the day and night, weekends, and holidays. In addition, officers may be required to work paid overtime. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Correctional officers inspect mail and visitors for prohibited items. officers often work in a cellblock alone, or with another officer, among the 50 to 100 inmates who reside there. The officers enforce regulations primarily through their interpersonal com munication skills and through the use of progressive sanctions, such as the removal of some privileges. In the highest security facilities, where the most dangerous inmates are housed, correctional officers often monitor the activities of prisoners from a centralized control center with closed-circuit television cameras and a computer tracking sys tem. In such an environment, the inmates may not see anyone but officers for days or weeks at a time and may leave their cells only for showers, solitary exercise time, or visitors. Depending on the offenders’ security classification, correctional officers may have to restrain inmates in handcuffs and leg irons to safely escort them to and from cells and other areas and to see autho rized visitors. Officers also escort prisoners between the institu tion and courtrooms, medical facilities, and other destinations. Bailiffs, also known as marshals or court officers, are law enforcement officers who maintain safety and order in court rooms. Their duties, which vary by location, include enforcing courtroom rules, assisting judges, guarding juries from outside contact, delivering court documents, and providing general se curity for courthouses. Work environment. Working in a correctional institution can be stressful and hazardous. Every year, correctional officers are injured in confrontations with inmates. Correctional officers and jailers have one of the highest rates of nonfatal on-the-job injuries. First-line supervisors/managers of correctional officers also face the risk of work-related injury. Correctional officers may work indoors or outdoors. Some correctional institutions are well lighted, temperature controlled, and ventilated, but others are old, overcrowded, hot, and noisy. Although both jails and prisons can be dangerous places to work, prison popula tions are more stable than jail populations, and correctional of ficers in prisons know the security and custodial requirements of the prisoners with whom they are dealing. Consequently, they tend to be safer places to work. Correctional officers usually work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week, on rotating shifts. Some correctional facilities have lon Digitizedger for shifts FRASER and more days off between scheduled work weeks. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Correctional officers go through a training academy and then are assigned to a facility where they learn most of what they need to know for their work through on-the-job training. Quali fications vary by agency, but all agencies require a high school diploma or equivalent, and some also require some college edu cation or full-time work experience. Military experience is of ten seen as a plus for corrections employment. Education and training. A high school diploma or gradua tion equivalency degree is required by all employers. The Fed eral Bureau of Prisons requires entry-level correctional officers to have at least a bachelor’s degree; 3 years of full-time experi ence in a field providing counseling, assistance, or supervision to individuals; or a combination of the two. Some State and local corrections agencies require some college credits, but law enforcement or military experience may be substituted to fulfill this requirement. Federal, State, and some local departments of corrections provide training for correctional officers based on guidelines established by the American Correctional Association and the American Jail Association. Some States have regional training academies that are available to local agencies. At the conclusion of formal instruction, all State and local correctional agencies provide on-the-job training, including training on legal restric tions and interpersonal relations. Many systems require firearms proficiency and self-defense skills. Officer trainees typically re ceive several weeks or months of training in an actual job set ting under the supervision of an experienced officer. However, on-the-job training varies widely from agency to agency. Academy trainees generally receive instruction in a number of subjects, including institutional policies, regulations, and operations, as well as custody and security procedures. New Federal correctional officers must undergo 200 hours of formal training within the first year of employment. They also must complete 120 hours of specialized training at the U.S. Federal Bureau of Prisons residential training center at Glynco, Geor gia, within 60 days of their appointment. Experienced officers receive annual in-service training to keep abreast of new devel opments and procedures. Correctional officers that are members of prison tactical response teams are trained to respond to disturbances, riots, hostage situations, forced cell moves, and other potentially dangerous confrontations. Team members practice disarming prisoners wielding weapons, protecting themselves and inmates against the effects of chemical agents, and other tactics. Other qualifications. All institutions require correctional officers to be at least 18 to 21 years of age, be a U.S. citizen or permanent resident, and have no felony convictions. New applicants for Federal corrections positions must be appointed before they are 37 years old. Some institutions require previous experience in law enforcement or the military, but college cred its can be substituted to fulfill this requirement. Others require a record of previous job stability, usually accomplished through Service Occupations 469 2 years of work experience, which need not be related to correc tions or law enforcement. Correctional officers must be in good health. Candidates for employment are generally required to meet formal stan dards of physical fitness, eyesight, and hearing. In addition, many jurisdictions use standard tests to determine applicant suitability to work in a correctional environment. Good judg ment and the ability to think and act quickly are indispens able. Applicants are typically screened for drug abuse, sub ject to background checks, and required to pass a written examination. Advancement. Qualified officers may advance to the posi tion of correctional sergeant. Correctional sergeants supervise correctional officers and usually are responsible for maintaining security and directing the activities of other officers during an assigned shift or in an assigned area. Ambitious and qualified correctional officers can be promoted to supervisory or admin istrative positions all the way up to warden. In some jurisdic tions, corrections officers are given the opportunity to “bid” for a specialty assignment, such as working in correctional indus tries, correctional health or correctional counseling, and receive additional training. Promotion prospects may be enhanced by attending college. Officers sometimes transfer to related jobs, such as probation officer, parole officer, and correctional treat ment specialist. Employment Correctional officers and jailors held about 454,500 jobs in 2008, while first-line supervisors and managers of correctional officers held about 43,500 jobs. An additional 20,200 workers were employed as bailiffs. The vast majority of correctional of ficers and jailors and their supervisors were employed by State and local government in correctional institutions such as pris ons, prison camps, and youth correctional facilities. Job Outlook Employment growth is expected to be as fast as the average for all occupations, and job opportunities are expected to be favorable. Employment change. Employment of correctional officers is expected to grow 9 percent between 2008 and 2018, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Increasing demand for correctional officers will stem from population growth and rising rates of incarceration. Mandatory sentencing guidelines calling for longer sentences and reduced parole for inmates are a primary reason for increasing incarceration rates. Some States are reconsidering mandatory sentencing guidelines because of budgetary constraints, court decisions, and doubts about their effectiveness. Some employment opportunities also will arise in the private sector, as public authorities contract with private companies to provide and staff corrections facilities. Both State and Federal corrections agencies are increasingly using private prisons. Job prospects. Job opportunities for correctional officers are expected to be favorable. The need to replace correctional officers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force, coupled with rising employment demand, will gen erate job openings. In the past, some local and State corrections agencies have experienced difficulty in attracting and keeping qualified applicants, largely because of low salaries, shift work, and the concentration of jobs in rural locations. This situation is expected to continue. Earnings Median annual wages of correctional officers and jailers were $38,380 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,660 and $51,000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,300, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $64,110. Median annual wages in the public sector were $50,830 in the Federal Government, $38,850 in State government, and $37,510 in local government. In the facilities support services industry, where the relatively small number of officers employed by pri vately operated prisons is classified, median annual wages were $28,790. Median annual wages of first-line supervisors/managers of correctional officers were $57,380 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,740 and $73,630. The low est 10 percent earned less than $32,300, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $86,970. Median annual wages were $57,050 in State government and $57,300 in local government. Median annual wages of bailiffs were $37,820 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,730 and $51,470. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,750, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $61,500. Median annual wages were $32,690 in local government. In March 2009, the average salary for Federal correctional officers was $53,459. Federal salaries were slightly higher in areas where prevailing local pay levels were higher. In addition to typical benefits, correctional officers employed in the public sector are usually provided with uniforms or a clothing allowance to purchase their own uniforms. Civil service systems or merit boards cover officers employed by the Federal Govem- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Correctional officers.................................................................. .... First-line supervisors/managers of correctional officers......... ... Bailiffs, correctional officers, and jailers............................... .... Bailiffs............................................................................... .... Correctional officers and jailers......................................... ... SOC Code - 33-1011 33-3010 33-3011 33-3012 Employment, 2008 518,200 43,500 474,800 20,200 454,500 Projected Employment, 2018 566,500 47,200 519,400 21,900 497,500 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 48,300 9 3,700 9 44,600 9 1,700 8 42,900 9 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 470 Occupational Outlook Handbook ment and most State governments. Their retirement coverage entitles correctional officers to retire at age 50 after 20 years of service or at any age with 25 years of service. Unionized cor rectional officers often have slightly higher wages and benefits. Related Occupations Other protective service occupations: Page Police and detectives................................................................ 473 Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists............................................................. 241 Security guards and gaming surveillance officers................... 481 Sources of Additional Information Further information about correctional officers is available from: y American Correctional Association, 206 N. Washington St., Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.aca.org y American Jail Association, 1135 Professional Ct., Hagerstown, MD 21740. Internet: http://www.corrections.com/aja y Information on entrance requirements, training, and career opportunities for correctional officers at the Federal level may be obtained from the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Internet: http ://www.bop.gov Information on obtaining a position as a correctional offi cer with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This re source for locating and applying for job opportunities can be ac cessed through the Internet at http://www.usajohs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not toll free, so charges may result. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl56.htm Fire Fighters Significant Points • Fire fighting involves hazardous conditions and long, irregular hours. • About 9 out of 10 fire fighters were employed by local governments. • Applicants generally must pass written, physical, and medical examinations, and candidates with some postsecondary education are increasingly preferred. • Keen competition for jobs is expected because this attracts many qualified candidates. Digitized for occupation FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Every year, fires and other emergencies take thousands of lives and destroy property worth billions of dollars. Fire fighters help protect the public against these dangers by responding to hres and a variety of other emergencies. Although they put out fires, fire fighters more frequently respond to other emergencies. They are often the first emergency personnel at the scene of a traffic accident or medical emergency and may be called upon to treat injuries or perform other vital functions. During duty hours, fire fighters must be prepared to respond immediately to a fire or other emergency. Fighting fires is com plex and dangerous, and requires organization and teamwork. At every emergency scene, fire fighters perform specific duties assigned by a superior officer. At fires, they connect hose lines to hydrants and operate a pump to send water to high-pressure hoses. Some carry hoses, climb ladders, and enter burning buildings—using systematic and careful procedures—to put out fires. At times, they may need to use tools to make their way through doors, walls, and debris, sometimes with the aid of information about a building’s floor plan. Some find and rescue occupants who are unable to leave the building safely without assistance. They also provide emergency medical at tention, ventilate smoke-filled areas and attempt to salvage the contents of buildings. Fire fighters’ duties may change several times while the company is in action. Sometimes they remain at the site of a disaster for days at a time, rescuing trapped survi vors, and assisting with medical treatment. Fire fighters work in a variety of settings, including metro politan areas, rural areas, airports, chemical plants and other industrial sites. They also have assumed a range of responsi bilities, including providing emergency medical services. In fact, most calls to which fire fighters respond involve medical emergencies. In addition, some fire fighters work in hazardous materials units that are specially trained for the control, preven tion, and cleanup of hazardous materials, such as oil spills or accidents involving the transport of chemicals. (For more in formation, see the Handbook section on hazardous materials removal workers.) Workers specializing in forest fires utilize methods and equipment different from those of other fire fighters. When fires break out, crews of fire fighters are brought in to suppress the blaze with heavy equipment and water hoses. Fighting forest fires, like fighting urban fires, is rigorous work. One of the most effective means of fighting a forest fire is creating fire lines— cutting down trees and digging out grass and all other combus tible vegetation in the path of the fire in order to deprive it of fuel. Elite fire fighters called smoke jumpers parachute from air planes to reach otherwise inaccessible areas. This tactic, how ever, can be extremely hazardous. When they aren’t responding to fires and other emergencies, fire fighters clean and maintain equipment, learn additional skills related to their jobs, conduct practice drills, and partici pate in physical fitness activities. They also prepare written re ports on fire incidents and review fire science literature to stay informed about technological developments and changing ad ministrative practices and policies. Work environment. Fire fighters spend much of their time at fire stations, which are usually similar to dormitories. When an Service Occupations 471 Firefighters help protect the public by responding to fires and a variety of other emergencies. alarm sounds, fire fighters respond, regardless of the weather or hour. Fire fighting involves a high risk of death or injury. Com mon causes include floors caving in, walls toppling, traffic ac cidents, and exposure to flame and smoke. Fire fighters also may come into contact with poisonous, flammable, or explosive gases and chemicals and radioactive materials, all of which may have immediate or long-term effects on their health. For these reasons, they must wear protective gear that can be very heavy and hot. Work hours of fire fighters are longer and more varied than the hours of most other workers. Many fire fighters work about 50 hours a week, and sometimes they may work longer. In some agencies, fire fighters are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In oth ers, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, work a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. In addition, fire fighters often work extra hours at fires and other emergencies and are regularly assigned to work on holidays. Fire lieutenants and fire cap tains frequently work the same hours as the fire fighters they supervise. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for fire fighting jobs usually are required to have at least a high school diploma, but candidates with some postsec ondary education are increasingly being preferred. Most mu nicipal jobs require passing written and physical tests. All fire fighters receive extensive training after being hired. Education and training. Most fire fighters have a high school diploma; however, the completion of community college courses or, in some cases, an associate’s degree, in fire science may improve an applicant’s chances for a job. A number of col leges and universities offer courses leading to 2-year or 4-year degrees in fire engineering or fire science. In recent years, an increasing proportion of new fire fighters have had some educa tion after high school. As a mle, entry-level workers in large fire departments are trained for several weeks at the department’s training center or academy. Through classroom instruction and practical training, the recruits study fire fighting techniques, fire prevention, hazardous materials control, local building codes, and emergency medical procedures, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis including first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). They also learn how to use axes, chain saws, fire extinguishers, ladders, and other fire fighting and rescue equipment. After successfully completing training, the recmits are assigned to a fire company, where they undergo a period of probation. Many fire departments have accredited apprenticeship pro grams lasting up to 4 years, including programs in fighting forest fires. These programs combine formal instruction with on-thejob training under the supervision of experienced fire fighters. Almost all departments require fire fighters to be certified as emergency medical technicians. (For more information, see the section of the Handbook on emergency medical technicians and paramedics.) Although most fire departments require the lowest level of certification, Emergency Medical TechnicianBasic (EMT-Basic), larger departments in major metropolitan areas increasingly are requiring paramedic certification. Some departments include this training in the fire academy, whereas others prefer that recruits earn EMT certification on their own, but will give them up to 1 year to do it. In addition to participating in training programs conducted by local fire departments, some fire fighters attend training sessions sponsored by the U.S. National Fire Academy. These training sessions cover topics such as executive development, antiarson techniques, disaster preparedness, hazardous materi als control, and public fire safety and education. Some States also have mandatory or voluntary fire fighter training and cer tification programs. Many fire departments offer fire fighters incentives, such as tuition reimbursement or higher pay, for completing advanced training. Other qualifications. Applicants for municipal fire fighting jobs usually must pass a written exam; tests of strength, physical stamina, coordination, and agility; and a medical examination that includes a drug screening. Workers may be monitored on a random basis for drug use after accepting employment. Exami nations are generally open to people who are at least 18 years of age and have a high school education or its equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores in all phases of testing have the best chances of being hired. Among the personal qualities fire fighters need are mental alert ness, self-discipline, courage, mechanical aptitude, endurance, strength, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judg ment also are extremely important, because fire fighters make quick decisions in emergencies. Members of a crew live and work closely together under conditions of stress and danger for ex tended periods, so they must be dependable and able to get along well with others. Leadership qualities are necessary for officers, who must establish and maintain discipline and efficiency, as well as direct the activities of the fire fighters in their companies. Advancement. Most experienced fire fighters continue study ing to improve their job performance and prepare for promotion examinations. To progress to higher level positions, they acquire expertise in advanced fire fighting equipment and techniques, building construction, emergency medical technology, writing, public speaking, management and budgeting procedures, and public relations. Opportunities for promotion depend upon the results of writ ten examinations, as well as job performance, interviews, and 472 Occupational Outlook Handbook seniority. Hands-on tests that simulate real-world job situations also are used by some fire departments. Usually, fire fighters are first promoted to engineer, then lieu tenant, captain, battalion chief, assistant chief, deputy chief, and, finally, chief. For promotion to positions higher than bat talion chief, many fire departments now require a bachelor’s degree, preferably in fire science, public administration, or a related field. An associate’s degree is required for executive fire officer certification from the National Fire Academy. Employment In 2008, total paid employment in fire fighting occupations was about 365,600. Fire fighters held about 310,400 jobs, and first-line supervisors/managers of fire fighting and prevention workers held about 55,200. These employment figures include only paid career fire fighters—they do not cover volunteer fire fighters, who perform the same duties and may constitute the majority of fire fighters in a residential area. According to the U.S. Fire Administration, about 70 percent of fire companies were staffed entirely by volunteer fire fighters in 2007. About 91 percent of fire fighting workers were employed by local governments. Some local and regional fire departments are being consolidated into countywide establishments to re duce administrative staffs, cut costs, and establish consistent training standards and work procedures. Some large cities have thousands of career fire fighters, while many small towns have only a few. Most of the fire fighters not employed by local gov ernments worked in fire departments on Federal and State in stallations, including airports. Private fire fighting companies employ a small number of fire fighters. Job Outlook Although employment is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all jobs, candidates for these positions are expected to face keen competition because these positions are highly attrac tive and sought after. Employment change. Employment of fire fighters is ex pected to grow by 19 percent over the 2008-18 decade, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Most job growth will stem from volunteer fire fighting positions being converted to paid positions. In recent years, it has become more difficult for volunteer fire departments to recruit and retain volunteers, perhaps because of the considerable amount of training and time commitment required. Furthermore, a trend toward more people living in and around cities has increased the demand for fire fighters. When areas develop and become more densely populated, emergencies and fires affect more buildings and more people and, therefore, require more fire fighters. Job prospects. Prospective fire fighters are expected to face keen competition for available job openings. Many people are attracted to fire fighting because (1) it is challenging and pro vides the opportunity to perform an essential public service, (2) a high school education is usually sufficient for entry, and (3) a pension is usually guaranteed after 25 years of service. Consequently, the number of qualified applicants in most areas far exceeds the number of job openings, even though the written examination and physical requirements eliminate many applicants. This situation is expected to persist in com ing years. Applicants with the best chances are those who are physically fit and score the highest on physical-conditioning and mechanical aptitude exams. Those who have completed some fire fighter education at a community college and have EMT or paramedic certification will have an additional advantage. Earnings Median annual wages of fire fighters were $44,260 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,180 and $58,440. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,440, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,210. Median an nual wages were $44,800 in local government, $45,610 in the Federal Government, $25,300 in other support services, and $37,870 in State governments. Median annual wages of first-line supervisors/managers of fire fighting and prevention workers were $67,440 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $53,820 and $86,330. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $40,850, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $108,930. First-line supervisors/ managers of fire fighting and prevention workers employed in local government earned a median of about $69,000 a year. According to the International City-County Management As sociation, average salaries in 2008 for sworn full-time positions were as follows: Rank Fire chief............................... ............ Deputy chief.......................... ............ Battalion chief....................... ............ ............ ............ Fire lieutenant ....................... ............ Engineer................................ ............ Minimum annual base salary $78,672 69,166 66,851 65,691 60,605 50,464 48,307 Maximum annual base salary $104,780 88,571 81,710 83,748 72,716 60,772 62,265 Fire fighters who average more than a certain number of work hours per week are required to be paid overtime. The threshold is determined by the department. Fire fighters often work extra Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Fire fighting occupations.......................................... First-line supervisors/managers of fire fighting and prevention workers.................................... Fire fighters........................................................... SOC Code Employment, 2008 365,600 33-1021 33-2011 55,200 310,400 Projected Employment, 2018 427,600 59,700 367,900 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 62,100 17 4,500 57,500 8 19 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook.__ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 473 shifts to maintain minimum staffing levels and during special emergencies. In 2008, 66 percent of all fire fighters were union members or covered by a union contract. Fire fighters receive benefits that usually include medical and liability insurance, vacation and sick leave, and some paid holidays. Almost all fire depart ments provide protective clothing (helmets, boots, and coats) and breathing apparatus, and many also provide dress uniforms. Fire fighters generally are covered by pension plans, often of fering retirement at half pay after 25 years of service or if the individual is disabled in the line of duty. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve protecting the public and prop erty are: Page Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.......................419 Fire inspectors and investigators................................................... 525 Police and detectives........................................................................473 Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a fire fighter may be obtained from local fire departments and from either of the following organizations: V International Association of Fire Fighters, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.iaff.org y U.S. Fire Administration, 16825 South Seton Ave., Emmitsburg, MD 21727. Internet: http://www.usfa.dhs.gov Information about professional qualifications and a list of colleges and universities offering 2-year or 4-year degree pro grams in fire science or fire prevention may be obtained from: y National Fire Academy, 16825 South Seton Ave., Emmitsburg, MD 21727. Internet: http://www.usfa.dhs.gov/nfa The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos329.htm Police and Detectives Significant Points • Police work can be dangerous and stressful. • Education requirements range from a high school di ploma to a college degree or higher. • Job opportunities in most local police departments will be favorable for qualified individuals, while competi tion is expected for jobs in State and Federal agencies. • Bilingual applicants with college training in police science or with military police experience will have the best opportunities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Police officers and detectives protect lives and property. Law enforcement officer’s duties depend on the size and type of their organizations. Police and detectives pursue and apprehend individuals who break the law and then issue citations or give warnings. A large proportion of their time is spent writing reports and maintaining records of incidents they encounter. Most police officers patrol their jurisdictions and investigate any suspicious activity they notice. They also respond to calls from individuals. Detectives, who often are called agents or special agents, perform investi gative duties such as gathering facts and collecting evidence. The daily activities of police and detectives vary with their occupational specialty—such as police officer, game warden, or detective—and whether they are working for a local, State, or Federal agency. Duties also differ substantially among vari ous Federal agencies, which enforce different aspects of the law. Regardless of job duties or location, police officers and de tectives at all levels must write reports and maintain meticulous records that will be needed if they testify in court. State and Local Law Enforcement. Uniformed police officers have general law enforcement duties. They maintain regular pa trols and respond to calls for service. Much of their time is spent responding to calls and doing paperwork. They may direct traf fic at the scene of an accident, investigate a burglary, or give first aid to an accident victim. In large police departments, officers usually are assigned to a specific type of duty. Many urban police agencies are involved in community po licing—a practice in which an officer builds relationships with the citizens of local neighborhoods and mobilizes the public to help fight crime. Police agencies are usually organized into geographic dis tricts, with uniformed officers assigned to patrol a specific area. Officers in large agencies often patrol with a partner. They attempt to become familiar with their patrol area and remain alert for anything unusual. Suspicious circumstances and haz ards to public safety are investigated or noted, and officers are dispatched to individual calls for assistance within their district. During their shift, they may identify, pursue, and arrest sus pected criminals; resolve problems within the community; and enforce traffic laws. Some agencies have special geographic jurisdictions and enforcement responsibilities. Public college and university po lice forces, public school district police, and agencies serving transportation systems and facilities are examples. Most law en forcement workers in special agencies are uniformed officers. Some police officers specialize in a particular field, such as chem ical and microscopic analysis, training and firearms instruction, or handwriting and fingerprint identification. Others work with spe cial units, such as horseback, bicycle, motorcycle, or harbor patrol; canine corps; special weapons and tactics (SWAT); or emergency response teams. A few local and special law enforcement officers primarily perform jail-related duties or work in courts. (For infor mation on other officers who work in jails and prisons, see correc tional officers, listed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs enforce the law on the county level. Sheriffs usually are elected to their posts and perform du ties similar to those of a local or county police chief. Sheriffs’ 474 Occupational Outlook Handbook departments tend to be relatively small, most having fewer than 50 sworn officers. Deputy sheriffs have law enforcement duties similar to those of officers in urban police departments. Police and sheriffs’ deputies who provide security in city and county courts are sometimes called bailiffs. State police officers, sometimes called State troopers or highway patrol officers, arrest criminals Statewide and patrol highways to enforce motor vehicle laws and regulations. State police officers often issue traffic citations to motorists. At the scene of accidents, they may direct traffic, give first aid, and call for emergency equipment. They also write reports used to deter mine the cause of the accident. State police officers frequently are called upon to render assistance to other law enforcement agencies, especially those in rural areas or small towns. State highway patrols operate in every State except Hawaii. Most full-time sworn personnel are uniformed officers who regularly patrol and respond to calls for service. Others work as investigators, perform court-related duties, or carry out admin istrative or other assignments. Detectives are plainclothes investigators who gather facts and collect evidence for criminal cases. Some are assigned to in teragency task forces to combat specific types of crime. They conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of suspects, and participate in raids or arrests. Detectives usually specialize in investigating one type of violation, such as homi cide or fraud. They are assigned cases on a rotating basis and work on them until an arrest and conviction is made or until the case is dropped. Fish and game wardens enforce fishing, hunting, and boating laws. They patrol hunting and fishing areas, conduct search and rescue operations, investigate complaints and accidents, and aid in prosecuting court cases. Federal Law Enforcement. Federal Bureau of Investiga tion (FBI) agents are the Government’s principal investigators, responsible for investigating violations of more than 200 cat egories of Federal law and conducting sensitive national secu rity investigations. Agents may conduct surveillance, monitor court-authorized wiretaps, examine business records, investi gate white-collar crime, or participate in sensitive undercover assignments. The FBI investigates a wide range of criminal ac tivity, including organized crime, public corruption, financial crime, bank robbery, kidnapping, terrorism, espionage, drug trafficking, and cybercrime. There are many other Federal agencies that enforce particu lar types of laws. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agents enforce laws and regulations relating to illegal drugs. U.S. marshals and deputy marshals provide security for the Federal courts and ensure the effective operation of the judicial system. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives agents enforce and investigate violations of Federal firearms and explo sives laws, as well as Federal alcohol and tobacco tax regulations. The U.S. Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security special agents are engaged in the battle against terrorism. The Department of Homeland Security also employs numer ous law enforcement officers within several different agencies, including Customs and Border Protection, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and the U.S. Secret Service. U.S. Bor der agents protect more than 8,000 miles of international Digitized forPatrol FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis GANGS /ARCOT '3 The daily activities of police and detectives vary with their oc cupational specialty. land and water boundaries. Immigration inspectors interview and examine people seeking entry into the United States and its ter ritories. Customs inspectors enforce laws governing imports and exports by inspecting cargo, baggage, and articles worn or carried by people, vessels, vehicles, trains, and aircraft entering or leav ing the United States. Federal Air Marshals provide air security by guarding against attacks targeting U.S. aircraft, passengers, and crews. U.S. Secret Service special agents and U.S. Secret Service uniformed officers protect the President, the Vice Presi dent, their immediate families, and other public officials. Secret Service special agents also investigate counterfeiting, forgery of Government checks or bonds, and fraudulent use of credit cards. Other Federal agencies employ police and special agents with sworn arrest powers and the authority to carry firearms. These agencies include the Postal Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs Office of Law Enforcement, the Forest Service, and the National Park Service. Work environment. Police and detective work can be very dangerous and stressful. Police officers and detectives have one of the highest rates of on-the-job injury and illness. In addition to the obvious dangers of confrontations with criminals, police officers and detectives need to be constantly alert and ready to deal appropriately with a number of other threatening situa tions. Many law enforcement officers witness death and suffer ing resulting from accidents and criminal behavior. A career in law enforcement may take a toll on their private lives. Uniformed officers, detectives, agents, and inspectors usu ally are scheduled to work 40-hour weeks, but paid overtime is common. Shift work is necessary because protection must be provided around the clock. Junior officers frequently work weekends, holidays, and nights. Police officers and detectives are required to work whenever they are needed and may work long hours during investigations. Officers in most jurisdictions, whether on or off duty, are expected to be armed and to exercise their authority when necessary. The jobs of some Federal agents, such as U.S. Secret Service and DEA special agents, require extensive travel, often on very short notice. These agents may relocate a number of times over the course of their careers. Some special agents, such as those in the U.S. Border Patrol, may work outdoors in rugged terrain and in all kinds of weather. Service Occupations 475 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education requirements range from a high school diploma to a college degree or higher. Most police and detectives learn much of what they need to know on the job, often in their agency’s training academy. Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and detectives in most States, large municipalities, and special police agencies, as well as in many smaller jurisdictions. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 21 years old, and meet rigorous physical and personal qualifications. Education and training. Applicants usually must have at least a high school education, and some departments require 1 or 2 years of college coursework or, in some cases, a college degree. Physical education classes and participation in sports are also helpful in developing the competitiveness, stamina, and agility needed for many law enforcement positions. Knowledge of a foreign language is an asset in many Federal agencies and urban departments. State and local agencies encourage applicants to take courses or training related to law enforcement subjects after high school. Many entry-level applicants for police jobs have com pleted some formal postsecondary education, and a significant number are college graduates. Many junior colleges, colleges, and universities offer programs in law enforcement or admin istration of justice. Many agencies pay all or part of the tuition for officers to work toward degrees in criminal justice, police science, administration of justice, or public administration and pay higher salaries to those who earn one of those degrees. Before their first assignments, officers usually go through a period of training. In State and large local police departments, recruits get training in their agency’s police academy, often for 12 to 14 weeks. In small agencies, recruits often attend a re gional or State academy. Training includes classroom instruc tion in constitutional law and civil rights, State laws and local ordinances, and accident investigation. Recruits also receive training and supervised experience in patrol, traffic control, use of firearms, self-defense, first aid, and emergency response. Po lice departments in some large cities hire high school graduates who are still in their teens as police cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and attend classes, usually for 1 to 2 years, until they reach the minimum age requirement and can be appointed to the regular force. Fish and game wardens also must meet specific requirements. Most States require at least 2 years of college study. Once hired, fish and game wardens attend a training academy lasting from 3 to 12 months, sometimes followed by further training in the field. Federal agencies require a bachelor’s degree, related work experience, or a combination of the two. Federal law enforce ment agents undergo extensive training, usually at the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia, or the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia. The specific educational requirements, qualifications, and training informa tion for a particular Federal agency can be found on its Web site. Many of these agencies are listed as sources of additional information at the end of this statement. To be considered for appointment as an FBI agent, an applicant must be a college graduate and have at least 3 years of profes https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sional work experience or must have an advanced degree plus 2 years of professional work experience. An applicant who meets these criteria also must have one of the following: a college major in accounting, electrical engineering, information technology, or computer science; fluency in a foreign language; a degree from an accredited law school; or 3 years of related full-time work experi ence. All new FBI agents undergo 18 weeks of training at the FBI Academy on the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia. Other qualifications. Civil service regulations govern the ap pointment of police and detectives in most States, large munici palities, and special police agencies, as well as in many smaller jurisdictions. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually must be at least 21 years old, and must meet rigorous physical and per sonal qualifications. Physical examinations for entry into law enforcement often include tests of vision, hearing, strength, and agility. Eligibility for appointment usually depends on one’s performance in competitive written examinations and previous education and experience. Candidates should enjoy working with people and meeting the public. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, sound judgment, integrity, and a sense of responsibility are especially important in law enforcement, candidates are interviewed by senior officers and their character traits and backgrounds are investigated. A history of domestic violence may disqualify a candidate. In some agencies, candidates are interviewed by a psychiatrist or a psychologist, or given a personality test. Most applicants are subjected to lie detector examinations or dmg testing. Some agencies subject sworn personnel to random dmg testing as a condition of continuing employment. Although similar in nature, the requirements for Federal agents are generally more stringent and the background checks are more thorough. There are polygraph tests as well as inter views with references. Jobs that require security clearances have additional requirements. Advancement. Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a probationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. In large departments, promotion may enable an of ficer to become a detective or to specialize in one type of police work, such as working with juveniles. Promotions to corporal, sergeant, lieutenant, and captain usually are made according to a candidate’s position on a promotion list, as determined by scores on a written examination and on-the-job performance. Federal agents often are on the General Services (GS) pay scale. Most begin at the GS-5 or GS-7 level. As agents meet time-in-grade and knowledge and skills requirements, they move up the GS scale. Promotions at and above GS-13 are most often managerial positions. Many agencies hire internally for these supervisory positions. A few agents may be able to enter the Senior Executive Series ranks of upper management. Continuing training helps police officers, detectives, and special agents improve their job performance. Through police department academies, regional centers for public safety em ployees established by the States, and Federal agency train ing centers, instructors provide annual training in self-defense tactics, firearms, use-of-force policies, sensitivity and commu nications skills, crowd-control techniques, relevant legal devel opments, and advances in law enforcement equipment. 476 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Police and detectives held about 883,600 jobs in 2008. About 79 percent were employed by local governments. State police agencies employed about 11 percent. Various Federal agencies employ police and detectives. According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, police and detectives employed by local governments worked primarily in cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large police forces, while thousands of small communities em ploy fewer than 25 officers each. Job Outlook Job opportunities in most local police departments will be fa vorable for qualified individuals, whereas competition is ex pected for jobs in State and Federal agencies. As fast as average employment growth is expected. Employment change. Employment of police and detectives is expected to grow 10 percent over the 2008-18 decade, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Population growth is the main source of demand for police services. Job prospects. Overall opportunities in local police depart ments will be favorable for individuals who meet the psycho logical, personal, and physical qualifications. In addition to openings from employment growth, many openings will be cre ated by the need to replace workers who retire and those who leave local agencies for Federal jobs and private-sector security jobs. Jobs in local police departments that offer relatively low salaries, or those in urban communities in which the crime rate is relatively high, may be the easiest to get. Some smaller de partments may have fewer opportunities as budgets limit the ability to hire additional officers. Bilingual applicants with mil itary experience or college training in police science will have the best opportunities in local and State departments. There will be more competition for jobs in Federal and State law enforcement agencies than for jobs in local agencies. Bi lingual applicants with a bachelor’s degree and several years of law enforcement or military experience, especially investigative experience, will have the best opportunities in Federal agencies. The level of government spending determines the level of em ployment for police and detectives. The number of job oppor tunities, therefore, can vary from year to year and from place to place. Layoffs are rare because retirements enable most staffing cuts to be handled through attrition. Trained law enforcement officers who lose their jobs because of budget cuts usually have little difficulty finding jobs with other agencies. Earnings Police and sheriff’s patrol officers had median annual wages of $51,410 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,850 and $64,940. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,070, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $79,680. Median annual wages were $46,620 in Federal Government, $57,270 in State government, $51,020 in local government and $43,350 in educational services. In May 2008, median annual wages of police and detective su pervisors were $75,490. The middle 50 percent earned between $59,320 and $92,700. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $46,000, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $114,300. Median annual wages were $89,930 in Federal Government, $75,370 in State government, and $74,820 in local government. In May 2008, median annual wages of detectives and crimi nal investigators were $60,910. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,930 and $81,490. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,500, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $97,870. Median annual wages were $73,170 in Federal Gov ernment, $53,910 in State government, and $55,930 in local government. In May 2008, median annual wages of fish and game wardens were $48,930. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,500 and $61,290. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,400, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $81,710. Median annual wages were $48,960 in Federal Government, $50,440 in State government, and $35,810 in local government. In May 2008, median annual wages of parking enforcement workers were $32,390. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,400 and $42,000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,510, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $50,470. Median annual wages were $33,130 in local government and $27,640 in educational services. In May 2008, median annual wages of transit and railroad police were $46,670. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,640 and $57,830. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,300, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,700. Median annual wages were $49,370 in State government, $43,720 in local government, and $56,300 in rail transportation. Federal law provides special salary rates to Federal em ployees who serve in law enforcement. Additionally, Federal special agents and inspectors receive law enforcement avail ability pay (LEAP)—equal to 25 percent of the agent’s grade and step—awarded because of the large amount of overtime that these agents are expected to work. Salaries were slightly Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2008-2018 Employment, Occupational Title Number Percent 2018 10 84,700 968,400 883,600 Police and detectives......................................................................... .... 8 7,800 105,200 97,300 33-1012 First-line supervisors/managers of police and detectives......... .... 17 18,700 112,200 130,900 .... 33-3021 Detectives and criminal investigators.......................................... 8 700 9,000 8,300 33-3031 Fish and game wardens................................................................. .... 9 57,500 723,300 665,700 33-3050 Police officers................................................................................. .... 9 57,300 718,800 661,500 33-3051 Police and sheriff’s patrol officers.......................................... .... 200 5 4,500 4,300 33-3052 Transit and railroad police....................................................... .... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa soc Code tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment, 2008 Service Occupations 477 higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Because Federal agents may be eligible for a special law enforcement benefits package, applicants should ask their recruiter for more information. Total earnings for local, State, and special police and detec tives frequently exceed the stated salary because of payments for overtime, which can be significant. According to the International City-County Management Association’s annual Police and Fire Personnel, Salaries, and Expenditures Survey, average salaries for sworn full-time posi tions in 2008 were as follows: Rank Police chief............................ ............... Deputy chief........................... .............. Police captain....................................... Police lieutenant.................... .............. Police sergeant...................... .............. Police corporal...................... .............. Minimum salary $90,570 74,834 72,761 65,688 58,739 49,421 Maximum salary w/o longevity $113,930 96,209 91,178 79,268 70,349 61,173 In addition to the common benefits—paid vacation, sick leave, and medical and life insurance—most police and sher iffs’ departments provide officers with special allowances for uniforms. Many police officers retire at half-pay after 20 years of service; others often are eligible to retire with 30 or fewer years of service. Related Occupations Other occupations that help protect and serve people are: Page Correctional officers................................................................. 467 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.................... 419 Fire fighters.............................................................................. 470 Private detectives and investigators..........................................477 Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists............................................................. 241 Security guards and gaming surveillance officers................... 481 from the nearest State FBI office. The address and phone number are listed in the local telephone directory. Internet: http://www.fbi.gov Information on career opportunities, qualifications, and train ing for U.S. Secret Service Special Agents and Uniformed Of ficers is available from the Secret Service Personnel Division at (202) 406-5830, (888) 813-8777, (888) 813-USSS, or U.S. Secret Services, Recruitment and Hiring Coordination Center, 245 Murray Dr., Building 410, Washington, DC 20223. Inter net: http://www.secretservice.gov/join Information about qualifications for employment as a Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Special Agent is available from the nearest DEA office, DEA Office of Personnel, 8701 Morrissette Dr., Springfield, VA 22152, or call (800) DEA4288. Internet: http://www.usdoj.gov/dea Information about jobs in other Federal law enforcement agencies is available from: y U.S. Marshals Service, Human Resources Division—Law Enforcement Recruiting, Washington, DC 20530-1000. Internet: http://www.usmarshals.gov y U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, Office of Governmental and Public Affairs, 99 New York Ave. NE. Mail Stop 5S144, Washington, DC 20226. Internet: http://www.atf.gov y U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 1300 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20229. Internet: http://www.cbp.gov y U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Washington, DC 20528. Internet: http://www.dhs.gov The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl60.htm Private Detectives and Investigators Significant Points Sources of Additional Information Information about entry requirements may be obtained from Federal, State, and local law enforcement agencies. To find Federal, State, and local law enforcement job fairs and other recruiting events across the country, contact: V National Law Enforcement Recruiters Association, PO Box 17132, Arlington, VA 22216. Internet: http://www.nlera.org For general information about sheriffs and to learn more about the National Sheriffs’ Association scholarship, contact: y National Sheriffs’ Association, 1450 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.sheriffs.org For information about chiefs of police, contact: y International Association of Chiefs of Police, 515 N. Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.theiacp.org Information related to Federal law enforcement: Information about qualifications for employment as a Fed Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Special Agent is available Digitized eral for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • Work hours are often irregular, and the work can be dangerous. • About 21 percent are self-employed. • Keen competition is expected for most jobs. • Most private detectives and investigators have some college education and previous experience in inves tigative work. Nature of the Work Private detectives and investigators assist individuals, busi nesses, and attorneys by finding and analyzing information. They connect clues to uncover facts about legal, financial, or personal matters. Private detectives and investigators offer many services, including executive, corporate, and celebrity protection; preemployment verification; and individual back ground profiles. Some investigate computer crimes, such as 478 Occupational Outlook Handbook identity theft, harassing e-mails, and illegal downloading of copyrighted material. They also provide assistance in criminal and civil liability cases, insurance claims and fraud cases, child custody and protection cases, missing-persons cases, and pre marital screening. They are sometimes hired to investigate indi viduals to prove or disprove infidelity. Private detectives and investigators may use many methods to determine the facts in a case. Much of their work is done with a computer. For example, they often recover deleted e-mails and documents. They also may perform computer database searches or work with someone who does. Computers allow investiga tors to quickly obtain huge amounts of information, such as records of a subject’s prior arrests, convictions, and civil legal judgments; telephone numbers; information about motor vehi cle registrations; records of association and club memberships; social networking site details; and even photographs. Detectives and investigators also perform various other types of surveillance or searches. To verify facts, such as an individu al’s income or place of employment, they may make phone calls or visit a subject’s workplace. In other cases, especially those involving missing persons and background checks, investiga tors interview people to gather as much information as possible about an individual. Sometimes investigators go undercover, pretending to be someone else in order to get information or to observe a subject inconspicuously. They even arrange to be hired in businesses to observe workers for wrongdoing. Most detectives and investigators are trained to perform physical surveillance, which may be high tech or low tech. They may observe a site, such as the home of a subject, from an inconspicuous location or a vehicle. Using photographic and video cameras, binoculars, cell phones, and GPS systems, de tectives gather information on an individual. Surveillance can be time consuming. The duties of private detectives and investigators depend on the needs of their clients. In cases that involve fraudulent workers’ compensation claims, for example, investigators may carry out long-term covert observation of a person suspected of fraud. If an investigator observes the person performing an ac tivity that contradicts injuries stated in a worker’s compensation w ■ V- Private detectives and investigators may use many methods to determine the facts in a case. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis claim, the investigator would take video or still photographs to document the activity and report it to the client. Detectives and investigators must be mindful of the law in conducting investigations. They keep up with Federal, State, and local legislation, such as privacy laws and other legal issues affecting their work. The legality of certain methods may be unclear, and investigators and detectives must make judgment calls in deciding how to pursue a case. They must also know how to collect evidence properly so that they do not compro mise its admissibility in court. Private detectives and investigators often specialize. Those who focus on intellectual property theft, for example, investi gate and document acts of piracy, help clients stop illegal activ ity, and provide intelligence for prosecution and civil action. Other investigators specialize in developing financial profiles and carrying out asset searches. Their reports reflect informa tion gathered through interviews, investigation and surveil lance, and research, including reviews of public documents. Computer forensic investigators specialize in recovering, an alyzing, and presenting data from computers for use in investi gations or as evidence. They determine the details of intrusions into computer systems, recover data from encrypted or erased files, and recover e-mails and deleted passwords. Legal investigators assist in preparing criminal defenses, locat ing witnesses, serving legal documents, interviewing police and prospective witnesses, and gathering and reviewing evidence. Le gal investigators also may collect information on the parties to a lit igation, take photographs, testify in court, and assemble evidence and reports for trials. They often work for law firms or lawyers. Corporate investigators conduct internal and external inves tigations for corporations. In internal investigations, they may investigate drug use in the workplace, ensure that expense ac counts are not abused, or determine whether employees are stealing assets, merchandise, or information. External inves tigations attempt to thwart criminal schemes from outside the corporation, such as fraudulent billing by a supplier. Investiga tors may spend months posing as employees of the company in order to find misconduct. Financial investigators may be hired to develop confidential financial profiles of individuals or companies that are prospec tive parties to large financial transactions. These investigators often are certified public accountants (CPAs) who work closely with investment bankers and other accountants. They also might search for assets in order to recover damages awarded by a court in fraud or theft cases. Detectives who work for retail stores or hotels are responsi ble for controlling losses and protecting assets. Store detectives, also known as loss prevention agents, safeguard the assets of re tail stores by apprehending anyone attempting to steal merchan dise or destroy store property. They prevent theft by shoplifters, vendor representatives, delivery personnel, and store employ ees. Store detectives also conduct periodic inspections of stock areas, dressing rooms, and rest rooms, and sometimes assist in opening and closing the store. They may prepare loss preven tion and security reports for management and testify in court against people they apprehend. Hotel detectives protect guests of the establishment from theft of their belongings and preserve Service Occupations 479 order in hotel restaurants and bars. They also may keep undesir able individuals, such as known thieves, off the premises. Work environment. Many detectives and investigators spend time away from their offices conducting interviews or doing surveillance, but some work in the office most of the day con ducting computer searches and making phone calls. When an investigator is working on a case, the environment might range from plush boardrooms to seedy bars. Store and hotel detectives work in the businesses that they protect. Investigators generally work alone, but they sometimes work with others, especially during surveillance or when they follow a subject. Some of the work involves confrontation, so the job can be stressful and dangerous. Some situations, such as certain body guard assignments for corporate or celebrity clients, call for the investigator to be armed. In most cases, however, a weapon is not necessary, because the purpose of the work is gathering informa tion and not law enforcement or criminal apprehension. Owners of investigative agencies have the added stress of having to deal with demanding and sometimes distraught clients. Although consid ered a dangerous occupation, private detectives and investigators have a relatively low incidence of nonfatal work-related injuries. Private detectives and investigators often work irregular hours because of the need to conduct surveillance and contact peo ple who are not available during normal working hours. Early morning, evening, weekend, and holiday work is common. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most private detectives and investigators have some college education and previous experience in investigative work. In the majority of States, they are required to be licensed. Education and training. There are no formal education re quirements for most private detective and investigator jobs, al though many have postsecondary degrees. Courses in criminal justice and police science are helpful to aspiring private detec tives and investigators. Although related experience is usually required, some people enter the occupation directly after gradu ation from college, generally with an associate’s or bachelor’s degree in criminal justice or police science. Experience in po lice investigation is viewed favorably. Most corporate investigators must have a bachelor’s degree, preferably in a business-related field. Some corporate investiga tors have a master’s degree in business administration or a law degree; others are CPAs. For computer forensics work, a computer science or account ing degree is more helpful than a criminal justice degree. An accounting degree provides good background knowledge for investigating computer fraud. Either of these two degrees pro vides a good starting point, after which investigative techniques can be learned on the job. Alternatively, many colleges and universities now offer certificate programs, requiring from 15 to 21 credits, in computer forensics. These programs are most beneficial to law enforcement officers, paralegals, or others who already are involved in investigative work. A few colleges and universities now offer bachelor’s or master’s degrees in com puter forensics, and others are planning to begin offering such degrees. Most computer forensic investigators learn their trade while working for a law enforcement agency, either as a sworn officer or a civilian computer forensic analyst. They are trained https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis at their agency’s computer forensics training program. Many people enter law enforcement specifically to get this training and establish a reputation before moving to the private sector. Most of the work of private detectives and investigators is learned on the job. New investigators will usually start by learn ing how to use databases to gather information. The training they receive depends on the type of firm. At an insurance com pany, a new investigator will learn to recognize insurance fraud. At a firm that specializes in domestic cases, a new worker might observe a senior investigator performing surveillance. Learning by doing, in which new investigators are put on cases and gain skills as they go, is a common approach. Corporate investiga tors hired by large companies, however, may receive formal training in business practices, management structure, and vari ous finance-related topics. Because they work with changing technologies, computer forensic investigators never stop training. They learn the lat est methods of fraud detection and new software programs and operating systems by attending conferences and courses offered by software vendors and professional associations. Licensure. Most States and the District of Columbia require private detectives and investigators to be licensed. Licensing requirements vary, however. Seven States—Alabama, Alaska, Colorado, Idaho, Mississippi, South Dakota, and Wyoming— have no Statewide licensing requirements. Some States have few requirements, and many others have stringent regulations. For example, the Bureau of Security and Investigative Services of the California Department of Consumer Affairs requires pri vate investigators to be 18 years of age or older; have a com bination of education in police science, criminal law, or justice and experience equaling 3 years (6,000 hours); pass a crimi nal history background check by the California Department of Justice and the FBI (in most States, convicted felons cannot be issued a license); and receive a qualifying score on a 2-hour written examination covering laws and regulations. In all States, detectives and investigators who carry handguns must meet ad ditional requirements. Because laws change, it is important to verify the licensing laws related to private investigators with the State and locality where work will be performed. There are no licenses specifically for computer forensic in vestigators, but some States require them to be licensed private investigators. Even where licensure is not required, a private investigator license is useful to some because it allows them to perform followup or related tasks. Other qualifications. Private detectives and investigators typically have previous experience in other occupations. Some have worked in other occupations for insurance or collections companies, in the private security industry, or as paralegals. Many investigators enter the field after serving in law enforce ment, the military, government auditing and investigative po sitions, or Federal intelligence jobs. Former law enforcement officers, military investigators, and government agents, who fre quently are able to retire after 25 years of service, often become private detectives or investigators in a second career. Others en ter from jobs in finance, accounting, commercial credit, investi gative reporting, insurance, and law. These individuals often can apply their previous work experience in a related investigative specialty. 480 Occupational Outlook Handbook For private detective and investigator jobs, most employers look for individuals with ingenuity, persistence, and assertive ness. A candidate must not be afraid of confrontation, should communicate well, and should be able to think on his or her feet. Good interviewing and interrogation skills also are impor tant and usually are acquired in earlier careers in law enforce ment or other fields. Because the courts often are the judge of a properly conducted investigation, the investigator must be able to present the facts in a manner that a jury will believe. The screening process for potential employees typically includes a background check for a criminal history. Certification and advancement. Some investigators receive certification from a professional organization to demonstrate competency in a field. For example, the National Association of Legal Investigators confers the Certified Legal Investigator designation upon licensed investigators who devote a majority of their practice to negligence or criminal defense investiga tions. To receive the designation, applicants must have 5 years of investigations experience. They also must satisfy educational requirements and continuing-training requirements and must pass written and oral exams. ASIS International, a trade organization for the security indus try, offers the Professional Certified Investigator certification. To qualify, applicants must have a high school diploma or the equiv alent; must have 5 years of investigations experience, including 2 years managing investigations; and must pass an exam. Most private detective agencies are small, with little room for advancement. Usually, there are no defined ranks or steps, so advancement takes the form of increases in salary and as signment status. Many detectives and investigators start their own firms after gaining a few years of experience. Corporate and legal investigators may rise to supervisor or manager of the security or investigations department. decade, much faster than the average for all occupations. In creased demand for private detectives and investigators will result from heightened security concerns, increased litigation, and the need to protect confidential information and property of all kinds. The proliferation of criminal activity on the Inter net, such as identity theft, spamming, e-mail harassment, and illegal downloading of copyrighted materials, also will increase the demand for private investigators. Employee background checks, conducted by private investigators, have become stan dard for an increasing number of jobs. Growing financial ac tivity worldwide will increase the demand for investigators to control internal and external financial losses, to monitor com petitors, and to prevent industrial spying. More individuals are investigating care facilities, such as childcare providers, hos pices, and hospitals. Job prospects. Keen competition is expected for most jobs because private detective and investigator careers attract many qualified people, including relatively young retirees from law enforcement and military careers. The best opportunities for new jobseekers will be in entry-level jobs in detective agencies. Opportunities are expected to be favorable for qualified com puter forensic investigators. Employment Other occupations whose duties involve collecting information include: Private detectives and investigators held about 45,500 jobs in 2008. About 21 percent were self-employed, including many for whom investigative work was a second job. Around 41 per cent of detective and investigator jobs were in investigation and security services, including private detective agencies. The rest worked mostly in State and local government, legal services firms, department or other general merchandise stores, employ ment services companies, insurance agencies, and credit me diation establishments, including banks and other depository institutions. Job Outlook Keen competition is expected for most jobs despite much faster than average employment growth. Employment change. Employment of private detectives and investigators is expected to grow 22 percent over the 2008-18 Earnings Median annual wages of salaried private detectives and inves tigators were $41,760 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,870 and $59,060. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,500, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $76,640. Wages of private detectives and investiga tors vary greatly by employer, specialty, and geographic area. Related Occupations Page Bill and account collectors.......................................................561 Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators.....................................................................96 Other occupations whose duties involveproperty protection include: Police and detectives................................................................473 Security guards and gaming surveillance officers................... 481 Other occupations whose duties involve preparing financial profiles and conducting asset searches include: Accountants and auditors...........................................................86 Financial analysts..................................................................... 103 Personal financial advisors....................................................... 118 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Private detectives and investigators.............................. ..................... soc Employment, Code 2008 33-9021 45,500 Projected Employment, 2018 55,500 Change, 2008-2018 Number 10,000 Percent 22 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 481 Sources of Additional Information For information on local licensing requirements, contact your State Department of Public Safety, State Division of Licensing, or local or State police headquarters. For information on a career as a legal investigator and about the Certified Legal Investigator credential, contact: 'y National Association of Legal Investigators, NALI World Headquarters, 235 N. Pine Street, Lansing, MI. 48933. Internet: http ://www.na!ionline.org For more information about investigative and other security careers, about the Professional Certified Investigator creden tial, and for a list of colleges and universities offering securityrelated courses and majors, contact: y ASIS International, 1625 Prince St., Alexandria, VA 22314 2818. Internet: http://www.asisonline.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl57.htm Security Guards and Gaming Surveillance Officers Significant Points • Job opportunities should be favorable, but competi tion is expected for some higher paying jobs. • Because of limited formal training requirements and flexible hours, this occupation attracts many individu als seeking a second or part-time job. • These jobs can be hazardous. Nature of the Work Security guards, also called security officers, patrol and inspect property to protect against fire, theft, vandalism, terrorism, and illegal activity. They protect their employer’s property, enforce laws on the property, deter criminal activity, and other prob lems. These workers may be armed. They use various forms of telecommunications to call for assistance from police, fire, or emergency medical services. Security guards write compre hensive reports outlining their observations and activities dur ing their assigned shift. They also may interview witnesses or victims, prepare case reports, and testify in court. Although all security guards perform essentially the same function, their specific tasks depend on whether they work in a “static,” or stationary, security position or on a mobile pa trol. Guards assigned to static security positions usually stay at one location for a specified length of time. These guards must become closely acquainted with the property and people as sociated with their station and must often monitor alarms and closed-circuit TV cameras. In contrast, guards assigned to mo bile patrol drive or walk from one location to another and con duct security checks within an assigned area. They may detain arrest criminal violators, answer service calls concerning Digitized or for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Guards assigned to static security positions usually stay at one location for a specified length of time. criminal activity or other safety concerns, and issue traffic vio lation warnings. The security guard’s job responsibilities also vary from one employer to another. In department stores, guards protect peo ple, records, merchandise, money, and equipment. They often work with undercover store detectives to prevent theft by cus tomers or employees, and help apprehend shoplifting suspects prior to the arrival of the police. Some shopping centers and theaters have officers who patrol their parking lots to deter as saults, car thefts, and robberies. In office buildings, banks, and hospitals, guards maintain order and protect the institution’s customers, staff, and property. At air, sea, and rail terminals and other transportation facilities, guards and screeners protect people, freight, property, and equipment. Using metal detectors and other identification equipment, they may screen passengers and visitors for weapons and explosives, ensure that nothing is stolen while a vehicle is being loaded or unloaded, and watch for fires and criminals. Guards who work in public buildings such as museums or art galleries protect paintings and exhibits by watching people and inspecting packages entering and leaving the building. In factories, laboratories, government buildings, data processing centers, and military bases, security officers protect informa tion, products, computer codes, and defense secrets, and check the credentials of people and vehicles entering and leaving the premises. Guards working at universities, parks, and sports sta diums perform crowd control, supervise parking and seating, and direct traffic. Security guards stationed at the entrance to bars and nightclubs, prevent access by minors, collect cover charges at the door, maintain order among customers, and pro tect patrons and property. Armored car guards protect money and valuables during transit. They also protect individuals responsible for making commercial bank deposits from theft or injury. They pick up 482 Occupational Outlook Handbook money or other valuables from businesses and transport them to another location. Carrying money between the truck and the business can be extremely hazardous. As a result, armored car guards usually wear bulletproof vests and often carry firearms. Gaming surveillance officers, also known as surveillance agents, and gaming investigators act as security agents for ca sino employees, managers, and patrons. Using primarily audio and video equipment in an observation room, they observe casino operations for irregular activities, such as cheating or theft, and monitor compliance with rules, regulations, and laws. They maintain and organize recordings from security cameras, since these are sometimes used as evidence in police investiga tions. Some casinos use a catwalk over one-way mirrors located above the casino floor to augment electronic surveillance equip ment. Surveillance agents occasionally leave the surveillance room and walk the casino floor. All security officers must show good judgment and common sense, follow directions, testify accurately in court, and follow company policy and guidelines. In an emergency, they must be able to take charge and direct others to safety. In larger organi zations, a security manager might oversee a group of security officers. In smaller organizations, however, a single worker may be responsible for all security. Work environment. Most security guards and gaming sur veillance officers spend considerable time on their feet, either assigned to a specific post or patrolling buildings and grounds. Guards may be stationed at a guard desk inside a building to monitor electronic security and surveillance devices or to check the credentials of people entering or leaving the premises. They also may be stationed at a guardhouse outside the entrance to a gated facility or community and may use a portable radio or cellular telephone to be in constant contact with a central sta tion. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with other employees and the public. Gaming surveil lance officers often work behind a bank of monitors controlling numerous cameras in a casino and thus can develop eyestrain. Guards usually work shifts of 8 hours or longer and are often on call in case of an emergency. When employers need 24-hour coverage 7 days a week, guards may rotate work schedules for total coverage. In 2008, about 16 percent of security guards and gaming surveillance officers worked part time, and some held a second job as a guard to supplement their primary earnings. The work usually is routine, but these jobs can be hazard ous. Guards must be constantly alert for threats to themselves and the property they are protecting. In 2008, gaming surveil lance workers had one of the highest rates of nonfatal on-thejob injuries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, there are no specific education requirements for se curity guards, but employers usually prefer to fill armed guard positions with people who have at least a high school diploma. Gaming surveillance officers often need some education be yond high school. In most States, guards must be licensed. Education and training. Many employers of unarmed guards do not have any specific educational requirements. For armed guards, employers usually prefer individuals who are high graduates or who hold an equivalent certification. Digitized for school FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many employers give newly hired guards instruction before they start the job and provide on-the-job training. The amount of training guards receive varies. Training is more rigorous for armed guards because their employers are legally responsible for any use of force. Armed guards receive formal training in areas such as weapons retention and laws covering the use of force. They may be periodically tested in the use of firearms. An increasing number of States are making ongoing train ing a legal requirement for retention of licensure. Guards may receive training in protection, public relations, report writing, crisis deterrence, first aid, and specialized training relevant to their particular assignment. ASIS International has written voluntary training guidelines that are intended to provide regulating bodies consistent mini mum standards for the quality of security services. These guide lines recommend that security guards receive at least 48 hours of training within the first 100 days of employment. The guide lines also suggest that security guards be required to pass a writ ten or performance examination covering topics such as sharing information with law enforcement, crime prevention, handling evidence, the use of force, court testimony, report writing, in terpersonal and communication skills, and emergency response procedures. In addition, they recommend annual retraining and additional firearms training for armed officers. Some employers prefer to hire security guards with some higher education, such as a police science or criminal justice degree. In addition, there are other programs and courses avail able at some postsecondary schools that focus specifically on security guards. Guards who are employed at establishments that place a heavy emphasis on security usually receive extensive formal training. For example, guards at nuclear power plants undergo several months of training before going on duty—and even then, they perform their tasks under close supervision for a significant pe riod of time. They are taught to use firearms, administer first aid, operate alarm systems and electronic security equipment, and spot and deal with security problems. Gaming surveillance officers and investigators usually need some training beyond high school but not usually a bachelor’s degree. Several educational institutes offer certification pro grams. Classroom training usually is conducted in a casino-like atmosphere and includes the use of surveillance camera equip ment. Previous security experience is a plus. Employers prefer either individuals with casino experience and significant knowl edge of casino operations or those with law enforcement and investigation experience. Licensure and certification. Most States require that guards be licensed. To be licensed as a guard, individuals must usually be at least 18 years old, pass a background check, and com plete classroom training in such subjects as property rights, emergency procedures, and detention of suspected criminals. Drug testing often is required and may be ongoing and random. Guards who carry weapons must be licensed by the appropriate government authority, and some receive further certification as special police officers, allowing them to make limited types of arrests while on duty. Armed guard positions also have more stringent background checks and entry requirements than those of unarmed guards. Service Occupations 483 In addition to being licensed, some security guards can be come certified. Certifications are not mandatory. ASIS Inter national offers the Certified Protection Professional for security people who want a transferable validation of their knowledge and skills. Other qualifications. Most jobs require a driver’s license. For positions as armed guards, employers often seek people who have had responsible experience in other occupations or former law enforcement officers. Rigorous hiring and screening programs consisting of back ground, criminal record, and fingerprint checks are becoming the norm in the occupation. Applicants are expected to have good character references, no serious police record, and good health. They should be mentally alert, emotionally stable, and physically fit to cope with emergencies. Guards who have frequent contact with the public should have good communication skills. Like security guards, gaming surveillance officers and gam ing investigators must have keen observation skills and excellent verbal and writing abilities to document violations or suspicious behavior. They also need to be physically fit and have quick reflexes because they sometimes must detain individuals until local law enforcement officials arrive. Advancement. Compared with unarmed security guards, armed guards and special police usually enjoy higher earn ings and benefits, greater job security, and more potential for advancement. Because many people do not stay long in this occupation, opportunities for advancement are good for those who make a career in security. Most large organizations use a military type of ranking that offers the possibility of advance ment in both position and salary. Some guards may advance to supervisor or security manager positions. Guards with postsec ondary education often have an advantage in securing supervi sory positions. Guards with management skills may open thenown contract security guard agencies. Guards can also move to an organization that needs higher levels of security, which may result in more prestige or higher pay. Employment Security guards and gaming surveillance officers held 1.1 mil lion jobs in 2008. About 55 percent of all jobs for security guards were in investigation and security services, including guard and armored car services. These organizations provide security on a contract basis, assigning their guards to buildings and other sites as needed. Most other security officers were employed directly by a wide variety of businesses and govern ments. Guard jobs are found throughout the country, most com monly in metropolitan areas. Gaming surveillance officers work primarily in gambling industries; traveler accommodation, which includes casino hotels; and local government. They are employed only in those States and on those Indian reservations where gambling is legal. A significant number of law enforcement officers work as security guards when they are off duty, in order to supplement their incomes. Often working in uniform and with the official cars assigned to them, they add a high-profile security pres ence to the establishment with which they have contracted. At construction sites and apartment complexes, for example, their presence often deters crime. (Police and detectives are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Opportunities for security guards and gaming surveillance of ficers should be favorable, although competition is expected for some higher paying jobs. Numerous job openings will stem from faster than average employment growth—driven by the demand for increased security—and from the need to replace those who leave this large occupation each year. Employment change. Employment of security guards is ex pected to grow by 14 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is faster than the average for all occupations. This occupation will have a very large number of new jobs arise, about 152,500 over the projections decade. Concern about crime, vandalism, and terror ism continues to increase the need for security. Demand for guards also will grow as private security firms increasingly perform duties—such as providing security at public events and in residen tial neighborhoods—that were formerly handled by police officers. Additionally, private security firms are expected to provide more protection to facilities, such as hospitals and nursing homes. Employment of gaming surveillance officers and gaming in vestigators is expected to grow by 12 percent between 2008 and 2018, as fast as the average for all occupations. Casinos will hire more surveillance officers if more States legalize gambling or if the number of casinos increases in States where gambling is already legal. In addition, casino security forces will employ more technically trained personnel as technology becomes in creasingly important in thwarting casino cheating and theft. Job prospects. Job opportunities for security guards should be favorable because of growing demand for these workers and the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occu pation. In addition to full-time job opportunities, the limited training requirements and flexible hours attract many people seeking part-time or second jobs. However, competition is ex pected for higher paying positions that require longer periods of training; these positions usually are found at facilities that require a high level of security, such as nuclear power plants or weapons installations. Applicants with prior experience in the gaming industry should enjoy the best prospects for jobs as gaming surveillance officers. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Security guards and gaming surveillance officers......................... .... 33-9030 1,086,000 1,239,500 153,600 14 Gaming surveillance officers and gaming investigators.......... .... 33-9031 1,100 9,300 10,400 12 Security guards.............................................................................. .... 33-9032 1,076,600 1,229,100 152,500 14 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2008 484 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings Sources of Additional Information Median annual wages of security guards were $23,460 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 19,150 and $30,100. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,680, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $39,360. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of security guards were: Further information about work opportunities for guards is available from local security and guard firms and State em ployment service offices. Information about licensing require ments for guards may be obtained from the State licensing commission or the State police department. In States where local jurisdictions establish licensing requirements, contact a local government authority such as the sheriff, county execu tive, or city manager. For more information about security careers, about the Certi fied Protection Professional, and for a list of colleges and uni versities offering security-related courses and majors, contact: y ASIS International, 1625 Prince St., Alexandria, VA 22314 2818. Internet: http://www.asisonline.org General medical and surgical hospitals......................$29,020 Elementary and secondary schools..............................27,980 Local government......................................................... 27,660 Traveler accommodation.............................................. 25,660 Investigation and security services...............................22,170 Gaming surveillance officers and gaming investigators had median annual wages of $28,850 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,000 and $37,690. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,290, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $48,310. Related Occupations Other security and protective service occupations include: Page Correctional officers.................................................................467 Gaming services occupations...................................................520 Police and detectives................................................................473 Private detectives and investigators......................................... 477 For more information related toj obs with the Transportation Se curity Administration, call the TS A Recruitment Center at (800) 887-1895 or(800) 887-5506 (TTY), orvisittheir website. Internet: http://www.tsa.gov/join/careers/careers_securityjobs.shtm The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl59.htm Food Preparation and Serving Related Occupations Chefs, Head Cooks, and Food Preparation and Serving Supervisors Significant Points • Most workers in these occupations have prior experi ence in the food service or hospitality industries. • While most workers have some postsecondary train ing, many experienced workers with less education can still be promoted into these positions. • Job opportunities are expected to be good, largely be cause of high turnover; however, keen competition is expected for jobs at upscale restaurants that generally pay more. Nature of the Work Chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serving supervi sors oversee the daily food service operation of a restaurant or other food service establishment. Chefs and head cooks are usually responsible for directing cooks in the kitchen, dealing with food-related concerns, and providing leadership. They are also the most skilled cooks in the kitchen and use their creativ ity and knowledge of food to develop and prepare recipes. Food preparation and serving supervisors oversee the kitchen and non-kitchen staff in a restaurant or food service facility. They may also oversee food preparation workers in fast food, cafeteria, or casual dining restaurants, where the menu is fairly https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis standard from day to day, or in more formal restaurants, where a chef provides specific guidelines and exacting standards on how to prepare each item. All of these workers—chefs, head cooks, and food prepara tion and serving supervisors—hire, train, and supervise staff, prepare cost estimates for food and supplies, set work schedules, order supplies, and ensure that the food service establishment mns efficiently and profitably. Additionally, these workers en sure that sanitation and safety standards are observed and com ply with local regulations. Fresh food must be stored and cooked properly, work surfaces and dishes clean and sanitary, and staff and customers safe from illness or injury to avoid being closed by the health department or law enforcement. While all chefs have a role in preparing the food, developing recipes, determining serving sizes, planning menus, ordering food supplies, and overseeing kitchen operations to ensure uni form quality and presentation of meals, different types of chefs may have unique roles to perform or specialize in certain aspects of the job. Executive chefs, head cooks, and chefs de cuisine, are primarily responsible for coordinating the work of the cooks and directing the preparation of meals. Executive chefs are in charge of all food service operations and also may supervise several kitchens of a hotel, restaurant or corporate dining opera tion. A sous chef, or sub chef, is the second-in-command and runs the kitchen in the absence of the chef. Many chefs earn fame both for themselves and for their kitchens because of the quality and distinctive nature of the food they serve. As a greater variety of establishments prepare and serve food, chefs and head cooks and first-line supervisors of food Service Occupations 485 during peak dining times, workers must be able to communicate clearly so that food orders and service are done correctly. Work hours in restaurants may include early mornings, late evenings, holidays, and weekends. Schedules for those working in offices, factories and school cafeterias may be more regular. In fine-dining restaurants, work schedules tend to be longer because of the time required to prepare ingredients in advance. Many ex ecutive chefs regularly work 12-hour days because they oversee the delivery of foodstuffs early in the day, plan the menu, and prepare those menu items that require the most skill. Depending upon the days of operation, some chefs or other supervisors may take less busy days off to offset the longer hours on other days. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serving supervi sors work long hours preparing ingredients before cooking. preparation and serving workers can be found in a greater va riety of places. Grocery and specialty food stores employ these workers to develop recipes and prepare meals for customers to carry out. They increasingly work in residential care fa cilities, such as nursing homes, and in schools and hospitals. Some chefs and head cooks work for individuals rather than for restaurants, cafeterias, or food manufacturers. Personal chefs and private household cooks plan and prepare meals in private homes according to the client’s tastes or dietary needs. They order groceries and supplies, clean the kitchen, and wash dishes and utensils. They also may serve meals. Personal chefs usu ally prepare a week’s worth of meals in the client’s home for the client to heat and serve according to directions. They may be self-employed or work as part of a team of personal chefs and employed by a company that provides this service. Private household cooks typically work full time for one client, such as corporate executives, university presidents, or diplomats, who regularly entertain as a part of their official duties. While the work of chefs and head cooks is concentrated in the kitchen or in providing overall guidance, food preparation and serving supervisors oversee specific areas of operation in food service establishments or the kitchen and counter areas of quick service restaurants. In fast food and casual dining restaurants, they may share many of the same functions with food service manag ers. They are responsible for dealing with customer complaints, balancing the books at the end of the day, scheduling workers, and ordering supplies. They also supervise and train kitchen and food preparation staff and ensure that these workers know how to gather food supplies, operate equipment, and assemble orders. Work environment. Restaurants and other food service facili ties where these workers are employed are required to be clean and sanitary. Although the seating areas of eating places are often attractive, kitchens can be crowded and hot and filled with poten tial dangers, such as hot ovens and slippery floors. Job hazards for those working in kitchens include slips and falls, cuts, and bums, but these injuries are seldom serious. Chefs, head cooks, and supervisors are under constant pressure to get meals prepared quickly, while ensuring quality is maintained and safety and sani tation guidelines are observed. Because the pace can be hectic https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most workers in these occupations have prior experience in the food service or hospitality industries. Most start as food prep aration workers or line cooks in a full-service restaurant and work their way up to positions with more responsibility. Some attend cooking school or take vocational training classes and participate in internships or apprenticeship programs to acquire the additional skills needed to create menus and run a business. Education and training. While most chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serving supervisors have some postsecondary training, many experienced workers with less education can still be promoted. Formal training may take place at a community college, technical school, culinary arts school, or a 2-year or 4-year college with a degree in hospitality. A growing number of chefs participate in training programs sponsored by independent cooking schools, professional culinary institutes, 2-year or 4-year colleges with a hospitality or culinary arts department, or in the armed forces. Some large hotels and restaurants also operate their own training and job-placement programs for chefs and head cooks. Executive chefs, head cooks, and sous chefs who work in fine-dining restau rants require many years of training and experience. For students in culinary training programs, most of their time is spent in kitchens learning to prepare meals by practic ing cooking skills. They learn knife techniques and proper use and care of kitchen equipment. Training programs also include courses in nutrition, menu planning, portion control, purchas ing and inventory methods, proper food storage procedures, and use of leftover food to minimize waste. Students also learn sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Training in food service management, computer accounting and inventory software, and banquet service are featured in some training pro grams. Most formal training programs also require students to get experience in a commercial kitchen through an internship, apprenticeship, or out-placement program. Although formal training is an important way to enter the profession, many chefs are trained on the job, receiving real work experience and training from chef-mentors in the res taurants where they work. Others enter the profession through formal apprenticeship programs sponsored by professional cu linary institutes, industry associations, and trade unions in co ordination with the U.S. Department of Labor. The American Culinary Federation accredits more than 200 formal academic training programs and sponsors apprenticeship programs around the country. Typical apprenticeships last 2 years and combine classroom training and work experience. Accredita 486 Occupational Outlook Handbook tion is an indication that a culinary program meets recognized standards regarding course content, facilities, and quality of instruction. Other qualifications. Chefs, head cooks, and food prepara tion and serving supervisors must demonstrate strong leader ship and communication skills and have the ability to motivate others. Chefs and head cooks also must have an intense desire to cook, be creative, and have a keen sense of taste and smell. Personal cleanliness is essential because most States require health certificates indicating that workers are free from com municable diseases. Knowledge of a foreign language can be an asset because it may improve communication with other restau rant staff, vendors, and the restaurant’s clientele. Certification and advancement. The American Culinary Federation certifies pastry professionals, personal chefs, and culinary educators in addition to various levels of chefs. Certi fication standards are based primarily on experience and formal training. Although certification is not required, it can help to prove accomplishment and lead to advancement and higher paying positions. Advancement opportunities for chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serving supervisors depend on their training, work experience, ability to perform more responsible and so phisticated tasks, and their leadership abilities. Food preparation and serving supervisors may advance to be come food service managers while some chefs and head cooks may go into business as caterers or personal chefs or open their own restaurant. Others may become instructors in culinary training programs, consultants on kitchen design, or food prod uct or equipment sales representatives. A number of chefs and head cooks advance to executive chef positions or food service management positions. When staying in the restaurant busi ness, advancement usually involves moving to a better, busier, or bigger restaurant or working at the corporate level oversee ing several restaurants or food service facilities or testing new recipe, menu, or design concepts. (See the section on food ser vice managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serving supervisors held 941,600 jobs in 2008. Food preparation and serving super visors held 88 percent of these jobs and chefs and head cooks held the remaining 12 percent. Nearly half of chefs and head cooks were employed at full-service restaurants (those that had table service). About nine percent each were employed by hotels and the special food services industry that includes caterers and food service contractors. Eight percent were self-employed. Forty-three percent of food preparation and serving supervi sors were employed by limited-service eating places, made up mostly of cafeterias and fast food restaurants and other places that offer simple carry-out food items. Another 25 percent were employed by full-service restaurants. Supervisors are also found in schools, the special food services industry, and a wide variety of other places that serve food. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be good, despite slower than average employment growth, due to the large numbers of work ers who leave the occupation and need to be replaced. However, keen competition is expected for jobs at upscale restaurants that generally pay more. Employment change. Employment of chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serving supervisors is expected to increase by 6 percent over the 2008-18 decade, which is more slowly than the average for all occupations. Growth will be generated by in creases in population, a growing variety of dining venues, and continued demand for convenience. As more people opt for the time-saving ease of letting others do the cooking, the need for workers to oversee food preparation and serving will increase. Also, there is a growing consumer desire for healthier, madefrom-scratch meals that chefs and head cooks can better prepare. Job prospects. Job openings for chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serving supervisors are expected to be good through 2018; however, competition should be keen for jobs at the more upscale restaurants that tend to pay more. Workers with a good business sense will have better job prospects, especially at restaurant chains where attention to costs is very important. Although job growth will create many new positions, the major ity of job openings will stem from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. The fast pace, long hours, and high energy levels required for these jobs often lead to high turnover. Earnings Earnings of chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serv ing supervisors vary greatly by region and the type of employer. Earnings are usually highest in upscale restaurants and hotels, where many executive chefs are employed, and in major metro politan and resort areas. Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of chefs and head cooks were $38,770 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,050 and $51,540. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,120, and the highest 10 percent earned more than Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Supervisors, food preparation and serving workers................... .... Chefs and head cooks................................................................. .... First-line supervisors/managers of food preparation and serving workers.............................................................. .... soc Code Employment, 35-1000 35-1011 2008 941,600 108.300 35-1012 833.300 Projected Employment, Change, 2008-2018 2018 997,000 108,500 Number Percent 55,400 200 6 0 888,500 55,100 7 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 487 $66,680. Median annual wages in May 2008 in the industries employing the largest number of chefs and head cooks were: Other amusement and recreation industries...............$45,650 Traveler accommodation.............................................. 44,660 Special food services.................................................... 40,890 Full-service restaurants................................................ 36,700 Limited-service eating places....................................... 30,060 Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of food preparation and serving supervisors were $28,970 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,530 and $37,290. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,530, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $46,810. Median annual wages in May 2008 were $32,560 in full-service restaurants and $25,420 in limitedservice eating places, the industries employing the largest num bers of food preparation and serving supervisors. Some employers provide employees with uniforms and free meals, but Federal law permits employers to deduct from their employees’ wages the cost or fair value of any meals or lodging provided, and some employers do so. Chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serving supervisors who work full time of ten receive typical benefits, but part-time workers usually do not. In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees International Union and the Service Employees International Union. Related Occupations Other people who prepare food items include: Page Bakers....................................................................................... 726 Cooks and food preparation workers...................................... 487 Others who also work closely with these workers in the food service industry include: Food and beverage serving and related workers..................... 491 Food service managers............................................................... 55 Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Career information about chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers, including a directory of 2-year and 4-year colleges that offer courses or training programs is available from: y National Restaurant Association, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.restaurant.org Information on the American Culinary Federation’s culinary apprenticeship and certification programs and a list of accred ited culinary programs is available from: y American Culinary Federation, 180 Center Place Way, St. Augustine, FL 32095. Internet: http://www.acfchefs.org For information about becoming a personal or private chef, contact: y American Personal & Private Chef Association, 4572 Delaware St., San Diego, CA 92116. Internet: http://www.personalchef.com https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For information about culinary apprenticeship pro grams registered with the U.S. Department of Labor, con tact the local office of your State employment service agency, check the department’s apprenticeship web site: http://www.doleta.gov/OA/eta_default.cfm, or call the toll free helpline: (877) 872-5627. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos330.htm Cooks and Food Preparation Workers Significant Points • Many cooks and food preparation workers are young—35 percent are below the age of 24. • One-third of these workers are employed part time. • Job openings are expected to be plentiful because many of these workers will leave the occupation for full-time employment or better wages. Nature of the Work Cooks and food preparation workers prepare, season, and cook a wide range of foods—from soups, snacks, and salads to en trees, side dishes, and desserts. They work in a variety of res taurants, as well as other places where food is served, such as grocery stores, schools and hospitals. Cooks prepare and cook meals while food preparation workers assist cooks by perform ing tasks, such as peeling and cutting vegetables, trimming meat, preparing poultry, and keeping work areas clean and monitoring temperatures of ovens and stovetops. Specifically, cooks measure, mix, and cook ingredients ac cording to recipes, using a variety of equipment, including pots, pans, cutlery, ovens, broilers, grills, slicers, grinders, and blenders. Food preparation workers perform routine, re petitive tasks under the direction of chefs, head cooks, or food preparation and serving supervisors. These workers prepare the ingredients for complex dishes by slicing and dicing veg etables, and making salads and cold items. They weigh and measure ingredients, retrieve pots and pans, and stir and strain soups and sauces. Food preparation workers may also cut and grind meats, poultry, and seafood in preparation for cooking. They also clean work areas, equipment, utensils, dishes, and silverware. Larger restaurants and food service establishments tend to have varied menus and larger kitchen staffs. Teams of restaurant cooks, sometimes called assistant or line cooks, each work an assigned station that is equipped with the types of stoves, grills, pans, and ingredients needed for the foods prepared at that sta tion. Job titles often reflect the principal ingredient prepared or the type of cooking performed—vegetable cook, fry cook, or grill cook, for example. Chefs, head cooks, or food preparation and serving supervisors generally direct the work of cooks and food preparation workers (information on chefs, head cooks, 488 Occupational Outlook Handbook Slawl ifJf Cooks and food preparation workers must perform their duties quickly to keep up with food orders. and food preparation and serving supervisors is found else where in the Handbook.) The number, type, and responsibilities of cooks vary depend ing on where they work, the size of the facility, and the com plexity and level of service offered. Institution and cafeteria cooks, for example, work in the kitchens of schools, cafeterias, businesses, hospitals, and other institutions. For each meal, they prepare a large quantity of a limited number of entrees, vegetables, and desserts according to preset menus. Meals are generally prepared in advance so diners seldom get the oppor tunity to special order a meal. Restaurant cooks usually prepare a wider selection of dishes, cooking most orders individually. Short-order cooks prepare foods in restaurants and coffee shops that emphasize fast service and quick food preparation. They grill and garnish hamburgers, prepare sandwiches, fry eggs, and cook French fries, often working on several orders at the same time. Fast food cooks prepare a limited selection of menu items in fast-food restaurants. They cook and package food, such as hamburgers and fried chicken, to be kept warm until served. (Combined food preparation and serving workers, who prepare and serve items in fast-food restaurants, are included with the material on food and beverage serving and related workers else where in the Handbook.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Work environment. Many restaurant and institutional kitch ens have modem equipment, convenient work areas, and air conditioning, but kitchens in older and smaller eating places are often not as well designed. Kitchen staffs invariably work in small quarters against hot stoves and ovens. They are un der constant pressure to prepare meals quickly, while ensuring quality is maintained and safety and sanitation guidelines are observed. Because the pace can be hectic during peak dining times, workers must be able to communicate clearly so that food orders are completed correctly. Working conditions vary with the type and quantity of food prepared and the local laws governing food service operations. Workers usually must stand for hours at a time, lifting heavy pots and kettles, and working near hot ovens and grills. The in cidence of reported injuries for institution and cafeteria cooks, restaurant cooks, and food preparation workers was compara tively high compared to all occupations, but job hazards, such as falls, cuts, and bums, are seldom serious. Work hours in restaurants may include early mornings, late evenings, holidays, and weekends. Work schedules of cooks and food preparation workers in factory and school cafeterias may be more regular. In 2008, 31 percent of cooks and almost half of food preparation workers had part-time schedules, com pared to 16 percent of workers throughout the economy. Work schedules in fine-dining restaurants, however, tend to be longer because of the time required to prepare ingredients in advance. The wide range in dining hours and the need for fully-staffed kitchens during all open hours creates work opportunities for students, youth, and other individuals seeking supplemental in come, flexible work hours, or variable schedules. Sixteen per cent of cooks and food preparation workers were 16 to 19 years old in 2008 and another 18 percent were aged 20 to 24. Kitchen workers employed by schools may work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Similarly, resort establish ments usually only offer seasonal employment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement On-the-job training is the most common method of learning for cooks and food preparation workers; however, restaurant cooks and other cooks who want to take on more advanced cooking duties often attend cooking school. Vocational training programs are available to many high school students and may lead to posi tions in restaurants. Experience, enthusiasm, and a desire to learn are the most common requirements for advancement to higher skilled cooking jobs or positions in higher paying restaurants. Education and training. A high school diploma is not re quired for beginning jobs but is recommended for those plan ning a career in food services. Most fast-food or short-order cooks and food preparation workers learn their skills on the job. Training generally starts with basic sanitation and workplace safety regulations and continues with instruction on food han dling, preparation, and cooking procedures. Although most cooks and food preparation workers learn on the job, students with an interest in food service may be able to take high school or vocational school courses in kitchen basics and food safety and handling procedures. Additional training opportunities are also offered by many State employment ser vices agencies and local job counseling centers. For example, many school districts, in cooperation with State departments of Service Occupations 489 education, provide on-the-job training and summer workshops for cafeteria kitchen workers who aspire to become cooks. When hiring restaurant cooks, employers usually prefer ap plicants who have training after high school. These training programs range from a few months to 2 years or more. Voca tional or trade-school programs typically offer basic training in food handling and sanitation procedures, nutrition, slicing and dicing methods for various kinds of meats and vegetables, and basic cooking techniques, such as baking, broiling, and grill ing. Longer certificate or degree granting programs, through independent cooking schools, professional culinary institutes, or college degree programs, train cooks who aspire to more re sponsible positions in fine-dining or upscale restaurants. They offer a wider array of training specialties, such as advanced cooking techniques; cooking for banquets, buffets, or parties; and cuisines and cooking styles from around the world. Some large hotels, restaurants, and the Armed Forces operate their own training and job-placement programs. Professional culinary institutes, industry associations, and trade unions may also sponsor formal apprenticeship pro grams for cooks in coordination with the U.S. Department of Labor. The American Culinary Federation accredits more than 200 formal academic training programs and sponsors appren ticeship programs around the country. Typical apprenticeships last 2 years and combine classroom training and work expe rience. Accreditation is an indication that a culinary program meets recognized standards regarding course content, facilities, and quality of instruction. Other qualifications. Cooks and food preparation work ers must be efficient, quick, and work well as part of a team. Manual dexterity is helpful for cutting, chopping, and plating. These workers also need creativity and a keen sense of taste and smell. Personal cleanliness is essential because most States require health certificates indicating that workers are free from communicable diseases. Knowledge of a foreign language can be an asset because it may improve communication with other restaurant staff, vendors, and the restaurant’s clientele. Certification and advancement. The American Culinary Federation certifies chefs in different skill levels. For cooks seeking certification and advancement to higher-level chef po sitions, certification can help to demonstrate accomplishment and lead to higher-paying positions. Advancement opportunities for cooks and food preparation workers depend on their training, work experience, and abil ity to perform more responsible and sophisticated tasks. Many food preparation workers, for example, may move into assistant or line cook positions or take on more complex food prepara tion tasks. Cooks who demonstrate an eagerness to learn new cooking skills and to accept greater responsibility may also ad vance and be asked to train or supervise lesser skilled kitchen staff. Some may become head cooks, chefs, or food prepara tion and serving supervisors. (See the section on chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serving supervisors elsewhere in the Handbook.) Others may find it necessary to move to other restaurants, often larger or more prestigious ones, in order to advance. Employment Cooks and food preparation workers held 3.0 million jobs in 2008. The distribution of jobs among the various types of cooks and food preparation workers was as follows: Cooks, restaurant....................................................... 914,200 Food preparation workers.......................................... 891,900 Cooks, fast food......................................................... 566,000 Cooks, institution andcafeteria...................................392,800 Cooks, short order...................................................... 171,400 Cooks, private household...............................................4,900 Cooks, all other............................................................ 18,000 Two-thirds of all cooks and food preparation workers were employed in restaurants and other food services and drinking places. About 16 percent worked in institutions such as schools, universities, hospitals, and nursing care facilities. Grocery stores and hotels employed most of the remainder. Job Outlook Job opportunities for cooks and food preparation workers are expected to be good because of high turnover and the need to replace the workers who leave these occupations. The enjoy ment of eating out and a preference for ready-made meals from a growing population will cause employment of these workers to increase, but slower than the average rate for all occupations over the 2008-18 decade. Employment change. Employment of cooks and food preparation workers is expected to increase by 6 percent over Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Cooks and food preparation workers............................ ..................... 35-2000 2,958,100 3,149,600 6 191,500 Cooks................................................................ 2,066,200 2,220,000 153,800 7 Cooks, fast food............................................ 566,000 608,400 42,400 7 Cooks, institution and cafeteria............................. ..................... 35-2012 391,800 10 429,700 37,900 Cooks, private household....................................... ..................... 35-2013 4,900 200 5,100 4 Cooks, restaurant..................................................... 914,200 984,400 8 70,300 Cooks, short order......................................... 171,400 100 0 171,500 Cooks, all other................................................. 18,000 20,900 2,900 16 Food preparation workers.......................................... 891,900 929.600 37.800 4 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2008 490 Occupational Outlook Handbook the 2008-18 decade, more slowly than the average for all oc cupations. People will continue to enjoy eating out and tak ing meals home. In response, more restaurants will open and nontraditional food service operations, such as those found in side grocery and convenience stores, will serve more prepared food items. Other places that have dining rooms and cafeteriassuch as schools, hospitals, and residential care facilities for the elderly-will open new or expanded food service operations to meet the needs of their growing customer base. Among food services and drinking places, special food ser vices, which include caterers and food service operators who often provide meals in hospitals, office buildings, or sporting venues on a contract basis, are expected to grow the fastest dur ing the projection period. These companies typically employ large numbers of cafeteria and institution cooks and other cooks who perform cooking duties; employment in these occupations is expected to grow 10 percent and 16 percent, respectively. Full-service restaurants also will continue to attract patrons and grow in number, but not as fast as the previous decade. As restaurants increase their focus on the carryout business, cooks and food preparation workers will be needed to compete with limited service restaurants and grocery stores. Employment of restaurant cooks is expected to grow by 8 percent. Limited service eating places, such as fast-food restaurants, sandwich and coffee shops, and other eating places without table service, also are expected to grow during the projection period, as people place greater emphasis on value, quick ser vice, and carryout capability. This will generate greater demand for fast-food cooks. Employment of fast food cooks is expected to increase by 7 percent. Employment of private household cooks should grow 4 per cent, or more slowly than the average for all occupations, and employment of short-order cooks is expected to grow by less than 1 percent, which represents little to no change. Food preparation workers are expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations, or 4 percent. As restaurants and quick service eating places find more efficient ways of pre paring meals-such as at central kitchens that may serve mul tiple outlets or in wholesale and distribution facilities that wash, portion, and season ingredients-food preparation will become simpler, allowing these lower-skilled workers to take on more varied tasks in a growing number of eating places. Additionally, foods requiring simple preparation will increasingly be sold at convenience stores, snack shops, and in grocery stores, which also will employ food preparation workers. Job prospects. In spite of slower-than-average employment growth, job opportunities for cooks and food preparation work ers are expected to be good, primarily because of the very large number of workers that will need to be replaced because of high turnover. Because many of these jobs are part time, people often leave for full-time positions. Individuals seeking full-time posi tions at high-end restaurants might encounter competition as the number of job applicants exceeds the number of job open ings. Generally, there is lower turnover for full-time jobs and at established restaurants that pay well. Earnings Earnings of cooks and food preparation workers vary greatly by region and the type of employer. Earnings usually are highest in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis fine dining restaurants and nicer hotels that have more exacting work standards. These restaurants are usually found in greater numbers in major metropolitan and resort areas. Median annual wages of cooks, private household were $24,070 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,030 and $36,590. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,230, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $56,280. Median annual wages of institution and cafeteria cooks were $22,210 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,850 and $27,460. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,220, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33,050. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of institution and cafeteria cooks were; General medical and surgical hospitals......................$25,070 Special food services.................................................... 23,550 Community care facilities for the elderly.....................22,910 Nursing care facilities..................................................22,140 Elementary and secondary schools..............................20,460 Median annual wages of restaurant cooks were $21,990 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,230 and $26,150. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,880, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $31,330. Median an nual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of restaurant cooks were: Traveler accommodation............................................$25,570 Other amusement and recreation industries................ 24,760 Special food services.................................................... 24,180 Drinking places (alcoholic beverages).........................22,210 Full-service restaurants................................................ 21,770 Limited-service eating places....................................... 19,060 Median annual wages of short-order cooks were $19,260 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 16,280 and $23,450. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,740, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27,630. Median annual wages in the in dustries employing the largest numbers of short-order cooks were: Full-service restaurants.............................................. $19,600 Drinking places (alcoholic beverages)......................... 19,550 Grocery stores...............................................................19,540 Other amusement and recreation industries.................18,720 Limited-service eating places....................................... 17,910 Median annual wages of food preparation workers were $18,630 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,180 and $22,500. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,730, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27,440. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest number of food preparation workers were: Grocery stores............................................................ $19,580 Full-service restaurants................................................ 18,580 Limited-service eating places....................................... 16,790 Median annual wages of fast-food cooks were $16,880 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 15,470 and $ 19,240. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,090, and the highest 10 Service Occupations 491 percent earned more than $22,080. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest number of fast-food cooks were: Grocery stores............................................................ $19,180 Full-service restaurants............................................... 17,250 Limited-service eating places...................................... 16,820 Gasoline stations..........................................................] 6,640 Some employers provide employees with uniforms and free meals, but Federal law permits employers to deduct from their employees’ wages the cost or fair value of any meals or lodging provided, and some employers do so. Cooks and food prepara tion workers who work full time often receive typical benefits, but part-time and hourly workers usually do not. In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees International Union and the Service Em ployees International Union. Food and Beverage Serving and Related Workers Significant Points • Most jobs are part time and have few educational re quirements, attracting many young people to the oc cupation—21 percent of these workers were 16 to 19 years old in 2008, about six times the proportion for all workers. • Job openings are expected to be abundant through 2018, which will create excellent opportunities for jobseekers. • Tips comprise a major portion of earnings for servers, so keen competition is expected for jobs in fine din ing and more popular restaurants where potential tips are greatest. Related Occupations Other occupations in the food service industry include: Page Bakers....................................................................................... 726 Butchers and meat cutters........................................................726 Chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serving supervisors........................................................484 Food and beverage serving and related workers..................... 491 Food service managers............................................................... 55 Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from lo cal employers and local offices of the State employment ser vice. Career information for cooks and other kitchen workers, in cluding a directory of 2- and 4-year colleges that offer courses or training programs, is available from: y National Restaurant Association, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.restaurant.org Information on the American Culinary Federation’s appren ticeship and certification programs for cooks and a list of ac credited culinary programs is available from: y American Culinary Federation, 180 Center Place Way, St. Nature of the Work Food and beverage serving and related workers are the front line of customer service in full-service restaurants, casual din ing eateries, and other food service establishments. These work ers greet customers, escort them to seats and hand them menus, take food and drink orders, and serve food and beverages. They also answer questions, explain menu items and specials, and keep tables and dining areas clean and set for new diners. Most work as part of a team, helping coworkers to improve workflow and customer service. Waiters and waitresses, also called servers, are the largest group of these workers. They take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, prepare itemized checks, and sometimes accept payment. Their specific duties vary considerably, depending on the establishment. In casual-dining restaurants serving routine, straightforward fare, such as salads, soups, and sandwiches, servers are expected to provide fast, efficient, and courteous service. In fine dining restaurants, where more complicated meals are prepared and often served over several courses, wait ers and waitresses provide more formal service emphasizing personal, attentive treatment at a more leisurely pace. Waiters Augustine, FL 32095. Internet: http://www.acfchefs.org For information about culinary apprenticeship pro grams registered with the U.S. Department of Labor, con tact the local office of your State employment service agency or check the department’s apprenticeship Web site: http://www.doleta.gov/atels_bat, or call the toll free helpline: (877) 872-5627. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos331 .htm Digitized http for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ' ■ t Food and beverage serving workers assist diners at cafeterias. 492 Occupational Outlook Handbook and waitresses may meet with managers and chefs before each shift to discuss the menu and any new items or specials, review ingredients for potential food allergies, or talk about any food safety concerns. They also discuss coordination between the kitchen and the dining room and any customer service issues from the previous day or shift. In addition, waiters and wait resses usually check the identification of patrons to ensure they meet the minimum age requirement for the purchase of alcohol and tobacco products wherever those items are sold. Waiters and waitresses sometimes perform the duties of other food and beverage service workers, including escorting guests to tables, serving customers seated at counters, clearing and setting up tables, or operating a cash register. However, fullservice restaurants frequently hire other staff, such as hosts and hostesses, cashiers, or dining room attendants, to perform these duties. Bartenders fill drink orders either taken directly from patrons at the bar or through waiters and waitresses who place drink orders for dining room customers. Bartenders check the iden tification of customers seated at the bar to ensure they meet the minimum age requirement for the purchase of alcohol and tobacco products. They prepare mixed drinks, serve bottled or draught beer, and pour wine or other beverages. Bartenders must know a wide range of drink recipes and be able to mix drinks accurately, quickly, and without waste. Some establish ments, especially those with higher volume, use equipment that automatically measures, pours, and mixes drinks at the push of a button. Bartenders who use this equipment, however, still must work quickly to handle a large volume of drink orders and be familiar with the ingredients for special drink requests. Much of a bartender’s work still must be done by hand. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders stock and pre pare garnishes for drinks; maintain an adequate supply of ice, glasses, and other bar supplies; and keep the bar area clean for customers. They also may collect payment, operate the cash register, wash glassware and utensils, and serve food to cus tomers who dine at the bar. Bartenders usually are responsible for ordering and maintaining an inventory of liquor, mixers, and other bar supplies. Hosts and hostesses welcome guests and maintain reserva tion and waiting lists. They may direct patrons to coatrooms, restrooms, or to a place to wait until their table is ready. Hosts and hostesses assign guests to tables suitable for the size of their group, escort patrons to their seats, and provide menus. They also enter reservations, arrange parties, and assist with other special requests. In some restaurants, they act as cashiers. Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers— sometimes referred to collectively as the bus staff—assist waiters, waitresses, and bartenders by cleaning and setting tables, remov ing dirty dishes, and keeping serving areas stocked with supplies. They may also assist waiters and waitresses by bringing meals out of the kitchen, distributing dishes to individual diners, filling wa ter glasses, and delivering condiments. Cafeteria attendants stock serving tables with food, trays, dishes, and silverware. They may carry trays to dining tables for patrons. Bartender helpers keep bar equipment clean and glasses washed. Dishwashers clean dishes, cutlery, and kitchen utensils and equipment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Food also is prepared and served in limited-service eater ies, which don’t employ servers and specialize in simpler preparations that often are made in advance. Two occupations with large numbers of workers are common in these types of establishments: combined food preparation and serving work ers, including fastfood\ and counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop. Combined food preparation and serving workers are employed primarily by fast food restau rants. They take food and beverage orders, retrieve items when ready, fill drink cups, and accept payment. They also may heat food items and assemble salads and sandwiches, which constitutes food preparation. Counter attendants take orders and serve food in snack bars, cafeterias, movie theatres, and coffee shops over a counter or steam table. They may fill cups with coffee, soda, and other beverages and may prepare foun tain specialties, such as milkshakes and ice cream sundaes. Counter attendants take carryout orders from diners and wrap or place items in containers. They clean counters, write item ized bills, and sometimes accept payment. Other workers, re ferred to as foodservers, nonrestaurant, serve food to patrons outside of a restaurant environment. They might deliver room service meals in hotels or meals to hospital rooms or act as carhops, bringing orders to parked cars. Work environment. Food and beverage service workers are on their feet most of the time and often carry heavy trays of food, dishes, and glassware. During busy dining periods, they are un der pressure to serve customers quickly and efficiently. The work is relatively safe, but injuries from slips, cuts, and bums often result from hurrying or mishandling sharp tools. Three occupations—food servers, nonrestaurant; dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers; and dishwashers— reported higher incident rates than many occupations throughout the economy. Part-time work is more common among food and beverage serving and related workers than among workers in almost any other occupation. In 2008, those on part-time schedules included half of all waiters and waitresses and almost threefourths of all hosts and hostesses. Food service and drinking establishments typically maintain long dining hours and offer flexible and varied work opportuni ties. Many food and beverage serving and related workers work evenings, weekends, and holidays. The long business hours allow for more flexible schedules that appeal to many teenagers who can gain valuable work experience. More than one-fifth of all food and beverage serving and related workers were 16 to 19 years old in 2008—about six times the proportion for all workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most food and beverage service jobs are entry level and require a high school diploma or less. Generally, training is received on the job; however, those who wish to work at more upscale res taurants, where income from tips is greater and service standards are higher, may need previous experience or vocational training. Education and training. There are no specific educational requirements for most food and beverage service jobs. Many employers prefer to hire high school graduates for waiter and waitress, bartender, and host and hostess positions, but comple tion of high school usually is not required for fast-food workers, counter attendants, dishwashers, and dining room attendants and bartender helpers. Many entrants to these jobs are in their late teens or early twenties and have a high school education or less. Usually, they have little or no work experience. Food and beverage service jobs are a major source of part-time employ ment for high school and college students, multiple job holders, and those seeking supplemental incomes. All new employees receive some training from their em ployer. They learn safe food handling procedures and sanita tion practices, for example. Some employers, particularly those in fast-food restaurants, teach new workers using self-study programs, on-line programs, audiovisual presentations, and in structional booklets that explain food preparation and service skills. But most food and beverage serving and related work ers pick up their skills by observing and working with more experienced workers. Some full-service restaurants also pro vide new dining room employees with some form of classroom training that alternates with periods of on-the-job work experi ence. These training programs communicate the operating phi losophy of the restaurant, help establish a personal rapport with other staff, teach formal serving techniques, and instill a desire to work as a team. They also provide an opportunity to discuss customer service situations and the proper ways to handle un pleasant circumstances or unruly patrons. Some food serving workers can acquire more skills by at tending relevant classes offered by public or private vocational schools, restaurant associations, or large restaurant chains. Some bartenders acquire their skills through formal voca tional training either by attending a school for bartending or a vocational and technical school where bartending classes are taught. These programs often include instruction on State and local laws and regulations, cocktail recipes, proper attire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some of these schools help their graduates find jobs. Although few employers require any mini mum level of educational attainment, some specialized training is usually needed in food handling and legal issues surrounding serving alcoholic beverages. Employers are more likely to hire and promote employees based on people skills and personal qualities than education. Other qualifications. Restaurants rely on good food and cus tomer service to retain loyal customers and succeed in a com petitive industry. Food and beverage serving and related workers who exhibit excellent personal qualities—such as a neat appear ance, an ability to work as part of a team, and a natural rapport with customers—will be highly sought after. Most States require workers who serve alcoholic beverages to be at least 18 years of age, but some States require servers to be older. For bartender jobs, many employers prefer to hire people who are 25 or older. All servers that serve alcohol need to be familiar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Waiters and waitresses need a good memory to avoid confus ing customers’ orders and to recall faces, names, and prefer ences of frequent patrons. Knowledge of a foreign language can be helpful to communicate with a diverse clientele and staff. Restaurants and hotels that have rigid table service standards often offer higher wages and have greater income potential from tips, but they may also have stiffer employment require https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 493 ments, such as prior table service experience or higher educa tion attainment than other establishments. Advancement. Due to the relatively small size of most food serving establishments, opportunities for promotion are lim ited. After gaining experience, some dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers advance to waiter, waitress, or bartender jobs. For waiters, waitresses, and bartenders, ad vancement usually is limited to finding a job in a busier or more expensive restaurant or bar where prospects for tip earnings are better. Some bartenders, hosts and hostesses, and waiters and waitresses advance to supervisory jobs, such as dining room supervisor, maitre d ’, assistant manager, or restaurant general manager. A few bartenders open their own businesses. In larger restaurant chains, food and beverage service workers who excel often are invited to enter the company’s formal management training program. (For more information, see food service man agers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Food and beverage serving and related workers held 7.7 million jobs in 2008. The distribution of jobs among the various food and beverage serving occupations was as follows: Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food............................................... 2,701,700 Waiters and waitresses............................................2,381,600 Counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop....................................................... 525,400 Dishwashers............................................................... 522,900 Bartenders.................................................................. 508,700 Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers.................................................... 420,700 Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge, and coffee shop.............................................................. 350,700 Food servers, nonrestaurant........................................ 189,800 All other food preparation and serving related workers......................................................... 50,900 The overwhelming majority of jobs for food and beverage serv ing and related workers were found in food services and drinking places, such as restaurants, fast food outlets, bars, and catering or contract food service operations. Other jobs were in hotels, motels, and other traveler accommodation establishments; amusement, gambling, and recreation establishments; educational services; nursing care facilities; and civic and social organizations. Jobs are located throughout the country but are more plentiful in larger cities and tourist areas. Vacation resorts offer seasonal employment. Job Outlook Average employment growth is expected, and job opportuni ties should be excellent for food and beverage serving and re lated workers as turnover is generally very high among these workers, but job competition is often keen for jobs at upscale restaurants. Employment change. Overall employment of these workers is expected to increase by 10 percent over the 2008-18 decade, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. Food and beverage serving and related workers are projected to have one of the largest numbers of new jobs arise, about 761,000, 494 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Food and beverage serving and related workers................................ Food and beverage serving workers................................................ Bartenders...................................................................................... Fast food and counter workers..................................................... Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food................................................................ Counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop..................................................................... Waiters and waitresses.................................................................. Food servers, nonrestaurant......................................................... Other food preparation and serving related workers..................... Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers.... Dishwashers................................................................................... Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge, and coffee shop......... Food preparation and serving related workers, all other........... 35-3000 35-3011 35-3020 7,652,400 6,307,200 508,700 3,227,100 Projected Employment, 2018 8,413,100 6,962,300 549,500 3,670,400 35-3021 2,701,700 3,096,000 SOC Code - Employment, 2008 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 10 760,700 10 655,100 8 40,800 443,300 14 394,300 15 35-3022 35-3031 35-3041 35-9000 35-9011 35-9021 35-9031 35-9099 525,400 574,400 49,000 9 6 2,381,600 2,533,300 151,600 10 189,800 209,100 19,300 8 1,345,200 1,450,800 105,600 6 420,700 23,300 444,000 12 522,900 583,400 60,400 6 350,700 373,400 22,800 -2 50,000 -900 50,900 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. over this period. The growth in jobs is expected to increase as the population continues to expand. However, employment will grow more slowly than in the past as people change their dining habits. The growing popularity of take-out food and the grow ing number and variety of places that offer carryout options, including at many full-service restaurants, will slow the growth of waiters and waitresses and other serving workers. Projected employment growth will vary by job type. Employ ment of combined food preparation and serving workers, which includes fast-food workers, is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations. The limited service segment of the food services and drinking places industry has a low price advantage, fast service, and has been adding healthier foods. Slower than average employment growth is expected for wait ers and waitresses, hosts and hostesses, and dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers, as more people use take-out service. Employment of bartenders, dishwashers, and counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop will grow about as fast as average. Nonrestaurant servers, such as those who deliver food trays in hotels, hospitals, residential care facilities, or catered events, are expected to have average employment growth. Job prospects. Job opportunities at most eating and drinking places will be excellent because many people in these occupa tions change jobs frequently, which creates a large number of openings. Keen competition is expected, however, for jobs in popular restaurants and fine dining establishments, where po tential earnings from tips are greatest. Earnings Food and beverage serving and related workers derive their earnings from a combination of hourly wages and customer tips. Earnings vary greatly, depending on the type of job and establishment. For example, fast-food workers and hosts and hostesses usually do not receive tips, so their wage rates may be higher than those of waiters and waitresses and bartenders in full-service restaurants, but their overall earnings might be lower. In many full-service restaurants, tips are higher than https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis wages. In some restaurants, workers contribute all or a portion of their tips to a tip pool, which is distributed among qualify ing workers. Tip pools allow workers who don’t usually receive tips directly from customers, such as dining room attendants, to feel a part of a team and to share in the rewards of good service. In May 2008, median hourly wages (including tips) of wait ers and waitresses were $8.01. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.32 and $10.35. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.73, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $14.26 an hour. For most waiters and waitresses, higher earnings are primarily the result of receiving more in tips rather than higher hourly wages. Tips usually average between 10 percent and 20 percent of guests’ checks; waiters and waitresses working in busy or expensive restaurants earn the most. Bartenders had median hourly wages (including tips) of $8.54. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.53 and $10.98. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.00, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $14.93 an hour. Like waiters and waitresses, bartenders employed in public bars may receive more than half of their earnings as tips. Service bartenders often are paid higher hourly wages to offset their lower tip earnings. Median hourly wages (including tips) of dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers were $8.05. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.39 and $9.44. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.82, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $11.67 an hour. Most received over half of their earnings as wages; the rest of their income was a share of the proceeds from tip pools. Median hourly wages of hosts and hostesses were $8.42. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.50 and $9.70. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.88, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $11.89 an hour. Wages comprised the major ity of their earnings. In some cases, wages were supplemented by proceeds from tip pools. Median hourly wages of combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food, were $7.90. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.26 and $9.12. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $6.67, and the highest 10 percent earned Service Occupations 495 more than $10.67 an hour. Although some combined food prep aration and serving workers receive a part of their earnings as tips, fast-food workers usually do not. Median hourly wages of counter attendants in cafeterias, food concessions, and coffee shops (including tips) were $8.42. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.57 and $9.64 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.97, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 11.73 an hour. Median hourly wages of dishwashers were $8.19. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.47 and $9.35. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.90, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.74 an hour. Median hourly wages of food servers outside of restaurants were $9.32. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.93 and $11.64. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.20, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $14.69 an hour. Many beginning or inexperienced workers earn the Federal minimum wage ($7.25 per hour as of July 24, 2009), but many States set minimum wages higher than the Federal minimum. Also, various minimum wage exceptions apply under specific circumstances to disabled workers, full-time students, youth under age 20 in their first 90 days of employment, tipped em ployees, and student-learners. Tipped employees are those who customarily and regularly receive more than $30 a month in tips. The employer may consider tips as part of wages, but the employer must pay at least $2.13 an hour in direct wages. Many employers provide free meals and furnish uniforms, but some may deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of any meals or lodging provided. Food and beverage service work ers who work full time often receive typical benefits, but part time workers usually do not. In some large restaurants and ho tels, food and beverage serving and related workers belong to unions—principally the Unite HERE and the Service Employ ees International Union. Related Occupations Other workers who prepare or serve food and drink for diners include: Page Cashiers.................................................................................... 530 Chefs, head cooks, and food preparation and serving supervisors...............................................................484 Cooks and food preparation workers...................................... 487 Flight attendants.......................................................................517 Retail salespersons...................................................................543 Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from lo cal employers and local offices of State employment services agencies. A guide to careers in restaurants plus a list of 2- and 4-year colleges offering food service programs and related scholarship information is available from: y National Restaurant Association, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.restaurant.org For general information on hospitality careers, contact: y International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 2810 North Parham Rd„ Suite 230, Richmond, VA 23294. Internet: http://www.chrie.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl62.htm Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations Building Cleaning Workers Significant Points • Entry-level workers need no formal education and learn on the job. • Most job openings result from the need to replace the many workers who leave this very large occupation. • Job prospects are expected to be good. Nature of the Work Building cleaning workers keep office buildings, hospitals, stores, apartment houses, hotels, and residences clean, sanitary, and in good condition. Some do only cleaning, while others have a wide range of duties. Janitors and cleaners perform a variety of heavy cleaning du such as cleaning floors, shampooing mgs, washing walls Digitized ties, for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and glass, and removing trash. They may fix leaky faucets, empty trash cans, do painting and carpentry, replenish bathroom supplies, mow lawns, and see that heating and air-conditioning equipment works properly. On a typical day, janitors may wetor-dry-mop floors, clean bathrooms, vacuum carpets, dust furni ture, make minor repairs, and exterminate insects and rodents. They may also clean snow or debris from sidewalks in front of buildings and notify management of the need for major repairs. While janitors typically perform most of the duties mentioned, cleaners tend to work for companies that specialize in one type of cleaning activity, such as washing windows. Maids and housekeeping cleaners perform any combination of light cleaning duties to keep private households or commer cial establishments, such as hotels, restaurants, hospitals, and nursing homes, clean and orderly. In private households, they dust and polish furniture; sweep, mop, and wax floors; vacuum; and clean ovens, refrigerators, and bathrooms. They also may wash dishes, polish silver, and change and make beds. Some 496 Occupational Outlook Handbook Ipfp||| I M$*:. * ' Building cleaning workers are employed in hospitals, office buildings, and other settings. wash, fold, and iron clothes; a few wash windows. General houseworkers also may take clothes and laundry to the clean ers, buy groceries, and perform other errands. In hotels, aside from cleaning and maintaining the premises, maids and house keeping cleaners may deliver ironing boards, cribs, and rollaway beds to guests’ rooms. In hospitals, they also may wash bed frames, make beds, and disinfect and sanitize equipment and supplies with germicides. Janitors, maids, and cleaners use many kinds of equipment, tools, and cleaning materials. For one job, they may need standard cleaning implements; another may require an electric floor polishing machine and a special clean ing solution. Improved building materials, chemical cleaners, and power equipment have made many tasks easier and less time consuming, but cleaning workers must learn the proper use of equipment and cleaners to avoid harming floors, fixtures, building occupants, and themselves. Cleaning supervisors coordinate, schedule, and supervise the activities of janitors and cleaners. They assign tasks and inspect building areas to see that work has been done properly; they also issue supplies and equipment and inventory stocks to en sure that supplies on hand are adequate. They may be expected to screen and hire job applicants; train new and experienced employees; and recommend promotions, transfers, or dismiss als. Supervisors may prepare reports concerning the occupancy of rooms, hours worked, and department expenses. Some also perform cleaning duties. Building cleaning workers in large office and residential buildings, and more recently in large hotels, often work in teams consisting of workers who specialize in vacuuming, picking up trash, and cleaning restrooms, among other things. Supervisors conduct inspections to ensure that the building is cleaned prop erly and the team is functioning efficiently. In hotels, one mem ber of the team is responsible for reporting electronically to the supervisor when rooms are cleaned. Work environment. Because office buildings generally are cleaned while they are empty, many cleaning workers work evening hours. Some, however, such as school and hospital cus todians, work in the daytime. When there is a need for 24-hour maintenance, janitors may be assigned to shifts. Many full-time building cleaners worked about 40 hours a week in 2008, but a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis substantial number worked part time. Part-time cleaners usually work in the evenings and on weekends. Most building cleaning workers work indoors, but some work outdoors part of the time, sweeping walkways, mowing lawns, or shoveling snow. Working with machines can be noisy, and some tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms and trash rooms, can be dirty and unpleasant. Building cleaning workers experience in juries more frequently than workers in most other occupations. They may suffer cuts, bruises, and burns from machines, handtools, and chemicals. They spend most of their time on their feet, sometimes lifting or pushing heavy furniture or equip ment. Many tasks, such as dusting or sweeping, require con stant bending, stooping, and stretching. Lifting the increasingly heavier mattresses at nicer hotels in order to change the linens can cause back injuries and sprains. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most building cleaning workers, except supervisors, do not need any formal education and mainly learn their skills on the job or in informal training sessions sponsored by their employ ers. Supervisors, though, generally have at least a high school diploma and often some college. Education and training. No special education is required for most entry-level janitorial or cleaning jobs, but workers should be able to perform simple arithmetic and follow instructions. High school shop courses are helpful for jobs involving repair work. Most building cleaners learn their skills on the job. Beginners usu ally work with an experienced cleaner, doing routine cleaning. As they gain more experience, they are assigned more complicated tasks. In some cities, programs ran by unions, government agen cies, or employers teach janitorial skills. Students learn how to clean buildings thoroughly and efficiently; how to select and safely use various cleansing agents; and how to operate and main tain machines, such as wet-and-dry vacuums, buffers, and polish ers. Students learn to plan their work, to follow safety and health regulations, to interact positively with people in the buildings they clean, and to work without supervision. Instruction in minor elec trical, plumbing, and other repairs also may be given. Supervisors of building cleaning workers usually need at least a high school diploma, but many have completed some college or earned a degree, especially those who work at places where clean rooms and well-functioning buildings are a neces sity, such as in hospitals and hotels. In many establishments, they are required to take some in-service training to improve their housekeeping techniques and procedures and to enhance their supervisory skills. Other qualifications. Employers usually look for depend able, hard-working individuals who are in good health, follow directions well, and get along with other people. Certification and advancement. A small number of clean ing supervisors and managers are members of the International Executive Housekeepers Association, which offers two kinds of certification programs for cleaning supervisors and managers: Certified Executive Housekeeper (CEH) and Registered Execu tive Housekeeper (REH). The CEH designation is offered to those with a high school education, while the REH designation is offered to those who have a 4-year college degree. Both des ignations are earned by attending courses and passing exams Service Occupations 497 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title SOC Code Employment, 2008 Projected Employment, 2018 4,343,300 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 204,300 5 Building cleaning workers.......................................................... 4,139,000 ....... First-line supervisors/managers of housekeeping and janitorial workers.......................................................... ......... 37-1011 251,100 263,900 12,800 5 Building cleaning workers...................................................... ......... 37-2010 3,887,900 4,079,400 191,500 5 Janitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners............................................. ......... 37-2011 2,375,300 2,479,400 104,100 4 Maids and housekeeping cleaners..................................... ......... 37-2012 6 1,498,200 1,583,700 85,600 Building cleaning workers, all other................................. ......... 37-2019 12 14,500 16,200 1,700 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa■ tion Included in the Handbook. and both must be renewed every 3 years to ensure that workers keep abreast of new cleaning methods. Those with the REH designation usually oversee the cleaning services of hotels, hospitals, casinos, and other large institutions that rely on welltrained experts for their cleaning needs. Advancement opportunities for workers usually are limited in organizations where they are the only maintenance worker. Where there is a large maintenance staff, however, cleaning workers can be promoted to supervisor or to area supervisor or manager. Some janitors open their own maintenance or cleaning businesses. Employment Building cleaning workers held about 4.1 million jobs in 2008. About 299,000 were self-employed. Janitors and cleaners worked in nearly every type of estab lishment and held about 2.4 million jobs. Around 33 percent of janitors worked for firms supplying services to buildings and dwellings, about 20 percent were employed in educational services, and 6 percent worked in government. About 132,700 were self employed. Maids and housekeepers held about 1.5 million jobs. Private households employed about 30 percent of these workers, while hotels, motels, and other traveler accommodations employed 29 percent. Hospitals, nursing homes, and other residential care facilities employed about 17 percent. Although cleaning jobs can be found in all cities and towns, most are located in highly populated areas where there are many office buildings, schools, apartment houses, nursing homes, and hospitals. About 106,900 maids and housekeeping cleaners were self employed in 2008. First-line supervisors of housekeeping and janitorial work ers held 251,100 jobs. Approximately 22 percent worked in firms supplying services to buildings and dwellings, while ap proximately 15 percent were employed in educational services. About 12 percent worked in hotels, motels, and all other trav eler accommodation while about 9 percent worked in health care organizations. About 58,400 were self employed. Job Outlook Overall employment of building cleaning workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average, and job opportunities are expected to be good. Employment change. The number of building clean ing workers is expected to grow by 5 percent from 2008 and 2018, more slowly than the average for all occupations. Un like some occupations, increased productivity is not expected to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis impact the employment of building cleaning workers. Despite small improvements in cleaning supplies, tools, and processes, roughly the same number of workers will be needed for any given building. Employment of janitors and cleaners is projected to increase by 4 percent, more slowly than the average for all occupations. As the pace of construction contracts and fewer buildings are built, growth in this occupation should be relatively slow. Many new jobs are expected in healthcare, however, as this indus try is expected to grow rapidly, and in administrative support firms as more claiming work is contracted out. Employment of maids and housekeeping cleaners is also expected to increase more slowly than the average, growing by 6 percent from 2008 to 2018. Many new jobs are expected in hotels as demand for accommodations increases, in private households as more people purchase residential cleaning services, and companies that supply maid services on a contract basis, as more of this work is contracted out. Employment of supervisors and man agers of these workers, in addition, is expected to grow more slowly than the average, increasing by 5 percent. An increasing number of supervisors will be needed to manage the growing number of janitors, maids, and other cleaning workers. Job prospects. Job prospects are expected to be good. Most job openings should result from the need to replace the many workers who leave this very large occupation. Earnings Median hourly wages ofjanitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners, were $10.31 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.42 and $13.30. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.4land the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.08. Median hourly wages in May 2008 in the industries employing the largest numbers of janitors and clean ers, except maids and housekeeping cleaners, were as follows: Local government......................................................... $12.82 Elementary and secondary schools................................ 12.45 General medical and surgical hospitals..........................11.42 Colleges, universities, and professional schools............11.90 Services to buildings and dwellings.................................9.31 Median hourly wages of maids and housekeeping cleaners were $9.13 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $7.92 and $11.10. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.09, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.72. 498 Occupational Outlook Handbook Median hourly wages in general medical and surgical hospitals were $10.31, while median hourly wages in the traveler accom modation industry were $8.75 in May 2008. Median hourly wages of wage-and-salary first-line supervi sors and managers of housekeeping and janitorial workers were $16.34 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.82 and $21.07. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.33, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.29. Median hourly wages in May 2008 in the industries employing the largest numbers of first-line supervisors and managers of housekeeping and janitorial workers were as follows: Local government............................................................19.65 Elementary and secondary schools................................ 18.84 Nursing care facilities.....................................................15.78 Services to buildings and dwellings............................... 15.39 Traveler accommodation.................................................14.07 Related Occupations Workers who also specialize in one of the many job functions of janitors and cleaners include: Page Dishwashers............................................................................491 Grounds maintenance workers............................................... 498 Sources of Additional Information Information about janitorial jobs may be obtained from State employment service offices. For information on certification in executive housekeeping, contact: y International Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., 1001 Eastwind Dr., Suite 301, Westerville, OH 43081-3361. Internet: http://www.ieha.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl74.htm Grounds Maintenance Workers Significant Points • Most grounds maintenance workers need no formal education and are trained on the job; however, some workers may require formal education. • Occupational characteristics include full-time and part-time jobs, seasonal jobs, physically demanding work, and low earnings. • Job opportunities are expected to be good. Nature of the Work Grounds maintenance workers perform a variety of tasks neces sary to achieve a pleasant and functional outdoor environment. They mow lawns, rake leaves, trim hedges and trees; plant flowers; and otherwise ensure that the grounds of houses, busi nesses, and parks are attractive, orderly, and healthy. They also https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis care for indoor gardens and plantings in commercial and public facilities, such as malls, hotels, and botanical gardens. These workers use handtools such as shovels, rakes, pruning and handsaws, hedge and brush trimmers, and axes. They also use power lawnmowers, chain saws, leaf blowers, and electric clippers. Some use equipment such as tractors and twin-axle vehicles. Grounds maintenance workers can be divided into several specialties, including landscaping workers, groundskeeping workers, pesticide handlers, tree trimmers, and grounds main tenance supervisors. In general, these specialties have varying job duties, but in many cases their responsibilities overlap. Landscaping workers create new functional outdoor areas and upgrade existing landscapes, but also may help maintain landscapes. Their duties include planting bushes, trees, sod, and other forms of vegetation, as well as, edging, trimming, fertilizing, watering, and mulching lawns and grounds. They also grade property by creating or smoothing hills and inclines, install lighting or sprinkler systems, and build walkways, ter races, patios, decks, and fountains. Landscaping workers pro vide their services in a variety of residential and commercial settings, such as homes, apartment buildings, office buildings, shopping malls, and hotels and motels. Groundskeeping workers, also called groundskeepers, usually focus on maintaining existing grounds. In addition to caring for sod, plants, and trees, they rake and mulch leaves, clear snow from walkways and parking lots, and use irrigation methods to adjust water consumption and prevent waste. These individu als work on athletic fields, golf courses, cemeteries, university campuses, and parks, as well as many of the same settings as landscaping workers. They also see to the proper upkeep and repair of sidewalks, parking lots, groundskeeping equipment, pools, fountains, fences, planters, and benches. Groundskeeping workers who care for athletic fields keep natural and artificial turf in top condition, mark out boundaries, and paint turf with team logos and names before events. They mow, water, fertilize, and aerate the fields regularly. They must make sure that the underlying soil on fields with natural turf has the required composition to allow proper drainage and to sup port the grasses used on the field. In sports venues, they vacuum and disinfect synthetic turf after its use to prevent the growth of harmful bacteria, and they remove the turf and replace the cushioning pad periodically. Groundskeepers in parks and recreation facilities care for lawns, trees, and shrubs; maintain playgrounds; clean buildings; and keep parking lots, picnic areas, and other public spaces free of litter. They also may erect and dismantle snow fences, and maintain swimming pools. These workers inspect buildings and equipment, make needed repairs, and keep everything freshly painted. Workers who maintain golf courses are called greenskeepers. Greenskeepers do many of the same things as other groundskeep ers, but they also periodically relocate the holes on putting greens to prevent uneven wear of the turf and to add interest and chal lenge to the game. Greenskeepers also keep canopies, benches, ball washers, and tee markers repaired and freshly painted. Some groundskeepers specialize in caring for cemeteries and memorial gardens. They dig graves to specified depths, gener- Service Occupations 499 - : M I . i j- -1 > tea® ■ Grounds maintenance workers mow lawns and trim hedges and trees. ally using a backhoe. They mow grass regularly, apply fertil izers and other chemicals, prune shrubs and trees, plant flowers, and remove debris from graves. Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation mix herbicides, fungicides, or insecticides and apply them through sprays, dusts, or vapors into the soil or onto plants. Those work ing for chemical lawn service firms are more specialized, in specting lawns for problems and applying fertilizers, pesticides, and other chemicals to stimulate growth and prevent or control weeds, diseases, or insect infestation. Many practice integrated pest-management techniques. Tree trimmers and pruners, sometimes called arborists, cut away dead or excess branches from trees or shrubs to clear roads, sidewalks, or utilities’ equipment, or to improve the ap pearance, health, and value of trees. Some specialize in diag nosing and treating tree diseases, and in performing preventive measures to keep trees healthy. Some may plant trees. Some of these workers also specialize in pruning, trimming and shaping ornamental trees and shrubs for private residences, golf courses, or other institutional grounds. Tree trimmers and pruners use handsaws, pole saws, shears, and clippers. When trimming near power lines, they usually work on truck-mounted lifts and use Digitizedpower for FRASER pruners. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Supervisors of landscaping and groundskeeping workers oversee grounds maintenance work. They prepare cost esti mates, schedule work for crews on the basis of weather con ditions or the availability of equipment, perform spot checks to ensure the quality of the service, and suggest changes in work procedures. In addition, supervisors train workers; keep employees’ time records and record work performed; and may assist workers when deadlines are near. Supervisors who own their own business are also known as landscape contractors. They also often call themselves landscape designers if they create landscape design plans. Landscape designers also design exterior floral displays by planting annual or perennial flowers. Some work with landscape architects. (Landscape architects, discussed elsewhere in the Handbook, create more technical ar chitectural plans and usually work on larger projects.) Supervi sors of workers on golf courses are known as superintendents. Work environment. Many grounds maintenance jobs are seasonal, available mainly in the spring, summer, and fall, when most planting, mowing, trimming, and cleanup are necessary. Most of the work is performed outdoors in all kinds of weather. It can be physically demanding and repetitive, involving bend ing, lifting, and shoveling. This occupation offers opportunities for both part-time and full-time work. According to BLS data, full-time landscaping and grounds keeping workers, tree trimmers and pruners, and the supervi sors of these workers experienced a much higher than average rate of work-related injury and illness. Those who work with pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals, as well as danger ous equipment and tools such as power lawnmowers and chain saws, must exercise safety precautions. Workers who use mo torized equipment must take care to protect their hearing. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most grounds maintenance workers need no formal education and are trained on the job. However, some workers may require formal education in areas such as landscape design, horticul ture, or business management. Education and training. There usually are no minimum educational requirements for entry-level positions in grounds maintenance. In 2008, most workers had no education beyond high school. A short period of on-the-job training generally is sufficient to teach new hires the necessary skills, which often include planting and maintenance procedures; the operation of mowers, trimmers, leaf blowers, small tractors and other equip ment; and proper safety procedures. Large institutional employ ers such as golf courses or municipalities may supplement onthe-job training with coursework in subjects like horticulture or small engine repair. A bachelor’s degree may be needed for those who want to become specialists. Supervisors may need a high school diploma, and may re ceive several months of on-the-job training. Formal training in landscape design, horticulture, arboriculture, or business may improve an applicant’s chances for employment. Landscape de signers may be required to obtain such training. Licensure. Most States require licensure or certification for workers who apply pesticides. Requirements vary but usually include passing a test on the proper use and disposal of insecti 500 Occupational Outlook Handbook cides, herbicides, and fungicides. Some States also require that landscape contractors be licensed. Other qualifications. Employers look for responsible, selfmotivated individuals because grounds maintenance workers often work with little supervision. Employers want people who can learn quickly and follow instructions accurately so that time is not wasted and plants are not damaged. Driving a vehicle is often needed for these jobs. If driving is required, preference is given to applicants with a driver’s license, a good driving record, and experience driving a truck. Certification and advancement. Laborers who demonstrate a proficiency in the work and have good communication skills may advance to crew leader or other supervisory positions. Becoming a grounds manager or landscape contractor may require some formal education beyond high school in addition to several years of experience. Some workers with groundskeeping backgrounds may start their own businesses after several years of experience. Certification from a professional organization may improve a worker’s chances for advancement. The Professional Grounds Management Society offers voluntary certification to grounds managers who have a bachelor’s degree in a relevant major with at least 4 years of experience, including 2 years as a supervisor; an associate degree in a relevant major with 6 years of experi ence, including 3 years as a supervisor; or 8 years of experience including 4 years as a supervisor, and no degree. Additionally, candidates for certification must pass two examinations cover ing subjects such as insects and diseases, soils, trees and shrubs, turf management, irrigation, and budgets and finances. This organization also offers certification for grounds technicians. Candidates for this program must have a high school diploma or GED as well as 2 years of work experience as a grounds technician. The Professional Landcare Network offers six certifications for individuals with varying levels of experience, in landscap ing and grounds maintenance. Each of these programs requires applicants to pass an examination, and some require self-study course work. The Tree Care Industry Association offers five lev els of credentials. Currently available credentials include Tree Care Apprentice, Ground Operations Specialist, Tree Climber Specialist, Aerial Lift Specialist and Tree Care Specialist, as well as a certification program in safety. These programs are available to individuals with varying levels of experience, and require applicants to pass training courses. Employment Grounds maintenance workers held about 1.5 million jobs in 2008. Employment was distributed as follows: Landscaping and groundskeeping workers.............1,205,800 First-line supervisors/managers of landscaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers........... 217,900 Tree trimmers and pruners...........................................45,000 Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation..............................................30,800 Grounds maintenance workers, all other..................... 21,100 About 36 percent of all grounds maintenance workers were employed in companies providing landscaping services to buildings and dwellings. Others worked for educational institu tions, public and private. Some were employed by local gov ernments, installing and maintaining landscaping for parks, hospitals, and other public facilities. Around 402,000 grounds maintenance workers were self-employed, providing landscape maintenance directly to customers on a contract basis. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow faster than average, and job opportunities should be good. Employment change. Employment of grounds mainte nance workers is expected to increase by 18 percent during the 2008-18 decade, which is faster than the average for all occupa tions. In addition, grounds maintenance workers will be among the occupations with largest numbers of new jobs, with around 269,200. More workers will be needed to keep up with increas ing demand for lawn care and landscaping services both from large institutions and from individual homeowners. Major institutions, such as universities and corporate head quarters, recognize the importance of good landscape design in attracting personnel and clients and are expected to continue to use grounds maintenance services to maintain and upgrade their properties. Homeowners are also a growing source of demand for grounds maintenance workers. Many two-income households lack the time to take care of their lawns so they in creasingly hire people to maintain them. Also, as the population ages, more elderly homeowners will require lawn care services to help maintain their yards. Employment of tree trimmers and pruners should grow by 26 percent from 2008-18, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. In order to improve the environment, mu- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Code Employment, 2008 Projected Employment, 2018 1,789,900 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 269,200 18 1,520,600 Grounds maintenance workers.......................................................... .... First-line supervisors/managers of landscaping, 32,400 15 250,300 37-1012 217,900 lawn service, and groundskeeping workers........................... .... 1,539,500 236,800 18 1,302,700 37-3000 Grounds maintenance workers..................................................... .... 217,100 18 1,422,900 37-3011 1,205,800 Landscaping and groundskeeping workers................................ .... 18 36,300 5,400 37-3012 30,800 Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation......... .... 26 45,000 56,800 11,800 37-3013 Tree trimmers and pruners........................................................... .... 21,100 23,600 2,500 37-3019 12 Grounds maintenance workers, all other..................................... .... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 501 nicipalities across the country are planting more trees in urban areas, increasing demand for these workers. Job prospects. Job opportunities are expected to be good. Openings will arise from faster-than-average growth and the need to replace workers who leave this large occupation. Job opportunities for nonseasonal work are best in regions with temperate climates, where landscaping and lawn services are required all year. Opportunities may vary with local eco nomic conditions. Earnings Wages of grounds maintenance workers are low. Median hourly wages of landscaping and groundskeeping workers were $11.13 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.09 and $14.01 per hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.98 per hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.57. Median hourly wages in the largest employing industries of landscaping and groundskeeping workers in May 2008 were as follows: Elementary and secondary schools..............................$13.70 Local government............................................................12.65 Services to buildings and dwellings............................... 11.11 Other amusement and recreation industries................... 10.01 Employment services....................................................... 9.92 Median hourly wages of pesticide handlers, sprayers, and appli cators, vegetation were $ 14.31 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.61 and $17.86 per hour. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $9.53 per hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.59. Median hourly wages in the services to buildings and dwellings industry were $14.51 in May 2008. Median hourly wages of tree trimmers and pruners were $14.41 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.50 and $18.18 per hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.62 per hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.34. Median hourly wages in the services to buildings and dwellings industry were $14.04 in May 2008. Median hourly wages of first-line supervisors/manages of land scaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers were $19.19 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.22 and $24.90 per hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.57 per hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $31.33. Median hourly wages in the largest employing industries of firstline supervisors/managers of landscaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers in May 2008 were as follows: Local government......................................................... $22.89 Other amusement and recreation industries...................20.82 Services to buildings and dwellings............................... 18.50 Related Occupations Other occupations that work with plants and soils include: Page Agricultural workers, other......................................................609 Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers........................... 48 Forest and conservation workers..............................................604 Landscape architects................................................................ 154 Digitized forLogging FRASERworkers...................................................................... 606 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For career and certification information on tree trimmers and pruners, contact: y Tree Care Industry Association, 136 Harvey Road, Suite 101, Londonderry, NH 03053. Internet: http://www.treecareindustry.org For information on work as a landscaping and groundskeep ing worker, contact the following organizations: y Professional Grounds Management Society, 720 Light St., Baltimore, MD 21230. Internet: http://www.pgms.org V Professional Landcare Network, 950 Herndon Pkwy., Suite 450, Herndon, VA 20170. Internet: http ://w ww.landcarenetwork.org For information on becoming a licensed pesticide applicator, contact your State’s Department of Agriculture or Department of Environmental Protection or Conservation. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl 72.htm Pest Control Workers Significant Points • A high school diploma generally is the minimum edu cational requirement. • States require pest control workers to be licensed through training and examination. • Job prospects are expected to be very good. Nature of the Work Unwanted creatures that infest buildings or surrounding areas can pose serious risks to health and safety. Pest control workers remove these creatures from households, apartment buildings, places of businesses, and other structures, to protect people and maintain structural integrity. Common pests include roaches, rats, mice, spiders, termites, ants, and bedbugs. Using information about pests’ biology and habits, along with an arsenal of pest management techniques, pest control workers locate, identify, and remove pests. They set traps, apply pesticides, and even modify structures at the discretion of the customer. Many pest problems require pesticide application. Pest control workers use two different types of pesticides—general use and restricted use. General use pesticides are the most widely used and are available in diluted concentrations to the public. Restricted use pesticides are used for the most severe infestations and are available only to licensed professionals. Because of their potential harm to pest control workers, customers, and the environment, restricted-use pesticides are heavily regulated by Federal law. For some jobs, pest control workers use a combination of pest management techniques, a practice known as integrated pest management. One method involves using proper sanita 502 Occupational Outlook Handbook tion and creating physical barriers. Pests cannot survive without food and will not infest a building if they cannot enter it. An other method involves using baits that either destroy the pests or prevent them from reproducing. Yet another method involves using mechanical devices, such as traps, that remove pests from the immediate environment. Some workers use pest-management technology to make home inspections more efficient. This technology, which uses micro chips to identify areas of pest activity, is used most frequently for termites. The chips, which are placed in baiting stations, emit signals that can tell pest control workers if is termites are pres ent. Workers pick up the signals using a device similar to a metal detector, allowing them to quickly evaluate an entire building. Pest control workers generally can be divided into three cate gories: technicians, applicators, and supervisors. Position titles and job duties vary by State, however. Pest control technicians are usually entry-level workers who identify potential pest problems, conduct inspections, and de sign control strategies. They work directly with the customer and are permitted to apply a limited range of pesticides. Applicators perform more complex tasks, are able to use a wider range of pesticides, and may specialize in a certain area of pest control. Those that specialize in controlling termites are called termite control technicians. They use chemicals and modify structures to eliminate termites and prevent future infes tation. To treat infested areas, termite control technicians drill holes and cut openings into buildings to access infestations and install physical barriers or bait systems around the structure. Some termite control technicians even repair structural damage caused by termites. Applicators that specialize in fumigation are called Fumigators. These workers use poisonous gases, called fumigants, to treat serious infestations. Fumigators pre-treat infested build ings by examining, measuring, and sealing the buildings. Then, using cylinders, hoses, and valves, they fill structures with the proper amount and concentration of fumigant. To prevent ac cidental fumigant exposure, fumigators padlock doors, post warning signs, and monitor buildings closely to detect and stop leaks. Pest control supervisors, also known as operators, direct technicians and applicators. Supervisors are licensed to apply pesticides, but they usually are more involved in running the business. Many supervisors own their own business. Supervi sors are responsible for ensuring that employees obey rules regarding pesticide use and resolving any problems that arise with regulatory officials or customers. Most States require each pest control establishment to have a supervisor. Work environment. Because work must be done on site, pest control workers travel to visit clients. Pest control workers must kneel, bend, reach, and crawl to inspect and treat structures. They work both indoors and out, in all weather conditions. Ap plicators must wear heavy protective gear, including respira tors, gloves, and goggles, when working with pesticides. There are health risks associated with pesticide use. Various pest control chemicals are toxic and could be harmful, if not used properly. Health risks are limited by the extensive training required for licensure and the use of recommended protective https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis KSSSl Pest control workers help to keep buildings free of insects, ro dents, and other animals. equipment. However, pest control workers still experience in juries more frequently than workers in many other occupations. Most pest control workers work around 40 hours per week, but about 16 percent worked more than 50 hours per week in 2008. Pest control workers often work evenings and weekends, but many work consistent shifts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement State laws require pest control workers to be licensed. Most workers need a high school diploma and receive training on the job. Education and training. A high school diploma or equiva lent is the minimum qualification for most pest control jobs, but some jobs may not require any formal education. A college degree may be required for other jobs. Most pest control work ers may begin their careers as technicians. They often receive both formal classroom and on-the-job training provided by the employer, but they also may be required to study on their own. Training usually involves a combination of classroom study and on-the-job experience for each category of work that the pest control worker would like to perform. Categories may include general pest control, rodent control, termite control, fumiga tion, and ornamental and turf control. In addition, technicians must attend general training in pesticide safety and use. Pest control workers usually can complete this training in fewer than 3 months. Service Occupations 503 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Pest control workers.......................................... ................................... 37-2021 67,500 77,800 10,300 15 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title soc Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. After completing the required training, workers can provide supervised pest control services. Because pest control methods change, workers often attend continuing education classes, which are frequently provided by product manufacturers. Licensure. Pest control workers must be licensed. Require ments vary by State, but pest control workers generally must undergo training and pass an examination. Some States also re quire workers to have a high school diploma or equivalent and pass a background check; some also have additional require ments for applicators and operators. Most pest control firms provide training and help their employees prepare for the ex amination. In some States, individuals may be able to work as apprentices before becoming licensed. Other qualifications. Pest control workers must be in good health, because of the physical demands of the job, and they also must be able to withstand uncomfortable conditions—such as the heat of climbing into an attic in the summertime or the chill of sliding into a crawlspace during winter. In addition, many pest control companies require their employees to have a good driving record. Advancement. Advancement opportunities come with ex perience in the field. After a designated number of years on the job, technicians may advance to become applicators. Applica tors with several years of experience often become supervisors. Some experienced workers may start their own pest manage ment company. Pest control workers in large organizations may advance into administrative positions, although a college de gree may be required for such opportunities. trol workers. However, if the rate of new building construction moderates, employment growth of pest control workers may slow down. Job prospects. Job prospects should be very good for quali fied applicants, due to the limited number of people seeking work in this occupation. In addition to job growth, opportuni ties also should arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Earnings Median hourly wages of pest control workers were $14.37 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.68 and $17.67. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.45, and the top 10 percent earned over $21.34. Wages may vary by job function. Related Occupations Pest control workers visit homes and places of business to pro vide building services. Other workers who provide services to buildings include: Page Building cleaning workers.............................................................495 Construction laborers...................................................................... 635 Grounds maintenance workers...................................................... 498 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers..................................................................................703 Employment Pest control workers held about 67,500 jobs in 2008; about 86 per cent of workers were employed in the exterminating and pest control services industry. About 7 percent of workers were selfemployed. Jobs are concentrated in States with warmer climates and larger cities, due to the greater number of pests in these areas. Job Outlook Employment growth is expected to be faster than the average, and job prospects should be very good. Employment change. Employment of pest control work ers is expected to grow by 15 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Demand for pest control workers is projected to increase for a number of reasons. More people are expected to use pest control services as environmental and health concerns and improvements in the standard of living convince more people to hire professionals, rather than attempt pest control work themselves. Growth in the population, particularly in Sunbelt States where pests are more common, also will generate new residential, commercial, and Digitized government for FRASER buildings that will require treatment by pest con https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Private employment agencies and State employment services offices have information about available job opportunities for pest control workers. For information about State licensing requirements, contact your local office of the U.S. Department of Agriculture or your State’s environmental protection (or conservation) agency. For more information about pest control careers and training, contact: y National Pest Management Association, 10460 North St., Fairfax, VA 22030. Internet: http://www.pestworld.org/Looking-for-a-Career-in-PestManagement The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos254.htm 504 Occupational Outlook Handbook Personal Care and Service Occupations Animal Care and Service Workers Significant Points • Animal lovers get satisfaction in this occupation, but the work can be unpleasant, physically and emotion ally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. • Most workers are trained on the job, but employers generally prefer to hire people who have experience with animals; some jobs require formal education. • Most positions will present excellent employment op portunities; however, keen competition is expected for jobs as zookeepers and marine mammal trainers. • Earnings are relatively low. Nature of the Work Many people like animals. But, as pet owners will admit, taking care of them is hard work. Animal care and service workers— who include animal caretakers and animal trainers—train, feed, water, groom, bathe, and exercise animals and clean, disinfect, and repair their cages. They also play with the animals, provide companionship, and observe behavioral changes that could in dicate illness or injury. Boarding kennels, pet stores, animal shelters, rescue leagues, veterinary hospitals and clinics, stables, laboratories, aquariums and natural aquatic habitats, and zoolog ical parks all house animals and employ animal care and service workers. Job titles and duties vary by employment setting. Kennel attendants care for pets while their owners are work ing or traveling out of town. Beginning attendants perform basic rrrmn Animal caretakers who specialize in grooming or maintaining a pet’s appearance are called groomers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tasks, such as cleaning both the cages and the dog runs, filling food and water dishes, and exercising animals. Experienced at tendants may provide basic animal health care, as well as bathe animals, trim nails, and attend to other grooming needs. Atten dants who work in kennels also may sell pet food and supplies, assist in obedience training, or prepare animals for shipping. Groomers are animal caretakers who specialize in maintaining a pet’s appearance. Most groom dogs and a few groom cats. Some groomers work in kennels, veterinary clinics, animal shelters, or pet supply stores. Others operate their own grooming business, typically at a salon or, increasingly, by making house calls. Such mobile services are growing rapidly because they offer conve nience for pet owners, flexibility of schedules for groomers, and minimal trauma for pets resulting from their being in unfamiliar surroundings. Groomers clean and sanitize equipment to prevent the spread of disease, as well as maintaining a clean and safe environment for the animals. Groomers also schedule appoint ments, discuss pets’ grooming needs with clients, and collect general information on the pets’ health and behavior. Groomers sometimes are the first to notice a medical problem, such as an ear or skin infection, that requires veterinary care. Grooming the pet involves several steps: an initial brush-out is followed by a clipping of hair with combs and grooming shears; the groomer then cuts the animal’s nails, cleans the ears, bathes and blow-dries the animal, and ends with a final trim and styling. Animal caretakers in animal shelters work mainly with cats and dogs and perform a variety of duties typically determined by the worker’s experience. In addition to attending to the basic needs of the animals, caretakers at shelters keep records of the animals, including information about any tests or treatments per formed on them. Experienced caretakers may vaccinate newly admitted animals under the direction of a veterinarian or veteri nary technician and euthanize (painlessly put to death) seriously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals. Animal caretakers in animal shelters also interact with the public, answering telephone inquiries, screening applicants who wish to adopt an animal, or educating visitors on neutering and other animal health issues. Pet sitters look after one or more animals when their owner is away. They do this by traveling to the pet owner’s home to carry out the daily routine. Most pet sitters feed, walk, and play with the animal, but some more experienced sitters also may be required to bathe, train, or groom them. Most watch over dogs and a few take care of cats. By not removing the pet from its normal surroundings, trauma is reduced and the animal can maintain its normal diet and exercise regimen. Grooms, or caretakers, care for horses in stables. They saddle and unsaddle horses, give them mbdowns, and walk them to cool them off after a ride. They also feed, groom, and exercise the horses; clean out stalls and replenish bedding; polish saddles; clean and organize the tack (harness, saddle, and bridle) room; and store supplies and feed. Experienced grooms may help train horses. In zoos, animal care and service workers, called keepers, prepare the diets and clean the enclosures of animals and sometimes as sist in raising them when they are very young. They watch for any signs of illness or injury, monitor eating patterns or any changes in behavior and record their observations. Keepers also may answer questions and ensure that the visiting public behaves responsibly toward the exhibited animals. Depending on the zoo, keepers may be assigned to work with a broad group of animals, such as mam mals, birds, or reptiles, or they may work with a limited collection of animals such as primates, large cats, or small mammals Animal trainers train animals for riding, security, performance, obedience, or assisting people with disabilities. Animal trainers do this by accustoming the animal to the human voice and human con tact and teaching the animal to respond to commands. The three most commonly trained animals are dogs, horses, and marine mammals, including dolphins and sea lions. Trainers use several techniques to help them train animals. One technique, known as a bridge, is a stim ulus that a trainer uses to communicate the precise moment an ani mal does something correctly. When the animal responds correctly, the trainer gives positive reinforcement in a variety of ways: offering food, toys, play, and rubdowns or speaking the word “good.” Animal training takes place in small steps and often takes months and even years of repetition. During the teaching process, trainers provide animals with mental stimulation, physical exercise, and husbandry. A relatively new form of training teaches animals to cooperate with workers giving medical care: animals learn “veterinary” behaviors, such as allowing for the collection of blood samples; physical, x-ray, ultrasonic, and dental exams; physical therapy; and the administra tion of medicines and replacement fluids. Training also can be a good tool for facilitating the relocation of animals from one habitat to another, easing, for example, the process of loading horses onto trailers. Trainers often work in competitions or shows, such as circuses, marine parks, and aquariums; many others work in animal shelters, dog kennels and salons, or horse farms. Trainers in shows work to display the talent and ability of an animal, such as a dolphin, through interactive programs to educate and entertain the public. In addition to their hands-on work with the animals, trainers often oversee other aspects of animals’ care, such as preparing their diet and providing a safe and clean environment and habitat. Work environment. People who love animals get satisfac tion from working with and helping them. However, some of the work may be unpleasant, physically or emotionally de manding, and, sometimes, dangerous. Data from the U.S. Bu reau of Labor Statistics show that full-time animal care and service workers experienced a work-related injury and illness rate that was higher than the national average. Most animal care and service workers have to clean animal cages and lift, hold, or restrain animals, risking exposure to bites or scratches. Their work often involves kneeling, crawling, repeated bending, and, occasionally, lifting heavy supplies such as bales of hay or bags of feed. Animal caretakers must take precautions when treating animals with germicides or insecticides. They may work out doors in all kinds of weather, and the work setting can be noisy. Caretakers of show and sports animals travel to competitions. Animal care and service workers who witness abused animals or who assist in euthanizing unwanted, aged, or hopelessly in jured animals may experience emotional distress. Those work ing for private humane societies and municipal animal shelters Digitized often for FRASER deal with the public, some of whom may be hostile. Such https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 505 workers must maintain a calm and professional demeanor while helping to enforce the laws regarding animal care. Animal care and service workers often work irregular hours. Most animals are fed every day, so caretakers often work week end and holiday shifts. In some animal hospitals, research fa cilities, and animal shelters, an attendant is on duty 24 hours a day, which means night shifts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement On-the-job training is the most common way animal care and service workers learn their work; however, employers generally prefer to hire people who have experience with animals. Some jobs require formal education. Education and training. Animal trainers often need a high school diploma or GED equivalent. Some animal training jobs may require a bachelor’s degree and additional skills. For ex ample, marine mammal trainers usually need a bachelor’s de gree in biology, marine biology, animal science, psychology, or a related field. An animal health technician degree also may qualify trainers for some jobs. Most equine trainers learn their trade by working as a groom at a stable. Some study at an accredited private training school. Many dog trainers attend workshops and courses at commu nity colleges and vocational schools. Topics include basic study of canines, learning theory of animals, teaching obedience cues, problem solving methods, and safety. Many such schools also offer business training. Pet sitters are not required to have any specific training, but knowledge and some form of previous experience with animals often is recommended. Many zoos require their caretakers to have a bachelor’s degree in biology, animal science, or a related field. Most require experience with animals, preferably as a volunteer or paid keeper in a zoo. Pet groomers typically learn their trade by completing an informal apprenticeship, usually lasting 6 to 10 weeks, under the guidance of an experienced groomer. Prospective groomers also may attend one of the 50 State-licensed grooming schools throughout the country, with programs varying in length from 2 to 18 weeks. Beginning groomers often start by taking on one duty, such as bathing and drying the pet. They eventually assume responsibility for the entire grooming process, from the initial brush-out to the final clipping. Animal caretakers in animal shelters are not required to have any specialized training, but training programs and workshops are available through the Humane Society of the United States, the American Humane Association, and the National Animal Control Association. Workshop topics include investigations of cruelty, appropriate methods of euthanasia for shelter animals, proper guidelines for capturing animals, techniques for prevent ing problems with wildlife, and dealing with the public. Beginning animal caretakers in kennels learn on the job and usually start by cleaning cages and feeding animals. Certification and other qualifications. Certifications are available in many animal service occupations. For dog trainers, certification by a professional association or one of the hun dreds of private vocational or State-approved trade schools can be advantageous. The National Dog Groomers Association of America offers certification for master status as a groomer. To 506 Occupational Outlook Handbook earn certification, applicants must demonstrate their practical skills and pass two exams. The National Association of Profes sional Pet Sitters offers a two-stage, home-study certification program for those who wish to become pet care professionals. Topics include business management, animal care, and animal health issues, and applicants must pass a written exam to earn certification. The Pet Care Services Association offers a threestage, home-study program for individuals interested in pet care. Levels I and II focus on basic principles of animal care and customer service, while Level III spotlights management and professional aspects of the pet care business. Those who complete the third stage and pass oral and written examinations become Certified Kennel Operators (CKO). All animal care and service workers need patience, sensitiv ity, and problem-solving ability. Those who work in shelters also need tact and communication skills, because they often deal with individuals who abandon their pets. The ability to handle emotional people is vital for workers at shelters. Animal trainers especially need problem-solving skills and experience in animal obedience. Successful marine mammal trainers also should have good-public speaking skills, because presentations are a large part of the job. Usually four to five trainers work with a group of animals at one time; therefore, trainers should be able to work as part of a team. Marine mammal trainers must also be good swimmers; certification in SCUBA is a plus. Most horse-training jobs have minimum weight requirements for candidates. Advancement. With experience and additional training, care takers in animal shelters may become adoption coordinators, animal control officers, emergency rescue drivers, assistant shelter managers, or shelter directors. Pet groomers who work in large retail establishments or kennels may, with experience, move into supervisory or managerial positions. Experienced groomers often choose to open their own salons or mobile grooming business. Advancement for kennel caretakers takes the form of promotion to kennel supervisor, assistant manager, and manager; those with enough capital and experience may open up their own kennels. Zookeepers may advance to senior keeper, assistant head keeper, head keeper, and assistant cura tor, but very few openings occur, especially for the higher level positions. Employment Animal care and service workers held 220,400 jobs in 2008. Nearly 4 out of 5 worked as nonfarm animal caretakers; the remainder worked as animal trainers. Nonfarm animal caretak ers often worked in boarding kennels, animal shelters, rescue leagues, stables, grooming shops, pet stores, animal hospi tals, and veterinary offices. A significant number of caretakers worked for animal humane societies, racing stables, dog and horse racetrack operators, zoos, theme parks, circuses, and other amusement and recreation services. Employment of animal trainers is concentrated in animal services that specialize in training and in commercial sports, where racehorses and dogs are trained. About 54 percent of ani mal trainers were self-employed. Job Outlook Because many workers leave this occupation each year, there will be excellent job opportunities for most positions. Much faster than average employment growth also will add to job openings. However, keen competition is expected for jobs as zookeepers and marine mammal trainers. Employment change. Employment of animal care and service workers is expected to grow 21 percent over the 2008-18 decade, much faster than the average for all occupations. The companion pet population, which drives employment of animal caretakers in kennels, grooming shops, animal shelters, and veterinary clinics and hospitals, is anticipated to increase. Pet owners—including a large number of baby boomers, whose disposable income is ex pected to increase as they age—are expected to increasingly pur chase grooming services, daily and overnight boarding services, training services, and veterinary services, resulting in more jobs for animal care and service workers. As more pet owners consider their pets part of the family, demand for luxury animal services and the willingness to spend greater amounts of money on pets should continue to grow. Demand for marine mammal trainers, on the other hand, should grow slowly. Demand for animal care and service workers in animal shel ters is expected to grow as communities increasingly recognize the connection between animal abuse and abuse toward humans and continue to commit private funds to animal shelters, many of which are working hand in hand with social service agencies and law enforcement teams. Job prospects. Due to employment growth and the need to replace workers who leave the occupation, job opportunities for most positions should be excellent. The need to replace pet sitters, dog walkers, kennel attendants, and animal control and shelter workers leaving the field will create the overwhelming majority of job openings. Many animal caretaker jobs require little or no training and have flexible work schedules, making them suitable for people seeking a first job or for temporary or part-time work. Prospective groomers also will face excellent opportunities as the companion dog population is expected to grow and services such as mobile grooming continue to grow in popularity. The outlook for caretakers in zoos and aquari- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Code Employment, 2008 Projected Employment, 2018 265,900 56,700 209,100 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 45,500 21 9,600 20 35,900 21 220,400 39-2000 Animal care and service workers............................... ......................... 47,100 39-2011 Animal trainers......................................................... ......................... 173,300 39-2021 Nonfarm animal caretakers..................................... ......................... (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 507 urns, however, is not favorable, due to slow job growth and keen competition for the few positions. Prospective mammal trainers also will face keen competi tion as the number of applicants greatly exceeds the number of available positions. Prospective horse trainers should antici pate an equally challenging labor market because the number of entry-level positions is limited. Dog trainers, however, should experience conditions that are more favorable, driven by their owners’ desire to instill obedience in their pet. Opportunities for dog trainers should be best in large metropolitan areas. Job opportunities for animal care and service workers may vary from year to year because the strength of the economy af fects demand for these workers. Pet owners tend to spend more on animal services when the economy is strong. Earnings Wages are relatively low. Median annual wages of nonfarm ani mal caretakers were $19,360 in May 2008. The middle 50 per cent earned between $16,720 and $24,300. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $15,140, and the top 10 percent earned more than $31,590. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of nonfarm animal caretakers in May 2008 were as follows: Spectator sports.......................................................... $20,520 Other personal services.................................................19,530 Social advocacy organizations..................................... 18,640 Veterinary services........................................................18,380 Other miscellaneous store retailers.............................. 18,320 Median annual wages of animal trainers were $27,270 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,880 and $38,280. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,700, and the top 10 percent earned more than $51,400. Related Occupations Others who work extensively with animals include Page Agricultural workers, other......................................................609 Animal control workers............................................................ 825 Biological scientists................................................................. 181 Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers........................... 48 Veterinarians............................................................................. 402 Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers........... 826 Veterinary technologists and technicians................................ 443 For general information on pet grooming careers, including workshops and certification information, contact: y National Dog Groomers Association of America, P.O. Box 101, Clark, PA 16113. Internet: http://www.nationaldoggroomers.com For information on pet sitting, including certification infor mation, contact: y National Association of Professional Pet Sitters, 15000 Commerce Parkway, Suite C, Mount Laurel, NJ 08054. Internet: http ://www.petsitters.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.go v/ooh/ocos 168.htm Barbers, Cosmetologists, and Other Personal Appearance Workers Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. • A State license is required for barbers, cosmetolo gists, and most other personal appearance workers, although qualifications vary by State. • About 44 percent of workers are self employed; many also work flexible schedules. Nature of the Work Barbers and cosmetologists focus on providing hair care ser vices to enhance the appearance of customers. Other personal appearance workers, such as manicurists and pedicurists, shampooers, and skin care specialists, provide specialized beauty services that help clients look and feel their best. Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair mostly for male clients. They also may fit hairpieces and offer scalp treatments and facial shaving. In many States, barbers are licensed to color, Sources of Additional Information For career information and information on training, certification, and earnings of a related occupation—animal control officers— contact: y National Animal Control Association, P.O. Box 480851, Kansas City, MO 64148-0851. Internet: http://www.nacanet.org For information on becoming an advanced pet care techni cian at a kennel, contact: y Pet Care Services Association, 2760 N. Academy Blvd., Suite 120, Colorado Springs, CO 80917. Internet: Digitized http://www.petcareservices.org for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ip Nail technicians work in salons and provide various services including manicures. 508 Occupational Outlook Handbook bleach, and highlight hair, and to offer permanent-wave ser vices. Barbers also may provide skin care and nail treatments. Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists offer a wide range of beauty services, such as shampooing, cutting, coloring, and styling of hair. They may advise clients on how to care for their hair at home. In addition, cosmetologists may be trained to give manicures, pedicures, and scalp and facial treatments; pro vide makeup analysis; and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. A number of workers offer specialized services. Manicurists and pedicurists, called nail technicians in some States, work exclusively on nails and provide manicures, pedicures, polish ing, and nail extensions to clients. Another group of specialists is skin care specialists, or estheticians, who cleanse and beau tify the skin by giving facials, full-body treatments, and head and neck massages, as well as apply makeup. They also may remove hair through waxing or, if properly trained, with laser treatments. Finally, in larger salons, shampooers specialize in shampooing and conditioning hair. In addition to working with clients, personal appearance work ers may keep records of hair color or skin care regimens used by their regular clients. A growing number actively sell hair, skin, and nail care products. Barbers, cosmetologists, and other per sonal appearance workers who operate their own salons have managerial duties that may include hiring, supervising, and fir ing workers, as well as keeping business and inventory records, ordering supplies, and arranging for advertising. Work environment. Many full-time barbers, cosmetolo gists, and other personal appearance workers put in a 40-hour week, but longer hours are common, especially among selfemployed workers. Work schedules may include evenings and weekends, the times when beauty salons and barbershops are busiest. Many workers, especially those who are self-employed, determine their own schedules. In 2008, about 29 percent of barbers, hairstylists and cosmetologists worked part time, and 14 percent had variable schedules. Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers usually work in clean, pleasant surroundings with good lighting and ventilation. Most work in a salon or barbershop, although some may work in a spa, hotel, or resort. Good health and stamina are important, because these workers are on their feet for most of their shift. Prolonged exposure to some hair and nail chemicals may cause irritation, so protective clothing, such as plastic gloves or aprons, may be worn. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers to be licensed, with the exceptions of sham pooers. To qualify for a license, most job seekers are required to graduate from a State-licensed barber or cosmetology school. Education and training. A high school diploma or GED is required for some personal appearance workers in some States. In addition, most States require that barbers and cosmetologists complete a program in a State-licensed barber or cosmetology school. Programs in hairstyling, skin care, and other personal appearance services can be found in both high schools and in public or private postsecondary vocational schools. Full-time programs in barbering and cosmetology usually last months or more and may lead to an associate degree, but https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis training for manicurists and pedicurists and skin care specialists requires significantly less time. Shampooers generally do not need formal training. Most professionals take advanced courses in hairstyling or other personal appearance services to keep up with the latest trends. They also may take courses in sales and marketing. Licensure. All States require barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers to be licensed, with the ex ception of shampooers. Qualifications for a license vary by State, but generally a person must have a high school diploma or GED, be at least 16 years old, and have graduated from a State-licensed barber or cosmetology school. After graduating from a State ap proved training program, students take a State licensing exami nation. The exam consists of a written test and, in some cases, a practical test of styling skills or an oral examination. In many States, cosmetology training may be credited toward a barber ing license, and vice versa, and a few States combine the two licenses. Most States require separate licensing examinations for manicurists, pedicurists, and skin care specialists. A fee is usu ally required upon application for a license, and periodic license renewals may be necessary. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow licensed barbers and cosmetologists to obtain a license in another State without additional formal training, but such agreements are un common. Consequently, persons who wish to work in a particu lar State should review the laws of that State before entering a training program. Other qualifications. Successful personal appearance work ers should have an understanding of fashion, art, and technical design. They also must keep a neat personal appearance and a clean work area. Interpersonal skills, image, and attitude play an important role in career success. As client retention and retail sales become an increasingly important part of salons’ revenue, the ability to be an effective salesperson becomes ever more vital for salon workers. Some cosmetology schools consider “people skills” to be such an integral part of the job that they require coursework in that area. Business skills are important for those who plan to operate their own salons. Advancement. Advancement usually takes the form of higher earnings, as barbers and cosmetologists gain experience and build a steady clientele. Some barbers and cosmetologists manage sa lons, lease booth space in salons, or open their own salons after several years of experience. Others teach in barber or cosmetology schools or provide training through vocational schools. Still others advance to other related occupations, such as sales representatives for companies that sell salon-related products, image or fashion consultants, or examiners for State licensing boards. Employment Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance work ers held about 821,900 jobs in 2008. Of these, barbers and cosmetologists held 684,200 jobs, manicurists and pedicurists 76,000, skin care specialists 38,800, and shampooers 22,900. Most of these workers are employed in personal care services establishments, such as beauty salons, barber shops, nail salons, day and resort spas. Others were employed in nursing and other residential care homes. Nearly every town has a barbershop or Service Occupations 509 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.... 821,900 987,400 165,500 20 Barbers and cosmetologists...................................... 39-5010 684,200 817,400 133,200 19 Barbers...................................................... 39-5011 53,500 59,700 6,200 12 Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists............................ 39-5012 630,700 757,700 127,000 20 Manicurists and pedicurists......................................... 39-5092 76,000 90,200 14,300 19 Shampooers.......................................................... 39-5093 22,900 26,300 3,400 15 Skin care specialists........................................................ 39-5094 38,800 53,500 14,700 38 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa■ Occupational Title soc Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. beauty salon, but employment in this occupation is concen trated in the most populous cities and States. About 44 percent of all barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers are self-employed. Many of these workers own their own salon, but a growing number of the selfemployed lease booth space or a chair from the salon’s owner. In this case, workers provide their own supplies, and are responsible for paying their own taxes and benefits. They may pay a monthly or weekly fee to the salon owner, who is responsible for utilities and maintenance of the building. Job Outlook Overall employment of barbers, cosmetologists, and other per sonal appearance workers is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. Opportunities for entry-level workers should be favorable, while job candidates at high-end establishments will face keen competition. Employment change. Personal appearance workers will grow by 20 percent from 2008 to 2018, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. Employment trends are expected to vary among the different occupational specialties. Employment of hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists will increase by about 20 percent, while the number of barbers will increase by 12 percent. This growth will primarily come from an increasing population, which will lead to greater demand for basic hair services. Additionally, the demand for hair coloring and other advanced hair treatments has increased in recent years, particularly among baby boomers and young people. This trend is expected to continue, leading to a favorable outlook for hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists. Employ ment of shampooers will grow by 15 percent, as many cosmetolo gists and barbers are able to perform shampooing services, as well. Continued growth in the number full-service spas and nail sa lons will also generate numerous job openings for manicurists, pedicurists, and skin care specialists. Estheticians and other skin care specialists will see large gains in employment, and are ex pected to grow almost 38 percent, primarily due to the popularity of skin treatments for relaxation and medical well-being. Mani curists and pedicurists meanwhile will grow by 19 percent. Job prospects. Job opportunities generally should be good, particularly for licensed personal appearance workers seek ing entry-level positions. A large number of job openings will come about from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other rea However, workers can expect keen competition for jobs Digitized sons. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and clients at higher paying salons, as these positions are rela tively few and require applicants to compete with a large pool of licensed and experienced cosmetologists. Opportunities will generally be best for those with previous experience and for those licensed to provide a broad range of services. Earnings Median hourly wages in May 2008 for hairdressers, hairstyl ists, and cosmetologists, including tips and commission, were $11.13. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.57 and $15.03. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.47, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.41. Median hourly wages in May 2008 for barbers, including tips, were $11.56. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.93 and $14.69. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.56, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.51. Among skin care specialists, median hourly wages, including tips, were $13.81, for manicurists and pedicurists $9.46, and for shampooers $8.32. While earnings for entry-level workers usually are low, earn ings can be considerably higher for those with experience. A number of factors, such as the size and location of the salon, de termine the total income of personal appearance workers. They may receive commissions based on the price of the service, or a salary based on the number of hours worked, and many receive commissions on the products they sell. In addition, some salons pay bonuses to employees who bring in new business. For many personal appearance workers, the ability to attract and hold reg ular clients is a key factor in determining earnings. Although some salons offer paid vacations and medical ben efits, many self-employed and part-time workers in this occu pation do not enjoy such benefits. Some personal appearance workers receive free trail products from manufacturers in the hope that they will recommend the products to clients. Related Occupations Page Fitness workers............................................ Makeup artists, theatrical and performance Massage therapists...................................... ..513 ,.526 ..452 Sources of Additional Information For details on State licensing requirements and approved barber or cosmetology schools, contact your State boards of barber or cosmetology examiners. 510 Occupational Outlook Handbook State licensing board requirements and a list of licensed train ing schools for cosmetologists may be obtained from: > National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences, 4401 Ford Ave., Suite 1300, Alexandria, VA 22302. Internet: http://www.naccas.org Information about a career in cosmetology is available from: V National Cosmetology Association, 401 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ncacares.org For information on a career as a barber, contact: y National Association of Barber Boards of America, 2703 Pine Street, Arkadelphia, AR 71923. Internet: http://www.nationalbarberboards.com The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos332.htm Child Care Workers Significant Points • About 33 percent of child care workers are selfemployed, most of whom provided child care in their homes. • Training requirements range from a high school di ploma to a college degree, although some jobs require less than a high school diploma. • Many workers leave these jobs every year, creating good job opportunities. Nature of the Work Child care workers nurture, teach, and care for children who have not yet entered kindergarten. They also supervise older children before and after school. These workers play an impor tant role in children’s development by caring for them when their parents are at work or are away for other reasons or when the parents place their children in care to help them socialize with children their age. In addition to attending to children’s health, safety, and nutrition, child care workers organize activi ties and implement curricula that stimulate children’s physical, emotional, intellectual, and social growth. They help children explore individual interests, develop talents and independence, build self-esteem, learn how to get along with others, and pre pare for more formal schooling. Child care workers generally are classified into three differ ent groups based on where they work: private household work ers, who care for children at the children’s homes; family child care providers, who care for children in the providers’ homes; and child care workers who work at child care centers, which include Head Start, Early Head Start, full-day and part-day pre school, and other early childhood programs. Private household workers who are employed on an hourly basis usually are called babysitters. These child care work ers bathe, dress, and feed children; supervise their play; wash their clothes; and clean their rooms. Babysitters also may put https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis children to bed and wake them, read to them, involve them in educational games, take them for doctors’ visits, and discipline them. Those who are in charge of infants prepare bottles and change diapers. Babysitters may work for many different fami lies. Workers who are employed by one family are often called nannies. They generally take care of children from birth to age 12, tending to the child’s early education, nutrition, health, and other needs. They also may perform the duties of a housekeeper, including cleaning and doing the laundry. Family child care providers often work alone with a small group of children, although some work in larger settings they work in groups or teams. Child care centers generally have more than one adult per group of children; in groups of children aged 3 to 5 years, a child care worker may assist a more experi enced preschool teacher. Most child care workers perform a combination of basic care and teaching duties, but the majority of their time is spent on caregiving activities. However, there is an increasing focus on preparing children aged 3 to 5 years for school. Workers whose primary responsibility is teaching are classified as pre school teachers. (Preschool teachers are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) However, many basic care activities also are opportunities for children to learn. For example, a worker who shows a child how to tie a shoelace teaches the child while pro viding for that child’s basic needs. Child care workers spend most of their day working with children. However, they do maintain contact with parents or guardians through informal meetings or scheduled confer ences to discuss each child’s progress and needs. Many child care workers keep records of each child’s progress and suggest ways in which parents can stimulate their child’s learning and development at home. Some child care centers and before- and afterschool programs actively recruit parent volunteers to work with the children and participate in administrative decisions and program planning. Young children learn mainly through playing, solving prob lems, questioning, and experimenting. Child care workers recognize that fact and capitalize on children’s play and other experiences to further their language development (through sto rytelling and acting games), improve their social skills (by hav ing them work together to build a neighborhood in a sandbox), and introduce scientific and mathematical concepts (by balanc ing and counting blocks when building a bridge or mixing col ors when painting). Often, a less structured approach, including small-group lessons; one-on-one instruction; and creative activi ties such as art, dance, and music, is used to teach young chil dren. Child care workers play a vital role in preparing children to build the skills they will need in school. Child care workers in child care centers, schools, or family child care homes greet young children as they arrive, help them with their jackets, and select an activity of interest. When caring for infants, they feed and change them. To ensure a well-balanced program, child care workers prepare daily and long-term sched ules of activities. Each day’s activities balance individual and group play, as well as quiet time and time for physical activity. Children are given some freedom to participate in activities they are interested in. As children age, child care workers may provide Service Occupations 511 V __ : ® **w; ’ 1 ‘ tm Child care workers nurture, teach, and care for children who have not yet entered kindergarten and older children before and after school. more guided learning opportunities, particularly in the areas of math and reading. Concern over school-aged children being home alone before and after school has spurred many parents to seek alternative ways for their children to spend their time constructively. The purpose of before- and after-school programs is to watch over school-aged children during the gap between school hours and the end of their parents’ daily work hours. These programs also may operate during the summer and on weekends. Work ers in before- and after-school programs may help students with their homework or engage them in extracurricular activi ties, including field trips, sports, learning about computers, painting, photography, and other subjects. Some child care workers are responsible for taking children to school in the morning and picking them up from school in the afternoon. Before- and after-school programs may be operated by pub lic school systems, local community centers, or other private organizations. Helping to keep children healthy is another important part of the job. Child care workers serve nutritious meals and snacks and teach good eating habits and personal hygiene. They en sure that children have proper rest periods. They identify chil dren who may not feel well, and they may help parents locate programs that will provide basic health services. Child care workers also watch for children who show signs of emotional or developmental problems. Upon identifying such a child, they discuss the child’s situation with their supervisor and the child’s parents. Early identification of children with special needs—such as those with behavioral, emotional, physical, or learning disabilities—is important in improving their future learning ability. Special education teachers often work with preschool children to provide the individual attention they need. (Special education teachers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Work environment. Helping children grow, learn, and gain new skills can be very rewarding. The work is sometimes rou tine, but new activities and challenges mark each day. Child care can be physically and emotionally taxing as workers con https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis stantly stand, walk, bend, stoop, and lift to attend to each child’s interests and problems. These workers experienced a larger than average number of work-related injuries or illnesses. States regulate child care facilities, the number of children per child care worker, the qualifications of the staff, and the health and safety of the children. To ensure that children in child care centers receive proper supervision, State or local reg ulations may require a certain ratio of workers to children. The ratio varies with the age of the children. For infants (children under 1 year old), child care workers may be responsible for 3 or 4 children. For toddler’s (children 1 to 2 years old), work ers may be responsible for 4 to 10 children, and for preschoolaged children (those between 3 and 5 years old), workers may be responsible for 8 to 25 children. However, these regulations vary greatly from State to State. In before- and after-school programs, workers may be responsible for many school-aged children at a time. Family child care providers work out of their own homes, an arrangement that provides convenience, but also requires that their homes be accommodating to young children. Private household workers usually work in the homes or apartments of their employers. Most live in their own homes and travel to work, although some live in the home of their employer and generally are provided with their own room and bath. They of ten come to feel like part of their employer’s family. The work hours of child care workers vary widely. Child care centers usually are open year round, with long hours so that parents can drop off and pick up their children before and after work. Some centers employ full-time and part-time staff with staggered shifts to cover the entire day. Some workers are unable to take regular breaks during the day due to limited staffing. Public and many private preschool programs operate during the typical 9- or 10-month school year, employing both full-time and part-time workers. Family child care providers have flexible hours and daily routines, but they may work long or unusual hours to fit parents’ work schedules. Live-in nan nies usually work longer hours than do child care workers who live in their own homes. However, although nannies may work evenings or weekends, they usually get other time off. About 36 percent worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Licensure and training requirements vary greatly by State, but some jobs require less than a high school diploma. Education and training. The training and qualifications re quired of child care workers vary widely. Each State has its own licensing requirements that regulate caregiver training. These requirements range from less than a high school diploma, to a national Child Development Associate (CDA) credential, to community college courses or a college degree in child devel opment or early childhood education. State requirements are generally higher for workers at child care centers than for fam ily child care providers. Child care workers in private settings who care for only a few children often are not regulated by States at all. Child care workers generally can obtain some form of employment with less than a high school diploma and little or no experience, but certain private firms and publicly funded programs have more 512 Occupational Outlook Handbook demanding training and education requirements. Different pub lic funding streams may set other education and professional development requirements. For example, many States have separate funding for prekindergarten programs for 4-year-old children. In accordance with the regulations that accompany the funding, these States typically set higher education degree re quirements for those workers than do ordinary State child care licensing requirements. Some employers prefer workers who have taken secondary or postsecondary courses in child development and early child hood education or who have work experience in a child care setting. Other employers require their own specialized training. An increasing number of employers are requiring an associate’s degree in early childhood education Licensure. Many States require child care centers, in cluding those in private homes, to be licensed if they care for more than a few children. In order to obtain their license, child care centers may require child care workers to pass a background check, get immunizations, and meet a minimum training requirement. Other qualifications. Child care workers must anticipate and prevent problems, deal with disruptive children, provide fair but firm discipline, and be enthusiastic and constantly alert. They must communicate effectively with the children and their parents, as well as with teachers and other child care work ers. Workers should be mature, patient, understanding, and ar ticulate and have energy and physical stamina. Skills in music, art, drama, and storytelling also are important. Self-employed child care workers must have business sense and management abilities. Certification and advancement. Some employers prefer to hire child care workers who have earned a nationally recog nized Child Development Associate (CDA) credential or the Child Care Professional (CCP) designation from the Council for Professional Recognition and the National Child Care Associa tion, respectively. Requirements include child care experience and coursework, such as college courses or employer-provided seminars. Opportunities for advancement are limited. However, as child care workers gain experience, some may advance to supervi sory or administrative positions in large child care centers or preschools. Often, these positions require additional training, such as a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Other workers move on to work in resource and referral agencies, consulting with parents on available child care services. A few workers become involved in policy or advocacy work related to child care and early childhood education. With a bachelor’s degree, workers may become preschool teachers or become certified to teach in public or private schools. Some workers set up their own child care businesses. Employment Child care workers held about 1.3 million jobs in 2008. About 33 percent of child care workers were self-employed; most of these were family child care providers. Child day care services employed about 19 percent of all child care workers, and about 19 percent worked for private households. The remainder worked primarily in educational services; nursing and residential care facilities; amusement and recreation industries; civic and social organizations; and indi vidual and family services. Some child care programs are forprofit centers, which may be affiliated with a local or national company. A very small percentage of private-industry establish ments operate onsite child care centers for the children of their employees. Job Outlook Child care workers are expected to experience job growth that is about as fast as the average for all occupations. Job prospects will be good because of the many workers who leave the occu pation and need to be replaced. Employment change. Employment of child care workers is projected to increase by 11 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. An increasing emphasis on early childhood education programs will increase demand for these workers. Child care workers often work alongside preschool teachers as assistants. There fore, increased demand for formal preschool programs will cre ate growth for child care workers. Although only a few States currently provide targeted or universal preschool programs, many more are considering or starting such programs. A rise in enrollment in private preschools is likely as the value of formal education before kindergarten becomes more widely ac cepted. More States moving toward universal preschool educa tion could increase employment growth for child care workers. However, growth will be moderated by relatively slow growth in the population of children under the age of five, who are gen erally cared for by these workers. Job prospects. High replacement needs should create good job opportunities for child care workers. Qualified persons who are interested in this work should have little trouble finding and keeping a job. Many child care workers must be replaced each year as they leave the occupation to fulfill family responsibili ties, to study, or for other reasons. Others leave because they are interested in pursuing other occupations or because of low wages. Earnings Pay depends on the educational attainment of the worker and the type of establishment. Although the pay generally is very low, more education usually means higher earnings. Median hourly wages of child care workers were $9.12 in May 2008. The mid- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Child care workers................................................................................. SOC Code 39-9011 Employment, 2008 1,301,900 Projected Employment, 2018 1,443,900 Change, 2008-2018 Number 142,100 Percent 11 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 513 die 50 percent earned between $7.75 and $11.30. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.04, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.98. Median hourly wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of child care workers in May 2008 were: Other residential care facilities..................................... $10.56 Elementary and secondary schools................................ 10.53 Civic and social organizations.......................................... 8.53 Other amusement and recreation industries.....................8.41 Child day care services..................................................... 8.39 Earnings of self-employed child care workers vary with the number of hours worked, the number and ages of the children, and the geographic location. Benefits vary, but are minimal for most child care workers. Many employers offer free or discounted child care to employ ees. Some offer a full benefits package, including health insur ance and paid vacations, but others offer no benefits at all. Some employers offer seminars and workshops to help workers learn new skills. A few are willing to cover the cost of courses taken at community colleges or technical schools. Live-in nannies re ceive free room and board. Related Occupations Child care work requires patience; creativity; an ability to nur ture, motivate, teach, and influence children; and leadership, organizational, and administrative skills. Others who work with children and need these qualities and skills include: Page Teacher assistants..................................................................... 276 Teachers—kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary....................................................................... 288 Teachers—preschool,except special education.......................... 286 Teachers—special education....................................................294 Sources of Additional Information For an electronic question-and-answer service on child care, for information on becoming a child care provider, and for infor mation on other resources, contact: y National Child Care Information Center, 10530 Rosehaven St., Suite 400 Fairfax, VA 22030. Internet: http ://w ww.nccic.org For information about a career as a nanny, contact: X International Nanny Association, PO Box 1299, Hyannis, MA 02601. Internet: http://www.nanny.org State departments of human services or social services can supply State regulations and training requirements for child care workers. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl70.htm Fitness Workers Significant Points • Many fitness and personal training jobs are part time, but many workers increase their hours by working at several different facilities or at clients’ homes. • Most fitness workers need to be certified. • Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average. • Job prospects are expected to be good. Nature of the Work Fitness workers lead, instruct, and motivate individuals or groups in exercise activities, including cardiovascular exercise, strength training, and stretching. They work in health clubs, country clubs, hospitals, universities, yoga and Pilates studios, resorts, and clients’ homes. Fitness workers also are found in workplaces, where they organize and direct health and fitness programs for employees. Although gyms and health clubs of fer a variety of exercise activities, such as weight lifting, yoga, cardiovascular training, and karate, fitness workers typically specialize in only a few areas. Personal trainers work one-on-one or with two or three cli ents, either in a gym or in the clients’ homes. They help clients assess their level of physical fitness and set and reach fitness For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child Development Associate credential, contact: y Council for Professional Recognition, 2460 16th St., NW., Washington, DC 20009-3547. Internet: http://www.cdacouncil.org For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child Care Professional designation, contact: y National Child Care Association, 1325 G St., NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nccanet.org For information about early childhood education, contact: V National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1313 L St., NW., Suite 500 Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http ://www.naeyc.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1, H 7Y 1 ________ Personal trainers work one-on-one or with two or three clients, either in a gym or in the client’s home. 514 Occupational Outlook Handbook goals. Trainers also demonstrate various exercises and help cli ents improve their exercise techniques. They may keep records of their clients’ exercise sessions to monitor the clients’ prog ress toward physical fitness. They also may advise their clients on how to modify their lifestyles outside of the gym to improve their fitness. Group exercise instructors conduct group exercise sessions that usually include aerobic exercise, stretching, and muscle conditioning. Cardiovascular conditioning classes often are set to music. Instructors select the music and choreograph a cor responding exercise sequence. Two increasingly popular condi tioning methods taught in exercise classes are Pilates and yoga. In these classes, instructors demonstrate the different moves and positions of the particular method; they also observe stu dents and correct those who are doing the exercises improperly. Group exercise instructors are responsible for ensuring that their classes are motivating, safe, and challenging, yet not too difficult for the participants. Fitness directors oversee the fitness-related aspects of a health club or fitness center. They create and oversee programs that meet the needs of the club’s members, including new-member orientations, fitness assessments, and workout incentive pro grams. They also select fitness equipment; coordinate personal training and group exercise programs; hire, train, and supervise fitness staff; and carry out administrative duties. Fitness workers in smaller facilities with few employees may perform a variety of functions in addition to their fit ness duties, such as tending the front desk, signing up new members, giving tours of the fitness center, writing newslet ter articles, creating posters and flyers, and supervising the weight-training and cardiovascular equipment areas. In larger commercial facilities, personal trainers often are required to sell their services to members and to make a specified num ber of sales. Some fitness workers may combine the duties of group exercise instructors and personal trainers; in smaller facilities, the fitness director may teach classes and do per sonal training. Work environment. Most fitness workers spend their time indoors at fitness or recreation centers and health clubs. Fit ness directors and supervisors, however, typically spend most of their time in an office. In some fitness centers, workers may split their time among doing office work, engaging in personal training, and teaching classes. Nevertheless, fitness workers at all levels risk suffering injuries during physical activities. Since most fitness centers are open long hours, fitness workers often work nights and weekends and even occasional holidays. In 2008, about 40 percent of fitness workers were part-time em ployees. Some may travel from place to place throughout the day, to different gyms or to clients’ homes, to maintain a full work schedule. Fitness workers generally enjoy a lot of autonomy. Group ex ercise instructors choreograph or plan their own classes, and personal trainers have the freedom to design and implement their clients’ workout routines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For most fitness workers, certification is critical. Personal train ers usually must be certified to begin working with clients or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis with members of a fitness facility. Group fitness instructors may begin without a certification, but they are often encouraged or required by their employers to become certified. Education and training. The education and training re quired depends on the specific type of fitness work: personal training, group fitness, and a specialization such as Pilates or yoga each need different preparation. Personal trainers often start out by taking classes to become certified. Then they may begin by working alongside an experienced trainer before be ing allowed to train clients alone. Group fitness instructors often get started by participating in exercise classes until they are ready to audition as instructors and, if the audition is suc cessful, begin teaching classes. They also may improve their skills by taking training courses or attending fitness conven tions. Most employers require instructors to work toward be coming certified. Fitness workers usually do not receive much on-the-job train ing; they are expected to know how to do their jobs when they are hired. Workers may receive some organizational training to learn about the operations of their new employer. Occasionally, they receive specialized training if they are expected to teach or lead a specific method of exercise or focus on a particular age or ability group. Because requirements vary from employer to employer, before pursuing training it may be helpful to con tact local fitness centers or other potential employers to find out what background they prefer. An increasing number of employers are requiring fitness workers to have a bachelor’s degree in a field related to health or fitness, such as exercise science or physical education. Some employers allow workers to substitute a college degree for cer tification, but most employers who require a bachelor’s degree also require certification. Training for Pilates and yoga instructors has changed. When interest in these forms of exercise exploded, the demand for teachers grew faster than the ability to train them properly. Inexperienced teachers contributed to student injuries, leading to a push toward more standardized, rigorous requirements for teacher training. Pilates and yoga teachers now need specialized training in their particular method of exercise. For Pilates, training options range from weekend-long workshops to yearlong programs, but the trend is toward requiring even more training. The Pilates Method Alliance has established training standards that recom mend at least 200 hours of training; the group also has standards for training schools and maintains a list of training schools that meet the requirements. However, some Pilates teachers are cer tified group exercise instructors who attend short Pilates work shops; currently, many fitness centers hire people with minimal Pilates training if the applicants have a fitness certification and group fitness experience. Training requirements for yoga teachers are similar to those for Pilates teachers. Training programs range from a few days to more than 2 years. Many people get their start by taking yoga; eventually, their teachers may consider them ready to as sist or to substitute teach. Some students may begin teaching their own classes when their yoga teachers think that they are ready; the teachers may even provide letters of recommenda Service Occupations 515 tion. Those who wish to pursue teaching more seriously usually seek formal teacher training. Currently, there are many training programs throughout the yoga community, as well as programs throughout the fitness industry. The Yoga Alliance has established training standards requiring at least 200 training hours, with a specified number of hours in techniques, teaching methodology, anatomy, physiol ogy, philosophy, and other areas. The Yoga Alliance also regis ters schools that train students to its standards. Because some schools may meet the standards but not be registered, prospec tive students should check the requirements and decide whether particular schools meet them. Certification and other qualifications. The most important characteristic that an employer looks for in a new fitness in structor is the ability to plan and lead a class that is motivating and safe. Group fitness instructors do not necessarily require certification to begin working. However, most organizations encourage their group instructors to become certified over time, and many require it. In the fitness field, there are many organizations that offer certification. Getting certified by one of the top certification or ganizations is becoming increasingly important, especially for personal trainers. One way to ensure that a certifying organi zation is reputable is to make sure that it is accredited by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies. Most certifying organizations require candidates to have a high school diploma, be certified in cardiopulmonary resuscita tion (CPR), and pass an exam. All certification exams have a written component, and some also have a practical component. The exams measure knowledge of human physiology, under standing of proper exercise techniques, assessment of client fit ness levels, and development of appropriate exercise programs. There is no particular training program required for certifica tion; candidates may prepare however they prefer. Certifying organizations do offer study materials, including books, CDROMs, other audio and visual materials, and exam preparation workshops and seminars, but candidates are not required to pur chase materials to take exams. Certification generally is good for 2 years, after which work ers must become recertified by attending continuing education classes or conferences, writing articles, or giving presentations. Some organizations offer more advanced certification that re quires an associate’s or bachelor’s degree in an exercise-related subject for individuals who are interested in training athletes, working with people who are injured or ill, or advising clients on general health. Pilates and yoga instructors usually do not need group ex ercise certification to maintain their employment. It is more important that they have specialized training in their particular method of exercise. However, the Pilates Method Alliance does offer certification. Pilates certification requires 450 hours of documented training or 720 hours of full-time work the previ ous 12 months. People planning fitness careers should be outgoing, excel lent communicators, good at motivating people, and sensitive to the needs of others. Excellent health and physical fitness are important because of the physical nature of the job. Those who wish to be personal trainers in a large commercial fit ness center should have strong sales skills. All personal train ers should have the personality and motivation to attract and retain clients. Advancement. A bachelor’s degree in exercise science, physical education, kinesiology (the study of the mechan ics of human motion, including the role of the muscles), or a related area, along with experience, usually is required to advance to management positions in a health club or fitness center. Some organizations require a master’s degree. As in other occupations, managerial skills also are needed to ad vance to supervisory or managerial positions. College courses in management, business administration, accounting, and per sonnel management may be helpful, but many fitness compa nies have corporate universities in which they train employees for management positions. Personal trainers may advance to head trainer, with responsi bility for hiring and overseeing the personal training staff and for bringing in new personal-training clients. Group fitness in structors may be promoted to group exercise director, a posi tion responsible for hiring instructors and coordinating exercise classes. Later, a worker might become the fitness director of an organization, managing the fitness budget and staff. A worker also might become the general manager, whose main focus is the financial aspects of the organization, particularly setting and achieving sales goals; in a small fitness center, however, the general manager usually is involved with all aspects of running the facility. Some workers go into business for themselves and open their own fitness centers. Employment Fitness workers held about 261,100 jobs in 2008. About 61 percent of all personal trainers and group exercise instructors worked in fitness and recreational sports centers, including health clubs. Another 13 percent worked in civic and social organizations. About 9 percent of fitness workers were selfemployed; many of these were personal trainers, while others were group fitness instructors working on a contract basis with fitness centers. Many fitness jobs are part time, and many work ers hold multiple jobs, teaching or doing personal training at several different fitness centers and at clients’ homes. Job Outlook Jobs for fitness workers are expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations. Fitness workers should Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Fitness trainers and aerobics instmctors. 39-9031 261,100 337,900 76,800 29 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis SOC Code Employment, 2008 516 Occupational Outlook Handbook have good opportunities because of continued job growth in health clubs, fitness facilities, and other settings in which fit ness workers are concentrated. Employment change. Employment of fitness workers is ex pected to increase 29 percent over the 2008-18 decade, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. These workers are expected to gain jobs because an increasing number of people are spending time and money on fitness and more businesses are recognizing the benefits of health and fitness programs for their employees. Aging baby boomers, one group that increasingly is becom ing concerned with staying healthy and physically fit, will be the main driver of employment growth in fitness workers. An additional factor is the combination of a reduction in the number of physical education programs in schools with par ents’ growing concern about childhood obesity. This factor will increase the need for fitness workers to work with children in nonschool settings, such as health clubs. Increasingly, parents also are hiring personal trainers for their children, and the num ber of weight-training gyms for children is expected to con tinue to grow. Health club membership among young adults has grown steadily as well, driven by concern with physical fitness and by rising incomes. As health clubs strive to provide more personalized service to keep their members motivated, they will continue to offer personal training and a wide variety of group exercise classes. Participation in yoga and Pilates is expected to continue to in crease, driven partly by the aging population, which demands low-impact forms of exercise and seeks relief from arthritis and other ailments. Job prospects. Opportunities are expected to be good for fitness workers because demand for these workers is expected to remain strong in health clubs, fitness facilities, and other set tings in which fitness workers are concentrated. In addition, many job openings will stem from the need to replace the large numbers of workers who leave these occupations each year. Part-time jobs will be easier to find than full-time jobs. People with degrees in fitness-related subjects will have better opportu nities because clients prefer to work with people they perceive as higher quality trainers. Trainers who incorporate new tech nology and wellness issues as part of their services may be in more demand. Because many fitness workers work part time, they often do not receive benefits such as health insurance or retirement plans from their employers. They are able to use fitness facilities at no cost, however. Related Occupations Other occupations that focus on health and physical fitness in clude the following: Page Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.................... 321 Dietitians and nutritionists.......................................................366 Physical therapists....................................................................377 Recreation workers...................................................................522 Sources of Additional Information For more information about fitness careers and about universi ties and other institutions offering programs in health and fit ness, contact: y National Strength and Conditioning Association, 1885 Bob Johnson Drive, Colorado Springs, CO 80906. Internet: http ://www.nsca-lift.org For information about personal trainer and group fitness in structor certifications, contact: y American College of Sports Medicine, P.O. Box 1440, Indianapolis, IN 46206-1440. Internet: http://www.acsm.org y American Council on Exercise, 4851 Paramount Dr., San Diego, CA 92123. Internet: http://www.acefitness.org y National Academy of Sports Medicine, 26632 Agoura Rd., Calabasas, CA 91302. Internet: http://www.nasm.org y NSCA Certification Commission, 1885 Bob Johnson Drive, Colorado Springs, CO 80906. Internet: http ://www.nsca-cc.org For information about Pilates certification and training pro grams, contact: y Pilates Method Alliance, P.O. Box 37096, Miami, FL 33137-0906. Internet: http://www.pilatesmethodalliance.org Earnings Median annual wages of fitness trainers and aerobics instructors in May 2008 were $29,210. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $19,610 and $44,420. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $16,120, while the top 10 percent earned $60,760 or more. These figures do not include the earnings of the self-employed. Earnings of successful self-employed personal trainers can be much higher. Median annual wages in the industries employ ing the largest numbers of fitness workers in May 2008 were as follows: General medical and surgical hospitals......................$32,140 Fitness and recreational sports centers.........................30,610 Local government......................................................... 30,200 Civic and social organizations......................................25,110 Other schools and instmction.......................................24,230 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For information on yoga teacher training programs, contact: y Yoga Alliance, 1701 Clarendon Boulevard, Suite 110, Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.yogaalliance.org For information about health clubs and sports clubs, contact: y International Health, Racquet, and Sportsclub Association, Seaport Center, 70 Fargo Street, Boston, MA 02210. Internet: http ://cms.ihrsa.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos296.htm Service Occupations 517 Flight Attendants Significant Points • Competition for positions is expected to remain keen because the opportunity for travel attracts more ap plicants than there are jobs. • Job duties are learned through formal on-the-job training at a flight training center. • A high school diploma is the minimum educational requirement, but airlines prefer applicants with a col lege degree and with experience in dealing with the public. Nature of the Work Major airlines are required by law to provide flight attendants for the safety and security of the traveling public. Although the primary job of the flight attendants is to ensure that security and safety regulations are followed, attendants also try to make flights comfortable and enjoyable for passengers. At least 1 hour before takeoff, attendants are briefed by the captain—the pilot in command—on such things as emergency evacuation procedures, coordination of the crew, the length of the flight, expected weather conditions, and any special issues having to do with passengers. Flight attendants make sure that first-aid kits and other emergency equipment are aboard and in working order and that the passenger cabin is in order, with ad equate supplies of food, beverages, and any other amenities. As passengers board the plane, flight attendants greet them, check their tickets, and tell them where to store carry-on items. Before the plane takes off, flight attendants instruct all pas sengers in the use of emergency equipment and check to see that seatbelts are fastened, seat backs are in upright positions, and all carry-on items are properly stowed. In the air, helping passengers in the event of an emergency is the most important responsibility of a flight attendant. Safety-related actions range from reassuring passengers during rough weather to directing passengers who must evacuate a plane following an emergency landing. Flight attendants also answer questions about the flight, and help small children, elderly or disabled persons, and any others needing assistance. Flight attendants may administer first aid to passengers who become ill. Flight attendants gener ally serve beverages and on many flights sell precooked meals or snacks. Prior to landing, flight attendants take inventory of headsets, alcoholic beverages, and moneys collected. They also report any medical problems passengers may have had, the con dition of cabin equipment, and any lost-and-found articles. Lead, or first, flight attendants, sometimes known as purs ers, oversee the work of the other attendants aboard the aircraft, while performing most of the same duties. Work environment. Because airlines operate around the clock and year round, flight attendants can work nights, holi days, and weekends. In most cases, agreements between the airline and the employees’ union determine the total daily and monthly working time. Scheduled on-duty time usually is lim ited to 12 hours per day, however flight attendants can be sched uled up to 14 hours per day, with somewhat greater maximums https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis :.7 ~ mm Flight attendants spend a great deal of time away from home. for international flying. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) requires that flight attendants receive 9 consecutive hours of rest following any duty period. Attendants usually fly 65 to 90 hours a month and generally spend another 50 hours a month on the ground preparing planes for flights, writing reports following completed flights, and waiting for planes to arrive. Most airlines guarantee a minimum of 65 to 85 flight hours per month, with the option to work ad ditional hours. Flight attendants receive extra compensation for additional hours. Flight attendants may be away from their home base at least one-third of the time. During this period, the airlines provide hotel accommodations and an allowance for meal expenses. Flight attendants must be flexible and willing to relocate. However, many flight attendants elect to live in one place and commute to their assigned home base. Home bases and routes worked are bid for and awarded on a seniority basis, so the lon ger the flight attendant has been employed, the more likely he or she is to work on their preferred flights. Almost all flight attendants start out working on reserve status, or on call. Flight attendants on reserve status usually live near their home base, because they are required to be able to report to their home base on short notice. On small corporate airlines, flight attendants often work on an as-needed basis and must adapt to varying environments and passengers. The combination of free time and free or discounted airfares provides flight attendants the opportunity to travel. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. Flight attendants stand during much of the flight and must remain pleasant and effi cient, regardless of how tired they are or how demanding pas sengers may be. Occasionally, flight attendants must deal with turbulent flights which can cause difficulties regarding service and cause anxiety among passengers that flight attendants must address. 518 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working in a moving aircraft leaves flight attendants sus ceptible to injuries. According to BLS data, full-time flight attendants experienced a much higher than average work-re lated injury and illness rate. Various physical injuries can occur when opening overhead compartments or while pushing heavy service carts. In addition, medical problems can arise from ir regular sleeping and eating patterns, dealing with stressful pas sengers, working in a pressurized environment, and breathing recycled air. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Flight attendants must be certified by the FAA. A high school diploma or its equivalent is the minimum educational require ment, but airlines increasingly prefer applicants who have a col lege degree. Experience in dealing with the public is important, because flight attendants must be able to interact comfortably with strangers and remain calm under duress. Education and training. A high school diploma or its equiv alent is the minimum educational requirement. However, airlines increasingly prefer applicants with a college degree. Applicants who attend schools or colleges that offer flight attendant training may have an advantage over other applicants. Highly desirable areas of concentration include people-oriented disciplines, such as communications, psychology, nursing, travel and tourism, hospitality, and education. Flight attendants for international air lines generally must speak a foreign language fluently. For their international flights, some of the major airlines prefer candidates who can speak two major foreign languages. Once hired, all candidates must undergo a period of formal training. The length of training, ranging from 3 to 6 weeks, depends on the size and type of carrier and takes place at the airline’s flight training center. Airlines that do not operate train ing centers generally send new employees to the center of an other airline. Some airlines may provide transportation to the training centers and an allowance for room, board, and school supplies, while other airlines charge individuals for training. New trainees are not considered employees of the airline un til they successfully complete the training program. Trainees learn emergency procedures, such as evacuating an airplane, operating emergency systems and equipment, administering first aid, and surviving in the water. In addition, trainees are taught how to deal with disruptive passengers and with hijack ing and terrorist situations. New hires learn flight regulations and duties, gain knowledge of company operations and poli cies, and receive instruction on personal grooming and weight control. Trainees for international routes get additional instruc tion in passport and customs regulations. Trainees must perform many drills and duties unaided, in front of the training staff. Throughout training, they also take tests designed to eliminate unsuccessful trainees. Toward the end of their training, students go on practice flights. Upon successful completion of training, flight attendants receive the FAA Certificate of Demonstrated Proficiency. Flight attendants also are required to go through periodic retraining and pass an FAA safety examination to con tinue flying. Licensure and certification. All flight attendants must be certified by the FAA. To be certified, flight attendants are re quired to successfully complete training requirements, such as https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis evacuation, fire fighting, medical emergency, and security pro cedures established by the FAA and the Transportation Security Administration. They also must perform the assigned duties of a cabin crew member and complete an approved proficiency check. Flight attendants are certified for specific types of air craft, regardless of the carrier. Therefore, only 1 -day or 2-day recurrent training, with the new carrier, is needed for those flight attendants who change airlines, as long as the type of air craft remains the same. Other qualifications. Airlines prefer to hire poised, tact ful, and resourceful people who can speak clearly and inter act comfortably with strangers and remain calm under duress. Applicants with previous experience in dealing with the pub lic are preferred by airlines. Additionally, airlines usually have age, physical, and appearance requirements. Applicants usu ally must be at least 18 to 21 years old, although some car riers may have higher minimum-age requirements. Applicants must meet height requirements for reaching overhead bins, which often contain emergency equipment, and most airlines want candidates with weight proportionate to height. Flight at tendants must be in excellent health, and a medical evaluation is required. Vision is required to be correctable to 20/30 or bet ter with glasses or contact lenses (uncorrected no worse than 20/200). Men must have their hair cut above the collar and be clean shaven. Airlines prefer applicants with no visible tattoos, body piercing, or unusual hairstyles or makeup. In addition to education and training, airlines conduct a thor ough background check, which goes back as many as 10 years, as required by the FAA,. Everything about an applicant is inves tigated, including date of birth, employment history, criminal record, school records, and any gaps in employment. Employ ment is contingent on a successful background check. An appli cant will not be offered a job or will be immediately dismissed if his or her background check shows any discrepancies. All U.S. airlines require that applicants be citizens of the United States or registered aliens with legal rights to obtain employ ment in the United States. Advancement. After completing initial training, flight attendants are assigned to one of their airline’s bases. New flight attendants are placed on reserve status and are called either to staff extra flights or to fill in for crewmembers that are sick, on vacation, or rerouted. When they are not on duty, reserve flight attendants must be available to report for flights on short notice. They usually remain on reserve for at least 1 year but, in some cities, it may take 5 to 10 years— or longer—to advance from reserve status. Flight attendants who no longer are on reserve bid monthly for regular assign ments. Because assignments are based on seniority, usually only the most experienced attendants get their choice of as signments. Advancement takes longer today than in the past, because experienced flight attendants are remaining in this career longer than in the past. Some flight attendants become supervisors, moving from se nior or lead flight attendant, to check flight attendant, to flight attendant supervisor, then on to base manager, and finally to manager or vice president of in-flight operations. They may take on additional duties, such as recruiting, instructing, or de veloping in-flight products. Their experience also may qualify Service Occupations 519 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Flight attendants.......................................... ................................. soc Code Employment, 2008 39-6031 98,700 Projected Employment, 2018 106,700 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 8,000 8 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. them for numerous airline-related jobs involving contact with the public, such as reservation ticket agent or public relations specialist. Flight attendants who do not want to travel often for various reasons may move to a position as an administrative assistant. With additional education, some flight attendants may decide to transfer to other areas of the airline for which they work, such as risk management or human resources. Employment Flight attendants held about 98,700 jobs in 2008. Commercial airlines employed the vast majority of flight attendants, and most attendants lived near major metropolitan airports or air ports operating as hubs for the major airlines. A small number of flight attendants worked for companies that offered chartered flights. Job Outlook Employment of flight attendants is projected to grow about as fast as average. Competition for jobs is expected to remain keen because the opportunity for travel attracts more applicants than there are jobs. Employment change. Employment of flight attendants is expected to grow by 8 percent, which is about as fast as the av erage for all occupations over the 2008-18 period. Population growth and an improving economy are expected to boost the number of airline passengers. As airlines expand their capacity to meet rising demand by increasing the number and size of planes in operation and the number of flights offered, more flight attendants will be needed. Job prospects. Despite growing demand for flight atten dants, competition is expected to be keen because this job usu ally attracts more applicants than there are jobs, with only the most qualified eventually being hired. College graduates who have experience dealing with the public should have the best chance of being hired. Job opportunities may be better with the faster growing regional and commuter, low-cost, and char ter airlines. There also are job opportunities for professionally trained flight attendants to work for companies operating pri vate aircraft for their executives. The majority of job opportunities through the year 2018 will arise from the need to replace flight attendants who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations, often for higher earnings or a more stable lifestyle. With the job now viewed increasingly as a profession, however, fewer flight attendants leave their jobs, and job turnover is not as high as in the past. According to the Association of Flight Attendants, the average job tenure of attendants is currently 16 years and is increasing. In the long run, opportunities for persons seeking flight at tendant jobs should improve as the airline industry expands. Over the next decade, however, demand for flight attendants https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis will fluctuate with the demand for air travel, which is highly sensitive to swings in the economy. During downturns, as air traffic declines, the hiring of flight attendants declines, and some experienced attendants may be laid off until traffic recovers. Earnings Median annual wages of flight attendants were $35,930 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,420 and $49,910. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,580, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $65,350. According to data from the Association of Flight Attendants, beginning attendants had median earnings of $16,191 a year in 2009. Beginning pay scales for flight attendants vary by carrier, however. New hires usually begin at the same pay scale, regard less of experience; all flight attendants receive the same future pay increases based on an established pay scale. Some airlines offer incentive pay for working holidays, night and international flights, or taking positions that require addi tional responsibility or paperwork. Flight attendants and their immediate families are entitled to free or discounted fares on their own airline and reduced fares on most other airlines. Some airlines require that the flight at tendant be with an airline for 3 to 6 months before taking ad vantage of this benefit. Other benefits may include medical, dental, and life insurance; 40IK or other retirement plan; sick leave; paid holidays; stock options; paid vacations; and tuition reimbursement. Flight attendants also receive a “per diem” al lowance for meal expenses while on duty away from home. Flight attendants are required to purchase uniforms and wear them while on duty. The airlines usually pay for uniform re placement items, and may provide a small allowance to cover cleaning and upkeep of the uniforms. The majority of flight attendants hold union membership, pri marily with the Association of Flight Attendants. Other unions that represent flight attendants include the Transport Work ers Union of America and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve helping people as a safety professional, while requiring the ability to be calm even under trying circum stances, include: Page Emergency medical technicians and paramedics................... 419 Fire fighters..............................................................................470 Other workers who provide customer service include: Food and beverage serving and related workers..................... 491 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks....................................................................598 520 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities and qualifications required for work at a particular airline may be obtained by writing to the airline’s human resources office. For further information on flight attendants, contact: V Association of Flight Attendants-CWA, 501 Third St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.afanet.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl71.htm Gaming Services Occupations Significant Points • Workers need a license issued by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission. • Competition for jobs is expected to be keen. • Job prospects will be best for those with previous casino gaming experience, a degree or technical or vocational training in gaming or a hospitality-related field, and strong customer service skills. Nature of the Work Legalized gambling in the United States today includes casino gaming, State lotteries, pari-mutuel wagering on contests such as horse or dog racing, and charitable gaming. There are a num ber of service occupations that are unique to the multibilliondollar world of gaming, the playing of games of chance. The majority of gaming services workers are employed in casinos. Duties and titles may vary within occupations from one establishment to another. Some positions are associated with oversight and direction—supervision, surveillance, and investigation—while others involve working with the games or patrons themselves by tending slot machines, dealing cards or running games, handling money, writing and running tickets, Gaming service employees must have excellent customer ser vice skills. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and other activities. In most gaming jobs, workers interact di rectly with patrons, and part of their responsibility is to make those interactions enjoyable. Like nearly every business establishment, casinos have work ers who direct and oversee day-to-day operations. Gaming su pervisors and gaming managers oversee the gaming operations and personnel in an assigned area. They circulate among the ta bles and observe the operations to ensure that all of the stations and games are covered for each shift and that workers and gam blers adhere to the rules of the games. Gaming supervisors and gaming managers often interpret or explain the operating rules of the house to patrons who may have difficulty understanding the rules. Periodically, they address complaints about service. Gaming managers also have additional responsibilities beyond those of supervisors. For example, gaming managers prepare work schedules and station assignments for their subordinates. They are responsible for interviewing, hiring, training, and evalu ating new workers. Slot key persons coordinate and supervise the slot machine department and its workers. Their duties include verifying and paying off jackpots to patrons, resetting slot machines after completing the payoff, and refilling machines with tickets or money. Slot key persons must be familiar with a variety of slot machines and be able to make minor repairs and adjustments to the machines as needed. If major repairs are required, slot key persons determine whether the slot machine should be removed from the floor. They also enforce safety rules and report hazards within their assigned areas. Gaming and sports book writers and runners assist in the operations of games such as bingo and keno, in addition to taking bets on sporting events. They scan tickets presented by patrons and calculate and distribute winnings. Some writers and runners operate the equipment that randomly selects the numbers. Others may announce numbers selected, pick up tickets from patrons, collect bets, or receive, verify, and record patrons’ cash wagers. Gaming dealers operate table games such as craps, black jack, and roulette. Standing or sitting behind the table, dealers provide dice, dispense cards to players, or run the equipment. Dealers also monitor the patrons for infractions of casino rules. Gaming dealers must be skilled in customer service and in ex ecuting their game. Dealers determine winners, calculate and pay winning bets, and collect losing bets. Most gaming dealers are competent in at least two games, one usually being black jack or craps. Work environment. Most casinos are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Employees can be expected to work nights, week ends, and holidays. Casino work can be physically demanding. Most occupations require that workers stand for long periods; some require the lifting of heavy items. The atmosphere in ca sinos exposes workers to certain hazards, such as cigarette, ci gar, and pipe smoke. Noise from slot machines, gaming tables, and talking workers and patrons may be distracting to some, although workers wear protective headgear in areas where loud machinery is used to count money. Service Occupations 521 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Each casino establishes its own education, training, and experi ence requirements, but all gaming service workers must obtain a license from a regulatory agency, such as a State casino con trol board or commission. Education and training. There usually are no minimum educational requirements for entry-level gaming jobs, although most employers prefer workers with at least a high school diploma or GED. Each casino establishes its own requirements for education, training, and experience. Some of the major casinos and slot machine manufacturers run their own training schools, and al most all provide some form of in-house training in addition to requiring certification. The type and quantity of classes needed may vary. Many institutions of higher learning offer training or classes toward certificates in gaming, as well as offering associate’s, bachelor’s, or master’s degrees in a variety of hos pitality-related fields, such as hospitality management, hospi tality administration, or hotel management. Some schools offer training in games, gaming supervision, slot attendant and slot repair technician work, slot department management, and sur veillance and security. Slot key persons do not need to meet formal educational re quirements to enter the occupation, but completion of slot at tendant or slot technician training is helpful. As with most other gaming workers, slot key persons receive on-the-job training during the first several weeks of employment. Gaming and sports book writers and runners usually have at least a high school diploma or GED. Most of these workers receive on-the-job training. Most gaming dealers acquire their skills by attending a dealer school or a vocational and technical school. Such schools teach the rules and procedures of the games, as well as State and lo cal laws and regulations. Although beneficial, graduation from one of these schools does not guarantee a job at a casino, be cause most casinos also require prospective dealers to audition for open positions. During the audition, personal qualities are assessed along with knowledge of the games. For most gaming supervisor and gaming manager posi tions, an associate’s or bachelor’s degree is beneficial, but not required. Most employees in these occupations have experi ence in other gaming occupations, typically as dealers, and have a broad knowledge of casino rules, regulations, proce dures, and games. Licensure. Gaming services workers are required to be li censed by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission. Applicants for a license must provide photo identification and pay a fee. Some States may require gaming service workers to be residents of that State. Age re quirements vary by State. The licensing application process also includes a background investigation and drug test. Other qualifications. In addition to possessing a license, gaming services workers need superior customer service skills. Casino gaming workers provide entertainment and hospitality to patrons, and the quality of their service con tributes to an establishment’s success or failure. Therefore, gaming workers need good communication skills, an outgo ing personality, and the ability to maintain their composure even when dealing with angry or demanding patrons. Per sonal integrity also is important because workers handle large amounts of money. Gaming services workers who manage money should have some experience handling cash or using calculators or comput ers. For such positions, most casinos administer a math test to assess an applicant’s level of competency. Gaming supervisors and gaming managers must have strong leadership, organizational, and communication skills. Excel lent customer service and employee relations skills also are necessary. Advancement. Advancement opportunities in casino gam ing depend less on workers’ previous casino duties and titles than on their ability and eagerness to learn new jobs. For ex ample, an entry-level gaming worker eventually might advance to become a dealer or card room manager or to assume some other supervisory position. Employment Gaming services occupations provided 178,700 jobs in 2008. Employment among occupational specialties was distributed as follows: Gaming dealers............................................................. 91,100 Gaming supervisors......................................................40,900 Slot key persons........................................................... 24,400 Gaming and sports book writers and runners...............16,200 Gaming managers........................................................... 6,200 Gaming services workers are found mainly in the traveler ac commodation and gambling industries. Most are employed in commercial casinos, including riverboat casinos, casino hotels, Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Gaming services occupations........................................................ 178,700 204,400 25,700 14 ...... Gaming managers...................................................................... ....... 11-9071 6,200 6,900 700 12 First-line supervisors/managers of gaming workers.............. ....... 39-1010 65,300 70,800 5,500 8 Gaming supervisors.............................................................. ....... 39-1011 40,900 45,700 4,800 12 Slot key persons..................................................................... ....... 39-1012 24,400 25,100 700 3 Gaming dealers...................................................................... ....... 39-3011 91,100 108,400 17,300 19 Gaming and sports book writers and runners.................... ....... 39-3012 16,200 18,300 2,100 13 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2008 522 Occupational Outlook Handbook and pari-mutuel racetracks with casinos—known as “racinos,” which are legal in 20 states. In addition, there are 29 States with Indian casinos. The largest number of gaming services workers work in casinos in Nevada. Legal lotteries are held in 43 States and the District of Columbia, and pari-mutuel wagering is legal in 40 States. Forty-seven States and the District of Columbia also allow charitable gaming. Job Outlook Employment of gaming service workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Opportunities will be best for those with previous casino gaming experience, a degree or technical or vocational training in gaming or a hospitalityrelated field, and strong customer service skills. Employment change. Employment in gaming services oc cupations is projected to grow by 14 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is faster than the average for all occupations. The increasing popularity and prevalence of Indian casinos and racinos will provide new job openings. States that have recently legalized gaming in the form of electronic gaming devices or table games will provide growth as more gaming facilities are opened. With many States benefiting from casino gambling in the form of tax revenue or agreements with Indian tribes, additional States are reconsidering their opposition to legalized gambling and will likely approve the construction of more casinos and other gaming establishments during the next decade. Additional job growth will occur as popular tour ist destinations, such as Las Vegas, continue to expand their gaming operations. The increase in gaming reflects growth in the population and in its disposable income, both of which are expected to con tinue. Higher expectations for customer service among gam ing patrons also should result in more jobs for gaming services workers. Because of increasing demand in gaming establish ments for additional table games, particularly poker, the larg est growth is expected among gaming dealers. However, new automated electronic table games, which eliminate the need for dealers, will moderate growth. Advancements in slot machine technology, such as coinless slot machines—known as “ticket-in, ticket-out machines”—will causeemploymentofslotkeypersonstogrowby3percentfrom2008 to 2018, which is slower than the average for all occupations. Ticket-in, ticket-out technology reduces the need for slot key persons to pay out jackpots, fill hoppers, and reset machines. Additionally, slot machines linked to a network allow adjust ments to be made from a central computer server rather than from the floor by a slot key person. Job prospects. In addition to job openings arising from em ployment growth, opportunities will result from the need to re place workers transferring to other occupations or leaving the labor force. Keen competition for gaming services jobs is expected, be cause there generally are more applicants than jobs. Job pros pects in gaming services occupations will be best for those with previous casino gaming experience, a degree or technical or vocational training in gaming or a hospitality-related field, and strong interpersonal and customer service skills. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Wages for gaming services workers vary according to occu pation, level of experience, training, location, and the size of the gaming establishment. The following were median annual wages for various gaming services occupations in May 2008: Gaming managers....................................................... $68,290 Gaming supervisors......................................................45,500 Slot key persons........................................................... 25,460 Gaming and sports book writers and runners...............19,690 Gaming dealers..............................................................16,310 Gaming dealers generally receive a large portion of their earnings from tips in the form of tokens received from players. Earnings from tips vary with the table games the dealer oper ates, the personal traits of the dealer, and the pooling policies of the casino. Related Occupations Other occupations that provide hospitality and customer service include: Page Cashiers.................................................................................... 530 Gaming cage workers...............................................................565 Retail salespersons...................................................................543 Sales worker supervisors..........................................................551 Security guards and gaming surveillance officers................... 481 Tellers....................................................................................... 599 Sources of Additional Information For additional information on careers in gaming, visit your pub lic library and your State gaming regulatory agency or casino control commission. Information on careers in gaming also is available from: y American Gaming Association, 1299 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 1175, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http ://w ww.americangaming.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos275.htm Recreation Workers Significant Points • The recreation field offers an unusually large number of part-time and seasonal job opportunities. • Opportunities for part-time, seasonal, and temporary recreation jobs will be good, but competition will re main keen for full-time career positions. • Many recreation workers spend most of their time outdoors and may work in a variety of weather con ditions. Service Occupations 523 Many recreation workers spend most of their time outdoors in various weather conditions. Nature of the Work As participation in organized recreational activities grows, recreation workers will be needed to plan, organize, and direct these activities in local playgrounds and recreation areas, parks, community and senior centers, nursing homes and other senior housing, camps, and tourist attractions. These workers lead groups in activities such as arts and crafts, sports, performing arts, camping, and other special interests. They make sure that participants abide by the rules of the camps and recreational facilities and that safety practices are adhered to so that no one gets injured. Recreation workers also are found in some busi nesses or business groups, where they direct leisure activities for employees, such as softball or bowling, and organize sports leagues. Recreation workers hold a variety of positions at different levels of responsibility. Those who work directly with children in residential or day camps are called camp counselors. These workers lead and instruct children and teenagers in a variety of outdoor recreation activities, such as swimming, hiking, horseback riding, and camping. In addition, counselors who specialize may teach campers special subjects, such as archery, boating, music, drama, gymnastics, tennis, and computers. In residential camps, counselors also provide guidance and super vise daily living and socialization. Camp directors typically su pervise camp counselors, plan camp activities or programs, and perform the various administrative functions of a camp. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Workers who provide instruction and coaching primarily in one activity, such as art, music, drama, swimming, or tennis, are called activity specialists. These workers can work in camps or anywhere else where there is interest in a single activity. Recreation leaders are responsible for a recreation program’s daily operation. They primarily organize and direct partici pants, schedule the use of facilities, keep records of equipment use, and ensure that recreation facilities and equipment are used properly. In addition, they may lead classes and provide instruc tion in a recreational activity. Recreation supervisors oversee recreation leaders and plan, organize, and manage recreational activities to meet the needs of a variety of populations. These workers often serve as li aisons between the director of the park or recreation center and the recreation leaders. Recreation supervisors with more specialized responsibilities also may direct special activities or events or oversee a major activity, such as aquatics, gymnastics, or one or more performing arts. Directors of recreation and parks develop and manage com prehensive recreation programs in parks, playgrounds, and other settings. Directors usually serve as technical advisors to State and local recreation and park commissions and may be responsible for recreation and park budgets. Work environment. Recreation workers work in a variety of settings—for example, a cruise ship, a nature park, a summer camp, or a playground in the center of an urban community. Many recreation workers spend most of their time outdoors and may work in a variety of weather conditions. Recreation directors and supervisors, however, typically spend most of their time in an office, planning programs and special events. Directors and supervisors generally engage in less physical activity than do lower level recreation workers. Nevertheless, recreation workers at all levels risk suffering injuries during physical activities. Some recreation workers work about 40 hours a week. How ever, many people entering this field, such as camp counselors, may have some night and weekend work, irregular hours, and seasonal employment. In 2008, about 40 percent of these work ers worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The educational and training requirements for recreation work ers vary widely with on the type of job. Full-time career po sitions usually require a college degree. Many jobs, however, require demonstrated knowledge of the activity or can be learned with only a short period of on-the-job training. Education and training. The educational needs for people entering into this occupational field vary widely de pending on the job and level of responsibility. For activity specialists, it is more important to have experience and dem onstrated competence in a particular activity, such as art or kayaking, than to have a degree. Camp counselors often are older teenagers or young adults who have experienced camp ing as a child and enjoy the camping experience. A degree is less important than the counselor’s maturity level, ability to work well with children and teens, and ability to make sure that they stay safe. 524 Occupational Outlook Handbook Those working in administrative positions for large orga nizations or public recreation systems may need a bachelor’s degree or higher. Full-time career professional positions usu ally require a college degree with a major in parks and recre ation or leisure studies, but a bachelor’s degree in any liberal arts field may be sufficient for some jobs in the private sector. In industrial recreation, or “employee services” as it is more commonly called, companies that offer recreational activities for their employees prefer to hire those with a bachelor’s degree in recreation or leisure studies and a background in business administration. Employers seeking candidates for some administrative posi tions favor those with at least a master’s degree in parks and recreation, business administration, or public administration. Most require at least an associate’s degree in recreation studies or a related field. An associate’s or bachelor’s degree in a recreation-related discipline, along with experience, is preferred for most rec reation supervisor jobs and is required for most higher level administrative jobs. Graduates of associate’s degree programs in parks and recreation, social work, and other human services disciplines also can enter some career recreation positions. High school graduates occasionally enter career positions, but doing so is not common. Programs leading to an associate’s or bachelor’s degree in parks and recreation, leisure studies, or related fields are offered at several hundred colleges and universities. Many also offer master’s or doctoral degrees in the field. In 2009, 89 bachelor’s degree programs in parks and recreation were accredited by the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA). Accredited programs provide broad exposure to the history, theory, and practice of park and recreation management. Courses offered include community organization; supervision and adminis tration; recreational needs of special populations, such as the elderly or disabled; and supervised fieldwork. Students may specialize in areas such as therapeutic recreation, park manage ment, outdoor recreation, industrial or commercial recreation, and camp management. Specialized training or experience in a particular field, such as art, music, drama, or athletics, is an asset for many jobs. Some jobs also require certification. For example, a lifesaving cer tificate is a prerequisite for teaching or coaching water-related activities. The large number of seasonal and part-time workers learn through on-the-job training. Licensure and certification. The NRPA certifies individu als for professional and technical jobs. Certified park and rec reation professionals must pass an exam. In order to qualify to take the exam, individuals need to (1) have earned a bach elor’s degree in a major such as recreation, park resources, or leisure services from a program accredited by the NRPA or have at least 1 year of experience if the program is not accred ited; (2) have earned any other bachelor’s degree and have at least 3 years of relevant full-time work experience; or (3) have at least 5 years of full-time experience in the field. Continuing education is necessary to remain certified. Many cities and localities require lifeguards to be certified. Training and certification details vary from State to State and county to county. Information on lifeguards is available from local parks and recreation departments. Other qualifications. People planning careers in recreation should be outgoing, good at motivating people, and sensitive to the needs of others. Excellent health and physical fitness of ten are required, due to the physical nature of some jobs. Time management and the ability to manage others also is important. Advancement. Recreation workers start their careers work ing with people. As they gain experience, they may get pro moted to positions with greater responsibilities. Recreation workers with experience and managerial skills may advance to supervisory or managerial positions. Eventually, they may be come the director of a recreation department. Employment Recreation workers held about 327,500 jobs in 2008, and many additional workers held summer jobs in the occupation. About 31 percent of recreation workers worked for local governments, primarily in park and recreation departments. About 16 percent of recreation workers were employed by nursing and residential care facilities, and another 10 percent were employed in civic and social organizations, such as the Boy Scouts or Girl Scouts or the YMCA and YWCA. Job Outlook Faster than average growth is expected. Jobs opportunities for part-time, seasonal, and temporary recreation workers will be good, but competition will remain keen for career positions as recreation workers. Employment change. Overall employment of recreation workers is projected to increase by 15 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Although people will spend more time and money on recre ation, budget restrictions in State and local government will limit the number of jobs added. Many of the new jobs will be in social assistance organizations and in nursing and residential care facilities. Civic and social organizations and fitness and sports centers will also contribute to growth. Growth will be driven by the growing numbers of young and older Americans. The large numbers of births in recent years likely will increase the demand for recreation services for chil dren, and retiring baby boomers are expected to have more leisure time, higher disposable incomes, and more concern for health and fitness than previous generations had. The latter fac- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Employment, 2018 375,700 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent Recreation workers. 39-9032 327,500 48,200 15 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis SOC Code Employment, 2008 Service Occupations 525 tors should lead to an increasing demand for recreation services for baby boomers. Job prospects. Applicants for part-time, seasonal, and tempo rary recreation jobs should have good opportunities, but competi tion will remain keen for career positions because the recreation field attracts many applicants and because the number of career positions is limited compared with the number of lower level seasonal jobs. Opportunities for staff positions should be best for people with formal training and experience in part-time or sea sonal recreation jobs. Volunteer experience, part-time work during school, and a summer job are viewed favorably. Those with grad uate degrees should have the best opportunities for supervisory or administrative positions. Job openings will stem from growth and the need to replace the large numbers of workers who leave the occupation each year. Earnings In May 2008, median annual wages of recreation workers who worked full time were $21,960. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,680 and $28,810. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $15,630, while the highest paid 10 percent earned $37,730 or more. However, earnings of recreation direc tors and others in supervisory or managerial positions can be substantially higher. Most public and private recreation agen cies provide full-time recreation workers with typical benefits; part-time workers receive few, if any, benefits. In May 2008, median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of recreation workers were as follows: Nursing care facilities................................................ $23,100 Individual and family services..................................... 22,260 Local government......................................................... 21,890 Civic and social organizations...................................... 19,800 Other amusement and recreation industries................... 19,670 The large numbers of temporary, seasonal jobs in the recre ation field typically are filled by high school or college students, generally do not have formal education requirements, and are open to anyone with the desired personal qualities. Employers compete for a share of the vacationing student labor force, and although salaries in recreation often are lower than those in other fields, the nature of the work and the opportunity to work outdoors are attractive to many. Part-time, seasonal, and volunteer jobs in recreation include summer camp counselors, craft specialists, and afterschool and weekend recreation program leaders. In addition, many teach ers and college students accept jobs as recreation workers when school is not in session. The vast majority of volunteers serve as activity leaders at local day camp programs or in youth orga nizations, camps, nursing homes, hospitals, senior centers, and other settings. Related Occupations Other occupations that require leadership skills, as well as a desire to work with and help others, include the following: Page Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.................... 321 Counselors................................................................................ 234 Fitness workers.........................................................................513 Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists.......241 Psychologists............................................................................ 215 Recreational therapists.............................................................389 Social workers..........................................................................246 Teachers—self enrichment education..................................... 292 Sources of Additional Information For information on jobs in recreation, contact employers such as local government departments of parks and recreation, nurs ing homes and other residential facilities, the Boy Scouts or Girl Scouts, and other local social or religious organizations. For information on careers, certification, and academic pro grams in parks and recreation, contact: y National Recreation and Park Association, 22377 Belmont Ridge Rd., Ashburn, VA 20148-4501. Internet: http://www.nrpa.org For information about a career as a camp counselor, contact: y American Camp Association, 5000 State Road 67 North, Martinsville, IN 46151-7902. Internet: http://www.acacamps.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos058.htm Other Service Occupations Fire Inspectors and Investigators Nature of the Work Fire inspectors visit and inspect businesses and other places of assembly each year to ensure that these places meet State and local fire codes. These inspectors may also work with develop ers and planners to check and approve plans for new buildings and to inspect buildings under construction. Fire investigators determine the causes of fires. They collect evidence, interview https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis witnesses, and prepare reports on fires in cases in which the cause may be arson or criminal negligence. In national forests and parks, forest fire inspectors and prevention specialists spot fires from watchtowers and report the fires to headquarters by telephone or radio. They also patrol to ensure that travelers and campers comply with fire regulations. Education and Training Most fire inspectors and investigators have experience in fire suppression in addition to a high school diploma. They get on- 526 Occupational Outlook Handbook the-job training in inspection or investigation or attend training academies. or stage performances. They may be self-employed or work di rectly for a theater, television station, or production company. Job Outlook Education and Training Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment.........................................................16,600 2018 Employment.........................................................18,100 Employment change........................................................1,500 Growth rate......................................................................... 9% Employment change. Fire inspectors and investigators are expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations. As cities and other areas grow, there are more buildings to inspect and fires to investigate. Employment of fire inspectors and in vestigators should grow along with the population. Job prospects. Jobseekers should expect keen competition. Those who have completed some fire suppression education at a community college, have experience in fire suppression, or have experience and training related to criminal investigation should have an advantage. Earnings Median annual wages in May 2008 were as follows: Fire inspectors and investigators............................... $53,030 Forest lire inspectors and prevention specialists......... 31,380 Related Occupations Page Firefighters............................................................................... 470 Police and detectives................................................................473 Private detectives and investigators..........................................477 Sources of Additional Information For additional information related to training for fire inspectors and investigators, contact State or local code enforcement of ficials, fire departments, fire marshals, or: y National Fire Academy, 16825 South Seton Ave., Emmitsburg, MD 21727. Internet: http://www.usfa.dhs.gov/nfa/ The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos328.htm Makeup Artists, Theatrical and Performance Nature of the Work Theatrical and performance makeup artists apply makeup to enhance performing artists’ appearances for movie, television, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most theatrical and performance makeup artists undergo post secondary training at a school of cosmetology or other special ized institute. Such programs may last several months to a year, and may require a high school diploma for admission. Depend ing on the State and specific work being performed, makeup artists who also style hair usually require a State license. A background or courses in art and design may be helpful. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment.......................................................... 2,800 2018 Employment.......................................................... 3,300 Employment change.......................................................... 500 Growth rate....................................................................... 17% Employment change. Employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Continued increases in the demand for television programs, movies, and other en tertainment will lead to new openings for theatrical and perfor mance makeup artists. At the same time, the increasing use of computer-generated effects in films and the popularity of reality television have limited growth for this occupation. As this is a small occupation, the number of new jobs will be few, despite the faster than average growth. Job prospects. Theatrical and performance makeup artists will face keen competition. Entry-level workers should expect few opportunities, while those with experience will have more work. Job openings will be greatest in areas with many media produc tion companies, particularly Los Angeles and New York City. Earnings Median hourly wages for makeup artists, theatrical and perfor mance, were $12.63 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.............................................................507 Sources of Additional Information The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos333.htm Sales and Related Occupations Advertising Sales Agents Significant Points • Applicants who have sales experience and a college degree should have the best opportunities, but keen competition for jobs is expected during downturns in spending on advertising. • Educational requirements vary; the ability to commu nicate effectively and persuasively is important for entry-level candidates. • Performance-based pay, including bonuses and com missions, can make up a large portion of an advertis ing sales agent’s earnings. • Pressure to meet monthly sales quotas can be stressful. Nature of the Work Advertising sales agents—often referred to as account execu tives or advertising sales representatives—sell or solicit ad vertising primarily for newspapers and periodicals, television and radio, websites, telephone directories, and direct mail and outdoor advertisers. Because such a large share of revenue for many of these media outlets is generated from advertising, ad vertising sales agents play an important role in their success. More than half of all advertising sales agents work in the in formation sector, mostly for media firms including television and radio broadcasters, print and Internet publishers, and cable program distributors. Firms that are regionally based often need the help of two types of advertising sales agents, one to handle local clients and one to solicit advertising from national advertis ers. Print publications and radio and television stations employ local sales agents, who are responsible for sales in an immediate territory, while separate companies known as media represen tative firms sell advertising space or time for media owners at the national level. Sales agents employed in media representa tion work exclusively through executives at advertising agen cies, called media buyers, who purchase advertising space for their clients who want to initiate national advertising campaigns. When a local television broadcaster, radio station, newspaper, or online publisher is working with a media representative firm, the media company normally employs a national sales manager to coordinate efforts with the media representative. Most advertising sales agents work outside the office occa sionally, calling on clients and prospective clients at their places of business. These agents may have an appointment, or they may practice cold calling—arriving without an appointment. Obtaining new accounts is an important part of the job, and they may spend much of their time traveling to and visiting prospec tive advertisers and current clients. Sales agents also may work on their employer’s premises and handle sales for customers who walk in or telephone the firm to inquire about advertising. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Some may make telephone sales calls as well—calling pros pects, attempting to sell the media firm’s advertising space or time, and arranging followup appointments between interested prospects and sales agents. A critical part of building relationships with clients is learning about their needs. Before the first meeting with a client, a sales agent gathers background information on the client’s products, current customers, prospective customers, and the geographic area of the target market. The sales agent then meets with the clients to explain how specific types of advertising will help promote the client’s products or services most effectively. If a client wishes to proceed, the advertising sales agent prepares an advertising proposal to present to the client. Preparation of the proposal entails determining the advertising medium to be used, preparing sample advertisements, and providing the client with cost estimates for the project. Because consolidation among me dia industries has brought the sales of different types of adver tising under one roof, advertising sales increasingly are in the form of integrated packages. This means that advertising sales agents may sell packages that include print and online ad space and time slots with a broadcast subsidiary. Technological inno vations also have created more products to sell, meaning that a local television sales agent might sell ad space on a station’s Web site and mobile service, in addition to selling commercials. After a contract has been established, advertising sales agents serve as the main contact between the advertiser or ad agency and the media firm. They handle communication between the parties and assist in developing sample artwork or radio and television spots if needed. For radio and television advertise ments, they also may arrange for commercial taping sessions and accompany clients to the sessions. In addition to maintaining sales and overseeing clients’ ac counts, advertising sales agents’ other duties include analyzing sales statistics and audience demographics, preparing reports on clients’ accounts, and scheduling and keeping appointments and work hours. They read about new and existing products and monitor the sales, prices, and products of their competitors. In many firms, the advertising sales agent handles the drafting of contracts specifying the advertising work to be performed and its cost, and may undertake customer service responsibilities such as answering questions or addressing any problems the client may have with the proposal. Sales agents also are respon sible for developing sales tools, promotional plans, and media kits, which they use to help make a sale. Work environment. Selling can be stressful because in come and job security depend directly on the agent’s ability to maintain and expand his or her clientele. Companies generally set monthly sales quotas and place considerable pressure on ad vertising sales agents to meet those quotas. The added stress of rejection places more pressure on the agent. Although most agents work long and often irregular hours, some have the freedom to determine their own schedules. The Internet and other electronic tools allow agents to do more work from home or while on the road, enabling them to send messages 527 528 Occupational Outlook Handbook and documents to clients and coworkers, keep up with industry news, and access databases that help them target potential cus tomers. Advertising sales agents use e-mail to conduct much of the business with their clients. Many advertising sales agents work more than 40 hours per week, frequently involving irregular hours and work on week ends and holidays. However, many advertising sales agents are able to set their own schedules. Ten percent of advertising sales agents were employed part time in 2008. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For sales positions that require meeting clients, large employers prefer applicants with a college degree. Smaller companies gen erally are more willing to hire individuals with a high school de gree. Successful sales experience and the ability to communicate effectively become more important than educational attainment once the candidate is hired. Most training for advertising sales agents takes place informally on the job. Education and training. Although a high school diploma may be sufficient for an entry-level advertising sales position, some employers prefer applicants with a college degree, partic ularly for sales positions that require meeting clients. Courses in marketing, leadership, communication, business, and adver tising are helpful. For those who have a proven record of suc cessfully selling other products, educational requirements are not likely to be strict. Most training, however, takes place on the job, and can be formal or informal in nature. In most cases, an experienced sales manager instructs a newly hired advertising sales agent who lacks sales experience. In this one-on-one environment, supervisors typically coach new hires and observe them as they make sales calls and contact clients. Supervisors then advise the new hires on ways to improve their interaction with clients. Employers may bring in consultants to lead formal training ses sions when agents sell to a specialized market segment, such as automotive dealers or real estate professionals. Other qualifications. Employers look for applicants who are honest and who possess a pleasant personality and neat professional appearance. After gaining entry into the occupa tion, the advertising sales agent will find that successful sales experience and the ability to communicate effectively become more important than educational attainment. In fact, when the agent is selling or soliciting ad space, personality traits are equally, if not more, important than one’s academic back ground. In general, smaller companies are more willing to hire unproven individuals. Because they represent their employers to the executives of client organizations, advertising sales agents must have excel lent interpersonal and written communication skills. Being multilingual, particularly in English and Spanish, is another skill that will benefit prospective advertising agents as media increasingly seek to market to Hispanics and foreign-born per sons. Self-motivation, organization, persistence, independence, and the ability to multitask are required because advertising sales agents set their own schedules and perform their duties without much supervision. Creativity also is an invaluable trait for advertising sales agents, who must come up with new ways to for attract clients and to serve existing ones. Digitized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bringing in new clients is an important part of an advertising sales agent’s job. Advancement. Advancement in the occupation means taking on bigger, more lucrative clients. Agents with proven leadership ability and a strong sales record may advance to supervisory and managerial positions, such as sales supervisor, sales manager, or vice president of sales. Frequent contact with managers of other de partments and people in other firms provides sales agents with leads about job openings, enhancing their advancement opportunities. Successful advertising sales agents also may advance to positions in other industries, such as corporate sales. In small firms, where the number of supervisory and management positions is limited, advancement may come slowly. Promotion may occur more quickly in larger media firms and in media representative firms. Employment Advertising sales agents held about 166,800 jobs in 2008. Work ers were concentrated in three industries: 33 percent were in ad vertising, public relations, and related services; about 32 percent were employed in newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers; and 17 percent were in radio and television broad casting. Media representative firms are in the advertising and related services industry. A relatively small number of jobs were found in cable and other program distribution. Employment is spread around the country, but jobs in radio and television stations and large, well-known publications are concentrated in metropolitan areas. Media representative firms also are concentrated in large cities with many advertising agencies, such as New York City. Job Outlook Employment is projected to increase about as fast as average. Growth in new media outlets, such as the Internet, will be par tially offset by a decline in print media. Applicants who have sales experience and a college degree should have the best opportunities, but keen competition for jobs is expected during downturns in advertising spending. Sales and Related Occupations 529 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Advertising sales agents....................................... ................................ 41-3011 166,800 178,900 7 12,100 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title soc Code Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. Employment change. Employment of advertising sales agents is expected to increase by 7 percent from 2008 to 2018, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Fast growth in the number of cable channels, online advertisers, and other advertising media will create many new opportunities for advertisers. This growth will be partially offset by the decline in print media, which will decrease the demand for advertising sales agents in these industries. Advertising as an industry is expected to grow over the 2008 18 period. Changes in technology will create new and more efficient ways for advertisers to reach customers, which will increase the need for advertising sales agents. Growth should be particularly high in online advertising sales, in cable television, and for consolidated media firms. At the same time, the industries employing large shares of advertising sales agents, particularly the newspaper, periodical, and directory publishing industries, have suffered significant declines in recent years. As a result, there are likely to be fewer opportunities for advertising sales agents within these areas compared to other industries over the next decade. Although advances in technology have made advertising sales agents more productive, allowing agents to take on ad ditional duties and improve the quality of the services they pro vide, technological advances have not substantially decreased overall demand for these workers. Productivity gains have had the largest effect on the miscellaneous services that these work ers provide, such as accounting, the formulation of proposals, and customer service duties, allowing them to provide faster, improved services to their clients. For example, the use of e-mail has considerably shortened the time it takes to negotiate a sale and place an ad. Sales agents may accomplish more in less time, but many work more hours than in the past, spending additional time on followup and service calls. Thus, although productivity gains will temper the growth of advertising sales agents, who can now manage more accounts, the increasing growth in advertising across all industries will ensure that new advertising sales agents will continue to be needed in the future. Job prospects. Applicants who have sales experience and a college degree should have the best opportunities. For those with a proven sales record in advertising sales, opportunities should be excellent. In addition to the job openings generated by employ ment growth, openings will occur each year because of the need to replace sales representatives who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Each year, many advertising sales agents discover that they are unable to earn enough money; as a result, they leave the occupation. Advertising revenues are sensitive to economic downturns, which cause the industries and companies that advertise to reduce both the frequency of campaigns and the overall level of spending on advertising. Advertising sales agents must work hard to get the most out of every dollar spent on ad vertising under these conditions. Therefore, the number of oppor for advertising sales agents fluctuates with the business Digitized tunities for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis cycle. Applicants can expect keen competition for job openings during downturns in advertising spending. Earnings Including commissions, median annual wages for all advertis ing sales agents were $43,480 per year in May 2008. The mid dle 50 percent earned between $30,750 and $64,320 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,620, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $93,600 a year. Median annual wages for sales agents in the industries in which they were concen trated were as follows: Motion picture and video industries...........................$62,600 Cable and other subscription programming................ 50,740 Advertising, public relations, and related services......48,550 Radio and Television broadcasting...............................41,750 Newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers...........................................38,100 Performance-based pay, including bonuses and commissions, can make up a large portion of an advertising sales agent’s earn ings. Most employers pay some combination of salaries, commis sions, and bonuses. Commissions are usually based on individual sales numbers, whereas bonuses may depend on individual perfor mance, on the performance of all sales workers in a group or dis trict, or on the performance of the entire company. For agents cov ering multiple areas or regions, commissions also may be based on the difficulty in making a sale in that particular area. Sales revenue is affected by the economic conditions and business expectations facing the industries that tend to advertise. Earnings from commis sions are likely to be high when these industries are doing well and low when companies decide not to advertise as frequently. In addition to their earnings, advertising sales agents are usu ally reimbursed for entertaining clients and for other business ex penses, such as the costs of transportation, meals, and hotel stays. They often receive benefits such as health and life insurance, pen sion plans, vacation and sick leave, personal use of a company car, and frequent-flier mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding sales workers. Related Occupations Advertising sales agents market services to clients in order to in crease sales revenue. Other workers with similar duties include: Page Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers.................................................................32 Insurance sales agents..............................................................534 Real estate brokers and salesagents.........................................540 Sales engineers.........................................................................545 Sales representatives, wholesaleand manufacturing............... 547 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents...........................................................................553 530 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information To learn about opportunities for employment as an advertising sales agent, contact local broadcasters, radio stations, and pub lishers for advertising sales representative positions or look for media representative firms in your area. For information about advertising sales careers in newspaper publishing, contact: y The Newspaper Association of America, 4401 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 900, Arlington, Va. 22203. Internet: http://www.naa.org IgfrjisU flfj fijIi The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos297.htm Cashiers must be friendly and courteous when interacting with customers. Cashiers Significant Points • Cashiers need little or no work experience; they are trained on the job. • Opportunities for full-time and part-time jobs are expected to be good because of the need to replace the large number of workers who leave cashier jobs. • Many cashiers start at the minimum wage. Nature of the Work Supermarkets, department stores, gasoline service stations, movie theaters, restaurants, and many other businesses employ cashiers to register the sale of their goods and services. Although specific job duties vary by employer, cashiers usually are as signed to a register at the beginning of their shifts and are given a drawer containing a specific amount of money with which to start—their “till.” They must count their till to ensure that it contains the correct amount of money and adequate supplies of change. Some cashiers also handle returns and exchanges. When they do, they must ensure that returned merchandise is in good condition, and determine where and when it was purchased and what type of payment was used. After entering charges for all items and subtracting the value of any coupons or special discounts, cashiers total the customer’s bill and take payment. Forms of payment include cash, personal checks, and gift, credit, and debit cards. Cashiers must know the store’s policies and procedures for each type of payment the store accepts. For checks and credit and debit card charges, they may request additional identification from the customer or call in for an authorization. They must verify the age of customers purchasing alcohol or tobacco. When the sale is complete, cashiers issue a receipt to the customer and return the appropriate change. They may also wrap or bag the purchase. At the end of their shifts, cashiers once again count the drawers’ contents and compare the totals with sales data. An occasional shortage of small amounts may be overlooked but, in for many establishments, repeated shortages are grounds for Digitized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis dismissal. In addition to counting the contents of their draw ers at the end of their shifts, cashiers usually separate and total charge forms, return slips, coupons, and any other non cash items. Most cashiers use scanners and computers, but some es tablishments still require price and product information to be entered manually. In a store with scanners, a cashier passes a product’s Universal Product Code over the scanning device, which transmits the code number to a computer. The computer identifies the item and its price. In other establishments, ca shiers manually enter codes into computers and then descrip tions of the items and their prices appear on the screen. Depending on the type of establishment, cashiers may have other duties as well. In many supermarkets, for example, ca shiers weigh produce and bulk food, as well as return unwanted items to the shelves. In convenience stores, cashiers may be required to know how to use a variety of machines other than cash registers, and how to furnish money orders and sell lottery tickets. Operating ticket-dispensing machines and answering customers’ questions are common duties for cashiers who work at movie theaters and ticket agencies. Work environment. Most cashiers work indoors, usually standing in booths or behind counters. Often, they are not allowed to leave their workstations without supervisory ap proval because they are responsible for large sums of money. The work of cashiers can be very repetitious, but improve ments in workstation design in many stores are alleviating problems caused by repetitive motion. In addition, the work can sometimes be dangerous; the risk from robberies and ho micides is much higher for cashiers than for other workers, although more safety precautions are being taken to help deter robbers. About 47 percent of all cashiers worked part time in 2008. Hours of work often vary depending on the needs of the em ployer. Generally, cashiers are expected to work weekends, evenings, and holidays to accommodate customers’ needs. However, many employers offer flexible schedules. Because the holiday season is the busiest time for most retailers, many employers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving through the beginning of January. Sales and Related Occupations 531 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cashier jobs usually are entry-level positions requiring little or no previous work experience. They require good customer service skills. Education and training. Although there are no specific educational requirements, employers filling full-time jobs often prefer applicants with high school diplomas. Nearly all cashiers are trained on the job. In small businesses, an experienced worker often trains beginners. The trainee spends the first day observing the operation and becoming fa miliar with the store’s equipment, policies, and procedures. Af ter this, trainees are assigned to a register—frequently under the supervision of an experienced worker. In larger businesses, trainees spend several days in classes before being placed at cash registers. Topics typically covered in class include a de scription of the industry and the company, store policies and procedures, equipment operation, and security. Training for experienced workers is not common, except when new equipment is introduced or when procedures change. In these cases, the employer or a representative of the equip ment manufacturer trains workers on the job. Other qualifications. People who want to become cashiers should be able to do repetitious work accurately. They also need basic mathematics skills and good manual dexterity. Because cashiers deal constantly with the public, they should be neat in appearance and able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with cus tomers. In addition, some businesses prefer to hire workers who can operate specialized equipment or who have business experi ence, such as typing, selling, or handling money. Advancement. Advancement opportunities for cashiers vary. For those working part time, promotion may be to a full time position. Others advance to head cashier or cash-office clerk. In addition, this job offers a good opportunity to learn about an employer’s business and can serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible position. Employment Cashiers held about 3.55 million jobs in 2008. Although cashiers are employed in almost every industry, 24 percent of all jobs were in grocery stores. Gasoline stations, department stores, and other retail establishments also employed large numbers of these workers. Outside of retail establishments, many cashiers worked in food services and drinking places. Job Outlook Cashiers are expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Opportunities for full-time and part-time jobs are expected to be good because of the need to replace the large number of workers who leave this occupation. Employment change. Employment of cashiers is expected to grow by 4 percent between 2008 and 2018 which is slower than the average for all occupations. Continued growth in retail sales is expected, but the rising popularity of purchasing goods online will limit the employment growth of cashiers, although many customers still prefer the traditional method of purchas ing goods at stores. Also, the growing use of self-service check out systems in retail trade, especially at grocery stores, should have an adverse effect on employment of cashiers. These self checkout systems may outnumber checkouts with cashiers in the future in many establishments. The impact on job growth for cashiers will largely depend on the public’s acceptance of this self-service technology. Job prospects. Opportunities for full-time and part-time cashier jobs should continue to be good because of the need to replace the large number of workers who transfer to other occu pations or leave the labor force. There is substantial movement into and out of the occupation because education and training requirements are minimal and the predominance of part-time jobs is attractive to people seeking a short-term source of in come rather than a full-time career. Historically, workers under the age of 25 have filled many of the openings in this occupa tion. In 2008, about 47 percent of all cashiers were 24 years of age or younger. Because cashiers are needed in businesses and organizations of all types and sizes, job opportunities are found throughout the country. However, job opportunities may vary from year to year because the strength of the economy affects demand for cashiers. Companies tend to hire more cashiers when the economy is strong. Seasonal demand for cashiers also causes fluctuations in employment. Earnings Many cashiers start at the Federal minimum wage, which was $7.25 an hour as of July 2009. Some State laws set the mini mum wage higher, and establishments must pay at least that amount. Wages tend to be higher in areas where there is intense competition for workers. Median hourly wages of cashiers, except gaming in May 2008 were $8.49. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.50 and $9.72 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.88, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $12.02 an hour. Median hourly wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of cashiers in May 2008 were: Health and personal care stores......................................$8.71 Other general merchandise stores....................................8.60 Grocery stores.................................................................. 8.59 Department stores............................................................. 8.38 Gasoline stations.............................................................. 8.16 Similar to other occupations, benefits for full-time cashiers tend to be better than those for cashiers working part time. In ad dition to typical benefits, those working in retail establishments Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Cashiers, except gaming......................................... ............................. 41-2011 3,550,000 3,675,500 125,500 4 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2008 532 Occupational Outlook Handbook often receive discounts on purchases, and cashiers in restaurants may receive free or low-cost meals. Some employers also offer employee stock option plans and education reimbursement plans. Related Occupations Cashiers accept payment for the purchase of goods and ser vices. Other workers with similar duties include: Page Counter and rental clerks.........................................................560 Food and beverage serving and related workers..................... 491 Gaming cage workers...............................................................565 Postal Service clerks................................................................ 596 Retail salespersons................................................................... 543 Tellers....................................................................................... 599 Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in grocery stores is available from: y Food Marketing Institute, 2345 Crystal Dr., Suite 800, Arlington, VA 22202. Internet: http://www.fmi.org For information about employment opportunities as a ca shier, contact: y The Association for Convenience and Petroleum Retailing, 1600 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http ://www.nacsonline.com y United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, Education Office, 1775 K St. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos335.htm Demonstrators and Product Promoters Significant Points of a product to consumers, while product promoters encourage sales to retail stores and help them market products effectively. Demonstrators and product promoters generate sales of both sophisticated and simple products, ranging from computer soft ware to mops. They attract an audience by offering samples, ad ministering contests, distributing prizes and coupons, and using direct-mail advertising. They must greet and catch the attention of possible customers and quickly identify those who are inter ested and able to buy. They inform and educate customers about the features of products and demonstrate their use with apparent ease in order to inspire confidence in the product and its manu facturer. They also distribute information, such as brochures and order forms. Some demonstrations are intended to generate im mediate sales through impulse buying, whereas others increase the likelihood of future sales by increasing brand awareness. Demonstrations and product promotions are conducted in retail and grocery stores, shopping malls, trade shows, and out door fairs. Locations are selected on the basis of the nature of the product and the type of audience. Demonstrations at large events may require teams of demonstrators to handle large crowds efficiently. Some demonstrators promote products on videotape or on television programs, such as “infomercials” or home shopping programs. Demonstrators and product promoters may prepare the con tent of a presentation and alter it to target a specific audience or to keep it current. They may participate in the design of an ex hibit or customize the exhibit for particular audiences. Results obtained by demonstrators and product promoters are analyzed, and presentations are adjusted to make them more effective. Demonstrators and product promoters also may be involved in transporting, assembling, and disassembling materials used in demonstrations. A demonstrator’s presentation may include visuals, models, case studies, testimonials, test results, and surveys. The equip ment used for a demonstration varies with the product being demonstrated. A food product demonstration might require the use of cooking utensils, while a software demonstration could require the use of a multimedia computer. Demonstrators must be familiar with the product to be able to relate detailed • Job openings should be plentiful. • Most jobs are part time or short term or have vari able work schedules, and many jobs require frequent travel. • On-the-job training is provided and education beyond high school is not required. m jc ■v>?L > -c- Sgg -> \&m Nature of the Work Demonstrators and product promoters create public interest in buying products such as cosmetics, food, and housewares. The information they provide helps consumers make choices among the wide variety of products and services they can buy. Demonstrators and product promoters encourage people and stores to buy a product by demonstrating it to prospective customers and answering their questions. They may sell the demonstrated merchandise or gather names of prospects to con Digitized forlater FRASER tact or pass on to sales staff. Demonstrators promote sales https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Demonstrators and product promoters encourage people and stores to buy a product by showing it to prospective customers and answering their questions. Sales and Related Occupations 533 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Demonstrators and product promoters........................... .................... 41-9011 102,800 110,100 7,300 7 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title SOC Code Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. information to customers and to answer any questions that arise before, during, or after a demonstration. In order to do so, they may research the product presented, the products of competi tors, and the interests and concerns of the target audience before conducting a demonstration. Demonstrations of complex prod ucts often need practice. Work environment. About 54 percent of all demonstra tors and product promoters work part time and about 22 per cent have variable work schedules. Many positions may last 6 months or less. Demonstrators and product promoters may work long hours while standing or walking, with little opportunity to rest. Some of them travel frequently, and night and weekend work often is required. The atmosphere of a crowded trade show or State fair frequently is hectic, and demonstrators and product promoters may feel pressure to influence the greatest number of consumers possible in a very limited amount of time. How ever, many enjoy the opportunity to interact with a variety of people. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement On-the-job training is provided and education beyond high school is not required. Education and training. Demonstrators and product pro moters usually receive on-the-job training, and formal postsec ondary education is not required. Training is primarily product oriented, because a demonstrator must be familiar with the prod uct to demonstrate it properly. The length of training varies with the complexity of the product. Experience with the product or familiarity with similar products may be required for the dem onstration of complex products, such as computers. During the training process, demonstrators may be introduced to the manu facturer’s corporate philosophy and preferred methods for deal ing with customers. Other qualifications. Employers look for demonstrators and product promoters with good communication skills and a pleasant appearance and personality. Demonstrators and prod uct promoters must be comfortable with public speaking. They should be able to entertain an audience and use humor, sponta neity, and personal interest in the product as promotional tools. Foreign language skills are helpful. Advancement. Demonstrators and product promoters who perform well and show leadership abilities may advance to other marketing and sales occupations or open their own business. Employment Demonstrators and product promoters held about 102,800 jobs in 2008. About 23 percent of all salaried jobs for demonstrators and product promoters were in retail trade, especially general merchandise stores, and 18 percent were in advertispublic relations, and related services. Other jobs were Digitized ing, for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis found in administrative and support services, including em ployment services. Job Outlook Employment of demonstrators and product promoters is ex pected to grow as fast as average for all occupations through 2018. Job openings should be plentiful over the next decade. Employment change. Demonstrators and product pro moters are expected to experience 7 percent growth between 2008 and 2018, as fast as the average for all occupations. Job growth should be driven by increases in the number and size of trade shows and greater use of these workers in department stores and various retail shops for in-store promotions. Prod uct demonstration is considered a highly effective marketing tool. New jobs should arise as firms devote a greater percent age of marketing budgets to product demonstration. However, it is also an expensive method of marketing, which will some what limit growth. Job prospects. Job openings should be plentiful for demon strators and product promoters. Employers may have difficulty finding qualified demonstrators who are willing to fill part-time, short-term positions. Employment of demonstrators and product promoters is af fected by downturns in the business cycle. Many firms tend to reduce advertising budgets during recessions. Earnings Demonstrators and product promoters had median hourly wages of $11.18 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.06 and $14.88. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.14, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.94. Employers of demonstrators and product promoters generally pay for jobrelated travel expenses. Related Occupations Other jobs related to sales and product promotion include: Page Insurance sales agents..............................................................534 Models...................................................................................... 537 Real estate brokers and sales agents....................................... 540 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks..........................................................................598 Retail salespersons...................................................................543 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing.............. 547 Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in product promotion marketing, contact: >■ Association for Integrated Marketing, 257 Park Avenue South, Suite 1102, New York, NY 10010. Internet: http://www.pmalink.org 534 Occupational Outlook Handbook y Promotional Products Association International, 3125 Skyway Circle North, Irving, Texas 75038. Internet: http ://w ww.ppa.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos336.htm Insurance Sales Agents I Significant Points • In addition to offering insurance policies, agents in creasingly sell mutual funds, annuities, and securities and offer comprehensive financial planning services, including retirement and estate planning services, some designed specifically for the elderly. • Agents must obtain a license in the States where they sell. • Job opportunities should be best for college graduates who have sales ability, excellent interpersonal skills, and expertise in a wide range of insurance and finan cial services. Nature of the Work Most people have their first contact with an insurance company through an insurance sales agent. These workers help individu als, families, and businesses select insurance policies that pro vide the best protection for their lives, health, and property. Insurance sales agents, commonly referred to as “producers” in the insurance industry, sell one or more types of insurance, such as property and casualty, life, health, disability, and long term care. Property and casualty insurance agents sell policies that protect individuals and businesses from financial loss re sulting from automobile accidents, fire, theft, storms, and other events that can damage property. For businesses, property and casualty insurance can also cover injured workers’ compensa tion, product liability claims, or medical malpractice claims. Life insurance agents specialize in selling policies that pay beneficiaries when a policyholder dies. Depending on the poli cyholder’s circumstances, a cash-value policy can be designed to provide retirement income, funds for the education of chil dren, and other benefits, as well. Life insurance agents also sell annuities that promise a retirement income. Health insurance agents sell health insurance policies that cover the costs of medical care and loss of income due to illness or injury. They also may sell dental insurance and short-term and long-termdisability insurance policies. Agents may specialize in any one of these products, or function as generalists, providing multiple products to a single customer. An increasing number of insurance sales agents offer their clients advice on how to minimize risk as well as comprehen sive financial planning services, especially to those approach ing retirement. These services include retirement planning, estate planning, and assistance in setting up pension plans for businesses. As a result, many insurance agents are involved in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis “cross-selling” or “total account development.” Besides offer ing insurance, these agents may become licensed to sell mutual funds, variable annuities, and other securities. This practice is most common with life insurance agents who already sell an nuities, but many property and casualty agents also sell finan cial products. (See the statement on securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents elsewhere in the Handbook.) Insurance sales agents also prepare reports, maintain records, and seek out new clients. In the event that policy holders ex perience a loss, agents help them settle their insurance claims. Insurance sales agents working exclusively for one insurance company are referred to as captive agents. These agents typi cally have a contractual agreement with the carrier, and are usu ally an employee of the carrier. Independent insurance agents, or brokers, are mostly facilitators who represent several com panies. They match insurance policies for their clients with the company that offers the best rate and coverage. Technology—specifically, the Internet—has greatly affected the insurance business, making the tasks of obtaining price quotes and processing applications and service requests faster and easier. The Internet has made it easier for agents to take on more clients and to be better informed about new products. It has also altered the relationship between agent and client. Agents formerly used to devote much of their time to marketing and selling products to new clients. Now, clients are increas ingly obtaining insurance quotes from a company’s Web site and then contacting the company directly to purchase policies. This interaction gives the client a more active role in selecting their policy, while reducing the amount of time agents spend seeking new clients. Insurance sales agents also obtain many new accounts through referrals, so it is important that they maintain regular contact with their clients to ensure that the client’s financial needs are being met. Developing a satisfied clientele that will recommend an agent’s services to other po tential customers is a key to success for agents. Increasing competition in the insurance industry has spurred carriers to find new ways to keep their clients satisfied. One solution is hiring customer service representatives who are ac cessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week to handle routine tasks such as answering questions, making changes in policies, pro cessing claims, and selling more products to clients. The oppor tunity to cross-sell new products to clients will help an agent’s business grow. The use of customer service representatives also allows agents to concentrate their efforts on seeking out new clients and maintaining relationships with old ones. (See the statements on customer service representatives; and claims ad justers, appraisers, examiners, and investigators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Work environment. Most insurance sales agents work in offices. Since some agencies are small, agents may work alone or with only a few others. Some independent agents, or brokers, however, may spend much of their time traveling to meet with clients, close sales, or investigate claims. Agents usually deter mine their own hours of work and often schedule evening and weekend appointments for the convenience of clients. Some sales agents meet with clients during business hours and then spend evenings doing paperwork and preparing presentations Sales and Related Occupations 535 An increasing number of insurance sales agents offer compre hensive financial planning services to their clients. for prospective clients. Although most agents work a 40-hour week, some may work much longer. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Every sales agent involved in the solicitation, selling, or ne gotiation of insurance must have a State-issued license. Li censure requirements vary by State but typically require some insurance-related coursework and the passing of several exams. Although some agents are hired right out of college, many are hired by insurance companies as customer service representa tives and are later promoted to sales agent. Education and training. For insurance sales agent jobs, many companies and independent agencies prefer to hire col lege graduates—especially those who have majored in busi ness, finance, or economics. High school graduates may be hired if they have proven sales ability or have been successful in other types of work. College training can help agents grasp the technical aspects of insurance policies as well as the fundamentals of the insur ance industry. Many colleges and universities offer courses in insurance, and a few schools offer a bachelor’s degree in the field. College courses in finance, mathematics, accounting, economics, business law, marketing, and business administra tion enable insurance sales agents to understand how social and economic conditions relate to the insurance industry. Courses in psychology, sociology, and public speaking can prove use Digitizedful for in FRASER improving sales techniques. In addition, familiarity with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis popular software packages has become very important because computers provide instantaneous information on a wide variety of financial products and greatly improve an agent’s efficiency. Agents learn many of their job duties on the job from other agents. Many employers have their new agents shadow an ex perienced agent for a period of time. This allows the agent to learn how to conduct their business, how the agency interacts with clients, and how to write policies. Employers also are placing greater emphasis on continuing professional education as the diversity of financial products sold by insurance agents increases. It is important for insurance agents to keep up to date on issues concerning clients. Changes in tax laws, government benefits programs, and other State and Federal regulations can affect the insurance needs of clients and the way in which agents conduct business. Agents can enhance their selling skills and broaden their knowledge of insurance and other financial services by taking courses at colleges and universities and by attending institutes, conferences, and semi nars sponsored by insurance organizations. Licensure. Insurance sales agents must obtain a license in the States where they plan to work. Separate licenses are re quired for agents to sell life and health insurance and property and casualty insurance. In most States, licenses are issued only to applicants who complete specified prelicensing courses and who pass State examinations covering insurance fundamentals and State insurance laws. Most State licensing authorities also have mandatory continuing education requirements every 2 years, focusing on insurance laws, consumer protection, ethics, and the technical details of various insurance policies. As the demand for financial products and financial planning increases, many insurance agents choose to gain the proper li censing and certification to sell securities and other financial products. Doing so, however, requires substantial study and passing an additional examination—either the Series 6 or Se ries 7 licensing exam, both of which are administered by the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD). The Series 6 exam is for individuals who wish to sell only mutual funds and variable annuities, whereas the Series 7 exam is the main NASD series license that qualifies agents as general securities sales representatives. Other qualifications. Previous experience in sales or insur ance jobs can be very useful in becoming an insurance sales agent. In selling commercial insurance, technical experience in a particular field can help sell policies to those in the same pro fession. As a result, these agents tend to be older than entrants in many other occupations. Insurance sales agents should be flexible, enthusiastic, confi dent, disciplined, hard working, and willing to solve problems. They should communicate effectively and inspire customer confidence. Because they usually work without supervision, sales agents must have good time-management skills and the initiative to locate new clients. Certification and advancement. A number of organizations offer professional designation programs that certify an agent’s expertise in specialties such as life, health, and property and ca sualty insurance, as well as financial consulting. For example, The National Alliance for Insurance Education and Research offers a wide variety of courses in health, life and property, and 536 Occupational Outlook Handbook casualty insurance for independent insurance agents. Although voluntary, such programs assure clients and employers that an agent has a thorough understanding of the relevant specialty. Agents who complete certification are usually required to fulfill a specified number of hours of continuing education to retain their designation, as determined by the Alliance. In the area of financial planning, many agents find it worth while to demonstrate competency by earning the certified fi nancial planner or chartered financial consultant designation. The Certified Financial Planner credential, issued by the Cer tified Financial Planner Board of Standards, requires relevant experience, completion of education requirements, passing a comprehensive examination, and adherence to an enforceable code of ethics. The exam tests the candidate’s knowledge of the financial planning process, insurance and risk management, employee benefits planning, taxes and retirement planning, and investment and estate planning. The Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC) and the Char tered Life Underwriter (CLU) designations, issued by the American College in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, typically require professional experience and the completion of an eight-course program of study. For those new to the industry, however, the American College offers the Life Underwriter Training Council Fellow (FUTCF), an introductory course that teaches basic insurance concepts. Many property and casu alty insurance agents obtain the Chattered Property Casualty Underwriter (CPCU) designation, offered by the American Institute for Chartered Property Casualty Underwriter. The majority of professional designations in insurance have con tinuing education requirements. An insurance sales agent who shows ability and leadership may become a sales manager in a local office. A few advance to managerial or executive positions. However, many who have established a client base prefer to remain in sales work. Some— particularly in the property and casualty field—launch their own independent agencies or brokerage firms. Employment Insurance sales agents held about 434,800 jobs in 2008. About 51 percent of insurance sales agents work for insurance agencies and brokerages. About 21 percent work directly for insurance carriers. Although most insurance agents specialize in life and health insurance or property and casualty insurance, a growing number of “multiline” agents sell all lines of insurance. A small number of agents work for banks and securities brokerages as a result of the increasing integration of the finance and insurance industries. Approximately 22 percent of insurance sales agents are self employed. The majority of insurance sales agents are employed in local offices or independent agencies, but some work in the headquarters of insurance companies. job Outlook Employment is expected to grow about as fast as average for all occupations. Opportunities will be best for college gradu ates who have sales ability, excellent interpersonal skills, and expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. Employment change. Employment of insurance sales agents is expected to increase by 12 percent over the 2008-18 period, which is about as fast as average for all occupations. Future de mand for insurance sales agents depends largely on the variety of financial products and volume of sales. Sales of health insurance, long-term-care insurance, and other comprehensive financial plan ning services designed specifically for the elderly are expected to rise sharply as the population ages. In addition, a growing popula tion will increase demand for insurance for automobiles, homes, and high-priced valuables and equipment. As new businesses emerge and existing firms expand their insurance coverage, sales of commercial insurance also should increase, including coverage such as product liability, workers’ compensation, employee ben efits, and pollution liability insurance. Employment of agents will not keep up with the rising level of insurance sales, however. Many insurance carriers are trying to contain costs and are shedding their captive agents—those agents working directly for insurance carriers. Instead carriers are relying more on independent agents or brokers. It is unlikely that the Internet will threaten the jobs of these agents. The automation of policy and claims processing allows insurance agents to take on more clients. Most clients value their relationship with their agent and prefer personal service, discuss ing their policies directly with their agents, rather than through a computer. Insurance law and investments are becoming more complex, and many people and businesses lack the time and ex pertise to buy insurance without the advice of an agent. Job prospects. College graduates who have sales ability, excel lent interpersonal skills, and expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services should enjoy the best prospects. Multilingual agents should have an advantage, because they can serve a wider range of customers. Additionally, insurance language tends to be quite technical, so agents who have a firm understanding of rel evant technical and legal terms will also be desirable to employers. Many beginning agents fail to earn enough from commissions to meet their income goals and eventually transfer to other careers. Many job openings are likely to result from the need to replace agents who leave the occupation or retire. Agents may face some competition from traditional securi ties brokers and bankers, as they also sell insurance policies. Insurance sales agents will need to expand the products and services they offer as consolidation increases among insurance companies, banks, and brokerage firms and as demands in crease from clients for more comprehensive financial planning. Independent agents who incorporate new technology into their existing businesses will remain competitive. Agents who Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Insurance sales agents................................................................... SOC Code 41-3021 Employment, 2008 434,800 Projected Employment, 2018 486,400 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 51,600 12 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sales and Related Occupations 537 use the Internet to market their products will reach a broader client base and expand their business. Agents who offer better customer service also will remain competitive. Earnings The median annual wages of wage and salary insurance sales agents were $45,430 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,070 and $68,730. The lowest 10 percent had earn ings of $26,120 or less, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $113,930. Median annual wages in May 2008 in the two in dustries employing the largest number of insurance sales agents were $48,150 for insurance carriers, and $44,450 for agencies, brokerages, and other insurance related activities. Many independent agents are paid by commission only, whereas sales workers who are employees of an agency or an insurance carrier may be paid in one of three ways: salary only, salary plus commission, or salary plus bonus. In general, com missions are the most common form of compensation, especially for experienced agents. The amount of the commission depends on the type and amount of insurance sold and on whether the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. Bonuses usually are awarded when agents meet their sales goals or when an agency meets its profit goals. Some agents involved with financial plan ning receive a fee for their services, rather than a commission. Company-paid benefits to insurance sales agents usually in clude continuing education, training to qualify for licensing, group insurance plans, office space, and clerical support ser vices. Some companies also may pay for automobile and trans portation expenses, attendance at conventions and meetings, promotion and marketing expenses, and retirement plans. In dependent agents working for insurance agencies receive fewer benefits, but their commissions may be higher to help them pay for marketing and other expenses. Related Occupations Other workers who provide or sell financial products or ser vices include: Page Financial analysts..................................................................... 103 Financial managers.................................................................... 52 Personal financial advisors....................................................... 118 Real estate brokers and sales agents........................................540 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents........................................................................... 553 Other sales workers include: Advertising sales agents...........................................................527 Customer service representatives.............................................567 Sales representatives, wholesaleand manufacturing............... 547 Other occupations in the insurance industry include: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators..................................................................... 96 Insurance underwriters............................................................. 106 Sources of Additional Information Occupational information about insurance sales agents is available from the home office of many insurance companies. Information on State licensing requirements may be obtained Digitized from for FRASER the department of insurance at any State capital. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For information about insurance sales careers and training, contact: V National Association of Professional Insurance Agents, 400 N. Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http ://w ww.pianet.org For information about health insurance sales careers, contact: y National Association of Health Underwriters, 2000 N. 14th St., Suite 450, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.nahu.org For general information on the property and casualty field, contact: y Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038. Internet: http://www.iii.org For information about professional designation programs, contact: y The American Institute for Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters/Insurance Institute of America, 720 Providence Rd., Suite 100, Malvern, PA 19355-3433. Internet: http ://www.aicpcu.org y The American College, 270 S. Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 19010-2195. Internet: http://www.theamericancollege.edu For information on financial planning careers, contact: y Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards, Inc., 1425 K St. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.cfp.net The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl 18.htm Models Significant Points • Despite faster than average growth, keen competition is expected for modeling jobs. • Most jobs are part time or have variable work sched ules, and many jobs require frequent travel. • Formal training is limited and education beyond high school usually is not required. Nature of the Work Models create public interest in buying products such as cloth ing, cosmetics, food, and housewares. The information they provide helps consumers make choices among the wide variety of products and services they can buy. Models pose for photos, paintings, or sculptures. They dis play clothing such as dresses, coats, underclothing, swimwear, and suits, for a variety of audiences and in various types of media. They model accessories, such as handbags, shoes, and jewelry, and promote beauty products, including fragrances and cosmetics. The most successful models, called supermodels, hold celebrity status and often use their image to sell books, cal 538 Occupational Outlook Handbook endars, fitness videos, and other products. In addition to model ing, they may appear in movies and television shows. Models appear in printed publications, at live modeling events, and on television to advertise and promote products and services. Most modeling jobs are for printed publications, and models usually do a combination of editorial, commercial, and catalog work. Editorial print modeling uses still photographs of models for fashion magazine covers and to accompany feature articles. Commercial print modeling includes work for advertisements in magazines, newspapers, and billboards. Models advertise mer chandise and appear in department-store catalogs, mail-order catalogs, and on the Internet. During a photo shoot, a model poses to demonstrate the features of clothing and other products. Models make small changes in posture and facial expression to capture the look desired by the client. Photographers instruct models to pose in certain positions and to interact with their physical surround ings. Models work closely with photographers, hair and cloth ing stylists, makeup artists, and clients to produce the desired look and to finish the photo shoot on schedule. Stylists and makeup artists prepare the model for the photo shoot, provide touchups, and change the look of models throughout the day. If stylists are not provided, models must apply their own makeup and bring their own clothing. Live modeling is done in a variety of locations. Live models stand, turn, and walk to demonstrate clothing to a variety of audiences. At fashion shows and in showrooms, garment buy ers are the primary audience. Runway models display clothes that are intended for direct sale to consumers or are the artis tic expressions of the designer. High fashion, or haute couture, runway models walk a runway before an audience of photogra phers, journalists, designers, and garment buyers. Live model ing also is done in apparel marts, department stores, and fitting rooms of clothing designers. In retail establishments, models display clothing directly for shoppers and may be required to describe the features and prices of the clothing. Other models pose for sketch artists, painters, and sculptors. Because advertisers often need to target specific segments of the population, models may specialize in a certain area. For example, petite and plus-size fashions are modeled by women whose size is smaller or larger than that worn by the typical model. Models who are disabled may be used to model fashions or products for disabled consumers. “Parts” models have a body part, such as a hand or foot, which is particularly well suited to model products such as fingernail polish or shoes. Almost all models work through agents who provide a link between models and clients. Agents scout for new faces, advise and train new models, and promote them to clients. Clients pay models, and the agency receives a portion of the model’s earn ings for its services. A typical modeling job lasts only 1 day, so modeling agencies differ from other employment agencies in that they maintain an ongoing relationship with the model. With the help of agents, models spend a considerable amount of time promoting and developing themselves. Mod els assemble and maintain portfolios, print composite cards, and travel to check out potential clients, or “go-sees.” A port folio is a collection of a model’s previous work that is carried to for allFRASER go-sees and bookings. A composite card contains the Digitized https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Models appear in printed publications, at live modeling events, and on television to advertise and promote products and services. best photographs from a model’s portfolio, along with his or her measurements. Increasingly, composite cards are being sent electronically to clients and printed portfolios are being replaced with digital portfolios. Models must gather information before a job. From an agent, they leam the pay, date, time, and length of the shoot. Also, models need to ask if hair, makeup, and clothing stylists will be provided. It is helpful for models to know what product is being promoted and what image they should project. Some models research the client and the product being modeled to prepare for a shoot. Once a job is completed, models must check in with their agency and plan for the next appointment. Work environment. Many models work part time, often with variable work schedules. Models work under a variety of conditions varying from dif ficult to glamorous. Models can work in a comfortable, climatecontrolled studio or outdoors in adverse weather conditions. Schedules can be demanding and sometimes stressful. Yet, successful models interact with a variety of people and enjoy frequent travel. They may meet potential clients at several gosees in one day and often travel to work in distant cities, foreign countries, and exotic locations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training is limited and education beyond high school usually is not required. Education and training. Some aspiring models opt to at tend modeling schools. Modeling schools provide training in posing, walking, makeup application, and other basic tasks, but attending such schools does not necessarily lead to job oppor tunities. Agents continually scout for fresh faces at modeling schools, and many models are discovered in this way. Most agencies review snapshots or have “open calls,” during which models are seen in person; this service usually is provided free of charge. Some agencies sponsor modeling contests and searches. Very few people who send in snapshots or attend open calls are offered contracts. Sales and Related Occupations 539 Agencies advise models on how to dress, wear makeup, and conduct themselves properly during go-sees and bookings. Be cause models’ advancement depends on their previous work, development of a good portfolio is key to getting assignments. The higher the quality of the photos in the portfolio and the more current they are, the more likely it is that the model will find work. Other qualifications. Models should be photogenic and have a basic knowledge of hair styling, makeup, and clothing. A model should have flawless skin, healthy hair, and attractive facial features. Specific requirements depend on the client, but most models must be within certain ranges for height, weight, and clothing size in order to meet the practical needs of fashion designers, photographers, and advertisers. Requirements may change slightly from time to time along with common per ceptions of physical beauty. However, most fashion designers believe that their clothing looks best on tall, thin models. Al though physical requirements may be relaxed for some types of modeling jobs, opportunities are limited for those who do not meet these basic requirements. A model’s career depends on preservation of his or her physi cal characteristics, so models must control their diet, exercise regularly, and get enough sleep in order to stay healthy. Haircuts, pedicures, and manicures are necessary work-related expenses for models. The ability to relate to the camera in order to capture the de sired look on film is essential; agents test prospective models using snapshots or professional photographs. For photographic and runway work, models must be able to move gracefully and confidently. Training in acting, voice, and dance is useful and allows a model to be considered for television work. Foreign language skills are useful because successful models travel fre quently to foreign countries. Models must interact with a large number of people, so per sonality plays an important role in success. Models must be pro fessional, polite, and prompt because every contact could lead to future employment. Organizational skills are necessary to manage personal lives, financial matters, and work and travel schedules. Competition for jobs is keen and clients’ needs are very specific, so patience and persistence are essential. State and local govern ments require models under the age of 18 to hold a work permit. Advancement. Models advance by working more regularly and being selected for assignments that have higher pay. They may begin to appear in magazines, print campaigns, commer cials, or runway shows with higher profiles. They may begin to work with clients who will provide them with more widespread exposure. A model’s selection of an agency is an important fac tor for advancement in the occupation. The better the reputation and skill of the agency, the more assignments a model is likely to get. Prospective clients prefer to work with agents, which makes it very difficult for a model to pursue a freelance career. Modeling careers are relatively short. Employment Models held about 2,200 jobs in 2008. About 18 percent were self-employed. Job Outlook Employment of models is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations through 2018. Nonetheless, models should face keen competition for a small number of openings. Employment change. Employment of models is expected to grow by 16 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Growth in the employment of models will be driven by their continued use in advertising products. Advertisers will continue to use models in fashion shows, catalogs, and print campaigns as a method to increase awareness of their product. Job prospects. Modeling is considered a glamorous occu pation, and it has few formal entry requirements. Consequently, those who wish to pursue a modeling career can expect keen competition for jobs. The modeling profession typically attracts many more jobseekers than there are job openings. The increas ing diversity of the general population should boost demand for models more representative of diverse racial and ethnic groups. Work for male models also should increase as society becomes more receptive to the marketing of men’s fashions. Because fashions change frequently, demand for a model’s look may fluctuate. Most models experience periods of unemployment. Employment of models, which is often irregular to begin with, is also affected by downturns in the business cycle. Many firms tend to reduce advertising budgets during recessions. Earnings Median hourly wages of models were $13.18 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.09 and $17.23. The low est 10 percent earned less than $8.32, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $21.10. Wages vary for different types of modeling, and they depend on the experience and reputation of the model. Female models typically earn more than male models for similar work. Hourly wages can be relatively high, particularly for supermodels and others in high demand, but models may not work every day and jobs may last only a few hours. Models occasionally receive free or discounted clothing instead of, or in addition to, regular wages. Almost all models work with an agent and pay a percentage of their earnings in re turn for the agent’s services. Models who do not find immediate work may receive payments, called advances, from agents to cover promotional and living expenses. Models usually provide their own health and retirement benefits. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Models....................................................................................... ............. SOC Code Employment, 2008 Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018________Number Percent 2.600________ 400_________ 16_ 41-9012_________ 2,200 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 540 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Models create interest in buying clothing and other products and services by performing before the public eye. Other people who create interest in a product or service or who perform in public include: Page Actors, producers, and directors............................................ 318 Demonstrators and product promoters................................... 532 Sources of Additional Information For information about modeling schools and agencies in your area, contact a local consumer affairs organization such as the Better Business Bureau. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos337.htm Real Estate Brokers and Sales Agents Significant Points • A license is required in every State and the District of Columbia. • Residential real estate brokers and sales agents often work evenings and weekends. • Although gaining a job may be relatively easy, beginning workers face competition from wellestablished, more experienced agents and brokers. • Employment is sensitive to swings in the economy, as well as interest rates; during periods of declining eco nomic activity or rising interest rates, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers fall. Nature of the Work One of the most complex and significant financial events in peoples’ lives is the purchase or sale of a home or investment property. Because of the complexity and importance of this transaction, people typically seek the help of real estate brokers and sales agents when buying or selling real estate. Real estate brokers and sales agents have a thorough knowl edge of the real estate market in their communities. They know which neighborhoods will best fit clients’ needs and budgets. They are familiar with local zoning and tax laws and know where to obtain financing for the purchase of property. Brokers and agents do the same type of work, but brokers are licensed to manage their own real estate businesses. Agents must work with a broker. They usually provide their services to a licensed real estate broker on a contract basis. In return, the broker pays the agent a portion of the commission earned from the agent’s sale of the property. Brokers, as independent businesspeople, often sell real estate owned by others; they also may rent or manage properties for a fee. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis When selling property, brokers and agents arrange for title searches to verify ownership and for meetings between buyers and sellers during which they agree to the details of the transactions. In a final meeting, the new owners take possession of the property. Agents and brokers also act as intermediaries in price negotiations between buyers and sellers. They may help to arrange financing from a lender for the prospective buyer, which may make the difference between success and failure in closing a sale. In some cases, brokers and agents assume pri mary responsibility for finalizing, or closing, sales, but typi cally this function is done by lenders or lawyers. Agents and brokers spend a significant amount of time looking for properties to buy or sell. They obtain listings—agreements by owners to place properties for sale with the firm. When listing a property for sale, agents and brokers compare the listed property with similar properties that recently sold, to determine a com petitive market price for the property. Following the sale of the property, both the agent who sold it and the agent who obtained the listing receive a portion of the commission. Thus, agents who sell a property that they themselves have listed can increase their commission. Before showing residential properties to potential buyers, agents meet with them to get an idea of the type of home the buyers would like, and how much the buyers can afford to spend. They may also ask buyers to sign a loyalty contract, which states that the agent will be the only one to show houses to the buyer. An agent or broker then generates lists of properties for sale, their location and description, and available sources of financing. In some cases, agents and brokers use computers to give buyers a virtual tour of properties that interest them. Agents may meet numerous times with prospective buyers to discuss and visit available properties. Agents identify and em phasize the most pertinent selling details. To a young family looking for a house, for example, they may emphasize the con venient floor plan, the area’s low crime rate, and the proximity to schools and shopping. To a potential investor, they may point out the tax advantages of owning a rental property and finding a renter. If negotiation over price becomes necessary, agents must follow their client’s instructions thoroughly and may present counteroffers to reach the final sales price. Once the buyer and seller have signed a contract, the real es tate broker or agent must ensure that all terms of the contract are met before the closing date. If the seller agrees to any repairs, the broker or agent ensures they are made. Increasingly, brokers and agents must deal with environmental issues as well, such as advising buyers about lead paint on the walls. In addition, the agent must make sure that any legally mandated or agreed-upon inspections, such as termite and radon inspections, take place. Loan officers, attorneys, and other people handle many details, but the agent must ensure that they are carried out. Most real estate brokers and sales agents sell residential prop erty. A small number—usually employed in large or specialized firms—sell commercial, industrial, agricultural, or other types of real estate. Every specialty requires knowledge of that par ticular type of property and clientele. Selling, buying, or leasing business property requires an understanding of leasing practices, business trends, and the location of the property. Agents who sell, buy, or lease industrial properties must know about the Sales and Related Occupations 541 ' ** "I fi Id! HOUSE FOR SALE &&&'■ ''I Most real estate brokers and sales agents sell residential property. region’s transportation, utilities, and labor supply. Whatever the type of property, the agent or broker must know how to meet the client’s particular requirements. Work environment. Real estate agents and brokers often work more than a standard 40-hour week, often working eve nings and weekends for the convenience of clients. Although the hours are long and frequently irregular, most agents and brokers have the freedom to determine their own schedule. Advances in telecommunications and the ability to retrieve data about properties over the Internet allow many real estate brokers and sales agents to work out of their homes instead of real estate offices. Even with this convenience, workers spend much of their time away from their desks—showing properties to customers, analyzing properties for sale, meeting with pro spective clients, or researching the real estate market. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In every State and the District of Columbia, real estate brokers and sales agents must be licensed. Prospective agents must be high school graduates, be at least 18 years old, and pass a writ ten test administered by the State. Education and training. Agents and brokers must be high school graduates. In fact, as real estate transactions have be come more legally complex, many firms have turned to college graduates to fill positions. A large number of agents and brokers have some college training. Most universities, colleges, and community colleges offer various courses in real estate. Some offer associate and bach elor’s degrees in real estate, but mostly they offer certificate programs. Additionally, college courses in finance, business administration, statistics, economics, law, and English are also helpful. For those who intend to start their own company, busi ness courses such as marketing and accounting are as important as courses in real estate or finance. Many local real estate associations that are members of the National Association of Realtors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses in mortgage financing, property development and management, and other subjects also are available. Also, some brokerage firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and ex perienced agents. In addition, much of the training needed to the practical aspects of the trade happens on the job, under Digitizedlearn for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the direction of an experienced agent, who may demonstrate how to use a computer to locate or list available properties and identify sources of financing. Licensure. In every State and the District of Columbia, real estate brokers and sales agents must be licensed. Prospec tive brokers and agents must pass a written examination. The examination—more comprehensive for brokers than for agents— includes questions on basic real estate transactions and the laws affecting the sale of property. Most States require candidates for the general sales license to complete between 30 and 90 hours of classroom instruction. To get a broker’s license an individual needs between 60 and 90 hours of formal training and a specific amount of experience selling real estate, usually 1 to 3 years. Some States waive the experience requirements for the broker’s license for applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in real estate. State licenses typically must be renewed every 1 or 2 years; usually, no examination is needed. However, many States re quire continuing education for license renewals. Prospective agents and brokers should contact the real estate licensing com mission of the State in which they wish to work to verify the exact licensing requirements. Other qualifications. Personality traits are as important as academic background. Brokers look for agents who have a pleasant personality and a neat appearance. They must be at least 18 years old. Maturity, good judgment, trustworthiness, honesty, and enthusiasm for the job are required to attract prospective customers in this highly competitive field. Agents should be well organized, be detail oriented, and have a good memory for names, faces, and business particulars. A good knowledge of the local area and its neighborhoods is a clear advantage. Advancement. As agents gain knowledge and expertise, they become more efficient in closing a greater number of trans actions and increase their income. In many large firms, experi enced agents can advance to sales manager or general manager. People who earn their broker’s license may open their own of fices. Others with experience and training in estimating property values may become real estate appraisers, and people familiar with operating and maintaining rental properties may become property managers. (See the Handbook statements on property, real estate, and community association managers; and apprais ers and assessors of real estate.) Experienced agents and brokers with a thorough knowledge of business conditions and property values in their localities may enter mortgage financing or real estate investment counseling. Employment In 2008, real estate brokers and sales agents held about 517,800 jobs; real estate sales agents held approximately 76 percent of these jobs. Many real estate brokers and sales agents worked part time, combining their real estate activities with other careers. About 59 percent of real estate brokers and sales agents were selfemployed. Real estate is sold in all areas, but employment is con centrated in large urban areas and in rapidly growing communities. Most real estate firms are relatively small; indeed, some are one-person businesses. By contrast, some large real estate firms have several hundred agents operating out of numerous branch offices. Many brokers have franchise agreements with 542 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Code Employment, 2008 Projected Employment, 2018 592,100 134,000 458,200 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 14 74,300 9 10,600 63,700 16 41-9020 517,800 Real estate brokers and sales agents............................ ...................... 123,400 41-9021 Real estate brokers..................................................... ....................... 394,400 Real estate sales agents............................................. ....................... 41-9022 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. national or regional real estate organizations. Under this type of arrangement, the broker pays a fee in exchange for the privilege of using the more widely known name of the parent organiza tion. Although franchised brokers often receive help in training sales staff and running their offices, they bear the ultimate re sponsibility for the success or failure of their firms. Job Outlook Employment of real estate brokers and agents is expected to grow faster than average. Beginning agents and brokers, how ever, will face competition from their well-established, more experienced counterparts. Employment change. Employment of real estate brokers and sales agents is expected to grow 14 percent during the 2008 18 decade, faster than average for all occupations. A growing population, particularly young adults who will be forming households in greater numbers, will require the services of real estate agents and brokers to buy their homes. Home sales will be sparked by the continuing desire for people to own their own homes and their perception that real estate will be a good invest ment over the long run. However, job growth will be somewhat limited by the increasing use of the Internet, which is improv ing the productivity of agents and brokers, and transforming the way they do business. For example, prospective customers of ten can perform their own searches for properties that meet their criteria by accessing real estate information on the Internet. Job prospects. In addition to job growth, a large number of job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Real estate brokers and sales agents are older, on average, than most other workers, and many are expected to leave the occupation over the next decade. Employment of real estate brokers and sales agents is sensitive to swings in the economy, such as a recession. During periods of declining economic activity or rising interest rates, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers fall. As a result, the income of agents and brokers declines, and many work fewer hours or leave the occupation altogether. Over the coming de cade, the opportunity for part-time work is expected to decline. Although the occupation is relatively easy to enter, increasingly complex legal and technological requirements are raising startup costs associated with becoming an agent and making it more dif ficult for part-time workers to enter the occupation. Well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy selling—particularly those with extensive social and business connections in their communities—should have the best chance for success. How ever, beginning agents and brokers often face competition from their well-established, more experienced counterparts in obtain ing and in closing an adequate number of sales. Digitized forlistings FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings The median annual wages, including commissions, of salaried real estate sales agents were $40,150 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,390 and $64,820 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,120, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $101,860. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest number of real estate sales agents in May 2008 were: Residential building construction...............................$49,620 Land subdivision.......................................................... 44,410 Offices of real estate agents and brokers......................41,320 Activities related to real estate.....................................36,410 Lessors of real estate.................................................... 32,150 Median annual wages, including commissions, of salaried real estate brokers were $57,500 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,420 and $93,970 a year. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest number of real estate brokers in May 2008 were: Residential building construction...............................$63,280 Offices of real estate agents and brokers..................... 59,710 Activities related to credit Intermediation....................57,740 Activities related to real estate.....................................56,140 Lessors of real estate.................................................... 47,230 Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings of real estate agents and brokers. The rate of commission var ies according to whatever the agent and broker agree on, the type of property, and its value. The percentage paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unimproved land is typically higher than the percentage paid for selling a home. Commissions may be divided among several agents and brokers. The broker or agent who obtains a listing usually shares the commission with the broker or agent who sells the property and with the firms that employ each of them. Al though an agent’s share varies greatly from one firm to an other, often it is about half of the total amount received by the firm. Agents who both list and sell a property maximize their commission. Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but individual motivation, economic conditions, and the type and location of the property also can affect income. Sales workers who are active in community organizations and in local real estate associations can broaden their contacts and increase their income. A beginner’s earnings often are irregular because a few weeks or even months may go by without a sale. Although some brokers allow an agent to draw against future income from a special account, the practice is not common with new Sales and Related Occupations 543 employees. The beginner, therefore, should have enough money to live for about 6 months or until commissions increase. Related Occupations Other occupations requiring knowledge of real estate include: Page Appraisers and assessors of real estate......................................90 Property, real estate, and community association managers..............................................................76 Other sales workers who need these character traits include: Insurance sales agents..............................................................534 Sales representatives, wholesale andmanufacturing............... 547 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents........................................................................... 553 Sources of Additional Information Information on licensing requirements for real estate brokers and sales agents is available from most local real estate organizations or from the State real estate commission or board. More information about opportunities in real estate is avail able on the Internet site of the following organization: y National Association of Realtors. Internet: http://www.realtor.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl20.htm Retail Salespersons Significant Points • Good employment opportunities are expected because of the need to replace the large number of workers who leave the occupation each year. • Many salespersons work evenings and weekends, particularly during peak retail periods. • Employers look for people who enjoy working with others and who have good communication skills, an interest in sales work, a neat appearance, and a cour teous demeanor. • Although advancement opportunities are limited, having a college degree or a great deal of experience may help retail salespersons move into management positions. Nature of the Work Whether selling shoes, computer equipment, or automobiles, re tail salespersons assist customers in finding what they are look ing for. They also try to increase sales by describing a product’s features, demonstrating its uses, and promoting its value. In addition to selling, many retail salespersons—especially those who work in department and apparel stores—conduct financial transactions with their customers. This usually in volves receiving payments by cash, check, debit card, or credit card; operating cash registers; and bagging or packaging pur chases. Depending on the hours they work, retail salespersons have to open or close cash registers. This work may inDigitized may for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1? sHT; Ui 3 n : ■r —~ iHr' : Retail salespersons work in various settings, including clothing stores, automobile dealers, and electronics and appliance stores. elude counting the money in the register and separating charge slips, coupons, and exchange vouchers. Retail salespersons also may have to make deposits at a cash office. (Cashiers, who have similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition, retail salespersons may help stock shelves or racks, arrange for mailing or delivery of purchases, mark price tags, take inventory, and prepare displays. For some sales jobs, particularly those involving expensive and complex items, retail salespersons need special knowledge or skills. For example, salespersons who sell automobiles must be able to explain the features of various models, the manufacturers’ specifications, the types of options and financing available, and the details of associated warranties. In addition, all retail salespersons must recognize security risks and thefts and understand their orga nization’s procedure for handling such situations—procedures that may include notifying security guards or calling police. Work environment. Most retail salespersons work in clean, comfortable, well-lit stores. However, they often stand for long periods and may need supervisory approval to leave the sales floor. They also may work outdoors if they sell items such as cars, plants, or lumber yard materials. The Monday-through-Friday, 9-to-5 workweek is the excep tion rather than the rule for retail salespersons. Many salesper sons work evenings and weekends, particularly during holidays and other peak sales periods. The end-of-year holiday season often is the busiest time, and as a result, many employers limit the use of vacation time between Thanksgiving and the begin ning of January. This occupation offers opportunities for both full-time and part time work. About 34 percent of retail salespersons worked part time in 2008. Part-time opportunities may vary by setting, however, as many who sell big-ticket items are required to work full time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Retail salespersons typically learn their skills through on-the-job training. Although advancement opportunities are limited, having a college degree or a great deal of experience may help retail sales persons move into management positions. 544 Occupational Outlook Handbook Education and training. There usually are no formal educa tion requirements for retail sales positions, but employers often prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent. This may be especially important for those who sell technical products or “big-ticket” items, such as electronics or automo biles. A college degree may be required for management trainee positions, especially in larger retail establishments. Most retail salespersons receive on-the-job training, which usually lasts anywhere from a few days to a few months. In small stores, newly hired workers usually are trained by an ex perienced employee. In large stores, training programs are more formal and generally are conducted over several days. Topics often include customer service, security, the store’s policies and procedures, and cash register operation. Depending on the type of product they are selling, employees may be given additional specialized training. For example, those working in cosmetics receive instruction on the types of products the store offers and for whom the cosmetics would be most beneficial. Likewise, those who sell computers may be instructed in the technical differences between computer products. Because providing the best possible service to customers is a high priority for many employers, employees often are given periodic training to up date and refine their skills. Other qualifications. Employers look for people who en joy working with others and who possess good communication skills. Employers also value workers who have the tact and patience to deal with difficult customers. Among other desir able characteristics are an interest in sales work, a neat appear ance, and a courteous demeanor. The ability to speak more than one language may be helpful for employment in communities where people from various cultures live and shop. Before hiring a salesperson, some employers conduct a background check, especially for a job selling high-priced items. Advancement. Opportunities for advancement vary. In some small establishments, advancement is limited because one person—often the owner—does most of the managerial work. In others, some salespersons can be promoted to assistant manager. Large retail businesses usually prefer to hire college graduates as management trainees, making a college education increasingly important. However, motivated and capable em ployees without college degrees still may advance to adminis trative or supervisory positions in large establishments. As salespersons gain experience and seniority, they often move into positions with greater responsibility and may be given their choice of departments in which to work. This opportunity often means moving to areas with higher potential earnings and commissions. The highest earnings potential usually lies in selling “big-ticket” items—such as cars, jewelry, furniture, and electronic equipment—although doing so often requires extensive knowledge of the product and an excellent talent for persuasion. Previous sales experience may be an asset when one is apply ing for positions with larger retailers or in nonretail industries, such as financial services, wholesale trade, or manufacturing. Employment Retail salespersons held about 4.5 million jobs in 2008. The largest employers were clothing and clothing accessories stores, department stores, building material and supplies dealers, mo tor vehicle and parts dealers, and general merchandise stores such as warehouse clubs and supercenters. In addition, about 156,500 retail salespersons were self-employed. Because retail stores are found in every city and town, employment is distributed geographically in much the same way as the population. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow about as fast as average. Due to the frequency with which people leave this occupation, job opportunities are expected to be good. Employment change. Employment is expected to grow by 8 percent over the 2008-18 decade, about as fast as the average for all occupations. In addition, given the size of this occupa tion, about 374,700 new retail salesperson jobs will arise over the projections decade—more jobs than will be generated in almost any other occupation. Employment growth among retail salespersons reflects rising retail sales stemming from a growing population. Many retail establishments will continue to expand in size and number, leading to new retail sales positions. Growth will be fastest in general merchandise stores, many of which sell a wide assort ment of goods at low prices. As consumers continue to prefer these stores other establishments with higher prices, growth in this industry will be rapid. Employment of retail sales persons is expected to decline in department stores and automobile dealers as these industries see a reduction in store locations. Despite the growing popularity of electronic commerce, the impact of online shopping on the employment of retail sales persons is expected to be minimal. Internet sales have not de creased the need for retail salespersons. Retail stores commonly use an online presence to complement their in-store sales, and many consumers prefer to buy merchandise in person. Retail salespersons will remain important in assisting customers, pro viding specialized service, and increasing customer satisfaction. Job prospects. Employment opportunities for retail sales persons are expected to be good because of the need to replace the large number of workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force each year. In addition, many new jobs will be created for retail salespersons as businesses seek to ex pand operations and enhance customer service. A substantial number of these openings should occur in warehouse clubs and supercenters as a result of strong growth among these establishments. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Retail salespersons.................................................. ............................. 41-2031 4,489,200 4,863,900 374,700 8 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 Sales and Related Occupations 545 Opportunities for part-time work should be abundant, and de mand is expected be strong for temporary workers during peak selling periods, such as the end-of-year holiday season between Thanksgiving and the beginning of January. During economic downturns, sales volumes and the resulting demand for sales workers usually decline. Consequently, retail sales jobs generally are more susceptible to fluctuations in the economy than are many other occupations. Earnings Median hourly wages of wage-and-salary retail salespersons, including commissions, were $9.86 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.26 and $13.35 an hour. The low est 10 percent earned less than $7.37, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.14 an hour. Median hourly wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of retail salespersons in May 2008 were as follows: Automobile dealers...................................................... $18.91 Building material and supplies dealers.......................... 11.95 Other general merchandise stores.................................... 9.22 Department stores............................................................. 9.14 Clothing stores................................................................. 8.94 Many beginning or inexperienced workers earn the Federal minimum wage of $7.25 an hour, but many States set minimum wages higher than the Federal minimum. In areas where em ployers have difficulty attracting and retaining workers, wages tend to be higher than the legislated minimum. Compensation systems can vary by type of establishment and merchandise sold. Salespersons receive hourly wages, commis sions, or a combination of the two. Under a commission system, salespersons receive a percentage of the sales they make. This system offers sales workers the opportunity to increase their earnings considerably, but they may find that their earnings de pend strongly on their ability to sell their product and on the ups and downs of the economy. Benefits may be limited in smaller stores, but benefits in large establishments usually are considerable. In addition, nearly all salespersons are able to buy their store’s merchandise at a discount, with the savings depending on the type of merchan dise. Also, to bolster revenue, employers may use incentive pro grams such as awards, bonuses, and profit-sharing plans to the sales staff. Related Occupations Other occupations that provide customer service, sell items, or operate cash registers include the following: Page Cashiers.................................................................................... 530 Counter and rental clerks.........................................................560 Customer service representatives.............................................567 Gaming cage workers...............................................................565 Insurance sales agents..............................................................534 Real estate brokers and sales agents........................................540 Sales engineers......................................................................... 545 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing.............. 547 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents........................................................................... 553 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in retail sales may be obtained from the per sonnel offices of local stores or from State merchants’ associations. General information about retailing is available from: y National Retail Federation, 325 7th St. NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.nrf.com Information about training for a career in automobile sales is available from: y National Automobile Dealers Association, Public Relations Department, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. Internet: http://www.nada.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl21.htm Sales Engineers Significant Points • A bachelor’s degree in engineering usually is required; many sales engineers have previous work experience in an engineering specialty. • Competition for jobs is expected. • Earnings typically are based on a combination of salary and commission. Nature of the Work Many products and services, especially those purchased by large companies and institutions, are highly complex. Sales engineers—also called technical sales support workers—deter mine how products and services could be designed or modified to suit customers’ needs. They also may advise customers on how best to use the products or services provided. Sales engineers specialize in technologically and scientifically advanced products. They possess extensive knowledge of these products, including knowledge about their components, functions, and the scientific processes that make them work. They use their technical skills to explain the benefits of their products to potential customers and to demonstrate how their products are better than the products of their competitors. Often, they modify and adjust products to meet customers’ specific needs. Some sales engineers work for the companies that design and build technical products, while others work for independent sales firms. Many of the duties of sales engineers are similar to those of other salespersons. They must interest the client in purchasing their products, negotiate a price, and complete the sale. Some sales engineers, however, are teamed with other salespersons who concentrate on marketing and selling the product, enabling the sales engineer to concentrate on the technical aspects of the job. By working on a sales team, each member is able to focus on his or her strengths and expertise. (Information on other sales occupations, including sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) 546 Occupational Outlook Handbook : V. . : Mi Sales engineers use scientific knowledge to help their customers choose the right technical products. Sales engineers tend to employ selling techniques that are dif ferent from those used by most other sales workers. They gener ally use a “consultative” style; that is, they focus on the client’s problem and show how it can be solved or mitigated with their product or service. This selling style differs from the “benefits and features” method, whereby the salesperson describes the product and leaves the customer to decide how it would be useful. In addition to retaining current clients and attracting new ones, sales engineers help clients solve any problems that arise when the product is installed. Afterward, they may continue to serve as a liaison between the client and their company. Increas ingly, sales engineers are asked to undertake additional tasks related to sales, such as market research, because of their fa miliarity with clients’ purchasing needs. Drawing on this same familiarity, sales engineers may help identify and develop new products. Work environment. Workers in this occupation can encounter pressure and stress because their income and job security often de pend directly on their success in sales and customer service. Many work more than 40 hours per week to meet sales goals and client needs. Although the hours may be long and often irregular, many sales engineers have the freedom to determine their own sched ules. Consequently, they often can arrange their appointments so that they can have time off when they want it. Some sales engineers have large territories and travel exten sively. Because sales regions may cover several States, sales en gineers may be away from home for several days or even weeks at a time, often traveling by airplane. Others cover a smaller region and travel mostly by car, spending few nights away from home. International travel to secure contracts with foreign cli ents is becoming more common. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sales engineers generally are required to posses a bachelor’s de gree in engineering, and many have previous work experience in an engineering specialty. New sales engineers may need some on-the-job training in sales or may work closely with a sales mentor before they can work on their own. Education and training. A bachelor’s degree in engineer ing usually is required for a person to become a sales engi neer. However, workers without a degree, but with previous https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis experience in sales and technical experience or training, sometimes hold the title of sales engineer. Also, workers who have a degree in a science, such as chemistry, or even a degree in business with little or no previous sales experience, may be called sales engineers. University engineering programs generally require 4 years of study. They vary in content, but all contain courses in math and the physical sciences, as well as general education courses such as English and communications. In addition, most require the development of computer skills. Some programs offer a general engineering curriculum; students then specialize on the job or in graduate school. Most programs, however, require students to choose an area of specialization. The most common majors are electrical, mechanical, and civil engineering, but some pro grams offer additional majors, such as chemical, biomedical, and computer hardware engineering. New graduates with engineering degrees may need sales ex perience and training before they can work independently as sales engineers. Training may involve teaming with a sales mentor who is familiar with the employer’s business practices, customers, procedures, and company culture. After the train ing period has been completed, sales engineers may continue to partner with someone who lacks technical skills, yet excels in the art of sales. It is important for sales engineers to continue their engi neering and sales education throughout their careers. Much of their value to their employers depends on their knowledge of, and ability to sell, the latest technologies. Sales engineers in high-technology fields, such as information technology and advanced electronics, may find that their technical knowledge rapidly becomes obsolete, requiring frequent retraining. Other qualifications. Many sales engineers first work as engineers. For some, engineering experience is necessary to obtain the technical background that is needed to sell their em ployers’ products or services effectively. These workers must possess excellent communication skills, because interacting with customers is one of their main job functions. They also must be strong in math and have an apti tude for science as they work with complex, technical products. Advancement. Promotion may include a higher commis sion rate, a larger sales territory, or elevation to the position of supervisor or marketing manager. Alternatively, sales engineers may move into different occupations, such as consulting. Employment Sales engineers held about 78,000 jobs in 2008. About 34 per cent were employed in wholesale trade establishments, and another 24 percent were employed in manufacturing establish ments. Smaller numbers of sales engineers worked in computer systems design and related services organizations, as well as telecommunications firms. Unlike workers in many other sales occupations, very few sales engineers are self-employed. Job Outlook Job growth for sales engineers is projected to be about as fast as average, and competition for jobs is expected. Employment change. Employment of sales engineers is expected to grow by 9 percent between 2008 and 2018, about Sales and Related Occupations 547 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Sales engineers............................................ ................................. soc Code 41-9031 Employment, 2008 78,000 Projected Employment, 2018 84,900 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 6,900 9 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. as fast as the average for all occupations. Job growth will stem from the increasing variety and technical nature of the goods and services to be sold. Competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs more frequently and to optimize their manufacturing, sales processes, and general business processes, thus requiring the services of sales engineers. Growth will be fastest in technology companies, such as soft ware publishers and computer systems design firms. Increasing demand for the latest, most sophisticated technological prod ucts will spur demand for sales engineers with expertise in the field. Conversely, as manufacturing organizations continue to outsource their sales functions to independent companies, em ployment in the manufacturing industry will fall. Job prospects. Competition for jobs is expected because the relatively high earnings potential of this occupation creates significant interest in sales engineer positions. Prospects will be best for those with the personal traits necessary for successful sales work. In addition to new positions created as companies expand their sales forces, some openings will arise each year from the need to replace sales engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. pendent sales engineers do not get paid vacations, a common benefit for many other workers. Earnings Journey, Suite 200, Aliso Viejo, CA 92656-3317. Internet: http ://www.manaonline.org Median annual wages, including commissions, of sales engi neers were $83,100 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $63,340 and $108,470 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $49,640, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $136,770 a year. Median annual wages of sales en gineers employed by the computer systems design and related services industry were $95,580. Compensation varies significantly by the type of firm and the product sold. Most employers offer a combination of sal ary and commission payments or a salary plus a bonus. Those working in independent sales companies may just earn com missions. Commissions usually are based on the value of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the performance of all workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. Earnings from commissions and bonuses may vary greatly from year to year, depending on sales ability, the demand for the company’s products or services, and the overall economy. In addition to receiving their earnings, sales engineers who work for manufacturers usually are reimbursed for expenses such as transportation, meals, hotels, and customer entertain ment. Besides receiving typical benefits, sales engineers may get personal use of a company car and frequent-flyer mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding performance. Sales engineers who work in independent firms may have higher, but less stable, earnings and, often, relatively few benefits. For example, most inde https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Other occupations that perform technical duties or sell products and services include the following: Page Advertising sales agents.......................................................... 527 Engineers.................................................................................. 161 Insurance sales agents..............................................................534 Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents..............79 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing.............. 547 Sales worker supervisors..........................................................551 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents...........................................................................553 Real estate brokers and sales agents....................................... 540 Retail salespersons...................................................................543 Sources of Additional Information Information on careers for manufacturers’ representatives and agents is available from: y Manufacturers’Agents National Association, 16 A y Manufacturers’ Representatives Educational Research Foundation, 8329 Cole St., Arvada, CO 80005. Internet: http://www.mrerf.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl23.htm Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing Significant Points • Job prospects will be best for those with a college de gree, the appropriate technical expertise, and the per sonal traits necessary for successful selling. • Earnings usually are based on a combination of salary and commission. • Employment opportunities and earnings may fluctu ate from year to year because sales are affected by changing economic conditions. 548 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work Sales representatives are an important part of manufacturers’ and wholesalers’ success. Regardless of the type of products they sell, sales representatives’ primary duties are to make customers interested in their merchandise and to arrange the sale of that merchandise. The process of promoting and selling a product can be exten sive, at times taking up to several months. Whether in person or over the phone, sales representatives describe their products, conduct demonstrations, explain the benefits that their products convey, and answer any questions that their customers may have. Sales representatives—sometimes called manufacturers ’ rep resentatives or manufacturers’ agents—generally work for man ufacturers, wholesalers, or technical companies. Some work for a single organization, while others represent several companies and sell a range of products. Rather than selling goods directly to consumers, sales representatives deal with businesses, gov ernment agencies, and other organizations. (Retail salespersons, who sell directly to consumers, and sales engineers, who spe cialize in sales of technical products and services, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some sales representatives specialize in technical and scientific products ranging from agricultural and mechanical equipment to computer and pharmaceutical goods. Other rep resentatives deal with all other types of goods, including food, office supplies, and apparel. Sales representatives stay abreast of new products and the changing needs of their customers in a variety of ways. They attend trade shows at which new products and technologies are showcased. They also attend conferences and conventions to meet other sales representatives and clients and discuss new product developments. In addition, the entire sales force may participate in company-sponsored meetings to review the firm’s sales perfor mance, product development, sales goals, and profitability. Frequently, sales representatives who lack the necessary ex pertise about a given product may team with a technical expert. In this arrangement, the technical expert—sometimes a sales engineer—attends the sales presentation to explain the prod uct and answer questions or concerns. The sales representa tive makes the preliminary contact with customers, introduces the company’s product, and closes the sale. Under such an arrangement, the representative is able to spend more time main taining and soliciting accounts and less time acquiring technical knowledge. After the sale, representatives may make follow up visits to ensure that the equipment is functioning properly and may even help train customers’ employees to operate and main tain new equipment. Those selling technical goods also may arrange for the product to be installed. Those selling consumer goods often suggest how and where merchandise should be displayed. When working with retailers, they may help arrange promotional programs, store displays, and advertising. Sales representatives have several duties beyond selling prod ucts. They analyze sales statistics, prepare reports, and handle administrative duties such as filing expense accounts, scheduling appointments, and making travel plans. They also read about new and existing products and monitor the sales, prices, and products of their competitors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sales representatives generally work in either inside sales, in teracting with customers over the phone from an office location, or outside “field” sales, traveling to meet clients in person. Inside sales representatives may spend a lot of their time on the phone, selling goods, taking orders, and resolving problems or complaints about the merchandise. These sales representatives typically do not leave the office. Frequently, they are responsible for acquiring new clients by “cold calling” various organizations—calling potential customers to establish an initial contact. They also may be responsible for arranging meetings for outside sales representatives. Outside sales representatives spend much of their time traveling to, and visiting with, current clients and prospec tive buyers. During a sales call, they discuss the client’s needs and suggest how their merchandise or services can meet those needs. They may show samples or catalogs that describe items their company provides, and they may inform customers about prices, availability, and ways in which their products can save money and boost productivity. Because many sales represen tatives sell several complementary products made by different manufacturers, they may take a broad approach to their cus tomers’ business. For example, sales representatives may help install new equipment and train employees in its use. Work environment. Some sales representatives have large territories and travel considerably. Because a sales region may cover several States, representatives may be away from home for several days or weeks at a time, often traveling by airplane. Others cover a smaller region and travel mostly by car, spending few nights away from home. Sales representatives frequently are on their feet for long periods and may carry heavy sample products, requiring some physical stamina. In 2008, about 48 percent of sales representatives worked around 40 hours per week, but about 24 percent worked more than 50 hours per week. Since sales calls take place during regular working hours, much of the planning and paperwork involved with sales must be completed during the evening and on weekends. Although the hours are often irregular, many sales representatives have the freedom to determine their own schedules. Workers in this occupation can encounter pressure and stress because their income and job security often depend directly on the amount of merchandise they sell and their companies usu ally set goals or quotas that they are expected to meet. Sales / Sales representatives may travel extensively to meet with clients. Sales and Related Occupations 549 representatives also deal with many different types of people, which can be stimulating but demanding. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There generally is no formal educational requirement for sales representative positions, but many jobs require some postsecondary education. Regardless of educational back ground, factors such as communication skills, the ability to sell, and familiarity with brands are essential to being a successful sales representative. Education and training. There usually is no formal edu cational requirement for sales representatives. Some positions, especially those which deal with scientific and technical prod ucts, require a bachelor’s degree. For other jobs, however, ap plicants can be fully qualified with a high school diploma or its equivalent. For these positions, previous sales experience may be desirable. Many sales representatives attend seminars in sales techniques or take courses in marketing, economics, communication, or even a foreign language to provide the extra edge needed to make sales. Often, companies have formal training programs for begin ning sales representatives that last up to 2 years. However, most businesses accelerate these programs to much shorter timeframes in order to reduce costs and expedite the returns from training. In some programs, trainees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of production, installation, and distribution of the product. In others, trainees take formal classroom instruction at the plant, followed by on-the-job training under the supervi sion of a field sales manager. Regardless of where they work, new employees may be trained by accompanying experienced workers on their sales calls. As they gain familiarity with the firm’s products and cli ents, the new workers are given increasing responsibility, until they are eventually assigned their own territory. As businesses experience greater competition, representatives face more pres sure to produce sales. Other qualifications. For sales representative jobs, compa nies seek individuals who have excellent communication skills and the desire to sell. Those who want to become sales repre sentatives should be goal oriented, persuasive, and able to work well both independently and as part of a team. A pleasant per sonality and appearance and problem-solving skills are highly valued. Patience and perseverance also are keys to completing a sale, which can take up to several months. Manufacturers’ representatives who operate a sales agency also must manage their business. Doing so requires organi zational and general business skills, as well as knowledge of accounting, marketing, and administration. Certification and advancement. Certifications are avail able that provide formal recognition of the skills of sales rep resentatives. Many in this profession have either the Certified Professional Manufacturers’ Representative (CPMR) certifi cation or the Certified Sales Professional (CSP) certification, offered by the Manufacturers’ Representatives Education Re search Foundation. Certification typically involves completing formal training and passing an examination. Frequently, promotion takes the form of an assignment to a larger account or territory, where commissions are likely to be greater. Those who have good sales records and leadership abil ity may advance to higher level positions such as sales super visor, district manager, or vice president of sales. Others find opportunities in purchasing, advertising, or marketing research. Advancement opportunities typically depend on whether the sales representatives are working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler or whether they are working with an indepen dent sales agency. Experienced sales representatives working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler may move into jobs as sales trainers and instruct new employees on selling techniques and company policies and procedures. Some leave their organi zation and start their own independent sales company. Employment Manufacturing and wholesale sales representatives held about 2 million jobs in 2008. About 432,900 of these worked with technical and scientific products. Around 61 percent of all rep resentatives worked for wholesale companies. Others were em ployed in manufacturing establishments, retail organizations, and professional, technical, and scientific firms. Because of the diversity of products and services sold, employment opportuni ties are available throughout the country. About 73,800 sales representatives were self-employed. Job Outlook Job growth is expected to be about as fast as average. Job pros pects will be best for those with a college degree, the appro priate technical expertise, and the personal traits necessary for successful selling. Employment change. Employment of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, is expected to grow by 7 percent between 2008 and 2018, about as fast as the average for all oc cupations. Given the size of this occupation, a large number of new jobs, about 143,200, will arise over the projection period. Job growth will result from the continued expansion in the vari ety and number of goods sold throughout the economy. Because they play an important role in the transfer of goods between organizations, sales representatives will be needed to accom modate this expansion. In addition, as technology continues to Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Code Employment, 2008 Projected Employment, 2018 2,116,400 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 1 143,200 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing.................. ...... 41-4000 1,973,200 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, technical and scientific products................................................. 41-4011 432,900 475,000 42,000 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, except technical and scientific products..................................... 41-4012 1,540,300 1,641,400 101,100 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 10 7 550 Occupational Outlook Handbook progress, sales representatives can help ensure that retailers offer the latest products to their customers and that businesses acquire the tools they need to increase their efficiency in operations. Employment growth will be greatest in independent sales companies as manufacturers continue to outsource sales ac tivities to independent agents rather than using in-house sales workers. Independent sales agents generally are more efficient, reducing the overhead cost to their clients. Also, by using agents who contract their services to more than one company, compa nies can share costs of the agents with each other. Job prospects. Job prospects will be best for those with a col lege degree, the appropriate technical expertise, and the personal traits necessary for successful selling. Opportunities will be bet ter in independent sales companies than with manufacturers, who are expected to continue contracting out field sales duties. Employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year because sales are affected by changing economic conditions and businesses' preferences. In addition, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual wages of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, technical and scientific products, were $70,200, in cluding commissions, in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $48,540 and $99,570 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,980, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $133,040 a year. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of sales representatives, wholesale and manu facturing, technical and scientific products, were as follows: Computer systems design and related services..........$80,060 Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers.................................................... 77,190 Drugs and druggists’ sundries merchant wholesalers............................................................... 74,840 Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers..........................70,140 Electrical and electronic goods merchant wholesalers............................................... 63,050 Median annual wages of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, except technical and scientific products, were $51,330, including commission, in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,460 and $75,120 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,950, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $106,040 a year. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of sales repre sentatives, wholesale and manufacturing, except technical and scientific products, were as follows: Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers.................................................. $57,100 Machinery equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers............................................... 50,310 Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers..........................49,750 Grocery and related product merchant wholesalers............................................... 47,980 Miscellaneous nondurable goods merchant wholesalers............................................... 44,680 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Compensation methods for representatives vary significantly by the type of firm and the product sold. Most employers use a combination of salary and commissions or salary plus bonus. Commissions usually are based on the value of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the perfor mance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. Unlike those working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler, sales representatives working for an independent sales company usually are not reimbursed for expenses. Depending on the type of product or products they are selling, their experience in the field, and the number of cli ents they have, they can earn significantly more or less than those working in direct sales for a manufacturer or wholesaler. In addition to receiving their earnings, sales representatives working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler usually are reimbursed for expenses such as the costs of transportation, meals, hotels, and entertaining customers. They often receive benefits, including personal use of a company car and fre quent flyer mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for achieving an outstanding sales performance. Related Occupations Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, must have sales ability and knowledge of the products they sell. Other occupations that require similar skills include the following: Page Advertising sales agents...........................................................527 Insurance sales agents..............................................................534 Purchasing managers, buyers,and purchasing agents............... 79 Real estate brokers and sales agents....................................... 540 Retail salespersons...................................................................543 Sales engineers.........................................................................545 Sales worker supervisors..........................................................551 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents...........................................................................553 Sources of Additional Information Information on careers for manufacturers’ representatives and sales agents is available from: y Manufacturers’Agents National Association, 16 A Journey, Ste. 200, Aliso Viejo, CA 92656-3317. Internet: http ://www.manaonline.org y Manufacturers’ Representatives Educational Research Foundation, 8329 Cole St., Arvada, CO 80005. Internet: http://www.mrerf.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosll9.htm Sales and Related Occupations 551 Sales Worker Supervisors Significant Points • Employment is projected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations. • Competition is expected for jobs; applicants with a college degree or sales experience should have the best opportunities. • Long, irregular hours, including evenings and week ends, are common. Nature of the Work Sales worker supervisors oversee the work of sales and related workers, such as retail salespersons, cashiers, customer service representatives, stock clerks and order fillers, sales engineers, and wholesale sales representatives. Sales worker supervisors are responsible for interviewing, hiring, and training employ ees. They also may prepare work schedules and assign workers to specific duties. Many of these supervisors hold job titles such as sales manager, department manager, or shift supervisor. In retail establishments, sales worker supervisors ensure that customers receive satisfactory service and quality goods. They also answer customers’ inquiries, deal with complaints, and sometimes handle purchasing, budgeting, and accounting. Responsibilities vary with the size and type of establishment. As the size of retail stores grows and the variety of goods and services increases, supervisors tend to specialize in one depart ment or one aspect of merchandising. Sales worker supervisors in large retail establishments are often referred to as department supervisors or managers. They provide day-to-day oversight of individual departments, such as shoes, cosmetics, or house wares in department stores; produce or meat in grocery stores; and car sales in automotive dealerships. Department supervi sors establish and implement policies, goals, and procedures for their specific departments; coordinate activities with other department heads; and strive for smooth operations within their departments. They supervise employees whose responsibilities may include pricing and ticketing goods and placing them on display; cleaning and organizing shelves, displays, and inven tories in stockrooms; and inspecting merchandise to ensure that nothing is outdated. Sales worker supervisors review inventory and sales records, develop merchandising techniques, and coor dinate sales promotions. In addition, they may greet and assist customers and promote sales and good public relations. Sales worker supervisors in non-retail establishments oversee and coordinate the activities of sales workers who sell industrial products, insurance policies, or services such as advertising, fi nancial, or Internet services. Sales worker supervisors may pre pare budgets, make personnel decisions, devise sales-incentive programs, and approve sales contracts. In small or independent companies and retail stores, sales worker supervisors not only directly supervise sales associates, but they also are responsible for the operation of the entire com pany or store. Some are self-employed business or store owners. Work environment. Most sales worker supervisors have of fices. In retail trade, their offices are within the stores, usually https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis close to the areas they oversee. Although they spend some time in the office completing merchandise orders or arranging work schedules, a large portion of their workday is spent on the sales floor, supervising employees or selling merchandise. Work hours of supervisors vary greatly among establish ments because work schedules usually depend on the needs of the customer. Supervisors generally work at least 40 hours a week. Long, irregular hours are common, particularly dur ing sales, holidays, busy shopping seasons, and at times when inventory is recorded. Supervisors are expected to work some evenings and weekends but usually are given a day off during the week. Hours can change weekly, and supervisors sometimes must report to work on short notice, especially when employees are absent. Independent owners often can set their own sched ules, but hours must be convenient to customers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sales worker supervisors usually gain knowledge of manage ment principles and practices through work experience. Many supervisors begin their careers as salespersons, cashiers, or cus tomer service representatives. These workers should be patient, decisive, and sales-oriented. Education and training. There is no standard educational requirement for sales worker supervisors, and the educational backgrounds of these workers vary widely. For some jobs, a college degree is required. Supervisors who have college de grees often hold associate or bachelor’s degrees in liberal arts, social sciences, business, or management. College graduates usually can enter directly into management training programs sponsored by their company, without much experience. Many supervisors, however, are hired without postsecondary educa tion. For these workers, previous experience in a sales occupa tion is essential. Most sales worker supervisors have retail sales experience or experience as a customer service representative. In these positions, they learn merchandising, customer service, and the basic policies and procedures of the company. Regardless of education level or major area of study, recom mended high school or college courses include those related to business, such as accounting, marketing, management, and sales, as well as those related to social science, such as psychol ogy, sociology, and communication. To gain experience, many m* i Sales worker supervisors often have extensive experience in a related sales occupation. 552 Occupational Outlook Handbook college students participate in internship programs that usually are developed jointly by schools and businesses. The type and amount of training available to supervisors var ies by company. Many national retail chains and companies have formal training programs for management trainees that in clude both classroom and on-site training. Training time may be as brief as 1 week or may last more than 1 year, giving trainees experience during all sales seasons. Ordinarily, classroom training includes topics such as inter viewing, customer service skills, inventory management, em ployee relations, and scheduling. Training programs for retail franchises are generally extensive, covering all functions of the company’s operation, including budgeting, marketing, manage ment, finance, purchasing, product preparation, human resource management, and compensation. Other qualifications. Sales worker supervisors must possess good communication skills and get along with all types of peo ple. They need initiative, self-discipline, good judgment, and decisiveness. Patience and a conciliatory temperament are neces sary when dealing with demanding customers. Supervisors also must be able to motivate, organize, and direct the work of their employees. Supervisors who own their own establishment need good business skills and strong customer service and public rela tions skills. Advancement. Supervisors who display leadership and team-building skills, motivation, and decisiveness may become candidates for promotion to assistant manager or manager. A postsecondary degree may speed their advancement into man agement. In many retail establishments, managers are promoted from within the company. In small retail establishments, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a higher management position also may be limited. Large establish ments often have extensive career ladder programs and may of fer supervisors the opportunity to transfer to another store in the chain or to the central office. Although promotions may occur more rapidly in large establishments, some managers may need to relocate every several years to be able to advance. Supervisors also can become advertising, marketing, pro motions, public relations, and sales managers—workers who coordinate marketing plans, monitor sales, and propose adver tisements and promotions. They may also become purchasing managers, buyers, or purchasing agents—workers who pur chase goods and supplies for their organization or for resale. (These occupations are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some supervisors who have worked in their industry for a long time open their own stores or sales firms. However, retail trade and sales occupations are highly competitive, and al though many independent owners succeed, some fail to cover expenses and eventually go out of business. Employment Sales worker supervisors held about 2.2 million jobs in 2008. Approximately 34 percent were self-employed, many of whom were store owners. About 48 percent of sales worker supervisors were wage and salary workers employed in the retail sector. Some of the largest employers were grocery stores, depart ment stores, clothing and clothing accessory stores, and general merchandise stores such as warehouse clubs and supercenters. The remaining sales worker supervisors worked in nonretail establishments. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow more slowly than average. Competition for jobs is expected; applicants with a college de gree or sales experience should have the best opportunities. Employment change. Employment of sales worker su pervisors is expected to grow by 5 percent between 2008 and 2018, more slowly than the average for all occupations. Job growth will be limited as retail companies increase the re sponsibilities of retail salespersons and existing sales worker supervisors, and as the retail industry, overall, grows at a slow rate. Projected employment growth of sales worker supervisors will mirror, in part, the patterns of employment growth in the industries in which they work. For example, faster growth is expected in the professional, scientific, and technical services industry, as a result of strong demand for the services that this industry provides. Conversely, growth of sales worker supervi sors will increase more slowly in the retail sector, in-line with overall industry growth. Job prospects. Similar to other supervisor positions, com petition is expected for sales worker supervisor jobs over the 2008-18 period. Candidates who have a college degree, and those with experience—as a sales representative, cashier, or cus tomer service representative, for example—will have the best opportunities. Some job openings over the next decade will occur as ex perienced supervisors move into higher levels of management, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. However, these job openings will not be great in number since movement into upper management is also competitive. Earnings Wages of sales worker supervisors vary substantially, depend ing on a worker’s level of responsibility, length of service, and the type, size, and location of the firm. Median annual wages of supervisors of retail sales workers were $35,310, including commissions, in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,520 and $46,450. The Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Supervisors, sales workers.................................................................. . First-line supervisors/managers of retail sales workers............... . First-line supervisors/manasers of non-retail sales workers....... . soc Code 41-1000 41-1011 41-1012 Employment, 2008 2,192,300 1,685,500 506,800 Projected Employment, 2018 2,305,100 1,773,900 531,200 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 112,800 5 88,400 5 24,400 5 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sales and Related Occupations 553 lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,210, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $61,970. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of wage and salary supervisors of retail sales workers were as follows: Building material and supplies dealers......................$37,710 Grocery stores.............................................................. 35,140 Clothing stores............................................................. 34,180 Other general merchandise stores................................30,590 Department stores......................................................... 30,480 Median annual wages of supervisors of non-retail sales workers were $68,100, including commissions, in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $51,380 and $98,080. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,830, and the high est 10 percent earned more than $136,180. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of wage and salary supervisors of non-retail sales workers were as follows: Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers........................$82,880 Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers................................................................81,100 Machinery equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers............................................... 68,260 Grocery and related product merchant wholesalers....66,470 Postal Service............................................................... 60,730 Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and by merchandise sold. Many supervisors receive a commission or a combination of salary and commission. Under a commission system, supervisors receive a percentage of department or store sales. Thus, these supervisors’ earnings depend on their ability to sell their product and the condition of the economy. Those who sell large amounts of merchandise or exceed sales goals often receive bonuses or other awards. Related Occupations Sales worker supervisors serve customers, supervise workers, and direct and coordinate the operations of an establishment. Workers with similar responsibilities include: Page Administrative services managers..............................................29 Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers................................................................. 32 Food service managers...............................................................55 Lodging managers...................................................................... 70 Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers........................................................................ 594 Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for sales worker supervisors may be obtained from the employment offices of various retail establishments or from State employment service offices. General information on management careers in retail estab lishments is available from: X National Retail Federation, 325 7th St. NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.nrf.com https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Information about management careers and training pro grams in the motor vehicle dealers industry is available from: V National Automobile Dealers Association, Public Relations Dept., 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. Internet: http://www.nada.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos025.htm Securities, Commodities, and Financial Services Sales Agents Significant Points • Most positions require a bachelor’s degree in busi ness, finance, accounting, or economics; a master’s degree in business or professional certification is helpful for advancement. • Applicants face keen competition for jobs, especially in investment banks. • Turnover is high for newcomers, but those who are successful have a very strong attachment to their oc cupation because of high earnings and considerable investment in training. Nature of the Work Each day, hundreds of billions of dollars change hands on the major United States securities exchanges. This money is used to invest in securities, such as stocks, bonds, or mutual funds, which are bought and sold by large institutional investors, mu tual funds, pension plans, and the general public. Most securi ties trades are arranged through securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents, whether they are between in dividuals with a few hundred dollars or large institutions with hundreds of millions of dollars. The duties of sales agents vary greatly depending on their specialty. The most common type of securities sales agent is called a broker or stock broker. Stock brokers advise everyday people, or retail investors, on appropriate investments based on their needs and financial ability. Once the client and broker agree on the best investment, the broker electronically sends the order to the floor of the securities exchange to complete the transaction. After the transaction is finalized, the broker charges a commis sion for the service. The most important part of a broker’s job is finding clients and building a customer base. Thus, beginning securities and commodities sales agents spend much of their time searching for clients, often relying heavily on telephone solicitation, or “cold calling,” from a list of potential clients. Some agents net work by joining civic organizations or social groups, while oth ers may rely on referrals from satisfied customers. Investment bankers are sales agents who connect businesses that need money to finance their operations or expansion plans 554 Occupational Outlook Handbook People increasingly seek the advice and services of securities, commodities, andfinancial services sales agents to realize their financial goals. with investors who are interested in providing that funding in exchange for debt (in the form of bonds) or equity (in the form of stock). This process is called underwriting, and it is the main function of the investment bank. Investment bankers have to sell twice: first, they sell their advisory services to help companies issue new stock or bonds, and second, they sell the securities issued to investors. Perhaps the most important advisory service provided by investment banks is to help companies new to the public in vestment arena issue stock for the first time. This process, known as an initial public offering, or IPO, can take a great deal of effort because private companies must meet stringent financial requirements to become publicly owned companies. Corporate finance departments also help private companies sell stock to institutional investors or wealthy individuals. They also advise companies that are interested in funding their op erations by taking on debt—often issued in the form of bonds. Unlike a stock, which entitles its holder to partial ownership of a company, a bond entitles its holder to be repaid with a pre determined rate of interest. Another important advisory service is provided by the mergers and acquisitions department. Investment bankers in this area advise companies that are interested in being acquired, or interested in merging with or purchasing other companies. Once a potential seller or buyer is found, bankers advise their client on how to execute the agreement. Generally both buyers and sellers have investment banks working for them to make sure that the transaction goes smoothly. Investment banking sales agents and traders sell stocks and bonds to investors. Instead of selling their services to companies for fees, salespeople and traders sell securities to customers for commissions. These sales agents generally contact customers and their agents to discuss new stock and bond issues. When https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis an investor decides to make a purchase, the order goes to the trading floor. Traders execute buy and sell orders from clients and make trades on behalf of the bank itself. Because markets fluctuate so much, trading is a split-second decision-making process. If a trader cannot secure the promised price on an exchange, millions of dollars could potentially be lost. On the other hand, if a trader finds a better deal, the bank could make millions more. A small but powerful group of sales agents work directly on the floor of a stock or commodities exchange. When a firm or investor wishes to buy or sell a security or commodity, sales agents relay the order through their firm’s computers to the floor of the exchange. There, floor brokers negotiate the price with other floor brokers, make the sale, and forward the purchase price to the sales agents. In addition to floor brokers, who work for individual securities dealers, there are also independent brokers. These are similar to floor brokers, except that they are not buyers for specific firms. Instead, they can buy and sell stocks for their own accounts, or corporate accounts that they manage, or they can sell their services to floor brokers who are too busy to execute all of the trades they are responsible for making. Specialists or market makers also work directly on the exchange floor, and there is generally one for each security or commodity being traded. They facilitate the trading process by quoting prices and by buying or selling shares when there are too many or too few available. Financial services sales agents consult on a wide variety of banking, securities, insurance, and other related services to individuals and businesses, often catering the services to meet the client’s financial needs. They contact potential cus tomers to explain their services which may include checking accounts, loans, certificate of deposits, individual retirement accounts, credit cards, and estate and retirement planning. Work environment. Most securities and commodities sales agents work in offices under somewhat stressful conditions. The pace of work is fast, and managers tend to be very demand ing of their workers since both commissions and advancement are tied to sales. Stock brokers and investment advisors usually work more than 40 hours a week, including evenings and weekends, as many of their clients work during the day. A growing number of securities sales agents, employed mostly by discount or online brokerage firms, work in call-center environments. In these centers, hundreds of agents spend much of the day on the telephone taking orders from clients or offering assistance and information on their accounts. Often, such call centers operate 24 hours a day, requiring agents to work in shifts. Investment bankers in corporate finance or mergers and acquisitions typically work long hours and endure extreme stress, especially at the junior levels. Because banks work with companies all over the world, extensive travel is often part of the job, as is evening and weekend work. With some experience, the workload becomes more manageable, but since higher-level workers generally have more contact with clients, they also tend to travel more. Sales and trading departments typically work more than 40 hours a week, but not nearly as much as their counter parts in investment banking. They also travel less, usually Sales and Related Occupations 555 for conferences or training. On the other hand, their jobs are incredibly stressful. For sales agents, every minute of the day that is wasted means they might have made another sale. Since both commissions and advancement are tied to sales, this can be very stressful. Traders have perhaps the most stressful jobs of all, as split second decisions can lead to millions of dollars being won or lost. Trading floors are very busy and often very loud. Exchange workers, much like traders, have highly stressful jobs because the bulk of their work takes place on the floor of the exchanges. However, exchange traders and workers typically work shorter hours than many other agents since most of their work is done while the market is open. Financial services sales agents normally work 40 hours a week in a comfortable office environment. They may spend considerable time outside the office, meeting with current and prospective clients, and attending civic functions. Some finan cial services sales agents work exclusively inside banks, pro viding service to walk-in customers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most positions require a bachelor’s degree in business, finance, accounting, or economics. An MBA or professional certifica tion is helpful for advancement. Education and training. A bachelor’s degree in business, finance, accounting, or economics is important for securities and commodities sales agents, especially in larger firms. Many firms hire summer interns before their last year of college and those who are most successful are offered full-time jobs after they graduate. Numerous agents eventually get a master’s degree in business administration (MBA), which is often a requirement for highlevel positions in the securities industry. Because the MBA is a professional degree designed to expose students to real-world business practices, it is considered to be a major asset for job seekers. Employers often reward MBA holders with higherlevel positions, better compensation, and even large signing bonuses. Most employers provide intensive on-the-job training, teach ing employees the specifics of the firm, such as the products and services offered. Trainees in large firms may receive classroom instruction in securities analysis, effective speaking, and the finer points of selling. Firms often rotate their trainees among various departments, to give them a broad perspective of the securities business. In small firms, sales agents often receive training at outside institutions and on the job. Securities and commodities sales agents must keep up with new products and services and other developments. Because of this, brokers regularly attend conferences and training seminars. Licensure. Brokers and investment advisors must register as representatives of their firm with the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA). Before beginners can qualify as registered representatives, they must be an employee of a registered firm for at least 4 months and pass the General Securities Registered Representative Examination—known as the Series 7 Exam— administered by FINRA. The exam takes 6 hours and contains 250 multiple-choice questions; a passing score is above 70 percent. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most States require a second examination—the Uniform Se curities Agents State Law Examination (Series 63 or 66). This test measures a candidate’s knowledge of the securities business in general, customer protection requirements, and recordkeeping procedures. Most firms offer training to help their employees pass these exams. There are many other licenses available, each of which gives the holder the right to sell different investment products and services. Traders and some other sales representatives also need licenses, although these vary greatly by firm and specialization. Financial services sales agents may also need to be licensed, especially if they sell securities or insurance. Registered representatives must attend continuing education classes to maintain their licenses. Courses consist of computerbased training in regulatory matters and company training on new products and services. Other qualifications. Many employers consider personal qualities and skills more important than academic training. Employers seek applicants who have excellent interpersonal and communication skills, a strong work ethic, the ability to work in a team environment, and a desire to succeed. The ability to understand and analyze numbers is also important. Because securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents are entrusted with large sums of money and personal information, employers also make sure that applicants have a good credit history and a clean record. Self-confidence and the ability to handle frequent rejection are important ingredients for success. Most firms prefer candidates with sales experience, particu larly those who have worked on commission in areas such as real estate or insurance. Other firms prefer to hire workers right out of college, with the intention of molding them to their cor porate image. Certification and advancement. Although not always re quired, certifications enhance professional standing and are recommended by employers. Brokers, investment advisors, and financial services sales agents can earn the Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA) designation, sponsored by the CFA Institute. To qualify for this designation, applicants need a bachelor’s degree, four years of related work experience, and must pass three exams which requires several hundred hours of self-study. Exams cover subjects in accounting, economics, securities analysis, financial markets and instruments, corpo rate finance, asset valuation, and portfolio management, and applicants can take the exams while they are obtaining the required work experience. Brokers, investment advisors, and financial services sales agents usually advance by accumulating a greater number of accounts. Although beginners often service the accounts of individual investors, they may eventually handle very large in stitutional accounts, such as those of banks and pension funds. After taking a series of tests, some brokers become portfolio managers and have greater authority to make investment deci sions regarding an account. Some experienced sales agents be come branch office managers and supervise other sales agents while continuing to provide services for their own customers. A few agents advance to top management positions or become partners in their firms. 556 Occupational Outlook Handbook Investment bankers who enter the occupation directly after college generally start as analysts. At this level, employees re ceive intensive training and have little contact with clients as they spend most of their time producing “pitchbooks”-information booklets used to sell products. After 2 to 3 years, top analysts may be promoted to an associate position or asked to leave. Recent graduates from MBA programs can start as as sociates, which is similar to the analyst position, but with more responsibilities, such as leading a group of analysts and having contact with clients. After 2 to 3 years, associates are promoted or terminated. Successful associates can become vice presi dents, and vice presidents may advance to become directors, sometimes called executive directors. Employment Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents held about 317,200 jobs in 2008. About 49 percent of jobs were in the securities, commodity contracts, and other financial in vestments and related activities industry. About 15 percent of all workers were self-employed. Because of their close relationship to stock exchanges and large banking operations, most of the major investment banks in the United States are based in New York metropolitan area. Smaller investment banks can be found in many major Amer ican cities and some major investment banks have operations in other cities, although most of their business remains in New York. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow as fast as the average. Keen competition is expected as the number of applicants will con tinue to far exceed the number of job openings in this highpaying occupation. Employment change. Employment of securities, com modities, and financial services sales agents is expected to grow 9 percent during the 2008-18 decade, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Consolidation of the finan cial industry, mainly stemming from recent global finan cial problems, will be the largest inhibitor of employment growth. Increased levels of industry consolidation often re sult in duplicated tasks among workers, a scenario that is expected to result in layoffs of many broker, sales, and in vestment banking positions. Additionally, the deregulation of financial markets in past decades has broken down the barriers between investment activities and banking, result ing in competition between traditional banks and securities companies on all levels. However, many of the major invest ment banks are now owned by large banks and most major banks also have brokerages, which allow their customers to quickly and easily transfer money between their personal banking and investment accounts. The ability of customers to access accounts online, as well as manage their personal investments through the Internet, will result in fewer brokers as well. Job prospects. Competition for jobs will continue to be keen with more applicants than available openings. Addition ally, the recent financial crisis has resulted in mass consolida tion in the financial industry, a scenario that will likely result in fewer positions as companies attempt to streamline operations by eliminating duplicate tasks. Entry-level sales agents, particularly those with previ ous sales experience, should face better prospects in smaller firms, as opposed to larger firms, where many positions have recently been eliminated. Investment banking is especially known for its competitive hiring process and candidates will face particularly keen competition for the relatively few open ings. Having a degree from a prestigious undergraduate in stitution is very helpful, as are excellent grades in finance, economics, accounting, and business courses. Certifications and graduate degrees, such as a CFA certification or a master’s degree in business or finance, can also significantly improve an applicant’s prospects. Competition is even greater for posi tions working in exchanges. Employment in the securities industry is closely connected with market conditions and the state of the overall economy and is highly volatile during recessionary periods. Turnover is high for newcomers, who face difficult prospects no matter when they join the industry. Once established, however, securities and commodities sales agents have a very strong attachment to their profession because of their high earnings and considerable investment in training. Earnings The median annual wage-and-salary wages of securities, com modities, and financial services sales agents were $68,680 in May 2008. The middle half earned between $40,480 and $122,270. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents were: Other financial investment activities..........................$94,960 Security and commodity contracts intermediation and brokerage........................................................... 85,580 Management of companies and enterprises.................81,940 Activities related to credit intermediation....................52,890 Nondepository credit intermediation............................47,760 Because this is a sales occupation, many workers are paid a commission based on the amount of stocks, bonds, mutual funds, insurance, and other products they sell. Most firms pro vide sales agents with a steady income by paying a “draw against commission”—a minimum salary based on commissions they Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents......... ... 41-3031 317,200 346,700 29,600 9 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Occupational Title Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2008 Sales and Related Occupations 557 can be expected to earn. Trainee brokers usually are paid a salary until they develop a client base. The salary gradually decreases in favor of commissions as the broker gains clients. Investment bankers in corporate finance and mergers and ac quisitions are generally paid a base salary with the opportunity to earn a substantial bonus. At the higher levels, bonuses far exceed base salary. This arrangement works similarly to com missions but gives banks greater flexibility to reward members of the team who were more effective. Since investment bank ers in sales and trading departments work alone, they generally work on commissions. Brokers who work for discount brokerage firms that pro mote the use of telephone and online trading services usu ally are paid a salary, sometimes boosted by bonuses that reflect the profitability of the office. Financial services sales agents are also paid a salary, although bonuses or commis sions from sales are starting to account for a larger share of their income. Benefits in the securities industry are generally very good. They commonly include healthcare, retirement, and life insurance. Securities firms may also give discounts to employees on financial services that they sell to customers. Other benefits may include paid lunches with clients, paid din ners for employees who work late, and often extensive travel opportunities. Related Occupations Other jobs requiring knowledge of finance and an ability to sell include: Page Financial analysts......................................................................103 Insurance sales agents..............................................................534 Loan officers.............................................................................109 Personal financial advisors..............................................................118 Real estate brokers and sales agents........................................540 Sources of Additional Information For information on securities industry employment, contact: V American Academy of Financial Management, 245 Glendale Dr., Suite 1, Metairie, LA 70001. Internet: http ://ww w.financialanalyst.org 'y Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association, 120 Broadway, 35th Floor, New York, NY 10271. Internet: http://www.sifma.org For information on licensing, contact: y Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA), 1735 K St. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.finra.org For information on CFA certification, contact: y CFA Institute, P.O. Box 3668, 560 Ray C. Hunt Dr., Charlottesville, VA 22903. Internet: http ://www.cfainstitute.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at Digitizedhttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl22.htm for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Travel Agents Significant Points • Many people are attracted to this occupation because of the travel benefits, such as reduced rates for trans portation and lodging. • Applicants with formal training should have the best opportunities to get a job as a travel agent. • Travel agents who specialize in specific destinations or in certain types of travel or travelers should have the best chance for success. • Job opportunities and earnings may decline during economic downturns and international crises, when travel plans are likely to be deferred. Nature of the Work Travel agents assist travelers by sorting through vast amounts of information to help their clients make the best possible travel arrangements. Travel agents offer advice on destinations and make arrangements for transportation, hotel accommodations, car rentals, and tours for their clients. In addition, resorts and specialty travel groups use travel agents to promote travel pack ages to their clients. Travel agents are expected to be able to advise travelers about their destinations, such as the weather conditions, local ordinances and customs, attractions, and exhibitions. For those traveling internationally, agents also provide information on customs regulations, required documents (passports, visas, and certificates of vaccination), travel advisories, and currency ex change rates. In the event of changes in itinerary in the middle of a trip, travel agents intercede on the traveler’s behalf to make alternate booking arrangements. Travel agents use a variety of published and computer-based sources for information on departure and arrival times, fares, quality of hotel accommodations, and group discounts. They may also visit hotels, resorts, and restaurants themselves to evaluate the comfort, cleanliness, and the quality of specific hotels and restaurants so that they can base recommendations on their own experiences or those of colleagues or clients. Many travel agents specialize in specific destinations or regions; others specialize in travel targeted to particular demographic groups, such as senior citizens. Travel agents who primarily work for tour operators and other travel arrangers may help develop, arrange, and sell the company’s own package tours and travel services. They may promote these services, using telemarketing, direct mail, and the Internet. They make presentations to social and specialinterest groups, arrange advertising displays, and suggest com pany-sponsored trips to business managers. Work environment. Travel agents spend most of their time behind a desk conferring with clients, completing paperwork, contacting airlines and hotels to make travel arrangements, and promoting tours. They also spend a considerable amount of time either on the telephone or on the computer researching travel itineraries or updating reservations and travel documents. 558 Occupational Outlook Handbook Agents sometimes have to face a great deal of pressure during travel emergencies or when they need to reschedule missed res ervations. They are especially busy during peak vacation times, such as summer and holiday travel periods. Many agents, espe cially those who are self-employed, frequently work more than 40 hours per week, although technology now allows a growing number of agents to work from home. keting, and travel industry forms and procedures for ticketing and reservations. A few colleges offer a bachelor’s or master’s degree in travel and tourism that can benefit prospective agents. Backgrounds in geography, foreign languages, or world history can also be use ful for job applicants because they suggest an existing interest in travel and culture, which could help agents develop a rapport with clients. Continuing education is critical for travel agents because the abundance of travel information readily available through the Internet and other sources has resulted in more informed con sumers who expect travel agents to be experts in their field. Other qualifications. Travel agents must be well-organized, accurate, and detail oriented in order to compile information from various sources and to plan and organize travel itineraries. Agents must have excellent communication skills and must be professional and courteous when dealing with travel representa tives and clients. Personal travel experience is an asset because knowledge about a city or foreign country often helps influence a client’s travel plans. Business experience or training is important for self-employed agents who run their own business. In addition, computer skills are necessary and essential, because most travel arrangements are now made using the Internet or electronic res ervation systems. Certification and advancement. Some employees start as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel agencies. With experience and some formal training, they can take on greater responsibilities and eventually assume travel agent duties. In agencies with many offices, travel agents may advance to busier offices or to office manager or other managerial positions. Those who start their own agencies generally have experience in an established agency. These agents must gain formal approval from suppliers or corporations, such as airlines, ship lines, or rail lines, to extend credit on reservations and to ensure payment. The Airlines Reporting Corporation and the International Airlines Travel Agency Network, for example, are the approving bodies for airlines. To gain approval, an agency must be financially sound and employ at least one experienced manager or travel agent. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment Employers prefer to hire travel agents who have formal training in this field. Superb communication and computer skills are es sential for talking with clients and making travel reservations. Education and training. Most travel agencies prefer ap plicants who have received training specific to becoming a travel agent. Many vocational schools offer full-time travel agent programs. Travel agent courses also are offered in public adult education programs, online, and in community colleges. These programs teach students about geography, sales, mar Travel agents held about 105,300 jobs in May 2008 and are found in every part of the country. About 76 percent worked for travel arrangement and reservation services with 60 percent in travel agencies. Another 17 percent were self-employed. COD BliSS; tmm Travel agents help clients plan personal and business trips. Job Outlook Little or no change in employment is expected over the 2008-18 period. Applicants with formal training should have the best opportunities to get a job as a travel agent. Travel agents who Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Travel agents............................................................ ............................. soc Code 41-3041 Employment, 2008 105,300 Projected Employment, 2018 104,100 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent -1,200 -1 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sales and Related Occupations 559 specialize in specific destinations or in certain types of travel or travelers should have the best chance for success. Employment change. Employment of travel agents is expected to decline by 1 percent over the 2008-18 period. The ease of Internet use and the ready availability of travel and airline Web sites that allow people to research and plan their own trips, make their own reservations, and purchase their own tickets will result in less demand for travel agents for routine travel arrangements. However, as more travelers take exotic and customized trips, the demand for some of the specialized services offered by travel agents will grow. Additionally, the increasing number of international visitors to the United States represents a growing market for travel agents who organize and sell tours to these international visitors. Job prospects. Applicants with formal training should have the best opportunities to get a job as a travel agent. Agents who specialize in specific destinations, luxury travel, or particular types of travelers, such as ethnic groups or groups with a special interest or hobby, should have the best chance for success. The demand for travel agents may decline during economic downturns and international crises, when travel plans are likely to be deferred. Thus, job opportunities for travel agents will fluctuate with changing economic and global conditions. Many openings, though, are expected to occur as agents leave for other occupations or retire. Salaried agents usually enjoy standard employer-paid benefits that self-employed agents must provide for themselves. When traveling for personal reasons, agents usually get reduced rates for transportation and accommodations. In addition, agents sometimes take “familiarization” trips, at lower cost or no cost to themselves, to learn about various vacation sites. These ben efits often attract people to this occupation. Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly on commissions and service fees they charge clients for trip plan ning. Often it takes time to acquire clients, so it is not unusual for new self-employed agents to have low earnings. Established agents may have lower earnings during economic downturns. Related Occupations Travel agents organize and schedule business, educational, or recreational travel or activities. Other workers with similar re sponsibilities are found in the following occupations: Page Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks........................................ 592 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks..........................................................................598 Tour guides and escorts............................................................826 Travel guides............................................................................ 826 Sources of Additional Information Earnings Experience, sales ability, and the size and location of the agency determine the salary of a travel agent. Median annual wages of travel agents were $30,570 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,940 and $38,390. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,770, while the top 10 percent earned more than $47,860. Median wages in May 2008 for travel agents employed in the travel arrangement and reservation services industry were $30,470. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For further information on training opportunities, contact: y American Society of Travel Agents, Education Department, 1101 King St., Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http ://www.asta.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh7ocosl24.htm 560 Occupational Outlook Handbook Other Sales and Related Occupations Counter and Rental Clerks Nature of the Work Counter and rental clerks receive orders for repairs, rentals, and services. They discuss available options with the customer, write-up details of the purchase, compute the cost, and accept payment. Education and Training Most counter and rental clerk jobs are entry-level posi tions that require little or no experience and minimal formal education. In most companies, counter and rental clerks are trained on the job by more experienced workers and sometimes through the use of videos and other instruction manuals. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 448,200 2018 Employment...................................................... 461,900 Employment change..................................................... 13,700 Growth rate......................................................................... 3% Employment change. Employment is projected to grow at 3 percent, slower than the average for all occupations. As this occupation usually requires personal contact with the customer, it is difficult to completely automate. Growth in the occupation will reflect growth in the rental business, including apartment rentals, and growth in the purchasing of services, such as dry https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis cleaning and auto repairs, and the desire by companies to pro vide greater customer service. Trends, such as videos provided by mail and online, may reduce the need for some of these clerks at video rental stores. Job prospects. Job opportunities are expected to be favor able. Entry-level jobs typically experience high turnover and generate numerous job openings, leading to favorable job op portunities as workers who leave this occupation will need to be replaced. Earnings Median annual wages for counter and rental clerks were $20,900 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Cashiers.................................................................................... 530 Postal service clerks.................................................................596 Retail salespersons...................................................................543 Tellers....................................................................................... 599 Sources of Additional Information V American Rental Association, 1900 19th St., Moline, IL 61265. Internet: http://www.ararental.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosll7.htm Office and Administrative Support Occupations Financial Clerks Bill and Account Collectors Significant Points • Employment of bill and account collectors is projected to grow by about 19 percent over the 2008-18 decade, which is faster than average for all occupations. • Most jobs in this occupation require only a high school diploma, though many employers prefer workers with some customer service experience. • Job prospects should be favorable, especially for those with related work experience. Nature of the Work Bill and account collectors, often called collectors, attempt to collect payment on overdue bills. Some are employed by thirdparty collection agencies, while others—known as in-house collectors—work directly for the original creditors, such as mortgage and credit card companies, health care providers, and utilities. The duties of bill and account collectors are similar across the many different organizations in which they work. First, col lectors are called upon to locate and notify consumers or busi nesses with delinquent accounts, usually over the telephone, but sometimes by letter. When debtors move without leaving a forwarding address, collectors may check with the post of fice, telephone companies, credit bureaus, or former neighbors to obtain the new address. This is called “skip tracing.” Com puter systems assist in tracing by automatically tracking when individuals or companies change their addresses or contact information on any of their open accounts. Once collectors find debtors, they inform them of the overdue accounts and solicit payment. If necessary, they review terms of sale, or credit contracts. Good collectors use their listen ing skills to attempt to learn the cause of delinquencies. They generally have the authority to offer repayment plans or other assistance to make it easier for debtors to pay their bills. In many cases, they are able to find payment solutions that will allow the debtor to pay off their accounts. They may also offer simple advice or refer customers to debt counselors. If a consumer agrees to pay, the collector records this com mitment and checks later to verify that the payment was made. If a consumer fails to pay, the collector prepares a statement in dicating the consumer’s delinquency for the credit department of the establishment. In more extreme cases, collectors may initiate repossession proceedings, disconnect service, or hand the account over to an attorney for legal action. Most collectors https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis handle other administrative functions for the accounts assigned to them, including recording changes of address and purging the records of the deceased. Because people are very sensitive about their financial prob lems, collectors must be careful to follow applicable Federal and State laws that govern their work. The Federal Trade Com mission requires that a collector positively identify the delin quent account holder before announcing that the purpose of the call is to collect a debt. The collector must then issue a statement—often called a “mini-Miranda”—that lets the cus tomer know that he or she is a collector. Collectors also face many State laws that govern how they must proceed in doing their work. Most companies use electronic systems to help col lectors remember all laws and regulations governing each call. Collectors use computers and a variety of automated systems in their jobs. Companies keep records of their accounts using computers, and collectors can keep track of previous collection attempts and other information in computerized notes. Using this information puts them at an advantage when trying to ne gotiate with consumers. As with most call-center workers, they use headsets instead of regular telephones. Many also use auto matic dialing, which allows collectors to make calls quickly and efficiently, without the chance of dialing incorrectly. Work environment. In-house bill and account collectors typi cally are employed in an office environment, and those who work for third-party collection agencies may work in a call-center envi ronment. Workers spend most of their time on the phone tracking down and contacting people with debts. The work can be stress ful, as many consumers are confrontational when pressed about their debts. Successful collectors must face regular rejection and still be ready to make the next call in a polite and positive voice. Fortunately, some consumers appreciate assistance in resolving their outstanding debts, and can be quite grateful. As in most jobs where workers spend most of their time on the phone, collectors usually have goals they are expected to meet. Typically these include calls per hour and success rate goals. Additionally, because most workers are offered incen tives for collecting, they may rely on a certain level of success to meet their own budgetary needs. Bill and account collectors sometimes must work evenings and weekends. While some collectors work part-time, the majority work 40 hours per week. Flexible work schedules are common. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers require collectors to have at a least a high school diploma and prefer applicants with postsecondary edu cation or customer service experience. Employers provide onthe-job training to new employees. 561 562 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Education and training. Most bill and account collectors are required to have at least a high school diploma. However, employers prefer workers who have completed some college or who have experience in other occupations that involve contact with the public. Previous experience working in a call center is especially helpful. Once hired, workers receive on-the-job training. New em ployees learn company procedures under the guidance of a supervisor or other senior worker. Some formal classroom train ing may also be necessary, such as training in specific computer software. Additional training topics usually include telephone techniques and negotiation skills. Workers also learn the laws governing the collection of debt as mandated by the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act and various State laws. Other qualifications. Workers should have good communi cation and people skills because they need to speak to consumers daily, some of whom may be in stressful financial situations. They should be comfortable talking on the telephone with people they have never met. They must be mature and able to handle rejection. Computer literacy and experience with advanced tele communications equipment is also useful. Advancement. As collectors gain experience, their success rates generally go up, leading them to earn more money in com missions. Successful collectors are usually given larger accounts with higher earning opportunities. Some become team leaders or supervisors. Workers who acquire additional skills, experi ence, and training improve their advancement opportunities. Employment of bill and account collectors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Job prospects are expected to be favorable, especially for those with related work experience. Employment change. Employment of bill and account col lectors is projected to grow by about 19 percent over the 2008 18 decade, which is faster than average for all occupations. New jobs should be created in key industries such as health care and financial services, which often have delinquent accounts. In house bill collectors will take on some of these collections, while others will be sold to third-party collection agencies. In both cases, bill and account collectors will be responsible for recovering these debts, causing the occupation to grow. Job growth will be tempered somewhat by continued out sourcing of collections work to offshore call centers. In recent years, many companies have chosen to use these call centers for some of their debt recovery efforts. Nevertheless, creditors will continue to hire collectors in the United States, as domestic workers tend to have greater success in negotiating with clients. The occupation should see large growth in the health care industry. The rapid growth projected in this industry, in combi nation with increasing prices, should result in many collections opportunities. This will affect both collectors who work in the health care industry itself and those who work for collections agencies that accept accounts from health care providers. Job prospects. Opportunities for job seekers who are look ing for bill and account collector jobs should be favorable due to continued job growth and the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Those who have experience in a related occupation should have the best prospects. Companies prefer to hire workers who have worked in a call center before, or in another job that requires regular phone-based negotiations. Unlike most occupations, the number of collections jobs tends to remain stable and even grow during economic down turns. When the economy suffers, individuals and businesses struggle to meet their financial obligations. While this increases the number of debts that must be collected, it also means that fewer people are able to pay their outstanding debt. Companies decide how many collectors to hire based on expected success rates. As a result, the number of collectors does not necessarily increase proportionally to the number of delinquent accounts. Nevertheless, the number of collections jobs tends to remain stable during downturns, although prospective employees may face increased competition for these jobs. Employment Earnings Bill and account collectors held about 411,000jobs in 2008. About one quarter of collectors worked in business support services. Another 19 percent worked in finance and insurance, and 18 per cent worked for health care and social assistance providers. Median hourly wages of bill and account collectors were $ 14.73 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.14 and $18.12. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.17, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.07. Most bill and Bill and account collectors must have good communication and people skills as their work requires daily interactions with customers. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Bill and account collectors...................................... ............................. 43-3011 411,000 490,500 79,500 19 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2008 Office and Administrative Support Occupations 563 account collectors earn commissions based on the amount of debt they recover. Related Occupations Bill and account collectors review and collect information on accounts. Other occupations with similar responsibilities include: Page Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks.................................. 589 Interviewers, except eligibility and loan................................. 593 Loan officers.............................................................................109 Collectors spend most of their time on the telephone, speak ing with customers. Other jobs that require regular telephone interaction include: Customer service representatives........................................... 567 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing............. 547 Sources of Additional Information Career information on bill and account collectors is available from: y AC A International, The Association of Credit and Collection Professionals, P.O. Box 390106, Minneapolis, MN 55439. Internet: http://www.acainternational.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl43.htm Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks Significant Points • Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks held about 2.1 million jobs in 2008 and are employed in nearly every industry. • A high school degree is the minimum requirement; however, postsecondary education is increasingly important, and an associate degree in business or ac counting is required for some positions. In small businesses, bookkeepers and bookkeeping clerks often have responsibility for some or all the accounts, known as the general ledger. They record all transactions and post debits (costs) and credits (income). They also produce financial statements and prepare reports and summaries for supervisors and managers. Bookkeepers prepare bank deposits by compil ing data from cashiers, verifying and balancing receipts, and sending cash, checks, or other forms of payment to the bank. Additionally, they may handle payroll, make purchases, prepare invoices, and keep track of overdue accounts. In large companies, accounting clerks have more specialized tasks. Their titles, such as accounts payable clerk or accounts receivable clerk, often reflect the type of accounting they do. In addition, their responsibilities vary by level of experience. Entry-level accounting clerks post details of transactions, total accounts, and compute interest charges. They also may moni tor loans and accounts to ensure that payments are up to date. More advanced accounting clerks may total, balance, and rec oncile billing vouchers; ensure the completeness and accuracy of data on accounts; and code documents according to company procedures. Auditing clerks verify records of transactions posted by other workers. They check figures, postings, and documents to en sure that they are mathematically accurate, and properly coded. They also correct or note errors for accountants or other work ers to fix. As organizations continue to computerize their financial re cords, many bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks use specialized accounting software, spreadsheets, and databases. Most clerks now enter information from receipts or bills into computers, and the information is then stored electronically. The widespread use of computers also has enabled bookkeep ing, accounting, and auditing clerks to take on additional re sponsibilities, such as payroll, procurement, and billing. Many of these functions require these clerks to write letters and make phone calls to customers or clients. Work environment. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks work in an office environment. They may experience eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion • The large size of this occupation ensures plentiful job openings, including many opportunities for tempo rary and part-time work. Nature of the Work Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are financial recordkeepers. They update and maintain accounting records, in cluding those which calculate expenditures, receipts, accounts payable and receivable, and profit and loss. These workers have a wide range of skills from full-charge bookkeepers, who can maintain an entire company’s books, to accounting clerks who handle specific tasks. All these clerks make numerous compu tations each day and must be comfortable using computers to and record data. Digitizedcalculate for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks handle financial records for many small businesses. 564 Occupational Outlook Handbook injuries from using computers on a daily basis. Clerks may have to sit for extended periods while reviewing detailed data. Many bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks work regular business hours and a standard 40-hour week, although some may work occasional evenings and weekends. About 1 out of 4 clerks worked part time in 2008. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks may work longer hours to meet deadlines at the end of the fiscal year, during tax time, or when monthly or yearly accounting audits are performed. Additionally, those who work in hotels, restaurants, and stores may put in overtime during peak holiday and vacation seasons. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually require bookkeeping, accounting, and au diting clerks to have at least a high school diploma and some accounting coursework or relevant work experience. Clerks should also have good communication skills, be detail oriented, and trustworthy. Education and training. Most bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are required to have a high school degree at a minimum. However, having some postsecondary education is increasingly important and an associate degree in business or accounting is required for some positions. Although a bach elor’s degree is rarely required, graduates may accept book keeping, accounting, and auditing clerk positions to get into a particular company or to enter the accounting or finance field with the hope of eventually being promoted. Once hired, bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or another experienced employee, new clerks learn company procedures. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specialized computer software. Other qualifications. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks must be careful, orderly, and detail-oriented to avoid mak ing errors and to recognize errors made by others. These workers also should be discreet and trustworthy, because they frequently come in contact with confidential material. They should also have good communication skills, because they increasingly work with customers. In addition, all bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks should have a strong aptitude for numbers. Experience in a related job and working in an office environ ment is recommended. Workers must be able to use computers, and knowledge of specialized bookkeeping or accounting soft ware is especially valuable. Certification and advancement. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks, particularly those who handle all the record keeping for a company, may find it beneficial to become certified. The Certified Bookkeeper (CB) designation, awarded by the American Institute of Professional Bookkeepers, demonstrates that individuals have the skills and knowledge needed to carry out all bookkeeping functions, including overseeing payroll and balancing accounts, according to accepted accounting procedures. For cer tification, candidates must have at least 2 years of bookkeeping experience, pass a four-part examination, and adhere to a code of ethics. Several colleges and universities offer a preparatory course for certification; some offer courses online. Additionally, certified bookkeepers are required to meet a continuing education require ment every 3 years to maintain certification. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks usually ad vance by taking on more duties for higher pay or by transferring to a closely related occupation. Most companies fill office and administrative support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting individuals from within their organizations, so clerks who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities. With appropriate experience and education, some bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks may become accountants or auditors. Employment Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks held about 2.1 mil lion jobs in 2008. They work in nearly all industries and at all levels of government. State and local government, educational services, health care, and the accounting, tax preparation, book keeping, and payroll services industries are among the individual industries employing the largest numbers of these clerks. Job Outlook Job growth is projected to be about as fast as the average. The large size of this occupation ensures plentiful job opportuni ties, as many bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are expected to retire or transfer to other occupations. Employment change. Employment of bookkeeping, ac counting, and auditing clerks is projected to grow by 10 percent during the 2008-18 decade, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. This occupation is one of the largest growth occupations in the economy, with about 212,400 new jobs ex pected over the projections decade. A growing economy will result in more financial transactions and other activities that require recordkeeping by these work ers. Additionally, an increased emphasis on accuracy, account ability, and transparency in the reporting of financial data for public companies will increase the demand for these workers. Also, new regulations and reporting methods, including the use of International Financial Reporting Standards, should result in additional demand for clerks involved in accounting and auditing. However, growth will be limited by improvements in accounting software and document-scanning technology that make it easier to record, track, audit, and file financial infor mation, including transactions and reports. Moreover, compa nies will continue to outsource their bookkeeping, accounting, and, in some cases, auditing functions to third party contractors located both domestically and abroad. Job prospects. While many job openings are expected to result from job growth, even more openings will stem from Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.................... .............. SOC Code 43-3031 Employment, 2008 2,063,800 Projected Employment, 2018 2,276,200 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent 212,400 10 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Office and Administrative Support Occupations 565 the need to replace existing workers who leave. Each year, nu merous jobs will become available, as clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The large size of this occupation ensures plentiful job openings, including many op portunities for temporary and part-time work. Clerks who can carry out a wider range of bookkeeping and accounting activities will be in greater demand than specialized clerks. For example, demand for full-charge bookkeepers is ex pected to increase, because they can perform a wider variety of financial transactions, including payroll and billing. Certified Bookkeepers (CBs) and those with several years of accounting or bookkeeping experience who have demonstrated that they can handle a range of tasks will have the best job prospects. Earnings In May 2008, the median annual wages of bookkeeping, account ing, and auditing clerks were $32,510. The middle half of the occupation earned between $26,350 and $40,130. The top 10 per cent of bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks earned more than $49,260, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $20,950. Related Occupations Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks work with finan cial records. Other workers who perform similar duties include: Page Accountants and auditors........................................................... 86 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators.................. 587 Brokerage clerks...................................................................... 588 Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks.................................. 589 Payroll and timekeeping clerks................................................595 Procurement clerks................................................................... 597 Sources of Additional Information For information on the Certified Bookkeeper designation, contact: V American Institute of Professional Bookkeepers, 6001 Montrose Rd., Suite 500, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.aipb.org “cage” where these workers can be found is the central deposi tory for money, gaming chips, and paperwork necessary to sup port casino play. Gaming cage workers and gaming change persons and booth cashiers carry out a wide range of financial transactions and handle any paperwork that may be required. Gaming cage work ers, known as cage cashiers, exchange patrons’ chips, tickets, and tokens for cash. Gaming change persons and booth cashiers work in booths and process credit card cash advances and wire transfers and cash checks for patrons. Both cage workers and booth cashiers may sell gambling chips, tokens, or tickets to patrons or to other workers for resale to patrons. Additionally, some cage workers may perform credit checks and verify credit references for people who want to open a house credit account. They may use cash registers, adding machines, or computers to calculate and record transactions. At the end of their shift, cage workers and booth cashiers must balance the books. Because gaming establishments are closely scrutinized, cage workers and booth cashiers must follow a number of rales and regulations related to their handling of money. For example, they monitor large cash transactions and report these transactions to the Internal Revenue Service to help enforce tax regulations and pre vent money laundering. Also, in determining when to extend credit or cash a check, cage workers must follow detailed procedures. Work environment. The atmosphere in casinos is often considered glamorous. However, casino work also can be phys ically demanding. The occupation requires workers to stand for long periods, with constant reaching and grabbing for money, chips, and tickets. Sometimes cage workers and booth cashiers may be expected to lift and carry relatively heavy items. The casino atmosphere exposes workers to certain hazards, such as cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoke. Noise from slot machines, gaming tables, and talking workers and patrons may be dis tracting to some, although workers wear protective headgear in areas where loud machinery is used to count money. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) provides in formation on a wide range of occupational characteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the Internet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl44.htm Gaming Cage Workers Significant Points • Most employers prefer applicants who have at least a high school diploma and experience in handling money or previous casino employment. • Workers need a license, which requires a background investigation. • Employment is projected to decline rapidly. • Jobseekers are expected to face competition. Nature of the Work Gaming cage workers and gaming change persons and booth cashiers work in casinos and other gaming establishments. The https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Gaming cage workers exchange tickets and chips for money. 566 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most casinos are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and of fer three staggered shifts. Casinos typically require cage work ers to work nights, weekends, and holidays. legalized gambling, and gaming establishments can now be found in many parts of the country. Job Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no mandatory education requirements, gam ing cage workers and gaming change persons and booth cashiers typically receive on-the-job training and are licensed by a regula tory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission. Education and training. There usually are no minimum educational requirements, although most employers prefer at least a high school diploma or the equivalent. Once hired gaming cage workers and gaming change persons and booth cashiers usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or other senior worker, new em ployees learn company procedures. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specific gam ing regulations and procedures. Licensure. All gaming workers are required to have a license issued by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission. Applicants for a license must provide photo iden tification and pay a fee. Some States may require gaming cage workers to be residents of that State. Age requirements vary by State. The licensing application process also includes a back ground investigation and drug test. Other qualifications. Experience in handling money or pre vious casino employment is preferred. Prospective workers are sometimes required to pass a basic math test, and they must be careful, orderly, and detail oriented in order to avoid making errors and to recognize errors made by others. These workers also should be discreet and trustworthy because they frequently come in contact with confidential material such as a patron’s credit in formation. Good customer service skills and computer proficiency also are necessary for this occupation. Each casino establishes its own requirements for education, training, and experience. Advancement. Advancement opportunities in casino gam ing depend less on workers’ previous casino duties and titles than on their ability and eagerness to learn new jobs. For ex ample, in addition to advancement opportunities available in the cage, such as promotion to head cage cashier or supervisor, cage workers and booth cashiers may advance onto the floor and become dealers or supervisors. Employment Gaming cage workers held about 16,900 jobs, and gaming change persons and booth cashiers held about 22,300 jobs, in 2008. All of these individuals work in establishments that offer gaming; employment is concentrated in Nevada, California, Washington, and Mississippi. However, numerous States have Employment of gaming cage workers and gaming change per sons and booth cashiers is projected to decline rapidly through 2018. Jobseekers are expected to face competition because the number of applicants is likely to exceed the number of openings. Employment change. Employment of gaming cage work ers and gaming change persons and booth cashiers is expected to decrease rapidly by about 10 percent between 2008 and 2018. Gaming cage workers and gaming change persons and booth cashiers will experience employment declines as casi nos increasingly automate transactions, reducing the amount of cash handled by employees. For example, self-serve cash out and change machines are common, along with automated teller machines. In addition, most slot machines are now able to make payouts in tickets instead of coins. Tickets can be read by other slot machines and the amount on the ticket trans ferred to the new machine, or tickets can be read by self-serve machines that allow players to cash out without ever going to the cage. Known as ticket-in, ticket-out game play, these technologies reduce the number of cash transactions needed to play and speed up the exchange process, which means that fewer workers are needed to handle the cage than in the past. In addition, such machines have eliminated the need to have booths and change persons on the slots floor at many casinos. However, many gaming cage workers and gaming change persons and booth cashiers likely will be given opportunities by their employers to transfer to other occupations related to customer service. Job prospects. Some openings will result from high turn over in these occupations caused by the high level of scrutiny workers receive and the need to be accurate. However, jobseek ers are expected to face competition because the number of ap plicants is likely to exceed the number of openings. People with good mathematics abilities, previous casino experience, some background in accounting or bookkeeping, and good customer service skills should have the best opportunities. Earnings Wages for gaming cage workers and gaming change persons and booth cashiers vary according to level of experience, training, location, and size of the gaming establishment. Median hourly wages of gaming cage workers were $11.97 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.09 and $14.66 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.66, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.35 an hour. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Gaming cage workers............................................................. 39,200 35,100 -4,100 -10 Gaming change persons and booth cashiers................... .............. 41-2012 22,300 20,000 -2,300 -10 Gaming cage workers......................................................... .............. 43-3041 16,900 15,100 -1,800 -10 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2008 Office and Administrative Support Occupations 567 Median hourly wages of gaming change persons and booth cashiers were $10.57 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.60 and $13.11 an hour. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $7.48, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.41 an hour. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for gaming cage workers and gaming change persons and booth cashiers is avail able from local offices of the State employment service. Related Occupations Information on careers in gaming also is available from: V American Gaming Association, 1299 Pennsylvania Other workers who provide hospitality and customer service while handling financial transactions include: Ave. NW., Suite 1175, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: Page Cashiers.................................................................................... 530 Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks.................................. 589 Gaming services occupations...................................................520 Retail salespersons................................................................... 543 Sales worker supervisors....... ................................................. 551 Tellers....................................... 599 http ://www.americangaming.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos338.htm Information and Record Clerks Customer Service Representatives Significant Points • Customer service representatives held about 2.3 million jobs in 2008, ranking among the largest occupations. • Most companies require a high school diploma and will provide job training. • Employment is projected to grow faster than average, and job prospects should be good. Nature of the Work Customer service representatives provide a valuable link between customers and the companies who produce the products they buy and the services they use. They are responsible for responding to customer inquiries and making sure that any problems they are experiencing are resolved. Although most customer service representatives do their work by telephone in call centers, some interact with customers by e-mail, fax, post, or face-to-face. Many customer service inquiries involve simple questions or re quests. For instance, a customer may want to know the status of an order or wish to change his or her address in the company’s file. However, some questions may be somewhat more difficult, and may require additional research or help from an expert. In some cases, a representative’s main function may be to determine who in the organization is best suited to answer a customer’s questions. Some customer inquiries are complaints, which generally must be handled in accordance with strict company policies. In some cases, representatives may try to fix problems or suggest solutions. They may have the authority to reverse erroneous fees or send replace ment products. Other representatives act as gatekeepers who make sure that complaints are valid before accepting customer returns. Although selling products and services is not the primary func tion of a customer service representative, some customer services representatives may provide information that helps customers to purchasing decisions. For instance, a representative may Digitized make for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis point out a product or service that would fulfill a customer’s needs. (For information on workers whose primary function is sales, see the statement on retail salespersons elsewhere in the Handbook). Customer service representatives use computers, telephones, and other technology extensively in their work. When the cus tomer has an account with the company, a representative will usually open his or her file in the company’s computer system. Representatives use this information to solve problems and may be able to make specific changes as necessary. They also have access to responses for the most commonly asked questions and specific guidelines for dealing with requests or complaints. In the event that the representative does not know the answer or is unable to solve a specific problem, a supervisor or other experi enced worker may provide assistance. Many customer service workers are located in call centers, where they spend the entire day speaking on the telephone. Companies usually keep statistics on their workers to make sure they are working efficiently. This helps them to keep up with their call volume and ensures that customers do not have to wait on hold for extended periods of time. Supervisors may listen in on or tape calls to ensure customers are getting quality service. Almost every industry employs customer service representa tives, and their duties may vary greatly depending on the nature of the organization. For instance, representatives who work in banks may have similar duties to tellers, whereas those in insurance com panies may be required to handle paperwork, such as changes to policies or renewals. Those who work for utility and communica tion companies may assist customers with service problems, such as outages. Representatives who work in retail stores often handle returns and help customers to find items in their stores. Work environment. Although customer service representa tives work in a variety of settings, most work in areas that are clean and well lit. Those who work in call centers generally have their own workstations or cubicle spaces equipped with telephones, headsets, and computers. Because many call centers are open ex tended hours or are staffed around the clock, these positions may require workers to take on early morning, evening, or late night 568 Occupational Outlook Handbook shifts. Weekend or holiday work is also common. Because peak times may not last for a full shift, many workers are part-time or work a split shift. As a result, the occupation is well suited to flex ible work schedules. Many companies hire additional employees at certain times of year when higher call volumes are expected. Call centers may be crowded and noisy, and work may be repeti tious and stressful, with little time between calls. Also, long pe riods spent sitting, typing, or looking at a computer screen may cause eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries. A growing number of employers are hiring tele commuters, who provide customer service from their own homes. Although this remains somewhat rare, it can be a major advantage for workers who need to remain in their homes during the day. Customer service representatives working in retail stores may have customers approach them in person or contact them by tele phone. They may be required to work later in the evenings or on weekends, as stores are generally open during those times. Eve nings and weekends tend to be peak hours for customer traffic. Customer service representatives may have to deal with difficult or irate customers, which can be challenging. However, the ability to resolve customers’ problems has the potential to be very rewarding. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most j obs require at least a high school diploma. Employers pro vide training to workers before they begin serving customers. Education and training. Most customer service represen tative jobs require a high school diploma. However, because employers are demanding a more skilled workforce, some cus tomer service jobs now require associate or bachelor’s degrees. High school and college level courses in computers, English, or business are helpful in preparing for a job in customer service. Training requirements vary by industry. Almost all customer ser vice representatives are provided with some training prior to begin ning work. This training generally focuses on the company and its products, the most commonly asked questions, the computer and telephone systems they will be using, and basic people skills. Length of training varies, but often lasts several weeks. Some customer ser vice representatives are expected to update their training regularly. This is particularly true of workers in industries such as banking, in which regulations and products are continually changing. Other qualifications. Because customer service represen tatives constantly interact with the public, good communication and problem-solving skills are essential. Verbal communication and listening skills are especially important. Companies pre fer to hire individuals who have a pleasant speaking voice and are easy to understand. For workers who communicate through e-mail, good typing, spelling, and grammar skills are necessary. Basic to intermediate computer knowledge and good interper sonal skills are also important. Customer service representatives play a critical role in providing an interface between customers and companies. As a result, em ployers seek out people who are ffiendly and possess a professional manner. The ability to deal patiently with problems and complaints and to remain courteous when faced with difficult or angry people is critical. Also, a customer service representative often must be able work independently within specified time constraints. Digitized forto FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Good communication and problem-solving skills are essential for customer service representatives. Advancement. Customer service jobs are often good intro ductory positions into a company or an industry. In some cases, experienced workers can move into supervisory or managerial positions or they may move into areas such as product develop ment, in which they can use their knowledge to improve prod ucts and services. Some people work in call centers with the hope of transferring to a position in another department. Employment Customer service representatives held about 2.3 million jobs in 2008, ranking among the largest occupations. They can be found in almost every industry, although about 23 percent worked in the finance and insurance industry. Another 15 percent worked in the administrative and support services industry, which in cludes third party telephone call centers. Job Outlook Customer service representatives are expected to experience faster than average growth. Furthermore, job prospects should be good as many workers who leave this very large occupation will need to be replaced. Employment change. Employment of customer service representatives is expected to grow by about 18 percent over the 2008-18 period, faster than the average for all occupations. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 569 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Employment, Code 2008 Projected Employment, Change, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent 43-4051 2,252,400 2,651,900 399,500 18 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Customer service representatives..................................................... Information Included in the Handbook. Providing quality customer service is important to nearly every company in the economy; in addition, companies are expected to place increasing emphasis on customer relationships, result ing in increased demand for customer service representa tives. This very large occupation is projected to provide about 400,000 new jobs over the next decade. Customer service representatives are especially prevalent in the finance and insurance industry, as many customer interac tions do not require physical contact. Employment of customer service representatives in this industry is expected to increase 9 percent over the 2008-18 period. Although technology has tempered growth of this occupa tion to some degree, it has also created many opportunities for growth. For instance, online banking has reduced the need for telephone banking services. At the same time, however, it has increased the need for customer service representatives who assist users with banking Web sites. Additionally, online ser vices create many new opportunities for customer support rep resentatives as companies that operate on the Internet provide customer service by telephone. In the past, many companies chose to relocate their customer service call centers in foreign countries, which led to layoffs in some industries. Although many companies continue to off shore some of their customer service jobs, this is becoming less prevalent than in the past. While it continues to be less expen sive to hire workers overseas, many companies have found that foreign workers do not have the same cultural sensitivity as those located within the United States. Job prospects. Prospects for obtaining a job in this field are expected to be good, with more job openings than jobseekers. In particular, bilingual jobseekers should enjoy excellent op portunities. Rapid job growth, coupled with a large number of workers who leave the occupation each year, should make find ing a job as a customer service representative relatively easy. While jobs in some industries may be affected by economic downturns, customer service representatives are not as vul nerable to layoffs as some other workers. This is, in part, be cause many customer service representatives work in industries where customers have accounts. While customers may have less money to spend, and as a result may choose to purchase fewer goods or services, they continue to have customer ser vice needs. For instance, during an economic downturn, indi viduals may have less money in their bank accounts, but they continue to need banking services and customer service from their banks. Nevertheless, companies do attempt to cut costs during such times, so downsizing is still a possibility. Earnings In May 2008, median hourly wages of customer service repre were $14.36. The middle 50 percent earned between Digitized sentatives for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $11.34 and $18.27. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.15, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.24. Earnings for customer service representatives vary according to level of skill required, experience, training, location, and size of firm. Median hourly wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of these workers in May 2008 were: Insurance carriers......................................................... $15.74 Agencies, brokerages, and other insurance related activities...........................................................15.28 Depository credit intermediation.................................... 14.56 Employment services..................................................... 12.73 Business support services............................................... 11.56 In addition to receiving an hourly wage, full-time customer service representatives who work evenings, nights, weekends, or holidays may receive shift differential pay. Also, because call centers are often open during extended hours, or even 24 hours a day, some customer service representatives have the benefit of being able to work a schedule that does not conform to the traditional workweek. Other benefits can include life and health insurance, pensions, bonuses, employer-provided training, and discounts on the products and services the company offers. Related Occupations Customer service representatives interact with customers to provide information in response to inquiries about products and services and to handle and resolve complaints. Other occupa tions in which workers have similar dealings with customers and the public include: Page Bill and account collectors.......................................................561 Computer support specialists...................................................138 Insurance sales agents..............................................................534 Retail salespersons...................................................................543 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents...........................................................................553 Tellers....................................................................................... 599 Sources of Additional Information For more information on customer service positions, contact your State employment office or: y International Customer Service Association. 24 Wernik PI., Metuchen, NJ 08840. Internet: http://www.icsatoday.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos280.htm 570 Occupational Outlook Handbook Receptionists and Information Clerks Significant Points • Good interpersonal skills are critical. • A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. • A large number of job openings are expected. • Opportunities should be best for persons with a wide range of clerical and technical skills, particularly those with related work experience. Nature of the Work Receptionists and information clerks are charged with a re sponsibility that may affect the success of an organization: making a good first impression. Receptionists and information clerks answer telephones, route and screen calls, greet visi tors, respond to inquiries from the public, and provide infor mation about the organization. Some are responsible for the coordination of all mail into and out of the office. In addition, they contribute to the security of an organization by helping to monitor the access of visitors—a function that has become increasingly important. Whereas some tasks are common to most receptionists and information clerks, their specific responsibilities vary with the type of establishment in which they work. For ex ample, receptionists and information clerks in hospitals and in doctors’ offices may gather patients’ personal and insurance information and direct them to the proper waiting rooms. In corporate headquarters, they may greet visitors and manage the scheduling of the board room or common conference area. In beauty or hair salons, they arrange appointments, direct customers to the hairstylist, and may serve as cashiers. In fac tories, large corporations, and government offices, reception ists and information clerks may provide identification cards and arrange for escorts to take visitors to the proper office. Those working for bus and train companies respond to inqui ries about departures, arrivals, stops, and other related matters. Receptionists and information clerks use the telephone, personal computers, and other electronic devices to send e mail and fax documents, for example. Despite the widespread use of automated answering systems or voice mail, many re ceptionists and clerks still take messages and inform other employees of visitors’ arrivals or cancellation of an appoint ment. When they are not busy with callers, most workers are expected to assist other administrative employees by perform ing a variety of office duties, including opening and sorting mail, collecting and distributing parcels, transmitting and delivering facsimiles, and performing Internet search tasks. Other duties include updating appointment calendars, prepar ing travel vouchers, and performing basic bookkeeping, word processing, and filing. Companies sometimes hire off-site receptionists and in formation clerks called, virtual receptionists, to perform, or supplement, many of the duties done by the traditional recep tionist. Virtual receptionists use software integrated into their phone system to instantly track their employer’s location, in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis form them of every call, and relay vital information to their callers. Using fax mailbox services, employers can retrieve faxes from any location at any time. The service receives them for the employer in special mailboxes and then transfers them when the line is free. Work environment. Receptionists and information clerks who greet customers and visitors usually work in areas that are highly visible and designed and furnished to make a good impression. Most work stations are clean, well lighted, and relatively quiet. Virtual receptionists work from home or at an off-site office building. The work performed by some recep tionists and information clerks may be tiring, repetitious, and stressful as they may spend all day answering continuously ringing telephones and sometimes encounter difficult or irate callers. The work environment, however, may be very friendly and motivating for individuals who enjoy greeting customers face to face and making them feel comfortable. About 30 per cent of receptionists and information clerks worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement, although hiring requirements for receptionists and information clerks vary by industry and employer. Good interpersonal skills and being technologically proficient also are important to employers. Education and training. Receptionists and information clerks generally need a high school diploma or equivalent as most of their training is received on the job. However, employers often look for applicants who already possess cer tain skills, such as knowledge of spreadsheet and word pro cessing software or answering telephones. Some employers also may prefer some formal office education or training. On the job, they learn how to operate the telephone system and computers. They also learn the proper procedures for greeting visitors and for distributing mail, fax messages, and parcels. While many of these skills can be learned quickly, those who are charged with relaying information to visitors or customers may need several months to learn details about the organiza tion. EBBfettH Receptionists and information clerks answer telephones, route and screen calls, greet visitors, respond to inquiries from the public, and provide information about the organization. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 571 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Receptionists and information clerks............................ ..................... 43-4171 1,139,200 1,312,100 172,900 15 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title SOC Code Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. Other qualifications. Good interpersonal and customer service skills—being courteous, professional, and helpful— are critical for this job. Being an active listener often is a key quality needed by receptionists and information clerks that requires the ability to listen patiently to the points being made, to wait to speak until others have finished, and to ask appropriate questions when necessary. In addition, the ability to relay information accurately to others is important. The ability to operate a wide range of office technology also is helpful, as receptionists and information clerks are often asked to work on other assignments during the day. Advancement. Advancement for receptionists generally comes about either by transferring to an occupation with more responsibility or by being promoted to a supervisory position. Receptionists with especially strong computer skills, a bache lor’s degree, and several years of experience may advance to a better paying job as a secretary or an administrative assistant. Employment Receptionists and information clerks held about 1.1 million jobs in 2008. The healthcare and social assistance industries— including offices of physicians, hospitals, nursing homes, and outpatient care facilities—employed about 36 percent of all receptionists and information clerks. Wholesale and retail trade, personal services, educational services, finance and in surance, employment services, religious organizations, and real estate industries also employed large numbers of recep tionists and information clerks. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Job growth, coupled with the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force, will generate a large number of job openings for re ceptionists and information clerks. Employment change. Employment of receptionists and information clerks is expected to increase by 15 percent from 2008 to 2018, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Employment growth will result from growth in industries such as offices of physicians and in other health practitioners, legal services, personal care services, con struction, and management and technical consulting. Technology will have conflicting effects on employment growth for receptionists and information clerks. The increas ing use of voice mail and other telephone automation re duces the need for receptionists by allowing one receptionist to perform work that formerly required several. At the same time, however, the increasing use of other technology has caused a consolidation of clerical responsibilities and grow ing demand for workers with diverse clerical and technical https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis skills, such as virtual receptionists. Because receptionists and information clerks may perform a wide variety of cleri cal tasks, they should continue to be in demand. Further, they perform many tasks that are interpersonal in nature and are not easily automated, ensuring continued demand for their services in a variety of establishments. Job prospects. In addition to job growth, numerous job opportunities will be created as receptionists and information clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force al together. Opportunities should be best for persons with a wide range of clerical and technical skills, particularly those with related work experience. Earnings Median hourly wages of receptionists and information clerks in May 2008 were $11.80. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.69 and $14.44. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.09, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.07. Median hourly wages in the industries employing the largest number of receptionists and information clerks in May 2008 were: Offices of dentists......................................................... $13.78 Offices of physicians...................................................... 12.20 Employment services..................................................... 11.63 Offices of other health practitioners...............................11.45 Personal care services......................................................9.35 Related Occupations Receptionists deal with the public and often direct people to others who can assist them. Other workers who perform similar duties include: Page Customer service representatives............................................ 567 Dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance..................... 590 Secretaries and administrative assistants................................ 583 Sources of Additional Information State employment offices can provide information on job open ings for receptionists. For information related to administrative occupations, includ ing educational programs and certified designations, contact: y International Association of Administrative Professionals, P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. Internet: http://www.iaap-hq.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl34.htm 572 Occupational Outlook Handbook Material Recording, Scheduling, Dispatching, and Distributing Occupations Cargo and Freight Agents Significant Points • Cargo and freight agents need no more than a high school diploma and learn their duties informally on the job. • Much faster than average employment growth is expected. • Job prospects are expected to be good. Nature of the Work Cargo andfreight agents help transportation companies manage incoming and outgoing shipments in airline, train, or trucking terminals or on shipping docks. Agents expedite shipments by determining a route, preparing all necessary documents, and ar ranging for the pickup of freight or cargo and its delivery to loading platforms. They may also keep records of the cargo, in cluding its amount, type, weight, dimensions, destination, and time of shipment. They also keep a tally of missing items and record the condition of damaged items. Cargo and freight agents arrange cargo according to destina tion. They also determine any shipping rates and other applicable charges. For imported or exported freight, they verify that the proper customs paperwork is in order. Cargo and freight agents often track shipments electronically, using bar codes, and answer customers’ questions about the status of their shipments. 1 ==3 m Employment of cargo and freight agents is expected to grow much faster than average. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Work environment. Cargo and freight agents work in a wide variety of environments. Some work in warehouses, stockrooms, or shipping and receiving rooms that may not be temperature controlled. Others may spend time in cold storage rooms or outside on loading platforms, where they are exposed to the weather. Most jobs for cargo and freight agents involve frequent stand ing, bending, walking, and stretching. Some lifting and carrying of small items may be involved. Although automated devices have lessened the physical demands of this occupation, not ev ery employer has these devices. The work still can be strenuous, even though mechanical material-handling equipment is used to move heavy items. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday. However, evening and weekend hours are common in jobs involving large shipments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cargo and freight agents need no more than a high school diploma and learn their duties informally on the job. Education and training. Many jobs are entry level and most require a high school diploma. Cargo and freight agents undergo informal on-the-job training. For example, they may start out by checking items to be shipped and making sure that addresses are correct. Other qualifications. Employers prefer to hire people who are comfortable using computers. Typing, filing, recordkeep ing, and other clerical skills also are important. Advancement. Advancement opportunities for cargo and freight agents are usually limited, but some agents may become team leaders or use their experience to switch to other cleri cal occupations in the businesses where they work. Some may move to higher paying transportation industry jobs, such as freight brokering. Employment Cargo and freight agents held about 85,900 jobs in 2008. Most agents were employed in transportation. Approximately 52 per cent worked for firms engaged in support activities for the transportation industry, 19 percent were in the air transportation industry, 8 percent worked for courier businesses, and 7 percent were in the truck transportation industry. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than average; job prospects are expected to be good. Employment change. Employment of cargo and freight agents is expected to increase by 24 percent during the 2008-18 decade, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. As the overall economy continues to grow, more agents will be needed to handle the growing number of shipments resulting from increases in cargo traffic. Additionally, as shipments require multiple modes of transportation to reach their final destinations, such as freight trucking and air, a greater number Office and Administrative Support Occupations 573 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 2018 Number Percent Cargo and freight agents...................................... ................................ 43-5011 85,900 106,500 20,600 24 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title SOC Code Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. of agents will be needed to manage the process. The growing popularity of online shopping and same day delivery may also spur employment growth. Job prospects. A combination of job growth and turnover are expected to result in good job prospects for cargo and freight agents. However, employment of cargo and freight agents is sensitive to the fluctuations of the economy, and workers may experience high levels of unemployment when the overall level of economic activity falls. Couriers and Messengers Significant Points • A high school diploma is sufficient for most posi tions; those operating a vehicle require a valid State driver’s license. • Little or no change in employment is expected over the 2008-2018 period. Earnings Median hourly wages of cargo and freight agents in May 2008 were $17.92. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.67 and $22.92. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.65, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.70. Median hourly wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of cargo and freight agents in May 2008 were: Scheduled air transportation......................................... $18.39 Freight transportation arrangement................................ 18.34 Couriers and express delivery services.......................... 18.08 General freight trucking..................................................17.99 Support activities for air transportation.......................... 11.48 These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Related Occupations Cargo and freight agents coordinate shipments of cargo by air lines, trains, and trucks. Others who do similar work are: Page Postal Service clerks................................................................ 596 Postal Service mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators..............................................596 Shipping, receiving, andtraffic clerks.......................................577 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping....................................................................... 599 Sources of Additional Information Information about the freight and cargo industry, including training opportunities, is available from: y Transportation Intermediaries Association (TIA). 1625 Prince Street, Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.tianet.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at Digitizedhttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos281.htm for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Couriers and messengers move and distribute documents and packages for individuals, businesses, institutions, and government agencies. They pick up documents and pack ages from customers and deliver them to their final destina tions, usually within a local area. Because they only travel to nearby locations, couriers and messengers often specialize in same-day delivery. Some offer faster service, such as de livery within one hour. Couriers and messengers also deliver items that senders are unwilling to entrust to other means of delivery, such as important legal or financial documents, passports, airline tickets, medical specimens, and occasion ally donated organs. Couriers and messengers receive their instructions either in person or by mobile telephone, two-way radio, or wireless data service. They then use that information to pick up items and de liver them to their destinations. They may take payment upon pickup, and are often responsible for obtaining signatures upon delivery. Some couriers and messengers carry items only for their employers, often law firms, banks, medical laboratories, or fi nancial institutions. Others act as part of organizations’ internal mail system and carry items mainly within an organization’s buildings or entirely within one building. Many couriers and messengers work for messenger or courier services. Those with experience may open their own courier and messenger business and work as independent contractors. Couriers and messengers reach their destination by several methods. Most drive vans or trucks, but some drive cars or ride motorcycles. In congested urban areas, messengers sometimes use bicycles to make deliveries. Some may travel by foot. Work environment. Couriers and messengers spend most of their time making deliveries alone and are not closely super vised. Those who deliver by bicycle must be physically fit and be able to cope with all weather conditions and the hazards of heavy traffic. Car, van, and truck couriers must sometimes carry heavy loads, either manually or with the aid of a hand truck. They also have to deal with difficult parking situations, traffic jams, and road construction. 574 Occupational Outlook Handbook Couriers and messengers are responsible for the items they deliver until they are in the hands of the customer. Often, deliveries contain valuable or sensitive information and with it, expectations of safe and timely delivery making the job stressful at times. The pressure of making as many deliveries as possible to increase one’s earnings can also be stressful and may lead to unsafe driving or cycling practices. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most couriers and messengers train on the job and are not required to hold more than a high school diploma. Communica tion skills, a good driving record, and good sense of direction are helpful. Education and training. Most courier and messenger jobs do not have formal education requirements; however, a high school diploma may be helpful in getting a job. Couriers and messengers usually leam as they work, sometimes training with an experienced worker for a short time. Those who deal with hazardous or sensitive packages such as medical samples or donated organs may need to take a course in safely and effectively handling these items. Licensure. Almost all couriers and messengers are required to have valid State driver’s license. Having a clean driving re cord is usually helpful. Other qualifications. Couriers and messengers need good knowledge of the area in which they travel and a good sense of direction. In addition, good oral and written communication skills are important because communicating with customers and dispatchers is an integral part of some courier and mes senger jobs. Many couriers and messengers are required to provide and maintain their own vehicles, especially those who work as inde pendent contractors. Almost all two-wheeled couriers own their own bicycle, moped, or motorcycle. Those who own their own courier and messenger business must be able to keep basic accounting records and pay their own taxes. Advancement. Couriers and messengers have limited ad vancement opportunities. However, some companies may offer experienced workers preference when assigning jobs, which means they receive higher-paying contracts and more work when business is slow. Some independent contractors become master contractors. Master contractors organize routes for multiple independent contractors for courier agencies. Employment Couriers and messengers held about 122,400 jobs in 2008. About 17 percent worked in healthcare; 12 percent worked in .... ^ A good sense of direction is essential for couriers and messen gers, who often work under tight time constraints. the local messengers and local delivery industry; 12 percent were employed by couriers and express delivery services; and 9 percent worked in legal services. About 19 percent were selfemployed independent contractors; they provide their own vehicles and, to a certain extent, set their own schedules. How ever, they are like employees in some respects, because they often contract with one company. Job Outlook Little or no employment change is expected through 2018. The need to replace workers who leave the occupation will create the majority of job openings. Employment change. Little or no change is expected over the 2008-18 decade. Although individuals and busi nesses continue to value package delivery services, the need for document delivery services has been greatly reduced due to the widespread use of computers and the Internet. Many documents, forms, and other materials that were once hand- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Couriers and messengers....................................................................... SOC Code 43-5021 Employment, 2008 122,400 Projected Employment, 2018 122,000 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent -400 0 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Office and Administrative Support Occupations 575 delivered are now transferred in digital format. Wider accep tance of digital signatures has reduced the number of legal and financial documents that need to be moved from place to place. Nonetheless, some demand for courier and messenger ser vices will continue to arise, especially for items that cannot be sent electronically, such as blueprints and other oversized mate rials, securities, and passports. Couriers will also be required by medical and dental laboratories to pick up and deliver medical specimens and other materials. Job prospects. Job opportunities will arise out of the need to replace couriers and messengers who leave the occupation. Additionally, a continued need for parcel delivery, both within urban areas and between cities, will result in some jobs for couriers and messengers. The vast majority of openings are ex pected to be in large urban areas. Earnings Median hourly wages of couriers and messengers in May 2008 were $ 11.22 per hour. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.08 and $14.10. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.88, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.77. Median hourly wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of couriers and messengers in May 2008 were: Medical and diagnostic laboratories.............................$12.05 General medical and surgical hospitals.......................... 11.85 Legal services..................................................................10.83 Couriers and express delivery services.......................... 10.75 Local messengers and local delivery.............................. 10.00 Couriers and messengers who are full-time employees usu ally receive the same benefits as most other workers. About 21 percent are union members, which may lead to higher earn ings, better benefits and more job stability. Most independent contractors do not receive benefits, but may have higher earn ings. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Related Occupations Messengers and couriers deliver letters, parcels, and other items. Others who do similar work include: Page Cargo and freight agents..........................................................572 Postal Service mail carriers......................................................575 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks..................................... 577 Truck drivers and driver/sales workers................................... 797 Sources of Additional Information Local employers and local offices of the State employment ser vice can provide additional information about job opportunities. People interested in courier and messenger jobs also may con tact local courier and messenger services. Information on careers as couriers and messengers is avail able from: y Messenger Courier Association of the Americas, 750 National Press Building, 529 14th St., NW, Washington, DC Internet: http://www.mcaa.com/ Digitized20045. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl36.htm Postal Service Mail Carriers Significant Points • Little or no change in employment is projected over the 2008-18 period. • Keen competition for jobs is expected. • Qualification is based on an examination. • Applicants customarily wait 1 to 2 years or more after passing the examination before being hired. Nature of the Work Postal Service mail carriers deliver mail to residences and busi nesses in cities, towns, and rural areas. Although carriers are classified by their type of route—either city or rural—duties of city and rural carriers are similar. Most travel established routes, delivering and collecting mail. Mail carriers start work at the post office early in the morning, when they arrange the mail in delivery sequence. Automated equipment has reduced the time that carriers need to sort the mail, allowing them to spend more of their time delivering it. Mail carriers cover their routes on foot, by vehicle, or by a combination of both. On foot, they carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it on a cart. In most urban and rural areas, they use a car or small truck. The Postal Service provides vehicles to city carriers; most rural carriers use their own vehicles and are reimbursed for that use. Deliveries are made to houses, to roadside mailboxes, and to large buildings such as offices or apartments, which generally have all of their tenants’ mailboxes in one location. Besides delivering and collecting mail, carriers collect money for postage-due and COD (cash-on-delivery) fees and obtain signed receipts for registered, certified, and insured mail. If a customer is not home, the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, carriers return to the post office with mail gath ered from homes, businesses, and sometimes street collection boxes, and turn in the mail, receipts, and money collected dur ing the day. Some city carriers may have specialized duties such as delivering only parcels or picking up mail only from mail collection boxes. In comparison with city carriers, rural car riers perform a wider range of postal services, in addition to delivering and picking up mail. For example, rural carri ers may sell stamps and money orders and register, certify, and insure parcels and letters. All carriers, however, must be able to answer customers’ questions about postal regulations and services and provide change-of-address cards and other postal forms when requested. Work environment. Most carriers begin work early in the morning—those with routes in a business district can start as 576 Occupational Outlook Handbook early as 4 a.m. Overtime hours are frequently required for ur ban carriers. Carriers spend most of their time outdoors, deliv ering mail in all kinds of weather. Though carriers face many natural hazards, such as extreme temperatures and wet and icy roads and sidewalks, serious injuries are often due to the nature of the work, which requires repetitive arm and hand movements, as well as constant lifting and bending. These ac tivities can lead to repetitive stress injuries in various joints and muscles. , —, Mfjij: msmm ’ |l || Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All applicants for Postal Service mail carrier jobs are required to take an examination. After passing the exam, it may take 1 to 2 years or longer before being hired because the number of applicants generally exceeds the number of job openings. Education and training. There are no specific education requirements to become a Postal Service mail carrier; however, all applicants must have a good command of the English lan guage. Upon being hired, new carriers are trained on the job by experienced workers. Many post offices offer classroom instruction on safety and defensive driving. Workers receive additional instruction when new equipment or procedures are introduced. In these cases, usually another postal employee or a training specialist trains the workers. Other qualifications. Postal Service mail carriers must be at least 18 years old. They must be U.S. citizens or have been granted permanent resident-alien status in the United States, and males must have registered with the Selective Service upon reaching age 18. All applicants must pass a written examination that measures speed and accuracy at checking names and numbers and the ability to memorize mail distribution procedures. Jobseekers should contact the post office or mail processing center where they wish to work to determine when an exam will be given. Ap plicants’ names are listed in order of their examination scores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran and 10 points are added to the score of a veteran who was wounded in combat or is disabled. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future openings until their eligibility expires—usually 2 years after the examination date. When accepted, applicants must undergo a criminal-history check and pass a physical examination and a drug test. Appli cants also may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing 70 pounds. A safe driving record is re quired for mail carriers who drive at work, and applicants must receive a passing grade on a road test. Good interpersonal skills are important because mail carriers must be courteous and tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiving complaints. A good memory and the ability to read rapidly and accurately are also important. Advancement. Postal Service mail carriers may begin on a casual, transitional, part-time, or flexible basis and become reg ular or full-time employees in order of seniority, as vacancies occur. Carriers can look forward to obtaining preferred routes https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ft/ ' M __ Postal Service mail carriers receive good benefits. as their seniority increases. Postal Service mail carriers can ad vance to supervisory positions on a competitive basis. Employment The U.S. Postal Service employed 343,300 mail carriers in 2008. The majority of mail carriers work in cities and suburbs, while the rest work in rural areas. Postal Service mail carriers are classified as casual, transi tional, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casuals are hired for 90 days at a time to help process and deliver mail during peak mailing or vacation periods in rural areas. Transi tional carriers are hired on a temporary basis in cities for a pe riod of one year. Part-time, flexible workers do not have a regular work schedule or weekly guarantee of hours but are called as the need arises. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule of fewer than 40 hours per week, often replacing regular full-time workers on their scheduled day off. Few carriers are classified as part-time employees, especially among rural carriers. Full-time postal em ployees work a 40-hour week over a 5-day period and made up 85 percent of mail carriers in 2008. Job Outlook Employment of Postal Service mail carriers is expected to ex perience little or no change through 2018. Keen competition is Office and Administrative Support Occupations 577 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, Employment, 2008-2018 Code 2018 Number Percent Postal service mail carriers.................................... .............................. 43-5052 343,300 339,400 -3,900 -1 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational soc Occupational Title Employment, 2008 Information Included in the Handbook. expected for mail carrier jobs because of the attractive wages and benefits and relatively low entry requirements. Employment change. Employment of mail carriers is ex pected to decline by about 1 percent through 2018. Employment will be adversely affected by several factors. The use of auto mated “delivery point sequencing” systems to sort letter mail and flat mail directly, according to the order of delivery, reduces the amount of time that carriers spend sorting their mail, allow ing them to spend more time on the streets delivering mail. The amount of time carriers save on sorting letter mail and flat mail will allow them to increase the size of their routes, which will reduce the need to hire more carriers. Additionally, the Postal Service is moving toward more centralized mail delivery, such as the use of cluster mailboxes, to cut down on the number of door-to-door deliveries. However, as the population continues to rise and the number of addresses to which mail must be de livered increases the demand for mail carriers in some areas of the country will grow. Employment and schedules in the Postal Service fluctuate with the demand for its services. When mail volume is high, such as during holidays, full-time employees work overtime, part-time workers get additional hours, and casual workers may be hired. Job prospects. Those seeking jobs as Postal Service mail carriers can expect to encounter keen competition. The num ber of applicants usually exceeds the number of job openings because of the occupation’s low entry requirements and attrac tive wages and benefits. The best employment opportunities for mail carriers are expected to be in areas of the country with sig nificant population growth as the number of addresses to which mail must be delivered continues to grow. Earnings Median annual wages of Postal Service mail carriers were $49,800 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,270 and 51,250. The lowest 10 earned less than $37,400, while the top 10 percent earned more than $52,400. Rural mail carriers are reimbursed for mileage put on their own vehicles while delivering mail. Postal Service mail carriers enjoy a variety of employerprovided benefits similar to those enjoyed by other Federal Gov ernment workers. The National Association of Letter Carriers and the National Rural Letter Carriers Association together rep resent most of these workers. Related Occupations Other occupations with duties similar to those of Postal Service mail carriers include: Page Couriers and messengers............................................................... 573 Truck drivers and driver/sales workers...................................... 797 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information on job requirements, entrance examinations, and specific employment opportunities for Postal Service mail carriers is available from local post offices and State employment service offices. This information also is available from the United States Post Office online at http://www.usps.com. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) provides in formation on a wide range of occupational characteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the Internet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos345.htm Shipping, Receiving, and Traffic Clerks Significant Points • Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks generally are entry-level workers who need no more than a high school diploma. • Employers prefer to hire those familiar with comput ers and other electronic office and business equip ment. • Employment is expected to decline moderately as a result of increasing automation; however, job open ings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Nature of the Work Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks keep records of all goods shipped and received. Their duties depend on the size of the establishment they work for and the level of automation used. Larger companies typically are more able to finance the pur chase of computers, scanners, and other equipment to handle some or all of a clerk’s responsibilities. In smaller companies, a clerk maintains records, prepares shipments, sorts packages, and accepts deliveries. Shipping clerks keep records of all outgoing shipments. They prepare shipping documents and mailing labels and make sure that orders have been filled correctly. Also, they record items taken from inventory and note when orders were filled. Some times they fill the order themselves, taking merchandise from the stockroom, noting when inventories run low, and wrapping or packing the goods in shipping containers. They also address and label packages, look up and compute freight or postal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. In addition, shipping clerks may prepare invoices and furnish information about shipments to other parts of the company, such as the ac counting department. In modem warehouses, the recording of 578 Occupational Outlook Handbook tubes Shipping clerks weigh orders for shipment. this shipping information and the printing of mailing labels can be automated with the use of a computer and barcode scanner. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may sort and move the goods from the warehouse to the ship ping dock or truck terminal and direct their loading. Receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those of shipping clerks. They determine whether orders have been filled correctly by verifying incoming shipments against the original order and the accompanying bill of lading or invoice. They make a record of the shipment and the condition of its contents. In many firms, receiving clerks either use hand-held scanners to record bar codes on incoming products or manually enter the information into a computer. These data then can be transferred to the ap propriate departments. An increasing number of clerks at larger, more modem companies are using radio-frequency identifica tion (RFID) scanners, which store and remotely retrieve data by using tags or transponders. Clerks then check the shipment for any discrepancies in quantity, price, and discounts. Receiving clerks may route or move shipments to the proper department, warehouse section, or stockroom. They also may arrange for adjustments with shippers if merchandise is lost or damaged. Receiving clerks in small businesses may perform some duties similar to those of stock clerks. In larger establishments, receiv ing clerks may control all receiving platform operations, such as the scheduling of trucks, recording of shipments, and han dling of damaged goods. Traffic clerks maintain records on the destination, weight, and charges for all incoming and outgoing freight. They verify rate charges by comparing the classification of materials with rate charts. In many companies, this work may be automated. Infor mation either is scanned or is entered by hand into a computer for use by the accounting department or other departments within the company. Traffic clerks also keep a file of claims for overcharges and for damage to goods in transit. It is common, especially in smaller companies, for workers to perform the functions of all three positions. These workers are responsible for incoming and outgoing packages, as well as the logistical details of shipping them. Some shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks share responsibilities with material moving workers (see statement found elsewhere in the Handbook) and must sort, load, unload or store items. Clerks with these addi tional responsibilities may use machinery, such as forklifts, to transport items in a warehouse. Work environment. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks often work in offices inside manufacturing plants or warehouses. Most jobs involve frequent standing, bending, walking, and stretching. Lifting and carrying smaller items also may be in volved, especially at small companies with less automation. Al though automated devices have lessened the physical demands of this occupation, their use remains somewhat limited. The work still can be strenuous, even though mechanical material handling equipment, such as computerized conveyor systems, may be used to move heavy items. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common in some jobs and may be required when large shipments are involved or during major holiday periods. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks generally are entry-level workers who need no more than a high school diploma. Be cause of increasing automation, however, employers prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Education and training. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks typically learn the job by doing routine tasks under close supervision. They first learn how to count and mark stock, and then start keeping records and taking inventory. Training in the use of automated equipment usually is done informally on the job. As these occupations become more auto mated, however, workers may need longer periods of training to master the use of the equipment and technology. Many employ ers prefer to hire workers experienced with computers and other electronic equipment. Other qualifications. Strength, stamina, communication skills, attention to detail, and an ability to work at repetitive tasks, sometimes under pressure, are important characteristics. Advancement. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks may be promoted to supervisory roles, and those with an understanding of other tasks in their firm can move into other positions, such as purchasing managers or logisticians. Employment Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks held about 750,500 jobs in 2008. About 71 percent were employed in manufacturing or by wholesale and retail establishments. Although jobs for shipping, Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks........................... ................... soc Employment, Code 2008 43-5071 750,500 Projected Employment, 2018 701,200 Change, 2008-2018 Number -49,300 Percent -7 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Office and Administrative Support Occupations 579 receiving, and traffic clerks are found throughout the country, many clerks work in urban areas, where shipping depots in fac tories and wholesale establishments usually are located. Job Outlook Employment is expected to decline moderately as a result of increasing automation. However, job openings will result from the need to replace shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks who leave the occupation. Employment change. Employment of shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks is expected to decline moderately by 7 per cent between 2008 and 2018. As companies increasingly use computers and high-technology scanners to store and retrieve shipping and receiving records, fewer clerks will be needed to oversee these activities. Methods of handling materials have changed significantly in recent years. Large warehouses increasingly are becoming automated, with equipment such as automatic sorting systems, robots, computer-directed trucks, and automated identification and data collection (AIDC) systems. This automation, coupled with the growing use of hand-held barcode and RFID scanners in shipping and receiving departments, should increase the pro ductivity of shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks. Job prospects. Despite the projected employment decline, many job openings will occur because of the need to replace shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks who leave the occupa tion. This is a large entry-level occupation, and many vacancies are created as workers leave as part of their normal career pro gression. Because smaller warehouses, distribution centers, and trucking terminals will continue to rely on sorting and moving goods by hand, job opportunities at those facilities may be bet ter than at larger, more automated centers. Earnings Median annual wages of shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks in May 2008 were $27,660. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,900 and $34,640. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,000, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $42,990. These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Related Occupations Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks record, check, and often store materials that a company receives. They also process and pack goods for shipment. Other workers who perform similar duties are: Page Cargo and freight agents..........................................................572 Material moving occupations.................................................. 809 Postal Service clerks................................................................596 Production, planning, and expediting clerks........................... 597 Stock clerks and order fillers................................................... 598 Sources of Additional Information Additional information about job opportunities may be ob tained from local employers and local offices of the State em ployment service. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl40.htm Miscellaneous Office and Administrative Support Occupations Desktop Publishers Significant Points • About 38 percent work for newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers; another 21 percent work in the printing industry. • Employment is expected to decline rapidly. • Most employers prefer to hire experienced desktop publishers; among persons without experience, op portunities should be best for those with certificates or degrees in desktop publishing or graphic design. Nature of the Work Desktop publishers use computer software to format and combine text, data, photographs, charts, and other graphic art or illustrations into prototypes of pages and other documents are to be printed. They then may print the document on a Digitizedthat for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis high-resolution printer or send the materials to a commercial printer. Examples of materials produced by desktop publishers include books, brochures, calendars, magazines, newsletters, newspapers, and forms. Desktop publishers typically design and create the graph ics that accompany text, find and edit photographs and other digital images, and manipulate the text and images to display information in an attractive and readable format. They design page layouts, develop presentations and advertising campaigns, and do color separation of pictures and graphics material. Some desktop publishers may write some of the text or headlines used in newsletters or brochures. Desktop publishers use the appropriate software to enter and select formatting properties, such as the size and style of type, column width, and spacing. Print formats are stored in the computer and displayed on its monitor. New information, such as charts, pictures, or more text, can be added. An entire newspaper, catalog, or book page, complete with artwork and graphics, can be created on the screen exactly as it will appear in print. Then, digital files are used to produce printing plates. 580 Occupational Outlook Handbook desktop publishers may be susceptible to eyestrain, back dis comfort, and hand and wrist problems. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Desktop publishers format text, data, photographs, and other graphics into documents that are to be printed. Like photographers and multimedia artists and animators, desk top publishers can create special effects or other visual images with the use of film, video, computers, or other electronic me dia. (Separate statements on photographers and on artists and related workers appear elsewhere in the Handbook.) Computer software and printing technology continue to ad vance, making desktop publishing more economical and effi cient than before. Other innovations in the occupation include digital color page-makeup systems, electronic page-layout sys tems, and off-press color proofing systems. In addition, most materials are reproduced on the Internet as well as printed; therefore, desktop publishers may need to know electronic pub lishing software, such as Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), and may be responsible for converting text and graphics to an Internet-ready format. Some desktop publishers may write and edit, as well as lay out and design pages. For example, in addition to laying out articles for a newsletter, desktop publishers may be responsible for copyediting content or for writing original content them selves. Desktop publisher’s writing and editing responsibilities may vary widely from project to project and employer to em ployer. Smaller firms typically use desktop publishers to per form a wide range of tasks, while desktop publishers at larger firms may specialize in a certain part of the publishing process. (Writers and editors are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Desktop publishers also may be called publications special ists, electronic publishers, DTP operators, desktop publishing editors, electronic prepress technicians, electronic publishing specialists, image designers, typographers, compositors, layout artists, and Web publications designers. The exact name may vary with the specific tasks performed or simply by personal preference. Work environment. Desktop publishers usually work in clean, air-conditioned office areas with little noise. They gener ally work a standard workweek; however, some may work night shifts, weekends, or holidays, depending upon the production schedule for the project or to meet deadlines. These workers often are subject to stress and the pressures of short deadlines and tight work schedules. Like other workers who spend long hours working in front of a computer monitor, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most desktop publishers learn their skills on the job. Experience is the best training, and many desktop publishers get started just by experimenting with the software and developing a knack for designing and laying out material for publication. Education and training. There is generally no educational requirement for the job of desktop publisher. Most people learn on the job or by taking classes online or through local learning centers that teach the latest software. For those who are inter ested in pursuing a career in desktop publishing, an associate’s degree or a bachelor’s degree in graphic arts, graphic commu nications, or graphic design is preferred. Graphic arts programs are a good way to learn about the desktop publishing software used to format pages, assign type characteristics, and import text and graphics into electronic page layouts. Courses in other aspects of printing also are available at vocational institutes and private trade and technical schools. Other qualifications. Although formal training is not always required, those with certificates or degrees will have the best job opportunities. Most employers prefer to hire people who have at least a high school diploma and who possess good com munication abilities, basic computer skills, and a strong work ethic. Desktop publishers should be able to deal courteously with people, because they have to interact with customers and clients and be able to express design concepts and layout op tions with them. In addition, they may have to do simple math calculations and compute ratios to scale graphics and artwork and estimate job costs. A basic understanding of, and facility with, computers, printers, scanners, and other office equipment and technologies also is needed to work as a desktop publisher. Desktop publishers need good manual dexterity, and they must be able to pay attention to detail and work independently. In addition, good eyesight, including visual acuity, depth per ception, a wide field of view, color vision, and the ability to focus quickly, are assets. Artistic ability often is a plus. Em ployers also seek persons who are even tempered and adapt able—important qualities for workers who frequently must meet deadlines and learn how to operate new equipment. Advancement. Workers with limited training and experience assist more experienced staff on projects while they learn the software and gain practical experience. They advance on the ba sis of their demonstrated mastery of skills. Some may move into supervisory or management positions. Other desktop publishers may start their own companies or work as independent consul tants, while those with more artistic talent and further education may find job opportunities in graphic design or commercial art. Employment Desktop publishers held about 26,400 jobs in 2008. Approxi mately 38 percent worked for newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers, while 21 percent worked in the printing and related support activities industry. Other desktop publishers work for professional, scientific, and technical services firms and in many other industries that produce printed or published materials. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 581 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Desktop publishers....................................... ................................ SOC Code 43-9031 Projected Employment, 2018 20,400 Employment, 2008 26,400 Change, 2008-2018 Number Percent -23 -5,900 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. The printing and publishing industries are two of the most geographically dispersed industries in the United States, and desktop publishing jobs are found throughout the country. Al though most jobs are in large metropolitan cities, electronic communication networks and the Internet allow some desktop publishers to work from other locations. Job Outlook Employment is expected to decline rapidly because more peo ple are learning basic desktop publishing skills as a part of their regular job functions in other occupations and because more organizations are formatting materials for display on the Inter net rather than designing pages for print publication. Employment change. Employment of desktop publishers is expected to decline 23 percent between 2008 and 2018. Desk top publishing has become a frequently used and common tool for designing and laying out printed matter, such as advertise ments, brochures, newsletters, and forms. However, increased computer-processing capacity and the widespread availability of more elaborate desktop publishing software will make it easier and more affordable for nonprinting professionals to use. As a result, there will be less need for people to specialize in desktop publishing. In addition, organizations are increasingly moving their pub lished material to the Internet to save the cost of printing and distributing materials. This change will slow the growth of desktop publishers, especially in smaller membership and trade organizations, which publish newsletters and brief reports. Companies that produce more extensive reports and rely on high-quality, high-resolution color and graphics within their publications, however, will continue to use desktop publishers to lay out publications for offset printing. Job prospects. There will be some job opportunities for desktop publishers because of the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. However, job prospects will be better for those with experience; many employers prefer to hire expe rienced desktop publishers because of the long time it takes to become good at this type of work. Among individuals with little or no experience, opportunities should be best for those with computer backgrounds, those with certification in desktop pub lishing, or those who have completed a postsecondary program in desktop publishing, graphic design, or Web design. wages of desktop publishers in May 2008 were $39,870 in printing and related support services and $33,130 in newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers. Related Occupations Desktop publishers use artistic and editorial skills in their work. These skills also are essential for the following workers: Page Artists and related workers.......................................................301 Commercial and industrial designers...................................... 304 Graphic designers.....................................................................312 Prepress technicians and workers............................................ 748 Sources of Additional Information Details about training programs may be obtained from local employers, such as newspapers and printing shops, or from local offices of the State employment service. For information on careers and training in printing, desktop publishing, and graphic arts, write to: y Graphic Arts Education and Research Foundation, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 20191-4367. Internet: http ://ww w.gaerf.org y Graphic Arts Information Network, 200 Deer Run Rd., Sewickley, PA 15143-2324. Internet: http://www.gain.net The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos276.htm Office Clerks, General Significant Points • Employment growth and high replacement needs in this large occupation will result in numerous job openings. • Prospects should be best for those with knowl edge of basic computer applications and office machinery. • Part-time and temporary positions are common. Earnings Wages for desktop publishers vary according to level of experi ence, training, geographic location, and company size. Median annual wages of desktop publishers were $36,600 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,140 and $47,870. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,860, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $59,210 a year. Median annual https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Rather than performing a single specialized task, general office clerks have responsibilities that often change daily with the needs of the specific job and the employer. Some clerks spend their days filing or keyboarding. Others enter data at a computer terminal. They also operate photocopiers, fax machines, and 582 Occupational Outlook Handbook ... :- : :r . ::::: :w ules usually work a standard 40-hour week; however, some work shifts or overtime during busy periods. About 24 percent of clerks worked part time in 2008. Many clerks also work in temporary positions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement ! j IS H Si jd General office clerks operate photocopiers, fax machines, and other office equipment. other office equipment; prepare mailings; proofread documents; and answer telephones and deliver messages. The specific duties assigned to clerks vary significantly, de pending on the type of office in which they work. An office clerk in a doctor’s office, for example, would not perform the same tasks that a clerk in a large financial institution or in the office of an auto parts wholesaler would. Although all clerks may sort checks, keep payroll records, take inventory, and access information, they also perform duties unique to their employer. For example, a clerk in a doctor’s office may organize medica tions, a corporate office clerk may help prepare materials for presentations, and a clerk employed by a wholesaler may fill merchandise orders. Clerks’ duties also vary by level of experience. Inexperienced employees may make photocopies, stuff envelopes, or record inquiries. Experienced clerks are usually given additional re sponsibilities. For example, they may maintain financial or other records, set up spreadsheets, verify statistical reports for accuracy and completeness, handle and adjust customer com plaints, work with vendors, make travel arrangements, take inventory of equipment and supplies, answer questions on de partmental services and functions, or help prepare invoices or budgetary requests. Senior office clerks may also be expected to monitor and direct the work of lower-level clerks. Work environment. For the most part, general office clerks work in comfortable office settings. Those on full-time sched https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis General office clerks often need to know how to use computers, word processing, and other business software and office equip ment. Experience working in an office is helpful, but office clerks also leam skills on the job. Education and training. Employers usually require a high school diploma or equivalent, and some require basic computer skills, including familiarity with word processing software, as well as other general office skills. Although most general office clerk jobs are entry-level positions, employers may prefer or require previous office or business experience. Training for this occupation is available through business education programs offered in high schools, community and ju nior colleges, and postsecondary vocational schools. Courses in office practices, word processing, and other computer applica tions are particularly helpful. Other qualifications. Because general office clerks usually work with other office staff, they should be cooperative and able to work as part of a team. Employers prefer individuals who can perform a variety of tasks and satisfy the needs of the many de partments within a company. In addition, applicants should have good writing and other communication skills, be detail oriented, and be adaptable. Advancement. General office clerks who exhibit strong communication, interpersonal, and analytical skills may be pro moted to supervisory positions. Others may move into different, more senior administrative jobs, such as receptionist, secretary, or administrative assistant. After gaining some work experience or specialized skills, many workers transfer to jobs with higher pay or greater advancement potential. Advancement to profes sional occupations within an organization normally requires ad ditional formal education, such as a college degree. Employment General office clerks held about 3.0 million jobs in 2008. Most are employed in relatively small businesses. Although they work in every sector of the economy, about one quarter worked in educational services and in health care and social assistance. Job Outlook Employment growth and high replacement needs in this large occupation are expected to result in numerous job openings for general office clerks. Prospects should be best for those with knowledge of basic computer applications and office machinery. Employment change. Employment of general office clerks is expected to grow by 12 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. The employ ment outlook for these workers will continue to be affected by the increasing use of technology, expanding office automation, and the consolidation of administrative support tasks. These factors will lead to a consolidation of administrative support staffs and a diversification of job responsibilities. However, this consolidation will increase the demand for general office clerks because they perform a variety of administrative support tasks, Office and Administrative Support Occupations 583 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, 2008-2018 Employment, Code 2018 Number Percent Office clerks, general......................................... .................................. 43-9061 3,024,400 3,383,100 358,700 12 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa soc Occupational Title Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. as opposed to clerks with very specific functions. It will be come increasingly common within businesses, especially those smaller in size, to find only general office clerks in charge of all administrative support work. Job prospects. In addition to many full-time job openings for general office clerks, part-time and temporary positions are com mon. Prospects should be best for those who have knowledge of basic computer applications and office machinery—such as computers, fax machines, telephone systems, and scanners— and good writing and other communication skills. Office clerks with previous business or office experience should also have good job prospects. As general administrative support duties continue to be consolidated, employers will increasingly seek well-rounded individuals with highly developed communica tion skills and the ability to perform multiple tasks. Job opportunities may vary from year to year because the strength of the economy affects demand for general office clerks. Companies tend to employ more workers when the economy is strong. Industries least likely to be affected by economic fluc tuations tend to be the most stable places for employment. Earnings Median annual wages of general office clerks were $25,320 in May 2008; the middle 50 percent earned between $19,620 and $31,980 annually. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $39,880. Median annual wages in the industries employing the largest numbers of general office clerks in May 2008 were: Local government....................................................... $28,750 General medical and surgical hospitals........................27,700 Elementary and secondary schools..............................25,690 Colleges, universities, and professional schools..........25,400 Employment services................................................... 23,840 Related Occupations The duties of general office clerks can include a combination of bookkeeping, keyboarding, office machine operation, and fil ing. Other office and administrative support workers who per form similar duties include: Non-clerical entry-level workers who perform these duties include: Cashiers.................................................................................... 530 Counter and rental clerks.........................................................560 Food and beverage serving and related workers....................491 Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies can provide information about job openings for general office clerks. For information related to administrative occupations, in cluding educational programs and certified designations, contact: y International Association of Administrative Professionals, P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. Internet: http ://www.iaap-hq.org y American Management Association, 1601 Broadway, New York, NY 10019. Internet: http://www.amanet.org y Association of Professional Office Managers, P.O. Box 1926, Rockville, MD 20849. Internet: http://www.apomonline.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl30.htm Secretaries and Administrative Assistants Significant Points • This occupation ranks among those with the largest number of job openings. • Opportunities should be best for applicants with ex tensive knowledge of computer software applications. • Secretaries and administrative assistants are increas ingly assuming responsibilities once reserved for managerial and professional staff. Page Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks....................... 563 Communications equipment operators.................................... 588 Customer service representatives.............................................567 Data entry and information processing workers..................... 590 Order clerks.............................................................................. 595 Receptionists and information clerks.......................................570 Secretaries and administrative assistants................................ 583 Stock clerks and order fillers....................................................598 Tellers....................................................................................... 599 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work As the reliance on technology continues to expand in offices, the role of the office professional has greatly evolved. Office auto mation and organizational restructuring have led secretaries and administrative assistants to increasingly assume responsibilities once reserved for managerial and professional staff. In spite of these changes, however, the core responsibilities for secre taries and administrative assistants have remained much the same: performing and coordinating an office’s administrative 584 Occupational Outlook Handbook HH^ Secretaries and administrative assistants often use computers to create spreadsheets, compose correspondence, manage da tabases, and create presentations and reports. activities and storing, retrieving, and integrating information for dissemination to staff and clients. Secretaries and administrative assistants perform a variety of administrative and clerical duties necessary to run an organiza tion efficiently. They serve as information and communication managers for an office; plan and schedule meetings and appoint ments; organize and maintain paper and electronic files; man age projects; conduct research; and disseminate information by using the telephone, mail services, Web sites, and e-mail. They may also handle travel and guest arrangements. Secretaries and administrative assistants use a variety of office equipment, such as fax machines, photocopiers, scanners, and videoconferencing and telephone systems. In addition, secretar ies and administrative assistants often use computers to do tasks previously handled by managers and professionals; they cre ate spreadsheets, compose correspondence, manage databases, and create presentations, reports, and documents using desktop publishing software and digital graphics. They may also negoti ate with vendors, maintain and examine leased equipment, pur chase supplies, manage areas such as stockrooms or corporate libraries, and retrieve data from various sources. At the same time, managers and professionals have assumed many tasks tra ditionally assigned to secretaries and administrative assistants, such as keyboarding and answering the telephone. Because secretaries and administrative assistants do less dictation and word processing, they now have time to support more members of the executive staff. In a number of organizations, secretaries and administrative assistants work in teams to work flexibly and share their expertise. Many secretaries and administrative assistants provide train ing and orientation for new staff, conduct research on the Inter net, and operate and troubleshoot new office technologies. Specific job duties vary with experience and titles. Executive secretaries and administrative assistants provide high-level administrative support for an office and for top executives of an organization. Generally, they perform fewer clerical tasks than do secretaries and more information management. In addi tion to arranging conference calls and supervising other clerical staff, they may handle more complex responsibilities such as reviewing incoming memos, submissions, and reports in order https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to determine their significance and to plan for their distribution. They also prepare agendas and make arrangements for meet ings of committees and executive boards. They may also con duct research and prepare statistical reports. Some secretaries and administrative assistants, such as legal and medical secretaries, perform highly specialized work re quiring knowledge of technical terminology and procedures. For instance, legal secretaries prepare correspondence and legal papers such as summonses, complaints, motions, responses, and subpoenas under the supervision of an attorney or a para legal. They may also review legal journals and assist with legal research—for example, by verifying quotes and citations in legal briefs. Additionally, legal secretaries often teach newly minted lawyers how to prepare documents for submission to the courts. Medical secretaries transcribe dictation, prepare cor respondence, and assist physicians or medical scientists with reports, speeches, articles, and conference proceedings. They also record simple medical histories, arrange for patients to be hospitalized, and order supplies. Most medical secretaries need to be familiar with insurance rules, billing practices, and hospital or laboratory procedures. Other technical secretaries who assist engineers or scientists may prepare correspondence, maintain their organization’s technical library, and gather and edit materials for scientific papers. Secretaries employed in elementary schools and high schools perform important administrative functions for the school. They are responsible for handling most of the communications be tween parents, the community, and teachers and administrators who work at the school. As such, they are required to know de tails about registering students, immunizations, and bus sched ules, for example. They schedule appointments, keep track of students’ academic records, and make room assignments for classes. Those who work directly for principals screen inquiries from parents and handle those matters not needing a principal’s attention. They may also set a principal’s calendar to help set her or his priorities for the day. Some secretaries and administrative assistants, also known as virtual assistants, are freelancers who work at a home office. They use the Internet, e-mail, fax, and the phone to communi cate with clients. Other duties include medical or legal transcrip tion, writing and editing reports and business correspondence, answering e-mail, data entry, setting appointments, making travel arrangements, bookkeeping, and desktop publishing. Work environment. Secretaries and administrative assistants usually work in schools, hospitals, corporate settings, govern ment agencies, or legal and medical offices. Virtual assistants work from a home office. Their jobs often involve sitting for long periods. If they spend a lot of time keyboarding, particu larly at a computer monitor, they may encounter problems of eyestrain, stress, and repetitive motion ailments such as carpal tunnel syndrome. The majority of secretaries and administrative assistants are full-time employees who work a standard 40-hour week. About 18 percent of secretaries work part time and many oth ers work in temporary positions. A few are self-employed, free lance (such as virtual assistants), or participate in job-sharing arrangements, in which two people divide responsibility for a single job. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 585 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Word processing, writing, and communication skills are essen tial for all secretaries and administrative assistants. Employers increasingly require extensive knowledge of computer software applications, such as desktop publishing, project management, spreadsheets, and database management. Education and training. High school graduates who have ba sic office skills may qualify for entry-level secretarial positions. They can acquire these skills in various ways. Training ranges from high school vocational education programs that teach office skills and typing to 1-year and 2-year programs in office admin istration offered by business and vocational-technical schools, and community colleges. Many temporary placement agen cies also provide formal training in computer and office skills. Most medical and legal secretaries must go through specialized training programs that teach them the language of the industry. Virtual assistant training programs are available at many com munity colleges in transcription, bookkeeping, website design, project management, and computer technology. There are also online training and coaching programs. Employers of executive secretaries increasingly are seek ing candidates with a college degree, as these secretaries work closely with top executives. A degree related to the business or industry in which a person is seeking employment may provide the jobseeker with an advantage in the application process. Most secretaries and administrative assistants, once hired, tend to acquire more advanced skills through on-the-job in struction by other employees or by equipment and software vendors. Others may attend classes or participate in online edu cation to learn how to operate new office technologies, such as information storage systems, scanners, or new updated software packages. As office automation continues to evolve, retraining and continuing education will remain integral parts of secre tarial jobs. Other qualifications. Secretaries and administrative assis tants should be proficient in typing and good at spelling, punc tuation, grammar, and oral communication. Employers also look for good customer service and interpersonal skills because secretaries and administrative assistants must be tactful in their dealings with people. Discretion, good judgment, organiza tional or management ability, initiative, and the ability to work independently are especially important for higher-level admin istrative positions. Changes in the office environment have in creased the demand for secretaries and administrative assistants who are adaptable and versatile. Certification and advancement. Testing and certifica tion for proficiency in office skills are available through organizations such as the International Association of Administrative Professionals; National Association of Legal Secretaries (NALS), Inc.; Legal Secretaries International, Inc; and International Virtual Assistants Association (IVAA). As secretaries and administrative assistants gain experience, they can earn several different designations. Prominent des ignations include the Certified Professional Secretary (CPS) and the Certified Administrative Professional (CAP), which can be earned by meeting certain experience or educational re quirements and passing an examination. Similarly, those with 1 year of experience in the legal field, or who have concluded https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis an approved training course and who want to be certified as a legal support professional, can acquire the Accredited Legal Secretary (ALS) designation through a testing process admin istered by NALS. NALS offers two additional designations: Professional Legal Secretary (PLS), considered an advanced certification for legal support professionals, and a designation for proficiency as a paralegal. Legal Secretaries International confers the Certified Legal Secretary Specialist (CLSS) des ignation in areas such as intellectual property, criminal law, civil litigation, probate, and business law to those who have 5 years of legal experience and pass an examination. In some instances, certain requirements may be waived. There is cur rently no set standard of certification for virtual assistants. A number of certifications exist which involve passing a written test covering areas of core competencies and business ethics. The IVAA has three certifications available: Certified Virtual Assistant, Ethics Checked Virtual Assistant; and the Real Es tate Virtual Assistant. Secretaries and administrative assistants generally advance by being promoted to other administrative positions with more re sponsibilities. Qualified administrative assistants who broaden their knowledge of a company’s operations and enhance their skills may be promoted to senior or executive secretary or ad ministrative assistant, clerical supervisor, or office manager. Secretaries with word processing or data entry experience can advance to jobs as word processing or data entry trainers, su pervisors, or managers within their own firms or in a secretarial, word processing, or data entry service bureau. Secretarial and administrative support experience also can lead to jobs such as instructor or sales representative with manufacturers of soft ware or computer equipment. With additional training, many legal secretaries become paralegals. Employment Secretaries and administrative assistants held about 4.3 million jobs in 2008, ranking it among the largest occupations in the U.S. economy. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment by secretarial specialty: Secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive....2,020,000 Executive secretaries and administrative assistants.... 1,594,400 Medical secretaries.................................................... 471,100 Legal secretaries........................................................ 262,600 Secretaries and administrative assistants are employed in organizations of every type. Around 90 percent are employed in service-providing industries, ranging from education and healthcare to government and retail trade. Most of the rest work for firms engaged in manufacturing or construction. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow about as fast as the average. Secretaries and administrative assistants will have among the largest number of job openings due to growth and the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave this occupation. Opportunities should be best for applicants with extensive knowledge of computer software applications. Employment change. Employment of secretaries and admin istrative assistants is expected to increase by 11 percent, which is 586 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, 2008-2018 Employment, Code 2018 Number Percent Secretaries and administrative assistants................................... ....... 43-6000 4,348,100 4,819,700 471,600 11 Executive secretaries and administrative assistants.............. ....... 43-6011 1,594,400 1,798,800 204,400 13 262,600 Legal secretaries........................................................................ ........ 43-6012 311,000 48,400 18 Medical secretaries.................................................................... ....... 43-6013 596,600 125,500 471,100 27 Secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive................. ....... 43-6014 2,020,000 2,113,300 93,300 5 (NOTE) Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title soc Employment, 2008 tion Included in the Handbook. about as fast as the average for all occupations, between 2008 and 2018. Projected employment varies by occupational specialty. Above average employment growth in the health care and social assistance industry should lead to much faster than the average growth for medical secretaries, while moderate growth in legal services is projected to lead to faster than average growth in em ployment of legal secretaries. Employment of executive secre taries and administrative assistants is projected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations. Growing industries—such as construction; educational services; health care and social assis tance; and professional, scientific, and technical services—will continue to generate the most new jobs. Slower than average growth is expected for secretaries, except legal, medical, or ex ecutive, who account for about 46 percent of all secretaries and administrative assistants. Increasing office automation and organizational restructuring will continue to make secretaries and administrative assistants more productive in coming years. Computers, e-mail, scanners, and voice message systems will allow secretaries and admin istrative assistants to accomplish more in the same amount of time. The use of automated equipment is also changing the dis tribution of work in many offices. In some cases, traditional secretarial duties as typing, filing, photocopying, and book keeping are being done by clerks in other departments or by the professionals themselves. For example, professionals and managers increasingly do their own word processing and data entry, and handle much of their own correspondence. In some law and medical offices, paralegals and medical assistants are assuming some tasks formerly done by secretaries. Also, many small and medium-sized organizations are outsourcing key ad ministrative functions, such as data entry, bookkeeping, and In ternet research, to virtual assistants. Developments in office technology are certain to continue. However, many secretarial and administrative duties are of a personal, interactive nature and, therefore, are not easily auto mated. Responsibilities such as planning conferences, working with clients, and instructing staff require tact and communica tion skills. Because technology cannot substitute for these per sonal skills, secretaries and administrative assistants will con tinue to play a key role in most organizations. As paralegals and medical assistants assume more of the du ties traditionally assigned to secretaries, offices will continue to replace the traditional arrangement of one secretary per manager with secretaries and administrative assistants who support the work of systems, departments, or units. This approach means that secretaries and administrative assistants will assume added responsibilities and will be seen as valuable members of a team. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job prospects. In addition to jobs created from growth, nu merous job opportunities will arise from the need to replace secretaries and administrative assistants who transfer to other occupations, including exceptionally skilled executive secretaries and administrative assistants who often move into professional occupations. Job opportunities should be best for applicants with extensive knowledge of computer software applications, with experience as a secretary or administrative assistant, or with ad vanced communication and computer skills. Applicants with a bachelor’s degree will be in great demand to act more as mana gerial assistants and to perform more complex tasks. Earnings Median annual wages of secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive, were $29,050 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,160 and $36,020. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,440, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $43,240. Median annual wages in the industries em ploying the largest numbers of secretaries, except legal, medi cal, and executive in May 2008 were: Local government....................................................... $32,610 Colleges, universities, and professional schools......... 31,530 General medical and surgical hospitals........................30,960 Elementary and secondary schools..............................29,850 Employment services................................................... 28,340 Median annual wages of executive secretaries and admin istrative assistants were $40,030 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,410 and $50,280. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $62,070. Median annual wages in the indus tries employing the largest numbers of executive secretaries and administrative assistants in May 2008 were: Management of companies and enterprises............. $45,190 Local government......................................................... 41,880 Colleges, universities, and professional schools..........39,220 State government.......................................................... 35,540 Employment services................................................... 33,820 Median annual wages of legal secretaries were $39,860 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,870 and $50,930. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,580, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $62,290. Medical sec retaries earned median annual wages of $29,680 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,530 and $36,090. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,870, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $42,660. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 587 Virtual assistants set their own rate structure and billing terms based on the type of work, skill level, cost of living in their area, experience, and personal financial needs. Those who bill using an hourly rate can range anywhere from $25 to $100 per hour. Some also bill on a per page or project rate. Related Occupations Workers in a number of other occupations also type, record in formation, and process paperwork. Among them are: Page Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks....................... 563 Communications equipment operators.....................................588 Computer operators.................................................................. 589 Court reporters......................................................................... 250 Data entry and information processing workers..................... 590 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping................................................................... 592 Medical assistants.................................................................... 455 Medical records and health information technicians.............. 423 Paralegals and legal assistants..................................................261 Receptionists and information clerks...................................... 570 A growing number of secretaries and administrative assis tants share in managerial and human resource responsibilities. Occupations requiring these skills include: Administrative services managers..............................................29 Computer and information systems managers.......................... 35 Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................................61 Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers........................................................................ 594 Sources of Additional Information State employment offices provide information about job open ings for secretaries and administrative assistants. For information on the latest trends in the profession, career development advice, and the CPS or CAP designations, contact: V International Association of Administrative Professionals, P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. Internet: http ://www.iaap-hq.org y Association of Executive and Administrative Professionals, 900 South Washington St., Suite G-13, Falls Church, VA 22046. Internet: http://www.theaeap.com Information on the CLSS designation can be obtained from: y Legal Secretaries International Inc., 2302 Fannin St., Suite 500, Houston, TX 77002-9136. Internet: http://www.legalsecretaries.org Information on the ALS, PLS, and paralegal certifications is available from: y National Association of Legal Secretaries, Inc., 8159 East 41st. St., Tulsa, OK 74145. Internet: http://www.nals.org Information on virtual assistant certification can be obtained from: y International Virtual Assistants Association, 561 Keystone Ave., Suite 309, Reno, NV 89503. Internet: http://www.ivaa.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl51.htm Other Office and Administrative Support Occupations Billing and Posting Clerks and Machine Operators Nature of the Work Billing and posting clerks and machine operators—commonly called billing clerks—calculate charges, develop bills, and pre pare them to be mailed to customers. have streamlined billing departments, but job growth is ex pected due to an increasing number of transactions, especially in the rapidly growing health care industry. job prospects. Prospects should be good. Many job open ings will occur as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Education and Training Median annual wages for billing and posting clerks and ma chine operators were $30,950 in May 2008. Many billing clerks are hired at entry level. They generally need at least a high school diploma and basic software skills. Related Occupations Job Outlook Current and Projected Employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 528,800 2018 Employment...................................................... 609,600 Employment change..................................................... 80,800 Growth rate........................................................................15% Employment change. Employment is expected to grow faster than average. Automated and electronic billing processes https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks Order clerks...................................................... Payroll and timekeeping clerks....................... Page ,.563 .595 .595 Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for billing clerks is available from State job banks. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char 588 Occupational Outlook Handbook acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos277.htm acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl45.htm Brokerage Clerks Communications Equipment Operators Nature of the Work Brokerage clerks perform a number of clerical duties pertain ing to transactions involving securities, such as stocks, bonds, commodities, and other kinds of investments. Duties include writing orders for stock purchases and sales, computing trans fer taxes, verifying stock transactions, accepting and delivering securities, distributing dividends, and keeping records of daily transactions and holdings. Education and Training Brokerage clerk positions usually require only a high school diploma, but graduates from 2- and 4-year college degree pro grams are increasingly preferred. Short term on-the-job training is common. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment........................................................ 67,600 2018 Employment........................................................ 65,800 Employment change......................................................-1,800 Growth rate........................................................................-3% Nature of the Work Most communications equipment operators work as switch board operators or telephone operators for a wide variety of businesses. They may relay incoming, outgoing, and in teroffice calls, or assist customers with clerical duties, such as offer directory information, take messages, greet and an nounce visitors or, in some cases, handle billing requests or emergency calls. Education and Training Communications equipment operators generally receive infor mal on the job training, so a high school diploma is sufficient for most positions. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 181,600 2018 Employment...................................................... 163,400 Employment change....................................................-18,200 Growth rate......................................................................-10% Employment change. Employment of brokerage clerks is expected to decline slowly. Industry consolidation and in creased automation of securities transactions through electronic networks will reduce the need for brokerage clerks. Addition ally, clerks are often seen as reducing profits as they don’t bring in customers, thus making them particularly susceptible to lay offs and downsizing. Job prospects. Keen competition is expected for most jobs as the financial services industry undergoes further consolida tion and the number of applicants is expected to exceed the number of job openings. Those with job related experience or a 2-year or 4-year degree should have the best opportunities. Employment change. Employment of communications equipment operators is expected to decline rapidly due to new labor-saving communications technologies, such as voice rec ognition technology and internet directory assistance services. The movement of jobs to foreign countries, proliferation of cell phones, and consolidation of telephone operator jobs into fewer locations also will continue to negatively impact employment growth. Job prospects. Despite declining employment, job pros pects should be favorable as occupational turnover is expected to remain high. Earnings Earnings Median annual wages for brokerage clerks were $38,710 in May 2008. Related Occupations Bill and account collectors.................................... Billing and posting clerks and machine operators Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.... Tellers.................................................................... Page .561 ..587 .563 .599 Sources of Additional Information y Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association, 120 Broadway, 35th Floor, New York, NY 10271. Internet: http://www.sifma.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Switchboard operators, including answering service.$24,220 Telephone operators.................................................... 31,670 Communications equipment operators, all other........35,050 Related Occupations Customer service representatives...................... Dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks.................. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers............ Receptionists and information clerks................ Page ..567 .590 ,.592 .595 .570 Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportunities, contact compa nies in the industries that employ communications equipment operators. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 589 The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl 54.htm Related Occupations Page Computer software engineers and computer programmers .... 134 Computer systems analysts.....................................................140 Sources of Additional Information Computer Operators Nature of the Work Computer operators oversee the operation of computer hardware systems, ensuring that these machines are used as efficiently and securely as possible. They control the console of either a mainframe digital computer or a group of minicomputers and set controls on the computers and peripheral devices required to run computer tasks or “jobs.” Operators maintain logbooks or operating records for each job run and list any events, such as malfunctions, that occur during their shift. Other computer operators perform and monitor routine tasks, such as tape backup, virus checking, software upgrading, and basic mainte nance or help programmers and systems analysts test and debug new programs. Computer processing operations regularly run around-the-clock, allowing opportunities for evening, night, or weekend work. However, increased automation and telecom munication systems lessen the need for full-time coverage of operations and permits many operators to monitor systems remotely. Education and Training Computer operators generally require a high school degree and are trained by employers on the job. Most computer operators expect to advance to other positions in the information technol ogy field within a few years. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment.......................................................110,000 2018 Employment........................................................ 89,500 Employment change.................................................... -20,500 Growth rate......................................................................-19% Employment change. Employment of computer operators is projected to decline rapidly because advances in technol ogy are making many of the duties performed by these work ers obsolete. The expanding use of software that automates computer operations gives companies the option of mak ing systems more efficient, but greatly reduces the need for operators. Job prospects. Experienced operators are expected to face competition for the few job openings that will arise each year to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities will be best for opera tors who have formal computer education, familiarity with a variety of operating systems, and knowledge of the latest technology. Earnings Median annual wages for computer operators were $35,600 in 2008. DigitizedMay for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos 128.htm Credit Authorizers, Checkers, and Clerks Nature of the Work Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks review credit his tory and obtain the information needed to determine the creditworthiness of individuals or businesses applying for credit. Education and Training Employers may hire clerks with only a high school diploma, but some prefer workers with an accounting education from a trade school or community college. Most employers provide on-the-job training. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment........................................................ 63,800 2018 Employment........................................................ 65,600 Employment change.............................................................. 1,800 Growth rate.........................................................................3% Employment change. Slower than average growth is ex pected. While technology continues to improve the efficiency of credit application processing, jobs will continue to arise as a result of increased risk aversion and closer attention to credit policies by lenders. Job prospects. Prospects should be good. Openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occu pation for various reasons, such as advancement to another position. Earnings Median annual wages for credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks were $30,390 in May 2008. Related Occupations Bill and account collectors.... Loan interviewers and clerks Loan officers........................ Page ..561 ..593 .. 109 Sources of Additional Information State employment offices can provide information about job openings for credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks. 590 Occupational Outlook Handbook The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos 129.htm reasons will produce numerous job openings each year. Job prospects will be most favorable for those with the best techni cal skills and be willing to upgrade their skills continuously in order to remain marketable. Earnings Data Entry and Information Processing Workers Median annual wages in May 2008 were as follows: Word processors and typists......................................$31,390 Data entry keyers....................................................... 26,120 Nature of the Work Data entry and information processing workers enter data into a computer, operate a variety of office machines, and perform other clerical or administrative duties. Data entry and infor mation processing workers also are known as word processors, typists, and data entry keyers, or, less commonly, electronic data processors, keypunch technicians, and transcribers. Word processors and typists set up and prepare reports, letters, mail ing labels, and other text material. Some may work with highly technical material, plan and key complicated statistical tables, combine and rearrange materials from different sources, or prepare master copies. Data entry keyers input lists of items, numbers, or other data, e.g., customers’ personal information, medical records, or membership lists, into computers or com plete forms that appear on a computer screen. They also may reformat existing data, edit current information, or proofread new entries for accuracy. Data entry keyers may use scanners, electronically transmitted files, or other forms of character rec ognition systems. Generally, these employees work standard workdays, but technology allows many to work from remote locations, including home, or during off hours when processing demands are less. Education and Training Many data entry and information processing workers are hired right out of high school and trained on the job. Spelling, punc tuation, and grammar skills are important, as is familiarity with standard office equipment and procedures. Students may acquire skills in keyboarding and in the use of word process ing, spreadsheet, and database management software in high schools, community colleges, business schools, temporary help agencies, or using self-teaching aids such as books, tapes, and Internet tutorials. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 426,200 2018 Employment...................................................... 400,700 Employment change....................................................-25,500 Growth rate........................................................................-6% Employment change. Employment of data entry and infor mation processing workers is expected to decline moderately. Improved technologies and greater social acceptance of work ers performing their own data entry and information processing work will lessen the need for these workers, except for highly detailed or sophisticated work. Job prospects. The need to replace workers who transfer to for other occupations or leave this large occupation for other Digitized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Computer operators................................................... Dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance...... Medical records and health information technicians Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers................... Secretaries and administrative assistants................. Page .589 .590 ..423 ..595 ..583 Sources of Additional Information y International Association of Administrative Professionals, P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195. Internet: http://www.iaap-hq.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl55.htm Dispatchers, Except Police, Fire, and Ambulance Nature of the Work Dispatchers schedule and dispatch workers, equipment, or service vehicles to carry materials or passengers. They keep records, logs, and schedules of the calls that they receive and of the transporta tion vehicles that they monitor and control. Many dispatchers em ploy computer-aided dispatch systems to accomplish these tasks. Education and Training Workers usually have a high school degree and learn the skills needed to do their jobs through a few months of on-the-job training. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 195,700 2018 Employment.......................................................190,700 Employment change......................................................-5,000 Growth rate........................................................................-3% Employment change. Employment is expected to decline slowly. Increasing worker productivity may cause an employ ment decline; however population growth and economic expan sion may limit the decline. Job prospects. Favorable opportunities are expected, largely due to job openings arising from the need to replace workers Office and Administrative Support Occupations 591 who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As the equipment becomes more complex, individuals with com puter skills and experience should have the best prospects for employment. Job prospects. Job opportunities are expected to be favorable. Prospects will be best for those with a broad range of job skills, such as good customer service, math, and telephone skills. Earnings Earnings Median annual wages for dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance, were $33,850 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Air traffic controllers................................................................784 Customer service representatives.............................................567 Police, fire and ambulance dispatchers................................... 595 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.................................................................... 598 Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportunities for dispatchers is avail able from local employers and State employment service offices. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos342.htm Median annual wages for eligibility interviewers, government programs were $39,310 in May 2008. Related Occupations Bill and account collectors......... Customer service representatives Procurement clerks..................... Social workers............................. Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportunities in this occupation is available from local and State Government employment offices. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos339.htm File Clerks Eligibility Interviewers, Government Programs Nature of the Work Nature of the Work Education and Training Eligibility interviewers, government programs interview appli cants for government services and determine if they qualify for government assistance, such as welfare, unemployment ben efits, Social Security benefits, and public housing. They prepare case files, determine the appropriate amount of payment, and follow up with recipients to determine their eligibility for ser vices after a certain period. Education and Training Most employees are trained on the job and learn from moreexperienced workers. Good interpersonal and communication skills and organizational ability are needed for this job. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment.......................................................119,500 2018 Employment.......................................................130,500 Employment change......................................................11,000 Growth rate......................................................................... 9% Employment change. Employment is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. The increase in the number of retiring baby boomers becoming eligible for Social Security and other government entitlement programs will be the main cause of growth in this occupation. However, automation should reduce employment growth for some eligi bility interviewers, as more government programs allow people to apply for assistance online. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page ..561 ..567 ..597 ..246 File clerks classify, store, retrieve, track, and update records and information. Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent. Most training occurs on the job, and can be learned in a short period of time. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 212,200 2018 Employment...................................................... 162,600 Employment change....................................................-49,600 Growth rate......................................................................-23% Employment change. Employment is expected to de cline rapidly. Employment is expected to decline due to productivity gains from office automation and the consolida tion of clerical jobs. Additionally, most files are stored digitally and can be retrieved electronically, reducing the demand for file clerks. Job prospects. Favorable opportunities are expected. De spite employment declines, job opportunities should arise from the need to replace workers who leave the labor force or trans fer to other occupations. Job prospects will be best for those who have typing and other secretarial skills and who are famil iar with a wide range of office machines, especially personal computers. Earnings Median annual wages for file clerks were $23,800 in May 2008. 592 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Page Receptionists and information clerks......................................570 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks.....................................577 Sources of Additional Information The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl46.htm Hotel, Motel, and Resort Desk Clerks Nature of the Work Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks are the first line of customer service for a lodging property. They register arriving guests, assign rooms, and answer guests’ questions on hotel services and other matters. At other times, they check out guests and report problems with guest rooms or public areas to the house keeping or maintenance staff. Night and weekend work is com mon and approximately 1 in 4 desk clerks works part time. Education and Training Most hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks learn their job through short-term on-the-job training, which describes their job duties, familiarizes them with the hotel’s facilities, and provides in struction on how to use the computerized reservation, room assignment, and billing systems. Postsecondary education is not required for this job, but some background or coursework in hospitality is helpful. Most importantly, employers look for people who are friendly and customer-service oriented, well groomed, and display maturity and good judgment. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 230,200 2018 Employment...................................................... 261,700 Employment change..................................................... 31,500 Growth rate....................................................................... 14% Employment change. Employment of hotel, motel, and re sort desk clerks is expected to grow faster than the average. As developers open new hotels, jobs for hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks should become available. The recent trend toward smaller limited-service hotels, which are more efficient to oper ate and require less staff, however, will mean fewer desk clerks for each hotel. In addition, jobs will be created as consumers begin traveling again after the hiatus brought on by the recent economic downturn. Job prospects. During recessions, vacation and business travel declines, and hotels and motels need fewer desk clerks; however, newly opened hotels and the need to replace the many desk clerks who leave this occupation each year will offer some new opportunities. Earnings Median annual wages for hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks were $19,480 in May 2008. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Page Counter and rental clerks.........................................................560 Customer service representatives............................................ 567 Lodging managers......................................................................70 Retail salespersons...................................................................543 Sources of Additional Information ^ American Hotel & Lodging Association, 1201 New York Ave., NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http ://www.ah!a.com The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl32.htm Human Resources Assistants, Except Payroll and Timekeeping Nature of the Work Human resources assistants maintain the human resource records of an organization’s employees. These records in clude such information as name, address, job title, and earnings; benefits such as health and life insurance; and tax withholdings. Education and Training Employers prefer to hire people who have a high school di ploma or its equivalent. Computer, communication, and inter personal skills are also important. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment.......................................................169,700 2018 Employment...................................................... 160,000 Employment change......................................................-9,700 Growth rate........................................................................-6% Employment change. Employment is expected to decline slowly. Productivity gains from office automation and in creases in the use of electronic files will lead to declines in the demand for human resources assistants to do data entry and recordkeeping. Job prospects. Applicants may face competition. Job oppor tunities should be best for those with excellent communication and computer skills and a broad based knowledge of general office functions. Earnings Median annual wages for human resource assistants, except payroll and timekeeping, were $35,750 in May 2008. Related Occupations Data entry and information processing workers Receptionists and information clerks................ Secretaries and administrative assistants.......... Page .590 .570 .583 Office and Administrative Support Occupations 593 Sources of Additional Information Sources of Additional Information y Society for Human Resource Management, 1800 Duke St., The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos340.htm Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.shrm.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl50.htm Interviewers, Except Eligibility and Loan Nature of the Work Interviewers obtain and verify information from individuals and businesses by mail, telephone, or in person for the pur pose of completing forms, applications, and questionnaires, such as market research surveys, Census forms, college ad mission applications, and medical histories. They review the answers for completeness and accuracy and record the information. Education and Training Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent or a mix of education and related experience. New employees generally are trained on the job. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 233,400 2018 Employment...................................................... 269,900 Employment change............................................................36,400 Growth rate........................................................................16% Employment change. Employment is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Rapid growth in the healthcare and market research industries that employ the majority of these workers will generate jobs for interviewers. However, the expanding use of online surveys and question naires to conduct market research and the increasing use of digital health records will impede growth. Job prospects. Job prospects are expected to be good. Turn over is generally high for this occupation where over a quarter of the jobs are part time. Applicants with good customer service and communications skills and those that are detail oriented should have the best prospects. Earnings Median annual wages for interviewers, except eligibility and loan, were $28,140 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Bill and account collectors............................... ..................... 561 Customer service representatives..................... ..................... 567 Digitized Procurement for FRASER clerks............................................ ..................... 597 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Loan Interviewers and Clerks Nature of the Work Loan interviewers, also called loan processors or loan clerks, interview applicants and others to obtain and verify personal and financial information for the purposes of completing loan applications. They also prepare the documents that go to the appraiser and are issued at closing. Education and Training A high school diploma or equivalent is generally the minimum needed to get into the occupation; some college coursework is usually preferred. Once hired, new interviewers receive short term on-the-job-training to learn about pricing loans and about the rules and regulations regarding the issuing of loans. Excel lent written and verbal communication skills are essential. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 210,400 2018 Employment...................................................... 219,400 Employment change....................................................... 9,100 Growth rate.........................................................................4% Employment change. Employment is projected to grow slower than the average for all occupations. A growing popu lation will, over time, spur demand for home loans and, thus, for loan interviewers to verify and process financial data on the application and to assemble documents and prepare them for settlement. However, the increasing use of online applications will limit demand for loan interviewers. Job prospects. Prospects will be best for applicants with a broad range of job skills, including good customer service, math, and telephone skills. The job outlook for loan interviewers and clerks is sensitive to overall economic activity. Earnings Median annual wages for loan interviewers and clerks were $32,470 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Bill and account collectors........................................ 561 Customer service representatives............................. .............567 Loan officers............................................................. .............109 Procurement clerks.................................................... .......... 597 Sources of Additional Information y Mortgage Bankers Association, 1331 L St., NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http ://w ww.mortgagebankers.org 594 Occupational Outlook Handbook The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos341.htm Meter Readers, Utilities Nature of the Work Meter readers read electric, gas, water, or steam consumption meters and record the volume used. They also inspect the me ters and their connections for any defects or damage and supply repair and maintenance workers with the information necessary to fix damaged meters. Education and Training Most meter reader jobs require a high school diploma and a valid driver’s license. Many people start utility careers in this occupation with the goal of advancing to positions with more responsibility. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment........................................................ 45,300 2018 Employment........................................................ 36,300 Employment change......................................................-9,100 Growth rate......................................................................-20% Office and Administrative Support Worker Supervisors and Managers Nature of the Work Office and administrative support supervisors and managers plan or supervise support staff to ensure that they can work efficiently. After allocating work assignments and issuing dead lines, office and administrative support supervisors and manag ers oversee the work to ensure that it is proceeding on schedule and meeting established quality standards. Education and Training Many employers require office and administrative support su pervisors and managers to have postsecondary training—and in some cases, an associate or even a bachelor’s degree. Most firms fill office and administrative support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting office or administrative sup port workers from within their organizations. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment................................................... 1,457,200 2018 Employment................................................... 1,617,500 Employment change................................................... 160,300 Growth rate....................................................................... 11% Median annual wages for meter readers, utilities were $32,950 in May 2008. Employment change. Employment of office and adminis trative support supervisors and managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2018. Continuing advances in technology should increase of fice and administrative support workers’ productivity and allow a wider variety of tasks to be performed by people in profes sional positions. Job prospects. Keen competition is expected for jobs as the number of applicants greatly exceeds the number of job open ings. Opportunities will continue to be best for those office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers who show leadership and team building skills, and who are able to multitask, communicate well, and keep abreast of technological advances. Related Occupations Earnings Employment change. Employment is expected to decline rapidly. New Automatic Meter Reader (AMR) systems allow meters to be monitored and billed from a central point, reducing the need for meter readers. Job prospects. Jobseekers can expect competition. Although this is a declining occupation, job opportunities are expected to be good because of the need to replace workers leaving the occupation. Earnings Line installers and repairers..................................... Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers Page ..713 ..760 Sources of Additional Information y International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 900 Seventh St. NW, Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.ibew.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at for http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos282.htm Digitized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median annual wages for office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers were $45,790 in May 2008. Related Occupations Administrative services managers.......... Education administrators........................ Office clerks, general............................. Secretaries and administrative assistants Page ....29 ....41 ..581 ..583 Sources of Additional Information International Association of Administrative Professionals, P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. Internet: http://www.iaap-hq.org Office and Administrative Support Occupations 595 The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) provides in formation on a wide range of occupational characteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the Internet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl27.htm Payroll and timekeeping clerks typically learn the skills they need on the job. Employers prefer high school graduates who have computer skills. Job Outlook Order Clerks Nature of the Work Order clerks receive and process orders for a variety of goods or services and inform customers of receipt, prices, shipping dates, and delays. Order clerks also prepare simple contracts and handle customer complaints. Education and Training Most order clerks are trained on the job. Employers prefer workers with a high school diploma or its equivalent, and who are computer literate and proficient in word-processing and spreadsheet software. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 245,700 2018 Employment.......................................................181,500 Employment change.................................................... -64,200 Growth rate......................................................................-26% Employment change. Employment is expected to decline rapidly. Improvements in technology and office automation continue to increase worker productivity and decrease the need for order clerks. Job prospects. Favorable opportunities are expected. Despite employment declines, numerous openings will occur each year to replace order clerks who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Many of these openings will be for sea sonal work, especially in catalog companies or online retailers catering to holiday gift buyers. Earnings Median annual wages for order clerks were $27,990 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Cargo and freight agents..........................................................572 Customer service representatives.............................................567 Stock clerks and order fillers....................................................598 Sources of Additional Information The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) provides in formation on a wide range of occupational characteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the Internet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl48.htm Payroll and Timekeeping Clerks Nature of the Work Payroll and timekeeping clerks compile and post employee time and payroll data. They ensure that employees are paid on time and that their paychecks are accurate. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Education and Training Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 208,700 2018 Employment...................................................... 197,700 Employment change....................................................-10,900 Growth rate........................................................................-5% Employment change. Employment is projected to decline slowly. Increased automation of the payroll and timekeeping process, and the use of computer software that allows employ ees to update and record their own payroll and timekeeping in formation, will decrease the need for payroll and timekeeping clerks. Job prospects. Favorable opportunities are expected. De spite the projected employment decline, job openings will arise each year as payroll and timekeeping clerks leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Those who have com pleted a certification program, indicating that they can handle more complex payroll issues, will have an advantage in the job market. Earnings Median annual wages for payroll and timekeeping clerks were $34,810 in May 2008. Related Occupations Bill and account collectors........................................ Billing and posting clerks and machine operators Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.... Page ..561 ..587 ..563 Sources of Additional Information V American Payroll Association, 660 North Main Ave., Suite 100, San Antonio, TX 78205. Internet: http://www.americanpayroll.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible athttp://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl49.htm Police, Fire, and Ambulance Dispatchers Nature of the Work Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, also called 911 opera tors, monitor the location of emergency services personnel from their jurisdiction’s emergency services departments. These workers dispatch the appropriate type and number of units in response to calls for assistance. 596 Occupational Outlook Handbook Education and Training Education and Training Workers usually have a high school degree and develop the necessary skills in about 3 to 6 months of on-the-job training. Many States require specific types of training or certification from a professional association. All applicants for Postal Service jobs are required to take an examination. Additionally, they must be at least 18 years of age and a U.S. citizen or have been granted perma nent resident-alien status in the United States. Males must have registered with the Selective Service upon reaching age 18. A good command of the English language is also required. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment........................................................ 99,900 2018 Employment.......................................................117,700 Employment change......................................................17,800 Growth rate....................................................................... 18% Employment change. Employment is expected to grow faster than average. The growing and aging population will in crease demand for emergency services and create new jobs for police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers. Growth may be slowed in some places, as some municipalities consolidate their call centers. Job prospects. Favorable opportunities are expected, largely due to job openings arising from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As the equipment dispatchers use becomes more complex, indi viduals with computer skills should have the best opportunities. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment........................................................ 75,800 2018 Employment........................................................ 62,100 Employment change....................................................-13,700 Growth rate......................................................................-18% Employment change. Employment is projected to decline rapidly. Postal Service clerks will be adversely affected by the decline in first-class mail volume because of the increasing use of electronic mail and automated bill pay. Job prospects. Keen competition for jobs is expected. The number of applicants usually exceeds the number of job open ings because of the occupation’s low entry requirements and attractive wages and benefits. Earnings Earnings Median annual wages for police, fire, and ambulance dispatch ers were $33,670 in May 2008. Median annual wages of postal service clerks were $51,040 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Air traffic controllers................................................................ 784 Communications equipment operators.....................................588 Customer service representatives.............................................567 Dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance..................... 590 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.................................................................... 598 Sources of Additional Information y Association of Public Safety Communications Officials, International, 351 N. Williamson Blvd., Daytona Beach, FL 32114. Internet: http://www.apco911.org The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos343.htm Postal Service Clerks Nature of the Work Postal Service clerks sell stamps, money orders, postal statio nery, and mailing envelopes and boxes in post offices through out the country. These workers register, certify, and insure mail, calculate and collect postage, and answer questions about other postal matters. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Page Counter and rental clerks.........................................................560 Postal Service mail carriers......................................................575 Postal Service mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators................................................................596 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks..................................... 577 Sources of Additional Information y United States Postal Service. Contact your local post office. Internet: http://www.usps.com The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos344.htm Postal Service Mail Sorters, Processors, and Processing Machine Operators Nature of the Work Postal Service mail sorters, processors, and processing ma chine operators prepare incoming and outgoing mail for distri bution at post offices and at mail processing centers. They load and unload postal trucks and move mail around mail processing Office and Administrative Support Occupations 597 centers. They also load and operate mail processing, sorting, and canceling machinery. Education and Training All applicants for Postal Service jobs are required to take a Postal Service examination. Additionally, they must be at least 18 years of age, and be a U.S. citizen or have been granted per manent resident-alien status in the United States. Males must have registered with the Selective Service upon reaching age 18. A good command of the English language also is required. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment.......................................................179,900 2018 Employment.......................................................125,300 Employment change....................................................-54,500 Growth rate......................................................................-30% Employment change. Employment is projected to de cline rapidly. Increased use of automated equipment for sort ing and processing mail reduces the need for employees in this occupation. Employment also will be negatively affected by companies increasingly presorting their own mail before it arrives at the Post Office to qualify for postage rate reductions. Job prospects. Keen competition for jobs is expected. The number of applicants usually exceeds the number of job open ings because of the occupation’s low entry requirements and attractive wages and benefits. Education and Training Most employers prefer applicants who have a high school di ploma or its equivalent. Most procurement clerks are trained on the job under close supervision of more experienced employees. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment........................................................ 81,500 2018 Employment........................................................ 86,200 Employment change....................................................... 4,800 Growth rate......................................................................... 6% Employment change. Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average. The need for procurement clerks will be reduced, as the use of computers to place orders directly with suppliers and as ordering over the Internet becomes more prevalent. Job prospects. Job prospects are expected to be favorable. Job openings will arise out of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median hourly wages for procurement clerks were $16.72 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Order clerks..............................................................................595 Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents.............. 79 Stock clerks and order fillers................................................... 598 Earnings Median annual wages for Postal Service mail sorters, pro cessors, and processing machine operators were $50,020 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Counter and rental clerks.........................................................560 Postal Service clerks................................................................ 596 Postal Service mail carriers......................................................575 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks......................................577 Sources of Additional Information The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) provides in formation on a wide range of occupational characteristics. Links to O *NET appear at the end of the Internet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos279.htm Production, Planning, and Expediting Clerks Nature of the Work Sources of Additional Information y United States Postal Service. Contact your local post office. Internet: http://www.usps.com The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos346.htm Procurement Clerks Nature of the Work Procurement clerks compile requests for materials, prepare pur chase orders, keep track of purchases and supplies, and handle inquiries about orders. They make sure that what was purchased on schedule and meets the purchaser’s specifications. Digitizedarrives for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Production and planning clerks compile records and reports on various aspects of production, such as materials and parts used, products produced, machine and instrument readings, and frequency of defects. Expediting clerks contact vendors and shippers to ensure that merchandise, supplies, and equipment are forwarded on the specified shipping dates. Education and Training Many production, planning, and expediting jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. These clerks usually learn the job by doing routine tasks under close supervision. Computer skills are very important. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 283,500 2018 Employment...................................................... 287,800 Employment change....................................................... 4,300 Growth rate.........................................................................2% 598 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment change. Employment of production, plan ning, and expediting clerks is projected to show little or no growth over the 2008-2018 projection period. As greater emphasis is placed on the timely delivery of goods and services throughout the economy, there will be increasing need for production, planning, and expediting clerks at all lev els of the supply chain. However, the expected employment declines in manufacturing will limit the growth of this occupation. Job prospects. In addition to new jobs, job openings will arise from the need to replace production, planning, and ex pediting clerks who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Opportunities will be better in industries that are experiencing faster growth, such as wholesale trade and ware housing. Earnings Median annual wages for production, planning, and expediting clerks were $40,480 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Cargo and freight agents..........................................................572 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks......................................577 Stock clerks and order fillers....................................................598 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping....................................................................... 599 Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment.......................................................168,300 2018 Employment.......................................................181,900 Employment change..................................................... 13,600 Growth rate.........................................................................8% Employment change. Employment of reservation and trans portation ticket agents and travel clerks is expected to grow as fast as average. Increased use of online reservations systems and self-service ticketing machines will reduce the number of people necessary to provide these services. Job prospects. Applicants for these jobs are likely to en counter competition in part because of the low entry require ments and good travel benefits offered by many companies in the travel industry. Employment opportunities may fluctuate with the economy which often has a strong impact on travel industry employment. Earnings Median annual wages for reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks were $31,070 in May 2008. Related Occupations Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks.. Receptionists and information clerks Travel agents..................................... Page ..592 ..570 ..557 Sources of Additional Information Sources of Additional Information The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos283.htm Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks Nature of the Work Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks make and confirm travel reservations and sell tickets to pas sengers. They may check baggage and direct passengers to designated departure areas, or provide tourists with travel in formation, such as points of interest, restaurants, rates, and emergency services. Some work at transportation center ticket counters and travel offices, while others answer telephones and e-mail at reservation call centers or at individual properties. Most work a standard 40-hour week in locations that typically operate around the clock. Education and Training Most workers in this occupation need only a high school di ploma or its equivalent. Much of the training comes from com pany-sponsored programs where they learn about the company’s reservation system and ticketing procedures and travel-related information. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) provides in formation on a wide range of occupational characteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the Internet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocosl35.htm Stock Clerks and Order Fillers Nature of the Work Stock clerks receive merchandise in stores, warehouses, stock rooms, and other storage facilities; unpack it; mark items with identifying codes, such as price, stock, or inventory control codes; stock shelves; and help customers with their packages. Order fillers complete customers mail, Web, and phone orders by retrieving the ordered merchandise, computing the prices and recording the sale, and preparing it for shipment. Most jobs are physically demanding and may result in minor muscle ail ments, scrapes, or other injuries. In retail establishments, eve ning and weekend hours are common. Education and Training A high school diploma or GED is usually sufficient for this occupation. Most stock clerks and order fillers learn their jobs through short-term on-the-job training. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment....................................................1,858,800 2018 Employment................................................... 1,993,300 Employment change................................................... 134,400 Growth rate.........................................................................7% Office and Administrative Support Occupations 599 Employment change. Average growth in the employment of stock clerks and order fillers is expected. Most stock clerks and order fillers work in retail trade, most notably in grocery and department stores, stocking shelves and retrieving items for customers. These tasks, which usually require handling small quantities of items, are difficult to automate. Job prospects. Numerous job openings will occur due to the need to replace workers who leave the occupation, a character istic of very large occupations with minimal training require ments. Job openings in grocery, general merchandise, clothing, and department stores will be greater than in other industries, because much of the work is done manually and is difficult to automate. Earnings Median annual wages for stock clerks and order fillers were $20,800 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Order clerks.............................................................................. 595 Procurement clerks................................................................... 597 Production, planning, and expediting clerks........................... 597 Shipping, receiving, and trafficclerks.....................................577 Job prospects. Job prospects for tellers are expected to be fa vorable. Most job openings will arise from growth and from the need to replace the many tellers who transfer to other occupations. Earnings Median annual wages for tellers were $23,610 in May 2008. Related Occupations Page Bill and account collectors.......................................................561 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators.................. 587 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks....................... 563 Brokerage clerks......................................................................588 Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks.................................. 589 Gaming cage workers...............................................................565 Sources of Additional Information Contact your local bank for additional information. The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) provides in formation on a wide range of occupational characteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the Internet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/oohyocosl26.htm Weighers, Measurers, Checkers, and Samplers, Recordkeeping Sources of Additional Information The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http ://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos 139.htm Tellers Nature of the Work Bank tellers are responsible for quickly and accurately process ing routine transactions that customers conduct at banks. Rou tine transactions include cashing checks and making deposits, loan payments, and withdrawals. Education and Training Most teller jobs require a high school diploma and a back ground check. Tellers are usually trained on the job. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment...................................................... 600,500 2018 Employment...................................................... 638,000 Employment change..................................................... 37,500 Growth rate......................................................................... 6% Employment change. Employment of tellers is expected to grow more slowly than average. To attract customers, banks are opening new branch offices in a variety of locations, such as gro cery stores, and keeping their branches open longer during the day and on weekends. Both of these trends are expected to result in job growth for tellers, particularly those who work part time. Digitizedsome for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers weigh, measure, and check materials, supplies, and equipment to keep accurate records. Most of their duties are clerical. They verify the quan tity, quality, and overall value of the items they are responsible for and check the condition of items purchased, sold, or pro duced against records, bills, invoices, or receipts. Education and Training Most jobs do not require more than a high school diploma or its equivalent. However, preference is given to applicants fa miliar with computers. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills are important. Job Outlook Current and projected employment: 2008 Employment........................................................ 71,900 2018 Employment........................................................ 62,400 Employment change......................................................-9,400 Growth rate......................................................................-13% Employment change. Employment is projected to decline rapidly. Increased use of automated equipment that performs the functions of these workers will lessen the need for weighers, checkers, measurers, and samplers. Job prospects. Favorable opportunities are expected. Despite employment declines, job opportunities should arise from the need to replace workers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Earnings Median annual wages for weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping were $26,940 in May 2008. 600 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Page Cargo and freight agents.... ..................................................... 572 Procurement clerks................................................................... 597 Production, planning, and expediting clerks............................597 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks......................................577 Stock clerks and order fillers....................................................598 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information The Occupational Information Network (0*NET) pro vides information on a wide range of occupational char acteristics. Links to 0*NET appear at the end of the In ternet version of this occupational statement, accessible at http://www.bls.gov/ooh/ocos284.htm
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