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296 Occupational Outlook Handbook Commercial and Industrial Designers (0*NET 27-1021.00) Significant Points • Commercial and industrial designers usually work closely with a range of specialists including engineers, materials scientists, marketing and corporate strategy staff, cost estimators, and accountants. • About 30 percent are self-employed; many designers work for services firms. • A bachelor’s degree is usually required to start; many designers pursue a master’s degree. • Keen competition for jobs is expected; those with strong backgrounds in engineering and computer-aid ed design and extensive business expertise will have the best prospects. Nature of the Work Commercial and industrial designers combine the fields of art, business, and engineering to design the products people use ev ery day. In fact, these designers are responsible for the style, function, quality, and safety of almost every manufactured good. Usually designers specialize in one particular product category, such as automobiles and other transportation vehicles, appli ances, technology goods, medical equipment, furniture, toys, tools and construction equipment, or housewares. The first steps in developing a new design, or altering an ex isting one, are to determine the requirements of the client, the purpose of the product, and to the tastes of customers or users. When creating a new design, designers often begin by research ing the product user or the context in which the product will be used. They ascertain desired product characteristics, such as size, shape, weight, color, materials used, cost, ease of use, fit, and safety. To gather this information, designers meet with cli ents, conduct market research, read design and consumer pub lications, attend trade shows, and visit potential users, suppliers and manufacturers. Next, designers prepare conceptual sketches or diagrams— by hand or with the aid of a computer—to illustrate their vision of the product. After conducting research and consulting with a creative director or other members of the product development team, designers then create detailed sketches or renderings. Many designers use computer-aided design (CAD) tools to cre ate these renderings. Computer models make it easier to adjust designs and to experiment with a greater number of alternatives, speeding and improving the design process. Industrial design ers who work for manufacturing firms also use computer-aided industrial design (CAID) tools to create designs and machinereadable instructions that can direct automated production tools to build the designed product to exact specifications. Often, de signers will also create physical models out of clay, wood, and other materials to give clients a better idea of what the finished product will look like. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Designers present the designs and prototypes to their client or managers and incorporate any changes and suggestions. De signers often work with engineers, accountants, and cost esti mators to determine if a product can be made safer, easier to assemble or use, or cheaper to manufacture. Before a product is completed and manufactured, designers may participate in us ability and safety tests, watching consumers use prototypes and then making adjustments based on those observations. Increasingly, designers are working with corporate strategy staff to ensure that their designs fit into the company’s business plan and strategic vision. They work with marketing staff to develop plans to best market new product designs to consumers. They work to design products that accurately reflect the com pany’s image and values. And although designers have always tried to identify and design products that fit consumers’ needs, more designers are now focused on creating that product before a competitor does. More of today’s designers must also focus on creating innovative products as well as considering the style and technical aspects of the product. Work environment. Designers employed by manufacturing establishments, large corporations, or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Designers in smaller design consulting firms, or those who freelance, may work under a contract to do specific tasks or designs. They frequently adjust their workday to suit their cli ents’ schedules and deadlines, meeting with the clients evenings Most commercial and industrial designers use computer-aided software to prepare conceptual diagrams. Professional and Related Occupations 297 or weekends when necessary. Consultants and self-employed designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more con gested, environments. Additional hours may be required to meet deadlines. Designers may work in their own offices or studios or in cli ents’ homes or offices. They also may travel to other locations, such as testing facilities, design centers, clients’ exhibit sites, users’ homes or workplaces, and manufacturing facilities. With the increased speed and sophistication of computers and ad vanced communications networks, designers may form interna tional design teams and serve a more geographically dispersed clientele. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is required for most entry-level commercial and industrial design positions. Many designers also pursue a master’s degree to increase their employment opportunities. Education and training. A bachelor’s degree in industrial design, architecture, or engineering is required for most entrylevel commercial and industrial design jobs. Coursework in cludes principles of design, sketching, computer-aided design, industrial materials and processes, manufacturing methods, and some classes in engineering, physical science, mathematics, psychology, and anthropology. Many programs also include internships at design or manufacturing firms. Many aspiring commercial and industrial designers earn a master’s degree in industrial design. Some already have a bachelor’s degree in the field, but an increasing number have degrees and experience in other areas, such as marketing, infor mation technology, or engineering, and are hoping to transfer into a design occupation. Also, because of the growing emphasis on strategic design and how products fit into a firm’s overall business plan, an in creasing number of designers are pursing a master’s degree in business administration to gain business skills. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design ac credits approximately 250 postsecondary colleges, universities, and private institutes with programs in art and design. About 45 of these schools award a degree in industrial design; some offer a bachelor’s of art, some a bachelor’s of science. Many schools require the successful completion of 1 year of basic art and design courses before entry into a bachelor’s degree pro gram. Applicants also may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Other qualifications. Creativity and technical knowledge are crucial in this occupation. People in this field must have a strong sense of the esthetic—an eye for color and detail and a sense of balance and proportion. Despite the advancement of computer-aided design, sketching ability remains an important advantage. Designers must also understand the technical as pects of how products function. Most employers also expect new designers to know computer-aided design software. The deciding factor in getting a job often is a good portfolio—ex amples of a person’s best work. Designers must also be imaginative and persistent and must be able to communicate their ideas visually, verbally, and in writing. Because tastes and styles can change quickly, design ers need to be well read, open to new ideas and influences, and quick to react to changing trends. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently and under pressure also are important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to meet dead lines and production schedules. As strategic design becomes more important, employers will seek designers with project management skills and knowledge of accounting, marketing, quality assurance, purchasing, and strategic planning. Good business sense and sales ability are important, especially for those who freelance or run their own business. Advancement. Beginning commercial and industrial design ers usually receive on-the-job training and normally need 1 to 3 years of training before they can advance to higher level po sitions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or other supervisory positions. Some designers leave the occupation to become teachers in design schools or in colleges and universities. Many faculty members continue to consult privately or operate small design studios to complement their classroom activities. Some experienced designers open their own design firms. Employment Commercial and industrial designers held about 48,000 jobs in 2006. About 30 percent were self-employed. Another 15 per cent of designers were employed in either engineering or spe cialized design services firms. Manufacturing firms and service providing companies employed most of the rest of commercial and industrial designers. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow about as fast as average. Keen competition for jobs is expected; those with strong backgrounds in engineering and computer-aided design and extensive busi ness expertise will have the best prospects. Employment change. Employment of commercial and in dustrial designers is expected to grow 7 percent between 2006 and 2016, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Em ployment growth will arise from an expanding economy and from an increase in consumer and business demand for new or upgraded products. Increasing demand for commercial and industrial designers will also stem from the continued emphasis on the quality and safety of products, the increasing demand for new products Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Commercial and industrial designers............................ .............. soc Code 27-1021 Employment, 2006 48,000 Projected employment, 2016 51,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number 3,400 Percent 7 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 298 Occupational Outlook Handbook that are easy and comfortable to use, and the development of high-technology products in consumer electronics, medicine, transportation, and other fields. But increasingly, manufactur ers have been outsourcing design work to design services firms to cut costs and to find the most qualified design talent, increas ing employment in these firms and reducing it in others, such as manufacturing. Additionally, some companies use design firms overseas, especially for the design of high-technology products. These overseas design firms are located closer to their suppliers, which reduces the time it takes to design and sell a product—an important consideration when technology is changing quickly. This offshoring of design work could continue to slow employ ment growth of U.S. commercial and industrial designers. Despite the increase in design work performed overseas, most design jobs, particularly jobs not related to high-technol ogy product design, will still remain in the U.S. Design is es sential to a firm’s success, and firms will want to retain control over the design process. Job prospects. Competition for jobs will be keen because many talented individuals are attracted to the design field. The best job opportunities will be in specialized design firms which are used by manufacturers to design products or parts of prod ucts. Designers with strong backgrounds in engineering and computer-aided design and extensive business expertise will have the best prospects. As the demand for design work becomes more consumerdriven, designers who can closely monitor, and react to, chang ing customer demands—and who can work with marking and strategic planning staffs to come up with new products—will also improve their job prospects. Employment of designers can be affected by fluctuations in the economy. For example, during periods of economic down turns, companies may cut research and development spending, including new product development. Earnings Median annual wage-and-salary earnings for commercial and industrial designers were $54,560 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,270 and $72,610. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,510, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $92,970. Earnings information for the selfemployed are not available. Median annual earnings of salaried commercial and industrial designers in the largest industries that employed them in May 2006 were: Management of companies andenterprises......................... $64,700 Architectural, engineering, and relatedservices.................. 61,890 Engineering services............................................................. 60,440 Specialized design services................................................... 52,500 Related Occupations Workers in other art and design occupations include artists and related workers; fashion designers; floral designers; graphic de signers; and interior designers. Some other occupations that require computer-aided design skills are architects, except land scape and naval; computer software engineers; desktop publish ers; drafters; and engineers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For general career information on commercial and industrial design, contact: y Industrial Designers Society of America, 45195 Business Court, Suite 250, Dulles, VA 20166. Internet: http://www.idsa.org For general information about art and design and a list of ac credited college-level programs, contact: y National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org Fashion Designers (Q*NET 27-1022.00) Significant Points • Almost one-forth are self-employed. • In 2006, the highest concentrations of fashion design ers were employed in New York and California. • Employers usually seek designers with a 2- or 4-year degree who are knowledgeable about textiles fabrics, ornamentation, and fashion trends. • Slower-than-average job growth is projected, and competition for jobs is expected to be keen. Nature of the Work Fashion designers help create the billions of dresses, suits, shoes, and other clothing and accessories purchased every year by consumers. Designers study fashion trends, sketch designs of clothing and accessories, select colors and fabrics, and over see the final production of their designs. Clothing designers create and help produce men’s, women’s, and children’s appar el, including casual wear, suits, sportswear, formalwear, outer wear, maternity, and intimate apparel. Footwear designers help create and produce different styles of shoes and boots. Acces sory designers help create and produce items such as handbags, belts, scarves, hats, hosiery, and eyewear, which add the finish ing touches to an outfit. (The work of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers is described elsewhere in the Hand book.) Some fashion designers specialize in clothing, footwear, or accessory design, but others create designs in all three fash ion categories. The design process from initial design concept to final pro duction takes between 18 and 24 months. The first step in cre ating a design is researching current fashion and making pre dictions of future trends. Some designers conduct their own research, while others rely on trend reports published by fash ion industry trade groups. Trend reports indicate what styles, colors, and fabrics will be popular for a particular season in the future. Textile manufacturers use these trend reports to begin designing fabrics and patterns while fashion designers begin to sketch preliminary designs. Designers then visit manufacturers or trade shows to procure samples of fabrics and decide which fabrics to use with which designs. Professional and Related Occupations 299 Once designs and fabrics are chosen, a prototype of the article using cheaper materials is created and then tried on a model to see what adjustments to the design need to be made. This also helps designers to narrow their choices of designs to offer for sale. After the final adjustments and selections have been made, samples of the article using the actual materials are sewn and then marketed to clothing retailers. Many designs are shown at fashion and trade shows a few times a year. Retailers at the shows place orders for certain items, which are then manufac tured and distributed to stores. Computer-aided design (CAD) is increasingly being used in the fashion design industry. Although most designers initially sketch designs by hand, a growing number also translate these hand sketches to the computer. CAD allows designers to view designs of clothing on virtual models and in various colors and shapes, thus saving time by requiring fewer adjustments of pro totypes and samples later. Depending on the size of their design firm and their experi ence, fashion designers may have varying levels of involvement in different aspects of design and production. In large design firms, fashion designers often are the lead designers who are responsible for creating the designs, choosing the colors and fabrics, and overseeing technical designers who turn the de signs into a final product. They are responsible for creating the prototypes and patterns and work with the manufacturers and suppliers during the production stages. Large design houses also employ their own patternmakers, tailors, and sewers who create the master patterns for the design and sew the prototypes and samples. Designers working in small firms, or those new to the job, usually perform most of the technical, pattemmaking, and sewing tasks, in addition to designing the clothing. (The work of pattern makers, hand sewers, and tailors is covered in the statement on textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Fashion designers working for apparel wholesalers or manu facturers create designs for the mass market. These designs are manufactured in various sizes and colors. A small number of high-fashion (haute couture) designers are self-employed and create custom designs for individual clients, usually at very high prices. Other high-fashion designers sell their designs in their own retail stores or cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. These designers create a mixture of original garments and those that follow established fashion trends. Some fashion designers specialize in costume design for per forming arts, motion picture, and television productions. The work of costume designers is similar to other fashion designers. Costume designers, however, perform extensive research on the styles worn during the period in which the performance takes place, or they work with directors to select and create appro priate attire. They make sketches of designs, select fabric and other materials, and oversee the production of the costumes. They also must stay within the costume budget for the particu lar production item. Work environment. Fashion designers employed by manu facturing establishments, wholesalers, or design firms gener ally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable set tings. Designers who freelance generally work on a contract, or by the job. They frequently adjust their workday to suit their https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis TO Designers visit manufacturers or trade shows to procure sam ples offabrics. clients’ schedules and deadlines, meeting with the clients dur ing evenings or weekends when necessary. Freelance design ers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested, environments, and are under pressure to please clients and to find new ones in order to maintain a steady income. Regardless of their work setting, all fashion designers occasionally work long hours to meet production deadlines or prepare for fashion shows. The global nature of the fashion business requires constant communication with suppliers, manufacturers, and customers all over the United States and the world. Most fashion design ers travel several times a year to trade and fashion shows to leam about the latest fashion trends. Designers also may travel frequently to meet with fabric and materials suppliers and with manufacturers who produce the final apparel products. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In fashion design, employers usually seek individuals with a 2or 4-year degree who are knowledgeable about textiles, fabrics, ornamentation, and fashion trends. Education and training. Bachelor’s of fine arts and associ ate degree programs in fashion design are offered at many col leges, universities, and private art and design schools. Some fashion designers also combine a fashion design degree with a business, marketing, or fashion merchandising degree, espe cially those who want to run their own business or retail store. Basic coursework includes color, textiles, sewing and tailoring, pattern making, fashion history, computer-aided design (CAD), and design of different types of clothing such as menswear or footwear. Coursework in human anatomy, mathematics, and psychology also is useful. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design ac credits approximately 250 postsecondary institutions with pro grams in art and design. Most of these schools award degrees in fashion design. Many schools do not allow formal entry into a program until a student has successfully completed basic art and design courses. Applicants usually have to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Aspiring fashion designers can leam these necessary skills through internships with design or manufacturing firms. Some designers also gain valuable experience working in retail stores, 300 Occupational Outlook Handbook as personal stylists, or as custom tailors. Such experience can help designers gain sales and marketing skills while learning what styles and fabrics look good on different people. Designers also can gain exposure to potential employers by entering their designs in student or amateur contests. Because of the global nature of the fashion industry, experience in one of the international fashion centers, such as Milan or Paris, can be useful. Other qualifications. Designers must have a strong sense of the esthetic—an eye for color and detail, a sense of balance and proportion, and an appreciation for beauty. Fashion designers also need excellent communication and problem-solving skills. Despite the advancement of computer-aided design, sketching ability remains an important advantage in fashion design. A good portfolio—a collection of a person’s best work—often is the deciding factor in getting a job. In addition to creativity, fashion designers also need to have sewing and patternmaking skills, even if they do not perform these tasks themselves. Designers need to be able to under stand these skills so they can give proper instruction in how the garment should be constructed. Fashion designers also need strong sales and presentation skills to persuade clients to pur chase their designs. Good teamwork and communication skills also are necessary because increasingly the business requires constant contact with suppliers, manufacturers, and buyers around the world. Advancement. Beginning fashion designers usually start out as pattern makers or sketching assistants for more experienced designers before advancing to higher level positions. Experi enced designers may advance to chief designer, design depart ment head, or another supervisory position. Some designers may start their own design company, or sell their designs in their own retail stores. A few of the most successful designers can work for high-fashion design houses that offer personalized design services to wealthy clients. Employment change. Employment of fashion designers is projected to grow 5 percent between 2006 and 2016, more slowly than the average for all occupations. Job growth will stem from a growing population demanding more clothing, footwear, and accessories. Demand is increasing for stylish clothing that is affordable, especially among middle income consumers. However, employment declines in cut and sew ap parel manufacturing are projected to offset job increases among apparel wholesalers. Job opportunities in cut and sew manufacturing will continue to decline as apparel is increasingly manufactured overseas. However, employment of fashion designers in this industry will not decline as fast as other occupations because firms are more likely to keep design work in-house. Job prospects. Job competition is expected be keen as many designers are attracted to the creativity and glamour associated with the occupation. Relatively few job openings arise because of low job turnover and the small number of new openings cre ated every year. The best job opportunities will be in design firms that design mass market clothing sold in department stores and retail chain stores, such as apparel wholesale firms. Few employment op portunities are expected in design firms that cater to high-end department stores and specialty boutiques as demand for expen sive, high-fashion design declines relative to other luxury goods and services. Earnings Median annual earnings for salaried fashion designers were $62,610 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $42,140 and $87,510. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,000, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 117,120. Median annual earnings of salaried fashion designers in the largest industries that employed them in May 2006 were: Employment Fashion designers held about 20,000 jobs in 2006. About 28 percent of fashion designers worked for apparel, piece goods, and notions merchant wholesalers; and the remainder worked for corporate offices involved in the management of companies and enterprises, clothing stores, performing arts companies, and specialized design services firms. Another 24 percent were self-employed. Employment of fashion designers tends to be concentrated in regional fashion centers. In 2006, the highest concentrations of fashion designers were employed in New York and California. Job Outlook Slower-than-average job growth is projected. Competition for jobs is expected to be keen as many designers are attracted to the creativity and glamour associated with the occupation. Management of companies and enterprises........................$70,570 Cut and sew apparel manufacturing...................................... 69,810 Apparel, piece goods, and notions merchant wholesalers............................................. 62,910 Earnings in fashion design can vary widely based on the em ployer and years of experience. Starting salaries in fashion de sign tend to be very low until designers are established in the industry. Salaried fashion designers usually earn higher and more stable incomes than self-employed or freelance designers. However, a few of the most successful self-employed fashion designers may earn many times the salary of the highest paid salaried designers. Self-employed fashion designers must pro vide their own benefits and retirement. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Fashion designers.................................................................................. SOC Code 27-1022 Employment, 2006 20,000 Projected employment, 2016 21,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 1,000 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 301 Related Occupations Workers in other art and design occupations include artists and related workers, commercial and industrial designers, floral designers, graphic designers, and interior designers. Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers also design wearable ac cessories. Other common occupations in the fashion industry include demonstrators, product promoters, and models; photog raphers; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; retail salespersons; and textile, apparel, and furnishings occu pations. Sources of Additional Information For general information about art and design and a list of ac credited college-level programs, contact: V National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org For general information about careers in fashion design, con tact: y Fashion Group International, 8 West 40th St., 7th Floor, New York, NY 10018. Internet: http://www.fgi.org Floral Designers rations. Floral designers also will prearrange a few displays to have available for walk-in customers or last-minute orders. Some floral designers also assist interior designers in creating live or silk displays for hotels, restaurants, and private resi dences. A number of floral designers, also known as florists, work in the floral departments of grocery stores or for Internet florists, which specialize in creating prearranged floral decorations and bouquets. These floral retailers also may fill small custom or ders for special occasions and funerals, but some grocery store florists do not deliver to clients or handle large custom orders. Florists who work for wholesale flower distributors assist in the selection of different types of flowers and greenery to pur chase and sell to retail florists. Wholesale floral designers also select flowers for displays that they use as examples for retail florists. Self-employed floral designers must handle the various as pects of running their own businesses, such as selecting and purchasing flowers, hiring and supervising staff, and maintain ing financial records. Self-employed designers also may run gift shops or wedding consultation businesses in addition to providing floral design services. Some conduct design work- (0*NET 27-1023.00) Significant Points • Despite the projected decline in employment, job op portunities should be good because of relatively high replacement needs. • Floral design is the only design specialty that does not require formal postsecondary training. • Many floral designers work long hours on weekends and holidays, filling orders and setting up decorations for weddings and other events. • About one-third are self-employed. r.Hj * $ J i* Nature of the Work Floral designers, or florists, cut live, dried, or silk flowers and other greenery and arrange them into displays of various sizes and shapes. These workers design these displays by selecting flowers, containers, and ribbons and arranging them into bou quets, corsages, centerpieces of tables, wreaths, and the like for weddings, funerals, holidays, and other special occasions. Some floral designers also use accessories such as balloons, candles, toys, candy, and gift baskets as part of their displays. Job duties often vary by employment setting. Most floral designers work in small independent floral shops that special ize in custom orders and also handle large orders for weddings, caterers, or interior designers. Floral designers may meet with customers to discuss the arrangement or work from a written order. They note the occasion, the customer’s preferences, the price of the order, the time the floral display or plant is to be ready, and the place to which it is to be delivered. For special occasions, floral designers usually will help set up floral deco https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis h‘i urn T‘ ■ v. Floral designers cut live, dried, or silk flowers and other greenery and arrange them into displays of various sizes and shapes. 302 Occupational Outlook Handbook shops for amateur gardeners or others with an interest in floral design. Work environment. Most floral designers work in comfort able and well-lit spaces in retail outlets or at home, although working outdoors sometimes is required. Designers also may frequently make short trips delivering flowers, setting up ar rangements for special events, and procuring flowers and other supplies. Floral designers have frequent contact with customers and must work to satisfy their demands, including last-minute holi day and funeral orders. Because many flowers are perishable, most orders cannot be completed too far in advance. Conse quently, some designers work long hours before and during holidays. Some also work nights and weekends to complete large orders for weddings and other special events. Floral designers may suffer muscle strain from long peri ods of standing and from repeated finger and arm movements required to make floral arrangements. They are susceptible to back strain from lifting and carrying heavy flower arrange ments. Designers also may suffer allergic reactions to cer tain types of pollen when working with flowers. In addition, they frequently use sharp objects—scissors, knives, and metal wire—that can cause injuries if handled improperly. Certification and other qualifications. The American In stitute of Floral Designers offers an accreditation examination as an indication of professional achievement in floral design. The exam consists of a written part covering floral terminology and an onsite floral-arranging part in which candidates have 4 hours to complete five floral designs: funeral tributes, table arrangements, wedding arrangements, wearable flowers, and a category of the candidate’s choosing. Floral designers must be creative, service oriented, and able to communicate their ideas visually and verbally. Because trends in floral design change quickly, designers must be open to new ideas and react quickly to changing trends. Problem solving skills and the ability to work independently and under pressure also are important traits. Individuals in this field need self-discipline to budget their time and meet deadlines. Advancement. Many florists gain their initial experience working as cashiers or delivery people in retail floral stores. The completion of formal design training, however, is an asset for floral designers, particularly those interested in advancing to chief floral designer or in opening their own businesses. Advancement in the floral field is limited. After a few years of on-the-job training, designers can either advance to a super visory position or open their own floral shop. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment Floral design is the only design occupation that does not require formal postsecondary training; most floral designers learn their skills on the job. Employers generally look for high school graduates who have creativity, a flair for arranging flowers, and a desire to learn. Education and training. Floral design is the only design oc cupation that does not require formal postsecondary training; most floral designers learn their skills on the job. Private floral schools, vocational schools, and community colleges award certificates in floral design. These programs generally require a high school diploma for admission and last from several weeks to 1 year. Floral design courses teach the basics of arranging flowers, including the different types of flowers, their color and texture, cutting and taping techniques, tying bows and ribbons, proper handling and care of flowers, floral trends, and pricing. Some floral designers also may earn an associate or bach elor’s degree at a community college or university. Some programs offer formal degrees in floral design, while others offer degrees in floriculture, horticulture, or ornamental hor ticulture. In addition to floral design courses, these programs teach courses in botany, chemistry, hydrology, microbiology, pesticides, and soil management. Since many floral designers manage their own business, ad ditional courses in business, accounting, marketing, and com- Floral designers held about 87,000 jobs in 2006. Approxi mately 33 percent were self-employed. About 45 percent of all floral designers worked in florist shops. Another 10 per cent worked in the floral departments of grocery stores. Others were employed by miscellaneous nondurable goods merchant wholesalers, other general merchandise stores, and in lawn and garden equipment and supply stores. puter technology can be helpful. Job Outlook Despite the projected decline in employment, job opportunities are expected to be good because of the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Employment change. Employment of floral designers is expected to decline moderately, 9 percent, between 2006 and 2016. The demand for floral decorations will continue to grow as flower sales increase with the population and the lavishness of weddings and other special events that require floral dec orations. As disposable incomes rise, more people also will demand fresh flowers in their homes and offices. Increased spending on interior design also is expected to create more de mand for stylish artificial arrangements for homes and busi nesses. Despite growing demand for floral decorations, few job op portunities are expected in floral wholesalers, primarily because an increasing number of shops are purchasing flowers Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Code Employment, Projected employment, Change, 2006-2016 2006 Number Percent 2016 Floral designers...................................................................................... 27-1023 87,000 79,000 -7,700 -9 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 303 and supplies directly from growers in order to cut costs. In addition, the growth of electronic commerce in the floral in dustry will make it easier for retail florists to locate their own suppliers. Discretionary spending on flowers and floral prod ucts is highly sensitive to the state of the economy, and during economic downturns employment may fall off as floral expen ditures decline. Job prospects. Job opportunities should be good because of the relatively high replacement needs in retail florists. Many people leave the occupation after a time because of its com paratively low starting pay and limited opportunities for ad vancement. Opportunities should be good in grocery store and Internet floral shops as sales of floral arrangements from these outlets grow. The prearranged displays and gifts available in these stores appeal to consumers because of the convenience and because of prices that are lower than can be found in inde pendent floral shops. As mass marketers capture more of the small flower orders, independent floral shops are increasingly finding themselves under pressure to remain profitable. Many independent shops have added online ordering systems in order to compete with Internet florists. Others are trying to distinguish their services by specializing in certain areas of floral design or by combin ing floral design with event planning and interior design ser vices. Some florists also are adding holiday decorating ser vices in which they will set up decorations for businesses and residences. Earnings Median annual earnings for wage and salary floral designers were $21,700 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,690 and $27,330. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,040, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33,650. Median annual earnings were $23,990 in grocery stores and $21,210 in florists. Related Occupations Other art and design occupations include artists and related workers, commercial and industrial designers, fashion design ers, graphic designers, and interior designers. Landscape ar chitects also create designs involving plants and flowers. Other occupations involved directly with plants and flowers include soil and plant scientists; and farm workers and laborers, crop, nursery, and greenhouse. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in floral design, contact: y American Institute of Floral Designers, 720 Light St., Baltimore, MD 21230. Internet: http://www.aifd.org y Society of American Florists, 1601 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.safnow.org To learn more about designing flowers for weddings and fu nerals, see “Jobs in weddings and funerals: Working with the betrothed and the bereaved,” in the winter 2006 Occupational Outlook Quarterly and online at: http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2006/winter/art03.pdf https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Graphic Designers (0*NET 27-1024.00) Significant Points • About 25 percent are self-employed; many do free lance work in addition to holding a salaried job in de sign or in another occupation. • A bachelor’s degree is required for most entry-level positions; however, an associate degree may be suf ficient for some technical positions. • Job seekers are expected to face keen competition; individuals with a bachelor’s degree and knowledge of computer design software, particularly those with Web site design and animation experience will have the best opportunities. Nature of the Work Graphic designers—or graphic artists—plan, analyze, and cre ate visual solutions to communications problems. They find the most effective way to get messages across in print, elec tronic, and film media using a variety of methods such as color, type, illustration, photography, animation, and various print and layout techniques. Graphic designers develop the overall lay out and production design of magazines, newspapers, journals, corporate reports, and other publications. They also produce promotional displays, packaging, and marketing brochures for products and services, design distinctive logos for products and businesses, and develop signs and signage systems—called en vironmental graphics—for business and government. An in creasing number of graphic designers also develop material for Internet Web pages, interactive media, and multimedia projects. Graphic designers also may produce the credits that appear be fore and after television programs and movies. The first step in developing a new design is to determine the needs of the client, the message the design should portray, and its appeal to customers or users. Graphic designers consider cognitive, cultural, physical, and social factors in planning and executing designs for the target audience. Designers gather relevant information by meeting with clients, creative or art directors, and by performing their own research. Identifying the needs of consumers is becoming increasingly important for graphic designers as they continue to develop corporate com munication strategies in addition to creating designs and lay outs. Graphic designers prepare sketches or layouts—by hand or with the aid of a computer—to illustrate their vision for the design. They select colors, sound, artwork, photography, ani mation, style of type, and other visual elements for the design. Designers also select the size and arrangement of the different elements on the page or screen. They may create graphs and charts from data for use in publications, and they often con sult with copywriters on any text that accompanies the design. Designers then present the completed design to their clients or 304 Occupational Outlook Handbook y'.. i; Graphic designers use specialized software packages to create layouts and graphics. art or creative director for approval. In printing and publishing firms, graphic designers also may assist the printers by select ing the type of paper and ink for the publication and reviewing the mock-up design for errors before final publication. Graphic designers use specialized computer software pack ages to help them create layouts and design elements and to program animated graphics. Graphic designers sometimes supervise assistants who follow instructions to complete parts of the design process. Designers who run their own businesses also may devote a considerable time to developing new business contacts, choosing equipment, and performing administrative tasks, such as reviewing cata logues and ordering samples. The need for up-to-date computer and communications equipment is an ongoing consideration for graphic designers. Work environment. Working conditions and places of em ployment vary. Graphic designers employed by large advertis ing, publishing, or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Designers in smaller design consulting firms and those who freelance generally work on a contract, or job, basis. They frequently adjust their work day to suit their clients’ schedules and deadlines. Consultants and self-employed designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested, environments. Designers may work in their own offices or studios or in cli ents’ offices. Designers who are paid by the assignment are under pressure to please existing clients and to find new ones to maintain a steady income. All designers sometimes face frus tration when their designs are rejected or when their work is not as creative as they wish. Graphic designers may work evenings or weekends to meet production schedules, especially in the printing and publishing industries where deadlines are shorter and more frequent. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s or an associate degree in graphic design is usually required for a job as a graphic designer. Creativity, communica tion, and problem solving skills and familiarity with computer graphics and design software also are important. Education and training. A bachelor’s degree is required for entry-level and advanced graphic design positions; al Digitized formost FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis though some entry-level technical positions may only require an associate degree. Bachelor’s degree programs in fine arts or graphic design are offered at many colleges, universities, and private design schools. Most curriculums include studio art, principles of design, computerized design, commercial graph ics production, printing techniques, and Web site design. In addition to design courses, a liberal arts education that includes courses in art history, writing, psychology, sociology, foreign languages and cultural studies, marketing, and business are use ful in helping designers work effectively. Associate degrees and certificates in graphic design also are available from 2-year and 3-year professional schools. These programs usually focus on the technical aspects of graphic de sign and include few liberal arts courses. Graduates of 2-year programs normally qualify as assistants to graphic designers or for positions requiring technical skills only. Individuals who wish to pursue a career in graphic design—and who already possess a bachelor’s degree in another field—can complete a 2year or 3-year program in graphic design to learn the technical requirements. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design ac credits about 250 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design. Most of these schools award a degree in graphic design. Many schools do not allow formal entry into a bach elor’s degree program until a student has successfully finished a year of basic art and design courses. Applicants may be re quired to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Increasingly, employers expect new graphic designers to be familiar with computer graphics and design software. Graphic designers must keep up with new and updated software, on their own or through software training programs. Other qualifications. In addition to postsecondary training in graphic design, creativity, communication, and problem solving skills are crucial. Graphic designers must be creative and able to communicate their ideas visually, verbally, and in writing. They also must have an eye for details. Designers show employers these traits by putting together a portfolio—a collection of examples of a person’s best work. A good portfo lio often is the deciding factor in getting a job. Because consumer tastes can change quickly, designers also need to be well read, open to new ideas and influences, and quick to react to changing trends. The ability to work indepen dently and under pressure are equally important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to meet deadlines and production sched ules. Good business sense and sales ability also are important, especially for those who freelance or run their own firms. Advancement. Beginning graphic designers usually receive on-the-job training and normally need 1 to 3 years of train ing before they can advance to higher positions. Experienced graphic designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, art or creative director, or other supervisory positions. Some designers leave the occupation to become teachers in design schools or in colleges and universities. Many faculty members continue to consult privately or operate small design studios to complement their classroom activities. Some experienced Professional and Related Occupations 305 designers open their own firms or choose to specialize in one area of graphic design. Employment Graphic designers held about 261,000 jobs in 2006. Most graphic designers worked in specialized design services; adver tising and related services; printing and related support activi ties; or newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers. Other designers produced computer graphics for computer sys tems design firms or motion picture production firms. A small number of designers also worked in engineering services or for management, scientific, and technical consulting firms. About 25 percent of designers were self-employed. Many did freelance work—full time or part time—in addition to hold ing a salaried job in design or in another occupation. Job Outlook Employment of graphic designers is expected grow about as fast as average. Keen competition for jobs is expected; individuals with a bachelor’s degree and knowledge of computer design software, particularly those with Web site design and animation experience will have the best opportunities. Employment change. Employment of graphic designers is expected to grow 10 percent, about as fast as the average for all occupations from 2006 to 2016, as demand for graphic design continues to increase from advertisers, publishers, and comput er design firms. Some of this increase is expected to stem from the expansion of the video entertainment market, including tele vision, movies, video, and made-for-Intemet outlets. Moreover, graphic designers with Web site design and ani mation experience will especially be needed as demand in creases for design projects for interactive media—Web sites, video games, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants, and other technology. Demand for graphic designers also will increase as advertising firms create print and Web marketing and promotional materials for a growing number of products and services. In recent years, some computer, printing, and publishing firms have outsourced basic layout and design work to design firms overseas. This trend is expected to continue and may have a negative impact on employment growth for low-level, techni cal graphic design workers. However, most high-level graphic design jobs will remain in the U.S. Strategic design, the work of developing communication strategies for clients and firms to help them to gain competitive advantages in the market, re quires close proximity to the consumer in order to identify and target their needs and interests. Job prospects. Graphic designers are expected to face keen competition for available positions. Many talented individuals are attracted to careers as graphic designers. Individuals with a bachelor’s degree and knowledge of computer design software, particularly those with Web site design and animation experi ence will have the best opportunities. Graphic designers with a broad liberal arts education and ex perience in marketing and business management will be best suited for positions developing communication strategies. Earnings Median annual earnings for wage and salary graphic design ers were $39,900 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,600 and $53,310. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,120, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,730. May 2006 median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of graphic designers were: Specialized design services.................................................$43,410 Advertising and related services.......................................... 41,600 Newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers.......34,290 Printing and related support activities..................................33,930 Newspaper publishers...........................................................31,540 According to the American Institute of Graphic Arts, median annual total cash compensation for entry-level designers was $35,000 in 2007. Staff-level graphic designers earned a median of $45,000. Senior designers, who may supervise junior staff or have some decision-making authority that reflects their knowl edge of graphic design, earned a median of $62,000. Solo de signers who freelanced or worked under contract to another company reported median earnings of $60,000. Design direc tors, the creative heads of design firms or in-house corporate design departments, earned $98,600. Graphic designers with ownership or partnership interests in a firm or who were princi pals of the firm in some other capacity earned $113,000. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations in the art and design field include artists and related workers; commercial and industrial design ers; fashion designers; floral designers; and interior designers. Other occupations that require computer-aided design skills include computer software engineers, drafters, and desktop publishers. Other occupations involved in the design, layout, and copy of publications include advertising, marketing, pro motions, public relations, and sales managers; photographers; writers and editors; and prepress technicians and workers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about art and design and a list of ac credited college-level programs, contact: y National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190-5248. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, employment, 2006-2016 Code 2016 Number Percent Graphic designers..................................................... ............................. 27-1024 261,000 286,000 26,000 10 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2006 306 Occupational Outlook Handbook For information about graphic, communication, or interac tion design careers, contact: y American Institute of Graphic Arts, 164 Fifth Ave., New York, NY 10010. Internet: http://www.aiga.org For information on workshops, scholarships, internships, and competitions for graphic design students interested in advertis ing careers, contact: > Art Directors Club, 106 West 29th St., New York, NY 10001. Internet: http://www.adcglobaI.org Interior Designers (0*NET 27-1025.00) Significant Points • Keen competition is expected for jobs because many talented individuals are attracted to this occupation. • About 26 percent are self-employed. • Postsecondary education—especially a bachelor’s degree—is recommended for entry-level positions; some States license interior designers. Nature of the Work Interior designers draw upon many disciplines to enhance the function, safety, and aesthetics of interior spaces. Their main concerns are with how different colors, textures, furniture, light ing, and space work together to meet the needs of a building’s occupants. Designers plan interior spaces of almost every type of building, including offices, airport terminals, theaters, shop ping malls, restaurants, hotels, schools, hospitals, and private residences. Good design can boost office productivity, increase sales, attract a more affluent clientele, provide a more relaxing hospital stay, or increase a building’s market value. Traditionally, most interior designers focused on decorat ing—choosing a style and color palette and then selecting ap propriate furniture, floor and window coverings, artwork, and lighting. However, an increasing number of designers are be coming involved in architectural detailing, such as crown mold ing and built-in bookshelves, and in planning layouts of build ings undergoing renovation, including helping to determine the location of windows, stairways, escalators, and walkways. Interior designers must be able to read blueprints, understand building and fire codes, and know how to make space accessible to people who are disabled. Designers frequently collaborate with architects, electricians, and building contractors to ensure that designs are safe and meet construction requirements. Whatever space they are working on, almost all designers fol low the same process. The first step, known as programming, is to determine the client’s needs and wishes. The designer usually meets face-to-face with the client to find out how the space will be used and to get an idea of the client’s preferences and budget. For example, the designer might inquire about a family’s cooking habits if the family is remodeling a kitchen or ask about a store or restaurant’s target customer in order to pick an appropriate motif. The designer also will visit the space to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis take inventory of existing furniture and equipment and identify positive attributes of the space and potential problems. Then, the designer formulates a design plan and estimates costs. Today, designs often are created with the use of comput er-aided design (CAD), which provides more detail and easier corrections than sketches made by hand. Once the designer completes the proposed design, he or she will present it to the client and make revisions based on the client’s input. When the design concept is decided upon, the designer will begin specifying the materials, finishes, and furnishings re quired, such as furniture, lighting, flooring, wall covering, and artwork. Depending on the complexity of the project, the de signer also might submit drawings for approval by a construc tion inspector to ensure that the design meets building codes. If a project requires structural work, the designer works with an architect or engineer for that part of the project. Most designs also require the hiring of contractors to do technical work, such as lighting, plumbing, or electrical wiring. Often designers choose contractors and write work contracts. Finally, the designer develops a timeline for the project, co ordinates contractor work schedules, and makes sure work is completed on time. The designer oversees the installation of the design elements, and after the project is complete, the designer, together with the client, pay follow-up visits to the building site to ensure that the client is satisfied. If the client is not satisfied, the designer makes corrections. Designers who work for furniture or home and garden stores sell merchandise in addition to offering design services. In store designers provide services, such as selecting a style and color scheme that fits the client’s needs or finding suitable ac cessories and lighting, similar to those offered by other inte rior designers. However, in-store designers rarely visit clients’ spaces and use only a particular store’s products or catalogs. Interior designers sometimes supervise assistants who carry out their plans and perform administrative tasks, such as review ing catalogues and ordering samples. Designers who run their own businesses also may devote considerable time to develop ing new business contacts, examining equipment and space needs, and attending to business matters. Although most interior designers do many kinds of projects, some specialize in one area of interior design. Some special ize in the type of building space—usually residential or com mercial—while others specialize in a certain design element or type of client, such as health care facilities. The most common specialties of this kind are lighting, kitchen and bath, and closet designs. However, designers can specialize in almost any area of design, including acoustics and noise abatement, security, electronics and home theaters, home spas, and indoor gardens. Three areas of design that are becoming increasingly popu lar are ergonomic design, elder design, and environmental—or green—design. Ergonomic design involves designing work spaces and furniture that emphasize good posture and minimize muscle strain on the body. Elder design involves planning inte rior space to aid in the movement of people who are elderly and disabled. Green design involves selecting furniture and carpets that are free of chemicals and hypoallergenic and selecting con struction materials that are energy efficient or are made from renewable resources Professional and Related Occupations 307 Work environment. Working conditions and places of em ployment vary. Interior designers employed by large corpo rations or design firms generally work regular hours in welllighted and comfortable settings. Designers in smaller design consulting firms or those who freelance generally work on a contract, or job, basis. They frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients’ schedules and deadlines, meeting with clients during evening or weekend hours when necessary. Consultants and self-employed designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested environments. Interior designers may work under stress to meet deadlines, stay on budget, and please clients. Self-employed designers also are under pressure to find new clients to maintain a steady income. Designers may work in their own offices or studios or in cli ents’ homes or offices. They also may travel to other locations, such as showrooms, design centers, clients’ exhibit sites, and manufacturing facilities. With the increased speed and sophis tication of computers and advanced communications networks, designers may form international design teams, serve a more geographically dispersed clientele, research design alternatives by using information on the Internet, and purchase supplies electronically. -'jr Wm. Interior designers often review a large number of samples in to choose an appropriate design for interior spaces. Digitized fororder FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postsecondary education, especially a bachelor’s degree, is rec ommended for entry-level positions in interior design. Twoyear and 3-year programs also are available. Some States li cense interior designers. Education and training. Postsecondary education, espe cially a bachelor’s degree, is recommended for entry-level posi tions in interior design. Training programs are available from professional design schools or from colleges and universities and usually take 2 to 4 years to complete. Graduates of 2-year or 3-year programs are awarded certificates or associate degrees in interior design and normally qualify as assistants to interior designers upon graduation. Graduates with a bachelor’s degree usually qualify for a formal design apprenticeship program. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design ac credits approximately 250 postsecondary institutions with pro grams in art and design. Most of these schools award a degree in interior design. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Basic coursework includes computer-aided design (CAD), drawing, perspective, spatial planning, color and fabrics, furniture design, architec ture, ergonomics, ethics, and psychology. The National Council for Interior Design Accreditation also accredits interior design programs that lead to a bachelor’s de gree. In 2007, there were 145 accredited bachelor’s degree pro grams in interior design in the United States; most are part of schools or departments of art, architecture, and home econom ics. After the completion of formal training, interior designers will enter a 1-year to 3-year apprenticeship to gain experience before taking a licensing exam. Most apprentices work in de sign or architecture firms under the supervision of an experi enced designer. Apprentices also may choose to gain experi ence working as an in-store designer in furniture stores. The National Council of Interior Design offers the Interior Design Experience Program, which helps entry-level interior designers gain valuable work experience by supervising work experience and offering mentoring services and workshops to new design ers. Licensure. Twenty-three States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico register or license interior designers. The Na tional Council administers the licensing exam for Interior De sign Qualification. To be eligible to take the exam, applicants must have at least 6 years of combined education and experi ence in interior design, of which at least 2 years must be post secondary education in design. Once candidates have passed the qualifying exam, they are granted the title of Certified, Registered, or Licensed Interior Designer, depending on the State. Continuing education is re quired to maintain licensure. Other qualifications. Membership in a professional asso ciation is one indication of an interior designer’s qualifications and professional standing. The American Society of Interior Designers is the largest professional association for interior de signers in the United States. Interior designers can qualify for membership with at least a 2-year degree and work experience. Employers increasingly prefer interior designers who are fa miliar with computer-aided design software and the basics of 308 Occupational Outlook Handbook architecture and engineering to ensure that their designs meet building safety codes. In addition to possessing technical knowledge, interior de signers must be creative, imaginative, and persistent and must be able to communicate their ideas visually, verbally, and in writing. Because tastes in style can change quickly, designers need to be well read, open to new ideas and influences, and quick to react to changing trends. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently and under pressure are addi tional important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to meet deadlines and production schedules. Good business sense and sales ability also are important, especially for those who free lance or run their own business. Certification and advancement. Optional certifications in kitchen and bath design are available from the National Kitchen and Bath Association. The association offers three different lev els of certification for kitchen and bath designers, each achieved through training seminars and certification exams. Beginning interior designers receive on-the-job training and normally need 1 to 3 years of training before they can advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or some other supervisory position. Some experienced designers open their own firms or decide to specialize in one aspect of interior design. Other designers leave the occupation to become teach ers in schools of design or in colleges and universities. Many faculty members continue to consult privately or operate small design studios to complement their classroom activities. Employment Interior designers held about 72,000 jobs in 2006. Approxi mately 26 percent were self-employed. About 26 percent of interior designers worked in specialized design services. The rest of the interior designers provided design services in ar chitectural and landscape architectural services, furniture and home-furnishing stores, building material and supplies dealers, and residential building construction companies. Many interior designers also performed freelance work in addition to holding a salaried job in interior design or another occupation. Job Outlook Employment of interior designers is expected to be faster than average; however, keen competition for jobs is expected. Employment change. Employment of interior designers is expected to grow 19 percent from 2006 to 2016, faster than the average for all occupations. Economic expansion, growing ho meowner wealth, and an increasing interest in interior design will increase demand for designers. Recent increases in homeowner wealth and the growing popu larity of home improvement television programs have increased demand for residential design services. Homeowners have been using the equity in their homes to finance new additions, remodel aging kitchens and bathrooms, and update the general decor of the home. Many homeowners also have requested de sign help in creating year-round outdoor living spaces. However, this same growth in home improvement television programs and discount furniture stores has spurred a trend in do-it-yourself design, which could hamper employment growth of designers. Nevertheless, some clients will still hire designers for initial consultations. Demand from businesses in the hospitality industry—hotels, resorts, and restaurants—is expected to be high because of an expected increase in tourism. Demand for interior design ser vices from the health care industry also is expected to be high because of an anticipated increase in demand for facilities that will accommodate the aging population. Designers will be needed to make these facilities as comfortable and homelike as possible for patients. Some interior designers choose to specialize in one design element to create a niche for themselves in an increasingly competitive market. The demand for kitchen and bath design is growing in response to the growing demand for home remodel ing. Designs using the latest technology in, for example, home theaters, state-of-the-art conference facilities, and security sys tems are expected to be especially popular. In addition, demand for home spas, indoor gardens, and outdoor living space should continue to increase. Extensive knowledge of ergonomics and green design are expected to be in demand. Ergonomic design has gained in popularity with the growth in the elderly population and work place safety requirements. The public’s growing awareness of environmental quality and the growing number of individuals with allergies and asthma are expected to increase the demand for green design. Job prospects. Interior designers are expected to face keen competition for available positions because many talented indi viduals are attracted to this profession. Individuals with little or no formal training in interior design, as well as those lacking creativity and perseverance, will find it very difficult to estab lish and maintain a career in this occupation. As the economy grows, more private businesses and consum ers will request the services of interior designers. However, design services are considered a luxury expense and may be subject to fluctuations in the economy. For example, decreases in consumer and business income and spending caused by a slow economy can have a detrimental effect on employment of interior designers. Earnings Median annual earnings for wage and salary interior design ers were $42,260 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Interior designers.................................................... ............................. soc Code 27-1025 Employment, 2006 72,000 Projected employment, 2016 86,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 14,000 19 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 309 between $31,830 and $57,230. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,270, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $78,760. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of interior designers in May 2006 were: Architectural, engineering, and related services.................$46,750 Architectural services............................................................ 46,750 Specialized design services................................................... 43,250 Furniture stores..................................................................... 38,980 Building material and supplies dealers.................................36,650 Interior design salaries vary widely with the specialty, type of employer, number of years of experience, and reputation of the individuals. Among salaried interior designers, those in large specialized design and architectural firms tend to earn higher and more stable salaries. Interior designers working in retail stores usually earn a commission, which can be irregular. For residential design projects, self-employed interior design ers and those working in smaller firms usually earn a per-hour consulting fee, plus a percentage of the total cost of furniture, lighting, artwork, and other design elements. For commercial projects, they might charge a per-hour consulting fee, charge by the square footage, or charge a flat fee for the whole project. Also, designers who use specialty contractors usually earn a percentage of the contractor’s earnings on the project in return for hiring the contractor. Self-employed designers must pro vide their own benefits. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects to enhance their appearance and function include architects, ex cept landscape and naval; artists and related workers; commer cial and industrial designers; fashion designers; floral design ers; graphic designers; and landscape architects. Sources of Additional Information For information on degrees, continuing education, and licen sure programs in interior design and interior design research, contact; y American Society of Interior Designers, 608 Massachusetts Ave. NE„ Washington, DC 20002. Internet: http://www.asid.org For a list of schools with accredited bachelor’s degree pro grams in interior design, contact: y Foundation for Interior Design Education Research, 146 Monroe Center NW, Suite 1318, Grand Rapids, MI 49503. Internet: http://www.fider.org For general information about art and design and a list of ac credited college-level programs, contact: y National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org For information on State licensing requirements and exams, and the Interior Design Experience Program, contact: y National Council for Interior Design Qualification, 1200 18th St.NW., Suite 1001, Washington, DC 20036-2506. Internet: http://www.ncidq.org For information on careers, continuing education, and certi fication programs in the interior design specialty of residential kitchen and bath design, contact: y National Kitchen and Bath Association, 687 Willow Grove St., Hackettstown, NJ 07840. Internet: http://www.nkba.org/student Entertainers and Performers, Sports and Related Occupations Actors, Producers, and Directors (0*NET 27-2011.00, 27-2012.00, 27-2012.01, 27-2012.02, 27-2012.03, 27-2012.04, 27-2012.05) Significant Points • Actors endure long periods of unemployment, intense competition for roles, and frequent rejections in audi tions. • Formal training through a university or acting conser vatory is typical; however, many actors, producers, and directors find work on the basis of their experi ence and talent alone. • Because earnings may be erratic, many supplement their incomes by holding jobs in other fields; however, the most successful actors, producers, and directors may have extraordinarily high earnings. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Actors, producers, and directors express ideas and create im ages in theater, film, radio, television, and other performing arts media. They interpret a writer’s script to entertain, inform, or instruct an audience. Although many actors, producers, and di rectors work in New York or Los Angeles, far more work in other places. They perform, direct, and produce in local or re gional television studios, theaters, or film production compa nies, often creating advertising or training films or small-scale independent movies. Actors perform in stage, radio, television, video, or motion picture productions. They also work in cabarets, nightclubs, and theme parks. Actors portray characters, and, for more complex roles, they research their character’s traits and circum stances so that they can better understand a script. Most actors struggle to find steady work and only a few achieve recognition as stars. Some well-known, experienced performers may be cast in supporting roles or make brief, cam eo appearances, speaking only one or two lines. Others work as “extras,” with no lines to deliver. Some actors do voiceover and 310 Occupational Outlook Handbook narration work for advertisements, animated features, books on tape, and other electronic media. They also teach in high school or university drama departments, acting conservatories, or pub lic programs. Producers are entrepreneurs who make the business and fi nancial decisions involving a motion picture, made-for-television feature, or stage production. They select scripts, approve the development of ideas, arrange financing, and determine the size and cost of the endeavor. Producers hire or approve direc tors, principal cast members, and key production staff members. They also negotiate contracts with artistic and design person nel in accordance with collective bargaining agreements. They guarantee payment of salaries, rent, and other expenses. Television and radio producers determine which programs, episodes, or news segments get aired. They may research ma terial, write scripts, and oversee the production of individual pieces. Producers in any medium coordinate the activities of writers, directors, managers, and agents to ensure that each project stays on schedule and within budget. Directors are responsible for the creative decisions of a pro duction. They interpret scripts, audition and select cast mem bers, conduct rehearsals, and direct the work of cast and crew. They approve the design elements of a production, including the sets, costumes, choreography, and music. Assistant direc tors cue the performers and technicians, telling them when to make entrances or light, sound, or set changes. Work environment. Actors, producers, and directors work under constant pressure. Many face stress from the continual need to find their next job. To succeed, actors, producers, and directors need patience and commitment to their craft. Actors strive to deliver flawless performances, often while working under undesirable and unpleasant conditions. Producers and directors organize rehearsals and meet with writers, designers, financial backers, and production technicians. They experience stress not only from these activities, but also from the need to adhere to budgets, union work rules, and production schedules. Acting assignments typically are short term—ranging from 1 day to a few months—which means that actors frequently experience long periods of unemployment between jobs. The uncertain nature of the work results in unpredictable earnings and intense competition for jobs. Often, actors, producers, and directors must hold other jobs in order to sustain a living. When performing, actors typically work long, irregular hours. For example, stage actors may perform one show at night while rehearsing another during the day. They also might travel with a show when it tours the country. Movie actors may work on lo cation, sometimes under adverse weather conditions, and may spend considerable time waiting to perform their scenes. Ac tors who perform in a television series often appear on camera with little preparation time, because scripts tend to be revised frequently or even written moments before taping. Those who appear live or before a studio audience must be able to handle impromptu situations and calmly ad lib, or substitute, lines when necessary. Evening and weekend work is a regular part of a stage actor’s life. On weekends, more than one performance may be held per day. Actors and directors working on movies or television programs, especially those who shoot on location, may work in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis IRK agjfetj jji ms Actors, producers, and directors work in various locations. the early morning or late evening hours to film night scenes or tape scenes inside public facilities outside of normal business hours. Actors should be in good physical condition and have the necessary stamina and coordination to move about theater stag es and large movie and television studio lots. They also need to maneuver about complex technical sets while staying in char acter and projecting their voices audibly. Actors must be fit to endure heat from stage or studio lights and the weight of heavy costumes. Producers and directors ensure the safety of actors by conducting extra rehearsals on the set so that the actors can learn the layout of set pieces and props, by allowing time for warmups and stretching exercises to guard against physical and vocal injuries, and by providing an adequate number of breaks to prevent heat exhaustion and dehydration. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement People who become actors, producers, and directors follow many paths to employment. The most important qualities em ployers look for are creative instincts, innate talent, and the in tellectual capacity to perform. The best way to prepare for a career as an actor, especially in the theater, is through formal dramatic training, preferably obtained as part of a bachelor’s degree program. Producers and especially directors need expe rience in the field, either as actors or in other related jobs. Education and training. Formal dramatic training, either through an acting conservatory or a university program, gener ally is necessary for these jobs, but some people successfully enter the field without it. Most people studying for a bachelor’s degree take courses in radio and television broadcasting, com munications, film, theater, drama, or dramatic literature. Many stage actors continue their academic training and receive a Master of Fine Arts (MFA) degree. Advanced curricula may include courses in stage speech and movement, directing, play writing, and design, as well as intensive acting workshops. The National Association of Schools of Theatre accredits 150 pro grams in theater arts. Most aspiring actors participate in high school and college plays, work in college radio or television stations, or perform with local community theater groups. Local and regional the ater experience and work in summer stock, on cruise lines, or in theme parks helps many young actors hone their skills. Mem Professional and Related Occupations 311 bership in one of the actors’ unions and work experience in smaller communities may lead to work in larger cities, notably New York, Chicago, or Los Angeles. In television and film, ac tors and directors typically start in smaller television markets or with independent movie production companies and then work their way up to larger media markets and major studio produc tions. A few people go into acting after successful careers in other fields, such as broadcasting or announcing. Actors, regardless of experience level, may pursue workshop training through acting conservatories or mentoring by a drama coach. Sometimes actors leam a foreign language or train with a dialect coach to develop an accent to make their characters more realistic. There are no specific training requirements for producers. They come from many different backgrounds. Actors, writers, film editors, and business managers commonly enter the field. Producers often start in a theatrical management office, work ing for a press agent, managing director, or business manager. Some start in a performing arts union or service organization. Others work behind the scenes with successful directors, serve on the boards of art companies, or promote their own projects. Although there are no formal training programs for producers, a number of colleges and universities offer degree programs in arts management and in managing nonprofit organizations. Directors often start out as actors. Many also have formal training in directing. The Directors Guild of America and the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers jointly sponsor the Assistant Directors Training Program. To be ac cepted to this highly competitive program, an individual must have either a bachelor’s or associate degree or 2 years of ex perience and must complete a written exam and other assess ments. Program graduates are eligible to become a member of the Directors Guild and typically find employment as a second assistant director. Other qualifications. Actors need talent and creativity that will enable them to portray different characters. Because com petition for parts is fierce, versatility and a wide range of re lated performance skills, such as singing, dancing, skating, jug gling, acrobatics, or miming are especially useful. Experience in horseback riding, fencing, linguistics, or stage combat also can lift some actors above the average and get them noticed by producers and directors. Actors must have poise, stage pres ence, the ability to affect an audience, and the ability to follow direction. Modeling experience also may be helpful. Physical appearance, such as having certain features and being the speci fied size and weight, often is a deciding factor in who gets a particular role. Many professional actors rely on agents or managers to find work, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. Agents gener ally earn a percentage of the pay specified in an actor’s contract. Other actors rely solely on attending open auditions for parts. Trade publications list the times, dates, and locations of these auditions. Some actors begin as movie extras. To become an extra, one usually must be listed by casting agencies that supply extras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Applicants are accepted only when the numbers of people of a particular type on the list, for example, athletic young women, old men, or small children, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis falls below what is needed. In recent years, only a very small proportion of applicants have succeeded in being listed. Like actors, directors and producers need talent and creativ ity. They also need business acumen. Advancement. As the reputations and box-office draw of ac tors, producers, and directors grow, they might work on bigger budget productions, on network or syndicated broadcasts, or in more prestigious theaters. Actors may advance to lead roles and receive star billing. A few actors move into acting-related jobs, such as drama coaches or directors of stage, television, ra dio, or motion picture productions. Some teach drama privately or in colleges and universities. Employment In May 2006, actors, producers, and directors held about 163,000 jobs, primarily in motion picture and video, performing arts, and broadcast industries. Because many others were between jobs, the total number of actors, producers, and directors avail able for work was higher. Employment in the theater, and other performing arts companies, is cyclical—higher in the fall and spring seasons—and concentrated in New York and other major cities with large commercial houses for musicals and touring productions. Also, many cities support established professional regional theaters that operate on a seasonal or year-round basis. About 28 percent of actors, producers, and directors were selfemployed. Actors, producers, and directors may find work in summer festivals, on cruise lines, and in theme parks. Many smaller, nonprofit professional companies, such as repertory compa nies, dinner theaters, and theaters affiliated with drama schools, acting conservatories, and universities, provide employment opportunities for local amateur talent and professional enter tainers. Auditions typically are held in New York for many pro ductions across the country and for shows that go on the road. Employment in motion pictures and in films for television is centered in New York and Los Angeles. However, small studios exist throughout the country. Many films are shot on location and may employ local professional and nonprofessional actors. In television, opportunities are concentrated in the network cen ters of New York and Los Angeles, but cable television services and local television stations around the country also employ many actors, producers, and directors. Job Outlook Employment of actors, producers, and directors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Com petition for jobs will be keen. Although a growing number of people aspire to enter these professions, many will leave the field early because the work—when it is available—is hard, the hours are long, and the pay may be low. Employment change. Employment in these occupations is expected to grow 11 percent during the 2006-16 decade, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Expanding cable and satellite television operations, increasing production and distribution of major studio and independent films, and rising demand for films in other countries should create more employ ment opportunities for actors, producers, and directors. Also fueling job growth is the continued development of interactive media, direct-for-Web movies, and mobile content, produced 312 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2006-2016 employment, Code 2016 Number Percent 11 18,000 163,000 182,000 .......................... 27-2010 Actors, producers, and directors................................ 12 8,100 78,000 70,000 27-2011 Actors....................................................................... .......................... 10,000 11 93,000 103,000 27-2012 Producers and directors.......................................... .......................... NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title soc Employment, 2006 tion Included in the Handbook. for cell phones or other portable electronic devices. Howev er, greater emphasis on national, rather than local, entertain ment productions may restrict employment opportunities in the broadcasting industry. Job prospects. Competition for jobs will be stiff. The large number of highly trained and talented actors auditioning for roles generally exceeds the number of parts that become avail able. Only performers with the most stamina and talent will find regular employment. Venues for live entertainment, such as Broadway and OffBroadway theaters, touring productions, and repertory theaters in many major metropolitan areas, as well as theme parks and resorts, are expected to offer many job opportunities. However, prospects in these venues are variable because they fluctuate with economic conditions. Earnings The most successful actors, producers, and directors may have extraordinarily high earnings but for others, because earnings may be erratic, many supplement their income by holding jobs in other fields. Median hourly earnings of actors were $11.61 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.47 and $22.51. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.31, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $51.02. Median hourly earnings were $16.82 in performing arts companies and $10.69 in the motion picture and video industry. Annual earnings data for actors were not available because of the wide variation in the number of hours worked by actors and the short-term nature of many jobs, which may last for 1 day or 1 week; it is extremely rare for actors to have guaranteed employment that exceeded 3 to 6 months. Median annual earnings of salaried producers and directors were $56,310 in 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,980 and $88,700. Median annual earnings were $70,750 in the motion picture and video industry and $47,530 in radio and television broadcasting. Minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of employment are often covered in collective bargaining agree ments between the producers and the unions representing work ers. The Actors’ Equity Association (AEA) represents stage ac tors; the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) covers actors in motion pictures, including television, commercials, and film; and the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) represents television and radio studio performers. Some actors who regularly work in several media find it advantageous to join multiple unions, while SAG and AFTRA may share juris diction for work in additional areas, such as the production of training or educational films not slated for broadcast, television https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis commercial work, and interactive media. While these unions generally determine minimum salaries, any actor or director may negotiate for a salary higher than the minimum. Under terms of a joint SAG and AFTRA contract covering all unionized workers, motion picture and television actors with speaking parts earned a minimum daily rate of $759 or $2,634 for a 5-day week as of July 1, 2007. Actors also receive con tributions to their health and pension plans and additional com pensation for reruns and foreign telecasts of the productions in which they appear. According to AEA, the minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway productions as of June 2007 was $1,509. Actors in Off-Broadway theaters received minimums ranging from $516 to $976 a week as of October 29, 2007, depending on the seat ing capacity of the theater. Regional theaters that operate under an Equity agreement pay actors $544 to $840 per week. For touring productions, actors receive an additional $113 per day for living expenses ($119 per day in higher cost cities). New terms were negotiated under an “experimental touring program” provision for lower budget musicals that tour to smaller cities or that perform for fewer performances at each stop. In an effort to increase the number of paid workweeks while on tour, actors may be paid less than the full production rate for touring shows in exchange for higher per diems and profit participation. Some well-known actors—stars—earn well above the mini mum; their salaries are many times the figures cited, creating the false impression that all actors are highly paid. For exam ple, of the nearly 100,000 SAG members, only about 50 might be considered stars. The average income that SAG members earn from acting, less than $5,000 a year, is low because em ployment is sporadic. Therefore, most actors must supplement their incomes by holding jobs in other occupations. Many actors who work more than a qualifying number of days, or weeks per year or earn over a set minimum pay, are covered by a union health, welfare, and pension fund, which includes hospitalization insurance to which employers contrib ute. Under some employment conditions, Equity and AFTRA members receive paid vacations and sick leave. Many stage directors belong to the Society of Stage Direc tors and Choreographers (SSDC), and film and television di rectors belong to the Directors Guild of America. Earnings of stage directors vary greatly. The SSDC usually negotiates sal ary contracts which include royalties (additional income based on the number of performances) with smaller theaters. Direct ing a production at a dinner theater generally will pay less than directing one at a summer theater, but has more potential for generating income from royalties. Regional theaters may hire directors for longer periods, increasing compensation accord ingly. The highest-paid directors work on Broadway and com Professional and Related Occupations 313 monly earn over $50,000 per show. However, they also receive payment in the form of royalties—a negotiated percentage of gross box office receipts—that can exceed their contract fee for long-running box office successes. Stage producers seldom get a set fee; instead, they get a per centage of a show’s earnings or ticket sales. Related Occupations People who work in performing arts occupations that may require acting skills include announcers; dancers and chore ographers; and musicians, singers, and related workers. Oth ers working in occupations related to film and theater include makeup artists, theatrical and performance; fashion designers; and set and exhibit designers. Producers share many responsi bilities with those who work as top executives. Sources of Additional Information For general information about theater arts and a list of accred ited college-level programs, contact: y National Association of Schools of Theater, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http ://nast.arts-accredit.org For general information on actors, producers, and directors, contact any of the following organizations: y Actors Equity Association, 165 West 46th St., New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.actorsequity.org y Screen Actors Guild, 5757 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90036-3600. Internet: http://www.sag.org y American Federation of Television and Radio Artists— Screen Actors Guild, 4340 East-West Hwy., Suite 204, Bethesda, MD 20814-4411. Internet: http://www.aftra.org or http://www.sag.org Athletes, Coaches, Umpires, and Related Workers (0*NET 27-2021.00, 27-2022.00, 27-2023.00) Significant Points • • • • Work hours are often irregular and extensive travel may be required. Career-ending injuries are always a risk for athletes. Job opportunities will be best for part-time coaches, sports instructors, umpires, referees, and sports of ficials in high schools, sports clubs, and other set tings. Competition to become a professional athlete will continue to be extremely intense; athletes who seek to compete professionally must have extraordinary talent, desire, and dedication to training. Nature of the Work We are a Nation of sports fans and sports players. Some of those who participate in amateur sports dream of becoming paid professional athletes, coaches, or sports officials, but very https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis few beat the long and daunting odds of making a full-time liv ing from professional athletics. Those athletes who make it to the professional level find that careers are short and jobs are insecure. Even though the chances of employment as a professional athlete are slim, there are many opportunities for at least a part-time job as a coach, instructor, referee, or umpire in amateur athletics or in high school, college, or university sports. Athletes and sports competitors compete in organized, of ficiated sports events to entertain spectators. When playing a game, athletes are required to understand the strategies of their game while obeying the rules and regulations of the sport. The events in which they compete include both team sports, such as baseball, basketball, football, hockey, and soccer, and individual sports, such as golf, tennis, and bowling. The level of play varies from unpaid high school athletics to professional sports, in which the best from around the world compete in events broadcast on international television. Being an athlete involves more than competing in athletic events. Athletes spend many hours each day practicing skills and improving teamwork under the guidance of a coach or a sports instructor. They view videotapes to critique their own performances and techniques and to learn their opponents’ tendencies and weaknesses to gain a competitive advantage. Some athletes work regularly with strength trainers to gain muscle and stamina and to prevent injury. Many athletes push their bodies to the limit during both practice and play, so ca reer-ending injury always is a risk; even minor injuries may put a player at risk of replacement. Because competition at all lev els is extremely intense and job security is always precarious, many athletes train year round to maintain excellent form and technique and peak physical condition. Very little downtime from the sport exists at the professional level. Athletes also must conform to regimented diets during their sports season to supplement any physical training program. Coaches organize amateur and professional athletes and teach them the fundamentals of individual and team sports. (In indi vidual sports, instructors sometimes may fill this role.) Coach es train athletes for competition by holding practice sessions to perform drills that improve the athletes’ form, technique, skills, and stamina. Along with refining athletes’ individual skills, coaches are responsible for instilling good sportsman ship, a competitive spirit, and teamwork and for managing their teams during both practice sessions and competitions. Before competition, coaches evaluate or scout the opposing team to determine game strategies and practice specific plays. During competition, coaches may call specific plays intended to surprise or overpower the opponent, and they may substitute players for optimum team chemistry and success. Coaches’ additional tasks may include selecting, storing, issuing, and taking inventory of equipment, materials, and supplies. Many coaches in high schools are primarily teachers of aca demic subjects who supplement their income by coaching part time. (For more information on high school teachers, see the statement on teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary, elsewhere in the Handbook.) College coaches consider coaching a full-time discipline and may be 314 Occupational Outlook Handbook away from home frequently as they travel to scout and recruit prospective players. Sports instructors teach professional and nonprofessional athletes individually. They organize, instruct, train, and lead athletes in indoor and outdoor sports such as bowling, ten nis, golf, and swimming. Because activities are as diverse as weight lifting, gymnastics, scuba diving, and karate, instruc tors tend to specialize in one or a few activities. Like coaches, sports instructors also may hold daily practice sessions and be responsible for any needed equipment and supplies. Us ing their knowledge of their sport and of physiology, they de termine the type and level of difficulty of exercises, prescribe specific drills, and correct athletes’ techniques. Some instruc tors also teach and demonstrate the use of training apparatus, such as trampolines or weights, for correcting athletes’ weak nesses and enhancing their conditioning. Like coaches, sports instructors evaluate the athlete and the athlete’s opponents to devise a competitive game strategy. Coaches and sports instructors sometimes differ in their ap proaches to athletes because of the focus of their work. For example, while coaches manage the team during a game to optimize its chance for victory, sports instructors—such as those who work for professional tennis players—often are not permitted to instruct their athletes during competition. Sports instructors spend more of their time with athletes working one-on-one, which permits them to design customized train ing programs for each individual. Motivating athletes to play hard challenges most coaches and sports instructors but is vital for the athlete’s success. Many coaches and instructors derive great satisfaction working with children or young adults, help ing them to learn new physical and social skills, improve their physical condition, and achieve success in their sport. Umpires, referees, and other sports officials officiate at com petitive athletic and sporting events. They observe the play, detect infractions of rules, and impose penalties established by the rules and regulations of the various sports. Umpires, referees, and sports officials anticipate play and position them selves to best see the action, assess the situation, and determine any violations. Some sports officials, such as boxing referees, may work independently, while others such as umpires work in groups. Regardless of the sport, the job is highly stressful because officials are often required to make a decision in a split second, sometimes resulting in strong disagreement among competitors, coaches, and spectators. Professional scouts evaluate the skills of both amateur and professional athletes to determine talent and potential. As a sports intelligence agent, the scout’s primary duty is to seek out top athletic candidates for the team he or she represents. At the professional level, scouts typically work for scouting organizations or as freelance scouts. In locating new talent, scouts perform their work in secrecy so as not to “tip off’ their opponents about their interest in certain players. At the college level, the head scout often is an assistant coach, although free lance scouts may aid colleges by reporting to coaches about exceptional players. Scouts at this level seek talented high school athletes by reading newspapers, contacting high school coaches and alumni, attending high school games, and study- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis : ■' ■■ Coaches need good communication and leadership skills. ing videotapes of prospects’ performances. They also evalu ate potential players’ background and personal characteristics, such as motivation and discipline, by talking to the players’ coaches, parents, and teachers. Work environment. Irregular work hours are the trademark of the athlete. They also are common for coaches, umpires, referees, and other sports officials. Athletes and others in sports related occupations often work Saturdays, Sundays, evenings, and holidays. Athletes and full-time coaches usually work more than 40 hours a week for several months during the sports season, if not most of the year. Some coaches in educa tional institutions may coach more than one sport, particularly in high schools. Athletes, coaches, and sports officials who participate in competitions that are held outdoors may be exposed to all weather conditions of the season. Those involved in events that are held indoors tend to work in climate-controlled comfort, often in arenas, enclosed stadiums, or gymnasiums. Athletes, coaches, and some sports officials frequently travel to sporting events by bus or airplane. Scouts also travel extensively in locating talent, often by automobile. Umpires, referees, and other sports officials regularly en counter verbal abuse by fans, coaches, and athletes. The offi cials also face possible physical assault and, increasingly, law suits from injured athletes based on their officiating decisions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education and training requirements for athletes, coaches, um pires, and related workers vary greatly by the level and type of sport. Regardless of the sport or occupation, these jobs require immense overall knowledge of the game, usually acquired through years of experience at lower levels. Education and training. Becoming a professional athlete is the culmination of years of effort. Athletes usually be gin competing in their sports while in elementary or middle school, and continue through high school and sometimes col lege. They play in amateur tournaments and on high school and college teams, where the best attract the attention of pro fessional scouts. Most schools require that participating ath letes maintain specific academic standards to remain eligible to Professional and Related Occupations 315 play. Athletes who seek to compete professionally must have extraordinary talent, desire, and dedication to training. Head coaches at public secondary schools and sports instruc tors at all levels usually must have a bachelor’s degree. For high school coaching and sports instructor jobs, schools usu ally prefer to hire teachers willing to take on the jobs part time. (For information on teachers, including those specializing in physical education, see the section on teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) If no suitable teacher is found, schools hire someone from outside. Some entry-level positions for coaches or instructors require only experience derived as a participant in the sport or activity. Those who are not teachers must meet State requirements for certification to become a head coach. Certification, however, may not be required for coaching and sports instructor jobs in private schools. Degree programs spe cifically related to coaching include exercise and sports sci ence, physiology, kinesiology, nutrition and fitness, physical education, and sports medicine. Each sport has specific requirements for umpires, referees, and other sports officials. Umpires, referees, and other sports officials often begin their careers by volunteering for intramu ral, community, and recreational league competitions. Scouting jobs require experience playing a sport at the col lege or professional level that makes it possible to spot young players who possess extraordinary athletic ability and skills. Most beginning scouting jobs are as part-time talent spotters in a particular area or region. Hard work and a record of success often lead to full-time jobs responsible for bigger territories. Some scouts advance to scouting director jobs or various ad ministrative positions in sports. Certification and other qualifications. Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers must relate well to others and possess good communication and leadership skills. Coaches also must be resourceful and flexible to successfully instruct and motivate individuals and groups of athletes. To officiate at high school athletic events, officials must reg ister with the State agency that oversees high school athletics and pass an exam on the rules of the particular game. For col lege refereeing, candidates must be certified by an officiating school and be evaluated during a probationary period. Some larger college sports conferences require officials to have cer tification and other qualifications, such as residence in or near the conference boundaries, along with several years of experi ence officiating at high school, community college, or other college conference games. For those interested in becoming a tennis, golf, karate, or other kind of instructor, certification is highly desirable. Of ten, one must be at least 18 years old and certified in cardio pulmonary resuscitation (CPR). There are many certifying organizations specific to the various sports, and their training requirements vary. Participation in a clinic, camp, or school usually is required for certification. Part-time workers and those in smaller facilities are less likely to need formal educa tion or training. Standards for officials become more stringent as the level of competition advances. Whereas umpires for high school baseball need a high school diploma or its equivalent, 20/20 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis vision, and quick reflexes, those seeking to officiate at minor or major league games must attend professional umpire train ing school. Top graduates are selected for further evaluation while officiating in a rookie minor league. Umpires then usu ally need 7 to 10 years of experience in various minor leagues before being considered for major league jobs. Becoming an official for professional football also is competitive, as candi dates must have at least 10 years of officiating experience, with 5 of them at a collegiate varsity or minor professional level. For the National Football League (NFL), prospective trainees are interviewed by clinical psychologists to determine levels of intelligence and ability to handle extremely stressful situ ations. In addition, the NFL’s security department conducts thorough background checks. Potential candidates are likely to be interviewed by a panel from the NFL officiating depart ment and are given a comprehensive examination on the rules of the sport. Advancement. Many coaches begin their careers as assis tant coaches to gain the knowledge and experience needed to become a head coach. Head coaches at large schools that strive to compete at the highest levels of a sport require substantial experience as a head coach at another school or as an assistant coach. To reach the ranks of professional coaching, a person usually needs years of coaching experience and a winning re cord in the lower ranks. Employment Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers held about 253,000 jobs in 2006. Coaches and scouts held 217,000 jobs; athletes, 18,000; and umpires, referees, and other sports offi cials, 19,000. Nearly 42 percent of athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers worked part time, while 15 percent main tained variable schedules. Many sports officials and coaches receive such small and irregular payments for their services— occasional officiating at club games, for example—that they may not consider themselves employed in these occupations, even part time. Among those employed in wage and salary jobs, 47 percent held jobs in public and private educational services. About 13 percent worked in amusement, gambling, and recreation in dustries, including golf and tennis clubs, gymnasiums, health clubs, judo and karate schools, riding stables, swim clubs, and other sports and recreation facilities. Another 6 percent worked in the spectator sports industry. About 1 out of 5 workers in this occupation was self-em ployed, earning prize money or fees for lessons, scouting, or officiating assignments. Many other coaches and sports of ficials, although technically not self-employed, have such ir regular or tenuous working arrangements that their working conditions resemble those of self-employment. Job Outlook Employment of athletes, coaches, umpires, and related work ers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through 2016. Very keen competition is expected for jobs at the highest levels of sports. Employment change. Employment of athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers is expected to increase by 15 per- 316 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.................. ............ Athletes and sports competitors.......................................... ............ Coaches and scouts.............................................................. ............ Umpires, referees, and other sports officials...................... ............ soc Code 27-2020 27-2021 27-2022 27-2023 Employment, 2006 253,000 18,000 217,000 19,000 Projected employment, 2016 291,000 21,000 249,000 22,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 15 38,000 3,400 19 15 32,000 3,000 16 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ______________________ cent from 2006 to 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Employment will grow as the general public continues to participate in organized sports for entertainment, recreation, and physical conditioning. Increasing participation in organized sports by girls and women will boost demand for coaches, umpires, and related workers. Job growth also will be driven by the increasing number of baby boomers approach ing retirement, during which they are expected to participate more in leisure activities such as golf and tennis which require instruction. Employment of coaches and instructors also will increase with expansion of school and college athletic programs and growing demand for private sports instruction. Sports-related job growth within education also will be driven by the deci sions of local school boards. Population growth dictates the construction of additional schools, particularly in the expand ing suburbs, but funding for athletic programs often is cut first when budgets become tight. Still, the popularity of team sports often enables shortfalls to be offset somewhat by assistance from fundraisers, booster clubs, and parents. Job prospects. Persons who are State-certified to teach aca demic subjects in addition to physical education are likely to have the best prospects for obtaining coaching and instructor jobs. The need to replace the many high school coaches who change occupations or leave the labor force entirely also will provide some coaching opportunities. Competition for professional athlete jobs will continue to be extremely intense. Opportunities to make a living as a profes sional in individual sports such as golf or tennis may grow as new tournaments are established and as prize money distrib uted to participants increases. Because most professional ath letes’ careers last only a few years due to debilitating injuries and age, annual replacement needs for these jobs is high, creat ing some job opportunities. However, the talented young men and women who dream of becoming sports superstars greatly outnumber the number of openings. Opportunities should be best for persons seeking part-time umpire, referee, and other sports official jobs at the high school level. Competition is expected for higher paying jobs at the college level and will be even greater for jobs in professional sports. Competition should be keen for jobs as scouts, particu larly for professional teams, because the number of available positions is limited. Earnings Median annual wage and salary earnings of athletes were $41,060 in May 2006. However, the highest paid professional athletes earn much more. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median annual wage and salary earnings of umpires and related workers were $22,880 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,090 and $33,840. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $14,120, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $45,430. In May 2006, median annual wage and salary earnings of coaches and scouts were $26,950. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,510 and $40,850. The lowest paid 10 per cent earned less than $13,990, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $58,890. However, the highest paid profes sional coaches earn much more. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of coaches and scouts in May 2006 are shown below: Colleges, universities, and professional schools............... $37,530 Other amusement and recreation industries........................ 27,180 Fitness and recreational sports centers.................................26,150 Other schools and instruction............................................... 23,840 Elementary and secondary schools.......................................21,960 Earnings vary by level of education, certification, and geo graphic region. Some instructors and coaches are paid a salary, while others may be paid by the hour, per session, or based on the number of participants. Related Occupations Athletes and coaches use their extensive knowledge of physiol ogy and sports to instruct, inform, and encourage sports par ticipants. Other workers with similar duties include dietitians and nutritionists; physical therapists; recreation workers; fit ness workers; recreational therapists; and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary. Sources of Additional Information For information about sports officiating for team and individ ual sports, contact: 'y National Association of Sports Officials, 2017 Lathrop Ave., RaciNE., WI 53405. Internet: http://www.naso.org For more information about certification of tennis instructors and coaches, contact: y Professional Tennis Registry, P.O. Box 4739, Hilton Head Island, SC 29938. Internet: http://www.ptrtennis.org y U.S. Professional Tennis Association, 3535 Briarpark Dr., Suite ONE., Houston, TX 77042. Internet: http://www.uspta.org Professional and Related Occupations 317 Dancers and Choreographers (0*NET 27-2031.00, 27-2032.00) Significant Points • • • Many dancers stop performing by their late thirties, but some remain in the field as choreographers, dance teachers, or artistic directors. Most dancers begin formal training at an early age— between 5 and 15—and many have their first profes sional audition by age 17 or 18. Dancers and choreographers face intense competi tion; only the most talented find regular work. Nature of the Work From ancient times to the present, dancers have expressed ideas, stories, and rhythm with their bodies. They use a variety of dance forms that allow free movement and self-expression, including classical ballet, modem dance, and culturally specific dance styles. Many dancers combine performance work with teaching or choreography. Dancers perform in a variety of settings, including opera, mu sical theater, and other musical productions, and may present folk, ethnic, tap, jazz, and other popular kinds of dance. They also perform in television, movies, music videos, and commer cials, in which they also may sing and act. Dancers most often perform as part of a group, although a few top artists perform solo. Dancers work with choreographers, who create original dances and develop new interpretations of existing dances. Because few dance routines are written down, choreographers instruct performers at rehearsals to achieve the desired effect. In addition, choreographers usually are involved in auditioning performers. Work environment. Dance is strenuous. Many dancers stop performing by their late thirties because of the physical de mands on the body. However, some continue to work in the Bf sp ' w ¥ I . . . WH.; v > : Most dancers need long-term on-the-job training to be success ful. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis field as choreographers, dance teachers and coaches, or artistic directors. Others move into administrative positions, such as company managers. A few celebrated dancers, however, con tinue performing most of their lives. Daily rehearsals require very long hours. Many dance com panies tour for part of the year to supplement a limited per formance schedule at home. Dancers who perform in musical productions and other family entertainment spend much of their time on the road; others work in nightclubs or on cruise ships. Most dance performances are in the evening, whereas rehears als and practice take place during the day. As a result, dancers often work very long and late hours. Generally, dancers and choreographers work in modem and temperature-controlled fa cilities; however, some studios may be older and less comfort able. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dancers need long-term on-the-job training to be success ful. Some earn a bachelor’s degree or attend dance school, al though neither is required. Becoming a choreographer usually requires years of dancing experience. Education and training. Training varies with the type of dance and is a continuous part of all dancers’ careers. Many dancers and dance instructors believe that dancers should start with a good foundation in classical technique before selecting a particular dance style. Ballet training for girls usually begins at 5 to 8 years of age with a private teacher or through an in dependent ballet school. Serious training traditionally begins between the ages of 10 and 12. Boys often begin their ballet training between the ages of 10 and 15. Students who demon strate potential in their early teens may seek out more intensive and advanced professional training. At about this time, students should begin to focus their training on a particular style and decide whether to pursue additional training through a dance company’s school or a college dance program. Leading dance school companies often have summer training programs from which they select candidates for admission to their regular full time training programs. Formal training for modem and cultur ally specific dancers often begins later than training in ballet; however, many folk dance forms are taught to very young chil dren. Many dancers have their first professional auditions by age 17 or 18. Training is an important component of professional dancers’ careers. Dancers normally spend 8 hours a day in class and rehearsal, keeping their bodies in shape and preparing for per formances. Their daily training period includes time to warm up and cool down before and after classes and rehearsals. Because of the strenuous and time-consuming training re quired, some dancers view formal education as secondary. However, a broad, general education including music, litera ture, history, and the visual arts is helpful in the interpretation of dramatic episodes, ideas, and feelings. Dancers sometimes conduct research to leam more about the part they are playing. Many colleges and universities award bachelor’s or master’s degrees in dance, typically through departments of dance, the ater, or fine arts. The National Association of Schools of Dance accredits 65 programs in dance. Many programs concentrate on modem dance, but some also offer courses in jazz, culturally 318 Occupational Outlook Handbook specific dance, ballet, or classical techniques. Courses in dance composition, history and criticism, and movement analysis are also available. A college education is not essential for employment as a pro fessional dancer; however, many dancers obtain degrees in un related fields to prepare themselves for careers after dance. The completion of a college program in dance and education is usu ally essential to qualify to teach dance in college, high school, or elementary school. Colleges and conservatories sometimes re quire graduate degrees but may accept performance experience. A college background is not necessary, however, for teaching dance or choreography in local recreational programs. Studio schools prefer teachers to have experience as performers. Other qualifications. Because of the rigorous practice schedules of most dancers, self-discipline, patience, persever ance, and a devotion to dance are essential for success in the field. Dancers also must possess good problem-solving skills and an ability to work with people. Good health and physi cal stamina also are necessary attributes. Above all, dancers must have flexibility, agility, coordination, and grace, a sense of rhythm, a feeling for music, and a creative ability to express themselves through movement. Because dancers typically perform as members of an en semble made up of other dancers, musicians, and directors or choreographers, they must be able to function as part of a team. They also should be highly motivated and prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when audi tioning for work. Advancement. For dancers, advancement takes the form of a growing reputation, more frequent work, bigger and better roles, and higher pay. Some dancers may take on added re sponsibilities, such as by becoming a dance captain in musical theater or ballet master/ballet mistress in concert dance compa nies, by leading rehearsals, or by working with less experienced dancers in the absence of the choreographer. Choreographers typically are experienced dancers with years of practice working in the theater. Through their performance as dancers, they develop reputations that often lead to opportu nities to choreograph productions. theater, and opera companies; and amusement and recreation venues, such as casinos and theme parks. About 17 percent of dancers and choreographers were self-employed. Most major cities serve as home to major dance companies; however, many smaller communities across the Nation also support home-grown, full-time professional dance compa nies. Employment Earnings Professional dancers and choreographers held about 40,000 jobs in 2006. Many others were between engagements, so that the total number of people available for work as dancers over the course of the year was greater. Dancers and choreographers worked in a variety of industries, such as private educational services, which includes dance studios and schools, as well as colleges and universities; food services and drinking estab lishments; performing arts companies, which include dance, Job Outlook Employment of dancers and choreographers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Danc ers and choreographers face intense competition for jobs. Only the most talented find regular employment. Employment change. Employment of dancers and choreog raphers is expected to grow 6 percent during the 2006-16 de cade, more slowly than the average for all occupations. The public’s continued interest in dance will sustain large and mid size dance companies, but funding from public and private or ganizations is not expected to keep pace with rising production costs. For many small organizations, the result will be fewer performances and more limited employment opportunities. Job prospects. Because many people enjoy dance and would like to make their careers in dance, dancers and choreographers face intense competition for jobs. Only the most talented find regular employment. However, there are always some jobs available. Although job openings will arise each year because dancers and choreographers retire or leave the occupation for other rea sons, the number of applicants will continue to vastly exceed the number of job openings. National dance companies likely will continue to provide jobs in this field. Opera companies and dance groups affiliated with television and motion pictures also will offer some opportuni ties. Moreover, the growing popularity of dance for recreation al and fitness purposes has resulted in increased opportunities to teach dance, especially for older dancers who may be tran sitioning to another field. Finally, music video channels will provide opportunities for both dancers and choreographers. Median hourly earnings of dancers were $9.55 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.31 and $17.50. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.62, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.75. Annual earnings data for dancers were not available, because of the wide variation in the number of hours worked by dancers and the short-term nature of many jobs—which may last for 1 day or 1 week—make it rare for dancers to have guaranteed employment that exceeds a Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Dancers and choreographers................................... .................. Dancers................................................................. .................. Choreographers.................................................... .................. soc Code 27-2030 27-2031 27-2032 Employment, 2006 40,000 20,000 20,000 Projected employment, 2016 43,000 22,000 21.000 Change, 2006-2016 Number 2,400 1,900 500 Percent 6 9 2 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 319 few months. Median hourly earnings in the industries employ ing the largest number of dancers were as follows: Theater companies and dinner theaters.................................$15.28 Other schools and instruction.................................................. 11.71 Other amusement and recreation industries..............................8.58 Drinking places (alcoholic beverages)......................................7.76 Full-service restaurants............................................................. 7.13 Musicians, Singers, and Related Workers (0*NET 27-2041.00, 27-2041.01, 27-2041.04, 27-2042.00, 27-2042.01, 27-2042.02) Significant Points Median annual earnings of salaried choreographers were $34,660 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,910 and $49,810. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $64,010. Median annual earnings were $34,460 in “other schools and instruction,” a North American Industry Classification System category that includes dance studios and schools. Dancers who were on tour usually received an additional al lowance for room and board, as well as extra compensation for overtime. Earnings from dancing are usually low because em ployment is irregular. Dancers often supplement their income by working as guest artists with other dance companies, teach ing dance, or taking jobs unrelated to the field. Earnings of dancers at many of the largest companies and in commercial settings are governed by union contracts. Danc ers in the major opera ballet, classical ballet, and modem dance corps belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc. of the AFL-CIO; those who appear on live or videotaped television programs belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; those who perform in films and on television be long to the Screen Actors Guild; and those in musical theater are members of the Actors’ Equity Association. The unions and pro ducers sign basic agreements specifying minimum salary rates, hours of work, benefits, and other conditions of employment. However, the contract each dancer signs with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement. Most salaried dancers and choreographers covered by union contracts receive some paid sick leave and various health and pension benefits, including extended sick pay and family-leave benefits provided by their unions. Employers contribute toward these benefits. Dancers and choreographers not covered by union contracts usually do not enjoy such benefits. Related Occupations People who work in other performing arts occupations include actors, producers, and directors; and musicians, singers, and related workers. Those directly involved in the production of dance programs include set and exhibit designers; fashion designers; and barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal ap pearance workers. Like dancers, athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers need strength, flexibility, and agility. Sources of Additional Information For general information about dance and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: ^■National Association of Schools of Dance, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasd.arts-accredit.org For information about dance and dance companies, contact: > Dance/USA, 1156 15th St.NW., Suite 820, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.danceusa.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • • • Part-time schedules—typically at night and on week ends—intermittent unemployment, and rejection when auditioning for work are common; many musi cians and singers supplement their income with earn ings from other sources. Aspiring musicians and singers begin studying an in strument or training their voices at an early age. Competition for jobs is keen; talented individuals who can play several instruments and perform a wide range of musical styles should enjoy the best job prospects. Nature of the Work Musicians, singers, and related workers play musical instru ments, sing, compose or arrange music, or conduct groups in instrumental or vocal performances. They may perform solo or as part of a group. Musicians, singers, and related workers en tertain live audiences in nightclubs, concert halls, and theaters; others perform in recording or production studios. Regardless of the setting, musicians, singers, and related workers spend considerable time practicing, alone and with their bands, or chestras, or other musical ensembles. Musicians play one or more musical instruments. Many mu sicians learn to play several related instruments and can perform equally well in several musical styles. Instrumental musicians, for example, may play in a symphony orchestra, rock group, or jazz combo one night, appear in another ensemble the next, and work in a studio band the following day. Some play a variety of string, brass, woodwind, or percussion instruments or elec tronic synthesizers. Singers interpret music and text, using their knowledge of voice production, melody, and harmony. They sing character parts or perform in their own individual style. Singers are often classified according to their voice range—soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, or bass, for example—or by the type of music they sing, such as rock, pop, folk, opera, rap, or country. Music directors and conductors conduct, direct, plan, and lead instrumental or vocal performances by musical groups, such as orchestras, choirs, and glee clubs. These leaders audition and select musicians, choose the music most appropriate for their talents and abilities, and direct rehearsals and performances. Choral directors lead choirs and glee clubs, sometimes work ing with a band or an orchestra conductor. Directors audition and select singers and lead them at rehearsals and performances to achieve harmony, rhythm, tempo, shading, and other desired musical effects. Composers create original music such as symphonies, op eras, sonatas, radio and television jingles, film scores, and pop ular songs. They transcribe ideas into musical notation, using 320 Occupational Outlook Handbook Keen competition is expected for jobs as musicians and sing ers. harmony, rhythm, melody, and tonal structure. Although most composers and songwriters practice their craft on instruments and transcribe the notes with pen and paper, some use computer software to compose and edit their music. Arrangers transcribe and adapt musical compositions to a par ticular style for orchestras, bands, choral groups, or individuals. Components of music—including tempo, volume, and the mix of instruments needed—are arranged to express the composer’s message. While some arrangers write directly into a musical composition, others use computer software to make changes. Work environment. Musicians typically perform at night and on weekends. They spend much additional time practicing or in rehearsal. Full-time musicians with long-term employment contracts, such as those with symphony orchestras or television and film production companies, enjoy steady work and less travel. Nightclub, solo, or recital musicians frequently travel to perform in a variety of local settings and may tour nationally or internationally. Because many musicians find only part-time or intermittent work, experiencing unemployment between engagements, they often supplement their income with other types of jobs. The stress of constantly looking for work leads many musicians to accept permanent, full-time jobs in other oc cupations, while working part time as musicians. Most instrumental musicians work closely with a variety of other people, including their colleagues, agents, employers, sponsors, and audiences. Although they usually work indoors, some perform outdoors for parades, concerts, and festivals. In some nightclubs and restaurants, smoke and odors may be pres ent and lighting and ventilation may be poor. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Long-term on-the-job training is the most common way people learn to become musicians or singers. Aspiring musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. They may gain valuable experience playing in a school or community band or an or chestra or with a group of friends. Singers usually start training when their voices mature. Participation in school musicals or choirs often provides good early training and experience. Com posers and music directors usually require a bachelor’s degree in a related field. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Education and training. Musicians need extensive and pro longed training and practice to acquire the necessary skills and knowledge to interpret music at a professional level. Like oth er artists, musicians and singers continually strive to improve their abilities. Formal training may be obtained through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or univer sity music program, or in a music conservatory. An audition generally is necessary to qualify for university or conservatory study. The National Association of Schools of Music accredits more than 600 college-level programs in music. Courses typi cally include music theory, music interpretation, composition, conducting, and performance in a particular instrument or in voice. Music directors, composers, conductors, and arrangers need considerable related work experience or advanced training in these subjects. A master’s or doctoral degree usually is required to teach ad vanced music courses in colleges and universities; a bachelor’s degree may be sufficient to teach basic courses. A degree in music education qualifies graduates for a State certificate to teach music in public elementary or secondary schools. Musi cians who do not meet public school music education require ments may teach in private schools and recreation associations or instruct individual students in private sessions. Other qualifications. Musicians must be knowledgeable about a broad range of musical styles as well as the type of music that interests them most. Having a broader range of in terest, knowledge, and training can help expand employment opportunities and musical abilities. Voice training and private instrumental lessons, especially when taken at a young age, also help develop technique and enhance one’s performance. Young persons considering careers in music should have musical talent, versatility, creativity, poise, and a good stage presence. Self-discipline is vital because producing a quality performance on a consistent basis requires constant study and practice. Musicians who play in concerts or in nightclubs and those who tour must have physical stamina to endure frequent travel and an irregular performance schedule. Musicians and singers also must be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and of rejection when auditioning for work. Advancement. Advancement for musicians usually means becoming better known, finding work more easily, and per forming for higher earnings. Successful musicians often rely on agents or managers to find them performing engagements, negotiate contracts, and develop their careers. Employment Musicians, singers, and related workers held about 264,000 jobs in 2006. Around 35 percent worked part time; 48 percent were self-employed. Many found jobs in cities in which enter tainment and recording activities are concentrated, such as New York, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Chicago, and Nashville. Musicians, singers, and related workers are employed in a variety of settings. Of those who earn a wage or salary, 35 per cent were employed by religious organizations and 11 percent by performing arts companies such as professional orchestras, small chamber music groups, opera companies, musical theater companies, and ballet troupes. Musicians and singers also per form in nightclubs and restaurants and for weddings and other Professional and Related Occupations 321 events. Well-known musicians and groups may perform in concerts, appear on radio and television broadcasts, and make recordings and music videos. The U.S. Armed Forces also offer careers in their bands and smaller musical groups. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Keen competition for jobs, especially full time jobs, is expected to continue. Talented individuals who are skilled in multiple instruments or musical styles will have the best job prospects. Employment change. Overall employment of musicians, singers, and related workers is expected to grow 11 percent during the 2006-16 decade, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Most new wage-and-salary jobs for musicians will arise in religious organizations. Five percent growth is ex pected for self-employed musicians, who generally perform in nightclubs, concert tours, and other venues. The Internet and other new forms of media may provide independent musicians and singers alternative methods to distribute music. Job prospects. Growth in demand for musicians will gener ate a number of job opportunities, and many openings also will arise from the need to replace those who leave the field each year because they are unable to make a living solely as musi cians or singers, or for other reasons. Competition for jobs as musicians, singers, and related work ers is expected to be keen, especially for full-time jobs. The vast number of people with the desire to perform will continue to greatly exceed the number of openings. New musicians or singers will have their best chance of landing a job with smaller, community-based performing arts groups or as freelance artists. Talented individuals who are skilled in multiple instruments or musical styles will have the best job prospects. However, tal ent alone is no guarantee of success: many people start out to become musicians or singers but leave the profession because they find the work difficult, the discipline demanding, and the long periods of intermittent unemployment a hardship. Earnings Median hourly earnings of wage-and-salary musicians and sing ers were $19.73 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.81 and $36.55. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.08, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $57.37. Median hourly earnings were $23.37 in performing arts com panies and $13.57 in religious organizations. Annual earnings data for musicians and singers were not available because of the wide variation in the number of hours worked by musicians and singers and the short-term nature of many jobs. It is rare for musicians and singers to have guaranteed employment that exceeds 3 to 6 months. Median annual earnings of salaried music directors and com posers were $39,750 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,660 and $60,350. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,210, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $110,850. For self-employed musicians and singers, earnings typically reflect the number of jobs a freelance musician or singer played or the number of hours and weeks of contract work, in addition to a performer’s professional reputation and setting. Perform ers who can fill large concert halls, arenas, or outdoor stadiums generally command higher pay than those who perform in local clubs. Soloists or headliners usually receive higher earnings than band members or opening acts. The most successful mu sicians earn performance or recording fees that far exceed the median earnings. The American Federation of Musicians negotiates minimum contracts for major orchestras during the performing season. Each orchestra works out a separate contract with its local union, but individual musicians may negotiate higher salaries. In regional orchestras, minimum salaries are often less because fewer performances are scheduled. Regional orchestra musi cians often are paid for their services, without any guarantee of future employment. Community orchestras often have more limited funding and offer salaries that are much lower for sea sons of shorter duration. Although musicians employed by some symphony orches tras work under master wage agreements, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks, many other musicians face relatively long periods of unemployment between jobs. Even when employed, many musicians and singers work part time in unrelated occupations. Thus, their earnings for music usually are lower than earnings in many other occupations. Moreover, because they may not work steadily for one employer, some performers cannot qualify for unemployment compensation, and few have typical benefits such as sick leave or paid vaca tions. For these reasons, many musicians give private lessons or take jobs unrelated to music to supplement their earnings as performers. Many musicians belong to a local of the American Federa tion of Musicians. Professional singers who perform live often belong to a branch of the American Guild of Musical Artists; those who record for the broadcast industries may belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. Related Occupations Musical instrument repairers and tuners (part of the precision instrument and equipment repairers occupation) require tech- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Musicians, singers, and related workers............................................. Music directors and composers........................................................ Musicians and singers....................................................................... SOC Code Employment, 2006 27-2040 264,000 27-2041 68,000 27-2042196,000 Projected employment, 2016 293.000 77,000 216.000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 29.000 11 8,800 13 10 20.000 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 322 Occupational Outlook Handbook nical knowledge of musical instruments. Others whose work involves the performing arts include actors, producers, and di rectors; announcers; and dancers and choreographers. School teachers and self-enrichment education teachers who teach mu sic often use some of the same knowledge and skills as musi cians and singers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about music and music teacher educa tion and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: y National Association of Schools of Music, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasm.arts-accredit.org Media and Communication-Related Occupations Announcers (0*NET 27-3011.00, 27-3012.00) Significant Points • • • • Competition for announcer jobs will continue to be keen. Jobs at small stations usually have low pay, but offer the best opportunities for inexperienced announcers. Applicants who have completed internships or have related work experience, and those with computer skills, may have an advantage in the job market. Employment is projected to decline. Nature of the Work Radio and television announcers perform a variety of tasks on and off the air. They announce station program information, such as program schedules and station breaks for commercials, or public service information, and they introduce and close pro grams. Announcers read prepared scripts or make ad lib com mentary on the air, as they present news, sports, the weather, time, and commercials. If a written script is required, they may do the research and writing. Announcers also interview guests and moderate panels or discussions. Some provide commen tary for the audience during sporting events, at parades, and on other occasions. Announcers often are well known to radio and television audiences and may make promotional appearances and do remote broadcasts for their stations. Announcers at smaller stations may cover all of these areas and tend to have more off-air duties as well. They may oper ate the control board, monitor the transmitter, sell commercial time to advertisers, keep a log of the station’s daily program ming, and produce advertisements and other recorded material. Advances in technology make it possible for announcers to do some work previously performed by editors and broadcast technicians. At many music stations, the announcer is simulta neously responsible both for announcing and for operating the control board, which is used to broadcast programming, com mercials, and public-service announcements according to the station’s schedule. Much of the recorded material that used to be on records or tape is now in the form of digital files on com puters. (See the statement on broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Public radio and television announcers are involved in station fundraising efforts. Changes in technology have led to more remote operation of stations. Several stations in different locations of the same region may be operated from one office. Some stations oper ate overnight without any staff, playing programming from a satellite feed or using programming that was recorded earlier, including segments from announcers. Announcers frequently participate in community activities. Sports announcers, for example, may serve as masters of cere monies at sports club banquets or may greet customers at open ings of sporting goods stores. Radio announcers who broadcast music often are called disc jockeys (DJs). Some DJs specialize in one kind of music, an nouncing selections as they air them. Most DJs do not select much of the music they play (although they often did so in the past); instead, they follow schedules of commercials, talk, and music provided to them by management. While on the air, DJs comment on the music, weather, and traffic. They may take requests from listeners, interview guests, and manage listener contests. Some DJs announce and play music at clubs, dances, restau rants, and weddings. They often have their own equipment with which to play the music. Many are self-employed and rent their services out on a job-by-job basis. Show hosts may specialize in a certain area of interest, such as politics, personal finance, sports, or health. They contribute to the preparation of the program’s content, interview guests, and discuss issues with viewers, listeners, or the studio audi ence. Public address system announcers provide information to the audience at sporting, performing arts, and other events. Work environment. Announcers usually work in well-light ed, air-conditioned, soundproof studios. Announcers often work within tight schedules, which can be physically and men tally stressful. For many announcers, the intangible rewards— creative work, many personal contacts, and the satisfaction of becoming widely known—far outweigh the disadvantages of irregular and often unpredictable hours, work pressures, and disrupted personal lives. The broadcast day is long for radio and TV stations—many are on the air 24 hours a day—so announcers can expect to work unusual hours. Many present early-morning shows, when most people are getting ready for work or commuting, while others do late-night programs. The shifts, however, may not be as varied as in the past because new technology is allowing stations to eliminate some of the overnight hours. Professional and Related Occupations 323 J Announcers may read prepared scripts or make ad-lib commen tary on the air. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry into this occupation is highly competitive, and postsec ondary education or long-term on-the-job training is common. Trainees usually must have several years of experience in the industry before receiving an opportunity to work on the air. An applicant’s delivery and—in television—appearance and style is important. Education and training. Formal training in broadcasting from a college, a technical school, or a private broadcasting school is valuable. These programs prepare students to work with emerging technologies, a skill that is becoming increas ingly important. Many announcers have a bachelor’s degree in a subject such as communications, broadcasting, or journalism. High school and college courses in English, public speaking, drama, foreign languages, and computer science are valuable, and hobbies such as sports and music are additional assets. Individuals considering enrolling in a broadcasting school should contact personnel managers of radio and television sta tions, as well as broadcasting trade organizations, to determine the school’s reputation for producing suitably trained candi dates. Announcers are often required to complete long-term on-thejob training. This can be accomplished at campus radio or TV facilities and at commercial stations while students serve as in terns. Paid or unpaid internships provide students with handson training and the chance to establish contacts in the industry. Unpaid interns often receive college credit and are allowed to observe and assist station employees. Although the Fair Labor Standards Act limits the amount of work that unpaid interns may perform in a station, unpaid internships are more common than paid internships. Unpaid internships sometimes lead to paid internships, however, which are valuable because interns do work ordinarily performed by regular employees and may even go on the air. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Once hired by a television station, an employee usually starts out as a production assistant, researcher, or reporter and is given a chance to move into announcing if they show an aptitude for “on-air” work. A beginner’s chance of landing an on-air job is remote. The best chances for an on-air job for inexperienced announcers may be as a substitute for a familiar announcer at a small radio station or on the late-night shift at a larger station. In radio, newcomers usually start out taping interviews and op erating equipment. Other qualifications. Announcers must have a pleasant and well-controlled voice, good timing, excellent pronunciation, and correct grammar. College broadcasting programs offer courses, such as voice and diction, to help students improve their vocal qualities. Television announcers need a neat, pleas ing appearance as well. Knowledge of theater, sports, music, business, politics, and other subjects likely to be covered in broadcasts improves one’s chances for success. Announcers, especially those seeking radio careers, should have good infor mation technology skills and be capable of using computers, editing equipment, and other broadcast-related devices because new advances in technology have made these abilities increas ingly important. Announcers also need strong writing skills, because they normally write their own material. In addition, they should be able to ad lib all or part of a show and to work under tight deadlines. The most successful announcers attract a large audience by combining a pleasing personality and voice with an appealing style. Advancement. Announcers usually begin at a station in a small community and, if they are qualified, may move to a bet ter paying job in a large city. They also may advance by host ing a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other specialist. Competition for employment by networks is particu larly intense, and employers look for college graduates with at least several years of successful announcing experience. Employment Announcers held about 71,000 jobs in 2006. About 42 percent of all announcers worked part time. About 54 percent were employed in radio and television broadcasting. Another 30 per cent were self-employed freelance announcers who sold their services for individual assignments to networks and stations, to advertising agencies, other independent producers, or to spon sors of local events. Job Outlook Competition for jobs as announcers will be keen because the broadcasting field attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs. Furthermore, employment of announcers is projected to decline. In some cases, announcers leave the field because they cannot advance to better paying jobs. Changes in station own ership, format, and ratings frequently cause periods of unem ployment for many announcers. Employment change. Employment of announcers is ex pected to decline moderately by 7 percent from 2006 to 2016. Increasing consolidation of radio and television stations, the advent of new technology, and growth of alternative media sources, such as satellite radio, will contribute to the expected decline. Consolidation among broadcasting companies may lead to an increased use of syndicated programming and pro- 324 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix soc Occupational Title Code Announcers.............................................................................. ........ Radio and television announcers........................................ ........ Public address system and other announcers................... ........ 27-3010 27-3011 27-3012 Projected employment, Employment, 2006 71,000 59,000 12,000 2016 66,000 54,000 12,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent -4,900 -4,900 0 -7 -8 0 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. grams originating outside a station’s viewing or listening area. Digital technology is increasing the productivity of announcers, reducing the time required to edit material or perform other offair technical and production work. Job prospects. Some job openings will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other kinds of work or leave the labor force. Nevertheless, competition for jobs as announc ers will be keen because the broadcasting field attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs. Small radio stations are more inclined to hire beginners, but the pay is low. Applicants who have completed internships and those with related work experience usually receive preference for available positions. Job seekers with good computer and technical skills also will have an advantage because announcers are now doing more of the computer work that was previously carried out by techni cians. In radio, announcers are increasingly using computers to edit their programs. Because competition for ratings is so intense in major metropolitan areas, large stations will continue to seek announcers who have proven that they can attract and retain a sizable audience. Announcers who are knowledgeable about business, consumer, and health news also may have an advantage over others. While subject-matter specialization is more common at large stations and the networks, many small stations also encourage it. There will be some opportunities for self-employed DJ’s who provide music at clubs and special events but most of these jobs will be part time. and translators; salespersons and those in related occupations; and public relations specialists. Many announcers also must entertain their audience, so their work is similar to other en tertainment-related occupations, such as actors, producers, and directors; and musicians, singers, and related workers. Some announcers write their own material, as do writers and editors. Announcers perform a variety of duties, including some tech nical operations similar to those performed by broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators. Sources of Additional Information General information on the broadcasting industry, where many announcers are employed, is available from: y National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St.NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org Broadcast and Sound Engineering Technicians and Radio Operators (Q**NET 27-4011.00, 27-4012.00, 27-4013.00, 27-4014.00) Significant Points • Job applicants will face keen competition for jobs in major metropolitan areas, where pay generally is higher; prospects are expected to be better in small cities and towns. • Technical school, community college, or college train ing in broadcast technology, electronics, or computer networking provides the best preparation. About 30 percent of these workers are in broadcast ing, mainly in radio and television stations, and 17 percent work in the motion picture, video, and sound recording industries. Evening, weekend, and holiday work is common. Earnings Salaries in broadcasting vary widely, but generally are relatively low, except for announcers who work for large stations in major markets or for networks. Earnings are higher in television than in radio and higher in commercial broadcasting than in public broadcasting. Median hourly earnings of wage and salary radio and televi sion announcers in May 2006 were $11.69. The middle 50 per cent earned between $8.10 and $18.62. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.55, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $32.98. Median hourly earnings of announcers in the ra dio and television broadcasting industry were $11.52. Median hourly earnings of wage and salary public address and other system announcers in May 2006 were $12.02. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.41 and $19.38. The low est 10 percent earned less than $6.73 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29.69. Related Occupations The success of announcers depends upon how well they com municate. Others who must be skilled at oral communication in clude news analysts, reporters, and correspondents; interpreters https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • • Nature of the Work Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio opera tors set up, operate, and maintain a wide variety of electrical and electronic equipment used in almost any radio or television broadcast, concert, play, musical recording, television show, or movie. With such a range of work, there are many specialized occupations within the field. Audio and video equipment technicians set up and operate au dio and video equipment, including microphones, sound speak ers, video screens, projectors, video monitors, and recording Professional and Related Occupations 325 equipment. They also connect wires and cables and set up and operate sound and mixing boards and related electronic equip ment for concerts, sports events, meetings and conventions, pre sentations, and news conferences. They may set up and operate associated spotlights and other custom lighting systems. Broadcast technicians set up, operate, and maintain equip ment that regulates the signal strength, clarity, and the range of sounds and colors of radio or television broadcasts. These technicians also operate control panels to select the source of the material. Technicians may switch from one camera or stu dio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local programming. Sound engineering technicians operate machines and equip ment to record, synchronize, mix, or reproduce music, voices, or sound effects in recording studios, sporting arenas, theater productions, or movie and video productions. Radio operators mainly receive and transmit communications using a variety of tools. These workers also repair equipment, using such devices as electronic testing equipment, handtools, and power tools. One of their major duties is to help to main tain communication systems in good condition. The transition to digital recording, editing, and broadcasting has greatly changed the work of broadcast and sound engineer ing technicians and radio operators. Software on desktop com puters has replaced specialized electronic equipment in many recording and editing functions. Most radio and television sta tions have replaced videotapes and audiotapes with computer hard drives and other computer data storage systems. Comput er networks linked to specialized equipment dominate modem broadcasting. This transition has forced technicians to learn computer networking and software skills. (See the statement on computer support specialists and systems administrators else where in the Handbook.) Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio op erators perform a variety of duties in small stations. In large stations and at the networks, technicians are more specialized, although job assignments may change from day to day. The terms “operator,” “engineer,” and “technician” often are used interchangeably to describe these jobs. Workers in these posi tions may monitor and log outgoing signals and operate trans mitters; set up, adjust, service, and repair electronic broad casting equipment; and regulate fidelity, brightness, contrast, volume, and sound quality of television broadcasts. Technicians also work in program production. Recording en gineers operate and maintain video and sound recording equip ment. They may operate equipment designed to produce special effects, such as the illusions of a bolt of lightning or a police si ren. Sound mixers or re-recording mixers produce soundtracks for movies or television programs. After filming or recording is complete, these workers may use a process called “dubbing” to insert sounds. Field technicians set up and operate portable transmission equipment outside the studio. Because television news coverage requires so much electronic equipment and the technology is changing so rapidly, many stations assign techni cians exclusively to news. Chief engineers, transmission engineers, and broadcast field supervisors oversee other technicians and maintain broadcast ing equipment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Evening, weekend, and holiday work is commonfor some broad cast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators. Work environment. Broadcast and sound engineering tech nicians and radio operators generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. However, those who broadcast news and other programs from locations outside the studio may work outdoors in all types of weather or in other dangerous conditions. Tech nicians doing maintenance may climb poles or antenna towers, while those setting up equipment do heavy lifting. Technicians at large stations and the networks usually work a 40-hour week under great pressure to meet broadcast deadlines, and may occasionally work overtime. Technicians at small stations routinely work more than 40 hours a week. Evening, weekend, and holiday work is usual because most stations are on the air 18 to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Even though a technician may not be on duty when the station is broadcasting, some technicians may be on call during nonwork hours; these workers must handle any problems that occur when they are on call. Technicians who work on motion pictures may be on a tight schedule and may work long hours to meet contractual dead lines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Both broadcast and sound engineering technicians usually re ceive some kind of formal training prior to beginning work. Audio and video technicians usually learn the skills they need through a year or more of on-the-job training, but some have formal education after high school. Radio operators usually train for several months on the job Education and training. The best way to prepare for a broad cast and sound engineering technician job is to obtain techni cal school, community college, or college training in broadcast technology, electronics, or computer networking. For broad cast technicians, an associate degree is recommended. Sound engineering technicians usually complete vocational programs, which usually takes about a year, although there are shorter pro 326 Occupational Outlook Handbook grams. Prospective technicians should take high school courses in math, physics, and electronics. When starting out, broadcast and sound engineering techni cians learn skills on the job from experienced technicians and supervisors. These beginners often start their careers in small stations and, once experienced, transfer to larger ones. Large stations usually hire only technicians with experience. Many employers pay tuition and expenses for courses or seminars to help technicians keep abreast of developments in the field. Audio and video equipment technicians generally need a high school diploma. Many recent entrants have a community col lege degree or other forms of postsecondary degrees, although they are not always required. These technicians may substitute on-the-job training for formal education requirements. Many audio and video technicians learn through long-term on-the-job training, lasting from 1 to several years, depending on the spe cifics of their job. Working in a studio as an assistant is a good way of gaining experience and knowledge. Radio operators usually are not required to complete any formal training. This is an entry-level position that generally requires on-the-job training. In the motion picture industry, people are hired as appren tice editorial assistants and work their way up to more skilled jobs. Employers in the motion picture industry usually hire ex perienced freelance technicians on a picture-by-picture basis. Reputation and determination are important in getting jobs. Continuing education to become familiar with emerging technologies is recommended for all broadcast and sound engi neering technicians and radio operators. Other qualifications. Building electronic equipment from hobby kits and operating a “ham,” or amateur, radio are good ways to prepare for these careers, as is working in college radio and television stations. Information technology skills also are valuable because digital recording, editing, and broadcasting are now the norm. Broadcast and sound engineering techni cians and radio operators must have manual dexterity and an aptitude for working with electrical, electronic, and mechanical systems and equipment. Certification and advancement. Licensing is not required for broadcast technicians. However, certification by the Society of Broadcast Engineers is a mark of competence and experi ence. The certificate is issued to experienced technicians who pass an examination. Experienced technicians can become supervisory technicians or chief engineers. A college degree in engineering is needed to become chief engineer at a large television station. Employment Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio opera tors held about 105,000 jobs in 2006. Their employment was distributed among the following detailed occupations: Audio and video equipment technicians...............................50,000 Broadcast technicians............................................................ 38,000 Sound engineering technicians............................................. 16,000 Radio operators........................................................................1,500 About 30 percent worked in broadcasting (except Internet) and 17 percent worked in the motion picture, video, and sound recording industries. About 13 percent were self-employed. Television stations employ, on average, many more technicians than radio stations. Some technicians are employed in other industries, producing employee communications, sales, and training programs. Technician jobs in television and radio are located in virtually all cities; jobs in radio also are found in many small towns. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, DC—the originating centers for most network or news programs. Motion picture production jobs are concen trated in Los Angeles and New York City. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow faster than average through 2016. But people seeking entry-level jobs as technicians in broadcasting are expected to face keen competition in major metropolitan areas. Prospects are expected to be better in small cities and towns. Employment change. Overall employment of broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators is expected to grow 17 percent over the 2006-16 decade, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Job growth in radio and televi sion broadcasting will be limited by consolidation of ownership of radio and television stations and by labor-saving technical advances, such as computer-controlled programming and re motely controlled transmitters. Stations often are consolidated and operated from a single location, reducing employment be cause one or a few technicians can provide support to multiple stations. Offsetting these trends, however, is a move toward digital broadcasting that will increase employment opportuni ties. As of February 2009, television stations will only be al lowed to broadcast digital signals and, by law, will be forced to turn off their analog signals. Technicians who can install and operate digital transmitters will be in demand as stations attempt to meet this deadline. Radio stations are beginning to Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators .. Audio and video equipment technicians......................................... Broadcast technicians.................................................................. Radio operators.................................................................................. Sound engineering technicians........................................................ soc Code 27-4010 27-4011 27-4012 27-4013 27-4014 Employment, 2006 105,000 50,000 38,000 1,500 16,000 Projected employment, 2016 123,000 62,000 42,000 1,300 18,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 18,000 17 12,000 24 4,600 12 -300 -16 1,500 9 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 327 broadcast digital signals as well, but there is no law that will require them to do so. Projected job growth varies among detailed occupations in this field. Employment of audio and video equipment techni cians is expected to grow 24 percent through 2016, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. Not only will these workers have to set up audio and video equipment, but they will have to maintain and repair it as well. Employment of broadcast technicians and sound engineering technicians is expected to grow 12 percent and 9 percent respectively, through 2016, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Advance ments in technology will enhance the capabilities of technicians to produce higher quality radio and television programming. Employment of radio operators, on the other hand, is projected to decline rapidly by 16 percent through 2016 as more stations control programming and operate transmitters remotely. Employment of broadcast and sound engineering technicians in the cable and pay television portion of the broadcasting in dustry is expected to grow as the range of products and services expands, including cable Internet access and video-on-demand. Employment of these workers in the motion picture industry is expected to grow rapidly. However, this job market is ex pected to remain competitive because of the large number of people who are attracted by the glamour of working in motion pictures. Job prospects. People seeking entry-level jobs as technicians in broadcasting are expected to face keen competition in ma jor metropolitan areas, where pay generally is higher and the number of qualified jobseekers typically exceeds the number of openings. Prospects for entry-level positions are expected to be better in small cities and towns for beginners with appropriate training. In addition to employment growth, job openings will result from the need to replace experienced technicians who leave this field. Some of these workers leave for other jobs that require knowledge of electronics, such as computer repairer or indus trial machinery repairer. Median annual earnings of sound engineering technicians in May 2006 were $43,010. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $29,270 and $65,590. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,050, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $90,770. Median annual earnings of radio operators in May 2006 were $37,890. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,860 and $48,280. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,790, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $57,920. Earnings (Q*NET 27-3091.00) Television stations usually pay higher salaries than radio sta tions; commercial broadcasting usually pays more than public broadcasting; and stations in large markets pay more than those in small markets. Median annual earnings of audio and video equipment tech nicians in May 2006 were $34,840. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,090 and $46,320. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,980, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $62,550. Median annual earnings in motion picture and video industries, which employed the largest number of au dio and video equipment technicians, were $34,530. Median annual earnings of broadcast technicians in May 2006 were $30,690. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,880 and $45,310. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,680, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $64,860. Median annual earnings in radio and television broadcasting, which employed the largest number of broadcast technicians, were $27,380. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio opera tors need the electronics training necessary to operate technical equipment, and they generally complete specialized postsecond ary programs. Occupations with similar characteristics include engineering technicians, science technicians, and electrical and electronics installers and repairers. Broadcast and sound en gineering technicians also may operate computer networks, as do computer support specialists and systems administrators. Broadcast technicians on some live radio and television pro grams screen incoming calls; these workers have responsibili ties similar to those of communications equipment operators. Sources of Additional Information For career information and links to employment resources, con tact: y National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St.NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org For information on certification, contact: y Society ofBroadcast Engineers, 9182 North Meridian St., Suite 150, Indianapolis, IN 46260. Internet: http://www.sbe.org For information on audio and video equipment technicians, contact: y InfoComm International, 11242 Waples Mill Rd., Suite 200, Fairfax, VA 22030. Internet: http://www.infocomm.org Interpreters and Translators Significant Points • • • • About 22 percent of interpreters and translators are self-employed. Work is often sporadic, and many of these workers are part time. In addition to needing fluency in at least two languag es, many interpreters and translators need a bachelor’s degree. Many also complete job-specific training pro grams. Job outlook varies by specialty. Nature of the Work Interpreters and translators enable the cross-cultural communi cation necessary in today’s society by converting one language into another. However, these language specialists do more than 328 Occupational Outlook Handbook simply translate words—they relay concepts and ideas between languages. They must thoroughly understand the subject matter in which they work in order to accurately convert information from one language, known as the source language, into another, the target language. In addition, they must be sensitive to the cultures associated with their languages of expertise. Interpreters and translators are often discussed together be cause they share some common traits. For example, both must be fluent in at least two languages—a native, or active, language and a secondary, or passive, language; a small number of inter preters and translators are fluent in two or more passive lan guages. Their active language is the one that they know best and into which they interpret or translate, and their passive lan guage is one for which they have nearly perfect knowledge. Although some people do both, interpretation and translation are different professions. Interpreters deal with spoken words, translators with written words. Each task requires a distinct set of skills and aptitudes, and most people are better suited for one or the other. While interpreters often work into and from both languages, translators generally work only into their active language. Interpreters convert one spoken language into another—or, in the case of sign-language interpreters, between spoken com munication and sign language. This requires interpreters to pay attention carefully, understand what is communicated in both languages, and express thoughts and ideas clearly. Strong re search and analytical skills, mental dexterity, and an exceptional memory also are important. The first part of an interpreter’s work begins before arriving at the jobsite. The interpreter must become familiar with the subject matter that the speakers will discuss, a task that may involve research to create a list of common words and phrases associated with the topic. Next, the interpreter usually travels to the location where his or her services are needed. Physical presence may not be required for some work, such as telephone interpretation. But it is usually important that the interpreter see the communicators in order to hear and observe the person speaking and to relay the message to the other party. There are two types of interpretation: simultaneous and con secutive. Simultaneous interpretation requires interpreters to listen and speak (or sign) at the same time. In simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter begins to convey a sentence being spoken while the speaker is still talking. Ideally, simultaneous interpreters should be so familiar with a subject that they are able to anticipate the end of the speaker’s sentence. Because they need a high degree of concentration, simultaneous inter preters work in pairs, with each interpreting for 20- to 30-min ute periods. This type of interpretation is required at interna tional conferences and is sometimes used in the courts. In contrast to simultaneous interpretation’s immediacy, con secutive interpretation begins only after the speaker has verbal ized a group of words or sentences. Consecutive interpreters often take notes while listening to the speakers, so they must develop some type of note-taking or shorthand system. This form of interpretation is used most often for person-to-person communication, during which the interpreter is positioned near both parties. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Translators convert written materials from one language into another. They must have excellent writing and analytical abil ity. And because the documents that they translate must be as flawless as possible, they also need good editing skills. Assignments may vary in length, writing style, and subject matter. When translators first receive text to convert into an other language, they usually read it in its entirety to get an idea of the subject. Next, they identify and look up any unfamiliar words. Multiple additional readings are usually needed before translators begin to actually write and finalize the translation. Translators also might do additional research on the subject matter if they are unclear about anything in the text. They con sult with the text’s originator or issuing agency to clarify un clear or unfamiliar ideas, words, or acronyms. Translating involves more than replacing a word with its equivalent in another language; sentences and ideas must be manipulated to flow with the same coherence as those in the source document so that the translation reads as though it origi nated in the target language. Translators also must bear in mind any cultural references that may need to be explained to the intended audience, such as colloquialisms, slang, and other ex pressions that do not translate literally. Some subjects may be more difficult than others to translate because words or passag es may have multiple meanings that make several translations possible. Not surprisingly, translated work often goes through multiple revisions before final text is submitted. The way in which translators do their jobs has changed with advances in technology. Today, nearly all translation work is done on a computer, and most assignments are received and submitted electronically. This enables translators to work from almost anywhere, and a large percentage of them work from home. The Internet provides advanced research capabilities and valuable language resources, such as specialized diction aries and glossaries. In some cases, use of machine-assisted translation—including memory tools that provide comparisons of previous translations with current work—helps save time and reduce repetition. The services of interpreters and translators are needed in a number of subject areas. While these workers may not com pletely specialize in a particular field or industry, many do focus on one area of expertise. Some of the most common areas are described below; however, interpreters and translators also may work in a variety of other areas, including business, social ser vices, or entertainment. Conference interpreters work at conferences that have nonEnglish-speaking attendees. This work includes international business and diplomacy, although conference interpreters in terpret for any organization that works with foreign language speakers. Employers prefer high-level interpreters who have the ability to translate from at least two passive languages into one active (native) language—for example, the ability to inter pret from Spanish and French into English. For some posi tions, such as those with the United Nations, this qualification is mandatory. Much of the interpreting performed at conferences is simul taneous; however, at some meetings with a small number of attendees, consecutive interpreting also may be used. Usually, interpreters sit in soundproof booths, listening to the speakers Professional and Related Occupations 329 through headphones and interpreting into a microphone what is said. The interpreted speech is then relayed to the listener through headsets. When interpreting is needed for only one or two people, the interpreter generally sits behind or next to the attendee and whispers a translation of the proceedings. Guide or escort interpreters accompany either U.S. visitors abroad or foreign visitors in the United States to ensure that they are able to communicate during their stay. These special ists interpret on a variety of subjects, both on an informal basis and on a professional level. Most of their interpretation is con secutive, and work is generally shared by two interpreters when the assignment requires more than an 8-hour day. Frequent travel, often for days or weeks at a time, is common, an aspect of the job that some find particularly appealing. Judiciary interpreters and translators help people appearing in court who are unable or unwilling to communicate in Eng lish. These workers must remain detached from the content of their work and not alter or modify the meaning or tone of what is said. Legal translators must be thoroughly familiar with the language and functions of the U.S. judicial system, as well as other countries’ legal systems. Court interpreters work in a va riety of legal settings, such as attorney-client meetings, prelimi nary hearings, depositions, trials, and arraignments. Success as a court interpreter requires an understanding of both legal ter minology and colloquial language. In addition to interpreting what is said, court interpreters also may be required to translate written documents and read them aloud, also known as sight translation. Literary translators adapt written literature from one lan guage into another. They may translate any number of docu ments, including journal articles, books, poetry, and short sto ries. Literary translation is related to creative writing; literary translators must create a new text in the target language that reproduces the content and style of the original. Whenever pos sible, literary translators work closely with authors to best cap ture their intended meanings and literary characteristics. This type of work often is done as a sideline by university professors; however, opportunities exist for well-established literary translators. As with writers, finding a publisher and maintaining a network of contacts in the publishing industry is a critical part of the job. Most aspiring literary translators begin by submitting a short sample of their work, in the hope that it will be printed and give them recognition. For example, after receiving permission from the author, they might submit to a publishing house a previously unpublished short work, such as a poem or essay. Localization translators constitute a relatively recent and rapidly expanding specialty. Localization involves the com plete adaptation of a product for use in a different language and culture. At its earlier stages, this work dealt primarily with soft ware localization, but the specialty has expanded to include the adaptation of Internet sites and products in manufacturing and other business sectors. The goal of these specialists is to make the product to appear as if it were originally manufactured in the country where it will be sold and supported. Medical interpreters and translators provide language ser vices to health care patients with limited English proficiency. Medical interpreters help patients to communicate with doc https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tors, nurses, and other medical staff. Translators working in this specialty primarily convert patient materials and informa tional brochures issued by hospitals and medical facilities into the desired language. Medical interpreters need a strong grasp of medical and colloquial terminology in both languages, along with cultural sensitivity regarding how the patient receives the information. They must remain detached but aware of the pa tient’s feelings and pain. Sign language interpreters facilitate communication between people who are deaf or hard of hearing and people who can hear. Sign language interpreters must be fluent in English and in American Sign Language (ASL), which combines signing, finger spelling, and specific body language. ASL has its own grammatical rules, sentence structure, idioms, historical con texts, and cultural nuances. Sign language interpreting, like for eign language interpreting, involves more than simply replacing a word of spoken English with a sign representing that word. Most sign language interpreters either interpret, aiding com munication between English and ASL, or transliterate, facili tating communication between English and contact signing—a form of signing that uses a more English language-based word order. Some interpreters specialize in oral interpreting for deaf or hard of hearing people who lip-read instead of sign. Other specialties include tactile signing, which is interpreting for peo ple who are blind as well as deaf by making manual signs into a person’s hands; cued speech; and signing exact English. Self-employed and freelance interpreters and translators need general business skills to successfully manage their finances and careers. They must set prices for their work, bill custom ers, keep financial records, and market their services to attract new business and build their client base. Work environment. Interpreters work in a variety of settings, such as hospitals, courtrooms, and conference centers. They are required to travel to the site—whether it is in a neighboring town or on the other side of the world—where their services are needed. Interpreters who work over the telephone gener ally work in call centers in urban areas, and keep to a standard 5-day, 40-hour workweek. Interpreters for deaf students in schools usually work in a school setting for 9 months out of the year. Translators usually work alone, and they must frequently perform under pressure of deadlines and tight schedules. Many translators choose to work at home; however, technology al lows translators to work from almost anywhere. Because many interpreters and translators freelance, their schedules are often erratic, with extensive periods of no work interspersed with periods requiring long, irregular hours. For those who freelance, a significant amount of time must be dedi cated to looking for jobs. In addition, freelancers must manage their own finances, and payment for their services may not al ways be prompt. Freelancing, however, offers variety and flex ibility, and allows many workers to choose which jobs to accept or decline. The work can be stressful and exhausting, and translation can be lonesome. However, interpreters and translators may use their irregular schedules to pursue other interests, such as traveling, dabbling in a hobby, or working a second job. Many interpreters and translators enjoy what they do and value the ability to control their schedules and workloads. 330 Occupational Outlook Handbook Hr. Interpreters and translators need fluency in at least two lan guages and, in many cases, a bachelor’s degree. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Interpreters and translators must be fluent in at least two lan guages. Their educational backgrounds may vary widely, but most have a bachelor’s degree. Many also complete job-spe cific training programs. Education and training. The educational backgrounds of in terpreters and translators vary. Knowing at least two languages is essential. Although it is not necessary to have been raised bilingual to succeed, many interpreters and translators grew up speaking two languages. In high school, students can prepare for these careers by tak ing a broad range of courses that include English writing and comprehension, foreign languages, and basic computer profi ciency. Other helpful pursuits include spending time abroad, engaging in direct contact with foreign cultures, and reading extensively on a variety of subjects in English and at least one other language. Beyond high school, there are many educational options. Al though a bachelor’s degree is often required, interpreters and translators note that it is acceptable to major in something other than a language. An educational background in a particular field of study provides a natural area of subject matter expertise. However, specialized training in how to do the work is gener ally required. Formal programs in interpreting and translation are available at colleges nationwide and through nonuniversity training programs, conferences, and courses. Many people who work as conference interpreters or in more technical areas—such as localization, engineering, or finance—have mas ter’s degrees, while those working in the community as court or medical interpreters or translators are more likely to complete job-specific training programs. Other qualifications. Experience is an essential part of a successful career in either interpreting or translation. In fact, many agencies or companies use only the services of people who have worked in the field for 3 to 5 years or who have a degree in translation studies or both. A good way for translators to leam firsthand about the profes sion is to start out working in-house for a translation company; however, such jobs are not very numerous. People seeking to enter interpreter or translator jobs should begin by getting expe https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis rience whatever way they can—even if it means doing informal or unpaid work. Volunteer opportunities are available through community or ganizations, hospitals, and sporting events, such as marathons, that involve international competitors. The American Transla tors Association works with the Red Cross to provide volunteer interpreters in crisis situations. All translation can be used as examples for potential clients, even translation done as prac tice. Paid or unpaid internships and apprenticeships are other ways for interpreters and translators to get started. Escort interpreting may offer an opportunity for inexperienced candidates to work alongside a more seasoned interpreter. Interpreters might also find it easier to break into areas with particularly high demand for language services, such as court or medical interpretation. Whatever path of entry they pursue, new interpreters and translators should establish mentoring relationships to build their skills, confidence, and a professional network. Mentoring may be formal, such as through a professional association, or informal with a coworker or an acquaintance who has experi ence as an interpreter or translator. Both the American Transla tors Association and the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf offer formal mentoring programs. Translators working in localization need a solid grasp of the languages to be translated, a thorough understanding of techni cal concepts and vocabulary, and a high degree of knowledge about the intended target audience or users of the product. Be cause software often is involved, it is not uncommon for people who work in this area of translation to have a strong background in computer science or to have computer-related work experi ence. Certification and advancement. There is currently no uni versal form of certification required of interpreters and transla tors in the United States, but there are a variety of different tests that workers can take to demonstrate proficiency. The American Translators Association provides certification in more than 24 language combinations for its members; other options include a certification program offered by The Translators and Interpret ers Guild. Many interpreters are not certified. Federal courts have certification for Spanish, Navajo, and Haitian Creole interpreters, and many State and municipal courts offer their own forms of certification. The National As sociation of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators also offers certification for court interpreting. The U.S. Department of State has a three-test series for in terpreters, including simple consecutive interpreting (for escort work), simultaneous interpreting (for court or seminar work), and conference-level interpreting (for international confer ences). These tests are not referred to directly as certification, but successful completion often indicates that a person has an adequate level of skill to work in the field. The National Association of the Deaf and the Registry of In terpreters for the Deaf (RID) jointly offer certification for gen eral sign interpreters. In addition, the registry offers specialty tests in legal interpreting, speech reading, and deaf-to-deaf in terpreting—which includes interpreting between deaf speakers with different native languages and from ASL to tactile sign ing. Professional and Related Occupations 331 Once interpreters and translators have gained sufficient expe rience, they may then move up to more difficult or prestigious assignments, may seek certification, may be given editorial responsibility, or may eventually manage or start a translation agency. Many self-employed interpreters and translators start busi nesses by submitting resumes and samples to many different employment agencies and then wait to be contacted when an agency matches their skills with a job. After establishing a few regular clients, interpreters and translators may receive enough work from a few clients to stay busy, and they often hear of subsequent jobs by word of mouth or through referrals from existing clients. Employment Interpreters and translators held about 41,000 jobs in 2006. However, the actual number of interpreters and translators is probably significantly higher because many work in the occu pation only sporadically. Interpreters and translators are em ployed in a variety of industries, reflecting the diversity of em ployment options in the field. About 33 worked in public and private educational institutions, such as schools, colleges, and universities. About 12 worked in health care and social assis tance, many of whom worked for hospitals. Another 10 worked in other areas of government, such as Federal, State and local courts. Other employers of interpreters and translators include publishing companies, telephone companies, airlines, and inter preting and translating agencies. About 22 percent of interpreters and translators are self-em ployed. Many who freelance in the occupation work only part time, relying on other sources of income to supplement earn ings from interpreting or translation. Job Outlook Interpreters and translators can expect much faster than average employment growth over the next decade. Job prospects vary by specialty. Employment change. Employment of interpreters and trans lators is projected to increase 24 percent over the 2006-16 de cade, much faster than the average for all occupations. This growth will be driven partly by strong demand in health care settings and work related to homeland security. Additionally, higher demand for interpreters and translators results directly from the broadening of international ties and the increase in the number of foreign language speakers in the United States. Both of these trends are expected to continue, contributing to relatively rapid growth in the number of jobs for interpreters and translators. Current events and changing political environments, often difficult to foresee, will increase the need for people who can work with other languages. For example, homeland security needs are expected to drive increasing demand for interpreters and translators of Middle Eastern and North African languages, primarily in Federal Government agencies. Demand will remain strong for translators of the languages referred to as “PFIGS”—Portuguese, French, Italian, German, and Spanish; Arabic and other Middle Eastern languages; and the principal Asian languages—Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Demand for American Sign Language interpreters will grow rapidly, driven by the increasing use of video relay services, which allow individuals to conduct video calls using a sign lan guage interpreter over an Internet connection. Technology has made the work of interpreters and translators easier. However, technology is not likely to have a negative impact on employment of interpreters and translators because such innovations are incapable of producing work comparable with work produced by these professionals. Job prospects. Urban areas, especially Washington D.C., New York, and cities in California, provide the largest numbers of employment possibilities, especially for interpreters; how ever, as the immigrant population spreads into more rural areas, jobs in smaller communities will become more widely avail able. Job prospects for interpreters and translators vary by spe cialty. There should be demand for specialists in localization, driven by imports and exports and the expansion of the Internet; however, demand may be dampened somewhat by outsourcing of localization work to other countries. Demand is expected to be strong in other technical areas, such as medicine and law. Given the shortage of interpreters and translators meeting the desired skill level of employers, interpreters for the deaf will continue to have favorable employment prospects. On the other hand, job opportunities are expected to be limited for both con ference interpreters and literary translators. Earnings Salaried interpreters and translators had median hourly earnings of $17.10 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.94 and $22.60. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.88, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $30.91. Earnings depend on language, subject matter, skill, experi ence, education, certification, and type of employer, and salaries of interpreters and translators can vary widely. Interpreters and translators who know languages for which there is a greater de mand, or which relatively few people can translate, often have higher earnings as do those with specialized expertise, such as those working in software localization. Individuals classified as language specialists for the Federal Government earned an average of $76,287 annually in 2007. Limited information sug gests that some highly skilled interpreters and translators—for example, high-level conference interpreters—working full time can earn more than $100,000 annually. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, employment, 2006-2016 Code 2016 Number Percent Interpreters and translators...................................... ............................. 27-3091 41,000 51,000 9,700 24 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2006 332 Occupational Outlook Handbook For those who are not salaried, earnings may fluctuate, de pending on the availability of work. Freelance interpreters usu ally earn an hourly rate, whereas translators who freelance typi cally earn a rate per word or per hour. Related Occupations Interpreters and translators use their multilingual skills, as do teachers of languages. These include preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers; postsecond ary school teachers; special education teachers; adult literacy and remedial education teachers; and self-enrichment education teachers. The work of interpreters, particularly guide or escort interpreters, is similar to that of tour guides and escorts, in that they accompany individuals or groups on tours or to places of interest. The work of translators is similar to that of writers and edi tors, in that they communicate information and ideas in writing and prepare texts for publication or dissemination. Further more, interpreters or translators working in a legal or health care environment are required to have a knowledge of terms and concepts that is similar to that of professionals working in these fields, such as court reporters or medical transcriptionists. Sources of Additional Information Organizations dedicated to these professions can provide valu able advice and guidance to people interested in learning more about interpretation and translation. The language services di vision of local hospitals or courthouses also may have informa tion about available opportunities. For general career information, contact the organizations listed below; y American Translators Association, 225 Reinekers Ln., Suite 590, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.atanet.org For more detailed information by specialty, contact the as sociation affiliated with that subject area: y American Literary Translators Association, The University of Texas at Dallas, Box 830688 Mail Station J051, Richardson, TX 75083-0688. Internet: http://www.literarytranslators.org y Localization Industry Standards Association, Domaine en Prael, CH-1323 Romainmotier, Switzerland. Internet: http://www.lisa.org y National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators, 603 Stewart St., Suite 610, Seattle, WA 98101. Internet: http://www.najit.org y National Council on Interpreting in Health Care, 270 West Lawrence St., Albany, NY 12208. Internet: http://www.ncihc.org y Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, 333 Commerce St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.rid.org For information about testing to become a contract interpreter or translator with the U.S. State Department, contact: y U.S. Department of State, Office of Language Services, 2401 E St.NW., SA-1, Room H1400, Washington, DC 20520-2204. Information on obtaining positions as interpreters and trans lators with the Federal Government is available from the Of fice of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not toll free, and charges may result. For advice on how to find and apply for Federal jobs, see the Occupational Outlook Quarterly article “How to get a job in the Federal Government,” online at: http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2004/summer/art01.pdf. News Analysts, Reporters, and Correspondents (0*NET 27-3021.00, 27-3022.00) Significant Points • Competition will be keen for jobs at large metropoli tan and national newspapers, broadcast stations, and magazines; small publications and broadcast stations and online newspapers and magazines should provide the best opportunities. • Most employers prefer individuals with a bachelor’s degree in journalism or mass communications and ex perience gained at school newspapers or broadcasting stations or through internships with news organiza tions. • Jobs often involve long, irregular hours and pressure to meet deadlines. Nature of the Work News analysts, reporters, and correspondents gather informa tion, prepare stories, and make broadcasts that inform us about local, State, national, and international events; present points of view on current issues; and report on the actions of public officials, corporate executives, interest groups, and others who exercise power. News analysts—also called newscasters or news anchors— examine, interpret, and broadcast news received from various sources. News anchors present news stories and introduce vid eotaped news or live transmissions from on-the-scene reporters. News correspondents report on news occurring in the large U.S. and foreign cities where they are stationed. In covering a story, reporters investigate leads and news tips, look at documents, observe events at the scene, and interview people. Reporters take notes and also may take photographs or shoot videos. At their office, they organize the material, deter mine the focus or emphasis, write their stories, and edit accom panying video material. Many reporters enter information or write stories using laptop computers and electronically submit the material to their offices from remote locations. In some cases, newswriters write a story from information collected and submitted by reporters. Radio and television reporters often compose stories and report “live” from the scene. At times, they later tape an introduction to or commentary on their story in the studio. Some journalists also interpret the news or offer Professional and Related Occupations 333 opinions to readers, viewers, or listeners. In this role, they are called commentators or columnists. Newscasters at large stations and networks usually specialize in a particular type of news, such as sports or weather. Weathercasters, also called weather reporters, report current and forecasted weather conditions. They gather information from national satellite weather services, wire services, and local and regional weather bureaus. Some weathercasters are trained me teorologists and can develop their own weather forecasts. (See the statement on atmospheric scientists elsewhere in the Hand book.) Sportscasters select, write, and deliver sports news. This may include interviews with sports personalities and coverage of games and other sporting events. General-assignment reporters write about newsworthy occur rences—such as accidents, political rallies, visits of celebrities, or business closings—as assigned. Large newspapers and radio and television stations assign reporters to gather news about specific topics, such as crime or education. Some reporters spe cialize in fields such as health, politics, foreign affairs, sports, theater, consumer affairs, social events, science, business, or re ligion. Investigative reporters cover stories that may take many days or weeks of information gathering. Some publications use teams of reporters instead of assign ing each reporter one specific topic, allowing reporters to cover a greater variety of stories. News teams may include reporters, editors, graphic artists, and photographers working together to complete a story. Reporters on small publications cover all aspects of the news. They take photographs, write headlines, lay out pages, edit wireservice stories, and write editorials. Some also solicit advertise ments, sell subscriptions, and perform general office work. Work environment. The work of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents is usually hectic. They are under great pres sure to meet deadlines. Broadcasts sometimes are aired with 'ni»sr BiigpSi Large newspapers and radio and television stations assign re porters to cover specific topics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis little or no time for preparation. Some news analysts, report ers, and correspondents work in comfortable, private offices; others work in large rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers, as well as the voices of other report ers. Curious onlookers, police, or other emergency workers can distract those reporting from the scene for radio and television. Covering wars, political uprisings, fires, floods, and similar events is often dangerous. Working hours vary. Reporters on morning papers often work from late afternoon until midnight. Radio and television reporters usually are assigned to a day or evening shift. Maga zine reporters usually work during the day. Reporters sometimes have to change their work hours to meet a deadline or to follow late-breaking developments. Their work demands long hours, irregular schedules, and some travel. Be cause many stations and networks are on the air 24 hours a day, newscasters can expect to work unusual hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer individuals with a bachelor’s degree in journalism or mass communications, but some hire graduates with other majors. They look for experience at school newspa pers or broadcasting stations, and internships with news orga nizations. Large-city newspapers and stations also may prefer candidates with a degree in a subject-matter specialty such as economics, political science, or business. Some large newspa pers and broadcasters may hire only experienced reporters. Education and training. More than 1,500 institutions offer programs in communications, journalism, and related programs. In 2007, 109 of these were accredited by the Accrediting Coun cil on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications. Most of the courses in a typical curriculum are in liberal arts; the remaining courses are in journalism. Examples of journal ism courses are introductory mass media, basic reporting and copy editing, history of journalism, and press law and ethics. Students planning a career in broadcasting take courses in radio and television news and production. Those planning newspaper or magazine careers usually specialize in news-editorial jour nalism. To create stories for online media, they need to learn to use computer software to combine online story text with audio and video elements and graphics. Some schools also offer a master’s or Ph.D. degree in jour nalism. Some graduate programs are intended primarily as preparation for news careers, while others prepare journalism teachers, researchers and theorists, and advertising and public relations workers. A graduate degree may help those looking to advance more quickly. High school courses in English, journalism, and social stud ies provide a good foundation for college programs. Useful college liberal arts courses include English with an emphasis on writing, sociology, political science, economics, history, and psychology. Courses in computer science, business, and speech are useful as well. Fluency in a foreign language is necessary in some jobs. Employers report that practical experience is the most impor tant part of education and training. Upon graduation many stu dents already have gained much practical experience through part-time or summer jobs or through internships with news or- 334 Occupational Outlook Handbook ganizations. Most newspapers, magazines, and broadcast news organizations offer reporting and editing internships. Work on high school and college newspapers, at broadcasting stations, or on community papers or U.S. Armed Forces publications also provides practical training. In addition, journalism scholar ships, fellowships, and assistantships awarded to college jour nalism students by universities, newspapers, foundations, and professional organizations are helpful. Experience as a stringer or freelancer—a part-time reporter who is paid only for stories printed—is advantageous. Other qualifications. Reporters typically need more than good word-processing skills. Computer graphics and desktop publishing skills also are useful. Computer-assisted reporting involves the use of computers to analyze data in search of a sto ry. This technique and the interpretation of the results require computer skills and familiarity with databases. Knowledge of news photography also is valuable for entry-level positions, which sometimes combine the responsibilities of a reporter with those of a camera operator or photographer. Reporters should be dedicated to providing accurate and im partial news. Accuracy is important, both to serve the public and because untrue or libelous statements can lead to lawsuits. A nose for news, persistence, initiative, poise, resourcefulness, a good memory, and physical stamina are important, as is the emotional stability to deal with pressing deadlines, irregular hours, and dangerous assignments. Broadcast reporters and news analysts must be comfortable on camera. All reporters must be at ease in unfamiliar places and with a variety of peo ple. Positions involving on-air work require a pleasant voice and appearance. Advancement. Most reporters start at small publications or broadcast stations as general assignment reporters or copy editors. They are usually assigned to cover court proceedings and civic and club meetings, summarize speeches, and write obituaries. With experience, they report more difficult assign ments or specialize in a particular field. Large publications and stations hire few recent graduates; as a rule, they require new reporters to have several years of experience. Some news analysts and reporters can advance by moving to larger newspapers or stations. A few experienced report ers become columnists, correspondents, writers, announcers, or public relations specialists. Others become editors in print journalism or program managers in broadcast journalism, who supervise reporters. Some eventually become broadcasting or publishing industry managers. Employment News analysts, reporters, and correspondents held about 67,000 jobs in 2006. About 59 percent worked for newspaper, periodi- cal, book, and directory publishers. Another 23 percent worked in radio and television broadcasting. About 11 percent of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents were self-employed (free lancers or stringers). Job Outlook There is expected to be little or no change in employment through 2016. Competition will continue to be keen for jobs on large metropolitan and national newspapers, broadcast sta tions and networks, and magazines. Small broadcast stations and publications and online newspapers and magazines should provide the best opportunities. Talented writers who can handle highly specialized scientific or technical subjects will have an advantage. Employment change. Employment of news analysts, report ers, and correspondents is expected to grow 2 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is considered to be little or no change in employment. Many factors will contribute to the limited job growth in this occupation. Consolidation and convergence should continue in the publishing and broadcasting industries. As a result, companies will be better able to allocate their news analysts, reporters, and correspondents to cover news stories. Constantly improving technology also is allowing workers to do their jobs more efficiently, another factor that will limit the number of workers needed to cover a story or certain type of news. However, the continued demand for news will create some job opportunities. Job openings also will result from the need to replace workers who leave their occupations perma nently; some news analysts, reporters, and correspondents find the work too stressful and hectic or do not like the lifestyle, and transfer to other occupations. Job prospects. Competition will continue to be keen for jobs on large metropolitan and national newspapers, broadcast sta tions and networks, and magazines. Job opportunities will be best for applicants in the expanding world of new media, such as online newspapers or magazines. Small, local papers and news stations also will provide greater job prospects for poten tial reporters and news analysts. For beginning newspaper re porters, freelancing will supply more opportunities for employ ment as well. Students with a background in journalism as well as another specific subject matter, such as politics, economics, or biology, will have an advantage over those without additional background knowledge. Journalism graduates have the background for work in close ly related fields such as advertising and public relations, and many take jobs in these fields. Other graduates accept sales, managerial, or other nonmedia positions. The number of job openings in the newspaper and broadcast ing industries—in which news analysts, reporters, and corre- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title News analysts, reporters and correspondents..................... .......... Broadcast news analysts.................................................... .......... Reporters and correspondents.......................................... .......... soc Code 27-3020 27-3021 27-3022 Employment, 2006 67,000 7,700 59,000 Projected employment, 2016 68,000 8,200 60,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number 1,200 500 700 Percent 2 6 1 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 335 spondents are employed—is sensitive to economic upswings and downturns because these industries depend on advertising revenue. Photographers (Q*NET 27-4021.00) Earnings Salaries for news analysts, reporters, and correspondents vary widely. Median annual earnings of reporters and correspon dents were $33,470 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,370 and $51,700. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,180, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $73,880. Median annual earnings of reporters and correspondents were $31,690 in newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishing, and $38,050 in radio and television broadcasting. Median annual earnings of broadcast news analysts were $46,710 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $30,080 and $83,370. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,430, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 145,600. Median annual earnings of broadcast news analysts were $48,790 in radio and television broadcasting. Related Occupations News analysts, reporters, and correspondents must write clearly and effectively to succeed in their profession. Others for whom good writing ability is essential include writers and editors and public relations specialists. Many news analysts, reporters, and correspondents also must communicate information orally. Others for whom oral communication skills are important are announcers, interpreters and translators, those in sales and re lated occupations, and teachers. Sources of Additional Information For information on broadcasting education and scholarship re sources, contact: y National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St.NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org Information on careers in journalism, colleges and universi ties offering degree programs in journalism or communications, and journalism scholarships and internships may be obtained from: y Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, Inc., P.O. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08543-0300. Information on union wage rates for newspaper and maga zine reporters is available from: y Newspaper Guild, Research and Information Department, 501 Third St.NW., Suite 250, Washington, DC 20001. For a list of schools with accredited programs in journalism and mass communications, send a stamped, self-addressed en velope to: y Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications, University of Kansas School of Journalism and Mass Communications, Stauffer-Flint Hall, 1435 Jayhawk Blvd., Lawrence, KS 66045. Internet: http://www.ku.edu/acejmc/STUDENT/STUDENT.SHTML Names and locations of newspapers and a list of schools and departments of journalism are published in the Editor and Pub lisher International Year Book, available in most public libraries and newspaper offices. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • Competition for jobs is expected to be keen because the work is attractive to many people. • Technical expertise, a “good eye,” imagination, and creativity are essential. More than half of all photographers are self-employed, a much higher proportion than for most occupations. • Nature of the Work Photographers produce and preserve images that paint a picture, tell a story, or record an event. To create commercial-quality photographs, photographers need technical expertise, creativity, and the appropriate professional equipment. Producing a suc cessful picture requires choosing and presenting a subject to achieve a particular effect, and selecting the right cameras and other photographic enhancing tools. For example, photographers may enhance the subject’s appearance with natural or artificial light, shoot the subject from an interesting angle, draw attention to a particular aspect of the subject by blurring the background, or use various lenses to produce desired levels of detail at vari ous distances from the subject. Today, most photographers use digital cameras instead of tra ditional silver-halide film cameras, although some photographers use both types, depending on their own preference and the nature of the assignment. Regardless of the camera they use, photog raphers also employ an array of other equipment—from lenses, filters, and tripods to flash attachments and specially constructed lighting equipment—to improve the quality of their work. Digital cameras capture images electronically, allowing them to be edited on a computer. Images can be stored on portable memory devices such as compact disks or on smaller storage devices such as memory cards used in digital cameras and flash drives. Once the raw image has been transferred to a computer, photographers can use processing software to crop or modify the image and enhance it through color correction and other special ized effects. As soon as a photographer has finished editing the image, it can be sent anywhere in the world over the Internet. Photographers also can create electronic portfolios of their work and display them on their own webpage, allowing them to reach prospective customers directly. Digital technology also allows the production of larger, more colorful, and more accu rate prints or images for use in advertising, photographic art, and scientific research. Photographers who process their own digital images need to be proficient in the use of computers, high-qual ity printers, and editing software. Photographers who use cameras with silver-halide film often send their film to laboratories for processing. Color film re quires expensive equipment and exacting conditions for correct processing and printing. (See the statement on photographic process workers and processing machine operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other photographers develop and print their 336 Occupational Outlook Handbook own photographs using their own fully equipped darkrooms, especially if they use black and white film or seek to achieve special effects. Photographers who do their own film developing must invest in additional developing and printing equipment and acquire the technical skills to operate it. Some photographers specialize in areas such as portrait, com mercial and industrial, scientific, news, or fine arts photography. Portrait photographers take pictures of individuals or groups of people and often work in their own studios. Some specialize in weddings, religious ceremonies, or school photographs and may work on location. Portrait photographers who own and op erate their own business have many responsibilities in addition to taking pictures. They must arrange for advertising, schedule appointments, set and adjust equipment, purchase supplies, keep records, bill customers, pay bills, and—if they have employ ees—hire, train, and direct their workers. Many also process their own images, design albums, and mount and frame the fin ished photographs. Commercial and industrial photographers take pictures of various subjects, such as buildings, models, merchandise, arti facts, and landscapes. These photographs are used in a variety of media, including books, reports, advertisements, and catalogs. Industrial photographers often take pictures of equipment, ma chinery, products, workers, and company officials. The pictures are used for various purposes—for example, analysis of engi neering projects, publicity, or records of equipment development or deployment, such as placement of an offshore oil rig. This photography frequently is done on location. Scientific photographers take images of a variety of subjects to illustrate or record scientific or medical data or phenomena, using knowledge of scientific procedures. They typically pos sess additional knowledge in areas such as engineering, medi cine, biology, or chemistry. News photographers, also called photojoumalists, photograph newsworthy people, places, and sporting, political, and commu nity events for newspapers, journals, magazines, or television. Fine arts photographers sell their photographs as fine artwork. In addition to technical proficiency, fine arts photographers need artistic talent and creativity. Self-employed, or freelance, photographers usually specialize in one of the above fields. In addition to carrying out assign ments under direct contract with clients, they may license the use of their photographs through stock-photo agencies or mar ket their work directly to the public. Stock-photo agencies sell magazines and other customers the right to use photographs, and pay the photographer a commission. These agencies require an application from the photographer and a sizable portfolio of pictures. Once accepted, photographers usually are required to submit a large number of new photographs each year. Self-em ployed photographers must also have a thorough understanding of copyright laws in order to protect their work. Most photographers spend only a small portion of their work schedule actually taking photographs. Their most common ac tivities are editing images on a computer—if they use a digital camera—and looking for new business—if they are self-em ployed. Work environment. Working conditions for photographers vary considerably. Photographers employed in government and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technical expertise, imagination and creativity, and a “good eye" are important for photographers. advertising studios usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. On the other hand, news photographers often work long, irregular hours and must be available to work on short notice. Many photogra phers work part time or on variable schedules. Portrait photographers usually work in their own studios but also may travel to take photographs at the client’s location, such as a school, a company office, or a private home. News and commercial photographers frequently travel locally, stay over night on assignments, or travel to distant places for long peri ods. Some photographers work in uncomfortable or even danger ous surroundings, especially news photographers covering acci dents, natural disasters, civil unrest, or military conflicts. Many photographers must wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to take place and stand or walk for long periods while carrying heavy equipment. News photographers often work un der strict deadlines. Self-employment allows for greater autonomy, freedom of expression, and flexible scheduling. However, income can be uncertain and the continuous, time consuming search for new clients can be stressful. Some self-employed photographers hire assistants who help seek out new business. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually seek applicants with a “good eye,” imagina tion, and creativity, as well as a good technical understanding of photography. Photojoumalists or industrial or scientific photog raphers generally need a college degree. Freelance and portrait photographers need technical proficiency, gained through a de gree, training program, or experience. Education and training. Entry-level positions in photo journalism or in industrial or scientific photography generally require a college degree in photography or in a field related to the industry in which the photographer seeks employment. En try-level freelance or portrait photographers need technical pro ficiency. Some complete a college degree or vocational training programs. Photography courses are offered by many universities, com munity and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and private trade and technical schools. Basic courses in photog raphy cover equipment, processes, and techniques. Learning Professional and Related Occupations 337 good business skills is important and some bachelor’s degree programs offer courses focusing on them. Art schools offer use ful training in photographic design and composition. Photographers may start out as assistants to experienced pho tographers. Assistants acquire the technical knowledge needed to be a successful photographer and also learn other skills neces sary to run a portrait or commercial photography business. Some photographers enter the field by submitting unsolicited a portfolio of photographs to magazines and to art directors at advertising agencies; for freelance photographers, a good port folio is essential. Individuals interested in a career in photography should try to develop contacts in the field by subscribing to photographic newsletters and magazines, joining camera clubs, and seeking summer or part-time employment in camera stores, newspapers, or photo studios. Other qualifications. Photographers need good eyesight, ar tistic ability, and good hand-eye coordination. They should be patient, accurate, and detail-oriented and should be able to work well with others, as they frequently deal with clients, graphic designers, and advertising and publishing specialists. Photog raphers need to know how to use computer software programs and applications that allow them to prepare and edit images, and those who market directly to clients should know how to use the Internet to display their work. Portrait photographers need the ability to help people relax in front of the camera. Commercial and fine arts photographers must be imaginative and original. News photographers must not only be good with a camera, but also understand the story behind an event so that their pictures match the story. They must be decisive in recognizing a potentially good photograph and act quickly to capture it. Photographers who operate their own business, or freelance, need business skills as well as talent. These individuals must know how to prepare a business plan; submit bids; write con tracts; keep financial records; market their work; hire models, if needed; get permission to shoot on locations that normally are not open to the public; obtain releases to use photographs of people; license and price photographs; and secure copyright protection for their work. To protect their rights and their work, self-employed photographers require basic knowledge of licens ing and copyright laws, as well as knowledge of contracts and negotiation procedures. Freelance photographers also should develop an individual style of photography to differentiate themselves from the com petition. Advancement. After several years of experience, magazine and news photographers may advance to photography or picture editor positions. Some photographers teach at technical schools, film schools, or universities. Employment Photographers held about 122,000 jobs in 2006. More than half were self-employed, a much higher proportion than for most oc cupations. Some self-employed photographers have contracts with advertising agencies, magazine publishers, or other busi nesses to do individual projects for a set fee, while others operate portrait studios or provide photographs to stock-photo agencies. Most salaried photographers work in portrait or commercial photography studios; most of the others work for newspapers, magazines, and advertising agencies. Photographers work in all areas of the country, but most are employed in metropolitan ar eas. Job Outlook Employment of photographers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2016. Photographers can expect keen competition for job openings because the work is attractive to many people. Employment change. Demand for portrait photographers should increase as the population grows. Moreover, growth of Internet versions of magazines, journals, and newspapers will require increasing numbers of commercial photographers to provide digital images. The Internet and improved data man agement programs also should make it easier for freelancers to market directly to their customers, increasing opportunities for self-employment and decreasing reliance on stock photo agen cies. As a result, employment of photographers is expected to grow 10 percent over the 2006-16 projection period, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Job growth, however, will be constrained somewhat by the widespread use of digital photography and the falling price of digital equipment. Improvements in digital technology reduce barriers of entry into this profession and allow more individual consumers and businesses to produce, store, and access photo graphic images on their own. Photojoumalists may be adversely affected by the increase in “citizen journalism”—when newspa pers buy images taken by non-professionals who happen to be at the scene of an event. Declines in the newspaper industry also will reduce demand for photographers to provide still images for print. Job prospects. Photographers can expect keen competition for job openings because the work is attractive to many people. The number of individuals interested in positions as commercial and news photographers usually is much greater than the num ber of openings. Salaried jobs in particular may be difficult to find as more companies contract with freelancers rather than hire their own photographers. Those who succeed in landing a sala ried job or attracting enough work to earn a living by freelancing are likely to be adept at operating a business and to be among the most creative. They will be able to find and exploit the new op portunities available from rapidly changing technologies. Relat- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Photographers........................................................................................ SOC Code 27-4021 Employment, 2006 122,000 Projected employment, 2016 135,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 13,000 10 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 338 Occupational Outlook Handbook ed work experience, job-related training, or some unique skill or talent—such as a background in computers or electronics—also improve a photographer’s job prospects. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried photographers were $26,170 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,680 and $38,730. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,540, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $56,640. Median annual earnings in the industry employing the largest numbers of salaried photographers were $22,860 in the photographic ser vices industry. Salaried photographers—more of whom work full time—tend to earn more than those who are self-employed. Because most freelance and portrait photographers purchase their own equip ment, they incur considerable expense acquiring and maintain ing cameras and accessories. Unlike news and commercial pho tographers, few fine arts photographers are successful enough to support themselves solely through their art. Related Occupations Other occupations requiring artistic talent and creativity include architects, except landscape and naval; artists and related work ers; commercial and industrial designers, fashion designers, and graphic designers; and television, video, and motion picture cam era operators and editors. Photojoumalists are often required to cover news stories much the same as news analysts, reporters, and correspondents. The processing work that photographers do on computers is similar to the work of prepress technicians and workers and desktop publishers. Sources of Additional Information Career information on photography is available from: y Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 229 Peachtree St.NE., Suite 2200, Atlanta, GA 30303. Internet: http://www.ppa.com y National Press Photographers Association, Inc., 3200 Croasdaile Dr., Suite 306, Durham, NC 27705. Internet: http://www.nppa.org y American Society of Media Photographers, Inc., 150 North Second St., Philadelphia, PA 19106. Internet: http://www.asmp.org Public Relations Specialists (0*NET 27-3031.00) Significant Points • Although employment is projected to grow faster than average, keen competition is expected for entry-level jobs. • Opportunities should be best for college graduates who combine a degree in public relations, journalism, or another communications-related field with a public relations internship or other related work experience. • The ability to communicate effectively is essential. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work An organization’s reputation, profitability, and even its contin ued existence can depend on the degree to which its targeted “publics” support its goals and policies. Public relations spe cialists—also referred to as communications specialists and media specialists, among other titles—serve as advocates for businesses, nonprofit associations, universities, hospitals, and other organizations, and build and maintain positive relation ships with the public. As managers recognize the importance of good public relations to the success of their organizations, they increasingly rely on public relations specialists for advice on the strategy and policy of such programs. Public relations specialists handle organizational functions such as media, community, consumer, industry, and govern mental relations; political campaigns; interest-group represen tation; conflict mediation; and employee and investor relations. They do more than “tell the organization’s story.” They must understand the attitudes and concerns of community, consumer, employee, and public interest groups and establish and main tain cooperative relationships with them and with representa tives from print and broadcast journalism. Public relations specialists draft press releases and contact people in the media who might print or broadcast their material. Many radio or television special reports, newspaper stories, and magazine articles start at the desks of public relations special ists. Sometimes the subject is an organization and its policies toward its employees or its role in the community. Often the subject is a public issue, such as health, energy, or the environ ment, and what an organization does to advance that issue. Public relations specialists also arrange and conduct pro grams to keep up contact between organization representatives and the public. For example, they set up speaking engagements and often prepare speeches for company officials. These media specialists represent employers at community projects; make film, slide, or other visual presentations at meetings and school assemblies; and plan conventions. In addition, they are respon sible for preparing annual reports and writing proposals for various projects. In government, public relations specialists—who may be called press secretaries, information officers, public affairs specialists, or communication specialists—keep the public informed about the activities of agencies and officials. For example, public affairs specialists in the U.S. Department of State keep the public informed of travel advisories and of U.S. positions on foreign issues. A press secretary for a member of Congress keeps constituents aware of the representative’s ac complishments. In large organizations, the key public relations executive, who often is a vice president, may develop overall plans and policies with other executives. In addition, public relations departments employ public relations specialists to write, research, prepare materials, maintain contacts, and respond to inquiries. People who handle publicity for an individual or who direct public relations for a small organization may deal with all as pects of the job. They contact people, plan and research, and prepare materials for distribution. They also may handle adver tising or sales promotion work to support marketing efforts. Professional and Related Occupations 339 Public relations specialists draft press releases and contact people in the media who print or broadcast their material. Work environment. Public relations specialists work in busy offices. The pressures of deadlines and tight work schedules can be stressful. Some public relations specialists work a standard 35- to 40hour week, but unpaid overtime is common and work schedules can be irregular and frequently interrupted. Occasionally, they must be at the job or on call around the clock, especially if there is an emergency or crisis. Schedules often have to be re arranged so that workers can meet deadlines, deliver speeches, attend meetings and community activities, and travel. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no defined standards for entry into a public relations career. A college degree in a communications-related field combined with public relations experience is excellent prepara tion for public relations work. Education and training. Many entry-level public relations specialists have a college degree in public relations, journalism, advertising, or communication. Some firms seek college gradu ates who have worked in electronic or print journalism. Other employers seek applicants with demonstrated communication skills and training or experience in a field related to the firm’s business—information technology, health care, science, engi neering, sales, or finance, for example. Many colleges and universities offer bachelor’s and postsec ondary degrees in public relations, usually in a journalism or communications department. In addition, many other colleges offer at least one course in this field. A common public rela tions sequence includes courses in public relations principles and techniques; public relations management and administra tion, including organizational development; writing, emphasiz ing news releases, proposals, annual reports, scripts, speeches, and related items; visual communications, including desktop publishing and computer graphics; and research, emphasizing social science research and survey design and implementation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Courses in advertising, journalism, business administration, finance, political science, psychology, sociology, and creative writing also are helpful. Specialties are offered in public rela tions for business, government, and nonprofit organizations. Many colleges help students gain part-time internships in public relations that provide valuable experience and training. Membership in local chapters of the Public Relations Student Society of America (affiliated with the Public Relations Soci ety of America) or in student chapters of the International As sociation of Business Communicators provides an opportunity for students to exchange views with public relations specialists and to make professional contacts that may help them find a job in the field. A portfolio of published articles, television or radio programs, slide presentations, and other work is an asset in finding a job. Writing for a school publication or television or radio station provides valuable experience and material for one’s portfolio. Some organizations, particularly those with large public rela tions staffs, have formal training programs for new employees. In smaller organizations, new employees work under the guid ance of experienced staff members. Beginners often maintain files of material about company activities, scan newspapers and magazines for appropriate articles to clip, and assemble infor mation for speeches and pamphlets. They also may answer calls from the press and the public, work on invitation lists and details for press conferences, or escort visitors and clients. Af ter gaining experience, they write news releases, speeches, and articles for publication or plan and carry out public relations programs. Public relations specialists in smaller firms usually get all-around experience, whereas those in larger firms tend to be more specialized. Other qualifications. Public relations specialists must show creativity, initiative, and good judgment and have the ability to communicate thoughts clearly and simply. Decision-making, problem-solving, and research skills also are important. People who choose public relations as a career need an outgoing per sonality, self-confidence, an understanding of human psychol ogy, and an enthusiasm for motivating people. They should be competitive, yet able to function as part of a team and be open to new ideas. Certification and advancement. The Universal Accredita tion Board accredits public relations specialists who are mem bers of the Public Relations Society of America and who partic ipate in the Examination for Accreditation in Public Relations process. This process includes both a readiness review and an examination, which are designed for candidates who have at least 5 years of full-time work or teaching experience in public relations and who have earned a bachelor’s degree in a commu nications-related field. The readiness review includes a written submission by each candidate, a portfolio review, and dialogue between the candidate and a three-member panel. Candidates who successfully advance through readiness review and pass the computer-based examination earn the Accredited in Public Relations (APR) designation. The International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) also has an accreditation program for professionals in the communications field, including public relations specialists. Those who meet all the requirements of the program earn the 340 Occupational Outlook Handbook Accredited Business Communicator (ABC) designation. Can didates must have at least 5 years of experience and a bachelor’s degree in a communications field and must pass written and oral examinations. They also must submit a portfolio of work samples demonstrating involvement in a range of communica tions projects and a thorough understanding of communications planning. Employers may consider professional recognition through accreditation as a sign of competence in this field, which could be especially helpful in a competitive job market. Promotion to supervisory jobs may come to public relations specialists who show that they can handle more demanding as signments. In public relations firms, a beginner might be hired as a research assistant or account coordinator and be promoted to account executive, senior account executive, account man ager, and eventually vice president. A similar career path is followed in corporate public relations, although the titles may differ. Some experienced public relations specialists start their own consulting firms. (For more information on public relations managers, see the Handbook statement on advertising, market ing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers.) Employment Public relations specialists held about 243,000 jobs in 2006. They are concentrated in service-providing industries such as advertising and related services; health care and social assis tance; educational services; and government. Others work for communications firms, financial institutions, and government agencies. Public relations specialists are concentrated in large cities, where press services and other communications facilities are readily available and many businesses and trade associations have their headquarters. Many public relations consulting firms, for example, are in New York, Los Angeles, San Francis co, Chicago, and Washington, DC. There is a trend, however, for public relations jobs to be dispersed throughout the Nation, closer to clients. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow faster than average; however, keen competition is expected for entry-level jobs. Employment change. Employment of public relations spe cialists is expected to grow by 18 percent from 2006 to 2016, faster than average for all occupations. The need for good pub lic relations in an increasingly competitive business environ ment should spur demand for these workers in organizations of all types and sizes. Those with additional language capabilities also are in great demand. Employment in public relations firms should grow as firms hire contractors to provide public relations services rather than support full-time staff. Among detailed industries, the largest job growth will con tinue to be in advertising and related services. Job prospects. Keen competition likely will continue for entry-level public relations jobs, as the number of qualified applicants is expected to exceed the number of job openings. Many people are attracted to this profession because of the high profile nature of the work. Opportunities should be best for col lege graduates who combine a degree in journalism, public rela tions, advertising, or another communications-related field with a public relations internship or other related work experience. Applicants without the appropriate educational background or work experience will face the toughest obstacles. Additional job opportunities should result from the need to replace public relations specialists who retire or leave the oc cupation for other reasons. Earnings Median annual earnings for salaried public relations specialists were $47,350 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $35,600 and $65,310; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,080, and the top 10 percent earned more than $89,220. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of public relations specialists in May 2006 were: Management of companies and enterprises........................$52,940 Business, professional, labor, political, and similar organizations........................................................................51,400 Advertising and related services...........................................49,980 Local government................................................................. 47,550 Colleges, universities, and professional schools...................43,330 Related Occupations Public relations specialists create favorable attitudes among various organizations, interest groups, and the public through effective communication. Other workers with similar jobs in clude advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; demonstrators, product promoters, and models; news analysts, reporters, and correspondents; lawyers; market and survey researchers; sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; and police and detectives involved in commu nity relations. Sources of Additional Information A comprehensive directory of schools offering degree programs, a sequence of study in public relations, a brochure on careers in public relations, and an online brochure entitled Where Shall Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Public relations specialists.................................................................... SOC Code 27-3031 Employment, 2006 243,000 Projected employment, 2016 286,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 43,000 18 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 341 I Go to Study Advertising and Public Relations?, are available from: y Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 33 Maiden LaNE., New York, NY 10038-5150. Internet: http://www.prsa.org For information on accreditation for public relations profes sionals and the IABC Student Web site, contact: y International Association of Business Communicators, One Hallidie Plaza, Suite 600, San Francisco, CA 94102. Television, Video, and Motion Picture Camera Operators and Editors (0*NET 27-4031.00, 27-4032.00) Significant Points • Workers acquire their skills through on-the-job or for mal postsecondary training. • Keen competition for jobs is expected due to the large number of people who wish to enter the broadcasting and motion picture industries, where many camera operators and editors are employed. • Those with the most experience and the most advanced computer skills will have the best job opportunities. Nature of the Work Television, video, and motion picture camera operators pro duce images that tell a story, inform or entertain an audience, or record an event. Film and video editors edit soundtracks, film, and video for the motion picture, cable, and broadcast televi sion industries. Some camera operators do their own editing. Camera operators use television, video, or motion picture cameras to shoot a wide range of material, including televi sion series, studio programs, news and sporting events, music videos, motion pictures, documentaries, and training sessions. This material is constructed from many different shots by film and video editors. With the increase in digital technology, much of the editing work is now done on a computer. Many camera operators and editors are employed by independent television stations; local affiliate stations of television networks; large cable and television networks; or smaller, independent produc tion companies. Making commercial-quality movies and video programs re quires technical expertise and creativity. Producing successful images requires choosing and presenting interesting material, selecting appropriate equipment, and applying a good eye and a steady hand to ensure smooth, natural movement of the cam era. Some camera operators film or videotape private ceremonies and special events, such as weddings and conference program sessions. Those who record these images on videotape are of ten called videographers. Studio camera operators work in a broadcast studio and usually videotape their subjects from a fixed position. News camera operators, also called electronic news gathering (ENG) operators, work as part of a reporting team, following newsworthy events as they unfold. To capture https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis live events, they must anticipate the action and act quickly. ENG operators sometimes edit raw footage on the spot for relay to a television affiliate for broadcast. Camera operators employed in the entertainment field use motion picture cameras to film movies, television programs, and commercials. Those who film motion pictures also are known as cinematographers. Some specialize in filming car toons or special effects. Cinematographers may be an integral part of the action, using cameras in any of several different mounts. For example, the camera can be stationary and shoot whatever passes in front of the lens, or it can be mounted on a track, with the camera operator responsible for shooting the scene from different angles or directions. Wider use of digital cameras has enhanced the number of angles and the clarity that a camera operator can provide. Other camera operators sit on cranes and follow the action while crane operators move them into position. Steadicam operators mount a harness and carry the camera on their shoulders to provide a clear picture while they move about the action. Camera operators who work in the entertainment field often meet with directors, actors, editors, and camera assistants to discuss ways of filming, editing, and improving scenes. Work environment. ENG operators and those who cover ma jor events, such as conventions or sporting events, frequently travel locally and stay overnight or travel to distant places for longer periods. Camera operators filming television programs or motion pictures may travel to film on location. Some camera operators—especially ENG operators covering accidents, natural disasters, civil unrest, or military conflicts— work in uncomfortable or even dangerous surroundings. Many camera operators must wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to take place and must stand or walk for long pe riods while carrying heavy equipment. ENG operators often work under strict deadlines. Hours of work and working schedules for camera operators and editors vary considerably. Those employed by television and cable networks and advertising agencies usually work a 5day, 40-hour week; however, they may work longer hours to meet production schedules. ENG operators often work long, irregular hours and must be available to work on short notice. FL v ' >5 Film and video editors use computers to create a finished prod uct. 342 Occupational Outlook Handbook Camera operators and editors working in motion picture pro duction also may work long, irregular hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and edi tors usually acquire their skills through formal postsecondary training at vocational schools, colleges, universities, or pho tographic institutes. A bachelor’s degree may be required for some positions, particularly those for film and video editors. Employers usually seek applicants with a good eye, imagina tion, and creativity, as well as a good technical understanding of how the camera operates. Education and training. Many universities, community and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and private trade and technical schools offer courses in camera operation and videography. Basic courses cover equipment, processes, and techniques. It is increasingly important for camera operators to have a good understanding of computer technology. Bachelor’s degree programs, especially those including business courses, provide a well-rounded education. Film schools also may pro vide training on the artistic or aesthetic aspects of filmmaking. Individuals interested in camera operations should subscribe to videographic newsletters and magazines, join audio-video clubs, and seek summer or part-time employment in cable and television networks, motion picture studios, or camera and vid eo stores. To enter the occupation, many camera operators first become production assistants to learn how film and video production works. In entry-level jobs they learn to set up lights, cameras, and other equipment. They also may receive routine assign ments requiring adjustments to their cameras or decisions on what subject matter to capture. Camera operators in the film and television industries usually are hired for a project on the basis of recommendations from individuals such as producers, directors of photography, and camera assistants from previous projects or through interviews with the producer. ENG and stu dio camera operators who work for television affiliates usually start in small markets to gain experience. Other qualifications. Camera operators need good eyesight, artistic ability, and hand-eye coordination. They should be patient, accurate, and detail oriented. Camera operators also should have good communication skills and, if needed, the abil ity to hold a camera by hand for extended periods. Camera operators, who run their own businesses or do free lance work, need business skills as well as talent. These in dividuals must know how to submit bids, write contracts, get permission to shoot on locations that normally are not open to the public, obtain releases to use film or tape of people, price their services, secure copyright protection for their work, and keep financial records. Advancement. With experience, operators may advance to more demanding assignments or to positions with larger or net work television stations. Advancement for ENG operators may mean moving to larger media markets. Other camera operators and editors may become directors of photography for movie studios, advertising agencies, or television programs. Some teach at technical schools, film schools, or universities. Employment Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and edi tors held about 47,000 jobs in 2006. About 27,000 were camera operators and film and video editors held about 21,000 jobs. Many are employed by independent television stations, lo cal affiliate stations of television networks or broadcast groups, large cable and television networks, or smaller independent pro duction companies. About 17 percent of camera operators and film editors were self-employed. Some self-employed camera operators contracted with television networks, documentary or independent filmmakers, advertising agencies, or trade show or convention sponsors to work on individual projects for a set fee, often at a daily rate. Most of the salaried camera operators and editors were em ployed by television broadcasting stations or motion picture studios. More than half of the salaried film and video editors worked for motion picture studios. Most camera operators and editors worked in large metropolitan areas. Job Outlook Keen competition for jobs is expected due to the large num ber of people who wish to enter the broadcasting and motion picture industries, where many camera operators and editors are employed. Those with the most experience and the most advanced computer skills will have the best job opportunities. Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average. Employment change. Employment of camera operators and editors is expected to grow 12 percent over the 2006-16 decade, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2016. Rapid expansion of the entertainment market, especially motion picture production and distribution, will spur growth of camera operators. In addition, computer and Internet services will provide new outlets for interactive productions. Camera operators will be needed to film made-for-Internet broadcasts, such as live music videos, digital movies, sports features, and general information or entertainment programming. These im ages can be delivered directly into the home either on compact discs or as streaming video over the Internet. Growth will be tempered, however, by the increased offshore production of Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors Camera operators, television, video, and motion picture.............. Film and video editors...................................................................... soc Code 27-4030 27-4031 27-4032 Employment, 2006 47,000 27,000 21,000 Projected employment, 2016 53,000 30,000 23,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 5,700 12 3,100 12 2,600 13 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 343 motion pictures. Job growth in television broadcasting will be tempered by the use of automated cameras under the control of a single person working either on the studio floor or in a director’s booth. Job prospects. Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors can expect keen competition for job open ings because of the large number of people who wish to enter the broadcasting and motion picture industries, where many of these workers are employed. The number of individuals inter ested in positions as videographers and movie camera operators usually is much greater than the number of openings. Those who succeed in landing a salaried job or attracting enough work to earn a living by freelancing are likely to be the most creative and highly motivated people, able to adapt to rapidly changing technologies and adept at operating a business. The change to digital cameras has increased the importance of strong com puter skills. Those with the most experience and the most ad vanced computer skills will have the best job opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings for television, video, and motion pic ture camera operators were $40,060 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,930 and $59,440. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,810, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $84,500. Median annual earnings were $44,010 in the motion picture and video industries and $32,200 in radio and television broadcasting. Median annual earnings for film and video editors were $46,670 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,610 and $74,650. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $110,720. Median annual earnings were $53,580 in the motion picture and video industries, which employed the largest numbers of film and video editors. Many camera operators who work in film or video are free lancers, whose earnings tend to fluctuate each year. Because most freelance camera operators purchase their own equip ment, they incur considerable expense acquiring and maintain ing cameras and accessories. Some camera operators belong to unions, including the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees, and the National Association of Broadcast Employ ees and Technicians. Related Occupations Related arts and media occupations include artists and related workers, broadcast and sound engineering technicians and ra dio operators, graphic designers, and photographers. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers as a camera operator, contact: y International Cinematographer’s Guild, 80 Eighth Ave., 14th Floor, New York, NY 10011. y National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians, 501 Third St.NW., 6th floor, Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.nabetcwa.org Information about career and employment opportunities for camera operators and film and video editors also is available from local offices of State employment service agencies, local offices of the relevant trade unions, and local television and film production companies that employ these workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Writers and Editors (0*NET 23-2091.00, 27-3041.00, 27-3042.00, 27-3043.00, 27-3043.04, 27-3043.05) Significant Points • Most jobs in this occupation require a college degree preferably in communications, journalism, or English, but a degree in a technical subject may be useful for technical writing positions. • The outlook for most writing and editing jobs is ex pected to be competitive because many people are at tracted to the occupation. • Online publications and services are growing in num ber and sophistication, spurring the demand for writ ers and editors with Web or multimedia experience. Nature of the Work Writers and editors produce a wide variety of written materi als delivered to an audience in an increasing number of ways. They develop content using any number of multimedia formats for readers, listeners, or viewers. Although many people write as part of their primary job, or on on-line chats or blogs, only writers and editors who are paid for their work are included in this occupation. (News analysts, reporters and correspondents, who gather information and prepare stories about newsworthy events, are described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Writers fall into two main categories—writers and authors and technical writers. Writers and authors develop original written materials for books, magazines, trade journals, online publica tions, company newsletters, radio and television broadcasts, motion pictures, and advertisements. Their works are classified broadly as either fiction or nonfiction and writers often are iden tified by the type of writing they do—for example, novelists, playwrights, biographers, screenwriters, and textbook writers. Some freelance writers may be commissioned by a sponsor to write a script; others may be contracted to write a book on the basis of a proposal in the form of a draft or an outline. Writers may produce materials for publication or performance, such as songwriters or scriptwriters. Writers work with editors and publishers throughout the writing process to review edits, topics, and production sched ules. Editors and publishers may assign topics to staff writers or review proposals from freelance writers. All writers con duct research on their topics, which they gather through per sonal observation, library and Internet research, and interviews. Writers, especially of nonfiction, are expected to establish their credibility with editors and readers through strong research and the use of appropriate sources and citations. Writers and au thors then select the material they want to use, organize it, and use the written word to express story lines, ideas, or to convey information. With help from editors, they may revise or rewrite sections, searching for the best organization or the right phras ing. Copy writers are a very specialized type of writer. They pre pare advertising copy for use in publications or for broadcasting 344 Occupational Outlook Handbook and they write other materials to promote the sale of a good or service. They often must work with the client to produce adver tising themes or slogans and may be involved in the marketing of the product or service. Technical writers put technical information into easily un derstandable language. They prepare product documentation, such as operating and maintenance manuals, catalogs, assembly instructions, and project proposals. Technical writers primarily are found in the information technology industry, writing oper ating instructions for online Help and documentation for com puter programs. Many technical writers work with engineers on technical subject matters to prepare written interpretations of engineering and design specifications and other information for a general readership. Technical writers also may serve as part of a team conducting usability studies to help improve the design of a product that still is in the prototype stage. They plan and edit technical materials and oversee the preparation of illustrations, photographs, diagrams, and charts. Most writers and editors have at least a basic familiarity with technology, regularly using personal computers, desktop or electronic publishing systems, scanners, and other electronic communications equipment. Many writers prepare material directly for the Internet. For example, they may write for elec tronic editions of newspapers or magazines, create short fiction or poetry, or produce technical documentation that is available only online. These writers also may prepare text for Web sites. As a result, they should be knowledgeable about graphic de sign, page layout, and multimedia software. In addition, they should be familiar with interactive technologies of the Web so that they can blend text, graphics, and sound together. Bloggers who are paid to write may be considered writers. Many writers are considered freelance writers. They are selfemployed and sell their work to publishers, publication enter prises, manufacturing firms, public relations departments, or advertising agencies. Sometimes, they contract with publish ers first to write a book or an article. Others may be hired to complete specific short-term or recurring assignments, such as writing about a new product or contributing to an organization’s quarterly newsletter. Editors review, rewrite, and edit the work of writers. They also may do original writing. An editor’s responsibilities vary with the employer and type and level of editorial position held. Editorial duties may include planning the content of books, technical journals, trade magazines, and other general-interest publications. Editors also review story ideas proposed by staff and freelance writers then decide what material will appeal to readers. They review and edit drafts of books and articles, offer comments to improve the work, and suggest possible titles. In addition, they may oversee the production of publications. In the book-publishing industry, an editor’s primary responsibility is to review proposals for books and decide whether to buy the publication rights from the author. Major newspapers and newsmagazines usually employ sev eral types of editors. The executive editor oversees assistant editors, and generally has the final say about what stories are published and how they are covered. Assistant editors have re sponsibility for particular subjects, such as local news, inter national news, feature stories, or sports. The managing editor https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis usually is responsible for the daily operation of the news depart ment. Assignment editors determine which reporters will cover a given story. Copy editors mostly review and edit a reporter’s copy for accuracy, content, grammar, and style. In smaller organizations—such as small daily or weekly newspapers—a single editor may do everything or share respon sibility with only a few other people. Executive and managing editors typically hire writers, reporters, and other employees. They also plan budgets and negotiate contracts with freelance writers, sometimes called “stringers” in the news industry. Editors often have assistants, many of whom hold entry-level jobs. These assistants, frequently called copy editors, review copy for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling and check the copy for readability, style, and agreement with edi torial policy. They suggest revisions, such as changing words and rearranging sentences and paragraphs, to improve clarity or accuracy. They also carry out research for writers and ver ify facts, dates, and statistics. In addition, they may arrange page layouts of articles, photographs, and advertising; compose headlines; and prepare copy for printing. Publication assistants who work for publishing houses may read and evaluate manu scripts submitted by freelance writers, proofread printers’ gal leys, and answer letters about published material. Assistants on small newspapers or in radio stations compile articles available from wire services or the Internet, answer phones, and make photocopies. Work environment. While some writers and editors work in comfortable, private offices, others work in noisy rooms filled with the sounds of keyboards and the voices of other writers tracking down information or interviewing sources. The search for information sometimes requires that writers travel to diverse workplaces, such as factories, offices, or laboratories, but many find their material through telephone interviews, the library, and the Internet. Advances in electronic communications have changed the work environment for many writers. Laptop computers and wireless communications technologies allow growing numbers of writers to work from home and on the road. The ability to e-mail, transmit and download stories, research, or review ma terials using the Internet allows writers and editors greater flex ibility in where and how they complete assignments. Some writers keep regular office hours, either to maintain contact with sources and editors or to establish a writing rou tine, but most writers set their own hours. Many writers—es pecially freelance writers—are paid per assignment; therefore, they work any number of hours necessary to meet a deadline. As a result, writers must be willing to work evenings, nights, or weekends to produce a piece acceptable to an editor or client by the publication deadline. Those who prepare morning or weekend publications and broadcasts also may regularly work nights, early mornings, and weekends. While many freelance writers enjoy running their own busi nesses and the advantages of working flexible hours, most routinely face the pressures of juggling multiple projects with competing demands and the continual need to find new work. Deadline pressures and long, erratic work hours—often part of the daily routine in these jobs—may cause stress, fatigue, or burnout. In addition, the use of computers for extended periods Professional and Related Occupations 345 :«5i, Writers and editors use reference books and other resources to research or verify information. may cause some individuals to experience back pain, eyestrain, or fatigue. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree generally is required for a position as a writer or editor. Good facility with computers and communications equipment is necessary in order to stay in touch with sourc es, editors, and other writers while working on assignments, whether from home, an office, or while traveling. Education and training. Some employers look for a broad liberal arts background, while others prefer to hire people with degrees in communications, journalism, or English. For those who specialize in a particular area, such as fashion, business, or law, additional background in the chosen field is expected. Increasingly, technical writing requires a degree in, or some knowledge about, a specialized field—for example, engineer ing, business, or one of the sciences. Knowledge of a second language is helpful for some positions. A background in web design, computer graphics, or other technology field is increas ingly practical, because of the growing use of graphics and rep resentational design in developing technical documentation. In many cases, people with good writing skills may transfer from jobs as technicians, scientists, or engineers into jobs as writers or editors. Others begin as research assistants or as trainees in a technical information department, develop technical commu nication skills, and then assume writing duties. Other qualifications. Writers and editors must be able to express ideas clearly and logically and should enjoy writing. Creativity, curiosity, a broad range of knowledge, self-motiva tion, and perseverance also are valuable. Writers and editors must demonstrate good judgment and a strong sense of ethics in deciding what material to publish. In addition, the ability to concentrate amid confusion and to work under pressure often is essential. Editors also need tact and the ability to guide and encourage others in their work. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Familiarity with electronic publishing, graphics, and video production increasingly is needed. Use of electronic and wire less communications equipment to send e-mail, transmit work, and review copy often is necessary. Online newspapers and magazines require knowledge of computer software used to combine online text with graphics, audio, video, and anima tion. High school and college newspapers, literary magazines, community newspapers, and radio and television stations all provide valuable—but sometimes unpaid—practical writing experience. Many magazines, newspapers, and broadcast sta tions have internships for students. Interns write short pieces, conduct research and interviews, and learn about the publishing or broadcasting business. Advancement. In small firms, beginning writers and edi tors hired as assistants may actually begin writing or editing material right away. Opportunities for advancement and also full-time work can be limited, however. Many small or not-forprofit organizations either do not have enough regular work or cannot afford to employ writers on a full-time basis. However, they routinely contract out work to freelance writers. In larger businesses, jobs usually are more formally struc tured. Beginners generally do research, fact check articles, or copy edit drafts. Advancement to full-scale writing or editing assignments may occur more slowly for newer writers and edi tors in larger organizations than for employees of smaller com panies. Advancement often is more predictable, though, com ing with the assignment of more important articles. Advancement for writers, especially freelancers, often means working on larger, more complex projects for better known publications or for more money. Building a reputation and es tablishing a track record for meeting deadlines also makes it easier to get future assignments. Experience, credibility, and reliability often lead to long-term freelance relationships with the same publications and to contacts with editors who will seek you out for particular assignments. The growing popularity of blogging could allow some writers to get their work read. For example, a few well-written blogs may gamer some recognition for the author and may lead to a few paid pieces in other print or electronic publications. Some established staff writers contribute to blogs on the on-line ver sions of publications in conjunction with their routine work. However, most bloggers do not earn a considerable amount of money writing their blogs. Employment Writers and editors held about 306,000 jobs in 2006. More than one-third were self-employed Writers and authors held about 135,000 jobs; editors, about 122,000 jobs; and technical writers, about 49,000 jobs. About one-third of the salaried jobs for writers and editors were in the information sector, which includes newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers; radio and television broadcasting; software publishers; motion picture and sound-recording industries; Internet service provid ers, Web search portals and data-processing services; and In ternet publishing and broadcasting. Substantial numbers also worked in professional, scientific, and technical services. Other salaried writers and editors work in computer systems design 346 Occupational Outlook Handbook and related services, public and private educational services, and religious organizations. Jobs with major book publishers, magazines, broadcasting companies, advertising agencies, and public relations firms are concentrated in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. However, many writers work outside these cities and travel regularly to meet with personnel at the headquarters. Jobs with newspapers, business and pro fessional journals, and technical and trade magazines are more widely dispersed throughout the country. Technology permits writers and editors to work from distant and remote locations and still communicate with editors and publishers. As a re sult, geographic concentration is less of a requirement for many writing or editing positions than it once was. Thousands of other individuals work primarily as freelance writers, earning income from their articles, books, and less commonly, television and movie scripts. Many support them selves with income derived from other sources. Job Outlook Employment of writers and editors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Competition is expected for writing and editing jobs because many people with the ap propriate training and talent are attracted to the occupation. Employment change. Employment of writers and editors is expected to grow 10 percent, or about as fast as the average for all occupations, from 2006 to 2016. Employment of salaried writers and editors is expected to increase as demand grows for web-based publications. Technical writing, blogging, and other writing for interactive media that provide readers with nearly real-time information will provide opportunities for writers. Print magazines and other periodicals increasingly are develop ing market niches, appealing to readers with special interests, and making Internet-only content available on their websites. Businesses and organizations are developing newsletters and websites, and more companies are publishing materials directly for the Internet. Online publications and services are growing in number and sophistication, spurring the demand for writers and editors, especially those with Web experience. Profession al, scientific, and technical services firms, including advertising and public relations agencies, also are growing and should be another source of new jobs. Job prospects. Opportunities should be best for technical writers and those with training in a specialized field. Demand for technical writers and writers with expertise in areas such as law, medicine, or economics is expected to increase because of the continuing expansion of scientific and technical information and the need to communicate it to others. Legal, scientific, and technological developments and discoveries generate demand for people to interpret technical information for a more general audience. Rapid growth and change in the high-technology and electronics industries result in a greater need for people to write users’ guides, instruction manuals, and training materials. This work requires people who not only are technically skilled as writers, but also are familiar with the subject area. In addition to job openings created by employment growth, some openings will arise as experienced workers retire, trans fer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. Replacement needs are relatively high in this occupation because many free lancers leave because they cannot earn enough money. Earnings Median annual earnings for salaried writers and authors were $48,640 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,850 and $67,820. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,430, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $97,700. Median annual earnings were $50,650 in advertising and re lated services and $40,880 in newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers. Median annual earnings for salaried editors were $46,990 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,250 and $64,140. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,340, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $87,400. Median an nual earnings of those working for newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers were $45,970. Median annual earnings for salaried technical writers were $58,050 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,130 and $73,750. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $35,520, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $91,720. Median annual earnings in computer systems design and related services were $59,830. According to the Society for Technical Communication, the median annual salary for entry level technical writers was $40,400 in 2005. The median annual salary for midlevel nonsupervisory technical writers was $52,140, and for senior nonsupervisory technical writers, $69,000. Related Occupations Writers and editors communicate ideas and information. Other communications occupations include announcers; interpreters and translators; news analysts, reporters, and correspondents; and public relations specialists. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in technical writing, contact: y Society for Technical Communication, Inc., 901N. Stuart St., Suite 904, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.stc.org Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Writers and editors.................................................. ............................. Editors.................................................................. ............................. Technical writers................................................. ............................. Writers and authors............................................. ............................. soc Code 27-3040 27-3041 27-3042 27-3043 Employment, 2006 306,000 122,000 49,000 135,000 Projected employment, 2016 336,000 124,000 59,000 153,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 10 30,000 2,800 2 9,600 20 17,000 13 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 347 Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners Audiologists (0*NET 29-1121.00) Significant Points • More than half worked in health care facilities; many others were employed by educational services. • A master’s degree in audiology (hearing) is the stan dard level of education required; however, a doctoral degree is becoming more common for new entrants. • Few openings are expected because of the small size of the occupation. • Job prospects will be favorable for those possessing the doctoral (Au.D.) degree. Nature of the Work Audiologists work with people who have hearing, balance, and related ear problems. They examine individuals of all ages and identify those with the symptoms of hearing loss and other au ditory, balance, and related sensory and neural problems. They then assess the nature and extent of the problems and help the individuals manage them. Using audiometers, computers, and other testing devices, they measure the loudness at which a per son begins to hear sounds, the ability to distinguish between sounds, and the impact of hearing loss on an individual’s daily life. In addition, audiologists use computer equipment to evalu ate and diagnose balance disorders. Audiologists interpret these results and may coordinate them with medical, educational, and psychological information to make a diagnosis and determine a course of treatment. Hearing disorders can result from a variety of causes includ ing trauma at birth, viral infections, genetic disorders, expo sure to loud noise, certain medications, or aging. Treatment may include examining and cleaning the ear canal, fitting and Audiologists usually work at a desk or table in clean, comfort able surroundings. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis dispensing hearing aids, and fitting and programming cochlear implants. Audiologic treatment also includes counseling on adjusting to hearing loss, training on the use of hearing instru ments, and teaching communication strategies for use in a va riety of environments. For example, they may provide instruc tion in listening strategies. Audiologists also may recommend, fit, and dispense personal or large area amplification systems and alerting devices. In audiology clinics, audiologists may independently develop and carry out treatment programs. They keep records on the initial evaluation, progress, and discharge of patients. In other settings, audiologists may work with other health and education providers as part of a team in planning and implementing ser vices for children and adults. Audiologists who diagnose and treat balance disorders often work in collaboration with physi cians, and physical and occupational therapists. Some audiologists specialize in work with the elderly, chil dren, or hearing-impaired individuals who need special treat ment programs. Others develop and implement ways to protect workers’ hearing from on-the-job injuries. They measure noise levels in workplaces and conduct hearing protection programs in factories and in schools and communities. Audiologists who work in private practice also manage the business aspects of running an office, such as developing a patient base, hiring employees, keeping records, and ordering equipment and supplies. A few audiologists conduct research on types of, and treat ment for, hearing, balance, and related disorders. Others design and develop equipment or techniques for diagnosing and treat ing these disorders. Work environment. Audiologists usually work at a desk or table in clean, comfortable surroundings. The job is not physi cally demanding but does require attention to detail and intense concentration. The emotional needs of patients and their fami lies may be demanding. Most full-time audiologists work about 40 hours per week, which may include weekends and evenings to meet the needs of patients. Some work part time. Those who work on a contract basis may spend a substantial amount of time traveling between facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require audiologists to be licensed or registered. Li censure or registration requires at least a master’s degree in audiology; however, a first professional, or doctoral, degree is becoming increasingly necessary. Education and training. Individuals must have at least a master’s degree in audiology to qualify for a job. However, a first professional or doctoral degree is becoming more com mon. As of early 2007, eight States required a doctoral degree or its equivalent. The professional doctorate in audiology (Au. D.) requires approximately 8 years of university training and supervised professional experience. In early 2007, the Accreditation Commission of Audiology Education accredited more than 50 Au.D. programs and the 348 Occupational Outlook Handbook Council on Academic Accreditation in Audiology and SpeechLanguage Pathology (CAA) accredited over 70 graduate pro grams in audiology. Graduation from an accredited program may be required to obtain a license in some States. Require ments for admission to programs in audiology include courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychol ogy, and communication. Graduate coursework in audiology includes anatomy; physiology; physics; genetics; normal and abnormal communication development; auditory, balance, and neural systems assessment and treatment; diagnosis and treat ment; pharmacology; and ethics. Licensure and certification. Audiologists are regulated by licensure or registration in all 50 States. Forty-one States have continuing education requirements for licensure renewal, the number of hours required varies by State. Twenty States and the District of Columbia also require audiologists to have a Hearing Aid Dispenser license to dispense hearing aids; for the remaining 30 States, an audiologist license is all that is needed to dispense hearing aids. Third-party payers generally require practitioners to be licensed to qualify for reimbursement. States set requirements for education, mandating a master’s or doc toral degree, as well as other requirements. For information on the specific requirements of your State, contact that State’s licensing board. In some States, specific certifications from professional asso ciations satisfy some or all of the requirements for State licen sure. Certification can be obtained from two certifying bodies. Audiologists can earn the Certificate of Clinical Competence in Audiology (CCC-A) offered by the American Speech-Lan guage-Hearing Association; they may also be certified through the American Board of Audiology. Other qualifications. Audiologists should be able to ef fectively communicate diagnostic test results, diagnoses, and proposed treatments in a manner easily understood by their patients. They must be able to approach problems objectively and provide support to patients and their families. Because a patient’s progress may be slow, patience, compassion, and good listening skills are necessary. It is important for audiologists to be aware of new diagnostic and treatment technologies. Most audiologists participate in continuing education courses to learn new methods and tech nologies. Advancement. With experience, audiologists can advance to open their own private practice. Audiologist working in hos pitals and clinics can advance to management or supervisory positions. outpatient care centers. About 13 percent of jobs were in edu cational services, including elementary and secondary schools. Other jobs for audiologists were in health and personal care stores, including hearing aid stores; scientific research and de velopment services; and State and local governments. A small number of audiologists were self-employed in pri vate practice. They provided hearing health care services in their own offices or worked under contract for schools, health care facilities, or other establishments. Job Outlook Average employment growth is projected. However, because of the small size of the occupation, few job openings are expected. Job prospects will be favorable for those possessing the Au.D. degree. Employment change. Employment of audiologists is expect ed to grow 10 percent from 2006 to 2016, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Hearing loss is strongly associated with aging, so rapid growth in older population groups will cause the number of people with hearing and balance impairments to increase markedly. Medical advances also are improving the survival rate of premature infants and trauma victims, who then need assessment and sometimes treatment. Greater awareness of the importance of early identification and diagnosis of hear ing disorders in infants also will increase employment. A num ber of States require that newborns be screened for hearing loss and receive appropriate early intervention services. Employment in educational services will increase along with growth in elementary and secondary school enrollments, in cluding enrollment of special education students. Growth in employment of audiologists will be moderated by limitations on reimbursements made by third-party payers for the tests and services they provide. Job prospects. Job prospects will be favorable for those pos sessing the Au.D. degree. Only a few job openings for au diologists will arise from the need to replace those who leave the occupation, because the occupation is relatively small and workers tend to stay in this occupation until they retire. Earnings Median annual earnings of wage-and-salary audiologists were $57,120 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,220 and $70,940. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $38,370, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $89,160. Some employers may pay for continuing education courses. Employment Related Occupations Audiologists held about 12,000 jobs in 2006. More than half of all jobs were in health care facilities—offices of physicians or other health practitioners, including audiologists; hospitals; and Audiologists specialize in the prevention, diagnosis, and treat ment of hearing problems. Workers in related occupations in clude occupational therapists, optometrists, physical therapists, Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Audiologists............................................................. ................... soc Code 29-1121 Employment, 2006 12,000 Projected employment, 2016 13,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number 1,200 Percent 10 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 349 psychologists, recreational therapists, rehabilitation counselors, and speech-language pathologists. Sources of Additional Information State licensing boards can provide information on licensure requirements. State departments of education can supply in formation on certification requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. For information on the specific requirements of your State, contact that State’s licensing board. Career information, a de scription of the CCC-A credential, and information on State li censure is available from: y American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.asha.org Information on American Board of Audiology certification is available from: >• American Board of Audiology, 11730 Plaza America Dr., Suite 300, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://www.americanboardofaudiology.org For information on the Au.D. degree, contact: > Audiology Foundation of America, 8 N. 3rd St., Suite 406, Lafayette, IN 47901. Internet: http://www.audfound.org health, including exercise, diet, rest, environment, and heredity. Chiropractors recommend changes in lifestyle that affect those factors. In some situations, chiropractors refer patients to or consult with other health practitioners. Like other health practitioners, chiropractors follow a stan dard routine to get information needed to diagnose and treat patients. They take the patient’s medical history; conduct physical, neurological, and orthopedic examinations; and may order laboratory tests. X-rays and other diagnostic images are important tools because of the chiropractor’s emphasis on the spine and its proper function. Chiropractors also analyze the patient’s posture and spine using a specialized technique. For patients whose health problems can be traced to the musculosk eletal system, chiropractors manually adjust the spinal column. Some chiropractors use other alternative medicines in their practices, including therapies using water, light, massage, ul trasound, electric, acupuncture, and heat. They also may apply supports such as straps, tapes, and braces to manually adjust the spine. Chiropractors counsel patients about health concepts such as nutrition, exercise, changes in lifestyle, and stress man agement, but chiropractors do not prescribe drugs or perform surgery. Chiropractors (C)**NET 29-1011.00) Significant Points • Job prospects should be good; employment is expect ed to grow faster than average because of increasing consumer demand for alternative health care. • Chiropractors must be licensed, requiring 2 to 4 years of undergraduate education, the completion of a 4year chiropractic college course, and passing scores on national and State examinations. • About 52 percent of chiropractors were self em ployed. • Earnings are relatively low in the beginning but in crease as the practice grows. Nature of the Work Chiropractors, also known as doctors of chiropractic or chiro practic physicians, diagnose and treat patients with health prob lems of the musculoskeletal system and treat the effects of those problems on the nervous system and on general health. Many chiropractic treatments deal specifically with the spine and the manipulation of the spine. Chiropractic medicine is based on the principle that spinal joint misalignments interfere with the nervous system and can result in lower resistance to disease and many different conditions of diminished health. The chiropractic approach to health care stresses the patient’s overall health. Chiropractors provide natural, drugless, nonsurgical health treatments, relying on the body’s inherent recu perative abilities. They also recognize that many factors affect https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Chiropractors provide natural, drugless, nonsurgical health treatments to patients, including spinal adjustments. 350 Occupational Outlook Handbook In addition to general chiropractic practice, some chiroprac tors specialize in sports injuries, neurology, orthopedics, pedi atrics, nutrition, internal disorders, or diagnostic imaging. Many chiropractors are solo or group practitioners who also have the administrative responsibilities of running a practice. In larger offices, chiropractors delegate these tasks to office managers and chiropractic assistants. Chiropractors in private practice are responsible for developing a patient base, hiring employees, and keeping records. Work environment. Chiropractors work in clean, comfort able offices. Like other health practitioners, chiropractors are sometimes on their feet for long periods. Chiropractors who take x-rays must employ appropriate precautions against the dangers of repeated exposure to radiation. Chiropractors work, on average, about 40 hours per week, although longer hours are not uncommon. Solo practitioners set their own hours but may work evenings or weekends to ac commodate patients. Like other health care practitioners, chi ropractors in a group practice will sometimes be on call or treat patients of other chiropractors in the group. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Chiropractors must be licensed, which requires 2 to 4 years of undergraduate education, the completion of a 4-year chiro practic college course, and passing scores on national and State examinations. Education and training. In 2007, 16 chiropractic programs and 2 chiropractic institutions in the United States were ac credited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. Applicants must have at least 90 semester hours of undergraduate study leading toward a bachelor’s degree, including courses in Eng lish, the social sciences or humanities, organic and inorganic chemistry, biology, physics, and psychology. Many applicants have a bachelor’s degree, which may eventually become the minimum entry requirement. Several chiropractic colleges of fer prechiropractic study, as well as a bachelor’s degree pro gram. Recognition of prechiropractic education offered by chiropractic colleges varies among the States. Chiropractic programs require a minimum of 4,200 hours of combined classroom, laboratory, and clinical experience. Dur ing the first 2 years, most chiropractic programs emphasize classroom and laboratory work in sciences such as anatomy, physiology, public health, microbiology, pathology, and bio chemistry. The last 2 years focus on courses in manipulation and spinal adjustment and provide clinical experience in physi cal and laboratory diagnosis, neurology, orthopedics, geriat rics, physiotherapy, and nutrition. Chiropractic programs and institutions grant the degree of Doctor of Chiropractic. Chiropractic colleges also offer postdoctoral training in or thopedics, neurology, sports injuries, nutrition, rehabilitation, radiology, industrial consulting, family practice, pediatrics, and applied chiropractic sciences. Once such training is com plete, chiropractors may take specialty exams leading to “diplomate” status in a given specialty. Exams are administered by specialty chiropractic associations. Licensure. All States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chiropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet the educational and examination requirements estab https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis lished by the State. Chiropractors can practice only in States where they are licensed. Some States have agreements per mitting chiropractors licensed in one State to obtain a license in another without further examination, provided that their educational, examination, and practice credentials meet State specifications. Most State licensing boards require at least 2 years of under graduate education, but an increasing number are requiring a 4-year bachelor’s degree. All boards require the completion of a 4-year program at an accredited chiropractic college leading to the Doctor of Chiropractic degree. For licensure, most State boards recognize either all or part of the four-part test administered by the National Board of Chi ropractic Examiners. State examinations may supplement the National Board tests, depending on State requirements. All States except New Jersey require the completion of a specified number of hours of continuing education each year in order to maintain licensure. Chiropractic associations and accredited chiropractic programs and institutions offer continuing educa tion programs. Other qualifications. Chiropractic requires keen observa tion to detect physical abnormalities. It also takes considerable manual dexterity, but not unusual strength or endurance, to per form adjustments. Chiropractors should be able to work inde pendently and handle responsibility. As in other health-related occupations, empathy, understanding, and the desire to help others are good qualities for dealing effectively with patients. Advancement. Newly licensed chiropractors can set up a new practice, purchase an established one, or enter into part nership with an established practitioner. They also may take a salaried position with an established chiropractor, a group practice, or a health care facility Employment Chiropractors held about 53,000 jobs in 2006. Most chiroprac tors work in a solo practice, although some are in group prac tice or work for other chiropractors. A small number teach, conduct research at chiropractic institutions, or work in hos pitals and clinics. Approximately 52 percent of chiropractors were self employed. Many chiropractors are located in small communities. How ever, the distribution of chiropractors is not geographically uniform. This occurs primarily because new chiropractors fre quently establish their practices in close proximity to one of the few chiropractic educational institutions. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow faster than average because of increasing consumer demand for alternative health care. Job prospects should be good. Employment change. Employment of chiropractors is ex pected to increase 14 percent between 2006 and 2016, faster than the average for all occupations. Projected job growth stems from increasing consumer demand for alternative health care. Because chiropractors emphasize the importance of healthy lifestyles and do not prescribe drugs or perform sur gery, chiropractic care is appealing to many health-conscious Americans. Chiropractic treatment of the back, neck, extremi ties, and joints has become more accepted as a result of re- Professional and Related Occupations 351 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Chiropractors............................................... ................................ SOC Code 29-1011 Projected employment, 2016 60,000 Employment, 2006 53,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 7,600 14 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. search and changing attitudes about alternative, noninvasive health care practices. The rapidly expanding older population, with its increased likelihood of mechanical and structural prob lems, also will increase demand for chiropractors. Demand for chiropractic treatment, however, is related to the ability of patients to pay, either directly or through health in surance. Although more insurance plans now cover chiroprac tic services, the extent of such coverage varies among plans. Chiropractors must educate communities about the benefits of chiropractic care in order to establish a successful practice. Job prospects. Job prospects for new chiropractors are ex pected to be good. In this occupation, replacement needs arise almost entirely from retirements. Chiropractors usually remain in the occupation until they retire; few transfer to other occupa tions. Establishing a new practice will be easiest in areas with a low concentration of chiropractors. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried chiropractors were $65,220 in 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,710 and $96,500 a year. In 2005, the mean salary for chiropractors was $104,363 according to a survey conducted by Chiropractic Economics magazine. In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning and increase as the practice grows. Geographic location and the characteristics and qualifications of the practitioner also may influence earn ings. Salaried chiropractors typically receive heath insurance and retirement benefits from their employers, whereas self-em ployed chiropractors must provide for their own health insur ance and retirement. For a list of chiropractic programs and institutions, as well as general information on chiropractic education, contact: y Council on Chiropractic Education, 8049 North 85th Way, Scottsdale, AZ 85258-4321. Internet: http://www.cce-usa.org For information on State education and licensure require ments, contact: y Federation of Chiropractic Licensing Boards, 5401 W. 10th St., Suite 101, Greeley, CO 80634-4400. Internet: http://www.fclb.org For more information on the national chiropractic licensing exam, contact: y National Board of Chiropractic Examiners, 901 54th Ave., Greeley, CO 80634-4400. Internet: http://www.nbce.org For information on admission requirements to a specific chi ropractic college, as well as scholarship and loan information, contact the college’s admissions office. Dentists (0**NET 29-1021.00, 29-1022.00, 29-1023.00, 29-1024.00, 29-1029.99) Significant Points • Most dentists are solo practitioners. • Dentists usually complete at least 8 years of education beyond high school. • openings, but most openings will result from the need to replace the large number of dentists expected to re tire. Related Occupations Chiropractors treat patients and work to prevent bodily disor ders and injuries. So do athletic trainers, massage therapists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, physicians and sur geons, podiatrists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a chiropractor is available from the following organizations: y American Chiropractic Association, 1701 Clarendon Blvd., Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.acatoday.org y International Chiropractors Association, 1110 North Glebe Rd., Suite 650, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.chiropractic.org y World Chiropractic Alliance, 2950 N. Dobson Rd., Suite 3, Chandler, AZ 85224. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Average employment growth will generate some job • Job prospects should be good. Nature of the Work Dentists diagnose and treat problems with teeth and tissues in the mouth, along with giving advice and administering care to help prevent future problems. They provide instruction on diet, brushing, flossing, the use of fluorides, and other aspects of dental care. They remove tooth decay, fill cavities, exam ine x-rays, place protective plastic sealants on children’s teeth, straighten teeth, and repair fractured teeth. They also perform corrective surgery on gums and supporting bones to treat gum diseases. Dentists extract teeth and make models and measure ments for dentures to replace missing teeth. They also adminis ter anesthetics and write prescriptions for antibiotics and other medications. 352 Occupational Outlook Handbook Dentists use a variety of equipment, including x-ray ma chines, drills, mouth mirrors, probes, forceps, brushes, and scalpels. They wear masks, gloves, and safety glasses to protect themselves and their patients from infectious diseases. Dentists in private practice oversee a variety of administrative tasks, including bookkeeping and the buying of equipment and supplies. They may employ and supervise dental hygienists, dental assistants, dental laboratory technicians, and reception ists. (These occupations are described elsewhere in the Hand book.) Most dentists are general practitioners, handling a variety of dental needs. Other dentists practice in any of nine specialty areas. Orthodontists, the largest group of specialists, straighten teeth by applying pressure to the teeth with braces or retainers. The next largest group, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, oper ates on the mouth and jaws. The remainder may specialize as pediatric dentists (focusing on dentistry for children); perio dontists (treating gums and bone supporting the teeth); prosth odontists (replacing missing teeth with permanent fixtures, such as crowns and bridges, or with removable fixtures such as dentures); endodontists (performing root canal therapy); pub lic health dentists (promoting good dental health and prevent ing dental diseases within the community); oral pathologists (studying oral diseases); or oral and maxillofacial radiologists f is w Dentists use various equipment to diagnose and treat problems with teeth and tissues in the mouth. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (diagnosing diseases in the head and neck through the use of imaging technologies). Work environment. Most dentists are solo practitioners, meaning that they own their own businesses and work alone or with a small staff. Some dentists have partners, and a few work for other dentists as associate dentists. Most dentists work 4 or 5 days a week. Some work eve nings and weekends to meet their patients’ needs. The number of hours worked varies greatly among dentists. Most full-time dentists work between 35 and 40 hours a week. However, oth ers, especially those who are trying to establish a new practice, work more. Also, experienced dentists often work fewer hours. It is common for dentists to continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require dentists to be licensed. To qualify for a license in most States, candidates must graduate from an accredited dental school and pass writ ten and practical examinations. Education and training. In 2006, there were 56 den tal schools accredited by the American Dental Association’s (ADA’s) Commission on Dental Accreditation. Dental schools require a minimum of 2 years of college-level predental educa tion prior to admittance. Most dental students have at least a bachelor’s degree before entering dental school, although a few applicants are accepted to dental school after 2 or 3 years of college and complete their bachelor’s degree while attending dental school. High school and college students who want to become den tists should take courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, and mathematics. College undergraduates planning on apply ing to dental school are required to take many science courses. Because of this, some choose a major in a science, such as biol ogy or chemistry, while others take the required science coursework while pursuing a major in another subject. All dental schools require applicants to take the Dental Ad missions Test (DAT). When selecting students, schools consid er scores earned on the DAT, applicants’ grade point averages, and information gathered through recommendations and inter views. Competition for admission to dental school is keen. Dental school usually lasts 4 academic years. Studies begin with classroom instruction and laboratory work in science, in cluding anatomy, microbiology, biochemistry, and physiology. Beginning courses in clinical sciences, including laboratory techniques, are also completed. During the last 2 years, stu dents treat patients, usually in dental clinics, under the supervi sion of licensed dentists. Most dental schools award the degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS). Others award an equiva lent degree, Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD). Some dental school graduates work for established dentists as associates for 1 to 2 years to gain experience and save money to equip an office of their own. Most dental school graduates, however, purchase an established practice or open a new one immediately after graduation. Licensure. Licensing is required to practice as a dentist. In most States, licensure requires passing written and practical examinations in addition to having a degree from an accred Professional and Related Occupations 353 ited dental school. Candidates may fulfill the written part of the State licensing requirements by passing the National Board Dental Examinations. Individual States or regional testing agencies administer the written or practical examinations. In 2006, 17 States licensed or certified dentists who intended to practice in a specialty area. Requirements include 2 to 4 years of postgraduate education and, in some cases, the comple tion of a special State examination. Most State licenses permit dentists to engage in both general and specialized practice. Other qualifications. Dentistry requires diagnostic ability and manual skills. Dentists should have good visual memory, excellent judgment regarding space, shape, and color, a high degree of manual dexterity, and scientific ability. Good busi ness sense, self-discipline, and good communication skills are helpful for success in private practice. Advancement. Dentists who want to teach or conduct re search usually spend an additional 2 to 5 years in advanced den tal training, in programs operated by dental schools or hospitals. A recent survey by the American Dental Education Association showed that 11 percent of new graduates enrolled in postgradu ate training programs to prepare for a dental specialty. Employment Dentists held about 161,000 jobs in 2006. Employment was distributed among general practitioners and specialists as fol lows: Dentists, general...................................................................136,000 Orthodontists............................................................................9,200 Oral and maxillofacial surgeons............................................. 7,700 Prosthodontists.........................................................................1,000 Dentists, all other specialists................................................... 6,900 About one third of dentists were self-employed and not in corporated. Almost all dentists work in private practice. Ac cording to the ADA, about 3 out of 4 dentists in private practice are sole proprietors, and 1 in 7 belongs to a partnership. A few salaried dentists work in hospitals and offices of physicians. Job Outlook Average employment growth will generate some job openings, but most openings will result from the need to replace the large number of dentists expected to retire. Job prospects should be good as new dentists take over established practices or start their own. Employment change. Employment of dentists is projected to grow nine percent through 2016, about as fast as the average for all occupations. The demand for dental services is expected to continue to increase. The overall population is growing, par ticularly the number of older people, which will increase the demand for dental care. As members of the baby-boom genera tion advance into middle age, a large number will need compli cated dental work, such as bridges. In addition, elderly people are more likely to retain their teeth than were their predeces sors, so they will require much more care than in the past. The younger generation will continue to need preventive checkups despite an overall increase in the dental health of the public over the last few decades. Recently, some private insurance provid ers have increased their dental coverage. If this trend contin ues, those with new or expanded dental insurance will be more likely to visit a dentist than in the past. Also, while they are currently a small proportion of dental expenditures, cosmetic dental services, such as fitting braces for adults as well as chil dren and providing teeth-whitening treatments, have become increasingly popular. However, employment of dentists is not expected to keep pace with the increased demand for dental services. Produc tivity increases from new technology, as well as having dental hygienists and assistants perform some tasks, will allow den tists to perform more work than they have in the past. As their practices expand, dentists are likely to hire more hygienists and dental assistants to handle routine services. Dentists will increasingly provide care and instruction aimed at preventing the loss of teeth, rather than simply providing treatments such as fillings. Improvements in dental technology also will allow dentists to offer more effective and less painful treatment to their patients. Job prospects. As an increasing number of dentists from the baby-boom generation reach retirement age, many of them will retire or work fewer hours. However, the number of applicants to, and graduates from, dental schools has increased in recent years. Therefore, younger dentists will be able to take over the work from older dentists who retire or cut back on hours, as well as provide dental services to accommodate the growing demand. Demand for dental services tends to follow the business cy cle, primarily because these services usually are paid for either by the patient or by private insurance companies. As a result, during slow times in the economy, demand for dental services can decrease; dentists may have difficulty finding employment, Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Dentists.......................................................................... ........................ Dentists, general........................................................ ........................ Oral and maxillofacial surgeons............................. ........................ Orthodontists............................................................. ........................ Prosthodontists.......................................................... ........................ Dentists, all other specialists................................... ........................ soc Code 29-1020 29-1021 29-1022 29-1023 29-1024 29-1029 Employment, 2006 161,000 136,000 7,700 9,200 1,000 6,900 Projected employment, 2016 176,000 149,000 8,400 10,000 1,100 7,400 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 15,000 9 13,000 9 700 9 800 9 100 11 500 7 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 354 Occupational Outlook Handbook or if already in an established practice, they may work fewer hours because of reduced demand. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried dentists were $136,960 in May 2006. Earnings vary according to number of years in practice, location, hours worked, and specialty. Self-employed dentists in private practice tend to earn more than do salaried dentists. Dentists who are salaried often receive benefits paid by their employer, with health insurance and malpractice insurance be ing among the most common. However, like other business owners, self-employed dentists must provide their own health insurance, life insurance, retirement plans, and other benefits. Related Occupations Dentists examine, diagnose, prevent, and treat diseases and abnor malities. Chiropractors, optometrists, physicians and surgeons, podiatrists, psychologists, and veterinarians do similar work. Sources of Additional Information For information on dentistry as a career, a list of accredited dental schools, and a list of State boards of dental examiners, contact: y American Dental Association, Commission on Dental Accreditation, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org For information on admission to dental schools, contact: y AmericanDentalEducationAssociation, 1400KSt.NW.,Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.adea.org Persons interested in practicing dentistry should obtain the requirements for licensure from the board of dental examiners of the State in which they plan to work. To obtain information on scholarships, grants, and loans, in cluding Federal financial aid, prospective dental students should contact the office of student financial aid at the schools to which they apply. Dietitians and Nutritionists (0**NET 29-1031.00) Significant Points • • • • Most jobs are in hospitals, nursing care facilities, out patient care centers, and offices of physicians or other health practitioners. Dietitians and nutritionists need at least a bachelor’s degree in dietetics, foods and nutrition, food service systems management, or a related area; licensure, cer tification, or registration requirements vary by State. Employment is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations; however, growth may be constrained if employers substitute other workers for dietitians and if limitations are placed on insurance reimbursement for dietetic services. Good job opportunities are expected. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Dietitians and nutritionists plan food and nutrition programs, supervise meal preparation, and oversee the serving of meals. They prevent and treat illnesses by promoting healthy eating habits and recommending dietary modifications. For example, dietitians might teach a patient with high blood pressure how to use less salt when preparing meals, or create a diet reduced in fat and sugar for an overweight patient. Dietitians manage food service systems for institutions such as hospitals and schools, promote sound eating habits through education, and conduct research. Many dietitians specialize, becoming a clinical dietitian, community dietitian, manage ment dietitian, or consultant. Clinical dietitians provide nutritional services to patients in hospitals, nursing care facilities, and other institutions. They assess patients’ nutritional needs, develop and implement nu trition programs, and evaluate and report the results. They also confer with doctors and other health care professionals to coordinate medical and nutritional needs. Some clinical dietitians specialize in managing the weight of overweight pa tients or in the care of renal (kidney), diabetic, or critically ill patients. In addition, clinical dietitians in nursing care facili ties, small hospitals, or correctional facilities may manage the food service department. Community dietitians counsel individuals and groups on nutritional practices designed to prevent disease and promote health. Working in places such as public health clinics, home health agencies, and health maintenance organizations, com munity dietitians evaluate individual needs, develop nutri tional care plans, and instruct individuals and their families. Dietitians working in home health agencies provide instruc tion on grocery shopping and food preparation to the elderly, children, and individuals with special needs. Increased public interest in nutrition has led to job oppor tunities in food manufacturing, advertising, and marketing. In these areas, dietitians analyze foods, prepare literature for distribution, or report on issues such as dietary fiber, vitamin supplements, or the nutritional content of recipes. Management dietitians oversee large-scale meal planning and preparation in health care facilities, company cafeterias, prisons, and schools. They hire, train, and direct other dieti tians and food service workers; budget for and purchase food, equipment, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regula tions; and prepare records and reports. Consultant dietitians work under contract with health care facilities or in their own private practice. They perform nutri tion screenings for their clients and offer advice on diet-re lated concerns such as weight loss and cholesterol reduction. Some work for wellness programs, sports teams, supermar kets, and other nutrition-related businesses. They may consult with food service managers, providing expertise in sanitation, safety procedures, menu development, budgeting, and plan ning. Work environment. Dietitians and nutritionists usually work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. How ever, some work in hot, congested kitchens. Many dietitians and nutritionists are on their feet for much of the workday. Professional and Related Occupations 355 PM *tiS§' \ ’ Dietitians and nutritionists plan food and nutrition programs to reach the client’s health goals. Most full-time dietitians and nutritionists work a regular 40-hour week, although some work weekends. About 1 in 3 worked part time in 2006. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dietitians and nutritionists need at least a bachelor’s degree. Licensure, certification, or registration requirements vary by State. Education and training. Becoming a dietitian or nutritionist usually requires at least a bachelor’s degree in dietetics, foods and nutrition, food service systems management, or a related area. Graduate degrees also are available. College students in these majors take courses in foods, nutrition, institution man agement, chemistry, biochemistry, biology, microbiology, and physiology. Other suggested courses include business, math ematics, statistics, computer science, psychology, sociology, and economics. High school students interested in becom ing a dietitian or nutritionist should take courses in biology, chemistry, mathematics, health, and communications. As of 2007, there were 281 bachelor’s degree programs and 22 master’s degree programs approved by the American Di etetic Association’s Commission on Accreditation for Dietet ics Education. Licensure. Of the 48 States and jurisdictions with laws governing dietetics, 35 require licensure, 12 require statutory certification, and 1 requires registration. Requirements vary by State. As a result, interested candidates should determine the requirements of the State in which they want to work be fore sitting for any exam. In States that require licensure, only people who are li censed can work as dietitians and nutritionists. States that re quire statutory certification limit the use of occupational titles to people who meet certain requirements; individuals without certification can still practice as a dietitian or nutritionist but https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis without using certain titles. Registration is the least restrictive form of State regulation of dietitians and nutritionists. Un registered people are permitted to practice as a dietitian or nutritionist. Certification and other qualifications. Although not re quired, the Commission on Dietetic Registration of the Amer ican Dietetic Association awards the Registered Dietitian cre dential to those who pass an exam after completing academic coursework and a supervised internship. This certification is different from the statutory certification regulated by some States and discussed in the previous section. To maintain a Registered Dietitian status, workers must complete at least 75 credit hours in approved continuing education classes every 5 years. A supervised internship, required for certification, can be completed in one of two ways. The first requires the comple tion of a program accredited by the Commission on Dietetic Registration. As of 2007, there were 53 accredited programs that combined academic and supervised practice experience and generally lasted 4 to 5 years. The second option requires the completion of 900 hours of supervised practice experience in any of the 265 accredited internships. These internships may be full-time programs lasting 6 to 12 months or part-time programs lasting 2 years. Advancement. Experienced dietitians may advance to man agement positions, such as assistant director, associate direc tor, or director of a dietetic department, or may become selfemployed. Some dietitians specialize in areas such as renal, diabetic, cardiovascular, or pediatric dietetics. Others leave the occupation to become sales representatives for equipment, pharmaceutical, or food manufacturers. A master’s degree can help some workers to advance their careers, particularly in career paths related to research, advanced clinical positions, or public health. Employment Dietitians and nutritionists held about 57,000 jobs in 2006. More than half of all jobs were in hospitals, nursing care facil ities, outpatient care centers, or offices of physicians and other health practitioners. State and local government agencies pro vided additional jobs—mostly in correctional facilities, health departments, and other public-health-related areas. Some di etitians and nutritionists were employed in special food ser vices, an industry made up of firms providing food services on contract to facilities such as colleges and universities, airlines, correctional facilities, and company cafeterias. Other jobs were in public and private educational services, community care facilities for the elderly (which includes assisted-living facilities), individual and family services, home health care services, and the Federal Government—mostly in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. Some dietitians were self-employed, working as consultants to facilities such as hospitals and nursing care facilities or providing dietary counseling to individuals. Job Outlook Average employment growth is projected. Good job opportu nities are expected, especially for dietitians with specialized 356 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Dietitians and nutritionists..................................... .............................. soc Code Employment, 2006 29-1031 57,000 Projected employment, 2016 62,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 4,900 9 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. training, an advanced degree, or certifications beyond the par ticular State’s minimum requirement. Employment change. Employment of dietitians and nutri tionists is expected to increase 9 percent during the 2006-16 projection decade, about as fast as the average for all occupa tions. Job growth will result from an increasing emphasis on disease prevention through improved dietary habits. A grow ing and aging population will boost demand for nutritional counseling and treatment in hospitals, residential care facili ties, schools, prisons, community health programs, and home health care agencies. Public interest in nutrition and increased emphasis on health education and prudent lifestyles also will spur demand, especially in food service management. Employment growth, however, may be constrained if some employers substitute other workers, such as health educators, food service managers, and dietetic technicians, to do work related to nutrition. Also, demand for nutritional therapy ser vices is related to the ability of patients to pay, either out-of pocket or through health insurance, and although more insur ance plans now cover nutritional therapy services, the extent of such coverage varies among plans. Growth may be curbed by limitations on insurance reimbursement for dietetic ser vices. Hospitals will continue to employ a large number of dieti tians and nutritionists to provide medical nutritional therapy and plan meals. But hospitals also will continue to contract with outside agencies for food service and move medical nutri tional therapy to outpatient care facilities, slowing job growth in hospitals relative to food service, outpatient facilities, and other employers. The number of dietitian positions in nursing care facilities is expected to decline, as these establishments continue to contract with outside agencies for food services. However, employment is expected to grow rapidly in contract providers of food services, in outpatient care centers, and in offices of physicians and other health practitioners. Finally, with increased public awareness of obesity and dia betes, Medicare coverage may be expanded to include medi cal nutrition therapy for renal and diabetic patients, creating job growth for dietitians and nutritionists specializing in those diseases. Job prospects. In addition to employment growth, job open ings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Overall, job opportunities will be good for dietitians and nutritionists, particularly for licensed and registered dietitians. Job oppor tunities should be particularly good in outpatient care facili ties, offices of physicians, and food service management. Di etitians and nutritionists without a bachelor’s degree will face keen competition for jobs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dietitians with specialized training, an advanced degree, or certifications beyond the particular State’s minimum require ment will experience the best job opportunities. Those spe cializing in renal and diabetic nutrition or gerontological nu trition will benefit from the growing number of diabetics and the aging of the population. Earnings Median annual earnings of dietitians and nutritionists were $46,980 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,430 and $57,090. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,860, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,330. Median annual earnings in the industries employ ing the largest numbers of dietitians and nutritionists in May 2006 were: Outpatient care centers.......................................................$49,950 General medical and surgical hospitals............................... 47,320 State government.................................................................. 46,690 Nursing care facilities...........................................................46,660 Local government................................................................. 43,250 According to the American Dietetic Association, median annualized wages for registered dietitians in 2005 varied by practice area as follows: $53,800 in consultation and business; $60,000 in food and nutrition management; $60,200 in edu cation and research; $48,800 in clinical nutrition/ambulatory care; $50,000 in clinical nutrition/long-term care; $44,800 in community nutrition; and $45,000 in clinical nutrition/acute care. Salaries also vary by years in practice, education level, and geographic region. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who may apply the principles of dietetics include food service managers, health educators, dietetic technicians, and registered nurses. Sources of Additional Information For a list of academic programs, scholarships, and other infor mation about dietetics, contact: y The American Dietetic Association, 120 South Riverside Plaza, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60606-6995. Internet: http ://www.eatright.org For information on the Registered Dietitian exam and other specialty credentials, contact: y The Commission on Dietetic Registration, 120 South Riverside Plaza, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60606-6995. Internet: http://www.cdrnet.org Professional and Related Occupations 357 Occupational Therapists (0*NET 29-1122.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow much faster than average and job opportunities should be good, espe cially for therapists treating the elderly. • Occupational therapists must be licensed, requiring a master’s degree in occupational therapy, 6 months of supervised fieldwork, and passing scores on national and State examinations. • Occupational therapists are increasingly taking on supervisory roles, allowing assistants and aides to work more closely with clients under the guidance of a therapist. • More than a quarter of occupational therapists work part time. Nature of the Work Occupational therapists help patients improve their ability to perform tasks in living and working environments. They work with individuals who suffer from a mentally, physically, devel opmentally, or emotionally disabling condition. Occupational therapists use treatments to develop, recover, or maintain the daily living and work skills of their patients. The therapist helps clients not only to improve their basic motor functions and reasoning abilities, but also to compensate for permanent loss of function. The goal is to help clients have independent, productive, and satisfying lives. Occupational therapists help clients to perform all types of activities, from using a computer to caring for daily needs such as dressing, cooking, and eating. Physical exercises may be used to increase strength and dexterity, while other activities may be chosen to improve visual acuity or the ability to discern patterns. For example, a client with short-term memory loss might be encouraged to make lists to aid recall, and a person with coordination problems might be assigned exercises to im prove hand-eye coordination. Occupational therapists also use computer programs to help clients improve decision-making, abstract-reasoning, problem-solving, and perceptual skills, as well as memory, sequencing, and coordination—all of which are important for independent living. Patients with permanent disabilities, such as spinal cord inju ries, cerebral palsy, or muscular dystrophy, often need special instruction to master certain daily tasks. For these individuals, therapists demonstrate the use of adaptive equipment, includ ing wheelchairs, orthoses, eating aids, and dressing aids. They also design or build special equipment needed at home or at work, including computer-aided adaptive equipment. They teach clients how to use the equipment to improve communica tion and control various situations in their environment. Some occupational therapists treat individuals whose ability to function in a work environment has been impaired. These practitioners might arrange employment, evaluate the work https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis space, plan work activities, and assess the client’s progress. Therapists also may collaborate with the client and the em ployer to modify the work environment so that the client can successfully complete the work. Assessing and recording a client’s activities and progress is an important part of an occupational therapist’s job. Accurate records are essential for evaluating clients, for billing, and for reporting to physicians and other health care providers. Occupational therapists may work exclusively with individu als in a particular age group or with a particular disability. In schools, for example, they evaluate children’s capabilities, rec ommend and provide therapy, modify classroom equipment, and help children participate in school activities. A therapist may work with children individually, lead small groups in the classroom, consult with a teacher, or serve on an administrative committee. Some therapists provide early intervention therapy to infants and toddlers who have, or are at risk of having, devel opmental delays. Therapies may include facilitating the use of the hands and promoting skills for listening, following direc tions, social play, dressing, or grooming. Other occupational therapists work with elderly patients. These therapists help the elderly lead more productive, active, and independent lives through a variety of methods. Thera pists with specialized training in driver rehabilitation assess an individual’s ability to drive using both clinical and on-the-road tests. The evaluations allow the therapist to make recommen dations for adaptive equipment, training to prolong driving independence, and alternative transportation options. Occu pational therapists also work with clients to assess their homes for hazards and to identify environmental factors that contrib ute to falls. Occupational therapists in mental health settings treat in dividuals who are mentally ill, developmentally challenged, or emotionally disturbed. To treat these problems, therapists Occupational therapists help people improve their ability to perform tasks in their daily living and working environments. 358 Occupational Outlook Handbook choose activities that help people learn to engage in and cope with daily life. Activities might include time management skills, budgeting, shopping, homemaking, and the use of public transportation. Occupational therapists also work with individ uals who are dealing with alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, eating disorders, or stress-related disorders. Work environment. In large rehabilitation centers, thera pists may work in spacious rooms equipped with machines, tools, and other devices generating noise. The work can be tiring because therapists are on their feet much of the time. Those providing home health care services may spend time driving from appointment to appointment. Therapists also face hazards such as back strain from lifting and moving clients and equipment. Occupational therapists in hospitals and other health care and community settings usually work a 40-hour week. Those in schools may participate in meetings and other activities dur ing and after the school day. In 2006, more than a quarter of occupational therapists worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Occupational therapists must be licensed, requiring a master’s degree in occupational therapy, 6 months of supervised field work, and passing scores on national and State examinations. Education and training. A master’s degree or higher in oc cupational therapy is the minimum requirement for entry into the field. In 2007, 124 master’s degree programs offered entrylevel education, 66 programs offered a combined bachelor’s and master’s degree, and 5 offered an entry-level doctoral de gree. Most schools have full-time programs, although a grow ing number are offering weekend or part-time programs as well. Coursework in occupational therapy programs include the physical, biological, and behavioral sciences as well as the application of occupational therapy theory and skills. Pro grams also require the completion of 6 months of supervised fieldwork. People considering this profession should take high school courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, art, and the so cial sciences. College admissions offices also look favorably on paid or volunteer experience in the health care field. Rel evant undergraduate majors include biology, psychology, soci ology, anthropology, liberal arts, and anatomy. Licensure. All States, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of occupational therapy. To obtain a license, applicants must graduate from an accredited educational program and pass a national certification exami nation. Those who pass the exam are awarded the title “Oc cupational Therapist Registered (OTR).” Some States have additional requirements for therapists who work in schools or early intervention programs. These requirements may include education-related classes, an education practice certificate, or early intervention certification. Other qualifications. Occupational therapists need patience and strong interpersonal skills to inspire trust and respect in their clients. Patience is necessary because many clients may not show rapid improvement. Ingenuity and imagination in adapting activities to individual needs are assets. Those work ing in home health care services also must be able to adapt to a variety of settings. Advancement. Occupational therapists are expected to con tinue their professional development by participating in con tinuing education courses and workshops. In fact, a number of States require continuing education as a condition of maintain ing licensure. Therapists are increasingly taking on supervisory roles. Be cause of rising health care costs, third-party payers are begin ning to encourage occupational therapist assistants and aides to take more hands-on responsibility for clients. Occupational therapists can choose to advance their careers by taking on ad ministrative duties and supervising assistants and aides. Occupational therapists also can advance by specializing in a clinical area and gaining expertise in treating a certain type of patient or ailment. Therapists have specialized in gerontology, mental health, pediatrics, and physical rehabilitation. In addi tion, some occupational therapists choose to teach classes in accredited occupational therapy educational programs. Employment Occupational therapists held about 99,000 jobs in 2006. About 1 in 10 occupational therapists held more than one job. The largest number of jobs was in hospitals. Other major employ ers were offices of other health practitioners (including offices of occupational therapists), public and private educational ser vices, and nursing care facilities. Some occupational therapists were employed by home health care services, outpatient care centers, offices of physicians, individual and family services, community care facilities for the elderly, and government agencies. A small number of occupational therapists were self-em ployed in private practice. These practitioners treated clients referred by other health professionals. They also provided con tract or consulting services to nursing care facilities, schools, adult day care programs, and home health care agencies. Job Outlook Employment of occupational therapists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. Job oppor tunities should be good, especially for occupational therapists treating the elderly. Employment change. Employment of occupational therapists is expected to increase 23 percent between 2006 and Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Occupational therapists................................................................. SOC Code 29-1122 Employment, 2006 99,000 Projected employment, 2016 122,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 23,000 23 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 359 2016, much faster than the average for all occupations. The increasing elderly population will drive growth in the demand for occupational therapy services. In the short run, the impact of proposed Federal legislation imposing limits on reimburse ment for therapy services may adversely affect the job market for occupational therapists. However, over the long run, the demand for occupational therapists should continue to rise as a result of the increasing number of individuals with disabilities or limited function who require therapy services. The babyboom generation’s movement into middle age, a period when the incidence of heart attack and stroke increases, will spur demand for therapeutic services. Growth in the population 75 years and older—an age group that suffers from high inci dences of disabling conditions—also will increase demand for therapeutic services. In addition, medical advances now en able more patients with critical problems to survive—patients who ultimately may need extensive therapy. Hospitals will continue to employ a large number of occupa tional therapists to provide therapy services to acutely ill inpa tients. Hospitals also will need occupational therapists to staff their outpatient rehabilitation programs. Employment growth in schools will result from the expan sion of the school-age population, the extension of services for disabled students, and an increasing prevalence of sensory dis orders in children. Therapists will be needed to help children with disabilities prepare to enter special education programs. Job prospects. Job opportunities should be good for licensed occupational therapists in all settings, particularly in acute hos pital, rehabilitation, and orthopedic settings because the elderly receive most of their treatment in these settings. Occupational therapists with specialized knowledge in a treatment area also will have increased job prospects. Driver rehabilitation and fall-prevention training for the elderly are emerging practice areas for occupational therapy. Earnings Median annual earnings of occupational therapists were $60,470 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $50,450 and $73,710. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $40,840, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $89,450. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of occupational therapists in May 2006 were: Home health care services.................................................. $67,600 Nursing care facilities...........................................................64,750 Offices of physical, occupational and speech therapists, and audiologists................................................................... 62,290 General medical and surgical hospitals................................61,610 Elementary and secondary schools......................................54,260 Related Occupations Occupational therapists use specialized knowledge to help in dividuals perform daily living skills and achieve maximum in dependence. Other workers performing similar duties include athletic trainers, audiologists, chiropractors, physical thera pists, recreational therapists, rehabilitation counselors, respira tory therapists, and speech-language pathologists. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For more information on occupational therapy as a career, con tact: y American Occupational Therapy Association, 4720 Montgomery LaNE., Bethesda, MD 20824-1220. Internet: http://www.aota.org For information regarding the requirements to practice as an occupational therapist in schools, contact the appropriate occu pational therapy regulatory agency for your State. Optometrists (0*NET 29-1041.00) Significant Points • Admission to optometry school is competitive. • To be licensed, optometrists must earn a Doctor of Op tometry degree from an accredited optometry school and pass the appropriate exams administered by the National Board of Examiners in Optometry. • Employment is expected to grow as fast as average in response to the vision care needs of a growing and aging population. Nature of the Work Optometrists, also known as doctors of optometry, or ODs, are the main providers of vision care. They examine people’s eyes to diagnose vision problems, such as nearsightedness and far sightedness, and they test patients’ depth and color perception and ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. Optometrists may prescribe eyeglasses or contact lenses, or they may prescribe or provide other treatments, such as vision therapy or low-vision rehabilitation. Optometrists also test for glaucoma and other eye diseases and diagnose conditions caused by systemic diseases such as diabetes and high blood pressure, referring patients to other health practitioners as needed. They administer drugs to pa tients to aid in the diagnosis of vision problems and to treat eye diseases. Optometrists often provide preoperative and postop erative care to cataract patients, as well as to patients who have had laser vision correction or other eye surgery. Most optometrists are in general practice. Some specialize in work with the elderly, children, or partially sighted persons who need specialized visual devices. Others develop and implement ways to protect workers’ eyes from on-the-job strain or injury. Some specialize in contact lenses, sports vision, or vision thera py. A few teach optometry, perform research, or consult. Most optometrists are private practitioners who also handle the business aspects of running an office, such as developing a patient base, hiring employees, keeping paper and electronic re cords, and ordering equipment and supplies. Optometrists who operate franchise optical stores also may have some of these duties. Optometrists should not be confused with ophthalmologists or dispensing opticians. Ophthalmologists are physicians who 360 Occupational Outlook Handbook » ' 1- Optometrists use specialized equipment to test vision and detect diseases of the eye. perform eye surgery, as well as diagnose and treat eye diseases and injuries. Like optometrists, they also examine eyes and prescribe eyeglasses and contact lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses and, in some States, may fit contact lenses according to prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. (See the sections on physicians and surgeons; and opticians, dispensing, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Work environment. Optometrists work in places—usually their own offices—that are clean, well lighted, and comfort able. Most full-time optometrists work about 40 hours a week. Many work weekends and evenings to suit the needs of patients. Emergency calls, once uncommon, have increased with the pas sage of therapeutic-drug laws expanding optometrists’ ability to prescribe medications. Optometrists who work in solo practice or with a partner tend to work longer hours because they must tend to admin istrative duties in addition to their medical ones. According to the American Optometric Association surveys, optometrists worked about 49 hours per week, on average, in 2004, and were available to see patients about 38 hours per week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The Doctor of Optometry degree requires the completion of a 4-year program at an accredited optometry school, preceded by at least 3 years of preoptometric study at an accredited college or university. All States require optometrists to be licensed. Education and training. Optometrists need a Doctor of Op tometry degree, which requires the completion of a 4-year pro gram at an accredited optometry school. In 2006, there were 16 colleges of optometry in the U.S. and 1 in Puerto Rico that offered programs accredited by the Accreditation Council on Optometric Education of the American Optometric Associa tion. Requirements for admission to optometry schools include college courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. Because a strong background in science is impor tant, many applicants to optometry school major in a science, such as biology or chemistry as undergraduates. Others major in another subject and take many science courses offering labo ratory experience. Admission to optometry school is competitive. Applicants must take the Optometry Admissions Test, which measures aca demic ability and scientific comprehension. As a result, most https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis applicants take the test after their sophomore or junior year in college, allowing them an opportunity to take the test again and raise their score. A few applicants are accepted to optometry school after 3 years of college and complete their bachelor’s degree while attending optometry school. However, most stu dents accepted by a school or college of optometry have com pleted an undergraduate degree. Each institution has its own undergraduate prerequisites, so applicants should contact the school or college of their choice for specific requirements. Optometry programs include classroom and laboratory study of health and visual sciences and clinical training in the diagno sis and treatment of eye disorders. Courses in pharmacology, optics, vision science, biochemistry, and systemic diseases are included. One-year postgraduate clinical residency programs are avail able for optometrists who wish to obtain advanced clinical com petence. Specialty areas for residency programs include family practice optometry, pediatric optometry, geriatric optometry, vision therapy and rehabilitation, low-vision rehabilitation, cor nea and contact lenses, refractive and ocular surgery, primary eye care optometry, and ocular disease. Licensure. All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists be licensed. Applicants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optom etry school and must pass both a written National Board exami nation and a National, regional, or State clinical examination. The written and clinical examinations of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry usually are taken during the student’s academic career. Many States also require applicants to pass an examination on relevant State laws. Licenses must be renewed every 1 to 3 years and, in all States, continuing education cred its are needed for renewal. Other qualifications. Business ability, self-discipline, and the ability to deal tactfully with patients are important for suc cess. The work of optometrists also requires attention to detail and manual dexterity. Advancement. Optometrists wishing to teach or conduct research may study for a master’s degree or Ph.D. in visual science, physiological optics, neurophysiology, public health, health administration, health information and communication, or health education. Employment Optometrists held about 33,000 jobs in 2006. Salaried jobs for optometrists were primarily in offices of optometrists; offices of physicians, including ophthalmologists; and health and per sonal care stores, including optical goods stores. A few salaried jobs for optometrists were in hospitals, the Federal Government, or outpatient care centers including health maintenance organi zations. Nearly 25 percent of optometrists are self-employed. According to a 2005 survey by the American Optometric As sociation most self-employed optometrists worked in private practice or in partnership with other health care professionals. A small number worked for optical chains or franchises or as independent contractors. Job Outlook Employment of optometrists is expected to grow as fast as aver age for all occupations through 2016, in response to the vision Professional and Related Occupations 361 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Optometrists........................................................................................... SOC Code 29-1041 Projected employment, 2016 36,000 Employment, 2006 33,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 3,700 11 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. care needs of a growing and aging population. Greater recog nition of the importance of vision care, along with growth in employee vision care plans, will also spur job growth. Employment change. Employment of optometrists is pro jected to grow 11 percent between 2006 and 2016. A growing population that recognizes the importance of good eye care will increase demand for optometrists. Also, an increasing number of health insurance plans that include vision care, should gener ate more job growth. As the population ages, there will likely be more visits to optometrists and ophthalmologists because of the onset of vi sion problems that occur at older ages, such as cataracts and glaucoma. In addition, increased incidences of diabetes and hypertension in the general population as well as in the elderly will generate greater demand for optometric services as these diseases often affect eyesight. Employment of optometrists would grow more rapidly if not for productivity gains expected to allow each optometrist to see more patients. These expected gains stem from greater use of optometric assistants and other support personnel, who can re duce the amount of time optometrists need with each patient. The increasing popularity of laser surgery to correct some vi sion problems may reduce some of the demand for optometrists as patients often do not require eyeglasses afterward. But op tometrists still will be needed to provide preoperative and post operative care for laser surgery patients. Job prospects. Job opportunities for optometrists should be very good over the next decade. Demand is expected to be much higher, and because there are only 16 schools of optome try, the number of students who can get a degree in optometry is limited. In addition to growth, the need to replace optometrists who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons will create more employment opportunities. Related Occupations Other workers who apply scientific knowledge to prevent, di agnose, and treat disorders and injuries are chiropractors, den tists, physicians and surgeons, psychologists, podiatrists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For information on optometry as a career and a list of accredited optometric institutions of education, contact: y Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry, 6110 Executive Blvd., Suite 510, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.opted.org Additional career information is available from: y American Optometric Association, Educational Services, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St.Louis, MO 63141. Internet: http://www.aoa.org The board of optometry in each State can supply information on licensing requirements. For information on specific admission requirements and sources of financial aid, contact the admissions officers of indi vidual optometry schools. (0*NET 29-1051.00) Significant Points • Excellent job opportunities are expected. • Earnings are high, but some pharmacists are required to work nights, weekends, and holidays. • Pharmacists are becoming more involved in counsel ing patients and planning drug therapy programs. • A license is required; the prospective pharmacist must graduate from an accredited college of pharmacy and pass a series of examinations. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried optometrists were $91,040 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $66,530 and $118,490. Median annual earnings of salaried optometrists in offices of optometrists were $86,760. Salaried optometrists tend to earn more initially than do optometrists who set up their own practices. In the long run, however, those in private prac tice usually earn more. According to the American Optometric Association, median net annual income for all optometrists, including the self-em ployed, was $105,000 in 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $84,000 and $150,000. Self-employed optometrists, including those working in part nerships, must provide their own benefits. Optometrists em ployed by others typically enjoy paid vacation, sick leave, and pension contributions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis % Pharmacists Nature of the Work Pharmacists distribute prescription drugs to individuals. They also advise their patients, as well as physicians and other health practitioners, on the selection, dosages, interactions, and side ef fects of medications. Pharmacists monitor the health and prog ress of patients to ensure the safe and effective use of medica tion. Compounding—the actual mixing of ingredients to form medications—is a small part of a pharmacist’s practice, because most medicines are produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and drug delivery form. Most pharmacists work in a community setting, such as a retail drugstore, or in 362 Occupational Outlook Handbook a health care facility, such as a hospital, nursing home, mental health institution, or neighborhood health clinic. Pharmacists in community pharmacies dispense medications, counsel patients on the use of prescription and over-the-counter medications, and advise physicians about patients’ medication therapy. They also advise patients about general health top ics such as diet, exercise, and stress management, and provide information on products such as durable medical equipment or home health care supplies. In addition, they may complete third-party insurance forms and other paperwork. Those who own or manage community pharmacies may sell non-healthrelated merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and over see the general operation of the pharmacy. Some community pharmacists provide specialized services to help patients with conditions such as diabetes, asthma, smoking cessation, or high blood pressure; others also are trained to administer vaccina tions. Pharmacists in health care facilities dispense medications and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs. They may make sterile solutions to be administered intrave nously. They also plan, monitor and evaluate drug programs or regimens. They may counsel hospitalized patients on the use of drugs before the patients are discharged. Pharmacists who work in home health care monitor drug therapy and prepare infusions—solutions that are injected into patients—and other medications for use in the home. Some pharmacists specialize in specific drug therapy areas, such as intravenous nutrition support, oncology (cancer), nu clear pharmacy (used for chemotherapy), geriatric pharmacy, and psychiatric pharmacy (the use of drugs to treat mental dis orders). Most pharmacists keep confidential computerized records of patients’ drag therapies to prevent harmful drug interactions. Pharmacists are responsible for the accuracy of every prescrip tion that is filled, but they often rely upon pharmacy technicians and pharmacy aides to assist them in the dispensing process. Thus, the pharmacist may delegate prescription-filling and ad ministrative tasks and supervise their completion. Pharmacists also frequently oversee pharmacy students serving as interns. Increasingly, pharmacists are pursuing nontraditional phar macy work. Some are involved in research for pharmaceutical manufacturers, developing new drugs and testing their effects. Others work in marketing or sales, providing clients with ex pertise on the use, effectiveness, and possible side effects of drugs. Some pharmacists work for health insurance companies, developing pharmacy benefit packages and carrying out costbenefit analyses on certain drugs. Other pharmacists work for the government, managed care organizations, public health care services, the armed services, or pharmacy associations. Finally, some pharmacists are employed full time or part time as col lege faculty, teaching classes and performing research in a wide range of areas. Work environment. Pharmacists work in clean, well-light ed, and well-ventilated areas. Many pharmacists spend most of their workday on their feet. When working with sterile or dangerous pharmaceutical products, pharmacists wear gloves, masks, and other protective equipment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 ' •■ 1 ■?’; Pharmacists counsel patients and answer questions about med ications. Most full-time salaried pharmacists work approximately 40 hours a week, and about 10 percent work more than 50 hours. Many community and hospital pharmacies are open for extend ed hours or around the clock, so pharmacists may be required to work nights, weekends, and holidays. Consultant pharmacists may travel to nursing homes or other facilities to monitor pa tients’ drug therapy. About 16 percent of pharmacists worked part time in 2006. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license is required in all States, the District of Columbia, and all U.S. territories. In order to obtain a license, pharmacists must earn a Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree from a col lege of pharmacy and pass several examinations. Education and training. Pharmacists must earn a Pharm. D. degree from an accredited college or school of pharmacy. The Pharm.D. degree has replaced the Bachelor of Pharmacy degree, which is no longer being awarded. To be admitted to a Pharm.D. program, an applicant must have completed at least 2 years of postsecondary study, although most applicants have completed 3 or more years. Other entry requirements usually include courses in mathematics and natural sciences, such as chemistry, biology, and physics, as well as courses in the hu manities and social sciences. In 2007, 92 colleges and schools of pharmacy were accredited to confer degrees by the Accredi tation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE). About 70 percent of Pharm.D. programs require applicants to take the Pharmacy College Admissions Test (PCAT). Courses offered at colleges of pharmacy are designed to teach students about all aspects of drug therapy. In addition, students learn how to communicate with patients and other health care providers about drug information and patient care. Students also learn professional ethics, concepts of public health, and medication distribution systems management. In addition to re ceiving classroom instruction, students in Pharm.D. programs spend about one-forth of their time in a variety of pharmacy practice settings under the supervision of licensed pharmacists. In the 2006-07 academic year, 70 colleges of pharmacy also awarded the master-of-science degree or the Ph.D. degree. Both degrees are awarded after the completion of a Pharm.D. degree and are designed for those who want additional clinical, labora Professional and Related Occupations 363 tory, and research experience. Areas of graduate study include pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical chemistry (physical and chemical properties of drugs and dosage forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the body), and pharmacy administration. Many master’s and Ph.D. degree holders go on to do research for a drug company or teach at a university. Other options for pharmacy graduates who are interested in further training include 1-year or 2-year residency programs or fellowships. Pharmacy residencies are postgraduate training programs in pharmacy practice and usually require the comple tion of a research project. These programs are often mandatory for pharmacists who wish to work in hospitals. Pharmacy fel lowships are highly individualized programs that are designed to prepare participants to work in a specialized area of pharma cy, such clinical practice or research laboratories. Some phar macists who own their own pharmacy obtain a master’s degree in business administration (MBA). Others may obtain a degree in public administration or public health. Licensure. A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States, the District of Columbia, and all U.S. territories. To obtain a license, a prospective pharmacist must graduate from a college of pharmacy that is accredited by the ACPE and pass a series of examinations. All States, U.S. territories, and the District of Columbia require the North American Pharmacist Licensure Exam (NAPLEX), which tests pharmacy skills and knowledge. Forty-four States and the District of Columbia also require the Multistate Pharmacy Jurisprudence Exam (MPJE), which tests pharmacy law. Both exams are administered by the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP). Each of the eight States and territories that do not require the MJPE has its own pharmacy law exam. In addition to the NAPLEX and MPJE, some States and territories require additional exams that are unique to their jurisdiction. All jurisdictions except California currently grant license transfers to qualified pharmacists who already are licensed by another jurisdiction. Many pharmacists are licensed to practice in more than one jurisdiction. Most jurisdictions require con tinuing education for license renewal. Persons interested in a career as a pharmacist should check with individual jurisdiction boards of pharmacy for details on license renewal requirements and license transfer procedures. Graduates of foreign pharmacy schools may also qualify for licensure in some U.S. States and territories. These indi viduals must apply for certification from the Foreign Pharmacy Graduate Examination Committee (FPGEC). Once certified, they must pass the Foreign Pharmacy Graduate Equivalency Examination (FPGEE), Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) exam, and Test of Spoken English (TSE) exam. They then must pass all of the exams required by the licensing ju risdiction, such as the NAPLEX and MJPE. Applicants who graduated from programs accredited by the Canadian Council for Accreditation of Pharmacy Programs (CCAPP) between 1993 and 2004 are exempt from FPGEC certification and ex amination requirements. Other qualifications. Prospective pharmacists should have scientific aptitude, good interpersonal skills, and a desire to help others. They also must be conscientious and pay close attention to detail, because the decisions they make affect human lives. Advancement. In community pharmacies, pharmacists usu ally begin at the staff level. Pharmacists in chain drugstores may be promoted to pharmacy supervisor or manager at the store level, then to manager at the district or regional level, and later to an executive position within the chain’s headquarters. Hospital pharmacists may advance to supervisory or adminis trative positions. After they gain experience and secure the nec essary capital, some pharmacists become owners or part owners of independent pharmacies. Pharmacists in the pharmaceuti cal industry may advance in marketing, sales, research, quality control, production, or other areas. Employment Pharmacists held about 243,000 jobs in 2006. About 62 percent worked in community pharmacies that were either independent ly owned or part of a drugstore chain, grocery store, department store, or mass merchandiser. Most community pharmacists were salaried employees, but some were self-employed owners. About 23 percent of pharmacists worked in hospitals. A small proportion worked in mail-order and Internet pharmacies, phar maceutical wholesalers, offices of physicians, and the Federal Government. Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase much faster than the aver age through 2016. As a result of rapid growth and the need to replace workers who leave the occupation, job prospects should be excellent. Employment change. Employment of pharmacists is ex pected to grow by 22 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. The increas ing numbers of middle-aged and elderly people—who use more prescription drugs than younger people—will continue to spur demand for pharmacists throughout the projection period. Oth er factors likely to increase the demand for pharmacists include scientific advances that will make more drug products available and the coverage of prescription drags by a greater number of health insurance plans and Medicare. As the use of prescription drugs increases, demand for phar macists will grow in most practice settings, such as community pharmacies, hospital pharmacies, and mail-order pharmacies. As the population ages, assisted living facilities and home care organizations should see particularly rapid growth. Demand will also increase as cost conscious insurers, in an attempt to Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Pharmacists............................................................... ............................. soc Code 29-1051 Employment, 2006 243,000 Projected employment, 2016 296,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 53,000 22 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 364 Occupational Outlook Handbook improve preventative care, use pharmacists in areas such as pa tient education and vaccination administration. Demand is also increasing in managed care organizations where pharmacists analyze trends and patterns in medication use, and in pharmacoeconomics—the cost and benefit analysis of different drug therapies. New jobs also are being created in disease management—the development of new methods for curing and controlling diseases—and in sales and marketing. Rapid growth is also expected in pharmacy informatics—the use of information technology to improve patient care. Job prospects. Excellent opportunities are expected for phar macists over the 2006 to 2016 period. Job openings will result from rapid employment growth, and from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. y American Pharmacists Association, 1100 15th Street, NW. Suite 400., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.aphanet.org Information on the North American Pharmacist Licensure Exam (NAPLEX) and the Multistate Pharmacy Jurisprudence Exam (MPJE) is available from: y National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, 1600 Feehanville Dr., Mount Prospect, IL 60056. Internet: http://www.nabp.net State licensure requirements are available from each State’s board of pharmacy. Information on specific college entrance requirements, curriculums, and financial aid is available from any college of pharmacy. Earnings Physical Therapists Median annual of wage-and-salary pharmacists in May 2006 were $94,520. The middle 50 percent earned between $83,180 and $108,140 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $67,860, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $119,480 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of pharmacists in May 2006 were: Department stores............................................................... $99,050 Grocery stores....................................................................... 95,600 Pharmacies and drug stores................................................... 94,640 General medical and surgical hospitals................................. 93,640 According to a 2006 survey by Drug Topics Magazine, phar macists in retail settings earned an average of $92,291 per year, while pharmacists in institutional settings earned an average of $97,545. Full-time pharmacists earned an average of $102,336, while part-time pharmacists earned an average of $55,589. Related Occupations Pharmacy technicians and pharmacy aides also work in phar macies. Persons in other professions who may work with phar maceutical compounds include biological scientists, medical scientists, and chemists and materials scientists. Increasingly, pharmacists are involved in patient care and therapy, work that they have in common with physicians and surgeons. Sources of Additional Information For information on pharmacy as a career, preprofessional and professional requirements, programs offered by colleges of pharmacy, and student financial aid, contact: y American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 1426 Prince St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.aacp.org General information on careers in pharmacy is available from: y American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 7272 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.ashp.org y National Association of Chain Drug Stores, 413 N. Lee St., P.O. Box 1417-D49, Alexandria, VA 22313-1480. Internet: http://www.nacds.org y Academy ofManaged Care Pharmacy, lOONorthPittSt.,Suite 400, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.amcp.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (0*NET 29-1123.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to increase much faster than • average. Job opportunities should be good, particularly in acute hospital, rehabilitation, and orthopedic settings. • Physical therapists need a master’s degree from an ac credited physical therapy program and a State license, requiring passing scores on national and State exami nations. • About 6 out of 10 physical therapists work in hospi tals or in offices of physical therapists. Nature of the Work Physical therapists provide services that help restore function, improve mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or limit permanent physical disabilities of patients suffering from injuries or dis ease. They restore, maintain, and promote overall fitness and health. Their patients include accident victims and individuals with disabling conditions such as low-back pain, arthritis, heart disease, fractures, head injuries, and cerebral palsy. Therapists examine patients’ medical histories and then test and measure the patients’ strength, range of motion, balance and coordination, posture, muscle performance, respiration, and motor function. Next, physical therapists develop plans de scribing a treatment strategy and its anticipated outcome. Treatment often includes exercise, especially for patients who have been immobilized or who lack flexibility, strength, or endurance. Physical therapists encourage patients to use their muscles to increase their flexibility and range of motion. More advanced exercises focus on improving strength, balance, coor dination, and endurance. The goal is to improve how an indi vidual functions at work and at home. Physical therapists also use electrical stimulation, hot packs or cold compresses, and ultrasound to relieve pain and reduce swelling. They may use traction or deep-tissue massage to re lieve pain and improve circulation and flexibility. Therapists also teach patients to use assistive and adaptive devices, such as Professional and Related Occupations 365 Physical therapists use traction or deep-tissue massage to re lieve pain. crutches, prostheses, and wheelchairs. They also may show pa tients how to do exercises at home to expedite their recovery. As treatment continues, physical therapists document the patient’s progress, conduct periodic examinations, and modify treatments when necessary. Physical therapists often consult and practice with a variety of other professionals, such as physicians, dentists, nurses, educa tors, social workers, occupational therapists, speech-language pathologists, and audiologists. Some physical therapists treat a wide range of ailments; oth ers specialize in areas such as pediatrics, geriatrics, orthope dics, sports medicine, neurology, and cardiopulmonary physi cal therapy. Work environment. Physical therapists practice in hospi tals, clinics, and private offices that have specially equipped facilities. They also treat patients in hospital rooms, homes, or schools. These jobs can be physically demanding because ther apists often have to stoop, kneel, crouch, lift, and stand for long periods. In addition, physical therapists move heavy equipment and lift patients or help them turn, stand, or walk. In 2006, most full-time physical therapists worked a 40-hour week; some worked evenings and weekends to fit their patients’ schedules. About 1 in 5 physical therapists worked part time. degree might be the required entry-level degree. Master’s de gree programs typically last 2 years, and doctoral degree pro grams last 3 years. Physical therapist education programs start with basic sci ence courses such as biology, chemistry, and physics and then introduce specialized courses, including biomechanics, neuro anatomy, human growth and development, manifestations of disease, examination techniques, and therapeutic procedures. Besides getting classroom and laboratory instruction, students receive supervised clinical experience. Among the undergraduate courses that are useful when one applies to a physical therapist education program are anatomy, biology, chemistry, social science, mathematics, and physics. Before granting admission, many programs require volunteer experience in the physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic. For high school students, volunteering with the school athletic trainer is a good way to gain experience. Licensure. All States require physical therapists to pass na tional and State licensure exams before they can practice. They must also graduate from an accredited physical therapist educa tion program. Other qualifications. Physical therapists should have strong interpersonal skills so that they can educate patients about their physical therapy treatments and communicate with patients’ families. Physical therapists also should be compassionate and possess a desire to help patients. Advancement. Physical therapists are expected to continue their professional development by participating in continuing education courses and workshops. In fact, a number of States require continuing education as a condition of maintaining li censure. Employment Physical therapists held about 173,000 jobs in 2006. The num ber of jobs is greater than the number of practicing physical therapists because some physical therapists hold two or more jobs. For example, some may work in a private practice, but also work part time in another health care facility. About 6 out of 10 physical therapists worked in hospitals or in offices of physical therapists. Other jobs were in the home health care services industry, nursing care facilities, outpatient care centers, and offices of physicians. Some physical thera pists were self-employed in private practices, seeing individual patients and contracting to provide services in hospitals, reha bilitation centers, nursing care facilities, home health care agen cies, adult day care programs, and schools. Physical therapists also teach in academic institutions and conduct research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Job Outlook Physical therapists need a master’s degree from an accredited physical therapy program and a State license, requiring passing scores on national and State examinations. Education and training. According to the American Physi cal Therapy Association, there were 209 accredited physical therapist education programs in 2007. Of the accredited pro grams, 43 offered master’s degrees and 166 offered doctoral degrees. Only master’s degree and doctoral degree programs are accredited, in accordance with the Commission on Accredi tation in Physical Therapy Education. In the future, a doctoral Employment of physical therapists is expected to grow much faster than average. Job opportunities will be good, especially in acute hospital, rehabilitation, and orthopedic settings. Employment change. Employment of physical therapists is expected to grow 27 percent from 2006 to 2016, much faster than the average for all occupations. The impact of proposed Federal legislation imposing limits on reimbursement for ther apy services may adversely affect the short-term job outlook for physical therapists. However, the long-run demand for physical therapists should continue to rise as new treatments https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 366 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Physical therapists............................................ ..................................... SOC Code 29-1123 Projected employment, 2016 220,000 Employment, 2006 173,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 47,000 27 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. and techniques expand the scope of physical therapy practices. Moreover, demand will be spurred by the increasing numbers of individuals with disabilities or limited function. The increasing elderly population will drive growth in the demand for physical therapy services. The elderly population is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions that require therapeutic services. Also, the baby-boom gen eration is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. And increasing numbers of children will need physical therapy as technological advances save the lives of a larger proportion of newborns with severe birth defects. Future medical developments also should permit a higher percentage of trauma victims to survive, creating additional de mand for rehabilitative care. In addition, growth may result from advances in medical technology that could permit the treatment of an increasing number of disabling conditions that were unbeatable in the past. Widespread interest in health promotion also should increase demand for physical therapy services. A growing number of employers are using physical therapists to evaluate worksites, develop exercise programs, and teach safe work habits to em ployees. Job prospects. Job opportunities will be good for licensed physical therapists in all settings. Job opportunities should be particularly good in acute hospital, rehabilitation, and orthope dic settings, where the elderly are most often treated. Physi cal therapists with specialized knowledge of particular types of treatment also will have excellent job prospects. Earnings Median annual earnings of physical therapists were $66,200 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $55,030 and $78,080. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $46,510, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $94,810. Median an nual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of physical therapists in May 2006 were: Home health care services.................................................. $70,920 Nursing care facilities........................................................... 68,650 General medical and surgical hospitals.................................66,630 Offices of physicians............................................................. 65,900 Offices of physical, occupational and speech therapists, and audiologists.............................65,150 Related Occupations Physical therapists rehabilitate people with physical disabili ties. Others who work in the rehabilitation field include au diologists, chiropractors, occupational therapists, recreational https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis therapists, rehabilitation counselors, respiratory therapists, and speech-language pathologists. Sources of Additional Information Additional career information and a list of accredited educa tional programs in physical therapy are available from: y American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St, Alexandria, VA 22314-1488. Internet: http://www.apta.org Physician Assistants (0*NET 29-1071.00) Significant Points • Physician assistant programs usually last at least 2 years; admission requirements vary by program, but many require at least 2 years of college and some health care experience. • All States require physician assistants to complete an accredited education program and to pass a national exam in order to obtain a license. • Employment is projected to grow much faster than average as health care establishments increasingly use physician assistants to contain costs. • Job opportunities should be good, particularly in ru ral and inner-city clinics. Nature of the Work Physician assistants (PAs) practice medicine under the supervi sion of physicians and surgeons. They should not be confused with medical assistants, who perform routine clinical and cleri cal tasks. (Medical assistants are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) PAs are formally trained to provide diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive health care services, as delegated by a physician. Working as members of the health care team, they take medical histories, examine and treat patients, order and interpret laboratory tests and x-rays, and make diagnoses. They also treat minor injuries, by suturing, splinting, and cast ing. PAs record progress notes, instruct and counsel patients, and order or carry out therapy. In 48 States and the District of Columbia, physician assistants may prescribe some medica tions. In some establishments, a PA is responsible for manage rial duties, such as ordering medical supplies or equipment and supervising technicians and assistants. Professional and Related Occupations 367 Physician assistants may be the principal care providers in ru ral or inner city clinics, where a physician is present for only one or two days each week. Physician assistants work under the supervision of a physi cian. However, PAs may be the principal care providers in rural or inner city clinics where a physician is present for only one or two days each week. In such cases, the PA confers with the supervising physician and other medical professionals as needed and as required by law. PAs also may make house calls or go to hospitals and nursing care facilities to check on patients, after which they report back to the physician. The duties of physician assistants are determined by the su pervising physician and by State law. Aspiring PAs should in vestigate the laws and regulations in the States in which they wish to practice. Many PAs work in primary care specialties, such as general internal medicine, pediatrics, and family medicine. Other spe cialty areas include general and thoracic surgery, emergency medicine, orthopedics, and geriatrics. PAs specializing in surgery provide preoperative and postoperative care and may work as first or second assistants during major surgery. Work environment. Although PAs usually work in a com fortable, well-lighted environment, those in surgery often stand for long periods. At times, the job requires a considerable amount of walking. Schedules vary according to the practice setting, and often depend on the hours of the supervising physi cian. The workweek of hospital-based PAs may include week ends, nights, or early morning hospital rounds to visit patients. These workers also may be on call. PAs in clinics usually work a 40-hour week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Physician assistant programs usually last at least 2 years. Ad mission requirements vary by program, but many require at least 2 years of college and some health care experience. All https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis States require that PAs complete an accredited, formal educa tion program and pass a National exam to obtain a license. Education and training. Physician assistant education pro grams usually last at least 2 years and are full time. Most pro grams are in schools of allied health, academic health centers, medical schools, or 4-year colleges; a few are in community colleges, the military, or hospitals. Many accredited PA pro grams have clinical teaching affiliations with medical schools. In 2007, 136 education programs for physician assistants were accredited or provisionally accredited by the American Academy of Physician Assistants. More than 90 of these pro grams offered the option of a master’s degree, and the rest of fered either a bachelor’s degree or an associate degree. Most applicants to PA educational programs already have a bache lor’s degree. Admission requirements vary, but many programs require 2 years of college and some work experience in the health care field. Students should take courses in biology, English, chem istry, mathematics, psychology, and the social sciences. Many PAs have prior experience as registered nurses, and others come from varied backgrounds, including military corpsman or medics and allied health occupations such as respiratory therapists, physical therapists, and emergency medical techni cians and paramedics. PA education includes classroom instruction in biochem istry, pathology, human anatomy, physiology, microbiology, clinical pharmacology, clinical medicine, geriatric and home health care, disease prevention, and medical ethics. Students obtain supervised clinical training in several areas, including family medicine, internal medicine, surgery, prenatal care and gynecology, geriatrics, emergency medicine, psychiatry, and pediatrics. Sometimes, PA students serve one or more of these rotations under the supervision of a physician who is seeking to hire a PA. The rotations often lead to permanent employment. Licensure. All States and the District of Columbia have legislation governing the qualifications or practice of physi cian assistants. All jurisdictions require physician assistants to pass the Physician Assistant National Certifying Examination, administered by the National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants (NCCPA) and open only to graduates of accredited PA education programs. Only those successfully completing the examination may use the credential “Physician Assistant-Certified.” To remain certified, PAs must complete 100 hours of continuing medical education every 2 years. Ev ery 6 years, they must pass a recertification examination or complete an alternative program combining learning experi ences and a take-home examination. Other qualifications. Physician assistants must have a de sire to serve patients and be self-motivated. PAs also must have a good bedside manner, emotional stability, and the ability to make decisions in emergencies. Physician assistants must be willing to study throughout their career to keep up with medi cal advances. Certification and advancement. Some PAs pursue addi tional education in a specialty such as surgery, neonatology, or emergency medicine. PA postgraduate educational programs are available in areas such as internal medicine, rural primary 368 Occupational Outlook Handbook care, emergency medicine, surgery, pediatrics, neonatology, and occupational medicine. Candidates must be graduates of an accredited program and be certified by the NCCPA. As they attain greater clinical knowledge and experience, PAs can advance to added responsibilities and higher earnings. However, by the very nature of the profession, clinically prac ticing PAs always are supervised by physicians. Employment Physician assistants held about 66,000 jobs in 2006. The num ber of jobs is greater than the number of practicing PAs be cause some hold two or more jobs. For example, some PAs work with a supervising physician, but also work in another practice, clinic, or hospital. According to the American Acad emy of Physician Assistants, about 15 percent of actively prac ticing PAs worked in more than one clinical job concurrently in 2006. More than half of jobs for PAs were in the offices of physi cians. About a quarter were in hospitals, public or private. The rest were mostly in outpatient care centers, including health maintenance organizations; the Federal Government; and pub lic or private colleges, universities, and professional schools. A few were self-employed. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than the aver age as health care establishments increasingly use physician assistants to contain costs. Job opportunities for PAs should be good, particularly in rural and inner city clinics, as these set tings typically have difficulty attracting physicians. Employment change. Employment of physician assistants is expected to grow 27 percent from 2006 to 2016, much fast er than the average for all occupations. Projected rapid job growth reflects the expansion of health care industries and an emphasis on cost containment, which results in increasing use of PAs by health care establishments. Physicians and institutions are expected to employ more PAs to provide primary care and to assist with medical and surgi cal procedures because PAs are cost-effective and productive members of the health care team. Physician assistants can re lieve physicians of routine duties and procedures. Telemedi cine—using technology to facilitate interactive consultations between physicians and physician assistants—also will expand the use of physician assistants. Besides working in traditional office-based settings, PAs should find a growing number of jobs in institutional settings such as hospitals, academic medical centers, public clinics, and prisons. PAs also may be needed to augment medical staffing in inpatient teaching hospital settings as the number of hours physician residents are permitted to work is reduced, encour aging hospitals to use PAs to supply some physician resident services. Job prospects. Job opportunities for PAs should be good, particularly in rural and inner-city clinics because those set tings have difficulty attracting physicians. In addition to job openings from employment growth, openings will result from the need to replace physician assistants who retire or leave the occupation permanently during the 2006-16 decade. Oppor tunities will be best in States that allow PAs a wider scope of practice, such as allowing PAs to prescribe medications. Earnings Median annual earnings of wage-and-salary physician as sistants were $74,980 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $62,430 and $89,220. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $43,100, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $102,230. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of physician assistants in May 2006 were: Outpatient care centers........................................................$80,960 General medical and surgical hospitals................................76,710 Offices of physicians.............................................................74,160 According to the American Academy of Physician Assis tants, median income for physician assistants in full-time clini cal practice was $80,356 in 2006; median income for first-year graduates was $69,517. Income varies by specialty, practice setting, geographical location, and years of experience. Em ployers often pay for their employees’ liability insurance, reg istration fees with the Drug Enforcement Administration, State licensing fees, and credentialing fees. Related Occupations Other health care workers who provide direct patient care that requires a similar level of skill and training include audiolo gists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, registered nurses, and speech-language pathologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a physician assistant, including a list of accredited programs, contact: 'y American Academy of Physician Assistants Information Center, 950 North Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.aapa.org For eligibility requirements and a description of the Physi cian Assistant National Certifying Examination, contact: y National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants, Inc., 12000 Findley Rd., Suite 200, Duluth, GA 30097. Internet: http://www.nccpa.net Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Physician assistants...................................... ................................ soc Code 29-1071 Employment, 2006 66,000 Projected employment, 2016 83,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 18,000 27 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 369 Physicians and Surgeons (0*NET 29-1061.00, 29-1062.00, 29-1063.00, 29-1064.00, 29-1065.00, 29-1066.00, 29-1067.00, 29-1069.99) Significant Points • Many physicians and surgeons work long, irregular hours; more than one-third of full-time physicians worked 60 hours or more a week in 2006. • Acceptance to medical school is highly competitive. • Formal education and training requirements are among the most demanding of any occupation, but earnings are among the highest. • Job opportunities should be very good, particularly in rural and low-income areas. Nature of the Work Physicians and surgeons diagnose illnesses and prescribe and administer treatment for people suffering from injury or dis ease. Physicians examine patients, obtain medical histories, and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preventive health care. There are two types of physicians: M.D.—Doctor of Medi cine—and D.O.—Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine. M.D.s also are known as allopathic physicians. While both M.D.s and D.O.s may use all accepted methods of treatment, including drugs and surgery, D.O.s place special emphasis on the body’s musculoskeletal system, preventive medicine, and holistic pa tient care. D.O.s are most likely to be primary care special ists although they can be found in all specialties. About half of D.O.s practice general or family medicine, general internal medicine, or general pediatrics. Physicians work in one or more of several specialties, includ ing, but not limited to, anesthesiology, family and general med icine, general internal medicine, general pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, and surgery. Anesthesiologists focus on the care of surgical patients and pain relief. Like other physicians, they evaluate and treat pa tients and direct the efforts of their staffs. Through continual monitoring and assessment, these critical care specialists are responsible for maintenance of the patient’s vital life func tions—heart rate, body temperature, blood pressure, breath ing—during surgery. They also work outside of the operating room, providing pain relief in the intensive care unit, during labor and delivery, and for those who suffer from chronic pain. Anesthesiologists confer with other physicians and surgeons about appropriate treatments and procedures before, during, and after operations. Family and general practitioners often provide the first point of contact for people seeking health care, by acting as the tradi tional family doctor. They assess and treat a wide range of con ditions, from sinus and respiratory infections to broken bones. Family and general practitioners typically have a base of regu lar, long-term patients. These doctors refer patients with more https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis serious conditions to specialists or other health care facilities for more intensive care. General internists diagnose and provide nonsurgical treat ment for a wide range of problems that affect internal organ systems, such as the stomach, kidneys, liver, and digestive tract. Internists use a variety of diagnostic techniques to treat patients through medication or hospitalization. Like general practitio ners, general internists commonly act as primary care special ists. They treat patients referred from other specialists, and, in turn they refer patients to other specialists when more complex care is required. General pediatricians care for the health of infants, children, teenagers, and young adults. They specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of a variety of ailments specific to young people and track patients’ growth to adulthood. Like most physicians, pediatricians work with different health care workers, such as nurses and other physicians, to assess and treat children with various ailments. Most of the work of pediatricians involves treating day-to-day illnesses—minor injuries, infectious diseas es, and immunizations-—that are common to children, much as a general practitioner treats adults. Some pediatricians special ize in pediatric surgery or serious medical conditions, such as autoimmune disorders or serious chronic ailments. Obstetricians and gynecologists (OB/GYNs) specialize in women’s health. They are responsible for women’s general medical care, and they also provide care related to pregnancy and the reproductive system. Like general practitioners, OB/ GYNs attempt to prevent, diagnose, and treat general health problems, but they focus on ailments specific to the female anatomy, such as cancers of the breast or cervix, urinary tract and pelvic disorders, and hormonal disorders. OB/GYNs also specialize in childbirth, treating and counseling women throughout their pregnancy, from giving prenatal diagnoses to assisting with delivery and providing postpartum care. Psychiatrists are the primary caregivers in the area of mental health. They assess and treat mental illnesses through a com bination of psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, hospitalization, and medication. Psychotherapy involves regular discussions with patients about their problems; the psychiatrist helps them find solutions through changes in their behavioral patterns, the ex ploration of their past experiences, or group and family therapy sessions. Psychoanalysis involves long-term psychotherapy and counseling for patients. In many cases, medications are ad ministered to correct chemical imbalances that cause emotional problems. Psychiatrists also may administer electroconvulsive therapy to those of their patients who do not respond to, or who cannot take, medications. Surgeons specialize in the treatment of injury, disease, and deformity through operations. Using a variety of instruments, and with patients under anesthesia, a surgeon corrects physical deformities, repairs bone and tissue after injuries, or performs preventive surgeries on patients with debilitating diseases or disorders. Although a large number perform general surgery, many surgeons choose to specialize in a specific area. One of the most prevalent specialties is orthopedic surgery: the treat ment of the musculoskeletal system. Others include neurologi cal surgery (treatment of the brain and nervous system), car diovascular surgery, otolaryngology (treatment of the ear, nose, 370 Occupational Outlook Handbook di' O Physicians increasingly practice in groups or health care or ganizations that provide backup coverage and allow for more time off. and throat), and plastic or reconstructive surgery. Like other physicians, surgeons also examine patients, perform and inter pret diagnostic tests, and counsel patients on preventive health care. Other physicians and surgeons work in a number of other medical and surgical specialists, including allergists, cardiolo gists, dermatologists, emergency physicians, gastroenterolo gists, ophthalmologists, pathologists, and radiologists. Work environment. Many physicians—primarily general and family practitioners, general internists, pediatricians, OB/ GYNs, and psychiatrists—work in small private offices or clin ics, often assisted by a small staff of nurses and other admin istrative personnel. Increasingly, physicians are practicing in groups or health care organizations that provide backup cover age and allow for more time off. Physicians in a group practice or health care organization often work as part of a team that coordinates care for a number of patients; they are less inde pendent than the solo practitioners of the past. Surgeons and anesthesiologists usually work in well-lighted, sterile environ ments while performing surgery and often stand for long peri ods. Most work in hospitals or in surgical outpatient centers. Many physicians and surgeons work long, irregular hours. Over one-third of full-time physicians and surgeons worked 60 hours or more a week in 2006. Only 8 percent of all physicians and surgeons worked part-time, compared with 15 percent for all occupations. Physicians and surgeons must travel frequently between office and hospital to care for their patients. While on call, a physician will deal with many patients’ concerns over the phone and make emergency visits to hospitals or nursing homes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The common path to practicing as a physician requires 8 years of education beyond high school and 3 to 8 additional years of internship and residency. All States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories license physicians. Education and training. Formal education and training re quirements for physicians are among the most demanding of any occupation—4 years of undergraduate school, 4 years of medical school, and 3 to 8 years of internship and residency, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis depending on the specialty selected. A few medical schools of fer combined undergraduate and medical school programs that last 6 years rather than the customary 8 years. Premedical students must complete undergraduate work in physics, biology, mathematics, English, and inorganic and or ganic chemistry. Students also take courses in the humanities and the social sciences. Some students volunteer at local hospi tals or clinics to gain practical experience in the health profes sions. The minimum educational requirement for entry into medi cal school is 3 years of college; most applicants, however, have at least a bachelor’s degree, and many have advanced degrees. There are 146 medical schools in the United States—126 teach allopathic medicine and award a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree; 20 teach osteopathic medicine and award the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) degree. Acceptance to medical school is highly competitive. Ap plicants must submit transcripts, scores from the Medical Col lege Admission Test, and letters of recommendation. Schools also consider an applicant’s character, personality, leadership qualities, and participation in extracurricular activities. Most schools require an interview with members of the admissions committee. Students spend most of the first 2 years of medical school in laboratories and classrooms, taking courses such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, psychology, microbi ology, pathology, medical ethics, and laws governing medicine. They also learn to take medical histories, examine patients, and diagnose illnesses. During their last 2 years, students work with patients under the supervision of experienced physicians in hos pitals and clinics, learning acute, chronic, preventive, and reha bilitative care. Through rotations in internal medicine, family practice, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, psychiatry, and surgery, they gain experience in the diagnosis and treatment of illness. Following medical school, almost all M.D.s enter a residen cy—graduate medical education in a specialty that takes the form of paid on-the-job training, usually in a hospital. Most D.O.s serve a 12-month rotating internship after graduation and before entering a residency, which may last 2 to 6 years. A physician’s training is costly. According to the Association of American Medical Colleges, in 2004 more than 80 percent of medical school graduates were in debt for educational ex penses. Licensure and certification. All States, the District of Co lumbia, and U.S. territories license physicians. To be licensed, physicians must graduate from an accredited medical school, pass a licensing examination, and complete 1 to 7 years of grad uate medical education. Although physicians licensed in one State usually can get a license to practice in another without further examination, some States limit reciprocity. Graduates of foreign medical schools generally can qualify for licensure after passing an examination and completing a U.S. residency. M.D.s and D.O.s seeking board certification in a specialty may spend up to 7 years in residency training, depending on the specialty. A final examination immediately after residency or after 1 or 2 years of practice also is necessary for certification by a member board of the American Board of Medical Special- Professional and Related Occupations 371 Table 1. Percent distribution of active physicians in patient care by specialty, 2005 Total...................................................................................... Primary care ........................................................................ Family medicine and general practice.......................... Internal medicine............................................................ Obstetrics & gynecology................................................. Pediatrics........................................................................... Specialties............................................................................. Anesthesiology................................................................. Psychiatry......................................................................... Surgical specialties, selected......................................... All other specialties......................................................... Percent 100.0 40.4 12.3 15.0 5.5 7.5 59.6 5.2 5.1 10.8 38.5 SOURCE: American Medical Association, Physician Characteristics and Distribution in the US, 2007. ists (ABMS) or the American Osteopathic Association (AOA). The ABMS represents 24 boards related to medical specialties ranging from allergy and immunology to urology. The AOA has approved 18 specialty boards, ranging from anesthesiology to surgery. For certification in a subspecialty, physicians usu ally need another 1 to 2 years of residency. Other qualifications. People who wish to become physicians must have a desire to serve patients, be self-motivated, and be able to survive the pressures and long hours of medical educa tion and practice. Physicians also must have a good bedside manner, emotional stability, and the ability to make decisions in emergencies. Prospective physicians must be willing to study throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. Advancement. Some physicians and surgeons advance by gaining expertise in specialties and subspecialties and by de veloping a reputation for excellence among their peers and pa tients. Many physicians and surgeons start their own practice or join a group practice. Others teach residents and other new doctors, and some advance to supervisory and managerial roles in hospitals, clinics, and other settings. Employment Physicians and surgeons held about 633,000 jobs in 2006; ap proximately 15 percent were self-employed. About half of wage-and-salary physicians and surgeons worked in offices of physicians, and 18 percent were employed by hospitals. Others practiced in Federal, State, and local governments, including colleges, universities, and professional schools; private colleg es, universities, and professional schools; and outpatient care centers. According to 2005 data from the American Medical Associa tion (AMA), about two in five physicians in patient care were in primary care, but not in a subspecialty of primary care. (See table 1.) A growing number of physicians are partners or wage-andsalary employees of group practices. Organized as clinics or as associations of physicians, medical groups can more easily afford expensive medical equipment, can share support staff, and benefit from other business advantages. According to the AMA, the New England and Middle At lantic States have the highest ratio of physicians to population; the South Central and Mountain States have the lowest. D.O.s are more likely than M.D.s to practice in small cities and towns and in rural areas. M.D.s tend to locate in urban areas, close to hospitals and education centers. Job Outlook Employment of physicians and surgeons is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Job opportunities should be very good, especially for physicians and surgeons willing to practice in specialties—including family practice, internal medicine, and OB/GYN—or in rural and low-income areas where there is a perceived shortage of medical practitio ners. Employment change. Employment of physicians and sur geons is projected to grow 14 percent from 2006 to 2016, faster than the average for all occupations. Job growth will occur be cause of continued expansion of health care related industries. The growing and aging population will drive overall growth in the demand for physician services, as consumers continue to demand high levels of care using the latest technologies, diag nostic tests, and therapies. Demand for physicians’ services is highly sensitive to chang es in consumer preferences, health care reimbursement poli cies, and legislation. For example, if changes to health cover age result in consumers facing higher out-of-pocket costs, they may demand fewer physician services. Patients relying more on other health care providers—such as physician assistants, nurse practitioners, optometrists, and nurse anesthetists—also may temper demand for physician services. In addition, new technologies will increase physician productivity. These tech nologies include electronic medical records, test and prescrip tion orders, billing, and scheduling. Job prospects. Opportunities for individuals interested in be coming physicians and surgeons are expected to be very good. In addition to job openings from employment growth, numer ous openings will result from the need to replace physicians and surgeons who retire over the 2006-16 decade. Unlike their predecessors, newly trained physicians face radically different choices of where and how to practice. New physicians are much less likely to enter solo practice and more likely to take salaried jobs in group medical practices, clinics, and health networks. Reports of shortages in some specialties, such as general or family practice, internal medicine, and OB/GYN, or in rural Projections data from the National Employment Matrix soc Occupational Title Physicians and surgeons.......................................... Code .................. 29-1060 Employment, 2006 633,000 Projected employment, 2016 723,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number 90,000 Percent 14 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- don Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 372 Occupational Outlook Handbook Table 2. Median compensation for physicians, 2005 Specialty Anesthesiology..................................... Surgery: General.................................. Obstetrics/gynecology: General.......... Psychiatry: General.............................. Internal medicine: General.................. Pediatrics: General............................... Family practice (without obstetrics)... Less than two years in specialty $259,948 228,839 203,270 173,922 141,912 132,953 137,119 Over one year in specialty $321,686 282,504 247,348 180,000 166,420 161,331 156,010 SOURCE: Medical Group Management Association, Physician Compen sation and Production Report, 2005. or low-income areas should attract new entrants, encouraging schools to expand programs and hospitals to increase avail able residency slots. However, because physician training is so lengthy, employment change happens gradually. In the short term, to meet increased demand, experienced physicians may work longer hours, delay retirement, or take measures to in crease productivity, such as using more support staff to provide services. Opportunities should be particularly good in rural and low-income areas, as some physicians find these areas unat tractive because of less control over work hours, isolation from medical colleagues, or other reasons. Earnings Earnings of physicians and surgeons are among the highest of any occupation. The Medical Group Management Associa tion’s Physician Compensation and Production Survey, reports that median total compensation for physicians in 2005 varied by specialty, as shown in table 2. Total compensation for phy sicians reflects the amount reported as direct compensation for tax purposes, plus all voluntary salary reductions. Salary, bo nus and incentive payments, research stipends, honoraria, and distribution of profits were included in total compensation. Self-employed physicians—those who own or are part own ers of their medical practice—generally have higher median incomes than salaried physicians. Earnings vary according to number of years in practice, geographic region, hours worked, skill, personality, and professional reputation. Self-employed physicians and surgeons must provide for their own health in surance and retirement. Related Occupations Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, dis orders, and injuries. Other health care practitioners who need similar skills and who exercise critical judgment include chi ropractors, dentists, optometrists, physician assistants, podia trists, registered nurses, and veterinarians. y Association of American Medical Colleges, Section for Student Services, 2450 N St.NW., Washington, DC 20037. Internet: http://www.aamc.org/students For general information on physicians, contact: y American Medical Association, 515 N. State St., Chicago, IL 60610. Internet: http://www.ama-assn.org y American Osteopathic Association, Department of Communications, 142 East Ontario St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.osteopathic.org For information about various medical specialties, contact: y American Academy of Family Physicians, Resident Student Activities Department, 11400 Tomahawk Creek Pkwy., Leawood, KS 66211. Internet: http://fmignet.aafp.org y American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Point Blvd., Elk Grove Village, IL 60007. Internet: http://www.aap.org y American Board ofMedical Specialties, 1007 Church St., Suite 404, Evanston, IL 60201. Internet: http://www.abms.org y American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 409 12th St.SW., P.O. Box 96920, Washington, DC 20090. Internet: http://www.acog.org y American College of Physicians, 190 North Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Internet: http://www.acponline.org y American College of Surgeons, Division of Education, 633 North Saint Clair St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.facs.org y American Psychiatric Association, 1000 Wilson Blvd., Suite 1825, Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.psych.org y American Society of Anesthesiologists, 520 N. Northwest Hwy., Park Ridge, IL 60068. Internet: http://www.asahq.org/career/homepage.htm Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the directors of student financial aid at schools of medi cine. Information on licensing is available from State boards of examiners. Podiatrists (Q**NET 29-1081.00) Significant Points • Podiatrists must be licensed, requiring 3 to 4 years of undergraduate education, the completion of a 4-year podiatric college program, and passing scores on na tional and State examinations. • While the occupation is small, job opportunities should be good for entry-level graduates of accredited podiatric medicine programs. • Opportunities for newly trained podiatrists will be better in group medical practices, clinics, and health networks than in traditional, solo practices. • Podiatrists enjoy very high earnings. Sources of Additional Information For a list of medical schools and residency programs, as well as general information on premedical education, financial aid, and medicine as a career, contact: y American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic MediciNE., 5550 Friendship Blvd., Suite 310, Chevy ChaSE., MD 20815. Internet: http://www.aacom.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 373 Nature of the Work Americans spend a great deal of time on their feet. As the Na tion becomes more active across all age groups, the need for foot care will become increasingly important. The human foot is a complex structure. It contains 26 bones—plus muscles, nerves, ligaments, and blood vessels— and is designed for balance and mobility. The 52 bones in the feet make up about one-fourth of all the bones in the human body. Podiatrists, also known as doctors of podiatric medicine (DPMs), diagnose and treat disorders, diseases, and injuries of the foot and lower leg. Podiatrists treat corns, calluses, ingrown toenails, bunions, heel spurs, and arch problems; ankle and foot injuries, deformi ties, and infections; and foot complaints associated with dia betes and other diseases. To treat these problems, podiatrists prescribe drugs and physical therapy, set fractures, and perform surgery. They also fit corrective shoe inserts called orthotics, design plaster casts and strappings to correct deformities, and design custom-made shoes. Podiatrists may use a force plate or scanner to help design the orthotics: patients walk across a plate connected to a computer that “reads” their feet, picking up pressure points and weight distribution. From the computer readout, podiatrists order the correct design or recommend an other kind of treatment. To diagnose a foot problem, podiatrists also order x-rays and laboratory tests. The foot may be the first area to show signs of serious conditions such as arthritis, diabetes, and heart disease. For example, patients with diabetes are prone to foot ulcers and infections because of poor circulation. Podiatrists consult with Podiatrists diagnose and treat disorders of the feet and ankles. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and refer patients to other health practitioners when they detect symptoms of these disorders. Most podiatrists have a solo practice, although more are forming group practices with other podiatrists or health practi tioners. Some specialize in surgery, orthopedics, primary care, or public health. Besides these board-certified specialties, po diatrists may practice other specialties, such as sports medicine, pediatrics, dermatology, radiology, geriatrics, or diabetic foot care. Podiatrists who are in private practice are responsible for run ning a small business. They may hire employees, order sup plies, and keep records, among other tasks. In addition, some educate the community on the benefits of foot care through speaking engagements and advertising. Work environment. Podiatrists usually work in small private offices or clinics, sometimes supported by a small staff of assis tants and other administrative personnel. They also may spend time visiting patients in nursing homes or performing surgery at hospitals or ambulatory surgical centers. Podiatrists with pri vate practices set their own hours but may work evenings and weekends to accommodate their patients. Podiatrists usually treat fewer emergencies than other doctors. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Podiatrists must be licensed, requiring 3 to 4 years of under graduate education, the completion of a 4-year podiatric col lege program, and passing scores on national and State exami nations. Education and training. Prerequisites for admission to a college of podiatric medicine include the completion of at least 90 semester hours of undergraduate study, an acceptable grade point average, and suitable scores on the Medical College Ad mission Test. (Some colleges also may accept the Dental Ad mission Test or the Graduate Record Exam.) Admission to podiatric colleges usually requires at least 8 semester hours each of biology, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics and at least 6 hours of English. The sci ence courses should be those designed for premedical students. Extracurricular and community activities, personal interviews, and letters of recommendation are also important. About 95 percent of podiatric students have at least a bachelor’s degree. In 2007, there were seven colleges of podiatric medicine ful ly accredited by the Council on Podiatric Medical Education. Colleges of podiatric medicine offer a 4-year program whose core curriculum is similar to that in other schools of medicine. During the first 2 years, students receive classroom instruction in basic sciences, including anatomy, chemistry, pathology, and pharmacology. Third-year and fourth-year students have clini cal rotations in private practices, hospitals, and clinics. Dur ing these rotations, they learn how to take general and podiatric histories, perform routine physical examinations, interpret tests and findings, make diagnoses, and perform therapeutic pro cedures. Graduates receive the degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM). Most graduates complete a hospital-based residency program after receiving a DPM. Residency programs last from 2 to 4 years. Residents receive advanced training in podiatric medi cine and surgery and serve clinical rotations in anesthesiology, 374 Occupational Outlook Handbook internal medicine, pathology, radiology, emergency medicine, and orthopedic and general surgery. Residencies lasting more than 1 year provide more extensive training in specialty areas. Licensure. All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatric medicine. Each State de fines its own licensing requirements, although many States grant reciprocity to podiatrists who are licensed in another State. Ap plicants for licensure must be graduates of an accredited college of podiatric medicine and must pass written and oral examina tions. Some States permit applicants to substitute the exami nation of the National Board of Podiatric Medical Examiners, given in the second and fourth years of podiatric medical col lege, for part or all of the written State examination. In general, States require a minimum of 2 years of postgraduate residency training in an approved health care institution. For licensure renewal, most States require continuing education. Other qualifications. People planning a career in podiatry should have scientific aptitude, manual dexterity, interpersonal skills, and a friendly bedside manner. In private practice, podia trists also should have good business sense. Certification and advancement. There are a number of certifying boards for the podiatric specialties of orthopedics, primary medicine, and surgery. Certification has requirements beyond licensure. Each board requires advanced training, the completion of written and oral examinations, and experience as a practicing podiatrist. Most managed-care organizations pre fer board-certified podiatrists. Podiatrists may advance to become professors at colleges of podiatric medicine, department chiefs in hospitals, or general health administrators. Employment Podiatrists held about 12,000 jobs in 2006. About 24 percent of podiatrists were self-employed. Most podiatrists were solo practitioners, although more are entering group practices with other podiatrists or other health practitioners. Solo practitio ners primarily were unincorporated self-employed workers, al though some also were incorporated wage and salary workers in offices of other health practitioners. Other podiatrists were employed by hospitals, long-term care facilities, the Federal Government, and municipal health departments. Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase about as fast as average because of increasing consumer demand for podiatric medicine services. Job prospects should be good. Employment change. Employment of podiatrists is expected to increase 9 percent from 2006 to 2016, about as fast as the av erage for all occupations. More people will turn to podiatrists for foot care because of the rising number of injuries sustained by a more active and increasingly older population. Medicare and most private health insurance programs cover acute medical and surgical foot services, as well as diagnostic xrays and leg braces. Details of such coverage vary among plans. However, routine foot care, including the removal of corns and calluses, is not usually covered unless the patient has a systemic condition that has resulted in severe circulatory problems or ar eas of desensitization in the legs or feet. Like dental services, podiatric care is often discretionary and, therefore, more depen dent on disposable income than some other medical services. Employment of podiatrists would grow even faster were it not for continued emphasis on controlling the costs of specialty health care. Insurers will balance the cost of sending patients to podiatrists against the cost and availability of substitute practi tioners, such as physicians and physical therapists. Job prospects. Although the occupation is small and most podiatrists continue to practice until retirement, job opportu nities should be good for entry-level graduates of accredited podiatric medicine programs. Job growth and replacement needs should create enough job openings for the supply of new podiatric medicine graduates. Opportunities will be better for board-certified podiatrists because many managed-care organi zations require board certification. Newly trained podiatrists will find more opportunities in group medical practices, clinics, and health networks than in traditional solo practices. Estab lishing a practice will be most difficult in the areas surrounding colleges of podiatric medicine, where podiatrists concentrate. Earnings Podiatrists enjoy very high earnings. Median annual earnings of salaried podiatrists were $108,220 in 2006. Additionally, a survey by Podiatry Management Magazine reported median net income of $114,000 in 2006. Podiatrists in partnerships tended to earn higher net incomes than those in solo practice. A sala ried podiatrist typically receives heath insurance and retirement benefits from their employer, whereas self-employed chiroprac tors must provide for their own health insurance and retirement. Also, solo practitioners must absorb the costs of running their own offices. Related Occupations Other workers, who apply medical knowledge to prevent, diag nose, and treat muscle and bone disorders and injuries include athletic trainers, chiropractors, massage therapists, occupation al therapists, physical therapists, and physicians and surgeons. Workers who specialize in developing orthopedic shoe inserts, braces, and prosthetic limbs are orthotists and prosthetists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in podiatric medicine, contact: y American Podiatric Medical Association, 9312 Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-1621. Internet: http://www.apma.org Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, 2006-2016 employment, Code 2016 Number Percent 1,100 9 29-1081 13,000 12,000 Podiatrists................................................................. ............................. NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2006 Professional and Related Occupations 375 Information on colleges of podiatric medicine and their en trance requirements, curricula, and student financial aid is avail able from: y American Association of Colleges of Podiatric MediciNE., 15850 Crabbs Branch Way, Suite 320, Rockville, MD 20855 2622. Internet: http://www.aacpm.org Radiation Therapists (0*NET 29-1124.00) Significant Points • • • A bachelor’s degree, associate degree, or certificate in radiation therapy is generally required. Good job opportunities are expected. Employment is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. Nature of the Work Treating cancer in the human body is the principal use of radia tion therapy. As part of a medical radiation oncology team, ra diation therapists use machines—called linear accelerators—to administer radiation treatment to patients. Linear accelerators, used in a procedure called external beam therapy, project highenergy x-rays at targeted cancer cells. As the x-rays collide with human tissue, they produce highly energized ions that can shrink and eliminate cancerous tumors. Radiation therapy is sometimes used as the sole treatment for cancer, but is usually used in conjunction with chemotherapy or surgery. The first step in the radiation therapy process is simulation. During simulation, the radiation therapist uses an x-ray imag ing machine or computer tomography (CT) scan to pinpoint the location of the tumor. The therapist then positions the patient and adjusts the linear accelerator so that, when treatment be gins, radiation exposure is concentrated on the tumor cells. The radiation therapist then develops a treatment plan in conjunc tion with a radiation oncologist (a physician who specializes in therapeutic radiology), and a dosimetrist (a technician who calculates the dose of radiation that will be used for treatment). The therapist later explains the treatment plan to the patient and answers any questions that the patient may have. The next step in the process is treatment. To begin, the ra diation therapist positions the patient and adjusts the linear accelerator according to the guidelines established in simula tion. Then, from a separate room that is protected from the x-ray radiation, the therapist operates the linear accelerator and monitors the patient’s condition through a TV monitor and an intercom system. Treatment can take anywhere from 10 to 30 minutes and is usually administered once a day, 5 days a week, for 2 to 9 weeks. During the treatment phase, the radiation therapist monitors the patient’s physical condition to determine if any adverse side effects are taking place. The therapist must also be aware of the patient’s emotional wellbeing. Because many patients are under stress and are emotionally fragile, it is important for the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis therapist to maintain a positive attitude and provide emotional support. Radiation therapists keep detailed records of their patients’ treatments. These records include information such as the dose of radiation used for each treatment, the total amount of radia tion used to date, the area treated, and the patient’s reactions. Radiation oncologists and dosimetrists review these records to ensure that the treatment plan is working, to monitor the amount of radiation exposure that the patient has received, and to keep side effects to a minimum. Radiation therapists also assist medical radiation physicists, workers who monitor and adjust the linear accelerator. Because radiation therapists often work alone during the treatment phase, they need to be able to check the linear accelerator for problems and make any adjustments that are needed. Therapists also may assist dosimetrists with routine aspects of dosimetry, the pro cess used to calculate radiation dosages. Work environment. Radiation therapists work in hospitals or in cancer treatment centers. These places are clean, well light ed, and well ventilated. Therapists do a considerable amount of lifting and must be able to help disabled patients get on and off treatment tables. They spend most of their time on their feet Radiation therapists generally work 40 hours a week, and un like those in other health care occupations, they normally work only during the day. However, because radiation therapy emer- mmSmi .............. Radiation therapists work in hospitals and cancer treatment centers. 376 Occupational Outlook Handbook gencies do occur, some therapists are required to be on call and may have to work outside of their normal hours. Working with cancer patients can be stressful, but many ra diation therapists also find it rewarding. Because they work around radioactive materials, radiation therapists take great care to ensure that they are not exposed to dangerous levels of radiation. Following standard safety procedures can prevent overexposure. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree, associate degree, or certificate in radiation therapy generally is required. Many States also require radia tion therapists to be licensed. With experience, therapists can advance to managerial positions. Education and training. Employers usually require appli cants to complete an associate or a bachelor’s degree program in radiation therapy. Individuals also may become qualified by completing an associate or a bachelor’s degree program in ra diography, which is the study of radiological imaging, and then completing a 12-month certificate program in radiation therapy. Radiation therapy programs include core courses on radiation therapy procedures and the scientific theories behind them. In addition, such programs often include courses on human anato my and physiology, physics, algebra, precalculus, writing, pub lic speaking, computer science, and research methodology. In 2007 there were 123 radiation therapy programs accredited by the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT). Licensure. In 2007, 32 States required radiation therapists to be licensed by a State accrediting board. Licensing require ments vary by State, but many States require applicants to pass the ARRT certification examination. Further information is available from individual State licensing offices. Certification and other qualifications. Some States, as well as many employers, require that radiation therapists be certified by ARRT. To become ARRT-certified, an applicant must com plete an accredited radiation therapy program, adhere to ARRT ethical standards, and pass the ARRT certification examination. The examination and accredited academic programs cover ra diation protection and quality assurance, clinical concepts in radiation oncology, treatment planning, treatment delivery, and patient care and education. Candidates also must demonstrate competency in several clinical practices including patient care activities; simulation procedures; dosimetry calculations; fab rication of beam modification devices; low-volume, high-risk procedures, and the application of radiation. ARRT certification is valid for 1 year, after which therapists must renew their certification. Requirements for renewal in clude abiding by the ARRT ethical standards, paying annual dues, and satisfying continuing education requirements. Con tinuing education requirements must be met every 2 years and include either the completion of 24 credits of radiation thera py-related courses or the attainment of ARRT certification in a discipline other than radiation therapy. Certification renewal, however, may not be required by all States or employers that require initial certification. All radiation therapists need good communication skills be cause their work involves a great deal of patient interaction. Individuals interested in becoming radiation therapists should be psychologically capable of working with cancer patients. They should be caring and empathetic because they work with patients who are ill and under stress. They should be able to keep accurate, detailed records. They also should be physically fit because they work on their feet for long periods and lift and move disabled patients. Advancement. Experienced radiation therapists may ad vance to manage radiation therapy programs in treatment cen ters or other health care facilities. Managers generally continue to treat patients while taking on management responsibilities. Other advancement opportunities include teaching, technical sales, and research. With additional training and certification, therapists also can become dosimetrists, who use complex mathematical formulas to calculate proper radiation doses. Employment Radiation therapists held about 15,000 jobs in 2006. About 73 percent worked in hospitals, and about 17 percent worked in the offices of physicians. A small proportion worked in outpatient care centers. Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase much faster than the aver age from 2006 to 2016, and job prospects should be good. Employment change. Employment of radiation therapists is projected to grow by 25 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. As the U.S. population grows and an increasing share of it is in the older age groups, the number of people needing treatment is expect ed to increase and to spur demand for radiation therapists. In addition, as radiation technology advances and is able to treat more types of cancer, radiation therapy will be prescribed more often. Job prospects. Job prospects are expected to be good. Job openings will result from employment growth and from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Applicants who are certified should have the best opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of wage-and-salary radiation thera pists were $66,170 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $54,170 and $78,550. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $44,840, and the highest 10 percent earned more than Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Radiation therapists................................................. ........................... soc Employment, Code 2006 29-1124 15,000 Projected employment, 2016 18,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number 3,600 Percent 25 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 377 $92,110. Median annual earnings in the industries that em ployed the largest numbers of radiation therapists in May 2006 are as follows: Outpatient care centers........................................................ $73,810 Offices of physicians............................................................. 70,050 General medical and surgical hospitals.................................63,580 Some employers also reimburse their employees for the cost of continuing education. Related Occupations Radiation therapists use advanced machinery to administer medical treatment to patients. Other occupations that perform similar duties include radiologic technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, nuclear medicine technolo gists, cardiovascular technologists and technicians, dental hy gienists, respiratory therapists, physical therapist assistants and aides, registered nurses, and physicians and surgeons. Other occupations that build relationships with patients and provide them with emotional support include nursing, psychi atric, and home health aides; counselors; psychologists; social workers; and social and human service assistants. Sources of Additional Information Information on certification by the American Registry of Ra diologic Technologists and on accredited radiation therapy pro grams may be obtained from: > American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St.Paul, MN 55120. Internet: http://www.arrt.org Information on careers in radiation therapy may be obtained from: > American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave., SE., Albuquerque, NM 87123. Internet: http://www.asrt.org games, dance and movement, drama, music, and community outings, therapists improve and maintain the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of their clients. Therapists help in dividuals reduce depression, stress, and anxiety; recover basic motor functioning and reasoning abilities; build confidence; and socialize effectively so that they can enjoy greater inde pendence and reduce or eliminate the effects of their illness or disability. In addition, therapists help people with disabili ties integrate into the community by teaching them how to use community resources and recreational activities. Recreational therapists are different from recreation workers, who organize recreational activities primarily for enjoyment. (Recreation workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) In acute health care settings, such as hospitals and rehabilita tion centers, recreational therapists treat and rehabilitate indi viduals with specific health conditions, usually in conjunction or collaboration with physicians, nurses, psychologists, social workers, and physical and occupational therapists. In long term and residential care facilities, recreational therapists use leisure activities—especially structured group programs—to improve and maintain their clients’ general health and well-be ing. They also may provide interventions to prevent the client from suffering further medical problems and complications. Recreational therapists assess clients using information from observations, medical records, standardized assessments, the medical staff, the clients’ families, and the clients themselves. They then develop and carry out therapeutic interventions consistent with the clients’ needs and interests. For example, they may encourage clients who are isolated from others or who have limited social skills to play games with others, and they may teach right-handed people with right-side paralysis how to use their unaffected left side to throw a ball or swing a racket. Recreational therapists may instruct patients in relax ation techniques to reduce stress and tension, stretching and Recreational Therapists (0*NET 29-1125.00) Significant Points • Recreational therapists will experience competition for jobs. • A bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation is the usual requirement for entry-level positions. Recreational therapists should be comfortable work ing with persons who are ill or who have disabili ties. • Nature of the Work Recreational therapists, also referred to as therapeutic recre ation specialists, provide treatment services and recreation ac tivities for individuals with disabilities or illnesses. Using a variety of techniques, including arts and crafts, animals, sports, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Recreational therapists use various techniques, including cog nitive tests, to treat clients and maintain their well-being. 378 Occupational Outlook Handbook New Hampshire required licensure to practice as a recreational therapist. Certification and other qualifications. Although certifica tion is usually voluntary, most employers prefer to hire candi dates who are certified therapeutic recreation specialists. In 2006, about 3 out of 4 recreational therapists worked in a clini cal setting, which often requires certification by the National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification. The council offers the Certified Therapeutic Recreation Specialist creden tial to candidates who have a bachelor’s or graduate degree from an accredited educational institution, pass a written certi fication examination, and complete a supervised internship of at least 480 hours. Therapists must meet additional require ments to maintain certification. Therapists can also earn certifications in specific areas, such as art therapy and aquatic therapy. Recreational therapists must be comfortable working with people who are ill or disabled. Therapists must be patient, tactful, and persuasive when working with people who have a variety of special needs. Ingenuity, a sense of humor, and imagination are needed to adapt activities to individual needs, and good physical coordination is necessary to demonstrate or participate in recreational activities. Advancement. Therapists may advance to supervisory or administrative positions. Some teach, conduct research, or consult for health or social services agencies. limbering exercises, proper body mechanics for participation in recreational activities, pacing and energy conservation tech niques, and team activities. As they work, therapists observe and document a patient’s participation, reactions, and prog ress. Community-based recreational therapists may work in park and recreation departments, special-education programs for school districts, or assisted-living, adult day care, and substance abuse rehabilitation centers. In these programs, therapists use interventions to develop specific skills, while providing oppor tunities for exercise, mental stimulation, creativity, and fun. Those few who work in schools help counselors, teachers, and parents address the special needs of students, including easing disabled students’ transition into adult life. Work environment. Recreational therapists provide servic es in special activity rooms but also plan activities and prepare documentation in offices. When working with clients during community integration programs, they may travel locally to teach clients how to use public transportation and other public areas, such as parks, playgrounds, swimming pools, restau rants, and theaters. Therapists often lift and carry equipment. Recreational therapists generally work a 40-hour week that may include some evenings, weekends, and holidays. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major or concentration in therapeu tic recreation is the usual requirement for entry-level positions. Some States regulate recreational therapists, but requirements Employment Recreational therapists held about 25,000 jobs in 2006. About 70 percent were in nursing and residential care facilities and hospitals. Others worked in State and local government agen cies and in community care facilities for the elderly, including assisted-living facilities. The rest worked primarily in resi dential mental retardation, mental health, and substance abuse facilities; individual and family services; Federal Government agencies; educational services; and outpatient care centers. Only a small number of therapists were self-employed, gener ally contracting with long-term care facilities or community agencies to develop and oversee programs. vary. Education and training. Most entry-level recreational ther apists need a bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation, or in recreation with a concentration in therapeutic recreation. Peo ple may qualify for paraprofessional positions with an associ ate degree in therapeutic recreation or another subject related to health care. An associate degree in recreational therapy; training in art, drama, or music therapy; or qualifying work experience may be sufficient for activity director positions in nursing homes. Approximately 130 academic programs prepare students to become recreational therapists. Most offer bachelor’s de grees, although some also offer associate, master’s, or doctoral degrees. Therapeutic recreation programs include courses in assessment, treatment and program planning, intervention design, and evaluation. Students also study human anatomy, physiology, abnormal psychology, medical and psychiatric ter minology, characteristics of illnesses and disabilities, profes sional ethics, and the use of assistive devices and technology. Licensure. Some States regulate recreational therapists through licensure, registration, or regulation of titles. Re quirements vary by State. In 2006, North Carolina, Utah, and Job Outlook Overall employment of recreational therapists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Com petition for jobs is expected. Employment change. Employment of recreational thera pists is expected to increase 4 percent from 2006 to 2016, slower than the average for all occupations. Employment of recreational therapists will grow to meet the therapy needs of the increasing number of older adults. In nursing care facili ties—the largest industry employing recreational therapists— employment will grow slightly faster than the occupation as a Projections data from the National Employment Matrix _ Occupational Title Recreational therapists.......................................................................... r , Code , mP0^^Cnt' Projected employment, Change, 2006-2016 29-112525,00026,0009004_ NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. _____________________________________________ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 2 Professional and Related Occupations 379 whole as the number of older adults continues to grow. Fast employment growth is expected in the residential and outpa tient settings that serve people who are physically disabled, cognitively disabled, or elderly or who have mental illness or substance abuse problems Employment is expected to decline in hospitals, however, as services shift to outpatient settings and employers emphasize cost containment. Health care facilities will support a growing number of jobs in adult day care and outpatient programs offering short-term mental health and alcohol or drug abuse services. Rehabilita tion, home health care, and transitional programs will provide additional jobs. Job prospects. Recreational therapists will experience com petition for jobs. Job opportunities should be best for people with a bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation or in rec reation with courses in therapeutic recreation. Opportunities also should be good for therapists who hold specialized certifi cations such as aquatic therapy, meditation, or crisis interven tion. Recreational therapists might experience more competi tion for jobs in certain regions of the country. Earnings Median annual earnings of recreational therapists were $34,990 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,780 and $44,850. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,880, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $55,530. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of recreational therapists in May 2006 were: General medical and surgical hospitals............................. $39,320 State government...................................................................38,260 Psychiatric and substance abuse hospitals........................... 37,560 Nursing care facilities........................................................... 30,440 Community care facilities for the elderly............................ 28,980 Related Occupations Recreational therapists primarily design activities to help people with disabilities lead more fulfilling and independent lives. Other workers who have similar jobs are occupational therapists, physical therapists, recreation workers, rehabilita tion counselors, and teachers—special education. Sources of Additional Information For information and materials on careers and academic pro grams in recreational therapy, contact: y American Therapeutic Recreation Association, 1414 Prince St., Suite 204, Alexandria, VA 22314-2853. Internet: http://www.atra-tr.org y National Therapeutic Recreation Society, 22377 Belmont Ridge Rd., Ashbum, VA 20148-4501. Internet: http://www.nrpa.org/content/default.aspx?documentid=530 Information on certification may be obtained from: y National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification, 7 Elmwood Dr., New City, NY 10956. Internet: http://www.nctrc.org For information on licensure requirements, contact the appro priate recreational therapy regulatory agency for your State. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Registered Nurses (0*NET 29-1111.00) Significant Points • • • • Regi stered nurses constitute the largest health care oc cupation, with 2.5 million jobs. About 59 percent of jobs are in hospitals. The three major educational paths to registered nurs ing are a bachelor’s degree, an associate degree, and a diploma from an approved nursing program. Registered nurses are projected to generate about 587,000 new jobs over the 2006-16 period, one of the largest numbers among all occupations; overall job opportunities are expected to be excellent, but may vary by employment setting. Nature of the Work Registered nurses (RNs), regardless of specialty or work set ting, treat patients, educate patients and the public about vari ous medical conditions, and provide advice and emotional sup port to patients’ family members. RNs record patients’ medical histories and symptoms, help perform diagnostic tests and ana lyze results, operate medical machinery, administer treatment and medications, and help with patient follow-up and rehabili tation. RNs teach patients and their families how to manage their illness or injury, explaining post-treatment home care needs; diet, nutrition, and exercise programs; and self-administration of medication and physical therapy. Some RNs work to pro mote general health by educating the public on warning signs and symptoms of disease. RNs also might run general health screening or immunization clinics, blood drives, and public seminars on various conditions. When caring for patients, RNs establish a plan of care or con tribute to an existing plan. Plans may include numerous activi ties, such as administering medication, including careful check ing of dosages and avoiding interactions; starting, maintaining, and discontinuing intravenous (IV) lines for fluid, medication, blood, and blood products; administering therapies and treat ments; observing the patient and recording those observations; and consulting with physicians and other health care clinicians. Some RNs provide direction to licensed practical nurses and nursing aids regarding patient care. RNs with advanced edu cational preparation and training may perform diagnostic and therapeutic procedures and may have prescriptive authority. RNs can specialize in one or more areas of patient care. There generally are four ways to specialize. RNs can choose a particular work setting or type of treatment, such as periopera tive nurses, who work in operating rooms and assist surgeons. RNs also may choose to specialize in specific health condi tions, as do diabetes management nurses, who assist patients to manage diabetes. Other RNs specialize in working with one or more organs or body system types, such as dermatology nurses, who work with patients who have skin disorders. RNs also can 380 Occupational Outlook Handbook choose to work with a well-defined population, such as geriatric nurses, who work with the elderly. Some RNs may combine specialties. For example, pediatric oncology nurses deal with children and adolescents who have cancer. There are many options for RNs who specialize in a work setting or type of treatment. Ambulatory care nurses provide preventive care and treat patients with a variety of illnesses and injuries in physicians’ offices or in clinics. Some ambulatory care nurses are involved in telehealth, providing care and advice through electronic communications media such as videoconfer encing, the Internet, or by telephone. Critical care nurses pro vide care to patients with serious, complex, and acute illnesses or injuries that require very close monitoring and extensive medication protocols and therapies. Critical care nurses often work in critical or intensive care hospital units. Emergency, or trauma, nurses work in hospital or stand-alone emergency departments, providing initial assessments and care for patients with life-threatening conditions. Some emergency nurses may become qualified to serve as transport nurses, who provide medical care to patients who are transported by helicopter or airplane to the nearest medical facility. Holistic nurses provide care such as acupuncture, massage and aroma therapy, and bio feedback, which are meant to treat patients’ mental and spiri tual health in addition to their physical health. Home health care nurses provide at-home nursing care for patients, often as follow-up care after discharge from a hospital or from a reha bilitation, long-term care, or skilled nursing facility. Hospice and palliative care nurses provide care, most often in home or hospice settings, focused on maintaining quality of life for ter minally ill patients. Infusion nurses administer medications, fluids, and blood to patients through injections into patients’ veins. Long- term care nurses provide health care services on a recurring basis to patients with chronic physical or mental disor ders, often in long-term care or skilled nursing facilities. Medi cal-surgical nurses provide health promotion and basic medical care to patients with various medical and surgical diagnoses. Occupational health nurses seek to prevent job-related injuries and illnesses, provide monitoring and emergency care services, and help employers implement health and safety standards. Perianesthesia nurses provide preoperative and postoperative care to patients undergoing anesthesia during surgery or other procedure. Perioperative nurses assist surgeons by selecting and handling instruments, controlling bleeding, and suturing incisions. Some of these nurses also can specialize in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Psychiatric-mental health nurses treat patients with personality and mood disorders. Radiology nurses provide care to patients undergoing diagnostic radiation procedures such as ultrasounds, magnetic resonance imaging, and radiation therapy for oncology diagnoses. Rehabilitation nurses care for patients with temporary and permanent disabili ties. Transplant nurses care for both transplant recipients and living donors and monitor signs of organ rejection. RNs specializing in a particular disease, ailment, or health care condition are employed in virtually all work settings, in cluding physicians’ offices, outpatient treatment facilities, home health care agencies, and hospitals. Addictions nurses care for patients seeking help with alcohol, drug, tobacco, and other addictions. Intellectual and developmental disabilities nurses https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis provide care for patients with physical, mental, or behavioral disabilities; care may include help with feeding, controlling bodily functions, sitting or standing independently, and speak ing or other communication. Diabetes management nurses help diabetics to manage their disease by teaching them proper nutrition and showing them how to test blood sugar levels and administer insulin injections. Genetics nurses provide early de tection screenings, counseling, and treatment of patients with genetic disorders, including cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease. HIV/AIDS nurses care for patients diagnosed with HIV and AIDS. Oncology nurses care for patients with various types of cancer and may assist in the administration of radiation and chemotherapies and follow-up monitoring. Wound, ostomy, and continence nurses treat patients with wounds caused by traumatic injury, ulcers, or arterial disease; provide postopera tive care for patients with openings that allow for alternative methods of bodily waste elimination; and treat patients with urinary and fecal incontinence. RNs specializing in treatment of a particular organ or body system usually are employed in hospital specialty or critical care units, specialty clinics, and outpatient care facilities. Car diovascular nurses treat patients with coronary heart disease and those who have had heart surgery, providing services such as postoperative rehabilitation. Dermatology nurses treat pa tients with disorders of the skin, such as skin cancer and psoria sis. Gastroenterology nurses treat patients with digestive and intestinal disorders, including ulcers, acid reflux disease, and abdominal bleeding. Some nurses in this field also assist in specialized procedures such as endoscopies, which look inside the gastrointestinal tract using a tube equipped with a light and a camera that can capture images of diseased tissue. Gynecol ogy nurses provide care to women with disorders of the repro ductive system, including endometriosis, cancer, and sexually transmitted diseases. Nephrology nurses care for patients with kidney disease caused by diabetes, hypertension, or substance abuse. Neuroscience nurses care for patients with dysfunctions of the nervous system, including brain and spinal cord injuries and seizures. Ophthalmic nurses provide care to patients with disorders of the eyes, including blindness and glaucoma, and to patients undergoing eye surgery. Orthopedic nurses care for patients with muscular and skeletal problems, including arthri tis, bone fractures, and muscular dystrophy. Otorhinolaryngol ogy nurses care for patients with ear, nose, and throat disorders, such as cleft palates, allergies, and sinus disorders. Respiratory nurses provide care to patients with respiratory disorders such as asthma, tuberculosis, and cystic fibrosis. Urology nurses care for patients with disorders of the kidneys, urinary tract, and male reproductive organs, including infections, kidney and bladder stones, and cancers. RNs who specialize by population provide preventive and acute care in all health care settings to the segment of the popu lation in which they specialize, including newborns (neonatol ogy), children and adolescents (pediatrics), adults, and the el derly (gerontology or geriatrics). RNs also may provide basic health care to patients outside of health care settings in such venues as including correctional facilities, schools, summer camps, and the military. Some RNs travel around the United States and abroad providing care to patients in areas with short ages of health care workers. Most RNs work as staff nurses as members of a team provid ing critical health care . However, some RNs choose to become advanced practice nurses, who work independently or in col laboration with physicians, and may focus on the provision of primary care services. Clinical nurse specialists provide direct patient care and expert consultations in one of many nursing specialties, such as psychiatric-mental health. Nurse anesthe tists provide anesthesia and related care before and after surgi cal, therapeutic, diagnostic and obstetrical procedures. They also provide pain management and emergency services, such as airway management. Nurse-midwives provide primary care to women, including gynecological exams, family planning ad vice, prenatal care, assistance in labor and delivery, and neona tal care. Nurse practitioners serve as primary and specialty care providers, providing a blend of nursing and health care services to patients and families. The most common specialty areas for nurse practitioners are family practice, adult practice, women’s health, pediatrics, acute care, and geriatrics. However, there are a variety of other specialties that nurse practitioners can choose, including neonatology and mental health. Advanced practice nurses can prescribe medications in all States and in the District of Columbia. Some nurses have jobs that require little or no direct patient care, but still require an active RN license. Case managers en sure that all of the medical needs of patients with severe inju ries and severe or chronic illnesses are met. Forensics nurses participate in the scientific investigation and treatment of abuse victims, violence, criminal activity, and traumatic accident. Infection control nurses identify, track, and control infectious outbreaks in health care facilities and develop programs for out break prevention and response to biological terrorism. Legal nurse consultants assist lawyers in medical cases by interview ing patients and witnesses, organizing medical records, deter mining damages and costs, locating evidence, and educating lawyers about medical issues. Nurse administrators supervise nursing staff, establish work schedules and budgets, maintain medical supply inventories, and manage resources to ensure high-quality care. Nurse educators plan, develop, imple ment, and evaluate educational programs and curricula for the professional development of student nurses and RNs. Nurse informaticists manage and communicate nursing data and in formation to improve decision making by consumers, patients, nurses, and other health care providers. RNs also may work as health care consultants, public policy advisors, pharmaceutical and medical supply researchers and salespersons, and medical writers and editors. Work environment. Most RNs work in well-lighted, com fortable health care facilities. Home health and public health nurses travel to patients’ homes, schools, community centers, and other sites. RNs may spend considerable time walking, bending, stretching, and standing. Patients in hospitals and nursing care facilities require 24-hour care; consequently, nurses in these institutions may work nights, weekends, and holidays. RNs also may be on call—available to work on short notice. Nurses who work in offices, schools, and other settings that do not provide 24-hour care are more likely to work regular https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 381 INPRSH Registered nurses who work in schools provide general health care to students. business hours. About 21 percent of RNs worked part time in 2006, and 7 percent held more than one job. Nursing has its hazards, especially in hospitals, nursing care facilities, and clinics, where nurses may be in close contact with individuals who have infectious diseases and with toxic, harm ful, or potentially hazardous compounds, solutions, and medi cations. RNs must observe rigid, standardized guidelines to guard against disease and other dangers, such as those posed by radiation, accidental needle sticks, chemicals used to sterilize instruments, and anesthetics. In addition, they are vulnerable to back injury when moving patients, shocks from electrical equipment, and hazards posed by compressed gases. RNs also may suffer emotional strain from caring for patients suffering unrelieved intense pain, close personal contact with patients’ families, the need to make critical decisions, and ethical dilem mas and concerns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The three major educational paths to registered nursing are a bachelor’s degree, an associate degree, and a diploma from an approved nursing program. Nurses most commonly enter the occupation by completing an associate degree or bachelor’s de gree program. Individuals then must complete a national licens ing examination in order to obtain a nursing license. Further training or education can qualify nurses to work in specialty areas, and may help improve advancement opportunities. Education and training. There are three major educational paths to registered nursing—a bachelor’s of science degree in nursing (BSN), an associate degree in nursing (ADN), and a diploma. BSN programs, offered by colleges and universities, take about 4 years to complete. In 2006, 709 nursing programs offered degrees at the bachelor’s level. ADN programs, offered by community and junior colleges, take about 2 to 3 years to complete. About 850 RN programs granted associate degrees. Diploma programs, administered in hospitals, last about 3 years. Only about 70 programs offered diplomas. Generally, licensed graduates of any of the three types of educational pro grams qualify for entry-level positions. Many RNs with an ADN or diploma later enter bachelor’s programs to prepare for a broader scope of nursing practice. Often, they can find an entry-level position and then take advan 382 Occupational Outlook Handbook tage of tuition reimbursement benefits to work toward a BSN by completing an RN-to-BSN program. In 2006, there were 629 RN-to-BSN programs in the United States. Accelerated master’s degree in nursing (MSN) programs also are available by combining 1 year of an accelerated BSN program with 2 years of graduate study. In 2006, there were 149 RN-to-MSN programs. Accelerated BSN programs also are available for individuals who have a bachelor’s or higher degree in another field and who are interested in moving into nursing. In 2006, 197 of these programs were available. Accelerated BSN programs last 12 to 18 months and provide the fastest route to a BSN for individu als who already hold a degree. MSN programs also are avail able for individuals who hold a bachelor’s or higher degree in another field. Individuals considering nursing should carefully weigh the advantages and disadvantages of enrolling in a BSN or MSN program because, if they do, their advancement opportunities usually are broader. In fact, some career paths are open only to nurses with a bachelor’s or master’s degree. A bachelor’s degree often is necessary for administrative positions and is a prereq uisite for admission to graduate nursing programs in research, consulting, and teaching, and all four advanced practice nursing specialties—clinical nurse specialists, nurse anesthetists, nursemidwives, and nurse practitioners. Individuals who complete a bachelor’s receive more training in areas such as communica tion, leadership, and critical thinking, all of which are becom ing more important as nursing care becomes more complex. Additionally, bachelor’s degree programs offer more clinical experience in nonhospital settings. Education beyond a bache lor’s degree can also help students looking to enter certain fields or increase advancement opportunities. In 2006, 448 nursing schools offered master’s degrees, 108 offered doctoral degrees, and 58 offered accelerated BSN-to-doctoral programs. All four advanced practice nursing specialties require at least a master’s degree. Most programs include about 2 years of full time study and require a BSN degree for entry; some programs require at least 1 to 2 years of clinical experience as an RN for admission. In 2006, there were 342 master’s and post-master’s programs offered for nurse practitioners, 230 master’s and post master’s programs for clinical nurse specialists, 106 programs for nurse anesthetists, and 39 programs for nurse-midwives. All nursing education programs include classroom instruc tion and supervised clinical experience in hospitals and other health care facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physi ology, microbiology, chemistry, nutrition, psychology and other behavioral sciences, and nursing. Coursework also includes the liberal arts for ADN and BSN students. Supervised clinical experience is provided in hospital depart ments such as pediatrics, psychiatry, maternity, and surgery. A growing number of programs include clinical experience in nursing care facilities, public health departments, home health agencies, and ambulatory clinics. Licensure and certification. In all States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories, students must graduate from an approved nursing program and pass a national licensing exami nation, known as the NCLEX-RN, in order to obtain a nursing license. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis by examination or by the endorsement of a license issued by another State. The Nurse Licensure Compact Agreement al lows a nurse who is licensed and permanently resides in one of the member States to practice in the other member States without obtaining additional licensure. In 2006, 20 states were members of the Compact, while 2 more were pending member ship. All States require periodic renewal of licenses, which may require continuing education. Certification is common, and sometimes required, for the four advanced practice nursing specialties—clinical nurse spe cialists, nurse anesthetists, nurse-midwives, and nurse practi tioners. Upon completion of their educational programs, most advanced practice nurses become nationally certified in their area of specialty. Certification also is available in specialty ar eas for all nurses. In some States, certification in a specialty is required in order to practice that specialty. Foreign-educated and foreign-born nurses wishing to work in the United States must obtain a work visa. To obtain the visa, nurses must undergo a federal screening program to ensure that their education and licensure are comparable to that of a U.S. educated nurse, that they have proficiency in written and spo ken English, and that they have passed either the Commission on Graduates of Foreign Nursing Schools (CGFNS) Qualify ing Examination or the NCLEX-RN. CGFNS administers the VisaScreen Program. (The Commission is an immigration-neu tral, nonprofit organization that is recognized internationally as an authority on credentials evaluation in the health care field.) Nurses educated in Australia, Canada (except Quebec), Ireland, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, or foreign-bom nurses who were educated in the United States, are exempt from the language proficiency testing. In addition to these national re quirements, foreign-bom nurses must obtain state licensure in order to practice in the United States. Each State has its own requirements for licensure. Other qualifications. Nurses should be caring, sympathetic, responsible, and detail oriented. They must be able to direct or supervise others, correctly assess patients’ conditions, and determine when consultation is required. They need emotional stability to cope with human suffering, emergencies, and other stresses. Advancement. Some RNs start their careers as licensed prac tical nurses or nursing aides, and then go back to school to re ceive their RN degree. Most RNs begin as staff nurses in hospi tals, and with experience and good performance often move to other settings or are promoted to more responsible positions. In management, nurses can advance from assistant unit manger or head nurse to more senior-level administrative roles of assistant director, director, vice president, or chief nurse. Increasingly, management-level nursing positions require a graduate or an advanced degree in nursing or health services administration. Administrative positions require leadership, communication and negotiation skills, and good judgment. Some nurses move into the business side of health care. Their nursing expertise and experience on a health care team equip them to manage ambulatory, acute, home-based, and chronic care. Employers—including hospitals, insurance com panies, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and managed care or ganizations, among others—need RNs for health planning and Professional and Related Occupations 383 development, marketing, consulting, policy development, and quality assurance. Other nurses work as college and university faculty or conduct research. Employment As the largest health care occupation, registered nurses held about 2.5 million jobs in 2006. Hospitals employed the major ity of RNs, with 59 percent of jobs. Other industries also em ployed large shares of workers. About 8 percent of jobs were in offices of physicians, 5 percent in home health care services, 5 percent in nursing care facilities, 4 percent in employment services, and 3 percent in outpatient care centers. The remain der worked mostly in government agencies, social assistance agencies, and educational services. About 21 percent of RNs worked part time. Job Outlook Overall job opportunities for registered nurses are expected to be excellent, but may vary by employment and geographic set ting. Employment of RNs is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2016 and, because the occupation is very large, many new jobs will result. In fact, registered nurses are projected to generate 587,000 new jobs, among the largest number of new jobs for any occupation. Ad ditionally, hundreds of thousands of job openings will result from the need to replace experienced nurses who leave the oc cupation. Employment change. Employment of registered nurses is expected to grow 23 percent from 2006 to 2016, much faster than the average for all occupations. Growth will be driven by technological advances in patient care, which permit a greater number of health problems to be treated, and by an increasing emphasis on preventive care. In addition, the number of older people, who are much more likely than younger people to need nursing care, is projected to grow rapidly. However, employment of RNs will not grow at the same rate in every industry. The projected growth rates for RNs in the industries with the highest employment of these workers are: Percent Offices of physicians.................................................................... 39 Home health care services........................................................... 39 Outpatient care centers, except mental health and substance abuse...........................................................................34 Employment services................................................................... 27 General medical and surgical hospitals, public and private..........................................................................................22 Nursing care facilities.................................................................. 20 Employment is expected to grow more slowly in hospitals— health care’s largest industry—than in most other health care industries. While the intensity of nursing care is likely to in crease, requiring more nurses per patient, the number of inpa tients (those who remain in the hospital for more than 24 hours) is not likely to grow by much. Patients are being discharged earlier, and more procedures are being done on an outpatient basis, both inside and outside hospitals. Rapid growth is ex pected in hospital outpatient facilities, such as those providing same-day surgery, rehabilitation, and chemotherapy. More and more sophisticated procedures, once performed only in hospitals, are being performed in physicians’ offices and in outpatient care centers, such as freestanding ambulatory surgical and emergency centers. Accordingly, employment is expected to grow very fast in these places as health care in gen eral expands. Employment in nursing care facilities is expected to grow because of increases in the number of elderly, many of whom require long-term care. However, this growth will be relatively slower than in other health care industries because of the desire of patients to be treated at home or in residential care facilities, and the increasing availability of that type of care. The finan cial pressure on hospitals to discharge patients as soon as possi ble should produce more admissions to nursing and residential care facilities and to home health care. Job growth also is ex pected in units that provide specialized long-term rehabilitation for stroke and head injury patients, as well as units that treat Alzheimer’s victims. Employment in home health care is expected to increase rapidly in response to the growing number of older persons with functional disabilities, consumer preference for care in the home, and technological advances that make it possible to bring increasingly complex treatments into the home. The type of care demanded will require nurses who are able to perform complex procedures. Rapid employment growth in employment services industry is expected as hospitals, physician’s offices, and other health care establishments utilize temporary workers to fill short-term staffing needs. And as the demand for nurses grows, temporary nurses will be needed more often, further contributing to em ployment growth in this industry. Job prospects. Overall job opportunities are expected to be excellent for registered nurses. Employers in some parts of the country and in certain employment settings report difficulty in attracting and retaining an adequate number of RNs, primar ily because of an aging RN workforce and a lack of younger workers to fill positions. Enrollments in nursing programs at all levels have increased more rapidly in the past few years as stu dents seek jobs with stable employment. However, many quali fied applicants are being turned away because of a shortage of nursing faculty. The need for nursing faculty will only increase as many instructors near retirement. Many employers also are relying on foreign-educated nurses to fill vacant positions. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, employment, 2006-2016 2016 Number Percent Registered nurses..................................................... ............................. 29-1111 2,505,000 3,092,000 587,000 23 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2006 384 Occupational Outlook Handbook Even though overall employment opportunities for all nurs ing specialties are expected to be excellent, they can vary by employment setting. Despite the slower employment growth in hospitals, job opportunities should still be excellent because of the relatively high turnover of hospital nurses. RNs working in hospitals frequently work overtime and night and weekend shifts and also treat seriously ill and injured patients, all of which can contribute to stress and burnout. Hospital departments in which these working conditions occur most frequently—critical care units, emergency departments, and operating rooms—generally will have more job openings than other departments. To attract and retain qualified nurses, hospitals may offer signing bonus es, family-friendly work schedules, or subsidized training. A growing number of hospitals also are experimenting with online bidding to fill open shifts, in which nurses can volunteer to fill open shifts at premium wages. This can decrease the amount of mandatory overtime that nurses are required to work. Although faster employment growth is projected in physi cians’ offices and outpatient care centers, RNs may face greater competition for these positions because they generally offer regular working hours and more comfortable working environ ments. There also may be some competition for jobs in em ployment services, despite a high rate of employment growth, because a large number of workers are attracted by the indus try’s relatively high wages and the flexibility of the work in this industry. Generally, RNs with at least a bachelor’s degree will have better job prospects than those without a bachelor’s. In ad dition, all four advanced practice specialties—clinical nurse specialists, nurse practitioners, nurse-midwives, and nurse anesthetists—will be in high demand, particularly in medically underserved areas such as inner cities and rural areas. Rela tive to physicians, these RNs increasingly serve as lower-cost primary care providers. Earnings Median annual earnings of registered nurses were $57,280 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,710 and $69,850. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $40,250, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $83,440. Median an nual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of registered nurses in May 2006 were: Employment services.......................................................... $64,260 General medical and surgical hospitals.................................58,550 Home health care services.................................................... 54,190 Offices of physicians............................................................. 53,800 Nursing care facilities........................................................... 52,490 Many employers offer flexible work schedules, child care, educational benefits, and bonuses. Related Occupations Because of the number of specialties for registered nurses, and the variety of responsibilities and duties, many other health care occupations are similar in some aspect of the job. Other oc cupations that deal directly with patients when providing care include licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, phy sicians and surgeons, athletic trainers, respiratory therapists, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis massage therapists, dietitians and nutritionists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and emergency medical tech nicians and paramedics. Other occupations that use advanced medical equipment to treat patients include cardiovascular tech nologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, ra diologic technologists and technicians, radiation therapists, and surgical technologists. Workers who also assist other health care professionals in providing care include nursing, psychi atric, and home health aides; physician assistants; and dental hygienists. Some nurses take on a management role, similar to medical and health services managers. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a registered nurse and nursing education, contact: y National League for Nursing, 61 Broadway, New York, NY 10006. Internet: http://www.nln.org For information on baccalaureate and graduate nursing edu cation, nursing career options, and financial aid, contact: y American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 1 Dupont Circle NW„ Suite 530, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http ://www.aacn.nche.edu For additional information on registered nurses, including credentialing, contact: y American Nurses Association, 8515 Georgia Ave., Suite 400, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Internet: http://nursingworld.org For information on the NCLEX-RN exam and a list of indi vidual State boards of nursing, contact: y National Council of State Boards of Nursing, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 2900, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ncsbn.org For information on the nursing population, including work force shortage facts, contact: y Bureau of Health Professions, 5600 Fishers LaNE., Room 8-05, Rockville, MD 20857. Internet: http://bhpr.hrsa.gov For information on obtaining U.S. certification and work vi sas for foreign-educated nurses, contact: y Commission on Graduates of Foreign Nursing Schools, 3600 Market St., Suite 400, Philadelphia, PA 19104. Internet: http://www.cgfns.org For a list of accredited clinical nurse specialist programs, contact: y National Association of Clinical Nurse Specialists, 2090 Linglestown Rd., Suite 107, Harrisburg, PA 17110. Internet: http://www.nacns.org For information on nurse anesthetists, including a list of ac credited programs, contact: y American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, 222 Prospect Ave., Park Ridge, IL 60068. For information on nurse-midwives, including a list of ac credited programs, contact: y American College of Nurse-Midwives, 8403 Colesville Rd., Suite 1550, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Internet: http://www.midwife.org For information on nurse practitioners, including a list of ac credited programs, contact: y American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, P.O. Box 12846, Austin, TX 78711. Internet: http://www.aanp.org Professional and Related Occupations 385 For information on nurse practitioners education, contact: V National Organization of Nurse Practitioner Faculties, 1522 K St. NW„ Suite 702, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nonpf.org For information on critical care nurses, contact: y American Association of Critical-Care Nurses, 101 Columbia, Aliso Viejo, CA 92656. Internet: http://www.aacn.org For additional information on registered nurses in all fields and specialties, contact: V AmericanSocietyofRegisteredNurses, 1001 Bridgeway,Suite 411, Sausalito, CA 94965. Internet: http://www.asrn.org Respiratory Therapists (0*NET 29-1126.00, 29-2054.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities should be very good. • An associate degree is the minimum educational re quirement, but a bachelor’s or master’s degree may be important for advancement. • All States, except Alaska and Hawaii, require respira tory therapists to be licensed. Hospitals will account for the vast majority of job openings, but a growing number of openings will arise in other settings. • Nature of the Work Respiratory therapists and respiratory therapy technicians— also known as respiratory care practitioners—evaluate, treat, and care for patients with breathing or other cardiopulmonary disorders. Practicing under the direction of a physician, respi ratory therapists assume primary responsibility for all respi ratory care therapeutic treatments and diagnostic procedures, including the supervision of respiratory therapy technicians. Respiratory therapy technicians follow specific, well-defined respiratory care procedures under the direction of respiratory therapists and physicians. In clinical practice, many of the daily duties of therapists and technicians overlap. However, therapists generally have greater responsibility than technicians. For example, respiratory thera pists consult with physicians and other health care staff to help develop and modify patient care plans. Respiratory therapists also are more likely to provide complex therapy requiring con siderable independent judgment, such as caring for patients on life support in intensive-care units of hospitals. In this Hand book statement, the term respiratory therapist includes both re spiratory therapists and respiratory therapy technicians. Respiratory therapists evaluate and treat all types of patients, ranging from premature infants whose lungs are not fully de veloped to elderly people whose lungs are diseased. Respira tory therapists provide temporary relief to patients with chronic asthma or emphysema, and they give emergency care to patients who are victims of a heart attack, stroke, drowning, or shock. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis To evaluate patients, respiratory therapists interview them, perform limited physical examinations, and conduct diagnostic tests. For example, respiratory therapists test a patient’s breath ing capacity and determine the concentration of oxygen and other gases in a patient’s blood. They also measure a patient’s pH, which indicates the acidity or alkalinity of the blood. To evaluate a patient’s lung capacity, respiratory therapists have the patient breathe into an instrument that measures the volume and flow of oxygen during inhalation and exhalation. By com paring the reading with the norm for the patient’s age, height, weight, and sex, respiratory therapists can provide information that helps determine whether the patient has any lung deficien cies. To analyze oxygen, carbon dioxide, and blood pH levels, therapists draw an arterial blood sample, place it in a blood gas analyzer, and relay the results to a physician, who then makes treatment decisions. To treat patients, respiratory therapists use oxygen or oxygen mixtures, chest physiotherapy, and aerosol medications—liquid medications suspended in a gas that forms a mist which is in haled. They teach patients how to inhale the aerosol properly to ensure its effectiveness. When a patient has difficulty get ting enough oxygen into his or her blood, therapists increase the patient’s concentration of oxygen by placing an oxygen mask or nasal cannula on the patient and setting the oxygen flow at the level prescribed by a physician. Therapists also connect patients who cannot breathe on their own to ventilators that de liver pressurized oxygen into the lungs. The therapists insert a tube into the patient’s trachea, or windpipe; connect the tube to the ventilator; and set the rate, volume, and oxygen concentra tion of the oxygen mixture entering the patient’s lungs. Therapists perform regular assessments of patients and equipment. If a patient appears to be having difficulty breath ing or if the oxygen, carbon dioxide, or pH level of the blood is abnormal, therapists change the ventilator setting according to the doctor’s orders or check the equipment for mechanical problems. Respiratory therapists perform chest physiotherapy on pa tients to remove mucus from their lungs and make it easier for them to breathe. Therapists place patients in positions that help drain mucus, and then vibrate the patients’ rib cages, often by tapping on the chest, and tell the patients to cough. Chest phys iotherapy may be needed after surgery, for example, because anesthesia depresses respiration. As a result, physiotherapy may be prescribed to help get the patient’s lungs back to normal and to prevent congestion. Chest physiotherapy also helps pa tients suffering from lung diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, that cause mucus to collect in the lungs. Therapists who work in home care teach patients and their families to use ventilators and other life-support systems. In addition, these therapists visit patients in their homes to inspect and clean equipment, evaluate the home environment, and en sure that patients have sufficient knowledge of their diseases and the proper use of their medications and equipment. Thera pists also make emergency visits if equipment problems arise. In some hospitals, therapists perform tasks that fall outside their traditional role. Therapists are becoming involved in areas such as pulmonary rehabilitation, smoking cessation counsel ing, disease prevention, case management, and polysomnogra- 386 Occupational Outlook Handbook Respiratory therapists sometimes conduct diagnostic tests to evaluate patients. phy—the diagnosis of breathing disorders during sleep, such as apnea. Respiratory therapists also increasingly treat critical care patients, either as part of surface and air transport teams or as part of rapid-response teams in hospitals. Work environment. Respiratory therapists generally work between 35 and 40 hours a week. Because hospitals operate around the clock, therapists may work evenings, nights, or weekends. They spend long periods standing and walking be tween patients’ rooms. In an emergency, therapists work under the stress of the situation. Respiratory therapists employed in home health care must travel frequently to patients’ homes. Respiratory therapists are trained to work with gases stored under pressure. Adherence to safety precautions and regular maintenance and testing of equipment minimize the risk of in jury. As in many other health occupations, respiratory thera pists are exposed to infectious diseases, but by carefully follow ing proper procedures they can minimize the risks. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An associate degree is the minimum educational requirement, but a bachelor’s or master’s degree may be important for ad vancement. All States, except Alaska and Hawaii, require re spiratory therapists to be licensed. Education and training. An associate degree is required to become a respiratory therapist. Training is offered at the post secondary level by colleges and universities, medical schools, vocational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Most programs award associate or bachelor’s degree and prepare graduates for jobs as advanced respiratory therapists. A limited number of associate degree programs lead to jobs as entry-level respiratory therapists. According to the Commission on Ac creditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP), 45 entry-level and 334 advanced respiratory therapy programs were accredited in the United States in 2006. Among the areas of study in respiratory therapy programs are human anatomy and physiology, pathophysiology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, pharmacology, and mathematics. Other courses deal with therapeutic and diagnostic procedures and tests, equipment, patient assessment, cardiopulmonary resus citation, the application of clinical practice guidelines, patient care outside of hospitals, cardiac and pulmonary rehabilitation, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis respiratory health promotion and disease prevention, and medi cal recordkeeping and reimbursement. High school students interested in applying to respiratory therapy programs should take courses in health, biology, math ematics, chemistry, and physics. Respiratory care involves basic mathematical problem solving and an understanding of chemical and physical principles. For example, respiratory care workers must be able to compute dosages of medication and calculate gas concentrations. Licensure and certification. A license is required to practice as a respiratory therapist, except in Alaska and Hawaii. Also, most employers require respiratory therapists to maintain a car diopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) certification. Licensure is usually based, in large part, on meeting the re quirements for certification from the National Board for Re spiratory Care (NBRC). The board offers the Certified Respi ratory Therapist (CRT) credential to those who graduate from entry-level or advanced programs accredited by CAAHEP or the Committee on Accreditation for Respiratory Care (CoARC) and who also pass an exam. The board also awards the Registered Respiratory Therapist (RRT) to CRTs who have graduated from advanced programs and pass two separate examinations. Supervisory positions and intensive-care specialties usually require the RRT. Other qualifications. Therapists should be sensitive to a patient’s physical and psychological needs. Respiratory care practitioners must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. In addition, operating advanced equipment requires proficiency with computers. Advancement. Respiratory therapists advance in clinical practice by moving from general care to the care of critically ill patients who have significant problems in other organ systems, such as the heart or kidneys. Respiratory therapists, especially those with a bachelor’s or master’s degree, also may advance to supervisory or managerial positions in a respiratory therapy department. Respiratory therapists in home health care and equipment rental firms may become branch managers. Some respiratory therapists advance by moving into teaching posi tions. Some others use the knowledge gained as a respiratory therapist to work in another industry, such as developing, mar keting, or selling pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Employment Respiratory therapists held about 122,000 jobs in 2006. About 79 percent of jobs were in hospitals, mainly in departments of respiratory care, anesthesiology, or pulmonary medicine. Most of the remaining jobs were in offices of physicians or other health practitioners, consumer-goods rental firms that supply respiratory equipment for home use, nursing care facilities, and home health care services. Holding a second job is relatively common for respiratory therapists. About 12 percent held an other job, compared with 5 percent of workers in all occupa tions. Job Outlook Faster-than-average employment growth is projected for respi ratory therapists. Job opportunities should be very good, es pecially for respiratory therapists with cardiopulmonary care skills or experience working with infants. Professional and Related Occupations 387 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Respiratory therapists.................................................... .................... Respiratory therapists............................................... ........................ Respiratory therapy technicians.............................. ........................ soc Code 29-1126 29-2054 Projected employment, 2016 145,000 126,000 19,000 Employment, 2006 122,000 102,000 19,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 23,000 19 23,000 23 200 1 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Employment change. Employment of respiratory therapists is expected to grow 19 percent from 2006 to 2016, faster than the average for all occupations. The increasing demand will come from substantial growth in the middle-aged and elderly population—a development that will heighten the incidence of cardiopulmonary disease. Growth in demand also will result from the expanding role of respiratory therapists in case man agement, disease prevention, emergency care, and the early de tection of pulmonary disorders. Older Americans suffer most from respiratory ailments and cardiopulmonary diseases such as pneumonia, chronic bronchi tis, emphysema, and heart disease. As their numbers increase, the need for respiratory therapists is expected to increase as well. In addition, advances in inhalable medications and in the treatment of lung transplant patients, heart attack and accident victims, and premature infants (many of whom are dependent on a ventilator during part of their treatment) will increase the demand for the services of respiratory care practitioners. Job prospects. Job opportunities are expected to be very good. The vast majority of job openings will continue to be in hospitals. However, a growing number of openings are ex pected to be outside of hospitals, especially in home health care services, offices of physicians or other health practitioners, con sumer-goods rental firms, or in the employment services indus try as a temporary worker in various settings. Earnings Median annual earnings of wage-and-salary respiratory thera pists were $47,420 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,840 and $56,150. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $35,200, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $64,190. Median annual earnings of wage-and-salary respiratory ther apy technicians were $39,120 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,050 and $46,930. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,940, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $56,220. Related Occupations Under the supervision of a physician, respiratory therapists ad minister respiratory care and life support to patients with heart and lung difficulties. Other workers who care for, treat, or train people to improve their physical condition include registered nurses, occupational therapists, physical therapists, radiation therapists, and athletic trainers. Respiratory care practitioners work with advanced medical technology, as do other health care technicians including cardiovascular technologists and techni cians, nuclear medicine technologists, radiologic technologists and technicians, and diagnostic medical sonographers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information concerning a career in respiratory care is available from: y American Association for Respiratory Care, 9425 N. MacArthur Blvd., Suite 100, Irving, TX 75063. Internet: http://www.aarc.org For a list of accredited educational programs for respiratory care practitioners, contact either of the following organiza tions: y Commission on Accreditation for Allied Health Education Programs, 1361 Park St., Clearwater, FL 33756. Internet: http://www.caahep.org y Committee on Accreditation for Respiratory Care, 1248 Harwood Rd„ Bedford, TX 76021. Information on gaining credentials in respiratory care and a list of State licensing agencies can be obtained from: y National Board for Respiratory Care, Inc., 18000 W. 105th St., Olathe, KS 66061. Internet: http://www.nbrc.org Speech-Language Pathologists (0*NET 29-1127.00) Significant Points • About half worked in educational services; most oth ers were employed by health care and social assis tance facilities. A master’s degree in speech-language pathology is the standard credential required for licensing in most States. • Excellent job opportunities are expected. Nature of the Work Speech-language pathologists, sometimes called speech ther apists, assess, diagnose, treat, and help to prevent disorders related to speech, language, cognitive-communication, voice, swallowing, and fluency. Speech-language pathologists work with people who cannot produce speech sounds or cannot produce them clearly; those with speech rhythm and fluency problems, such as stuttering; people with voice disorders, such as inappropriate pitch or harsh voice; those with problems understanding and produc ing language; those who wish to improve their communication skills by modifying an accent; and those with cognitive com munication impairments, such as attention, memory, and prob 388 Occupational Outlook Handbook lem solving disorders. They also work with people who have swallowing difficulties. Speech, language, and swallowing difficulties can result from a variety of causes including stroke, brain injury or deteriora tion, developmental delays or disorders, learning disabilities, cerebral palsy, cleft palate, voice pathology, mental retardation, hearing loss, or emotional problems. Problems can be congeni tal, developmental, or acquired. Speech-language pathologists use special instruments and qualitative and quantitative assess ment methods, including standardized tests, to analyze and di agnose the nature and extent of impairments. Speech-language pathologists develop an individualized plan of care, tailored to each patient’s needs. For individuals with little or no speech capability, speech-language pathologists may select augmentative or alternative communication methods, in cluding automated devices and sign language, and teach their use. They teach patients how to make sounds, improve their voices, or increase their oral or written language skills to com municate more effectively. They also teach individuals how to strengthen muscles or use compensatory strategies to swallow without choking or inhaling food or liquid. Speech-language pathologists help patients develop, or recover, reliable commu nication and swallowing skills so patients can fulfill their edu cational, vocational, and social roles. Speech-language pathologists keep records on the initial evaluation, progress, and discharge of clients. This helps pin point problems, tracks client progress, and justifies the cost of treatment when applying for reimbursement. They counsel in dividuals and their families concerning communication disor ders and how to cope with the stress and misunderstanding that often accompany them. They also work with family members to recognize and change behavior patterns that impede commu nication and treatment and show them communication-enhanc ing techniques to use at home. Most speech-language pathologists provide direct clinical services to individuals with communication or swallowing disorders. In medical facilities, they may perform their job in conjunction with physicians, social workers, psychologists, and other therapists. Speech-language pathologists in schools collaborate with teachers, special educators, interpreters, other school personnel, and parents to develop and implement in dividual or group programs, provide counseling, and support classroom activities. Some speech-language pathologists conduct research on how people communicate. Others design and develop equipment or techniques for diagnosing and treating speech problems. Work environment. Speech-language pathologists usually work at a desk or table in clean comfortable surroundings. In medical settings, they may work at the patient’s bedside and as sist in positioning the patient. In schools, they may work with students in an office or classroom. Some work in the client’s home. Although the work is not physically demanding, it requires attention to detail and intense concentration. The emotional needs of clients and their families may be demanding. Most full-time speech-language pathologists work 40 hours per week. Those who work on a contract basis may spend a substantial amount of time traveling between facilities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis \11 ....... i Speech-language pathologists tailor a plan of care for each pa tient. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree is the most common level of education among speech-language pathologists. Licensure or certifica tion requirements also exist, but vary by State. Education and training. Most speech-language pathologist jobs require a master’s degree. In 2007, more than 230 colleges and universities offered graduate programs in speech-language pathology accredited by the Council on Academic Accredita tion in Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology. While graduation from an accredited program is not always required to become a speech-language pathologist, it may be helpful in obtaining a license or may be required to obtain a license in some States. Speech-language pathology courses cover anatomy, physiol ogy, and the development of the areas of the body involved in speech, language, and swallowing; the nature of disorders; prin ciples of acoustics; and psychological aspects of communica tion. Graduate students also learn to evaluate and treat speech, language, and swallowing disorders and receive supervised clinical training in communication disorders. Licensure and certification. In 2007, 47 States regulated speech-language pathologists through licensure or registra tion. A passing score on the national examination on speechlanguage pathology, offered through the Praxis Series of the Educational Testing Service, is required. Other usual require ments include 300 to 375 hours of supervised clinical experi ence and 9 months of postgraduate professional clinical experi ence. Forty-one States have continuing education requirements for licensure renewal. Medicaid, Medicare, and private health insurers generally require a practitioner to be licensed to qualify for reimbursement. Only 12 States require this same license to practice in the public schools. The other States issue a teaching license or certificate that typically requires a master’s degree from an ap proved college or university. Some States will grant a provi sional teaching license or certificate to applicants with a bach elor’s degree, but a master’s degree must be earned within 3 to 5 years. A few States grant a full teacher’s certificate or license to bachelor’s degree applicants. Professional and Related Occupations 389 In some States, the Certificate of Clinical Competence in Speech-Language Pathology (CCC-SLP) offered by the Ameri can Speech-Language-Hearing Association meets some or all of the requirements for licensure. To earn a CCC, a person must have a graduate degree from an accredited university, 400 hours of supervised clinical experience, complete a 36-week postgraduate clinical fellowship, and pass the Praxis Series ex amination in speech-language pathology administered by the Educational Testing Service. Contact your State’s Licensing Board for details on your State’s requirements. Other qualifications. Speech-language pathologists should be able to effectively communicate diagnostic test results, diag noses, and proposed treatment in a manner easily understood by their patients and their families. They must be able to approach problems objectively and be supportive. Because a patient’s progress may be slow, patience, compassion, and good listening skills are necessary. Advancement. As speech-language pathologists gain clini cal experience and engage in continuing professional educa tion, many develop expertise with certain populations, such as preschoolers and adolescents, or disorders, such as aphasia and learning disabilities. Some may obtain board recognition in a specialty area, such as child language, fluency, or feeding and swallowing. Experienced clinicians may become mentors or supervisors of other therapists or be promoted to administrative positions. Employment Speech-language pathologists held about 110,000 jobs in 2006. About half were employed in educational services, primarily in preschools and elementary and secondary schools. Others were employed in hospitals; offices of other health practitioners, in cluding speech-language pathologists; nursing care facilities; home health care services; individual and family services; out patient care centers; and child day care centers. A few speech-language pathologists are self-employed in pri vate practice. They contract to provide services in schools, of fices of physicians, hospitals, or nursing care facilities, or work as consultants to industry. Job Outlook Average employment growth is projected. Job opportunities are expected to be excellent. Employment change. Employment of speech-language pa thologists is expected to grow 11 percent from 2006 to 2016, about as fast as the average for all occupations. As the members of the baby boom generation continue to age, the possibility of neurological disorders and associated speech, language, and swallowing impairments increases. Medical advances also are improving the survival rate of premature infants and trauma and stroke victims, who then need assessment and sometimes treat ment. Employment in educational services will increase with the growth in elementary and secondary school enrollments, in cluding enrollment of special education students. Federal law guarantees special education and related services to all eligible children with disabilities. Greater awareness of the importance of early identification and diagnosis of speech and language disorders in young children will also increase employment. In health care facilities, restrictions on reimbursement for therapy services may limit the growth of speech-language pa thologist jobs in the near term. However, the long-run demand for therapists should continue to rise as growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited function spurs demand for therapy services. The number of speech-language pathologists in private prac tice will rise because of the increasing use of contract services by hospitals, schools, and nursing care facilities. Job prospects. The combination of growth in the occupation and an expected increase in retirements over the coming years should create excellent job opportunities for speech-language pathologists. Opportunities should be particularly favorable for those with the ability to speak a second language, such as Spanish. Job prospects also are expected to be especially favor able for those who are willing to relocate, particularly to areas experiencing difficulty in attracting and hiring speech-language pathologists. Earnings Median annual earnings of wage-and-salary speech-language pathologists were $57,710 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $46,360 and $72,410. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,970, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $90,400. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of speech-language pathologists were: Nursing care facilities.........................................................$70,180 Offices of other health practitioners..................................... 63,240 General medical and surgical hospitals................................ 61,970 Elementary and secondary schools...................................... 53,110 Some employers may reimburse speech-language patholo gists for their required continuing education credits. Related Occupations Speech-language pathologists specialize in the prevention, di agnosis, and treatment of speech and language problems. Work ers in related occupations include audiologists, occupational therapists, optometrists, physical therapists, psychologists, and recreational therapists. Speech-language pathologists in school Projections data from the National Employment Matrix soc Occupational Title Speech-language pathologists.................................. Code ................. 29-1127 Employment, 2006 110,000 Projected employment, 2016 121,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number 12,000 Percent 11 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 390 Occupational Outlook Handbook systems often work closely with special education teachers in assisting students with disabilities. Sources of Additional Information State licensing boards can provide information on licensure requirements. State departments of education can supply in formation on certification requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. For information on careers in speech-language pathology, a description of the CCC-SLP credential, and a listing of accred ited graduate programs in speech-language pathology, contact: y American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.asha.org Veterinarians (0*NET 29-1131.00) Significant Points • • • • Veterinarians should have an affinity for animals and the ability to get along with their owners. Graduation from an accredited college of veterinary medicine and a State license are required. Competition for admission to veterinary school is keen; however, graduates should have excellent job opportunities. About 3 out of 4 veterinarians work in private prac tice. Nature of the Work Veterinarians care for the health of pets, livestock, and ani mals in zoos, racetracks, and laboratories. Some veterinarians use their skills to protect humans against diseases carried by animals and conduct clinical research on human and animal health problems. Others work in basic research, broadening our knowledge of animals and medical science, and in applied research, developing new ways to use knowledge. Most veterinarians diagnose animal health problems; vacci nate against diseases, such as distemper and rabies; medicate animals suffering from infections or illnesses; treat and dress wounds; set fractures; perform surgery; and advise owners about animal feeding, behavior, and breeding. According to the American Medical Veterinary Association, more than 70 percent of veterinarians who work in private medical practices predominately, or exclusively, treat small ani mals. Small-animal practitioners usually care for companion animals, such as dogs and cats, but also treat birds, reptiles, rab bits, ferrets, and other animals that can be kept as pets. About one-fourth of all veterinarians work in mixed animal practices, where they see pigs, goats, cattle, sheep, and some wild animals in addition to companion animals. A small number of private-practice veterinarians work exclu sively with large animals, mostly horses or cattle; some also care for various kinds of food animals. These veterinarians https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis usually drive to farms or ranches to provide veterinary services for herds or individual animals. Much of this work involves preventive care to maintain the health of the animals. These veterinarians test for and vaccinate against diseases and consult with farm or ranch owners and managers regarding animal pro duction, feeding, and housing issues. They also treat and dress wounds, set fractures, and perform surgery, including cesarean sections on birthing animals. Other veterinarians care for zoo, aquarium, or laboratory animals. Veterinarians of all types eu thanize animals when necessary. Veterinarians who treat animals use medical equipment such as stethoscopes, surgical instruments, and diagnostic equip ment, including radiographic and ultrasound equipment. Vet erinarians working in research use a full range of sophisticated laboratory equipment. Veterinarians contribute to human as well as animal health. A number of veterinarians work with physicians and scientists as they research ways to prevent and treat various human health problems. For example, veterinarians contributed greatly in conquering malaria and yellow fever, solved the mystery of botulism, produced an anticoagulant used to treat some people with heart disease, and defined and developed surgical tech niques for humans, such as hip and knee joint replacements and limb and organ transplants. Today, some determine the effects of drug therapies, antibiotics, or new surgical techniques by testing them on animals. Some veterinarians are involved in food safety and inspec tion. Veterinarians who are livestock inspectors, for example, check animals for transmissible diseases, such as E. coli, ad vise owners on the treatment of their animals, and may quar antine animals. Veterinarians who are meat, poultry, or egg product inspectors examine slaughtering and processing plants, check live animals and carcasses for disease, and enforce gov ernment regulations regarding food purity and sanitation. More veterinarians are finding opportunities in food security as they ensure that the Nation has abundant and safe food supplies. Veterinarians involved in food security often work along the Nation’s borders as animal and plant health inspectors, where they examine imports and exports of animal products to prevent disease here and in foreign countries. Many of these workers are employed by the Department of Homeland Security or the Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspec tion Service division. Work environment. Veterinarians in private or clinical practice often work long hours in a noisy indoor environment. Sometimes they have to deal with emotional or demanding pet owners. When working with animals that are frightened or in pain, veterinarians risk being bitten, kicked, or scratched. Veterinarians in large-animal practice spend time driving be tween their office and farms or ranches. They work outdoors in all kinds of weather and may have to treat animals or perform surgery, under unsanitary conditions. Veterinarians working in nonclinical areas, such as public health and research, have working conditions similar to those of other professionals in those lines of work. These veterinar ians enjoy clean, well-lit offices or laboratories and spend much of their time dealing with people rather than animals. Professional and Related Occupations 391 Most veterinarians perform clinical work in private practices on small animals. Veterinarians often work long hours. Those in group prac tices may take turns being on call for evening, night, or week end work; solo practitioners may work extended and weekend hours, responding to emergencies or squeezing in unexpected appointments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Veterinarians must obtain a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine de gree and a State license. There is keen competition for admis sion to veterinary school. Education and training. Prospective veterinarians must graduate with a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree from a 4-year program at an accredited college of veterinary medicine. There are 28 colleges in 26 States that meet accreditation standards set by the Council on Education of the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). The prerequisites for admission to veterinary programs vary. Many programs do not require a bachelor’s degree for entrance, but all require a significant number of credit hours—ranging from 45 to 90 semester hours—at the undergraduate level. However, most of the students admitted have completed an un dergraduate program and earned a bachelor’s degree. Appli cants without a degree face a difficult task gaining admittance. Preveterinary courses should emphasize the sciences. Veteri nary medical colleges typically require applicants to have taken classes in organic and inorganic chemistry, physics, biochemis try, general biology, animal biology, animal nutrition, genetics, vertebrate embryology, cellular biology, microbiology, zoolo gy, and systemic physiology. Some programs require calculus; some require only statistics, college algebra and trigonometry, or pre-calculus. Most veterinary medical colleges also require some courses in English or literature, other humanities, and the social sciences. Increasingly, courses in general business man agement and career development have become a standard part of the curriculum to teach new graduates how to effectively run a practice. In addition to satisfying preveterinary course requirements, applicants must submit test scores from the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), the Veterinary College Admission Test (VCAT), or the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), de pending on the preference of the college to which they are ap https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis plying. Currently, 22 schools require the GRE, 4 require the VCAT, and 2 accept the MCAT. There is keen competition for admission to veterinary school. The number of accredited veterinary colleges has remained largely the same since 1983, but the number of applicants has risen significantly. Only about 1 in 3 applicants was accepted in 2005. New graduates with a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree may begin to practice veterinary medicine once they receive their license, but many new graduates choose to enter a 1-year intern ship. Interns receive a small salary but often find that their in ternship experience leads to better paying opportunities later, rel ative to those of other veterinarians. Veterinarians who then seek board certification also must complete a 3- to 4-year residency program that provides intensive training in one of the 20 AVMArecognized veterinary specialties including internal medicine, oncology, pathology, dentistry, nutrition, radiology, surgery, der matology, anesthesiology, neurology, cardiology, ophthalmol ogy, preventive medicine, and exotic small-animal medicine. Licensure. All States and the District of Columbia require that veterinarians be licensed before they can practice. The only exemptions are for veterinarians working for some Federal agencies and some State governments. Licensing is controlled by the States and is not strictly uniform, although all States require the successful completion of the D.V.M. degree—or equivalent education—and a passing grade on a national board examination, the North American Veterinary Licensing Exam. This 8-hour examination consists of 360 multiple-choice ques tions covering all aspects of veterinary medicine as well as vi sual materials designed to test diagnostic skills. The Educational Commission for Foreign Veterinary Gradu ates grants certification to individuals trained outside the United States who demonstrate that they meet specified requirements for English language and clinical proficiency. This certification fulfills the educational requirement for licensure in all States. Most States also require candidates to pass a State jurispru dence examination covering State laws and regulations. Some States do additional testing on clinical competency as well. There are few reciprocal agreements between States, veterinar ians who wish to practice in a different State usually must first pass that State’s examinations. Other qualifications. When deciding whom to admit, some veterinary medical colleges place heavy consideration on a can didate’s veterinary and animal experience. Formal experience, such as work with veterinarians or scientists in clinics, agribusi ness, research, or some area of health science, is particularly advantageous. Less formal experience, such as working with animals on a farm or ranch or at a stable or animal shelter, also can be helpful. Students must demonstrate ambition and an eagerness to work with animals. Prospective veterinarians must have good manual dexterity. They should have an affinity for animals and the ability to get along with their owners, especially pet owners, who usually have strong bonds with their pets. Veterinarians who intend to go into private practice should possess excellent communica tion and business skills, because they will need to manage their practice and employees successfully and to promote, market, and sell their services. 392 Occupational Outlook Handbook Advancement. Most veterinarians begin as employees in established group practices. Despite the substantial financial investment in equipment, office space, and staff, many veteri narians with experience eventually set up their own practice or purchase an established one. Newly trained veterinarians can become U.S. Government meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control workers, animal welfare and safety workers, epidemiologists, research assis tants, or commissioned officers in the U.S. Public Health Ser vice or various branches of the U.S. Armed Forces. A State license may be required. Nearly all States have continuing education requirements for licensed veterinarians. Requirements differ by State and may involve attending a class or otherwise demonstrating knowledge of recent medical and veterinary advances. Employment Veterinarians held about 62,000 jobs in 2006. According to the American Veterinary Medical Association, about 3 out of 4 veterinarians were employed in a solo or group practice. Most others were salaried employees of another veterinary practice. Data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics show that the Federal Government employed about 1,400 civilian veterinar ians, chiefly in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Health and Human Services, and, increasingly, Homeland Security. Other employers of veterinarians are State and local governments, col leges of veterinary medicine, medical schools, research labora tories, animal food companies, and pharmaceutical companies. A few veterinarians work for zoos, but most veterinarians car ing for zoo animals are private practitioners who contract with the zoos to provide services, usually on a part-time basis. In addition, many veterinarians hold veterinary faculty posi tions in colleges and universities and are classified as teachers. (See the statement on teachers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase much faster than average. Excellent job opportunities are expected. Employment change. Employment of veterinarians is ex pected to increase 35 percent over the 2006-16 decade, much faster than the average for all occupations. Veterinarians usu ally practice in animal hospitals or clinics and care primarily for companion animals. Recent trends indicate particularly strong interest in cats as pets. Faster growth of the cat population is expected to increase the demand for feline medicine and veteri nary services, while demand for veterinary care for dogs should continue to grow at a more modest pace. Many pet owners are relatively affluent and consider their pets a member of the family. These owners are becoming more aware of the availability of advanced care and are more willing to pay for intensive veterinary care than owners in the past. Fur thermore, the number of pet owners purchasing pet insurance is rising, increasing the likelihood that considerable money will be spent on veterinary care. More pet owners also will take advantage of nontraditional veterinary services, such as cancer treatment and preventive dental care. Modem veterinary services have caught up to hu man medicine; certain procedures, such as hip replacement, kidney transplants, and blood transfusions, which were once only available for humans, are now available for animals. Continued support for public health and food and animal safety, national disease control programs, and biomedical re search on human health problems will contribute to the demand for veterinarians, although the number of positions in these ar eas is limited. Homeland security also may provide opportuni ties for veterinarians involved in efforts to maintain abundant food supplies and minimize animal diseases in the U.S. and in foreign countries. Job prospects. Excellent job opportunities are expected be cause there are only 28 accredited schools of veterinary medi cine in the United States, resulting in a limited number of grad uates—about 2,700—each year. However, applicants face keen competition for admission to veterinary school. New graduates continue to be attracted to companion-animal medicine because they prefer to deal with pets and to live and work near heavily populated areas, where most pet owners live. Employment opportunities are good in cities and suburbs, but even better in rural areas because fewer veterinarians compete to work there. Beginning veterinarians may take positions requiring evening or weekend work to accommodate the extended hours of opera tion that many practices are offering. Some veterinarians take salaried positions in retail stores offering veterinary services. Self-employed veterinarians usually have to work hard and long to build a sufficient client base. The number of jobs for large-animal veterinarians is likely to grow more slowly than jobs for companion-animal veterinar ians. Nevertheless, job prospects should be better for veterinar ians who specialize in farm animals because of lower earnings in the farm-animal specialty and because many veterinarians do not want to work in rural or isolated areas. Veterinarians with training in food safety and security, animal health and welfare, and public health and epidemiology should have the best opportunities for a career in the Federal Govern ment. Earnings Median annual earnings of veterinarians were $71,990 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $56,450 and $94,880. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $43,530, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $133,150. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, employment, 2006-2016 Code 2016 Number Percent Veterinarians............................................................ ............................. 29-1131 62,000 84,000 22,000 35 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title lion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2006 Professional and Related Occupations 393 The average annual salary for veterinarians in the Federal Government was $84,335 in 2007. According to a survey by the American Veterinary Medical Association, average starting salaries of veterinary medical col lege graduates in 2006 varied by type of practice as follows: Large animals, exclusively.................................................. $61,029 Small animals, predominantly.............................................. 57,117 Small animals, exclusively.................................................... 56,241 Private clinical practice......................................................... 55,031 Large animals, predominantly............................................... 53,397 Mixed animals.......................................................................52,254 Equine (horses).....................................................................40,130 Related Occupations Veterinarians prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries in animals. Those who do similar work for humans include chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians and surgeons, and podiatrists. Veterinarians have extensive training in physical and life sciences, and some do scientific and medi cal research, as do biological scientists and medical scientists. Animal care and service workers and veterinary technologists and technicians also work extensively with animals. Like vet erinarians, they must have patience and feel comfortable with animals. However, the level of training required for these occu pations is substantially less than that needed by veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on careers in veterinary medicine, a list of U.S. schools and colleges of veterinary medicine, and ac creditation policies, send a letter-size, self-addressed, stamped envelope to: 'y American Veterinary Medical Association, 1931N.Meacham Rd., Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173. Internet: http://www.avma.org For information on veterinary education, contact: y Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, 1101 Vermont Ave. NW., Suite 301, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.aavmc.org For information on scholarships, grants, and loans, contact the financial aid officer at the veterinary schools to which you wish to apply. For information on veterinarians working in zoos, see the Oc cupational Outlook Quarterly article “Wild jobs with wildlife,” online at: http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2001/spring/art01.pdf. Information on obtaining a veterinary position with the Fed eral Government is available from the Office of Personnel Man agement through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interac tive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not toll free, and charges may result. For advice on how to find and apply for Federal jobs, see the Occupational Outlook Quarterly article “How to get a job in the Federal Government,” online at: http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2004/summer/art01.pdf Health Technologists and Technicians Athletic Trainers (0*NET 29-9091.00) Significant Points • Long hours, sometimes including nights and week ends, are common. • A bachelor’s degree is usually the minimum require ment, but many athletic trainers hold a master’s or doctoral degree. • Employment is projected to grow much faster than average. • Job prospects should be good in the health care in dustry, but competition is expected for positions with sports teams. Nature of the Work Athletic trainers help prevent and treat injuries for people of all ages. Their clients include everyone from professional athletes https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to industrial workers. Recognized by the American Medical Association as allied health professionals, athletic trainers spe cialize in the prevention, assessment, treatment, and rehabilita tion of musculoskeletal injuries. Athletic trainers often are one of the first heath care providers on the scene when injuries oc cur, and therefore they must be able to recognize, evaluate, and assess injuries and provide immediate care when needed. They also are heavily involved in the rehabilitation and recondition ing of injuries. Athletic trainers should not be confused with fit ness trainers or personal trainers, who are not health care work ers, but rather train people to become physically fit. (Fitness workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Athletic trainers often help prevent injuries by advising on the proper use of equipment and applying protective or injurypreventive devices such as tape, bandages, and braces. Injury prevention also often includes educating people on what they should do to avoid putting themselves at risk for injuries. Athletic trainers work under the supervision of a licensed physician, and in cooperation with other health care providers. The level of medical supervision varies, depending upon the setting. Some athletic trainers meet with the team physician or consulting physician once or twice a week; others interact with a physician every day. The extent of the supervision ranges 394 Occupational Outlook Handbook from discussing specific injuries and treatment options with a physician to performing evaluations and treatments as directed by a physician. Athletic trainers often have administrative responsibilities. These may include regular meetings with an athletic director or other administrative officer to deal with budgets, purchasing, policy implementation, and other business-related issues. Work environment. The work of athletic trainers requires frequent interaction with others. This includes consulting with physicians as well as frequent contact with athletes and patients to discuss and administer treatments, rehabilitation programs, injury-preventive practices, and other health-related issues. Many athletic trainers work indoors most of the time; others, especially those in some sports-related jobs, spend much of their time working outdoors. The job also might require stand ing for long periods, working with medical equipment or ma chinery, and being able to walk, run, kneel, crouch, stoop, or crawl. Travel may be required. Schedules vary by work setting. Athletic trainers in nons ports settings generally have an established schedule—usually about 40 to 50 hours per week—with nights and weekends off. Athletic trainers working in hospitals and clinics may spend part of their time working at other locations doing outreach. Most commonly, these outreach programs include conducting athletic training services and speaking at high schools, colleges, and commercial businesses. Athletic trainers in sports settings have schedules that are longer and more variable. These athletic trainers must be pres ent for team practices and games, which often are on evenings and weekends, and their schedules can change on short notice when games and practices have to be rescheduled. As a result, athletic trainers in sports settings may regularly work 6 or 7 days per week, including late hours. In high schools, athletic trainers who also teach may work 60 to 70 hours a week, or more. In National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I colleges and universities, athletic train ers generally work with one team; when that team’s sport is in season, working at least 50 to 60 hours a week is common. Athletic trainers in smaller colleges and universities often work with several teams and have teaching responsibilities. During Ml___ i Athletic trainers apply protective devices such as tape, bandag es, and braces to help prevent injuries. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the off-season, a 40-hour to 50-hour work week may be nor mal in most settings. Athletic trainers for professional sports teams generally work the most hours per week. During train ing camps, practices, and competitions, they may be required to work up to 12 hours a day. There is some stress involved with being an athletic trainer, as there is with most health-related occupations. Athletic trainers are responsible for their clients’ health, and sometimes have to make quick decisions that could affect the health or career of their clients. Athletics trainers also can be affected by the pres sure to win that is typical of competitive sports teams. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is usually the minimum requirement to work as an athletic trainer, but many athletic trainers hold a master’s or doctoral degree. In 2006,46 States required athletic trainers to be licensed or hold some form of registration. Education and training. A bachelor’s degree from an ac credited college or university is required for almost all jobs as an athletic trainer. In 2006, there were more than 350 accredited programs nationwide. Students in these programs are educated both in the classroom and in clinical settings. Formal education includes many science and health-related courses, such as hu man anatomy, physiology, nutrition, and biomechanics. According to the National Athletic Trainers Association, 68 percent of athletic trainers have a master’s or doctoral degree. Athletic trainers may need a master’s or higher degree to be eligible for some positions, especially those in colleges and universities, and to increase their advancement opportunities. Because some positions in high schools involve teaching along with athletic trainer responsibilities, a teaching certificate or li cense could be required. Licensure and certification. In 2006, 46 States required athletic trainers to be licensed or registered; this requires cer tification from the Board of Certification, Inc. (BOC). For certification, athletic trainers need a bachelor’s degree from an accredited athletic training program. In addition, a successful candidate for BOC certification must pass a rigorous examina tion. To retain certification, credential holders must continue taking medical-related courses and adhere to the BOC stan dards of practice. In States where licensure is not required, certification is voluntary but may be helpful for those seeking jobs and advancement. Other qualifications. Because all athletic trainers deal di rectly with a variety of people, they need good social and com munication skills. They should be able to manage difficult situations and the stress associated with them, such as when disagreements arise with coaches, clients, or parents regarding suggested treatment. Athletic trainers also should be organized, be able to manage time wisely, be inquisitive, and have a strong desire to help people. Advancement. There are a number ways for athletic trainers to advance or move into related positions. Assistant athletic trainers may become head athletic trainers and, eventually, ath letic directors. Athletic trainers also might enter a physician group practice and assume a management role. Some athletic trainers move into sales and marketing positions, using their Professional and Related Occupations 395 athletic trainer expertise to sell medical and athletic equip ment. Employment Athletic trainers held about 17,000 jobs in 2006 and are found in every part of the country. Most athletic trainer jobs are relat ed to sports, although an increasing number also work in non sports settings. About 34 percent of athletic trainers worked in health care, including jobs in hospitals, offices of physicians, and offices of other health practitioners. Another 34 percent were found in public and private educational services, primar ily in colleges, universities, and high schools. About 20 percent worked in fitness and recreational sports centers. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow much faster than average. Job prospects should be good in the health care industry, but competition is expected for positions with sports teams. Employment change. Employment of athletic trainers is ex pected to grow 24 percent from 2006 to 2016, much faster than the average for all occupations. Job growth will be concen trated in the health care industry, including hospitals and offices of health practitioners. Fitness and recreation sports centers also will provide many new jobs, as these establishments be come more common and continue to need athletic trainers to care for their clients. Growth in positions with sports teams will be somewhat slower, however, as most professional sports clubs and colleges and universities already have complete ath letic training staffs. The demand for health care should grow dramatically as the result of advances in technology, increasing emphasis on pre ventive care, and an increasing number of older people who are more likely to need medical care. Athletic trainers will benefit from this expansion because they provide a cost-effective way to increase the number of health professionals in an office or other setting. Also, employers increasingly emphasize sports medicine, in which an immediate responder, such as an athletic trainer, is on site to help prevent injuries and provide immediate treatment for any injuries that do occur. Increased licensure requirements and regulation has led to a greater acceptance of athletic trainers as qualified health care providers. As a result, third-party reim bursement is expected to continue to grow for athletic training services. As athletic trainers continue to expand their services, more employers are expected to use these workers to realize the cost savings of providing health care in-house. There should be strong demand for athletic trainers in settings outside the sports world, especially those that focus on health care. Continuing efforts to have an athletic trainer in every high school reflect concern for the health of student-athletes as well as efforts to provide more funding for schools, and may lead to growth in the number of athletic trainers employed in high schools. Job prospects. Job prospects should be good for athletic trainers in the health care industry. Those looking for a position with a sports team, however, may face competition. Turnover among athletic trainers is limited. When working with sports teams, many athletic trainers prefer to continue to work with the same coaches, administrators, and players when a good work ing relationship already exists. Because of relatively low turnover, the settings with the best job prospects will be the ones that are expected to have the most job growth, primarily positions in the heath care industry and fitness and recreational sports centers. Additional job oppor tunities are expected in elementary and secondary schools as more positions are created. Some of these positions also will require teaching responsibilities. There will be more compe tition for positions within colleges and universities as well as professional sports clubs. The occupation is expected to continue to change over the next decade, including more administrative responsibilities, adapting to new technology, and working with larger popula tions, and job seekers must be able to adapt to these changes. Earnings Most athletic trainers work in full-time positions, and typically receive benefits. The salary of an athletic trainer depends on ex perience and job responsibilities, and varies by job setting. Me dian annual earnings of wage-and-salary athletic trainers were $36,560 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,920 and $45,690. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,940, while the top 10 percent earned more than $57,580. Many employers pay for some of the continuing education required for athletic trainers to remain certified, although the amount covered varies from employer to employer. Related Occupations The American Medical Association recognizes athletic trainers as allied health professionals. They work under the direction of physicians and provide immediate and ongoing care for inju ries. Also, they provide education and advice on the prevention of injuries and work closely with injured patients to rehabilitate and recondition injuries, often through therapy. Other occu pations that may require similar responsibilities include emer gency medical technicians and paramedics, physical therapists, physician assistants, registered nurses, licensed practical and li censed vocational nurses, recreational therapists, occupational therapists, respiratory therapists, chiropractors, podiatrists, and massage therapists. There also are opportunities for athletic trainers to join the military, although they would not be classified as an athletic trainer. Enlisted soldiers and officers who are athletic trainers Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Athletic trainers. soc Code 29-9091 Employment, 2006 17,000 Projected employment, 2016 21,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number 4,200 Percent 24 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 396 Occupational Outlook Handbook are usually placed in another program, such as health educa tor or training specialist, in which their skills are useful. (For information on military careers, see the Handbook statement on job opportunities in the Armed Forces.) Sources of Additional Information For further information on careers in athletic training, contact: y National Athletic Trainers Association, 2952 Stemmons Freeway, Dallas, TX 75247. Internet: http://www.nata.org For further information on certification, contact: y Board of Certification, Inc., 4223 South 143rd Circle, Omaha, NE 68137. Internet: http://www.bocatc.org Cardiovascular Technologists and Technicians (0*NET 29-2031.00) Significant Points • • • Employment is expected to grow much faster than average; technologists and technicians trained to per form certain procedures will be in particular demand. About 3 out of 4 jobs are in hospitals. The vast majority of workers complete a 2-year junior or community college program. Nature of the Work Cardiovascular technologists and technicians assist physicians in diagnosing and treating cardiac (heart) and peripheral vascu lar (blood vessel) ailments. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians schedule ap pointments perform ultrasound or cardiovascular procedures, review doctors’ interpretations and patient files, and monitor patients’ heart rates. They also operate and care for testing equipment, explain test procedures, and compare findings to a standard to identify problems. Other day-to-day activities vary significantly between specialties. Cardiovascular technologists may specialize in any of three areas of practice: invasive cardiology, echocardiography, or vascular technology. Invasive cardiology. Cardiovascular technologists specializ ing in invasive procedures are called cardiology technologists. They assist physicians with cardiac catheterization procedures in which a small tube, or catheter, is threaded through a patient’s artery from a spot on the patient’s groin to the heart. The proce dure can determine whether a blockage exists in the blood ves sels that supply the heart muscle. The procedure also can help to diagnose other problems. Part of the procedure may involve balloon angioplasty, which can be used to treat blockages of blood vessels or heart valves without the need for heart surgery. Cardiology technologists assist physicians as they insert a cath eter with a balloon on the end to the point of the obstruction. Another procedure using the catheter is electrophysiology test, which help locate the specific areas of heart tissue that give rise to the abnormal electrical impulses that cause arrhythmias. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technologists prepare patients for cardiac catheterization by first positioning them on an examining table and then shaving, cleaning, and administering anesthesia to the top of their leg near the groin. During the procedures, they monitor patients’ blood pressure and heart rate with EKG equipment and notify the physician if something appears to be wrong. Technologists also may prepare and monitor patients during open-heart sur gery and during the insertion of pacemakers and stents that open up blockages in arteries to the heart and major blood vessels. Noninvasive technology. Technologists who specialize in vascular technology or echocardiography perform noninvasive tests using. Tests are called “noninvasive” if they do not require the insertion of probes or other instruments into the patient’s body. For example, procedures such as Doppler ultrasound transmit high-frequency sound waves into areas of the patient’s body and then processes reflected echoes of the sound waves to form an image. Technologists view the ultrasound image on a screen and may record the image on videotape or photograph it for interpretation and diagnosis by a physician. As the technol ogist uses the instrument to perform scans and record images, technologists check the image on the screen for subtle differ ences between healthy and diseased areas, decide which im ages to include in the report to the physician, and judge whether the images are satisfactory for diagnostic purposes. They also explain the procedure to patients, record any additional medi cal history the patient relates, select appropriate equipment set tings, and change the patient’s position as necessary. (See the statement on diagnostic medical sonographers elsewhere in the Handbook to learn more about other sonographers.) Vascular technology. Technicians who assist physicians in the diagnosis of disorders affecting the circulation are known as vascular technologists or vascular sonographers. Vascular technologists complete patients’ medical history, evaluate puls es and assess blood flow in arteries and veins by listening to the vascular flow sounds for abnormalities, and assure the appropri ate vascular test has been ordered. Then they perform a non invasive procedure using ultrasound instruments to record vas cular information such as vascular blood flow, blood pressure, oxygen saturation, cerebral circulation, peripheral circulation, and abdominal circulation. Many of these tests are performed during or immediately after surgery. Vascular technologists then provide a summary of findings to the physician to aid in patient diagnosis and management. Echocardiography. This area of practice includes giving electrocardiograms (EKGs) and sonograms of the heart. Car diovascular technicians who specialize in EKGs, stress testing, and those who perform Holter monitor procedures are known as cardiographic or electrocardiograph (or EKG) technicians. To take a basic EKG, which traces electrical impulses trans mitted by the heart, technicians attach electrodes to the patient’s chest, arms, and legs, and then manipulate switches on an EKG machine to obtain a reading. An EKG is printed out for inter pretation by the physician. This test is done before most kinds of surgery or as part of a routine physical examination, espe cially on persons who have reached middle age or who have a history of cardiovascular problems. EKG technicians with advanced training perform Holter monitor and stress testing. For Holter monitoring, technicians Professional and Related Occupations 397 place electrodes on the patient’s chest and attach a portable EKG monitor to the patient’s belt. Following 24 or more hours of normal activity by the patient, the technician removes a tape from the monitor and places it in a scanner. After checking the quality of the recorded impulses on an electronic screen, the technician usually prints the information from the tape for anal ysis by a physician. Physicians use the output from the scanner to diagnose heart ailments, such as heart rhythm abnormalities or problems with pacemakers. For a treadmill stress test, EKG technicians document the patient’s medical history, explain the procedure, connect the pa tient to an EKG monitor, and obtain a baseline reading and rest ing blood pressure. Next, they monitor the heart’s performance while the patient is walking on a treadmill, gradually increasing the treadmill’s speed to observe the effect of increased exertion. Like vascular technologists and cardiac sonographers, cardiographic technicians who perform EKG, Holter monitor, and stress tests are known as “noninvasive” technicians. Technologists who use ultrasound to examine the heart chambers, valves, and vessels are referred to as cardiac sonog raphers, or echocardiographers. They use ultrasound instru mentation to create images called echocardiograms. An echo cardiogram may be performed while the patient is either resting or physically active. Technologists may administer medica tion to physically active patients to assess their heart function. Cardiac sonographers also may assist physicians who perform transesophageal echocardiography, which involves placing a tube in the patient’s esophagus to obtain ultrasound images. Work environment. Cardiovascular technologists and tech nicians spend a lot of time walking and standing, Heavy lifting may be involved to move equipment or transfer patients. These workers wear heavy protective aprons while conducting some procedures. Those who work in catheterization laboratories may face stressful working conditions because they are in close 011 / \ JM I .... ,......if A* About 3 out of 4 cardiovascular technologists and technicians work in hospitals. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis contact with patients with serious heart ailments. For example, some patients may encounter complications that have life-ordeath implications. Some cardiovascular technologists and technicians may have the potential for radiation exposure, which is kept to a mini mum by strict adherence to radiation safety guidelines. In ad dition, those who use sonography can be at an increased risk for musculoskeletal disorders such as carpel tunnel syndrome, neck and back strain, and eye strain. However, greater use of ergo nomic equipment and an increasing awareness will continue to minimize such risks. Technologists and technicians generally work a 5-day, 40hour week that may include weekends. Those in catheterization laboratories tend to work longer hours and may work evenings. They also may be on call during the night and on weekends. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The most common level of education completed by cardiovas cular technologists and technicians is an associate degree. Cer tification, although not required in all cases, is available. Education and training. Although a few cardiovascular technologists, vascular technologists, and cardiac sonographers are currently trained on the job, most receive training in 2- to 4-year programs. The majority of technologists complete a 2year junior or community college program, but 4-year programs are increasingly available. The first year is dedicated to core courses and is followed by a year of specialized instruction in either invasive, noninvasive cardiovascular, or noninvasive vas cular technology. Those who are qualified in an allied health profession need to complete only the year of specialized in struction. The Joint Review Committee on Education in Cardiovascular Technology reviews education programs seeking accreditation. The Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Profession als (CAAHEP) accredits these education programs; as of 2006, there were 31 programs accredited in cardiovascular technology in the United States. Similarly, those who want to study echo cardiography or vascular sonography may also attend CAA HEP accredited programs in diagnostic medical sonography. In 2006, there were 147 diagnostic medical sonography programs accredited by CAAHEP. Those who attend these accredited programs are eligible to obtain professional certification. Unlike most other cardiovascular technologists and techni cians, most EKG technicians are trained on the job by an EKG supervisor or a cardiologist. On-the-job training usually lasts about 8 to 16 weeks. Most employers prefer to train people al ready in the health care field—nursing aides, for example. Some EKG technicians are students enrolled in 2-year programs to become technologists, working part time to gain experience and make contact with employers. One-year certification programs exist for basic EKGs, Holter monitoring, and stress testing. Licensure and certification. Some States require workers in this occupation to be licensed. For information on a particu lar State, contact that State’s medical board. Certification is available from two organizations: Cardiovascular Credentialing International (CCI) and the American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (ARDMS). The CCI offers four certi fications—Certified Cardiographic Technician (CCT), Regis 398 Occupational Outlook Handbook tered Cardiac Sonographer (RCS), Registered Vascular Special ist (RVS), and Registered Cardiovascular Invasive Specialist (RCIS). The ARDMS offers Registered Diagnostic Cardiac Sonographer (RDCS) and Registered Vascular Technologist (RVT) credentials. Some States require certification as part of licensure. In other States, certification is not required but many employers prefer it. Other qualifications. Cardiovascular technologists and tech nicians must be reliable, have mechanical aptitude, and be able to follow detailed instructions. A pleasant, relaxed manner for putting patients at ease is an asset. They must be articulate as they must communicate technically with physicians and also explain procedures simply to patients. Advancement. Technologists and technicians can advance to higher levels of the profession as many institutions structure the occupation with multiple levels, each having an increasing amount of responsibility. Technologists and technicians also can advance into supervisory or management positions. Other common possibilities include working in an educational setting or conducting laboratory work. Employment Cardiovascular technologists and technicians held about 45,000 jobs in 2006. About 3 out of 4 jobs were in hospitals (public and private), primarily in cardiology departments. The remain ing jobs were mostly in offices of physicians, including cardi ologists, or in medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers. procedures. Individuals trained in Holter monitoring and stress testing are expected to have more favorable job prospects than those who can perform only a basic EKG. Medicaid has relaxed some of the rules governing reimburse ment for vascular exams, which is resulting in vascular studies becoming a more routine practice. As a result of increased use of these procedures, individuals with training in vascular stud ies should have more favorable employment opportunities. Job prospects. Some additional job openings for cardiovas cular technologists and technicians will arise from replacement needs as individuals transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Although growing awareness of musculoskeletal disor ders has made prevention easier, some cardiovascular technolo gists and technicians have been forced to leave the occupation early because of this disorder. It is not uncommon for cardiovascular technologists and tech nicians to move between the specialties within the occupation by obtaining certification in more than one specialty. Earnings Median annual earnings of cardiovascular technologists and technicians were $42,300 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,900 and $55,670. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,670, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $67,410. Median annual earnings of cardiovascular technologists and technicians in 2006 were $41,960 in offices of physicians and $41,950 in general medical and surgical hos pitals. Job Outlook Related Occupations Employment is expected to grow much faster than average; technologists and technicians trained to perform certain proce dures will be in particular demand. Employment change. Employment of cardiovascular tech nologists and technicians is expected to increase by 26 percent through the year 2016, much faster than the average for all oc cupations. Growth will occur as the population ages, because older people have a higher incidence of heart disease and other complications of the heart and vascular system. Procedures such as ultrasound are being performed more often as a replace ment for more expensive and more invasive procedures. Due to advances in medicine and greater public awareness, signs of vascular disease can be detected earlier, creating demand for cardiovascular technologists and technicians to perform various procedures. Employment of vascular technologists and echocardiographers will grow as advances in vascular technology and so nography reduce the need for more costly and invasive proce dures. Electrophysiology is also becoming a rapidly growing specialty. However, fewer EKG technicians will be needed, as hospitals train nursing aides and others to perform basic EKG Cardiovascular technologists and technicians operate sophisti cated equipment that helps physicians and other health practi tioners to diagnose and treat patients. So do diagnostic medical sonographers, nuclear medicine technologists, radiation thera pists, radiologic technologists and technicians, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about a career in cardiovascular tech nology, contact: y Alliance of Cardiovascular Professionals, Thalia Landing Offices, Bldg. 2, 4356 Bonney Rd., Suite 103, Virginia Beach, VA 23452-1200. Internet: http://www.acp-online.org For a list of accredited programs in cardiovascular technol ogy, contact: y Committee on Accreditation for Allied Health Education Programs, 1361 Park St, Clearwater, FL 33756. Internet: http://www.caahep.org V Society for Vascular Ultrasound, 4601 Presidents Dr., Suite 260, Lanham, MD 20706-4381. Internet: http://www.svunet.org Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2006-2016 employment, Code 2016 Number Percent 29-2031 45,000 57,000 12,000 26 Cardiovascular technologists and technicians..................... .............. NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- Occupational Title lion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2006 Professional and Related Occupations 399 For information on echocardiography, contact: y American Society of Echocardiography, 1500 Sunday Dr., Suite 102, Raleigh, NC 27607. Internet: http://www.asecho.org For information regarding registration and certification, con tact: V Cardiovascular Credentialing International, 1500 Sunday Dr., Suite 102, Raleigh, NC 27607. Internet: http://www.cci-onIine.org y American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 51 Monroe St., Plaza East ONE., Rockville, MD 20850-2400. Internet: http://www.ardms.org Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians (0*NET 29-2011.00, 29-2012.00) Significant Points • Faster than average employment growth and excellent job opportunities are expected. • Clinical laboratory technologists usually have a bach elor’s degree with a major in medical technology or in one of the life sciences; clinical laboratory techni cians generally need either an associate degree or a certificate. • Most jobs will continue to be in hospitals, but em ployment will grow faster in other settings. Nature of the Work Clinical laboratory testing plays a crucial role in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of disease. Clinical laboratory tech nologists—also referred to as clinical laboratory scientists or medical technologists—and clinical laboratory technicians, also known as medical technicians or medical laboratory tech nicians, perform most of these tests. Clinical laboratory personnel examine and analyze body fluids, and cells. They look for bacteria, parasites, and other microorganisms; analyze the chemical content of fluids; match blood for transfusions; and test for drug levels in the blood that show how a patient is responding to treatment. Technologists also prepare specimens for examination, count cells, and look for abnormal cells in blood and body fluids. They use micro scopes, cell counters, and other sophisticated laboratory equip ment. They also use automated equipment and computerized instruments capable of performing a number of tests simultane ously. After testing and examining a specimen, they analyze the results and relay them to physicians. With increasing automation and the use of computer tech nology, the work of technologists and technicians has become less hands-on and more analytical. The complexity of tests performed, the level of judgment needed, and the amount of responsibility workers assume depend largely on the amount of education and experience they have. Clinical laboratory tech https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis nologists usually do more complex tasks than clinical labora tory technicians do. Clinical laboratory technologists perform complex chemi cal, biological, hematological, immunologic, microscopic, and bacteriological tests. Technologists microscopically examine blood and other body fluids. They make cultures of body flu id and tissue samples, to determine the presence of bacteria, fungi, parasites, or other microorganisms. Technologists ana lyze samples for chemical content or a chemical reaction and determine concentrations of compounds such as blood glucose and cholesterol levels. They also type and cross match blood samples for transfusions. Clinical laboratory technologists evaluate test results, devel op and modify procedures, and establish and monitor programs, to ensure the accuracy of tests. Some technologists supervise clinical laboratory technicians. Technologists in small laboratories perform many types of tests, whereas those in large laboratories generally specialize. Clinical chemistry technologists, for example, prepare speci mens and analyze the chemical and hormonal contents of body fluids. Microbiology technologists examine and identify bac teria and other microorganisms. Blood bank technologists, or immunohematology technologists, collect, type, and prepare blood and its components for transfusions. Immunology tech nologists examine elements of the human immune system and its response to foreign bodies. Cytotechnologists prepare slides of body cells and examine these cells microscopically for abnor malities that may signal the beginning of a cancerous growth. Molecular biology technologists perform complex protein and nucleic acid testing on cell samples. Clinical laboratory technicians perform less complex tests and laboratory procedures than technologists do. Technicians may prepare specimens and operate automated analyzers, for example, or they may perform manual tests in accordance with detailed instructions. They usually work under the supervision of medical and clinical laboratory technologists or laboratory managers. Like technologists, clinical laboratory technicians may work in several areas of the clinical laboratory or special ize in just one. Phlebotomists collect blood samples, for ex ample, and histotechnicians cut and stain tissue specimens for microscopic examination by pathologists. Work environment. Clinical laboratory personnel are trained to work with infectious specimens. When proper methods of infection control and sterilization are followed, few hazards ex ist. Protective masks, gloves, and goggles often are necessary to ensure the safety of laboratory personnel. Working conditions vary with the size and type of employ ment setting. Laboratories usually are well lighted and clean; however, specimens, solutions, and reagents used in the labora tory sometimes produce fumes. Laboratory workers may spend a great deal of time on their feet. Hours of clinical laboratory technologists and technicians vary with the size and type of employment setting. In large hos pitals or in independent laboratories that operate continuously, personnel usually work the day, evening, or night shift and may work weekends and holidays. Laboratory personnel in small facilities may work on rotating shifts, rather than on a regular 400 Occupational Outlook Handbook 4.**. »• = Clinical laboratory personnel look for bacteria, parasites, and other microorganisms; analyze the chemical content offluids; match blood for transfusions; and test for drug levels in the blood that show how a patient is responding to treatment. shift. In some facilities, laboratory personnel are on call several nights a week or on weekends, in case of an emergency. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Clinical laboratory technologist generally require a bachelor’s degree in medical technology or in one of the life sciences; clinical laboratory technicians usually need an associate degree or a certificate. Education and training. The usual requirement for an entrylevel position as a clinical laboratory technologist is a bache lor’s degree with a major in medical technology or one of the life sciences; however, it is possible to qualify for some jobs with a combination of education and on-the-job and specialized training. Universities and hospitals offer medical technology programs. Bachelor’s degree programs in medical technology include courses in chemistry, biological sciences, microbiology, math ematics, and statistics, as well as specialized courses devoted to knowledge and skills used in the clinical laboratory. Many pro grams also offer or require courses in management, business, and computer applications. The Clinical Laboratory Improve ment Act requires technologists who perform highly complex tests to have at least an associate degree. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Medical and clinical laboratory technicians generally have either an associate degree from a community or junior college or a certificate from a hospital, a vocational or technical school, or the Armed Forces. A few technicians learn their skills on the job. The National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sci ences (NAACLS) fully accredits about 470 programs for medi cal and clinical laboratory technologists, medical and clinical laboratory technicians, histotechnologists and histotechnicians, cytogenetic technologists, and diagnostic molecular scientists. NAACLS also approves about 60 programs in phlebotomy and clinical assisting. Other nationally recognized agencies that ac credit specific areas for clinical laboratory workers include the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Pro grams and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools. Licensure. Some States require laboratory personnel to be li censed or registered. Licensure of technologists often requires a bachelor’s degree and the passing of an exam, but require ments vary by State and specialty. Information on licensure is available from State departments of health or boards of oc cupational licensing. Certification and other qualifications. Many employers pre fer applicants who are certified by a recognized professional as sociation. Associations offering certification include the Board of Registry of the American Society for Clinical Pathology, the American Medical Technologists, the National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel, and the Board of Registry of the American Association of Bioanalysts. These agencies have different requirements for certification and different organiza tional sponsors. In addition to certification, employers seek clinical labora tory personnel with good analytical judgment and the ability to work under pressure. Technologists in particular are expected to be good at problem solving. Close attention to detail is also essential for laboratory personnel because small differences or changes in test substances or numerical readouts can be cru cial to a diagnosis. Manual dexterity and normal color vision are highly desirable, and with the widespread use of automated laboratory equipment, computer skills are important. Advancement. Technicians can advance and become tech nologists through additional education and experience. Tech nologists may advance to supervisory positions in laboratory work or may become chief medical or clinical laboratory tech nologists or laboratory managers in hospitals. Manufacturers of home diagnostic testing kits and laboratory equipment and supplies also seek experienced technologists to work in product development, marketing, and sales. Professional certification and a graduate degree in medical technology, one of the biological sciences, chemistry, manage ment, or education usually speeds advancement. A doctorate usually is needed to become a laboratory director. Federal reg ulation requires directors of moderately complex laboratories to have either a master’s degree or a bachelor’s degree, combined with the appropriate amount of training and experience. Employment Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians held about 319,000 jobs in 2006. More than half of jobs were in hospitals. Professional and Related Occupations 401 Most of the remaining jobs were in offices of physicians and in medical and diagnostic laboratories. A small proportion was in educational services and in all other ambulatory health care services. Job Outlook Rapid job growth and excellent job opportunities are expected. Most jobs will continue to be in hospitals, but employment will grow faster in other settings. Employment change. Employment of clinical laboratory workers is expected to grow 14 percent between 2006 and 2016, faster than the average for all occupations. The volume of labo ratory tests continues to increase with both population growth and the development of new types of tests. Technological advances will continue to have opposing ef fects on employment. On the one hand, new, increasingly pow erful diagnostic tests will encourage additional testing and spur employment. On the other, research and development efforts targeted at simplifying routine testing procedures may enhance the ability of nonlaboratory personnel—physicians and patients in particular—to perform tests now conducted in laboratories. Although hospitals are expected to continue to be the major employer of clinical laboratory workers, employment is expect ed to grow faster in medical and diagnostic laboratories, offices of physicians, and all other ambulatory health care services. Job prospects. Job opportunities are expected to be excellent because the number of job openings is expected to continue to exceed the number of job seekers. Although significant, job growth will not be the only source of opportunities. As in most occupations, many additional openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for some other reason. Earnings Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of medical and clini cal laboratory technologists were $49,700 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,680 and $58,560. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,660, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,260. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical and clinical laboratory technologists were: Federal Government............................................................ $57,360 Medical and diagnostic laboratories..................................... 50,740 General medical and surgical hospitals.................................49,930 Offices of physicians............................................................. 45,420 Colleges, universities, and professional schools...................45,080 Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of medical and clinical laboratory technicians were $32,840 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,430 and $41,020. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,830, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $50,250. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical and clinical laboratory technicians were: General medical and surgical hospitals.............................. $34,200 Colleges, universities, and professional schools.................. 33,440 Offices of physicians.............................................................31,330 Medical and diagnostic laboratories.................................... 30,240 Other ambulatory health care services................................. 29,560 According to the American Society for Clinical Pathology, median hourly wages of staff clinical laboratory technologists and technicians in 2005 in various specialties and laboratory types were: Physician Private Specialty Hospital office clinic laboratory Cytotechnoligist..................... .. $26.39 $31.64 $25.69 Histotechnologist................... .. 21.50 21.63 23 29 Medical technologist.............. .. 21.77 20.00 20.00 Histotechnician...................... .. 18.50 20.86 18.27 Medical laboratory technician... .. 17.41 16.94 16.63 Phlebotomist.......................... .. 11.70 12.15 11.25 Related Occupations Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians analyze body fluids, tissue, and other substances, using a variety of tests. Similar or related procedures are performed by chemists and materials scientists, science technicians, and veterinary tech nologists and technicians. Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited and approved educational programs for clinical laboratory personnel, contact: y National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences, 8410 W. Bryn Mawr Ave., Suite 670, Chicago, IL 60631. Internet: http://www.naacls.org Information on certification is available from: y American Association of Bioanalysts, Board of Registry, 906 Olive St., Suite 1200, St.Louis, MO 63101. Internet: http://www.aab.org y American Medical Technologists, 10700 Higgins Rd„ Suite 150, Rosemont, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.amtl.com > American Society for Clinical Pathology, 33 West Monroe Street, Suite 1600, Chicago, IL 60603. Internet: http://www.ascp.org Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians. Medical and clinical laboratory technologists .. Medical and clinical laboratory technicians.... soc Code 29-2010 29-2011 29-2012 Employment, 2006 319,000 167,000 151,000 Projected employment, 2016 362,000 188,000 174,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 43,000 14 21,000 12 23,000 15 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 402 Occupational Outlook Handbook y National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel, P.O. Box 15945, Lenexa, KS 66285. Internet: http://www.nca-info.org Additional career information is available from: y American Association of Blood Banks, 8101 Glenbrook Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.aabb.org y American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science, 6701 Democracy Blvd., Suite 300, Bethesda, MD 20817. Internet: http://www.ascls.org y American Society for Cytopathology, 400 West 9th St., Suite 201, Wilmington, DE 19801. Internet: http://www.cytopathology.org y Clinical Laboratory Management Association, 989 Old Eagle School Rd., Suite 815, WayNE., PA 19087. Internet: http://www.clma.org Dental Hygienists (0*NET 29-2021.00) Significant Points • A degree from an accredited dental hygiene school and a State license are required for this job. • Dental hygienists rank among the fastest growing oc cupations. • Job prospects are expected to remain excellent. • More than half work part time, and flexible schedul ing is a distinctive feature of this job. Nature of the Work Dental hygienists remove soft and hard deposits from teeth, teach patients how to practice good oral hygiene, and provide other preventive dental care. They examine patients’ teeth and gums, recording the presence of diseases or abnormalities. Dental hygienists use an assortment of different tools to com plete their tasks. Hand and rotary instruments and ultrasonic devices are used to clean and polish teeth, including removing calculus, stains, and plaque. Hygienists use x-ray machines to take dental pictures, and sometimes develop the film. They may use models of teeth to explain oral hygiene, perform root planning as a periodontal therapy, or apply cavity-preventa tive agents such as fluorides and pit and fissure sealants. In some States, hygienists are allowed to administer anesthetics, while in others they administer local anesthetics using syringes. Some States also allow hygienists to place and carve filling ma terials, temporary fillings, and periodontal dressings; remove sutures; and smooth and polish metal restorations. Dental hygienists also help patients develop and maintain good oral health. For example, they may explain the relation ship between diet and oral health or inform patients how to select toothbrushes and show them how to brush and floss their teeth. Hygienists sometimes make a diagnosis and other times may prepare clinical and laboratory diagnostic tests for the dentist https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to interpret. Hygienists sometimes work chair side with the dentist during treatment. Work environment. Dental hygienists work in clean, welllighted offices. Important health safeguards include strict ad herence to proper radiological procedures and the use of ap propriate protective devices when administering anesthetic gas. Dental hygienists also wear safety glasses, surgical masks, and gloves to protect themselves and patients from infectious dis eases. Flexible scheduling is a distinctive feature of this job. Full time, part-time, evening, and weekend schedules are widely available. Dentists frequently hire hygienists to work only 2 or 3 days a week, so hygienists may hold jobs in more than one dental office. More than half of all dental hygienists worked part time—less than 35 hours a week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Prospective dental hygienists must become licensed in the State in which they wish to practice. A degree from an accredited dental hygiene school is usually required along with licensure examinations. Education and training. A high school diploma and col lege entrance test scores are usually required for admission to a dental hygiene program. High school students interested in becoming a dental hygienist should take courses in biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Also, some dental hygiene pro grams require applicants to have completed at least 1 year of college. Specific entrance requirements vary from one school to another. In 2006, there were 286 dental hygiene programs accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Most dental hy giene programs grant an associate degree, although some also offer a certificate, a bachelor’s degree, or a master’s degree. A A ’ ~ - ■■ .. , •-S ’N. Dental hygienists use hand and rotary instruments to clean and polish teeth. Professional and Related Occupations 403 minimum of an associate degree or certificate in dental hygiene is generally required for practice in a private dental office. A bachelor’s or master’s degree usually is required for research, teaching, or clinical practice in public or school health pro grams. Schools offer laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, chemistry, microbiol ogy, pharmacology, nutrition, radiography, histology (the study of tissue structure), periodontology (the study of gum diseases), pathology, dental materials, clinical dental hygiene, and social and behavioral sciences. Licensure. Dental hygienists must be licensed by the State in which they practice. Nearly all States require candidates to graduate from an accredited dental hygiene school and pass both a written and clinical examination. The American Dental Association’s Joint Commission on National Dental Examinations administers the written examination, which is accepted by all States and the District of Columbia. State or regional testing agencies administer the clinical examination. In addition, most States require an examination on the legal aspects of dental hygiene practice. Alabama is the only State that allows candidates to take its examinations if they have been trained through a State-regulated on-the-job program in a dentist’s office. Other qualifications. Dental hygienists should work well with others because they work closely with dentists and den tal assistants as well as dealing directly with patients. Hy gienists also need good manual dexterity, because they use dental instruments within a patient’s mouth, with little room for error. Employment Dental hygienists held about 167,000 jobs in 2006. Because multiple job holding is common in this field, the number of jobs exceeds the number of hygienists. Almost all jobs for dental hygienists were in offices of dentists. A very small number worked for employment services, offices of physicians, or other industries. Job Outlook Dental hygienists rank among the fastest growing occupations, and job prospects are expected to remain excellent. Employment change. Employment of dental hygienists is expected to grow 30 percent through 2016, much faster than the average for all occupations. This projected growth ranks dental hygienists among the fastest growing occupations, in re sponse to increasing demand for dental care and the greater use of hygienists. The demand for dental services will grow because of popula tion growth, older people increasingly retaining more teeth, and a growing focus on preventative dental care. To meet this de mand, facilities that provide dental care, particularly dentists’ offices, will increasingly employ dental hygienists, and more hygienists per office, to perform services that have been per formed by dentists in the past. Job prospects. Job prospects are expected to remain excel lent. Older dentists, who have been less likely to employ dental hygienists, are leaving the occupation and will be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to employ one or more hygienists. In addition, as dentists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more hygienists to perform preventive den tal care, such as cleaning, so that they may devote their own time to more complex procedures. Earnings Median hourly earnings of dental hygienists were $30.19 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $24.63 and $35.67 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19.45, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $41.60 an hour. Earnings vary by geographic location, employment setting, and years of experience. Dental hygienists may be paid on an hourly, daily, salary, or commission basis. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting and may be contingent upon full-time employment. According to the American Dental Association, 86 percent of hygienists receive hospital and medical benefits. Related Occupations Other workers supporting health practitioners in an office set ting include dental assistants, medical assistants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, physician assistants, and registered nurses. Dental hy gienists sometimes work with radiation technology, as do ra diation therapists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in dental hygiene, including educa tional requirements, contact: y Division of Education, American Dental Hygienists Association, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 3400, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.adha.org For information about accredited programs and educational requirements, contact: y Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org The State Board of Dental Examiners in each State can sup ply information on licensing requirements. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Dental hygienists................................................ soc Employment, Code 2006 167,000 Projected employment, 2016 217.000 Change, 2006-2016 Number 50,000 Percent 30 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 404 Occupational Outlook Handbook Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (0*NET 29-2032.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities should be favorable. • Employment growth is expected to be faster than av erage as sonography becomes an increasingly attrac tive alternative to radiologic procedures. • More than half of all sonographers were employed by hospitals, and most of the rest were employed by of fices of physicians, medical and diagnostic laborato ries, and mobile imaging services. • Sonographers may train in hospitals, vocational-tech nical institutions, colleges and universities, and the Armed Forces; employers prefer those who trained in accredited programs and who are registered. Nature of the Work Diagnostic imaging embraces several procedures that aid in di agnosing ailments. The most familiar procedures are the x-ray and the magnetic resonance imaging; however, not all imaging technologies use ionizing radiation or radio waves. Sonogra phy, or ultrasonography, is the use of sound waves to generate an image for the assessment and diagnosis of various medical conditions. Sonography commonly is associated with obstet rics and the use of ultrasound imaging during pregnancy, but this technology has many other applications in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions throughout the body. Diagnostic medical sonographers use special equipment to direct nonionizing, high frequency sound waves into areas of the patient’s body. Sonographers operate the equipment, which collects reflected echoes and forms an image that may be vid eotaped, transmitted, or photographed for interpretation and di agnosis by a physician. Sonographers begin by explaining the procedure to the pa tient and recording any medical history that may be relevant to the condition being viewed. They then select appropriate equipment settings and direct the patient to move into positions that will provide the best view. To perform the exam, sonogra phers use a transducer, which transmits sound waves in a coneor rectangle-shaped beam. Although techniques vary with the area being examined, sonographers usually spread a special gel on the skin to aid the transmission of sound waves. Viewing the screen during the scan, sonographers look for subtle visual cues that contrast healthy areas with unhealthy ones. They decide whether the images are satisfactory for diag nostic purposes and select which ones to store and show to the physician. Sonographers take measurements, calculate values, and analyze the results in preliminary findings for the physi cians. In addition to working directly with patients, diagnostic med ical sonographers keep patient records and adjust and maintain equipment. They also may prepare work schedules, evaluate https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis equipment purchases, or manage a sonography or diagnostic imaging department. Diagnostic medical sonographers may specialize in obstetric and gynecologic sonography (the female reproductive system), abdominal sonography (the liver, kidneys, gallbladder, spleen, and pancreas), neurosonography (the brain), or breast sonogra phy. In addition, sonographers may specialize in vascular so nography or cardiac sonography. (Vascular sonographers and cardiac sonographers are covered in the Handbook statement on cardiovascular technologists and technicians.) Obstetric and gynecologic sonographers specialize in the imaging of the female reproductive system. Included in the discipline is one of the more well-known uses of sonography: examining the fetus of a pregnant woman to track the baby’s growth and health. Abdominal sonographers inspect a patient’s abdominal cav ity to help diagnose and treat conditions primarily involving the gallbladder, bile ducts, kidneys, liver, pancreas, spleen, and male reproductive system. Abdominal sonographers also are able to scan parts of the chest, although studies of the heart us ing sonography usually are done by echocardiographers. Neurosonographers focus on the nervous system, including the brain. In neonatal care, neurosonographers study and diag nose neurological and nervous system disorders in premature infants. They also may scan blood vessels to check for abnor malities indicating a stroke in infants diagnosed with sickle-cell anemia. Like other sonographers, neurosonographers operate transducers to perform the sonogram, but use frequencies and beam shapes different from those used by obstetric and abdomi nal sonographers. Breast sonographers use sonography to study diseases of the breasts. Sonography aids mammography in the detection of breast cancer. Breast sonography can also track tumors, blood — Diagnostic medical sonographers use special equipment to di rect nonionizing, high frequency sound waves into areas of the patient’s body. Professional and Related Occupations 405 supply conditions, and assist in the accurate biopsy of breast tissue. Breast sonographers use high-frequency transducers, made exclusively to study breast tissue. Work environment. Sonographers typically work in health care facilities that are clean. They usually work at diagnostic imaging machines in darkened rooms, but also may perform procedures at patients’ bedsides. Sonographers may be on their feet for long periods of time and may have to lift or turn dis abled patients. In addition, the nature of their work can put sonographers at an increased risk for musculoskeletal disorders such as carpel tunnel syndrome, neck and back strain, and eye strain: however, greater use of ergonomic equipment and an in creasing awareness will continue to minimize such risks Some sonographers work as contract employees and may travel to several health care facilities in an area. Similarly, some sonographers work with mobile imaging service providers and travel to patients and use mobile diagnostic imaging equipment to provide service in areas that otherwise do not have the access to such services. Most full-time sonographers work about 40 hours a week. Hospital-based sonographers may have evening and weekend hours and times when they are on call and must be ready to report to work on short notice. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Diagnostic medical sonography is an occupation where there is no preferred level of education and several avenues of educa tion are widely accepted by employers. Although no level of education is preferred, employers do prefer sonographers who trained in accredited programs and who are registered. Education and training. There are several avenues for entry into the field of diagnostic medical sonography. Sonographers may train in hospitals, vocational-technical institutions, col leges and universities, and the Armed Forces. Some training programs prefer applicants with a background in science or ex perience in other health care professions. Some also may con sider high school graduates with courses in mathematics and science, as well as applicants with liberal arts backgrounds, but this practice is infrequent. Colleges and universities offer formal training in both 2- and 4-year programs, culminating in an associate or a bachelor’s degree. Two-year programs are most prevalent. Course work includes classes in anatomy, physiology, instrumentation, basic physics, patient care, and medical ethics. A few 1-year programs that may result in a certificate also are accepted as proper education by employers. These pro grams typically are satisfactory education for workers already in health care who seek to increase their marketability by train ing in sonography. These programs are not accredited. The Commission on Accreditation for Allied Health Educa tion Programs (CAAHEP) accredited 147 training programs in 2006. These programs typically are the formal training pro grams offered by colleges and universities. Some hospital pro grams are accredited as well. Certification and other qualifications. Although no State requires licensure in diagnostic medical sonography, organi zations such as the American Registry for Diagnostic Medi cal Sonography (ARDMS) certify the skills and knowledge of sonographers through credentialing, including registration. Because registration provides an independent, objective mea sure of an individual’s professional standing, many employers prefer to hire registered sonographers. Sonographers registered by the ARDMS are Registered Diagnostic Medical Sonogra phers (RDMS). Registration with ARDMS requires passing a general physical principles and instrumentation examination, in addition to passing an exam in a specialty such as obstetric and gynecologic sonography, abdominal sonography, or neuro sonography. Sonographers must complete a required number of continuing education hours to maintain registration with the ARDMS and to stay abreast of technological advancements re lated to the occupation. Sonographers need good communication and interpersonal skills because they must be able to explain technical procedures and results to their patients, some of whom may be nervous about the exam or the problems it may reveal. Good handeye coordination is particularly important to obtaining quality images. It is also important that sonographers enjoy learning because continuing education is the key to sonographers stay ing abreast of the ever-changing field of diagnostic medicine. A background in mathematics and science is helpful for sonog raphers as well. Advancement. Sonographers specializing in one particular discipline often seek competency in others. For example, ob stetric sonographers might seek training in abdominal sonog raphy to broaden their opportunities and increase their market ability. Sonographers may also have advancement opportunities in education, administration, research, sales, or technical advis ing. Employment Diagnostic medical sonographers held about 46,000 jobs in 2006. More than half of all sonographer jobs were in public and private hospitals. The rest were typically in offices of phy sicians, medical and diagnostic laboratories, and mobile imag ing services. Job Outlook Faster-than-average employment growth is expected. Job op portunities should be favorable. Employment change. Employment of diagnostic medical so nographers is expected to increase by about 19 percent through Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Diagnostic medical sonographers........................... ....................... soc Employment, Code 2006 29-2032 46,000 Projected employment, 2016 54,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number 8,700 Percent 19 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 406 Occupational Outlook Handbook 2016—faster than the average for all occupations—as the popu lation ages, increasing the demand for diagnostic imaging and therapeutic technology. Additional job growth is expected as sonography becomes an increasingly attractive alternative to radiologic procedures, as patients seek safer treatment methods. Unlike most diagnos tic imaging methods, sonography does not involve radiation, so harmful side effects and complications from repeated use are less likely for both the patient and the sonographer. Sonograph ic technology is expected to evolve rapidly and to spawn many new sonography procedures, such as 3D- and 4D-sonography for use in obstetric and ophthalmologic diagnosis. However, high costs and approval by the Federal Government may limit the rate at which some promising new technologies are adopted. Ultrasound currently is only approved for cardiovascular im aging but is awaiting Federal Government approval for other applications. Hospitals will remain the principal employer of diagnostic medical sonographers. However, employment is expected to grow more rapidly in offices of physicians and in medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers. Healthcare facilities such as these are expected to grow very rapidly through 2016 because of the strong shift toward outpa tient care, encouraged by third-party payers and made possible by technological advances that permit more procedures to be performed outside the hospital. Job prospects. Job opportunities should be favorable. In ad dition to job openings from growth, some openings will arise from the need to replace sonographers who retire or leave the occupation permanently for some other reason. Pain caused by musculoskeletal disorders has made it difficult for sonogra phers to perform well. Some are forced to leave the occupation early because of this disorder. For information on becoming a registered diagnostic medical sonographer, contact: y American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography, 51 Monroe St., Plaza East 1, Rockville, MD 20850-2400. Internet: http://www.ardms.org For more information on ultrasound in medicine, contact: y American Institute of Ultrasound in MediciNE., 14750 Sweitzer LaNE., Suite 100, Laurel, MD 20707-5906. Internet: http://www.aium.org For a current list of accredited education programs in diag nostic medical sonography, contact: y Joint Review Committee on Education in Diagnostic Medical Sonography, 2025 Woodlane Dr., St.Paul, MN 55125-2998. Internet: http://www.jrcdms.org y Commission on Accreditation for Allied Health Education Programs, 35 East Wacker Dr., Suitel970, Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http://www.caahep.org Emergency Medical Technicians and Paramedics (0*NET 29-2041.00) Significant Points • Employment is projected to grow faster than the aver age as paid positions replace unpaid volunteers. • Emergency medical technicians and paramedics need formal training and certification, but requirements vary by State. • Emergency services function 24 hours a day so emer gency medical technicians and paramedics have ir regular working hours. • Opportunities will be best for those who have earned Earnings Median annual earnings of diagnostic medical sonographers were $57,160 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $48,890 and $67,670 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $40,960, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $77,520. Median annual earnings of diagnostic medical sonog raphers in May 2006 were $56,970 in offices of physicians and $56,850 in general medical and surgical hospitals. Related Occupations Diagnostic medical sonographers operate sophisticated equip ment to help physicians and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include car diovascular technologists and technicians, clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, nuclear medicine technologists, radiologic technologists and technicians, and respiratory thera pists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a diagnostic medical sonogra pher, contact: y Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonography, 2745 Dallas Pkwy., Suite 350, Plano, TX 75093-8730. Internet: http://www.sdms.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis advanced certifications. Nature of the Work People’s lives often depend on the quick reaction and competent care of emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramed ics. Incidents as varied as automobile accidents, heart attacks, slips and falls, childbirth, and gunshot wounds all require im mediate medical attention. EMTs and paramedics provide this vital service as they care for and transport the sick or injured to a medical facility. In an emergency, EMTs and paramedics are typically dis patched by a 911 operator to the scene, where they often work with police and fire fighters. (Police and detectives and fire fighting occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Once they arrive, EMTs and paramedics assess the nature of the patient’s condition while trying to determine whether the patient has any pre-existing medical conditions. Following medical protocols and guidelines, they provide appropriate emergency care and, when necessary, transport the patient. Some paramed ics are trained to treat patients with minor injuries on the scene of an accident or they may treat them at their home without Professional and Related Occupations 407 transporting them to a medical facility. Emergency treatment is carried out under the medical direction of physicians. EMTs and paramedics may use special equipment, such as backboards, to immobilize patients before placing them on stretchers and securing them in the ambulance for transport to a medical facility. These workers generally work in teams. Dur ing the transport of a patient, one EMT or paramedic drives while the other monitors the patient’s vital signs and gives ad ditional care as needed. Some paramedics work as part of a helicopter’s flight crew to transport critically ill or injured pa tients to hospital trauma centers. At the medical facility, EMTs and paramedics help transfer patients to the emergency department, report their observations and actions to emergency department staff, and may provide additional emergency treatment. After each run, EMTs and paramedics replace used supplies and check equipment. If a transported patient had a contagious disease, EMTs and para medics decontaminate the interior of the ambulance and report cases to the proper authorities. EMTs and paramedics also provide transportation for pa tients from one medical facility to another, particularly if they work for private ambulance services. Patients often need to be transferred to a hospital that specializes in their injury or illness or to a nursing home. Beyond these general duties, the specific responsibilities of EMTs and paramedics depend on their level of qualification and training. The National Registry of Emergency Medical Techni cians (NREMT) certifies emergency medical service providers at five levels: First Responder; EMT-Basic; EMT-Intermediate, which has two levels called 1985 and 1999; and Paramedic. Some States, however, have their own certification programs and use distinct names and titles. The EMT-Basic represents the first component of the emer gency medical technician system. An EMT trained at this level is prepared to care for patients at the scene of an accident and while transporting patients by ambulance to the hospital under medical direction. The EMT-Basic has the emergency skills to assess a patient’s condition and manage respiratory, cardiac, and trauma emergencies. The EMT-Intermediate has more advanced training. Howev er, the specific tasks that those certified at this level are allowed to perform varies greatly from by State. EMT-Paramedics provide the most extensive pre-hospital care. In addition to carrying out the procedures of the other lev els, paramedics may administer drugs orally and intravenously, interpret electrocardiograms (EKGs), perform endotracheal intubations, and use monitors and other complex equipment. However, like EMT-Immediate, what Paramedics are permitted to do varies from State to State. Work environment. EMTs and paramedics work both in doors and out, in all types of weather. They are required to do considerable kneeling, bending, and heavy lifting. These workers risk noise-induced hearing loss from sirens and back injuries from lifting patients. In addition, EMTs and paramed ics may be exposed to diseases such as hepatitis-B and AIDS, as well as violence from mentally unstable patients. The work is not only physically strenuous but can be stressful, sometimes involving life-or-death situations and suffering patients. None- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis lfgjj| \ ns ■ —\ ........ Emergency medical technicians and paramedics often work in pairs, where one person drives the ambulance and the other monitors the patient. theless, many people find the work exciting and challenging and enjoy the opportunity to help others. EMTs and paramedics employed by fire departments work about 50 hours a week. Those employed by hospitals frequent ly work between 45 and 60 hours a week, and those in private ambulance services, between 45 and 50 hours. Some of these workers, especially those in police and fire departments, are on call for extended periods. Because emergency services func tion 24 hours a day, EMTs and paramedics have irregular work ing hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, a high school diploma is required to enter a training program to become an EMT or paramedic. Workers must com plete a formal training and certification process. Education and training. A high school diploma is usually required to enter a formal emergency medical technician train ing program. Training is offered at progressive levels: EMTBasic, EMT-Intermediate, and EMT-Paramedic. At the EMT-Basic level, coursework emphasizes emergency skills, such as managing respiratory, trauma, and cardiac emer gencies, and patient assessment. Formal courses are often com bined with time in an emergency room or ambulance. The pro gram provides instruction and practice in dealing with bleeding, fractures, airway obstruction, cardiac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Students learn how to use and maintain common emergency equipment, such as backboards, suction devices, splints, oxygen delivery systems, and stretchers. Graduates of approved EMT-Basic training programs must pass a written and practical examination administered by the State certifying agency or the NREMT. At the EMT-Intermediate level, training requirements vary by State. The nationally defined levels (EMT-Intermediate 1985 and EMT-Intermediate 1999) typically require 30 to 350 hours of training based on scope of practice. Students learn advanced skills such the use of advanced airway devices, intravenous flu ids, and some medications. The most advanced level of training for this occupation is EMT-Paramedic. At this level, the caregiver receives training in anatomy and physiology as well as advanced medical skills. 408 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most commonly, the training is conducted in community col leges and technical schools over 1 to 2 years and may result in an associate’s degree. Such education prepares the gradu ate to take the NREMT examination and become certified as a Paramedic. Extensive related coursework and clinical and field experience is required. Refresher courses and continuing edu cation are available for EMTs and paramedics at all levels. Licensure. All 50 States require certification for each of the EMT levels. In most States and the District of Columbia reg istration with the NREMT is required at some or all levels of certification. Other States administer their own certification ex amination or provide the option of taking either the NREMT or State examination. To maintain certification, EMTs and para medics must recertify, usually every 2 years. Generally, they must be working as an EMT or paramedic and meet a continu ing education requirement. Other qualifications. EMTs and paramedics should be emo tionally stable, have good dexterity, agility, and physical coor dination, and be able to lift and carry heavy loads. They also need good eyesight (corrective lenses may be used) with ac curate color vision. Advancement. Paramedics can become supervisors, opera tions managers, administrative directors, or executive directors of emergency services. Some EMTs and paramedics become instructors, dispatchers, or physician assistants; others move into sales or marketing of emergency medical equipment. A number of people become EMTs and paramedics to test their interest in health care before training as registered nurses, phy sicians, or other health workers. Employment prospects should be good, particularly in cities and private am bulance services. Employment change. Employment of emergency medical technicians and paramedics is expected to grow by 19 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Full-time paid EMTs and paramedics will be needed to replace unpaid volunteers. It is becoming increasing difficult for emergency medical services to recruit and retain unpaid volunteers because of the amount of training and the large time commitment these positions require. As a result, more paid EMTs and paramedics are needed. Furthermore, as a large segment of the population—aging members of the baby boom generation—becomes more likely to have medical emergencies, demand will increase for EMTs and paramedics. There also will still be demand for part-time, volunteer EMTs and paramedics in rural areas and smaller metropolitan areas. Job prospects. Job prospects should be favorable. Many job openings will arise from growth and from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation because of the limited poten tial for advancement, as well as the modest pay and benefits in private-sector jobs. Job opportunities should be best in private ambulance ser vices. Competition will be greater for jobs in local govern ment, including fire, police, and independent third-service res cue squad departments which tend to have better salaries and benefits. EMTs and paramedics who have advanced education and certifications, such as Paramedic level certification, should enjoy the most favorable job prospects as clients and patients demand higher levels of care before arriving at the hospital. Earnings EMTs and paramedics held about 201,000 jobs in 2006. Most career EMTs and paramedics work in metropolitan areas. Vol unteer EMTs and paramedics are more common in small cit ies, towns, and rural areas. These individuals volunteer for fire departments, emergency medical services, or hospitals and may respond to only a few calls per month. About 30 percent of EMTs or paramedics belong to a union. Paid EMTs and paramedics were employed in a number of industries. About 4 out of 10 worked as employees of private ambulance services. About 3 out of 10 worked in local gov ernment for fire departments, public ambulance services, and emergency medical services. Another 2 out of 10 worked full time in hospitals within the medical facility or responded to calls in ambulances or helicopters to transport critically ill or injured patients. The remainder worked in various industries providing emergency services. Earnings of EMTs and paramedics depend on the employment setting and geographic location of their jobs, as well as their training and experience. Median annual earnings of EMTs and paramedics were $27,070 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,290 and $35,210. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,300, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,280. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of EMTs and paramedics in May 2006 were $23,250 in general medical and surgical hospi tals and $20,350 in ambulance services. Those in emergency medical services who are part of fire or police departments typically receive the same benefits as fire fighters or police officers. For example, many are covered by pension plans that provide retirement at half pay after 20 or 25 years of service or if the worker is disabled in the line of duty. Job Outlook Related Occupations Employment for EMTs and paramedics is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2016. Job Other workers in occupations that require quick and level-head ed reactions to life-or-death situations are air traffic controllers, Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2006-2016 employment, Code 2016 Number Percent 240,000 39,000 19 201,000 29-2041 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.................. ............ NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2006 Professional and Related Occupations 409 firefighting occupations, physician assistants, police and detec tives, and registered nurses. ■nv .i t Sources of Additional Information General information about emergency medical technicians and paramedics is available from: y National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians, P.O. Box 1400, Clinton, MS 39060-1400. Internet: http://www.naemt.org > National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, EMS Division, 400 7th St.SW., NTS-14, Washington, DC 20590. Internet: http://www.ems.gov > National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians, Rocco V. Morando Bldg., 6610 Busch Blvd., RO. Box 29233, Columbus, OH 43229. Internet: http://www.nremt.org Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses (0*NET 29-2061.00) Significant Points • • • Most training programs, lasting about 1 year, are of fered by vocational or technical schools or community or junior colleges. Overall job prospects are expected to be very good, but job outlook varies by industry. Replacement needs will be a major source of job openings, as many workers leave the occupation per manently. Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (LPNs), or licensed vocational nurses (LVNs), care for people who are sick, injured, convalescent, or disabled under the direction of physicians and registered nurses. (The work of physicians and surgeons and of registered nurses is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) The nature of the direc tion and supervision required varies by State and job setting. LPNs care for patients in many ways. Often, they provide basic bedside care. Many LPNs measure and record patients’ vital signs such as height, weight, temperature, blood pressure, pulse, and respiration. They also prepare and give injections and enemas, monitor catheters, dress wounds, and give alco hol rubs and massages. To help keep patients comfortable, they assist with bathing, dressing, and personal hygiene, moving in bed, standing, and walking. They might also feed patients who need help eating. Experienced LPNs may supervise nursing as sistants and aides. As part of their work, LPNs collect samples for testing, per form routine laboratory tests, and record food and fluid intake and output. They clean and monitor medical equipment. Some times, they help physicians and registered nurses perform tests and procedures. Some LPNs help to deliver, care for, and feed infants. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Licensed practical nurses care for people who are sick, injured, convalescent, and disabled. LPNs also monitor their patients and report adverse reactions to medications or treatments. LPNs gather information from pa tients, including their health history and how they are currently feeling. They may use this information to complete insurance forms, pre-authorizations, and referrals, and they share informa tion with registered nurses and doctors to help determine the best course of care for a patient. LPNs often teach family members how to care for a relative or teach patients about good health habits. Most LPNs are generalists and work in all areas of health care. However, some work in a specialized setting, such as a nursing home, a doctor’s office, or in home health care. LPNs in nursing care facilities help to evaluate residents’ needs, develop care plans, and supervise the care provided by nursing aides. In doctors’ offices and clinics, they may be responsible for making appointments, keeping records, and performing other clerical duties. LPNs who work in home health care may prepare meals and teach family members simple nursing tasks. In some States, LPNs are permitted to administer prescribed medicines, start intravenous fluids, and provide care to ventila tor-dependent patients. Work environment. Most licensed practical nurses in hos pitals and nursing care facilities work a 40-hour week, but be cause patients need round-the-clock care, some work nights, weekends, and holidays. They often stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk. LPNs may face hazards from caustic chemicals, radiation, and infectious diseases. They are subject to back injuries when moving patients. They often must deal with the stress of heavy workloads. In addition, the patients they care for may be con fused, agitated, or uncooperative. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training programs, lasting about 1 year, are offered by vo cational or technical schools or community or junior colleges. LPNs must be licensed to practice. Successful completion of a practical nurse program and passing an examination are re quired to become licensed. Education and training. All States and the District of Co lumbia require LPNs to pass a licensing examination, known as the NCLEX-PN, after completing a State-approved practi 410 Occupational Outlook Handbook cal nursing program. A high school diploma or its equivalent usually is required for entry, although some programs accept candidates without a diploma, and some programs are part of a high school curriculum. In 2006, there were more than 1,500 State-approved train ing programs in practical nursing. Most training programs are available from technical and vocational schools or community and junior colleges. Other programs are available through high schools, hospitals, and colleges and universities. Most year-long practical nursing programs include both classroom study and supervised clinical practice (patient care). Classroom study covers basic nursing concepts and subjects re lated to patient care, including anatomy, physiology, medicalsurgical nursing, pediatrics, obstetrics, psychiatric nursing, the administration of drugs, nutrition, and first aid. Clinical practice usually is in a hospital but sometimes includes other settings. Licensure. The NCLEX-PN licensing exam is required in order to obtain licensure as an LPN. The exam is developed and administered by the National Council of State Boards of Nursing. The NCLEX-PN is a computer-based exam and var ies in length. The exam covers four major categories: safe and effective care environment, health promotion and maintenance, psychosocial integrity, and physiological integrity. Other qualifications. LPNs should have a caring, sympathet ic nature. They should be emotionally stable because working with the sick and injured can be stressful. They also need to be observant, and to have good decision-making and communica tion skills. As part of a health-care team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. Advancement. In some employment settings, such as nurs ing homes, LPNs can advance to become charge nurses who oversee the work of other LPNs and of nursing aides. Some LPNs also choose to become registered nurses through numer ous LPN-to-RN training programs. Employment Licensed practical nurses held about 749,000 jobs in 2006. About 26 percent of LPNs worked in hospitals, 26 percent in nursing care facilities, and another 12 percent in offices of phy sicians. Others worked for home health care services; employ ment services; residential care facilities; community care facili ties for the elderly; outpatient care centers; and Federal, State, and local government agencies. About 19 percent worked part time. Employment change. Employment of LPNs is expected to grow 14 percent between 2006 and 2016, faster than the aver age for all occupations, in response to the long-term care needs of an increasing elderly population and the general increase in demand for health care services. Many procedures once performed only in hospitals are being performed in physicians’ offices and in outpatient care centers such as ambulatory surgical and emergency medical centers, largely because of advances in technology. LPNs care for pa tients who undergo these and other procedures, so employment of LPNs is projected to decline in traditional hospitals, but is projected to grow faster than average in most settings outside of hospitals. However, some hospitals are assigning a larger share of nursing duties to LPNs, which will temper the employment decline in the industry. Employment of LPNs is expected to grow much faster than average in home health care services. Home health care agen cies will offer a large number of new jobs for LPNs because of an increasing number of older people with functional disabili ties, consumer preference for care in the home, and technologi cal advances that make it possible to bring increasingly complex treatments into the home. Employment of LPNs in nursing care facilities is expected to grow faster than average, and provide the most new jobs for LPNs, because of the growing number of people who are aged and disabled and in need of long-term care. In addition, LPNs in nursing care facilities will be needed to care for the increas ing number of patients who have been discharged from the hos pital but who have not recovered enough to return home. Job prospects. Replacement needs will be a major source of job openings, as many workers leave the occupation permanent ly. Very good job opportunities are expected. Rapid employ ment growth is projected in most health care industries, with the best job opportunities occurring in nursing care facilities and in home health care services. However, applicants for jobs in hospitals may face competition as the number of hospital jobs for LPNs declines. Earnings Median annual earnings of licensed practical nurses were $36,550 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,080 and $43,640. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,380, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $50,480. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of licensed practical nurses in May 2006 were: Job Outlook Employment of LPNs is projected to grow faster than average. Overall job prospects are expected to be very good, but job out look varies by industry. The best job opportunities will occur in nursing care facilities and home health care services, while applicants for jobs in hospitals may face competition. Employment services.......................................................... $42,110 Nursing care facilities........................................................... 38,320 Home health care services.................................................... 37,880 General medical and surgical hospitals................................. 35,000 Offices of physicians............................................................. 32,710 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses................. .......... soc Employment, Code 2006 29-2061 749,000 Change, Projected employment, 2016 854,000 2006-2016 Number 105,000 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on lion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Percent 14 Occupational Informa- Professional and Related Occupations 411 Related Occupations LPNs work closely with people while helping them. So do emergency medical technicians and paramedics; medical assis tants; nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides; registered nurses; athletic trainers; social and human service assistants; pharmacy technicians; pharmacy aides; and surgical technolo gists. Sources of Additional Information For information about practical nursing, contact the following organizations: >■ National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service, Inc., P.O. Box 25647, Alexandria, VA 22313. Internet: http://www.napnes.org y National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., 605 Poole Dr., Garner, NC 27529. Internet: http://www.nflpn.org y National League for Nursing, 61 Broadway, New York, NY 10006. Internet: http://www.nln.org Information on the NCLEX-PN licensing exam is available from: y National Council of State Boards of Nursing, 111 East Wacker Dr., Suite 2900, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ncsbn.org A list of State-approved LPN programs is available from in dividual State boards of nursing. Medical Records and Health Information Technicians (Q*NET 29-2071.00) Significant Points * Employment is expected to grow faster than average. • Job prospects should be very good; technicians with formation. Technicians regularly use computer programs to tabulate and analyze data to improve patient care, better control cost, provide documentation for use in legal actions, or use in research studies. Medical records and health information technicians’ duties vary with the size of the facility where they work. In large to medium-size facilities, technicians might specialize in one aspect of health information or might supervise health infor mation clerks and transcriptionists while a medical records and health information administrator manages the department. (See the statement on medical and health services managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) In small facilities, a credentialed medical records and health information technician may have the opportunity to manage the department. Some medical records and health information technicians specialize in coding patients’ medical information for insur ance purposes. Technicians who specialize in coding are called health information coders, medical record coders, coder/ab stractors, or coding specialists. These technicians assign a code to each diagnosis and procedure, relying on their knowl edge of disease processes. Technicians then use classification systems software to assign the patient to one of several hundred “diagnosis-related groups,” or DRGs. The DRG determines the amount for which the hospital will be reimbursed if the patient is covered by Medicare or other insurance programs using the DRG system. In addition to the DRG system, coders use other coding systems, such as those required for ambulatory settings, physician offices, or long-term care. Medical records and health information technicians also may specialize in cancer registry. Cancer (or tumor) registrars maintain facility, regional, and national databases of cancer pa tients. Registrars review patient records and pathology reports, and assign codes for the diagnosis and treatment of different I if ■ fi A a strong background in medical coding will be in par ticularly high demand. • Entrants usually have an associate degree. * This is one of the few health occupations in which there is little or no direct contact with patients. Nature of the Work Every time a patient receives health care, a record is maintained of the observations, medical or surgical interventions, and treatment outcomes. This record includes information that the patient provides concerning his or her symptoms and medical history, the results of examinations, reports of x-rays and labo ratory tests, diagnoses, and treatment plans. Medical records and health information technicians organize and evaluate these records for completeness and accuracy. Technicians assemble patients’ health information, making sure that patients’ initial medical charts are complete, that all forms are completed and properly identified and authenticated, and that all necessary information is in the computer. They regularly communicate with physicians and other health care professionals to clarify diagnoses or to obtain additional in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Medical records and health information technicians comprise one of the few health occupations that involve little or no direct contact with patients. 412 Occupational Outlook Handbook cancers and selected benign tumors. Registrars conduct annual followups on all patients in the registry to track their treatment, survival, and recovery. Physicians and public health organiza tions then use this information to calculate survivor rates and success rates of various types of treatment, locate geographic areas with high incidences of certain cancers, and identify po tential participants for clinical drug trials. Public health offi cials also use cancer registry data to target areas for the alloca tion of resources to provide intervention and screening. Work environment. Medical records and health information technicians work in pleasant and comfortable offices. This is one of the few health-related occupations in which there is little or no direct contact with patients. Because accuracy is essen tial in their jobs, technicians must pay close attention to detail. Technicians who work at computer monitors for prolonged pe riods must guard against eyestrain and muscle pain. Medical records and health information technicians usually work a 40-hour week. Some overtime may be required. In hos pitals—where health information departments often are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week—technicians may work day, eve ning, and night shifts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical records and health information technicians entering the field usually have an associate degree from a community or junior college. Many employers favor technicians who have become Registered Health Information Technicians (RHIT). Advancement opportunities for medical record and health in formation technicans are typically achieved by specialization or promotion to a management position. Education and training. Medical records and health infor mation technicians generally obtain an associate degree from a community or junior college. Typically, community and ju nior colleges offer flexible course scheduling or online distance learning courses. (See the Sources of Education, Training, and Financial Aid section of the Handbook for more information re garding community and junior colleges.) In addition to general education, coursework includes medical terminology, anatomy and physiology, legal aspects of health information, health data standards, coding and abstraction of data, statistics, database management, quality improvement methods, and computer sci ence. Applicants can improve their chances of admission into a program by taking biology, math, chemistry, health, and com puter science courses in high school. Certification and other qualifications. Most employers pre fer to hire Registered Health Information Technicians (RHIT), who must pass a written examination offered by the American Health Information Management Association (AHIMA). To take the examination, a person must graduate from a 2-year associate degree program accredited by the Commission on Accreditation for Health Informatics and Information Manage ment Education (CAHIIM). Technicians trained in non-CAHIIM-accredited programs or trained on the job are not eligible to take the examination. In 2007, there were about 245 CAHIIM accredited programs in Health Informantics and Information Management Education. Some employers prefer candidates with experience in a health care setting. Experience is valuable in demonstrating https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis certain skills or desirable qualities. It is beneficial for health information technicians to possess good communication skills, as they often serve as a liaison between health care facilities, in surance companies, and other establishments. Accuracy is also essential to technicians because they must pay close attention to detail. A candidate who exhibits proficiency with computers will become more valuable as health care facilities continue to adopt electronic medical records. Certification and advancement. Experienced medical re cords and health information technicians usually advance in one of two ways—by specializing or by moving into a man agement position. Many senior technicians specialize in cod ing, in cancer registry, or in privacy and security. Most cod ing and registry skills are learned on the job. A number of schools offer certificate programs in coding or include coding as part of the associate degree program for health information technicians, although there are no formal degree programs in coding. For cancer registry, there are a few formal 2-year certificate programs approved by the National Cancer Regis trars Association (NCRA). Some schools and employers offer intensive 1- to 2-week training programs in either coding or cancer registry. Certification in coding is available from several organiza tions. Coding certification within specific medical specialty areas is available from the Board of Medical Specialty Coding and the Professional Association of Healthcare Coding Special ist (PAHCS). The American Academy of Professional Coders (AAPC) offers three distinct certification programs in coding. The AHIMA also offers certification for Certified Healthcare Privacy and Security because of growing concerns for the secu rity of electronic medical records. Certification in cancer reg istry is available from the NCRA. Continuing education units are typically required to renew credentials. In large medical records and health information departments, experienced technicians may advance to section supervisor, overseeing the work of the coding, correspondence, or dis charge sections, for example. Senior technicians with RHIT credentials may become director or assistant director of a medi cal records and health information department in a small facil ity. However, in larger institutions, the director usually is an administrator with a bachelor’s degree in medical records and health information administration. Hospitals sometimes advance promising health information clerks to jobs as medical records and health information techni cians, although this practice may be less common in the future. Advancement usually requires 2 to 4 years of job experience and completion of a hospital’s in-house training program. Employment Medical records and health information technicians held about 170,000 jobs in 2006. About 2 out of 5 jobs were in hospitals. The rest were mostly in offices of physicians, nursing care fa cilities, outpatient care centers, and home health care services. Insurance firms that deal in health matters employ a small num ber of health information technicians to tabulate and analyze health information. Public health departments also employ technicians to supervise data collection from health care insti tutions and to assist in research. Professional and Related Occupations 413 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Medical records and health information technicians............... ......... soc Code 29-2071 Projected employment, 2016 200,000 Employment, 2006 170,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 30,000 18 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Job Outlook Related Occupations Employment is expected to grow faster than average. Job pros pects should be very good; technicians with a strong background in medical coding will be in particularly high demand. Employment change. Employment of medical records and health information technicians is expected to increase by 18 percent through 2016—faster than the average for all occupa tions—because of rapid growth in the number of medical tests, treatments, and procedures that will be increasingly scrutinized by health insurance companies, regulators, courts, and consum ers. Also, technicians will be needed to enter patient informa tion into computer databases to comply with Federal legislation mandating the use of electronic medical records. New jobs are expected in offices of physicians as a result of increasing demand for detailed records, especially in large group practices. New jobs also are expected in home health care services, outpatient care centers, and nursing and residen tial care facilities. Although employment growth in hospitals will not keep pace with growth in other health care industries, many new jobs will, nevertheless, be created. Cancer registrars should experience job growth. As the popu lation continues to age, the incidence of cancer may increase. Job prospects. Job prospects should be very good. In addi tion to job growth, openings will result from the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the occupation permanently. Technicians with a strong background in medical coding will be in particularly high demand. Changing government regula tions and the growth of managed care have increased the amount of paperwork involved in filing insurance claims. Additionally, health care facilities are having some difficulty attracting quali fied workers, primarily because employers prefer trained and experienced technicians prepared to work in an increasingly electronic environment with the integration of electronic health records. Job opportunities may be especially good for coders employed through temporary help agencies or by professional services firms. Medical records and health information technicians need a strong clinical background to analyze the contents of medical records. Medical secretaries and medical transcriptionists also must be knowledgeable about medical terminology, anatomy, and physiology even though they have little or no direct contact with patients. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in medical records and health informa tion technology, and a list of accredited training programs is available from: 'y American Health Information Management Association, 233 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 2150, Chicago, IL 60601-5800. Internet: http://www.ahima.org Information on training and certification for medical coders is available from: y American Academy of Professional Coders, 2480 South 3850 West, Suite B, Salt Lake City, UT 84120. Internet: http://www.aapc.com Information on cancer registrars is available from: y National Cancer Registrars Association, 1340 Braddock Place Suite 203, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.ncra-usa.org Nuclear Medicine Technologists (Q*NET 29-2033.00) Significant Points • Two-thirds of nuclear medicine technologists worked in hospitals. • Nuclear medicine technology programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. • Faster-than-average job growth will arise from an increase in the number of middle-aged and elderly persons, who are the primary users of diagnostic and treatment procedures. • The number of job openings each year will be rela tively low because the occupation is small; technolo gists who also are trained in other diagnostic methods, such as radiologic technology or diagnostic medical sonography, will have the best prospects. Earnings Median annual earnings of medical records and health informa tion technicians were $28,030 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,420 and $35,990. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,060, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,260. Median annual earnings in the in dustries employing the largest numbers of medical records and health information technicians in May 2006 were: General medical and surgical hospitals...............................$29,400 Nursing care facilities........................................................... 28,410 Outpatient care centers.......................................................... 26,680 Offices of physicians............................................................. 24,170 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 414 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work Diagnostic imaging embraces several procedures that aid in di agnosing ailments, the most familiar being the x-ray. In nuclear medicine, radionuclides—unstable atoms that emit radiation spontaneously—are used to diagnose and treat disease. Ra dionuclides are purified and compounded to form radiophar maceuticals. Nuclear medicine technologists administer radio pharmaceuticals to patients and then monitor the characteristics and functions of tissues or organs in which the drugs localize. Abnormal areas show higher-than-expected or lower-than-expected concentrations of radioactivity. Nuclear medicine dif fers from other diagnostic imaging technologies because it determines the presence of disease on the basis of metabolic changes rather than changes in organ structure. Nuclear medicine technologists operate cameras that detect and map the radioactive drug in a patient’s body to create di agnostic images. After explaining test procedures to patients, technologists prepare a dosage of the radiopharmaceutical and administer it by mouth, injection, inhalation, or other means. They position patients and start a gamma scintillation camera, or “scanner,” which creates images of the distribution of a ra diopharmaceutical as it localizes in, and emits signals from, the patient’s body. The images are produced on a computer screen or on film for a physician to interpret. When preparing radiopharmaceuticals, technologists adhere to safety standards that keep the radiation exposure as low as possible to workers and patients. Technologists keep patient re cords and document the amount and type of radionuclides that they receive, use, and discard. Work environment. Physical stamina is important because nuclear medicine technologists are on their feet much of the day and may have to lift or turn disabled patients. In addition, technologists must operate complicated equipment that requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. Although the potential for radiation exposure exists in this field, it is minimized by the use of shielded syringes, gloves, and other protective devices and by adherence to strict radia tion safety guidelines. The amount of radiation in a nuclear medicine procedure is comparable to that received during a di agnostic x-ray procedure. Technologists also wear badges that Nuclear medicine technologists operate cameras that detect and map the radioactive drugs in a patient’s body to create di agnostic images. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis measure radiation levels. Because of safety programs, badge measurements rarely exceed established safety levels. Nuclear medicine technologists generally work a 40-hour week, perhaps including evening or weekend hours, in depart ments that operate on an extended schedule. Opportunities for part-time and shift work also are available. In addition, tech nologists in hospitals may have on-call duty on a rotational ba sis, and those employed by mobile imaging services may be required to travel to several locations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nuclear medicine technology programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. Many employers and an increasing num ber of States require certification or licensure. Aspiring nuclear medicine technologists should check the requirements of the State in which they plan to work. Education and training. Completion of a nuclear medicine technology program takes 1 to 4 years and leads to a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. Generally, certifi cate programs are offered in hospitals, associate degree pro grams in community colleges, and bachelor’s degree programs in 4-year colleges and universities. Courses cover the physical sciences, biological effects of radiation exposure, radiation pro tection and procedures, the use of radiopharmaceuticals, imag ing techniques, and computer applications. One-year certificate programs are for health professionals who already possess an associate degree—especially radiologic technologists and diagnostic medical sonographers—but who wish to specialize in nuclear medicine. The programs also at tract medical technologists, registered nurses, and others who wish to change fields or specialize. The Joint Review Committee on Education Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology accredits most formal training programs in nuclear medicine technology. In 2006, there were about 100 accredited programs in the continental United States and Puerto Rico. Licensure and certification. Educational requirements for nuclear medicine technologists vary from State to State, so it is important that aspiring technologists check the requirements of the State in which they plan to work. More than half of all States require certification or licensing of nuclear medi cine technicians. Certification is available from the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) and from the Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board (NMTCB). Although not required, some workers receive certification from both agencies. Nuclear medicine technologists must meet the minimum Federal standards on the administration of radioac tive drugs and the operation of radiation detection equipment. The most common way to become eligible for certification by ARRT or NMTCB is to complete a training program recog nized by those organizations. Other ways to become eligible are completing a bachelor’s or associate degree in biological science or related health field, such as registered nursing, or acquiring, under supervision, a certain number of hours of ex perience in nuclear medicine technology. ARRT and NMTCB have different requirements, but in all cases, one must pass a comprehensive exam to become certified. Professional and Related Occupations 415 In addition to the general certification requirements, certified technicians also must complete a certain number of continuing education hours. Continuing education is required primarily because of the frequent technological and innovative changes in the field of nuclear medicine. Typically, technologists must register annually with both the ARRT and the NMTCB. Other qualifications. Nuclear medicine technologists should have excellent communication skills, be detail-oriented, and have a desire to continue learning. Technologists must effec tively interact with patients and their families and should be sensitive to patients’ physical and psychological needs. Nucle ar medicine technologists must be able to work independently as they usually have little direct supervision. Technologists also must be detailed-oriented and meticulous when performing pro cedures to assure that all regulations are being followed. Advancement. Technologists may advance to supervisor, then to chief technologist, and to department administrator or director. Some technologists specialize in a clinical area such as nuclear cardiology or computer analysis or leave patient care to take positions in research laboratories. Some become instruc tors in, or directors of, nuclear medicine technology programs, a step that usually requires a bachelor’s or master’s degree in the subject. Others leave the occupation to work as sales or training representatives for medical equipment and radiophar maceutical manufacturing firms or as radiation safety officers in regulatory agencies or hospitals. Employment Nuclear medicine technologists held about 20,000 jobs in 2006. About 67 percent of all nuclear medicine technologists jobs were in hospitals—private and government. Most of the rest were in offices of physicians or in medical and diagnostic labo ratories, including diagnostic imaging centers. Job Outlook Faster-than-average job growth will arise from an increase in the number of middle-aged and elderly persons, who are the primary users of diagnostic and treatment procedures. How ever, the number of job openings each year will be relatively low because the occupation is small. Employment change. Employment of nuclear medicine technologists is expected to increase by 15 percent from 2006 to 2016, faster than the average for all occupations. Growth will arise from technological advancement, the development of new nuclear medicine treatments, and an increase in the number of middle-aged and older persons, who are the primary users of diagnostic procedures, including nuclear medicine tests. Technological innovations may increase the diagnostic uses of nuclear medicine. New nuclear medical imaging technolo gies, including positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), are expected to be used increasingly and to contribute further to employment growth. The wider use of nuclear medical imaging to observe metabolic and biochemical changes during neurology, cardiolo gy, and oncology procedures also will spur demand for nuclear medicine technologists. Nonetheless, cost considerations will affect the speed with which new applications of nuclear medicine grow. Some prom ising nuclear medicine procedures, such as positron emission tomography, are extremely costly, and hospitals contemplating these procedures will have to consider equipment costs, reim bursement policies, and the number of potential users. Job prospects. In spite of fast growth in nuclear medicine, the number of openings into the occupation each year will be relatively low because of the small size of the occupation. Technologists who have additional training in other diagnostic methods, such as radiologic technology or diagnostic medical sonography, will have the best prospects. Earnings Median annual earnings of nuclear medicine technologists were $62,300 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $53,530 and $72,410. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $46,490, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $82,310. Median annual earnings of nuclear medicine technologists in 2006 were $61,230 in general medical and surgical hospitals. Related Occupations Nuclear medical technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians, clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, radiation therapists, radiologic tech nologists and technicians, and respiratory therapists perform similar functions. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a nuclear medicine tech nologist is available from: y American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. S.E., Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. Internet: http://www.asrt.org y American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St.Paul, MN 55120-1155. Internet: http://www.arrt.org Society of Nuclear Medicine Technologists, 1850 Samuel Morse Dr., Reston, VA 20190-5316. Internet: http://www.snm.org For a list of accredited programs in nuclear medicine technol ogy, contact: y Joint Review Committee on Educational Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology, 716 Black Point Rd„ Poison, MT 59860. Internet: http://www.jrcnmt.org Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Nuclear medicine technologists................................ .......................... soc Code 29-2033 Employment, 2006 20,000 Projected employment, 2016 23,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 2,900 15 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 416 Occupational Outlook Handbook Information on certification is available from: V Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board, 2970 Clairmont Rd., Suite 935, Atlanta, GA 30329-4421. Internet: http://www.nmtcb.org Occupational Health and Safety Specialists and Technicians (0*NET 29-9011.00, 29-9012.00) Significant Points • • • About 2 out of 5 specialists and technicians worked in Federal, State, and local government agencies that enforce rules on safety, health, and the environment. Some specialist jobs require a bachelor’s degree in occupational health, safety, or a related field. Projected average employment growth reflects a balance of continuing public demand for a safe and healthy work environment against the desire for smaller government and fewer regulations. Nature of the Work Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians, also known as safety and health professionals or occupational health and safety inspectors, help prevent harm to workers, property, the environment, and the general public. For exam ple, they might design safe work spaces, inspect machines, or test air quality. In addition to making workers safer, specialists and technicians aim to increase worker productivity by reduc ing absenteeism and equipment downtime—and to save money by lowering insurance premiums and workers’ compensation payments, and preventing government fines. Some specialists and technicians work for governments, conducting safety in spections and imposing fines. Occupational health and safety specialists analyze work en vironments and design programs to control, eliminate, and pre vent disease or injury. They look for chemical, physical, radio logical, and biological hazards, and they work to make more equipment ergonomic—designed to promote proper body po sitioning, increase worker comfort, and decrease fatigue. Spe cialists may conduct inspections and inform an organization’s management of areas not in compliance with State and Federal laws or employer policies. They also advise management on the cost and effectiveness of safety and health programs. Some provide training on new regulations and policies or on how to recognize hazards. Sometimes, specialists develop methods to predict hazards from historical data and other information sources. They use these methods and their own knowledge and experience to evaluate current equipment, products, facilities, or processes and those planned for use in the future. For example, they might uncover patterns in injury data that show that many in juries are caused by a specific type of system failure, human error, or weakness in procedures. They evaluate the probability and severity of accidents and identify where controls need to be https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis implemented to reduce or eliminate risk. If a new program or practice is required, they propose it to management and moni tor results if it is implemented. Specialists also might con duct safety training for management, supervisors, and workers. Training sessions might show how to recognize hazards, for ex ample, or explain new regulations and production processes. Some specialists, often called loss prevention specialists, work for insurance companies, inspecting the facilities that they insure and suggesting and helping to implement improve ments. Occupational health and safety technicians often focus on testing air, water, machines, and other elements of the work environment. They collect data that occupational health and safety specialists then analyze. Usually working under the su pervision of specialists, they also help to implement and evalu ate safety programs. To measure hazards, such as noise or radiation, occupational health and safety technicians prepare and calibrate scientific equipment. They must properly collect and handle samples of dust, gases, vapors, and other potentially toxic materials to ensure personal safety and accurate test results. Occupational health and safety specialists also may perform this work, espe cially if it is complex. To ensure that machinery and equipment complies with ap propriate safety regulations, occupational health and safety specialists and technicians both may examine and test machin ery and equipment, such as lifting devices, machine guards, or scaffolding. They may check that personal protective equip ment, such as masks, respirators, protective eyewear, or hardhats, is being used according to regulations. They also check that hazardous materials are stored correctly. They test and identify work areas for potential accident and health hazards, such as toxic vapors, mold, mildew, and explosive gas-air mix tures and help implement appropriate control measures, such as adjustments to ventilation systems. Their inspection of the workplace might involve talking with workers and observing their work, as well as inspecting elements in their work envi ronment, such as lighting, tools, and equipment. If an injury or illness occurs, occupational health and safety specialists and technicians help investigate, studying its causes and recommending remedial action. Some occupational health and safety specialists and technicians help workers to return to work after accidents and injuries. Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians frequently communicate with management about the status of health and safety programs. They also might consult with en gineers or physicians. Specialists and technicians write reports, including accident reports, and enter information on Occupational Safety and Health Administration recordkeeping forms. They may pre pare documents used in legal proceedings and give testimony in court. Those who develop expertise in specific areas may develop occupational health and safety systems, including pol icies, procedures, and manuals. The responsibilities of occupational health and safety spe cialists and technicians vary by industry, workplace, and types of hazards affecting employees. Mine examiners, for exam ple, are technicians who inspect mines for proper air flow and Professional and Related Occupations 417 health hazards such as the buildup of methane or other noxious gases. Environmental protection officers evaluate and coordi nate the storage and handling of hazardous waste, the cleanup of contaminated soil or water, or other activities that affect the environment. Ergonomists consider the design of industrial, office, and other equipment to maximize worker comfort, safe ty, and productivity. Health physicists work in places that use radiation and radioactive material, helping to protect people and the environment from hazardous radiation exposure. And industrial hygienists examine the workplace for health hazards, such as exposure to lead, asbestos, pesticides, or communica ble diseases. Work environment. Occupational health and safety special ists and technicians work in a variety of settings from offices and factories to mines. Their jobs often involve considerable fieldwork, and some require frequent travel. Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians may be exposed to many of the same strenuous, dangerous, or stressful conditions faced by industrial employees. They may find themselves in an adversarial role if an organization dis agrees with their recommendations. Many occupational health and safety specialists and technicians work long, and often ir regular, hours. 7 Occupational health and safety technicians use scientific equip ment to measure hazards, such as noise or radiation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All occupational health and safety specialists and technicians are trained in the applicable laws or inspection procedures through some combination of classroom and on-the-job training. Education and training. Some employers require occupa tional health and safety specialists to have a bachelor’s degree in occupational health, safety, or a related field, such as engi neering, biology, or chemistry. For some positions, a master’s degree in industrial hygiene or a related subject is required. There also are associate degree and 1-year certificate programs, which primarily are intended for technicians. As of February 2007, the Accreditation Board for Engineer ing and Technology accredited 45 programs in health physics, industrial hygiene, and safety. Certification and other qualifications. Although voluntary, many employers encourage certification. Certification is avail able through several organizations. The Board of Certified Safety Professionals offers the Certified Safety Professional (CSP) credential. The American Board of Industrial Hygiene offers the Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH) credential. Also, the Council on Certification of Health, Environmental, and Safety Technologists certifies people as Occupational Health and Safety Technologists (OHST), who may be called Certi fied Loss Control Specialists (CLCS), Construction Health and Safety Technicians (CHST), and Safety Trained Supervisors (STS). The Indoor Air Quality Association awards the Certi fied Indoor Environmentalist (CIE) credential. The Board of Certification in Professional Ergonomics offers the Certified Professional Ergonomist (CPE) and the Certified Ergonomics Associate (CEA) credentials. The American Board of Health Physicists awards the Certified Health Physicist (CHP) creden tial. Requirements for these credentials differ. Usually, they in clude specific education and experience, passing an examina tion, and completing periodic continuing education for recer tification. In general, people who want to enter this occupation should be responsible and like detailed work. Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians also should be able to com municate well. Recommended high school courses include English, mathematics, chemistry, biology, and physics. Expe rience as an occupational health and safety professional is also a prerequisite for many positions. Advancement. Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians who work for the Federal Government advance through their career ladder to a specified full-performance lev el if their work is satisfactory. For positions above this level, usually supervisory positions, advancement is competitive and based on agency needs and individual merit. Advancement op portunities in State and local governments and the private sec tor are often similar to those in the Federal Government. Specialists and technicians with broad education and experi ence and those who are well versed in numerous business func tions usually have the best advancement opportunities. One way to keep up with current professional developments is to join a professional society, such as those that offer the certifi cations mentioned earlier. These organizations offer journals, continuing education courses, and conferences, which offer 418 Occupational Outlook Handbook learning and networking opportunities and can help workers and students to advance. With an advanced degree, professionals can become profes sors or do research. Promotion to senior specialist positions is likely to require an advanced degree and substantial experience in several areas of practice. Employment Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians held about 56,000 jobs in 2006. While the majority of jobs were spread throughout the private sector; about 2 out of 5 special ists worked for government agencies. Local governments em ployed 15 percent, the Federal Government employed 13 per cent, and State governments employed 12 percent. Within the Federal Government, most jobs are as Occupa tional Safety and Health Administration inspectors, who en force U.S. Department of Labor regulations and impose fines. Within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health hires occupational health and safety specialists to offer companies help in evaluating safety without the risk of fines. Most large government agencies also employ occupational health and safety specialists and technicians who work to protect agency employees. Most private companies either employ their own occupa tional health and safety workers or contract with them. Most contract work is done through consulting companies, but some specialists and technicians are self-employed. In addition to working for governments, occupational health and safety specialists and technicians were employed in man ufacturing firms; private general medical and surgical hospi tals; private colleges, universities, and professional schools; scientific and technical consulting services; research and de velopment in the physical, engineering, and life sciences; and electric power generation, transmission, and distribution. In surance companies and technical consulting services also often employed specialists, whereas employment services and test ing laboratories often employed technicians. Job Outlook Average employment growth is expected; additional opportu nities will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Employment change. Employment of occupational health and safety specialists and technicians is expected to increase 9 percent during the 2006-16 decade, about as fast as the average for all occupations, reflecting a balance of continuing public demand for a safe and healthy work environment against the desire for smaller government and fewer regulations. Emer gency preparedness will continue to increase in importance, creating demand for these workers. More specialists will be needed to cope with technological advances in safety equip ment and threats, changing regulations, and increasing public expectations. In private industry, employment growth will re flect overall business growth and continuing self-enforcement of government and company regulations and policies. Over the past two decades, insurance and worker’s compen sation costs have risen and have become a financial concern for many employers and insurance companies. As a result, job growth should be good for those specializing in loss preven tion, especially in construction safety and in ergonomics. Job prospects. In addition to job openings from growth, job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave for other reasons. An aging population paired with a decline in the number of postsecondary students studying the sciences, especially health physics, will create opportunities for those with technical skill. Employment of occupational health and safety specialists and technicians in the private sector is somewhat affected by general economic fluctuations. Federal, State, and local gov ernments, which employ about 2 out of 5 of all specialists and technicians, provide considerable job security; workers are less likely to be affected by changes in the economy. Earnings Median annual earnings of occupational health and safety spe cialists and technicians were $54,920 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,800 and $70,230. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,230, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $83,720. Median annual earnings in the in dustries employing the largest numbers of occupational health and safety specialists and technicians in May 2006 were: Federal Government............................................................$68,890 Management, scientific, and technical consulting services............................................. 63,130 General medical and surgical hospitals................................59,200 Local government..................................................................52,110 State government...................................................................49,690 Most occupational health and safety specialists and techni cians work in large private firms or for Federal, State, and lo cal governments, most of which generally offer benefits more generous than those offered by smaller firms. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.............. Occupational health and safety specialists...................................... Occupational health and safety technicians................................... Projected Change, employment, 2006-2016 Code 2016 Number Percent 29-9010 56,000 61,000 5,200 9 29-9011 45,000 49,000 3,700 8 29-901210,00012,0001,50015 soc Employment, 2006 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 419 Related Occupations Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians help to ensure that laws and regulations are obeyed. Others who enforce laws and regulations include agricultural inspectors, construction and building inspectors, correctional officers, fi nancial examiners, fire inspectors, police and detectives, and transportation inspectors. Occupational health and safety spe cialists also analyze work environments and processes, topics that industrial engineers also study. Opticians, Dispensing (0*NET 29-2081.00) Significant Points • or through apprenticeships lasting 2 or more years, but some employers seek graduates of postsecondary training programs in opticianry. Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs in Federal, State, and local governments and in private industry is available from State employment ser vice offices. For information on a career as an industrial hygienist, includ ing a list of colleges and universities offering industrial hygiene and related degrees, contact: V American Industrial Hygiene Association, 2700 Prosperity Ave., Suite 250, Fairfax, VA 22031. Internet: http://www.aiha.org For information on the Certified Industrial Hygienist or Cer tified Associate Industrial Hygienist credential, contact: > American Board of Industrial HygieNE., 6015 West St.Joseph Hwy., Suite 102, Lansing, MI 48917. Internet: http://www.abih.org For more information on professions in safety, a list of safety and related academic programs, and the Certified Safety Profes sional credential, contact: y Board of Certified Safety Professionals, 208 Burwash Ave., Savoy, IL 61874. Internet: http://www.bcsp.org For information on the Occupational Health and Safety Tech nologist, Construction Health and Safety Technician creden tials, and Safety Trained Supervisors, contact: y Council on Certification of Health, Environmental, and Safety Technologists, 208 Burwash Ave., Savoy, IL 61874. Internet: http://www.cchest.org For information on a career as a health physicist, contact: y Health Physics Society, 1313 Dolley Madison Blvd., Suite 402, McLean, VA 22101. Internet: http://www.hps.org For additional career information, contact: y U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Hubert H. Humphrey Bldg., 200 Independence Ave. SW., Room 715H, Washington, DC 20201. Internet: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh y U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Office of Communication, 200 Constitution Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20210. Internet: http://www.osha.gov Information on obtaining positions as occupational health and safety specialists and technicians with the Federal Govern ment is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employ ment information system. This resource for locating and apply ing for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not toll free, and charges may result. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most dispensing opticians receive training on the job • A license to practice is required by 22 States. • Employment growth is projected to be average and reflect the steady demand for corrective lenses and fashionable eyeglass frames. Nature of the Work Helping people see better and look good at the same time is the job of a dispensing optician. Dispensing opticians help se lect and then fit eyeglasses and contact lenses for people with eye problems, following prescriptions written by ophthalmolo gists or optometrists. (The work of optometrists is described elsewhere in the Handbook. See the section on physicians and surgeons for information about ophthalmologists.) Dispensing opticians recommend eyeglass frames, lenses, and lens coatings after considering the prescription and the customer’s occupa tion, habits, and facial features. They measure clients’ eyes, including the distance between the centers of the pupils and the distance between the ocular surface and the lens. For cus tomers without prescriptions, dispensing opticians may use a focimeter to record eyeglass measurements in order to duplicate their existing eyeglasses. They also may obtain a customer’s previous record to re-make eyeglasses or contact lenses, or they may verify a prescription with the examining optometrist or ophthalmologist. Dispensing opticians prepare work orders that give ophthal mic laboratory technicians the information they need to grind and insert lenses into a frame. (See the section on ophthalmic laboratory technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) The work order includes prescriptions for lenses and information on their size, material, color, and style. Some dispensing opticians grind and insert lenses themselves. They may also apply tint to glasses. After the glasses are made, dispensing opticians verify that the lenses have been ground to specifications. Then they may reshape or bend the frame by hand or using pliers so that the eyeglasses fit the customer properly and comfortably. Many opticians also spend time fixing, adjusting, and refit ting broken frames. They instruct clients about adapting to, wearing, or caring for eyeglasses. Additionally, administrative duties have become a major part of their work, including keep ing records on customers’ prescriptions, work orders, and pay ments, and tracking inventory and sales. Some dispensing opticians, after additional education and training, specialize in fitting contacts, artificial eyes, or cos metic shells to cover blemished eyes. To fit contact lenses, dispensing opticians measure the shape and size of the eye, se lect the type of contact lens material, and prepare work orders 420 Occupational Outlook Handbook :er mmUlimlmi Opticians take measurements to ensure that eyeglasses fit prop erly. specifying the prescription and lens size. Fitting contact lenses requires considerable skill, care, and patience. Dispensing opti cians observe customers’ eyes, corneas, lids, and contact lenses with specialized instruments and microscopes. During several follow-up visits, opticians teach proper insertion, removal, and care of contact lenses. Work environment. Dispensing opticians work indoors main ly in medical offices, optical stores, or in large department or club stores. Opticians spend a fair amount of time on their feet. If they prepare lenses, they need to take precautions against the hazards of glass cutting, chemicals, and machinery. Most dis pensing opticians work about 40 hours a week, although a few work longer hours. Those in retail stores may work evenings and weekends. Some work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers entering this occupation receive their training on the job, mainly through apprenticeship programs that may last 2 years or longer. Some employers, though, prefer to hire people who have graduated from an opticianry program. Education and training. A high school diploma is all that is required to get into this occupation, but most workers have completed at least some college courses or a degree. Classes in physics, basic anatomy, algebra, and trigonometry as well as experience with computers are particularly valuable. These prepare dispensing opticians to learn job skills, including opti cal mathematics, optical physics, and the use of precision mea suring instruments and other machinery and tools. Most applicants for optician positions do not have any back ground in the field and learn mainly on the job. Large em ployers usually offer structured apprenticeship programs; small employers provide more informal, on-the-job training. Appren tices receive technical training and also learn office manage ment and sales. Under the supervision of an experienced opti cian, optometrist, or ophthalmologist, apprentices work directly with patients, fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses. Formal training in the field is offered in community colleges and in a few 4-year colleges and universities. As of 2007, the Commission on Opticianry Accreditation accredited 21 associ ate degree programs. Graduation from an accredited program in opticianry provides a nationally recognized credential. There also are shorter programs of 1 year or less. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Licensure. Twenty-one States require dispensing opticians to be licensed. States may require individuals to pass one or more of the following for licensure: a State practical exami nation, a State written examination, and certification examina tions offered by the American Board of Opticianry (ABO) and the National Contact Lens Examiners (NCLE). To qualify for the examinations, States often require applicants to complete postsecondary training or work as apprentices for 2 to 4 years. Some States that license dispensing opticians allow graduates of opticianry programs to take the licensure exam immediately upon graduation; others require a few months to a year of experi ence. Continuing education is commonly required for licensure renewal. Information about specific licensing requirements is available from the State board of occupational licensing. Certification and other qualifications. Any optician can ap ply to the ABO and the NCLE for certification of their skills, whether or not their State requires it. Certification signifies to customers and employers that an optician has a certain level of expertise. All applicants age 18 or older who have a high school diploma or equivalent are eligible for the exam, but some State licensing boards have additional eligibility requirements. Certification must be renewed every 3 years through continuing education. The State of Texas offers voluntary registration for the occupation. Dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, so they should be tactful, pleasant, and communicate well. Manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work are essential. Advancement. Many experienced dispensing opticians open their own optical stores. Others become managers of optical stores or sales representatives for wholesalers or manufacturers of eyeglasses or lenses. Employment Dispensing opticians held about 66,000 jobs in 2006. About one-third of dispensing opticians worked in offices of optom etrists. Nearly one-third worked in health and personal care stores, including optical goods stores. Many of these stores of fer one-stop shopping. Customers may have their eyes exam ined, choose frames, and have glasses made on the spot. Some opticians work in optical departments of department stores or other general merchandise stores, such as warehouse clubs and superstores. Eleven percent worked in offices of physi cians, primarily ophthalmologists, who sell glasses directly to patients. Two percent were self-employed and ran their own unincorporated businesses. Job Outlook Employment of dispensing opticians is expected to grow about as fast as average for all occupations through 2016, as the popu lation ages and demand for corrective lenses increases. Good job prospects are expected, but the occupation will remain rela tively small. Employment change. Employment in this occupation is ex pected to rise 9 percent over the 2006-16 decade. Middle age is a time when many individuals use corrective lenses for the first time, and elderly persons generally require more vision care than others. As the share of the population in these older age groups increases, more opticians will be needed to provide service to them. In addition, awareness is increasing of the im portance of regular eye exams across all age groups. A small, Professional and Related Occupations 421 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Opticians, dispensing.................................... ............................... soc Code 29-2081 Projected employment, 2016 72,000 Employment, 2006 66,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 5,700 9 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. but growing number of States require children as young as 5 to get eye exams, which is expected to increase the need for eye care services in those States. Fashion also influences demand. Frames come in a growing variety of styles, colors, and sizes, encouraging people to buy more than one pair. Moderating the need for optician services is the increasing use of laser surgery to correct vision problems. Although the surgery remains relatively more expensive than eyewear, pa tients who successfully undergo this surgery may not require glasses or contact lenses for several years. Also, new technol ogy is allowing people with minimal training to make the mea surements needed to fit glasses and may allow dispensing opti cians to work faster, limiting the need for more workers. There also is proposed legislation that, if passed, may require contact lens manufacturers to make lenses available to nonoptical retail outlets, which may allow them to be sold over the Internet, re ducing the need for opticians to provide contact lens services. Job prospects. Job prospects for entering the profession should be good as there is a regular need to replace those who leave the occupation or retire. Nevertheless, the number of job openings will be limited because the occupation is small. Also, dispensing opticians are vulnerable to changes in the business cycle because eyewear purchases often can be deferred for a time. Job prospects will be best for those who have taken for mal opticianry classes and those who master new technology, including new refraction systems, framing materials, and edg ing techniques. Earnings Median annual earnings of dispensing opticians were $30,300 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,560 and $38,950. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,290, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $47,630. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of dispensing opticians in May 2006 were: Offices of physicians........................................................... $32,770 Health and personal care stores............................................. 31,850 Offices of health practitioner................................................ 29,200 Offices of optometrists.......................................................... 29,190 Benefits for opticians are generally determined by the indus tries in which they are employed. In general, those who work part-time or in small retail shops generally have fewer benefits than those who may work for large optical chains or depart ment stores. Self-employed opticians must provide their own benefits. Related Occupations Other workers who deal with customers and perform delicate work include jewelers and precious stone and metal workers, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis orthotists and prosthetists, and precision instrument and equip ment repairers. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians also per form many of the tasks that opticians perform. And because many opticians work in the retail industry, retail salesworkers also perform some of the same duties. Sources of Additional Information To learn about voluntary certification for opticians who fit eye glasses, as well as a list of State licensing boards for opticians, contact: y American Board of Opticianry, 6506 Loisdale Rd„ Suite 209, Springfield, VA 22150. Internet: http://www.abo.org For information on voluntary certification for dispensing op ticians who fit contact lenses, contact: y National Contact Lens Examiners, 6506 Loisdale Rd., Suite 209, Springfield, VA 22150. Internet: http://www.abo-ncle.org Pharmacy Technicians (0*NET 29-2052.00) Significant Points • • • Job opportunities are expected to be good, especially for those with certification or previous work experi ence. Many technicians work evenings, weekends, and holi days. About 71 percent of jobs were in retail pharmacies, grocery stores, department stores, or mass retailers. Nature of the Work Pharmacy technicians help licensed pharmacists provide medi cation and other health care products to patients. Technicians usually perform routine tasks to help prepare prescribed medi cation, such as counting tablets and labeling bottles. They also perform administrative duties, such as answering phones, stock ing shelves, and operating cash registers. Technicians refer any questions regarding prescriptions, drug information, or health matters to a pharmacist. (See the statement on pharmacists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Pharmacy technicians who work in retail or mail-order phar macies have varying responsibilities, depending on State rules and regulations. Technicians receive written prescriptions or requests for prescription refills from patients. They also may receive prescriptions sent electronically from the doctor’s of fice. They must verify that information on the prescription is complete and accurate. To prepare the prescription, technicians 422 Occupational Outlook Handbook must retrieve, count, pour, weigh, measure, and sometimes mix the medication. Then, they prepare the prescription labels, se lect the type of prescription container, and affix the prescription and auxiliary labels to the container. Once the prescription is filled, technicians price and file the prescription, which must be checked by a pharmacist before it is given to the patient. Technicians may establish and maintain patient profiles, pre pare insurance claim forms, and stock and take inventory of prescription and over-the-counter medications. In hospitals, nursing homes, and assisted-living facilities, technicians have added responsibilities, including reading pa tients’ charts and preparing the appropriate medication. After the pharmacist checks the prescription for accuracy, the phar macy technician may deliver it to the patient. The technician then copies the information about the prescribed medication onto the patient’s profile. Technicians also may assemble a 24hour supply of medicine for every patient. They package and label each dose separately. The packages are then placed in the medicine cabinets of patients until the supervising pharmacist checks them for accuracy, and only then is the medication given to the patients. Pharmacy aides work closely with pharmacy technicians. They often are clerks or cashiers who primarily answer tele phones, handle money, stock shelves, and perform other clerical duties. (See the statement on pharmacy aides elsewhere in the Handbook.) Pharmacy technicians usually perform more com plex tasks than pharmacy aides, although in some States their duties and job titles may overlap. Work environment. Pharmacy technicians work in clean, or ganized, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Most of their workday is spent on their feet. They may be required to lift heavy boxes or to use stepladders to retrieve supplies from high shelves. Technicians work the same hours that pharmacists work. These may include evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays, particularly in facilities that are open 24 hours a day such as hospitals and some retail pharmacies. As their seniority in creases, technicians often acquire increased control over the hours they work. There are many opportunities for part-time work in both retail and hospital settings. ■ vs ^ ' Pharmacy technicians prepare prescription medications for pa tients. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most pharmacy technicians are trained on-the-job, but employ ers favor applicants who have formal training, certification, or previous experience. Strong customer service skills also are important. Pharmacy technicians may become supervisors, may move into specialty positions or into sales, or may become pharmacists. Education and training. Although most pharmacy techni cians receive informal on-the-job training, employers favor those who have completed formal training and certification. However, there are currently few State and no Federal require ments for formal training or certification of pharmacy tech nicians. Employers who have insufficient resources to give on-the-job training often seek formally educated pharmacy technicians. Formal education programs and certification em phasize the technician’s interest in and dedication to the work. In addition to the military, some hospitals, proprietary schools, vocational or technical colleges, and community colleges offer formal education programs. Formal pharmacy technician education programs require classroom and laboratory work in a variety of areas, including medical and pharmaceutical terminology, pharmaceutical cal culations, pharmacy recordkeeping, pharmaceutical techniques, and pharmacy law and ethics. Technicians also are required to learn medication names, actions, uses, and doses. Many train ing programs include internships, in which students gain handson experience in actual pharmacies. After completion, students receive a diploma, a certificate, or an associate’s degree, de pending on the program. Prospective pharmacy technicians with experience working as an aide in a community pharmacy or volunteering in a hospital may have an advantage. Employers also prefer applicants with experience managing inventories, counting tablets, measuring dosages, and using computers. In addition, a background in chemistry, English, and health education may be beneficial. Certification and other qualifications. Two organizations, the Pharmacy Technician Certification Board and the Institute for the Certification of Pharmacy Technicians, administer na tional certification examinations. Certification is voluntary in most States, but is required by some States and employers. Some technicians are hired without formal training, but under the condition that they obtain certification within a specified period of time. To be eligible for either exam, candidates must have a high school diploma or GED, no felony convictions of any kind within 5 years of applying, and no drug or pharmacy related felony convictions at any point. Employers, often phar macists, know that individuals who pass the exam have a stan dardized body of knowledge and skills. Many employers also will reimburse the costs of the exam. Under both programs, technicians must be recertified every 2 years. Recertification requires 20 hours of continuing educa tion within the 2-year certification period. At least 1 hour must be in pharmacy law. Continuing education hours can be earned from several different sources, including colleges, pharmacy as sociations, and pharmacy technician training programs. Up to 10 hours of continuing education can be earned on the job under the direct supervision and instruction of a pharmacist. Professional and Related Occupations 423 Strong customer service and teamwork skills are needed be cause pharmacy technicians interact with patients, coworkers, and health care professionals. Mathematics, spelling, and read ing skills also are important. Successful pharmacy technicians are alert, observant, organized, dedicated, and responsible. They should be willing and able to take directions, but be able to work independently without constant instruction. They must be precise; details are sometimes a matter of life and death. Candidates interested in becoming pharmacy technicians can not have prior records of drug or substance abuse. Advancement. In large pharmacies and health-systems, phar macy technicians with significant training, experience and cer tification can be promoted to supervisory positions, mentoring and training pharmacy technicians with less experience. Some may advance into specialty positions such as chemo therapy technician and nuclear pharmacy technician. Others move into sales. With a substantial amount of formal training, some phar macy technicians go on to become pharmacists. Employment Pharmacy technicians held about 285,000 jobs in 2006. About 71 percent of jobs were in retail pharmacies, either indepen dently owned or part of a drugstore chain, grocery store, depart ment store, or mass retailer. About 18 percent of jobs were in hospitals and a small proportion was in mail-order and Internet pharmacies, offices of physicians, pharmaceutical wholesalers, and the Federal Government. Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase much faster than the av erage through 2016, and job opportunities are expected to be good. Employment change. Employment of pharmacy techni cians is expected to increase by 32 percent from 2006 to 2016, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. The increased number of middle-aged and elderly people—who use more prescription drugs than younger people—will spur demand for technicians throughout the projection period. In addition, as scientific advances bring treatments for an increas ing number of conditions, more pharmacy technicians will be needed to fill a growing number of prescriptions. As cost-conscious insurers begin to use pharmacies as pa tient-care centers, pharmacy technicians will assume responsi bility for some of the more routine tasks previously performed by pharmacists. In addition, they will adopt some of the admin istrative duties that were previously performed by pharmacy aides, such as answering phones and stocking shelves. Reducing the need for pharmacy technicians to some degree, however, will be the growing use of drug dispensing machines. These machines increase productivity by completing some of the pharmacy technician’s duties, namely counting pills and placing them into prescription containers. These machines are only used for the most common medications, however, and their effect on employment should be minimal. Almost all States have legislated the maximum number of technicians who can safely work under a pharmacist at one time. Changes in these laws could directly affect employment. Job prospects. Good job opportunities are expected for full time and part-time work, especially for technicians with formal training or previous experience. Job openings for pharmacy technicians will result from employment growth, and from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median hourly earnings of wage-and-salary pharmacy techni cians in May 2006 were $12.32. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.10 and $14.92. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.56, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.65. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of pharmacy technicians in May 2006 were: General medical and surgical hospitals................................ $13.86 Grocery stores......................................................................... 12.78 Pharmacies and drug stores.....................................................11.50 Certified technicians may earn more. Shift differentials for working evenings or weekends also can increase earnings. Some technicians belong to unions representing hospital or gro cery store workers. Related Occupations This occupation is most closely related to pharmacists and pharmacy aides. Workers in other medical support occupations include dental assistants, medical transcriptionists, medical re cords and health information technicians, occupational therapist assistants and aides, and physical therapist assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information For information on pharmacy technician certification programs, contact: y Pharmacy Technician Certification Board, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW„ Washington DC 20037-2985. Internet: http://www.ptcb.org y Institute for the Certification of Pharmacy Technicians, 2536 S. Old Hwy 94, Suite 214, St.Charles, MO 63303. Internet: http://www.nationaltechexam.org For a list of accredited pharmacy technician training pro grams, contact: y American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 7272 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.ashp.org Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Pharmacy technicians... .................................................................... soc Employment, Code 2006 29-2052 285,000 Projected employment, 2016 376,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number 91,000 Percent 32 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 424 Occupational Outlook Handbook For pharmacy technician career information, contact: y National Pharmacy Technician Association, P.O. Box 683148, Houston, TX 77268. Internet: http://www.pharmacytechnician.org Radiologic Technologists and Technicians (0*NET 29-2034.00, 29-2034.01, 29-2034.02) Significant Points • Employment is projected to grow faster than aver age, and job opportunities are expected to be favor able. • Formal training programs in radiography are offered in hospitals, colleges and universities, and less fre quently at vocational-technical institutes; range in length from 1 to 4 years; and lead to a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. • Although hospitals will remain the primary employ er, a number of new jobs will be found in physicians’ offices and diagnostic imaging centers. Nature of the Work Radiologic technologists take x-rays and administer nonra dioactive materials into patients’ bloodstreams for diagnostic purposes. Radiologic technologists also referred to as radiographers, produce x-ray films (radiographs) of parts of the human body for use in diagnosing medical problems. They prepare patients for radiologic examinations by explaining the procedure, re moving jewelry and other articles through which x-rays can not pass, and positioning patients so that the parts of the body can be appropriately radiographed. To prevent unnecessary exposure to radiation, these workers surround the exposed area with radiation protection devices, such as lead shields, or limit the size of the x-ray beam. Radiographers position radiographic equipment at the correct angle and height over the appropriate area of a patient’s body. Using instruments similar to a measuring tape, they may measure the thickness of the section to be radiographed and set controls on the x-ray machine to produce radiographs of the appropriate density, detail, and contrast. They place the x-ray film under the part of the patient’s body to be examined and make the exposure. They then remove the film and develop it. Radiologic technologists must follow physicians’ orders precisely and conform to regulations concerning the use of radiation to protect themselves, their patients, and their co workers from unnecessary exposure. In addition to preparing patients and operating equipment, radiologic technologists keep patient records and adjust and maintain equipment. They also may prepare work schedules, evaluate purchases of equipment, or manage a radiology de partment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Experienced radiographers may perform more complex im aging procedures. When performing fluoroscopies, for exam ple, radiographers prepare a solution of contrast medium for the patient to drink, allowing the radiologist (a physician who interprets radiographs) to see soft tissues in the body. Some radiographers specialize in computed tomography (CT), and are sometimes referred to as CT technologists. CT scans produce a substantial amount of cross-sectional x-rays of an area of the body. From those cross-sectional x-rays a three-dimensional image is made. The CT uses ionizing ra diation; therefore, it requires the same precautionary measures that radiographers use with other x-rays. Radiographers also can specialize in Magnetic Resonance Imaging as an MR technologist. MR, like CT, produces mul tiple cross-sectional images to create a 3-dimensional image. Unlike CT, MR uses non-ionizing radio frequency to generate image contrast. Another common specialty for radiographers specialize in is mammography. Mammographers use low dose x-ray sys tems to produce images of the breast. In addition to radiologic technologists, others who conduct diagnostic imaging procedures include cardiovascular tech nologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, and nuclear medicine technologists. (Each is discussed else where in the Handbook.) Work environment. Physical stamina is important in this occupation because technologists are on their feet for long periods and may lift or turn disabled patients. Technologists work at diagnostic machines but also may perform some pro cedures at patients’ bedsides. Some travel to patients in large vans equipped with sophisticated diagnostic equipment. Although radiation hazards exist in this occupation, they are minimized by the use of lead aprons, gloves, and other shield ing devices, as well as by instruments monitoring exposure rJ yf -v ■ f § « Radiographers position equipment at the correct angle and height over the appropriate area of a patient’s body. Professional and Related Occupations 425 to radiation. Technologists wear badges measuring radiation levels in the radiation area, and detailed records are kept on their cumulative lifetime dose. Most full-time radiologic technologists work about 40 hours a week. They may, however, have evening, weekend, or oncall hours. Opportunities for part-time and shift work also are available. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for this profession is offered in hospitals, colleges and universities, and less frequently at vocational-technical institutes. Hospitals employ most radiologic technologists. Employers prefer to hire technologists with formal training. Education and training. Formal training programs in ra diography range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a cer tificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. Two-year associate degree programs are most prevalent. Some 1-year certificate programs are available for experi enced radiographers or individuals from other health occu pations, such as medical technologists and registered nurses, who want to change fields. A bachelor’s or master’s degree in one of the radiologic technologies is desirable for supervisory, administrative, or teaching positions. The Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology accredits most formal training programs for the field. The committee accredited more than 600 radiography programs in 2007. Admission to radiography programs re quire, at a minimum, a high school diploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology are helpful. The programs provide both classroom and clinical instruction in anatomy and physiology, patient care procedures, radiation physics, radiation protection, prin ciples of imaging, medical terminology, positioning of pa tients, medical ethics, radiobiology, and pathology. Licensure. Federal legislation protects the public from the hazards of unnecessary exposure to medical and dental radiation by ensuring that operators of radiologic equipment are properly trained. Under this legislation, the Federal Gov ernment sets voluntary standards that the States may use for accrediting training programs and licensing individuals who engage in medical or dental radiography. In 2007, 40 states required licensure for practicing radiologic technologists and technicians. Certification and other qualifications. The American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) offers volun tary certification for radiologic technologists. In addition, 35 States use ARRT-administered exams for State licensing pur poses. To be eligible for certification, technologists generally must graduate from an accredited program and pass an exami nation. Many employers prefer to hire certified radiographers. To be recertified, radiographers must complete 24 hours of continuing education every 2 years. Radiologic technologists should be sensitive to patients’ physical and psychological needs. They must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. In ad dition, operating complicated equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. Advancement. With experience and additional training, staff technologists may become specialists, performing CT scanning, MR, and angiography, a procedure during which blood vessels are x-rayed to find clots. Technologists also may advance, with additional education and certification, to become a radiologist assistant. Experienced technologists also may be promoted to super visor, chief radiologic technologist, and, ultimately, depart ment administrator or director. Depending on the institution, courses or a master’s degree in business or health administra tion may be necessary for the director’s position. Some technologists progress by specializing in the occu pation to become instructors or directors in radiologic tech nology programs; others take jobs as sales representatives or instructors with equipment manufacturers. Employment Radiologic technologists held about 196,000 jobs in 2006. More than 60 percent of all jobs were in hospitals. Most other jobs were in offices of physicians; medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers; and out patient care centers. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow faster than average, and job opportunities are expected to be favorable. Employment change. Employment of radiologic technolo gists is expected to increase by about 15 percent from 2006 to 2016, faster than the average for all occupations. As the popu lation grows and ages, there will be an increasing demand for diagnostic imaging. Although health care providers are en thusiastic about the clinical benefits of new technologies, the extent to which they are adopted depends largely on cost and reimbursement considerations. As technology advances many imaging modalities are becoming less expensive and their adoption is becoming more widespread. For example, digital imaging technology can improve the quality of the images and the efficiency of the procedure, but it remains slightly more expensive than analog imaging, a procedure during which the image is put directly on film. Despite this, digital imaging is becoming more widespread in many imaging facilities be cause of the advantages it provides over analog. Although hospitals will remain the principal employer of radiologic technologists, a number of new jobs will be found Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Radiologic technologists and technicians........................................... soc Code 29-2034 Employment, 2006 196,000 Projected employment, 2016 226,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 30,000 15 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 426 Occupational Outlook Handbook in offices of physicians and diagnostic imaging centers. Health facilities such as these are expected to grow through 2016, because of the shift toward outpatient care, encouraged by third-party payers and made possible by technological ad vances that permit more procedures to be performed outside the hospital. Job prospects. In addition to job growth, job openings also will arise from the need to replace technologists who leave the occupation. Radiologic technologists are willing to relocate and who also are experienced in more than one diagnostic im aging procedure—such as CT, MR, and mammography—will have the best employment opportunities as employers seek to control costs by using multi-credentialed employees. CT is becoming a frontline diagnosis tool. Instead of taking x-rays to decide whether a CT is needed, as was the practice before, it is often the first choice for imaging because of its accuracy. MR also is increasing in frequency of use. Tech nologists with credentialing in either of these specialties will be very marketable to employers. Earnings Median annual earnings of radiologic technologists were $48,170 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,840 and $57,940. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,750, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,920. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the larg est numbers of radiologic technologists in 2006 were: Medical and diagnostis laboratories..................................$51,280 General medical and surgical hospitals............................... 48,830 Offices of physicians............................................................45,500 Related Occupations Radiologic technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians, dentists, and other health practitioners diag nose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations in clude cardiovascular technologists and technicians, clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, nuclear medicine technologists, radiation ther apists, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in radiologic technology, contact: >• American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. SE., Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. Internet: http://www.asrt.org For the current list of accredited education programs in ra diography, write to: y Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Suite 2850, Chicago, IL 60606-3182. Internet: http://www.jrcert.org For certification information, contact: y American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St.Paul, MN 55120-1155. Internet: http://www.arrt.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Surgical Technologists (0*NET 29-2055.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow much faster than • average. Job opportunities will be best for technologists who are certified. • Training programs last 9 to 24 months and lead to a certificate, diploma, or associate degree. • Hospitals will continue to be the primary employer, although much faster employment growth is expect ed in other health care industries. Nature of the Work Surgical technologists, also called scrubs and surgical or oper ating room technicians, assist in surgical operations under the supervision of surgeons, registered nurses, or other surgical personnel. Surgical technologists are members of operating room teams, which most commonly include surgeons, anes thesiologists, and circulating nurses. Before an operation, surgical technologists help prepare the operating room by setting up surgical instruments and equip ment, sterile drapes, and sterile solutions. They assemble both sterile and nonsterile equipment, as well as check and adjust it to ensure it is working properly. Technologists also get pa tients ready for surgery by washing, shaving, and disinfecting incision sites. They transport patients to the operating room, help position them on the operating table, and cover them with sterile surgical drapes. Technologists also observe patients’ vital signs, check charts, and help the surgical team put on sterile gowns and gloves. During surgery, technologists pass instruments and other sterile supplies to surgeons and surgeon assistants. They may hold retractors, cut sutures, and help count sponges, needles, supplies, and instruments. Surgical technologists help pre pare, care for, and dispose of specimens taken for laboratory analysis and help apply dressings. Some operate sterilizers, lights, or suction machines, and help operate diagnostic equip ment. After an operation, surgical technologists may help transfer patients to the recovery room and clean and restock the oper ating room. Certified surgical technologists with additional specialized education or training also may act in the role of the surgical first assistant or circulator. The surgical first assistant, as de fined by the American College of Surgeons (ACS,) provides aid in exposure, hemostasis (controlling blood flow and stop ping or preventing hemorrhage), and other technical functions under the surgeon’s direction that help the surgeon carry out a safe operation. A circulating technologist is the “unsterile” member of the surgical team who interviews the patient before surgery; prepares the patient; helps with anesthesia; obtains Professional and Related Occupations 427 Surgical technologists assemble, check, and adjust both sterile and nonsterile equipment. and opens packages for the “sterile” people to remove the ster ile contents during the procedure; keeps a written account of the surgical procedure; and answers the surgeon’s questions about the patient during the surgery. Work environment. Surgical technologists work in clean, well-lighted, cool environments. They must stand for long pe riods and remain alert during operations. At times, they may be exposed to communicable diseases and unpleasant sights, odors, and materials. Most surgical technologists work a regular 40-hour week, although they may be on call or work nights, weekends, and holidays on a rotating basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training programs last 9 to 24 months and lead to a certificate, diploma, or associate degree. Professional certification can help in getting jobs and promotions. Education and training. Surgical technologists receive their training in formal programs offered by community and junior colleges, vocational schools, universities, hospitals, and the military. In 2006, the Commission on Accreditation of Al lied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) recognized more than 400 accredited training programs. Programs last from 9 to 24 months and lead to a certificate, diploma, or associate degree. High school graduation normally is required for ad mission. Recommended high school courses include health, biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Programs provide classroom education and supervised clini cal experience. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, pharmacology, professional ethics, and medical terminology. Other topics covered include the care and safety of patients during surgery, sterile techniques, and surgical pro cedures. Students also learn to sterilize instruments; prevent and control infection; and handle special drugs, solutions, supplies, and equipment. Certification and other qualifications. Most employers pre fer to hire certified technologists. Technologists may obtain voluntary professional certification from the Liaison Council on Certification for the Surgical Technologist by graduating from a CAAHEP-accredited program and passing a national certification examination. They may then use the Certified Surgical Technologist (CST) designation. Continuing edu cation or reexamination is required to maintain certification, which must be renewed every 4 years. Certification also may be obtained from the National Center for Competency Testing (NCCT). To qualify to take the exam, candidates follow one of three paths: complete an accredited training program; undergo a 2-year hospital on-the-job train ing program; or acquire 7 years of experience working in the field. After passing the exam, individuals may use the desig nation Tech in Surgery-Certified, TS-C (NCCT). This certifi cation must be renewed every 5 years through either continu ing education or reexamination. Surgical technologists need manual dexterity to handle in struments quickly. They also must be conscientious, orderly, and emotionally stable to handle the demands of the operat ing room environment. Technologists must respond quickly and must be familiar with operating procedures in order to have instruments ready for surgeons without having to be told. They are expected to keep abreast of new developments in the field. Advancement. Technologists advance by specializing in a particular area of surgery, such as neurosurgery or open heart surgery. They also may work as circulating technologists. With additional training, some technologists advance to first assistant. Some surgical technologists manage central sup ply departments in hospitals, or take positions with insurance companies, sterile supply services, and operating equipment firms. Employment Surgical technologists held about 86,000 jobs in 2006. About 70 percent of jobs for surgical technologists were in hospitals, mainly in operating and delivery rooms. Other jobs were in offices of physicians or dentists who perform outpatient sur gery and in outpatient care centers, including ambulatory sur gical centers. A few technologists, known as private scrubs, are employed directly by surgeons who have special surgical teams, like those for liver transplants. Job Outlook Employment of surgical technologists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. Job oppor tunities will be best for technologists who are certified. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Surgical technologists............................................. ............................. soc Code 29-2055 Employment, 2006 86,000 Projected employment, 2016 107,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 21,000 24 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 428 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment change. Employment of surgical technolo gists is expected to grow 24 percent between 2006 and 2016, much faster than the average for all occupations, as the volume of surgeries increases. The number of surgical procedures is expected to rise as the population grows and ages. Older people, including the baby boom generation, who generally require more surgical procedures, will account for a larger portion of the general population. In addition, technological advances, such as fiber optics and laser technology, will per mit an increasing number of new surgical procedures to be performed and also will allow surgical technologists to assist with a greater number of procedures. Hospitals will continue to be the primary employer of surgi cal technologists, although much faster employment growth is expected in offices of physicians and in outpatient care cen ters, including ambulatory surgical centers. Job prospects. Job opportunities will be best for technolo gists who are certified. Earnings Median annual earnings of wage-and-salary surgical tech nologists were $36,080 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,300 and $43,560. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,490, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $51,140. Median annual earnings in the indus tries employing the largest numbers of surgical technologists were: Offices of physicians..........................................................$37,300 Outpatient care centers.........................................................37,280 General medical and surgical hospitals............................... 35,840 Offices of dentists.................................................................34,160 Benefits provided by most employers include paid vacation and sick leave, health, medical, vision, dental insurance and life insurance, and retirement program. A few employers also provide tuition reimbursement and child care benefits. Related Occupations Other health occupations requiring approximately 1 year of training after high school include dental assistants, licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, and medical assistants. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on a career as a surgical technolo gist and a list of CAAHEP-accredited programs, contact: y Association of Surgical Technologists, 6 West Dry Creek Circle, Suite 200, Littleton, CO 80120. Internet: http://www.ast.org For information on becoming a Certified Surgical Technolo gist, contact: V Liaison Council on Certification for the Surgical Technologist, 6 West Dry Creek Circle, Suite 100, Littleton, CO 80120. Internet: http://www.lcc-st.org For information on becoming a Tech in Surgery-Certified, contact: y National Center for Competency Testing, 7007 College Blvd., Suite 705, Overland Park, KS 66211. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Veterinary Technologists and Technicians (0*NET 29-2056.00) Significant Points • Animal lovers get satisfaction from this occupation, but aspects of the work can be unpleasant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. • Entrants generally complete a 2-year or 4-year veteri nary technology program and must pass a State exami nation. Employment is expected to grow much faster than av • • erage. Overall job opportunities should be excellent; howev er, keen competition is expected for jobs in zoos and aquariums. Nature of the Work Owners of pets and other animals today expect state-of-the-art veterinary care. To provide this service, veterinarians use the skills of veterinary technologists and technicians, who perform many of the same duties for a veterinarian that a nurse would for a physician, including routine laboratory and clinical procedures. Although specific job duties vary by employer, there often is lit tle difference between the tasks carried out by technicians and by technologists, despite some differences in formal education and training. As a result, most workers in this occupation are called technicians. Veterinary technologists and technicians typically conduct clin ical work in a private practice under the supervision of a licensed veterinarian. They often perform various medical tests and treat and diagnose medical conditions and diseases in animals. For example, they may perform laboratory tests such as urinalysis and blood counts, assist with dental prophylaxis, prepare tissue samples, take blood samples, or assist veterinarians in a variety of tests and analyses in which they often use various items of medical equipment, such as test tubes and diagnostic equipment. While most of these duties are performed in a laboratory set ting, many are not. For example, some veterinary technicians obtain and record patients’ case histories, expose and develop x-rays and radiographs, and provide specialized nursing care. In addition, experienced veterinary technicians may discuss a pet’s condition with its owners and train new clinic personnel. Veteri nary technologists and technicians assisting small-animal prac titioners usually care for companion animals, such as cats and dogs, but can perform a variety of duties with mice, rats, sheep, pigs, cattle, monkeys, birds, fish, and frogs. Very few veterinary technologists work in mixed animal practices where they care for both small companion animals and larger, nondomestic animals. Besides working in private clinics and animal hospitals, vet erinary technologists and technicians may work in research fa cilities, where they administer medications orally or topically, prepare samples for laboratory examinations, and record infor- Professional and Related Occupations 429 ■ ■■■ ;• Many veterinary technologists and technicians assist veterinar ians in routine laboratory and clinical procedures. mation on an animal’s genealogy, diet, weight, medications, food intake, and clinical signs of pain and distress. Some may steril ize laboratory and surgical equipment and provide routine post operative care. At research facilities, veterinary technologists typically work under the guidance of veterinarians or physicians. Some veterinary technologists vaccinate newly admitted animals and occasionally may have to euthanize seriously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals. While the goal of most veterinary technologists and techni cians is to promote animal health, some contribute to human health as well. Veterinary technologists occasionally assist vet erinarians in implementing research projects as they work with other scientists in medical-related fields such as gene therapy and cloning. Some find opportunities in biomedical research, wildlife medicine, the military, livestock management, or phar maceutical sales. Work environment. People who love animals get satisfaction from working with and helping them. However, some of the work may be unpleasant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. At times, veterinary technicians must clean cages and lift, hold, or restrain animals, risking exposure to bites or scratches. These workers must take precautions when treating animals with germicides or insecticides. The work set ting can be noisy. Veterinary technologists and technicians who witness abused animals or who euthanize unwanted, aged, or hopelessly injured animals may experience emotional stress. Those working for humane societies and animal shelters often deal with the public, some of whom might react with hostility to any implication that the owners are neglecting or abusing their pets. Such workers must maintain a calm and professional demeanor while they en force the laws regarding animal care. In some animal hospitals, research facilities, and animal shel ters, a veterinary technician is on duty 24 hours a day, which means that some may work night shifts. Most full-time veteri nary technologists and technicians work about 40 hours a week, although some work 50 or more hours a week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are primarily two levels of education and training for entry to this occupation: a 2-year program for veterinary technicians and a 4-year program for veterinary technologists. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Education and training. Most entry-level veterinary techni cians have a 2-year associate degree from an American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)-accredited community college program in veterinary technology in which courses are taught in clinical and laboratory settings using live animals. About 16 colleges offer veterinary technology programs that are longer and that culminate in a 4-year bachelor’s degree in veterinary tech nology. These 4-year colleges, in addition to some vocational schools, also offer 2-year programs in laboratory animal science. Several schools offer distance learning. In 2006, 131 veterinary technology programs in 44 States were accredited by the American Veterinary Medical Associa tion (AVMA). Graduation from an AVMA-accredited veterinary technology program allows students to take the credentialing exam in any State in the country. Persons interested in careers as veterinary technologists and technicians should take as many high school science, biology, and math courses as possible. Science courses taken beyond high school, in an associate or bachelor’s degree program, should emphasize practical skills in a clinical or laboratory setting. Technologists and technicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of a veterinarian. Entry-level workers whose training or educational background encompasses extensive hands-on experience with a variety of laboratory equipment, including diagnostic and medical equip ment, usually require a shorter period of on-the-job training. Licensure and certification. Each State regulates veterinary technicians and technologists differently; however, all States re quire them to pass a credentialing exam following coursework. Passing the State exam assures the public that the technician or technologist has sufficient knowledge to work in a veterinary clinic or hospital. Candidates are tested for competency through an examination that includes oral, written, and practical portions and that is regulated by the State Board of Veterinary Examiners or the appropriate State agency. Depending on the State, candi dates may become registered, licensed, or certified. Most States, however, use the National Veterinary Technician (NVT) exam. Prospects usually can have their passing scores transferred from one State to another, so long as both States use the same exam. Employers recommend American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS) certification for those seeking em ployment in a research facility. AALAS offers certification for three levels of technician competence, with a focus on three prin cipal areas—animal husbandry, facility management, and animal health and welfare. Those who wish to become certified must satisfy a combination of education and experience requirements prior to taking the AALAS examination. Work experience must be directly related to the maintenance, health, and well-being of laboratory animals and must be gained in a laboratory animal fa cility as defined by AALAS. Candidates who meet the necessary criteria can begin pursuing the desired certification on the basis of their qualifications. The lowest level of certification is As sistant Laboratory Animal Technician (ALAT), the second level is Laboratory Animal Technician (LAT), and the highest level of certification is Laboratory Animal Technologist (LATG). The AALAS examination consists of multiple-choice questions and is longer and more difficult for higher levels of certification, rang 430 Occupational Outlook Handbook ing from 2 hours and 120 multiple choice questions for the ALAT to 3 hours and 180 multiple choice questions for the LATG. Other qualifications. As veterinary technologists and techni cians often deal with pet owners, communication skills are very important. In addition, technologists and technicians should be able to work well with others, because teamwork with veterinar ians is common. Organizational ability and the ability to pay attention to detail also are important. Advancement. As they gain experience, technologists and technicians take on more responsibility and carry out more as signments under only general veterinary supervision. Some eventually may become supervisors. Employment Veterinary technologists and technicians held about 71,000 jobs in 2006. About 91 percent worked in veterinary services. The remainder worked in boarding kennels, animal shelters, stables, grooming salons, zoos, State and private educational institutions, and local, State, and Federal agencies. Job Outlook Excellent job opportunities will stem from the need to replace veterinary technologists and technicians who leave the occupa tion and from the limited output of qualified veterinary techni cians from 2-year programs, which are not expected to meet the demand over the 2006-16 period. Employment is expected to grow much faster than average. Employment change. Employment of veterinary technologists and technicians is expected to grow 41 percent over the 2006-16 projection period, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. Pet owners are becoming more affluent and more willing to pay for advanced veterinary care because many of them consider their pet to be part of the family. This growing af fluence and view of pets will continue to increase the demand for veterinary care. The vast majority of veterinary technicians work at private clinical practice under veterinarians. As the number of veterinarians grows to meet the demand for veterinary care, so will the number of veterinary technicians needed to assist them. The number of pet owners who take advantage of veterinary services for their pets—currently about 6 in 10—is expected to grow over the projection period, increasing employment oppor tunities. The availability of advanced veterinary services, such as preventive dental care and surgical procedures, also will provide opportunities for workers specializing in those areas as they will be needed to assist licensed veterinarians. The rapidly growing number of cats kept as companion pets is expected to boost the demand for feline medicine and services. Further demand for these workers will stem from the desire to replace veterinary as sistants with more highly skilled technicians and technologists in animal clinics and hospitals, shelters, boarding kennels, and humane societies. Biomedical facilities, diagnostic laboratories, wildlife facili ties, humane societies, animal control facilities, drug or food manufacturing companies, and food safety inspection facilities will provide additional jobs for veterinary technologists and technicians. However, keen competition is expected for veteri nary technologist and technician jobs in zoos and aquariums, due to expected slow growth in facility capacity, low turnover among workers, the limited number of positions, and the fact that the work in zoos and aquariums attracts many candidates. Job prospects. Excellent job opportunities are expected be cause of the relatively few veterinary technology graduates each year. The number of 2-year programs has recently grown to 131, but due to small class sizes, fewer than 3,000 graduates are anticipated each year, which is not expected to meet demand. Additionally, many veterinary technicians remain in the field for only 7-8 years, so the need to replace workers who leave the oc cupation each year also will produce many job opportunities. Employment of veterinary technicians and technologists is relatively stable during periods of economic recession. Layoffs are less likely to occur among veterinary technologists and tech nicians than in some other occupations because animals will con tinue to require medical care. Earnings Median hourly earnings of veterinary technologists and techni cians were $12.88 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.44 and $15.77. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $8.79, and the top 10 percent earned more than $18.68. Related Occupations Others who work extensively with animals include animal care and service workers, and veterinary assistants and laboratory ani mal caretakers. Like veterinary technologists and technicians, they must have patience and feel comfortable with animals. However, the level of training required for these occupations is less than that needed by veterinary technologists and technicians. Veterinarians, who need much more formal education, also work extensively with animals, preventing, diagnosing, and treating their diseases, disorders, and injuries. Sources of Additional Information For information on certification as a laboratory animal technician or technologist, contact: y American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, 9190 Crestwyn Hills Dr., Memphis, TN 38125. Internet: http://www.aalas.org For information on careers in veterinary medicine and a listing of AVMA-accredited veterinary technology programs, contact: y American Veterinary Medical Association, 1931 N. Meacham Rd„ Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360. Internet: http://www.avma.org Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Veterinary technologists and technicians............................................ SOC Code 29-2056 Employment, 2006 71,000 Projected employment, 2016 100,000 Change, 2006-2016 Number Percent 29,000 41 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations Healthcare Support Occupations Dental Assistants (0*NET 31-9091.00) Significant Points • Job prospects should be excellent. • Dentists are expected to hire more assistants to per form routine tasks so that they may devote their own time to more complex procedures. • Many assistants learn their skills on the job, although an increasing number are trained in dental-assisting programs; most programs take 1 year or less to com plete. Nature of the Work Dental assistants work closely with, and under the supervision of, dentists. (See the statement on dentists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Assistants perform a variety of patient care, office, and laboratory duties. Dental assistants should not be confused with dental hy gienists, who are licensed to perform different clinical tasks. (See the statement on dental hygienists elsewhere in the Hand book.) Dental assistants sterilize and disinfect instruments and equipment, prepare and lay out the instruments and materials required to treat each patient, and obtain patients’ dental re cords. Assistants make patients as comfortable as possible in the dental chair and prepare them for treatment. During dental procedures, assistants work alongside the dentist to provide as sistance. They hand instruments and materials to dentists and keep patients’ mouths dry and clear by using suction or other devices. They also instruct patients on postoperative and gen eral oral health care. Dental assistants may prepare materials for impressions and restorations, take dental x-rays, and process x-ray film as di rected by a dentist. They also may remove sutures, apply topi cal anesthetics to gums or cavity-preventive agents to teeth, remove excess cement used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for individual treat ment. Some States are expanding dental assistants’ duties to include tasks such as coronal polishing and restorative dentistry functions for those assistants that meet specific training and ex perience requirements. Dental assistants with laboratory duties make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions, clean and polish removable appliances, and make temporary crowns. Those with office du ties schedule and confirm appointments, receive patients, keep https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis treatment records, send bills, receive payments, and order den tal supplies and materials. Work environment. Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. Their work area usually is near the den tal chair so that they can arrange instruments, materials, and medication and hand them to the dentist when needed. Den tal assistants must wear gloves, masks, eyewear, and protective clothing to protect themselves and their patients from infectious diseases. Assistants also follow safety procedures to minimize the risks associated with the use of x-ray machines. About half of dental assistants have a 35- to 40-hour work week. Most of the rest work part-time or have variable sched ules. Depending on the hours of the dental office where they work, assistants may have to work on Saturdays or evenings. Some dental assistants hold multiple jobs by working at dental offices that are open on different days or scheduling their work at a second office around the hours they work at their primary office. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many assistants learn their skills on the job, although an in creasing number are trained in dental-assisting programs of fered by community and junior colleges, trade schools, techni cal institutes, or the Armed Forces. Education and training. High school students interested in a career as a dental assistant should take courses in biology, chemistry, health, and office practices. For those wishing to pursue further education, the Commission on Dental Accredita tion within the American Dental Association (ADA) approved 269 dental-assisting training programs in 2006. Programs in clude classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruction in den tal-assisting skills and related theory. In addition, students gain practical experience in dental schools, clinics, or dental offices. Most programs take 1 year or less to complete and lead to a cer tificate or diploma. Two-year programs offered in community : --£■ .. ... - k ' ■ Dental assistants prepare and lay out the instruments and ma terials required to treat each patient. 431 432 Occupational Outlook Handbook and junior colleges lead to an associate degree. All programs re quire a high school diploma or its equivalent, and some require science or computer-related courses for admission. A number of private vocational schools offer 4- to 6-month courses in den tal assisting, but the Commission on Dental Accreditation does not accredit these programs. A large number of dental assistants learn through on-the-job training. In these situations, the employing dentist or other den tal assistants in the dental office teach the new assistant dental terminology, the names of the instruments, how to perform daily duties, how to interact with patients, and other things necessary to help keep the dental office running smoothly. While some things can be picked up easily, it may be a few months before new dental assistants are completely knowledgeable about their duties and comfortable doing all of their tasks without assis tance. A period of on-the-job training is often required even for those that have completed a dental-assisting program or have some previous experience. Different dentists may have their own styles of doing things that need to be learned before an assistant can be comfortable working with them. Office-spe cific information, such as where files are kept, will need to be learned at each new job. Also, as dental technology changes, dental assistants need to stay familiar with the tools and proce dures that they will be using or helping dentists to use. On-thejob training is often sufficient to keep assistants up-to-date on these matters. Licensure. Most States regulate the duties that dental as sistants are allowed to perform. Some States require licensure or registration, which may include passing a written or practi cal examination. There are a variety of schools offering cours es—approximately 10 to 12 months in length—that meet their State’s requirements. Other States require dental assistants to complete State-approved education courses of 4 to 12 hours in length. Some States offer registration of other dental assisting credentials with little or no education required. Some States re quire continuing education to maintain licensure or registration. A few States allow dental assistants to perform any function delegated to them by the dentist. Individual States have adopted different standards for den tal assistants who perform certain advanced duties. In some States, for example, dental assistants who perform radiological procedures must complete additional training. Completion of the Radiation Health and Safety examination offered by Dental Assisting National Board (DANB) meets the standards in more than 30 States. Some States require completion of a State-ap proved course in radiology as well. Certification and other qualifications. Certification is avail able through the Dental Assisting National Board (DANB) and is recognized or required in more than 30 States. Certification is an acknowledgment of an assistant’s qualifications and pro fessional competence and may be an asset when one is seeking employment. Candidates may qualify to take the DANB cer tification examination by graduating from an ADA-accredited dental assisting education program or by having 2 years of full time, or 4 years of part-time, experience as a dental assistant. In addition, applicants must have current certification in cardio pulmonary resuscitation. For annual recertification, individuals must earn continuing education credits. Other organizations offer registration, most often at the State level. Dental assistants must be a second pair of hands for a dentist; therefore, dentists look for people who are reliable, work well with others, and have good manual dexterity. Advancement. Without further education, advancement op portunities are limited. Some dental assistants become office managers, dental-assisting instructors, dental product sales representatives, or insurance claims processors for dental insur ance companies. Others go back to school to become dental hy gienists. For many, this entry-level occupation provides basic training and experience and serves as a steppingstone to more highly skilled and higher paying jobs. Employment Dental assistants held about 280,000 jobs in 2006. Almost all jobs for dental assistants were in offices of dentists. A small number of jobs were in the Federal, State, and local govern ments or in offices of physicians. About 35 percent of dental assistants worked part time, sometimes in more than one dental office. Job Outlook Employment is expected to increase much faster than average; job prospects are expected to be excellent. Employment change. Employment is expected to grow 29 percent from 2006 to 2016, which is much faster than the aver age for all occupations. In fact, dental assistants are expected to be among the fastest growing occupations over the 2006-16 projection period. Population growth, greater retention of natural teeth by middle-aged and older people, and an increased focus on pre ventative dental care for younger generations will fuel demand for dental services. Older dentists, who have been less likely to employ assistants or have employed fewer, are leaving the occupation and will be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to use one or more assistants. In addition, as den tists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more assis tants to perform routine tasks, so that they may devote their own time to more complex procedures. Job prospects. Job prospects for dental assistants should be excellent. In addition to job openings due to employment growth, numerous job openings will arise out of the need to replace assistants who transfer to other occupations, retire, or Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Dental assistants...................................................... ............................. soc Code 31-9091 Employment, 2006 280,000 Projected employment, 2016 362,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 82,000 29 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Occupational Informa Service Occupations 433 leave for other reasons. Many opportunities for entry-level po sitions offer on-the-job training, but some dentists prefer to hire experienced assistants or those who have completed a dentalassisting program. , j : J I Earnings ■'K-i Median hourly earnings of dental assistants were $14.53 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.94 and $17.44 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.87, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.69 an hour. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting and may be con tingent upon full-time employment. According to the American Dental Association, 87 percent of dentists offer reimbursement for continuing education courses taken by their assistants. Related Occupations Other workers supporting health practitioners include dental hygienists, medical assistants, surgical technologists, pharmacy aides, pharmacy technicians, occupational therapist assistants and aides, and physical therapist assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities and accredited dental assistant programs is available from: y Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 East Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org For information on becoming a Certified Dental Assistant and a list of State boards of dentistry, contact: y Dental Assisting National Board, Inc., 676 North Saint Clair St., Suite 1880, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.danb.org For more information on a career as a dental assistant and general information about continuing education, contact: y American Dental Assistants Association, 35 East Wacker Dr., Suite 1730, Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http://www.dentalassistant.org For more information about continuing education courses, contact: y National Association of Dental Assistants, 900 South Washington St., Suite G-13, Falls Church, VA 22046. Massage Therapists (0*NET 31-9011.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow faster than average over the 2006-16 period as more people learn about the benefits of massage therapy. • Many States require formal training and national cer tification in order to practice massage therapy. • This occupation includes a large percentage of part time and self-employed workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Massage therapists improve circulation by rubbing or applying pressure to muscles. Nature of the Work The medical benefits of “friction” were first documented in Western culture by the Greek physician Hippocrates around 400 BC. Today, massage therapy is being used as a means of treating painful ailments, decompressing tired and overworked muscles, reducing stress, rehabilitating sports injuries, and pro moting general health. This is done by manipulating the soft tissue muscles of the body in order to improve circulation and remove waste products from the muscles. Clients may seek massage for medical benefit or for relax ation purposes, and there is a wide range of massage treatment available to meet these distinct needs. Massage therapy that aims to improve physical health typically differs in duration and technique from massage that is intended to simply relax or reju venate clients. The training background of those who perform the two types of massage therapy differs as well. Massage therapists can specialize in over 80 different types of massage, called modalities. Swedish massage, deep tissue massage, reflexology, acupressure, sports massage, and neu romuscular massage are just a few of the many approaches to massage therapy. Most massage therapists specialize in several modalities, which require different techniques. Some use exag gerated strokes ranging the length of a body part, while oth ers use quick, percussion-like strokes with a cupped or closed hand. A massage can be as long as 2 hours or as short as 5 or 10 minutes. Usually, the type of massage given depends on the client’s needs and the client’s physical condition. For example, therapists may use special techniques for elderly clients that they would not use for athletes, and they would use approaches for clients with injuries that would not be appropriate for clients seeking relaxation. There are also some forms of massage that are given solely to one type of client, for example prenatal mas sage and infant massage. Massage therapists work by appointment. Before beginning a massage therapy session, therapists conduct an informal inter view with the client to find out about the person’s medical his tory and desired results from the massage. This gives therapists a chance to discuss which techniques could be beneficial to the client and which could be harmful. Because massage therapists tend to specialize in only a few areas of massage, customers will often be referred to or seek a therapist with a certain type of 434 Occupational Outlook Handbook massage in mind. Based on the person’s goals, ailments, medi cal history, and stress- or pain-related problem areas, a massage therapist will conclude whether a massage would be harmful, and if not, move forward with the session. While giving the massage, therapists alter their approach or concentrate on any areas of particular discomfort as necessary. Many modalities of massage therapy use massage oils, lo tions, or creams to massage and rub the client’s muscles. Most massage therapists, particularly those who are self-employed, supply their own table or chair, sheets, pillows, and body lo tions or oils. Most modalities of massage require clients to be covered in a sheet or blanket, and require clients to be undressed or to wear loose-fitting clothing. The therapist only exposes the body part being massaged. Some types of massage are done without oils or lotions and are performed with the client fullyclothed. Massage therapists must develop a rapport with their clients if repeat customers are to be secured. Because those who seek a therapist tend to make regular visits, developing a loyal clien tele is an important part of becoming successful. Work environment. Massage therapists work in an array of settings both private and public: private offices, studios, hos pitals, nursing homes, fitness centers, sports medicine facili ties, airports, and shopping malls, for example. Some massage therapists also travel to clients’ homes or offices to provide a massage. It is not uncommon for full-time massage therapists to divide their time among several different settings, depending on the clients and locations scheduled. Most massage therapists give massages in dimly lit settings. Using candles and/or incense is not uncommon. Ambient or other calm, soothing music is often played. The dim lighting, smells, and background noise are meant to put clients at ease. On the other hand, when visiting a client’s office, a massage therapist may not have those amenities. The working condi tions depend heavily on a therapist’s location and what the cli ent wants. Because massage is physically demanding, massage thera pists can succumb to injury if the proper technique is not used. Repetitive motion problems and fatigue from standing for ex tended periods of time are most common. This risk can be lim ited by use of good technique, proper spacing between sessions, exercise, and in many cases by the therapists themselves receiv ing a massage on a regular basis. Because of the physical nature of the work and time needed in between sessions, massage therapists typically give massag es less than 40 hours per week. Most therapists who work 15 to 30 hours per week consider themselves to be full-time work ers, because when time for travel, equipment set-up, and busi ness functions, such as billing, are added, a massage therapist’s hours per week may very well be more than 40 hours. About 42 percent of all massage therapists worked part time and 20 percent had variable schedules in 2006. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In 2007,38 States and the District of Columbia had laws regulat ing massage therapy in some way. Most of the boards govern ing massage therapy in these States require practicing massage therapists to complete a formal education program and pass a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis national certification examination or a State exam. It is best to check information on licensing, certification, and accreditation on a State-by-State basis. Education and training. Training standards and requirements for massage therapists vary greatly by State and locality. There are roughly 1,500 massage therapy postsecondary schools, col lege programs, and training programs throughout the country. Massage therapy programs generally cover subjects such as anatomy; physiology, the study of organs and tissues; kinesiol ogy, the study of motion and body mechanics; business; ethics; as well as hands-on practice of massage techniques. Training programs may concentrate on certain modalities of massage. Several programs also provide alumni services such as post graduate job placement and continuing educational services. Both full- and part-time programs are available. These programs vary in accreditation. Massage therapy training programs are generally approved by a State board, and may also be accredited by an independent accrediting agency. In States that regulate massage therapy, graduation from an ap proved school or training program is usually required in order to practice. Some State regulations require that therapists keep up on their knowledge and technique through continuing educa tion. Licensure. After completion of a training program, many massage therapists opt to take the National Certification Exam ination for Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork (NCETMB.) Many States require that therapists pass this test in order to practice massage therapy. The exam is administered by the Na tional Certification Board for Therapeutic Massage and Body work (NCBTMB), which has several eligibility requirements. In States that require massage therapy program approval, a can didate must graduate from a State-approved training institute or submit a portfolio of training experience for NCBTMB review to qualify for the test. In locations that do not require accred ited training programs, this is unnecessary. When a therapist passes the NCETMB, he or she can use the recognized national credential: Nationally Certified in Thera peutic Massage and Bodywork (NCTMB). The credential must be renewed every 4 years. In order to remain certified, a thera pist must perform at least 200 hours of therapeutic massage and complete continuing education requirements during this time. In 2005, the NCBTMB introduced a new national certification test and corresponding professional credential. The new test covers the same topics as the traditional national certification exam, but covers fewer modalities of massage therapy. Recog nition of this new national certification varies by State. Recently, a second multi-State examination program has be gun to take shape. The Federation of State Massage Therapy Boards offers a licensure program that is also accepted by many States. Massage therapy licensure boards decide which certifications and tests to accept on a State-by-State basis. Therefore, those wishing to practice massage therapy should look into legal re quirements for the State and locality in which they intend to practice. Other qualifications. Both strong communication skills and a friendly, empathetic personality are extremely helpful quali ties for fostering a trusting relationship with clients and in turn, Service Occupations 435 expanding one’s client base. Massage can be a delicate issue for some clients and because of this, making clients feel comfortable is one of the most important abilities for massage therapists. Advancement. Membership in a professional massage thera py association may help therapists network and in turn, find new clients. Some of these associations require that members gradu ate from a nationally credentialed training program, have a State license, or be nationally certified by the NCBTMB. Because of the nature of massage therapy, opportunities for advancement are limited. However, with increased experience and an expanding client base, there are opportunities for thera pists to increase client fees and, therefore, income. In addition, those who are well organized and have an entrepreneurial spirit may go into business for themselves. Self-employed massage therapists with a large client base have the highest earnings. Employment Massage therapists held about 118,000 jobs in 2006. About 64 percent were self-employed. There are many more people who practice massage therapy as a secondary source of income. As a result, some industry sources estimate that more than 200,000 people practice massage therapy in some capacity. Of those self-employed, most owned their own business, and the rest worked as independent contractors. Others found em ployment in salons and spas; the offices of physicians and chi ropractors; fitness and recreational sports centers; and hotels. While massage therapists can find jobs throughout the country, employment is concentrated in metropolitan areas, as well as re sort and destination locales. selves as employee-friendly, providing professional in-office, seated massages for employees is becoming a popular on-the-job benefit. Older citizens in nursing homes or assisted living facilities are also finding benefits from massage, such as increased energy lev els and reduced health problems. Demand for massage therapy should grow among older age groups because they increasingly enjoy longer, more active lives and persons age 55 and older are projected to be the most rapidly growing segment of the U.S. population over the next decade. However, demand for massage therapy is presently greatest among young adults, and they are likely to continue to enjoy the benefits of massage therapy as they age. Job prospects. In States that regulate massage therapy, those who complete formal training programs and pass the national certification exam are likely to have very good opportunities. However, new massage therapists should expect to work only part-time in spas, hotels, hospitals, physical therapy centers, and other businesses until they can build a client base of their own. Because referrals are a very important source of work for mas sage therapists, networking will increase the number of job op portunities. Joining a State or local chapter of a professional as sociation can also help build strong contacts and further increase the likelihood of steady work. Female massage therapists will continue to enjoy slightly bet ter job prospects, as some clients—both male and female—are uncomfortable with male physical contact. In 2006, 84 percent of all massage therapists were female. Job Outlook Earnings Employment growth for massage therapists is expected to be faster than average for all occupations with very good job pros pects, particularly for those seeking part-time work. Employment change. Employment for massage therapists is expected to increase 20 percent from 2006 to 2016, faster than average for all occupations. Employment will grow as more people learn about the benefits of massage therapy. Increased interest in alternative medicine and holistic heal ing will translate into new openings for those skilled in massage therapy. Healthcare providers and medical insurance companies are beginning to recognize massage therapy as a legitimate treat ment and preventative measure for several types of injuries and illnesses. The health care industry is using massage therapy more often as a supplement to conventional medical techniques for ail ments such as muscle problems, some sicknesses and diseases, and stress-related health problems. Massage therapy’s growing acceptance as a medical tool, particularly by the medical pro vider and insurance industries, will have the greatest impact on new job growth for massage therapists. Massage is an increasingly popular technique for relaxation and reduction of stress. As workplaces try to distinguish them Median wage and salary hourly earnings of massage therapists, including gratuities, were $16.06 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.98 and $24.22. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $7.48, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33.83. Generally, massage therapists earn 15 to 20 percent of their income as gratuities. For those who work in a hospital or other clinical setting, however, tipping is not com mon. As is typical for most workers who are self-employed and work part-time, few benefits are provided. Related Occupations Other workers associated with the healthcare industry who pro vide therapy to clients include athletic trainers, physical thera pists, physical therapist assistants and aides, chiropractors, and workers in other occupations that use touch to aid healing or re lieve stress. Sources of Additional Information General information on becoming a massage therapist is avail able from State regulatory boards. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Massage therapists................................................... ............................. soc Code 31-9011 Employment, 2006 118,000 Projected employment, 2016 142.000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 24.000 20 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 436 Occupational Outlook Handbook For more information on becoming a massage therapist, con tact: X Associated Bodywork & Massage Professionals, 1271 Sugarbush Dr., Evergreen, CO 80439. Intemet:http://www.massagetherapy.com/careers/index.php y American Massage Therapy Association, 500 Davis St., Suite 900, Evanston, IL 60201. Internet: http://www.amtamassage.org For a directory of schools providing accredited massage ther apy training programs, contact: y Commission on Massage Therapy Accreditation, 1007 Church St., Suite 302, Evanston, IL 60201. Internet: http://www.comta.org y Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org Information on national testing and national certification is available from: y National Certification Board for Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork, 1901 S. Meyers Rd., Suite 240, Oakbrook Terrace, IL 60181. Internet: http://www.ncbtmb.com y Federation of State Massage Therapy Boards, 7111 W 151 st Street, Suite 356, Overland Park, Kansas 66223. Internet: http://www.fsmtb.org Medical Assistants (0*NET 31-9092.00) Significant Points • About 62 percent of medical assistants work in offices of physicians. • Some medical assistants are trained on the job, but many complete 1-year or 2-year programs. • Employment is projected to grow much faster than average, ranking medical assistants among the fastest growing occupations over the 2006-16 decade. • Job prospects should be excellent. Nature of the Work Medical assistants perform administrative and clinical tasks to keep the offices of physicians, podiatrists, chiropractors, and other health practitioners running smoothly. They should not be confused with physician assistants, who examine, diagnose, and treat patients under the direct supervision of a physician. (Physician assistants are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book.) The duties of medical assistants vary from office to office, de pending on the location and size of the practice and the practi tioner’s specialty. In small practices, medical assistants usually do many different kinds of tasks, handling both administrative and clinical duties and reporting directly to an office manager, physician, or other health practitioner. Those in large practices tend to specialize in a particular area, under the supervision of department administrators. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Medical assistants who perform administrative tasks have many duties. They update and file patients’ medical records, fill out insurance forms, and arrange for hospital admissions and laboratory services. They also perform tasks less specific to medical settings, such as answering telephones, greeting pa tients, handling correspondence, scheduling appointments, and handling billing and bookkeeping. For clinical medical assistants, duties vary according to what is allowed by State law. Some common tasks include taking medical histories and recording vital signs, explaining treat ment procedures to patients, preparing patients for examina tions, and assisting physicians during examinations. Medical assistants collect and prepare laboratory specimens and some times perform basic laboratory tests on the premises, dispose of contaminated supplies, and sterilize medical instruments. They might instruct patients about medications and special diets, prepare and administer medications as directed by a physician, authorize drug refills as directed, telephone prescriptions to a pharmacy, draw blood, prepare patients for x-rays, take electro cardiograms, remove sutures, and change dressings. Medical assistants also may arrange examining room in struments and equipment, purchase and maintain supplies and equipment, and keep waiting and examining rooms neat and clean. Ophthalmic medical assistants, optometric assistants, and podiatric medical assistants are examples of specialized as sistants who have additional duties. Ophthalmic medical as sistants help ophthalmologists provide eye care. They conduct diagnostic tests, measure and record vision, and test eye muscle function. They also show patients how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses, and they apply eye dressings. Under the direction of the physician, ophthalmic medical assistants may administer eye medications. They also maintain optical and surgical instruments and may assist the ophthalmologist in sur gery. Optometric assistants also help provide eye care, working with optometrists. They provide chair-side assistance, instruct patients about contact lens use and care, conduct preliminary tests on patients, and otherwise provide assistance while work ing directly with an optometrist. Podiatric medical assistants make castings of feet, expose and develop x-rays, and assist podiatrists in surgery. in Medical assistants who perform clinical tasks often record vital signs ofpatients. Service Occupations 437 Work environment. Medical assistants work in well-lighted, clean environments. They constantly interact with other people and may have to handle several responsibilities at once. Most full-time medical assistants work a regular 40-hour week. How ever, many medical assistants work part time, evenings, or weekends. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some medical assistants are trained on the job, but many com plete 1-year or 2-year programs. Education and training. Postsecondary medical assisting programs are offered in vocational-technical high schools, post secondary vocational schools, and community and junior colleg es. Programs usually last either 1 year and result in a certificate or diploma, or 2 years and result in an associate degree. Courses cover anatomy, physiology, and medical terminology, as well as typing, transcription, recordkeeping, accounting, and insurance processing. Students leam laboratory techniques, clinical and diagnostic procedures, pharmaceutical principles, the adminis tration of medications, and first aid. They study office practices, patient relations, medical law, and ethics. There are various or ganizations that accredit medical assisting programs. Accred ited programs often include an internship that provides practical experience in physicians’ offices, hospitals, or other health care facilities. Formal training in medical assisting, while generally pre ferred, is not always required. Some medical assistants are trained on the job, although this practice is less common than in the past. Applicants usually need a high school diploma or the equivalent. Recommended high school courses include math ematics, health, biology, typing, bookkeeping, computers, and office skills. Volunteer experience in the health care field also is helpful. Medical assistants who are trained on the job usu ally spend their first few months attending training sessions and working closely with more experienced workers. Some States allow medical assistants to perform more ad vanced procedures, such as giving injections, after passing a test or taking a course. Certification and other qualifications. Employers prefer to hire experienced workers or those who are certified. Although not required, certification indicates that a medical assistant meets certain standards of competence. There are various asso ciations—some listed in the sources of information below—that award certification credentials to medical assistants, and the cer tification process varies. It also is possible to become certified in a specialty, such as podiatry, optometry, or ophthalmology. Medical assistants deal with the public; therefore, they must be neat and well groomed and have a courteous, pleasant man ner and they must be able to put patients at ease and explain physicians’ instructions. They must respect the confidential na ture of medical information. Clinical duties require a reasonable level of manual dexterity and visual acuity. Advancement. Medical assistants may advance to other oc cupations through experience or additional training. For ex ample, some may go on to teach medical assisting, and others pursue additional education to become nurses or other health care workers. Administrative medical assistants may advance to office manager, or qualify for a variety of administrative support occupations. Employment Medical assistants held about 417,000 jobs in 2006. About 62 percent worked in offices of physicians; 12 percent worked in public and private hospitals, including inpatient and outpatient facilities; and 11 percent worked in offices of other health prac titioners, such as chiropractors, optometrists, and podiatrists. Most of the remainder worked in other health care industries such as outpatient care centers and nursing and residential care facilities. Job Outlook Employment is projected to grow much faster than average, ranking medical assistants among the fastest growing occupa tions over the 2006-16 decade. Job opportunities should be ex cellent, particularly for those with formal training or experience, and certification. Employment change. Employment of medical assistants is expected to grow 35 percent from 2006 to 2016, much faster than the average for all occupations. As the health care industry expands because of technological advances in medicine and the growth and aging of the population, there will be an increased need for all health care workers. Increasing use of medical as sistants in the rapidly growing health care industry will further stimulate job growth. Helping to drive job growth is the increasing number of group practices, clinics, and other health care facilities that need a high proportion of support personnel, particularly medical assistants who can handle both administrative and clinical duties. In addi tion, medical assistants work primarily in outpatient settings, a rapidly growing sector of the health care industry. Job prospects. Job seekers who want to work as a medical assistant should find excellent job prospects. Medical assistants are projected to account for a very large number of new jobs, and many other opportunities will come from the need to replace workers leaving the occupation. Those with formal training or experience—particularly those with certification—should have the best job opportunities. Earnings The earnings of medical assistants vary, depending on their ex perience, skill level, and location. Median annual earnings of Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Medical assistants.................................................... ............................. soc Code 31-9092 Employment, 2006 417,000 Projected employment, 2016 565.000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 148,000 35 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 438 Occupational Outlook Handbook wage-and-salary medical assistants were $26,290 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,970 and $31,210. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,860, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $36,840. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical as sistants in May 2006 were: General medical and surgical hospitals............................... $27,340 Outpatient care centers.......................................................... 26,840 Offices of physicians............................................................. 26,620 Offices of chiropractors......................................................... 22,940 Offices of optometrists.......................................................... 22,850 Related Occupations Medical assistants perform work similar to the tasks completed by other workers in medical support occupations. Administra tive medical assistants do work similar to that of medical secre taries, medical transcriptionists, and medical records and health information technicians. Clinical medical assistants perform du ties similar to those of dental assistants; dental hygienists; occu pational therapist assistants and aides; pharmacy aides; licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses; surgical technologists; physical therapist assistants and aides; and nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities and certification for med ical assistants is available from: y American Association of Medical Assistants, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 1575, Chicago, IL 60606. Internet: http://www.aama-ntl.org y American Medical Technologists, 10700 West Higgins Rd., Suite 150, Rosemont, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.amtl.com y National Healthcareer Association, 7 Ridgedale Ave., Suite 203, Cedar Knolls, NJ 07927. Information about career opportunities, training programs, and certification for ophthalmic medical personnel is available from: y Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology, 2025 Woodlane Dr., St.Paul, MN 55125. Internet: http ://www.jcahpo.org/newsite/index.htm Information about career opportunities, training programs and certification for optometric assistants is available from: y American Optometric Association, 243 N. Lindbergh Blvd., St.Louis, MO 63141. Internet: http://www.aoa.org Information about certification for podiatric assistants is avail able from: y American Society of Podiatric Medical Assistants, 2124 South Austin Blvd., Cicero, IL 60804. Internet: http://www.aspma.org For lists of accredited educational programs in medical assist ing, contact: y Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, 7777 Leesburg Pike, Suite 314 N, Falls Church, VA 22043. Internet: http://www.abhes.org y Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs, 1361 Park St., Clearwater, FL 33756. Internet: http://www.caahep.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Medical Transcriptionists (0*NET 31-9094.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities will be good. • Employers prefer medical transcriptionists who have completed a postsecondary training program. • Many medical transcriptionists telecommute from home-based offices. • About 41 percent worked in hospitals, and another 29 percent worked in offices of physicians. Nature of the Work Medical transcriptionists listen to dictated recordings made by physicians and other health care professionals and transcribe them into medical reports, correspondence, and other adminis trative material. They generally listen to recordings on a head set, using a foot pedal to pause the recording when necessary, and key the text into a personal computer or word processor, editing as necessary for grammar and clarity. The documents they produce include discharge summaries, medical history and physical examination reports, operative reports, consultation reports, autopsy reports, diagnostic imaging studies, progress notes, and referral letters. Medical transcriptionists return tran scribed documents to the physicians or other health care pro fessionals who dictated them for review and signature or cor rection. These documents eventually become part of patients’ permanent files. To understand and accurately transcribe dictated reports, medical transcriptionists must understand medical terminology, anatomy and physiology, diagnostic procedures, pharmacology, and treatment assessments. They also must be able to translate medical jargon and abbreviations into their expanded forms. To help identify terms appropriately, transcriptionists refer to stan dard medical reference materials—both printed and electronic; some of these are available over the Internet. Medical tran scriptionists must comply with specific standards that apply to the style of medical records and to the legal and ethical require ments for keeping patient information confidential. Experienced transcriptionists spot mistakes or inconsisten cies in a medical report and check to correct the information. Their ability to understand and correctly transcribe patient as sessments and treatments reduces the chance of patients receiv ing ineffective or even harmful treatments and ensures highquality patient care. Currently, most health care providers transmit dictation to medical transcriptionists using either digital or analog dictat ing equipment. The Internet has grown to be a popular mode for transmitting documentation. Many transcriptionists receive dictation over the Internet and are able to quickly return tran scribed documents to clients for approval. Another increasing ly popular method uses speech recognition technology, which electronically translates sound into text and creates drafts of reports. Transcriptionists then format the reports; edit them for Service Occupations 439 mistakes in translation, punctuation, or grammar; and check for consistency and any wording that doesn’t make sense medical ly. Transcriptionists working in specialties, such as radiology or pathology, with standardized terminology are more likely to use speech recognition technology. However, speech recogni tion technology will become more widespread in all specialties as the technology becomes more sophisticated, that is, better able to recognize and more accurately transcribe diverse modes of speech. Medical transcriptionists who work in physicians’ offices may have other office duties, such as receiving patients, scheduling appointments, answering the telephone, and handling incoming and outgoing mail. Medical secretaries, discussed in the state ment on secretaries and administrative assistants elsewhere in the Handbook, also may transcribe as part of their jobs. Work environment. The majority of these workers are em ployed in comfortable settings, such as hospitals, physicians’ offices, transcription service offices, clinics, laboratories, medi cal libraries, government medical facilities, or their own homes. Many medical transcriptionists telecommute from home-based offices. Workers usually sit in the same position for long periods. They can suffer wrist, back, neck, or eye problems due to strain and risk repetitive motion injuries such as carpal tunnel syn- ^2: Medical transcriptionists listen to recordings on a headset, key the text into a personal computer or word processor, and edit for grammar and clarity. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis drome. The constant pressure to be accurate and productive also can be stressful. Many medical transcriptionists work a standard 40-hour week. Self-employed medical transcriptionists are more likely to work irregular hours—including part time, evenings, week ends, or on call at any time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postsecondary training in medical transcription is preferred by employers; writing and computer skills also are important. Education and training. Employers prefer to hire transcrip tionists who have completed postsecondary training in medical transcription offered by many vocational schools, community colleges, and distance-learning programs. Completion of a 2-year associate degree or 1-year certificate program—including coursework in anatomy, medical termi nology, legal issues relating to health care documentation, and English grammar and punctuation—is highly recommended, but not always required. Many of these programs include su pervised on-the-job experience. Some transcriptionists, espe cially those already familiar with medical terminology from previous experience as a nurse or medical secretary, become proficient through refresher courses and training. Formal accreditation is not required for medical transcription programs. However, the Approval Committee for Certificate Programs (AACP)—established by the Association for Health care Documentation Integrity (AHDI) and the American Health Information Management Association—offers voluntary ac creditation for medical transcription programs. Although vol untary, completion of an ACCP approved program may be re quired for transcriptionists seeking certification. Certification and other qualifications. The AHDI awards two voluntary designations, the Registered Medical Transcriptionist (RMT) and the Certified Medical Transcriptionist (CMT). Medical transcriptionists who are recent graduates of medical transcription educational programs, or have fewer than 2 years experience in acute care, may become a registered RMT. The RMT credential is awarded upon successfully pass ing the AHDI level 1 registered medical transcription exam. The CMT designation requires at least 2 years of acute care ex perience working in multiple specialty surgery areas using dif ferent format, report, and dictation types. Candidates also must earn a passing score on a certification examination. Because medicine is constantly evolving, medical transcriptionists are encouraged to update their skills regularly. RMTs and CMTs must earn continuing education credits every 3 years to be re certified. As in many other fields, certification is recognized as a sign of competence. Graduates of an ACCP approved program who earn the RMT credential are eligible to participate in the Registered Appren ticeship Program sponsored by the Medical Transcription In dustry Association through the U.S. Department of Labor. The Registered Apprenticeship program offers structured on-the-job learning and related technical instruction for qualified medical transcriptionists entering the profession. In addition to understanding medical terminology, transcrip tionists must have good English grammar and punctuation skills and proficiency with personal computers and word processing 440 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Medical transcriptionists....................................... .................... soc Employment, Code 31-9094 2006 98,000 Projected employment, 2016 112,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 13,000 14 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. _______________________________________________ software. Normal hearing acuity and good listening skills also are necessary. Employers usually require applicants to take pre-employment tests. Advancement. With experience, medical transcriptionists can advance to supervisory positions, home-based work, edit ing, consulting, or teaching. Some become owners of medical transcription businesses. With additional education or training, some become medical records and health information techni cians, medical coders, or medical records and health informa tion administrators. Employment Medical transcriptionists held about 98,000 jobs in 20006. About 41 percent worked in hospitals and another 29 percent worked in offices of physicians. Others worked for business support services; medical and diagnostic laboratories; outpa tient care centers; and offices of physical, occupational, and speech therapists, and audiologists. Job Outlook Employment of medical transcriptionists is projected to grow faster than the average; job opportunities should be good, espe cially for those who are certified. Employment change. Employment of medical transcription ists is projected to grow 14 percent from 2006 to 2016, fast er than the average for all occupations. Demand for medical transcription services will be spurred by a growing and aging population. Older age groups receive proportionately greater numbers of medical tests, treatments, and procedures that re quire documentation. A high level of demand for transcription services also will be sustained by the continued need for elec tronic documentation that can be shared easily among provid ers, third-party payers, regulators, consumers, and health infor mation systems. Growing numbers of medical transcriptionists will be needed to amend patients’ records, edit documents from speech recognition systems, and identify discrepancies in medi cal reports. Contracting out transcription work overseas and advance ments in speech recognition technology are not expected to sig nificantly reduce the need for well-trained medical transcrip tionists. Outsourcing transcription work abroad—to countries such as India, Pakistan, Philippines, and the Caribbean—has grown more popular as transmitting confidential health infor mation over the Internet has become more secure; however, the demand for overseas transcription services is expected only to supplement the demand for well-trained domestic medical tran scriptionists. In addition, reports transcribed by overseas medi cal transcription services usually require editing for accuracy by domestic medical transcriptionists before they meet U.S. quality standards. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Speech-recognition technology allows physicians and other health professionals to dictate medical reports to a computer that immediately creates an electronic document. In spite of the advances in this technology, the software has been slow to grasp and analyze the human voice and the English language, and the medical vernacular with all its diversity. As a result, there will continue to be a need for skilled medical transcriptionists to identify and appropriately edit the inevitable errors created by speech recognition systems, and to create a final document. Job prospects. Job opportunities will be good, especially for those who are certified. Hospitals will continue to employ a large percentage of medical transcriptionists, but job growth there will not be as fast as in other industries. An increasing demand for standardized records should result in rapid employ ment growth in physicians’ offices, especially in large group practices. Earnings Wage-and-salary medical transcriptionists had median hourly earnings of $ 14.40 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.17 and $17.06. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.22, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.15. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical transcriptionists were: Medical and diagnostic laboratories..................................... $15.68 General medical and surgical hospitals................................... 14.62 Business support services........................................................14.34 Outpatient care centers.............................................................14.31 Offices of physicians................................................................14.00 Compensation methods for medical transcriptionists vary. Some are paid based on the number of hours they work or on the number of lines they transcribe. Others receive a base pay per hour with incentives for extra production. Employees of transcription services and independent contractors almost al ways receive production-based pay. Independent contractors earn more than do transcriptionists who work for others, but independent contractors have higher expenses than their corpo rate counterparts, receive no benefits, and may face higher risk of termination than do wage-and-salary transcriptionists. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations also type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are court reporters; human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping; reception ists and information clerks; and secretaries and administrative assistants. Other workers who provide medical support include medical assistants and medical records and health information technicians. Service Occupations 441 Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a medical transcriptionist, con tact: y Association for Healthcare Documentation Integrity, 4230 Kieman Ave., Suite 130, Modesto, CA 95356. Internet: http://www.ahdionline.org State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for medical transcriptionists. Nursing, Psychiatric, and Home Health Aides (0*NET 31-1011.00, 31-1012.00, 31-1013.00) Significant Points • Numerous job openings and excellent job opportuni ties are expected. • Most jobs are in nursing and residential care facilities, hospitals, and home health care services. This occupation is characterized by modest entry re quirements, low pay, high physical and emotional de mands, and limited advancement opportunities. • Nature of the Work Nursing and psychiatric aides help care for physically or men tally ill, injured, disabled, or infirm individuals in hospitals, nursing care facilities, and mental health settings. Home health aides have duties that are similar, but they work in patients’ homes or residential care facilities. Nursing aides and home health aides are among the occupations commonly referred to as direct care workers, due to their role in working with patients who need long-term care. The specific care they give depends on their specialty. Nursing aides—also known as nurse aides, nursing assistants, certified nursing assistants, geriatric aides, unlicensed assistive personnel, orderlies, or hospital attendants—provide hands-on care and perform routine tasks under the supervision of nursing and medical staff. Specific tasks vary, with aides handling many aspects of a patient’s care. They often help patients to eat, dress, and bathe. They also answer calls for help, deliver messages, serve meals, make beds, and tidy up rooms. Aides sometimes are responsible for taking a patient’s temperature, pulse rate, respiration rate, or blood pressure. They also may help provide care to patients by helping them get into and out of bed and walk, escorting them to operating and examining rooms, or pro viding skin care. Some aides help other medical staff by setting up equipment, storing and moving supplies, and assisting with some procedures. Aides also observe patients’ physical, mental, and emotional conditions and report any change to the nursing or medical staff. Nurse aides employed in nursing care facilities often are the principal caregivers, having far more contact with residents than do other members of the staff. Because some residents may stay in a nursing care facility for months or even years, aides https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis develop ongoing relationships with them and interact with them in a positive, caring way. Home health aides help elderly, convalescent, or disabled per sons live in their own homes instead of health care facilities. Under the direction of nursing or medical staff, they provide health-related services, such as administering oral medications. (Personal and home care aides, who provide mainly housekeep ing and routine personal care services, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Like nursing aides, home health aides may check patients’ pulse rate, temperature, and respiration rate; help with simple prescribed exercises; and help patients to get in and out of bed, bathe, dress, and groom. Occasionally, they change nonsterile dressings, give massages and provide skin care, or assist with braces and artificial limbs. Experienced home health aides, with training, also may assist with medical equipment such as ventilators, which help patients breathe. Most home health aides work with elderly or disabled per sons who need more extensive care than family or friends can provide. Some help discharged hospital patients who have rela tively short-term needs. In home health agencies, a registered nurse, physical thera pist, or social worker usually assigns specific duties to and su pervises home health aides, who keep records of the services they perform and record each patient’s condition and progress. The aides report changes in a patient’s condition to the supervi sor or case manager. Psychiatric aides, also known as mental health assistants or psychiatric nursing assistants, care for mentally impaired or emotionally disturbed individuals. They work under a team that may include psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric nurses, so cial workers, and therapists. In addition to helping patients to dress, bathe, groom themselves, and eat, psychiatric aides so cialize with them and lead them in educational and recreational activities. Psychiatric aides may play card games or other games with patients, watch television with them, or participate in group activities, such as playing sports or going on field trips. They observe patients and report any physical or behavioral signs that might be important for the professional staff to know. They ac company patients to and from therapy and treatment. Because they have such close contact with patients, psychiatric aides can have a great deal of influence on their outlook and treatment. Work environment. Work as an aide can be physically de manding. Aides spend many hours standing and walking, and they often face heavy workloads. Aides must guard against back injury because they may have to move patients into and out of bed or help them to stand or walk. It is important for aides to be trained in and to follow the proper procedures for lifting and moving patients. Aides also may face hazards from minor infec tions and major diseases, such as hepatitis, but can avoid infec tions by following proper procedures. Aides also perform tasks that some may consider unpleasant, such as emptying bedpans and changing soiled bed linens. The patients they care for may be disoriented, irritable, or uncoop erative. Psychiatric aides must be prepared to care for patients whose illness may cause violent behavior. Although their work can be emotionally demanding, many aides gain satisfaction from assisting those in need. Home health aides may go to the same patient’s home for months or even years. However, most aides work with a num 442 Occupational Outlook Handbook ber of different patients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks. Home health aides often visit multiple patients on the same day. Home health aides generally work alone, with periodic visits from their supervisor. They receive detailed instructions ex plaining when to visit patients and what services to perform. Aides are individually responsible for getting to patients’ homes, and they may spend a good portion of the working day traveling from one patient to another. Because mechanical lifting devices available in institutional settings are not as frequently available in patients’ homes, home health aides must take extra care to avoid injuries resulting from overexertion when they assist pa tients. Most full-time aides work about 40 hours per week, but be cause patients need care 24 hours a day, some aides work eve nings, nights, weekends, and holidays. In 2006, 23 percent of aides worked part time compared with 15 percent of all work ers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In many cases, a high school diploma or equivalent is neces sary for a job as a nursing or psychiatric aide. However, a high school diploma generally is not required for jobs as home health aides. Specific qualifications vary by occupation, State laws, and work setting. Advancement opportunities are limited. Education and training. Nursing and psychiatric aide train ing is offered in high schools, vocational-technical centers, some nursing care facilities, and some community colleges. Courses cover body mechanics, nutrition, anatomy and physiology, in fection control, communication skills, and resident rights. Per sonal care skills, such as how to help patients to bathe, eat, and groom themselves, also are taught. Hospitals may require pre vious experience as a nursing aide or home health aide. Some States also require psychiatric aides to complete a formal train ing program. However, most psychiatric aides learn their skills on the job from experienced workers. Home health aides are generally not required to have a high school diploma. They usually are trained on the job by reg istered nurses, licensed practical nurses, or experienced aides. Also, clients may prefer that tasks are done a certain way, and make those suggestions to the home health aide. A competency evaluation may be required to ensure the aide can perform the required tasks. Some employers provide classroom instruction for newly hired aides, while others rely exclusively on informal on-the-job instruction by a licensed nurse or an experienced aide. Such training may last from several days to a few months. Aides also may attend lectures, workshops, and in-service training. Licensure and certification. The Federal Government has guidelines for home health aides whose employers receive re imbursement from Medicare. Federal law requires home health aides to pass a competency test covering a wide range of areas. A home health aide may receive training before taking the com petency test. In addition, the National Association for Home Care and Hospice offers voluntary certification for home health aides. Some States also require aides to be licensed. Similar Federal requirements exist for nurse aides who work in nursing care facilities. These aides must complete a mini mum of 75 hours of state-approved training and pass a compe https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tency evaluation. Aides who complete the program are known as certified nurse assistants (CNAs) and are placed on the State registry of nurse aides. Other qualifications. Aides must be in good health. A physi cal examination, including State-regulated tests such as those for tuberculosis, may be required. A criminal background check also is usually required for employment. Applicants should be tactful, patient, understanding, emo tionally stable, and dependable and should have a desire to help people. They also should be able to work as part of a team, have good communication skills, and be willing to perform repetitive, routine tasks. Home health aides should be honest and discreet because they work in private homes. They also will need access to a car or public transportation to reach patients’ homes. Advancement. Opportunities for advancement within these occupations are limited. Aides generally need additional for mal training or education to enter other health occupations. The most common health care occupations for former aides are li censed practical nurse, registered nurse, and medical assistant. For some individuals, these occupations serve as entry-level jobs. For example, some high school and college students gain experience working in these occupations while attending school. In addition, experience as an aide can help individuals decide whether to pursue a career in health care. Employment Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides held about 2.3 mil lion jobs in 2006. Nursing aides held the most jobs—approxi mately 1.4 million. Home health aides held roughly 787,000 jobs, and psychiatric aides held about 62,000 jobs. About 52 percent of nursing aides worked in nursing and residential care facilities and another 29 percent worked in hospitals. Home health aides were mainly employed by home health care ser vices, nursing and residential care facilities and social assistance agencies. About 47 percent of all psychiatric aides worked in jHji r 4 ttefc T ' i Aides help care for physically or mentally ill, injured, disabled, or infirm individuals in a variety of settings. Service Occupations 443 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides..................... ............... Home health aides............................................................. ............... Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants......................... ............... Psychiatric aides................................................................. ............... soc Code Employment, 2006 31-1000 31-1011 31-1012 31-1013 2,296,000 787,000 1,447,000 62,000 Projected employment, 2016 2,944,000 1,171,000 1,711,000 62,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 647,000 28 384,000 49 264,000 18 0 0 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. hospitals, primarily in psychiatric and substance abuse hospitals, although some also worked in the psychiatric units of general medical and surgical hospitals. Others were employed in State government agencies; residential mental retardation, mental health, and substance abuse facilities; and nursing and residen tial care facilities. Job Outlook Excellent job opportunities for nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides will arise from a combination of rapid employment growth and the need to replace the many workers who leave the occupation each year. Employment change. Overall employment of nursing, psy chiatric, and home health aides is projected to grow 28 percent between 2006 and 2016, much faster than the average for all occupations. However, growth will vary for the individual oc cupations. Home health aides are expected to gain jobs faster than other aides as a result of growing demand for home services from an aging population and efforts to contain costs by moving patients out of hospitals and nursing care facilities as quickly as possible. Consumer preference for care in the home and im provements in medical technologies for in-home treatment also will contribute to much-faster-than-average employment growth for home health aides. Nursing aide employment will not grow as fast as home health aide employment, largely because nursing aides are concentrated in relatively slower-growing industries. Employment of nursing aides is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through 2016, in response to the long-term care needs of an increasing elderly population. Financial pressures on hospitals to discharge patients as soon as possible should boost admis sions to nursing care facilities. As a result, job openings will be more numerous in nursing and residential care facilities than in hospitals. Modem medical technology also will drive demand for nursing aides because as the technology saves and extends more lives, it increases the need for long-term care provided by aides. Little or no change is expected in employment of psychiatric aides—the smallest of the three occupations. Most psychiatric aides currently work in hospitals, but the industries most likely to see growth will be residential facilities for people with de velopmental disabilities, mental illness, and substance abuse problems. There is a long-term trend toward treating psychi atric patients outside of hospitals because it is more cost effec tive and allows patients to live more independent lives. Demand for psychiatric aides in residential facilities will rise in response to the increase in the number of older persons, many of whom will require mental health services. Growing demand for these workers also rests on an increasing number of mentally disabled https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis adults who were formerly cared for by their elderly parents and who will continue to need care. Job growth also could be af fected by changes in government funding of programs for the mentally ill. Job prospects. High replacement needs for nursing, psychi atric, and home health aides reflect modest entry requirements, low pay, high physical and emotional demands, and limited op portunities for advancement within the occupation. For these same reasons, the number of people looking to enter the occupa tion will be limited. Many aides leave the occupation to attend training programs for other health care occupations. Therefore, people who are interested in, and suited for, this work should have excellent job opportunities. Earnings Median hourly earnings of nursing aides, orderlies, and atten dants were $10.67 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.09 and $12.80 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.78, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $14.99 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants in May 2006 were: Local government.................................................................$12.15 Employment services.............................................................. 11.47 General medical and surgical hospitals...................................11.06 Nursing care facilities............................................................. 10.37 Community care facilities for the elderly...............................10.07 Nursing and psychiatric aides in hospitals generally receive at least 1 week of paid vacation after 1 year of service. Paid holidays and sick leave, hospital and medical benefits, extra pay for late-shift work, and pension plans also are available to many hospital employees and to some nursing care facility employ ees. Median hourly earnings of home health aides were $9.34 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.99 and $10.90 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.06, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.00 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of home health aides in May 2006 were: Nursing care facilities.............................................................$9.76 Residential mental retardation facilities................................... 9.34 Services for the elderly and persons with disabilities.........................................................9.26 Home health care services........................................................9.14 Community care facilities for the elderly.................................8.87 444 Occupational Outlook Handbook Home health aides receive slight pay increases with experi ence and added responsibility. Usually, they are paid only for the time worked in the home, not for travel time between jobs, and must pay for their travel costs from their earnings. Most employers hire only on-call hourly workers and provide no benefits. Median hourly earnings of psychiatric aides were $11.49 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.20 and $14.46 an hour. The lowest lOpercent earned less than $7.75, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.32 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the larg est numbers of psychiatric aides in May 2006 were: Occupational Therapist Assistants and Aides (0*NET 31-2011.00, 31-2012.00) Significant Points • • State government......................................................... $13.27 General medical and surgical hospitals.............................. 12.31 Psychiatric and substance abuse hospitals......................... 11.76 Residential mental health and substance abuse facilities........ 9.65 Residential mental retardation facilities...............................8.80 Related Occupations Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides help people who need routine care or treatment. So do child care workers, li censed practical and licensed vocational nurses, medical as sistants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, personal and home care aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, radiation therapists, and registered nurses. Social and human service assistants, who sometimes work with mental health patients, do work similar to that of psychiatric aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities may be obtained from local hospitals, nursing care facilities, home health care agencies, psychiatric facilities, State boards of nursing, and local offices of the State employment service. Information on licensing requirements for nursing and home health aides, and lists of State-approved nursing aide programs are available from State departments of public health, departments of occupational licensing, boards of nurs ing, and home care associations. For more information on training and requirements for home health aides, contact: y National Association for Home Care and Hospice, 228 7th St.SE., Washington, DC 20003. Internet: http://www.nahc.org For more information on the home health care industry, contact: V Visiting Nurse Associations of America, 8403 Colesville Rd., Suite 1550, Silver Spring, MD 20910-6374. Internet: http://www.vnaa.org For more information on the health care workforce, con tact: y The Center for the Health Professions, 3333 California St., San Francisco, CA 94118. Internet: http://www.futurehealth.ucsf.edu https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • Occupational therapist assistants generally must com plete an associate degree or a certificate program; in contrast, occupational therapist aides usually receive most of their training on the job. Employment is projected to grow much faster than the average as demand for occupational therapy services rises and as occupational therapists increasingly use assistants and aides. Job prospects should be very good for occupational therapist assistants; job seekers holding only a high school diploma might face keen competition for oc cupational therapist aide jobs. Nature of the Work Occupational therapist assistants and aides work under the direction of occupational therapists to provide rehabilitative services to persons with mental, physical, emotional, or de velopmental impairments. The ultimate goal is to improve clients’ quality of life and ability to perform daily activi ties. For example, occupational therapist assistants help in jured workers re-enter the labor force by teaching them how to compensate for lost motor skills or help individuals with learning disabilities increase their independence. Occupational therapist assistants, commonly known as oc cupational therapy assistants, help clients with rehabilitative activities and exercises outlined in a treatment plan developed in collaboration with an occupational therapist. Activities range from teaching the proper method of moving from a bed into a wheelchair to the best way to stretch and limber the muscles of the hand. Assistants monitor an individual’s ac tivities to make sure that they are performed correctly and to provide encouragement. They also record their client’s progress for the occupational therapist. If the treatment is not having the intended effect, or the client is not improving as expected, the therapist may alter the treatment program in hopes of obtaining better results. In addition, occupational therapist assistants document the billing of the client’s health insurance provider. Occupational therapist aides typically prepare materials and assemble equipment used during treatment. They are re sponsible for a range of clerical tasks, including scheduling appointments, answering the telephone, restocking or order ing depleted supplies, and filling out insurance forms or other paperwork. Aides are not licensed, so the law does not al low them to perform as wide a range of tasks as occupational therapist assistants. Work environment. Occupational therapist assistants and aides need to have a moderate degree of strength because of Service Occupations 445 . ll A * Applicants to occupational therapist assistant programs can improve their chances of admission by taking high school courses in biology and health and by performing volunteer work in nursing care facilities, occupational or physical thera pists’ offices, or other health care settings. Occupational therapist aides usually receive most of their training on the job. Qualified applicants must have a high school diploma, strong interpersonal skills, and a desire to help people in need. Applicants may increase their chances of get ting a job by volunteering their services, thus displaying initia tive and aptitude to the employer. Licensure. In most States, occupational therapist assistants are regulated and must pass a national certification examination after they graduate. Those who pass the test are awarded the title “Certified Occupational Therapy Assistant.” Other qualifications. Assistants and aides must be respon sible, patient, and willing to take directions and work as part of a team. Furthermore, they should be caring and want to help people who are not able to help themselves. Advancement. Occupational therapist assistants may ad vance into administration positions. They might organize all the assistants in a large occupational therapy department or act as the director for a specific department such as sports medi cine. Some assistants go on to teach classes in accredited oc cupational therapist assistant academic programs or lead health risk reduction classes for the elderly. Employment Occupational therapist assistants and aides provide rehabili tative services to persons with mental, physical, emotional, or developmental impairments. the physical exertion required to assist patients. For example, assistants and aides may need to lift patients. Constant kneel ing, stooping, and standing for long periods also are part of the job. The hours and days that occupational therapist assistants and aides work vary by facility and with whether they are full- or part time. For example, many outpatient therapy offices and clinics have evening and weekend hours to coincide with pa tients’ schedules. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An associate degree or a certificate from an accredited commu nity college or technical school is generally required to qualify for occupational therapist assistant jobs. In contrast, occupa tional therapist aides usually receive most of their training on the job. Education and training. There were 126 accredited occu pational therapist assistant programs in 2007. The first year of study typically involves an introduction to health care, basic medical terminology, anatomy, and physiology. In the second year, courses are more rigorous and usually include occupa tional therapist courses in areas such as mental health, adult physical disabilities, gerontology, and pediatrics. Students also must complete 16 weeks of supervised fieldwork in a clinic or community setting. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Occupational therapist assistants and aides held about 33,000 jobs in 2006. Occupational therapist assistants held about 25,000 jobs, and occupational therapist aides held approxi mately 8,000. About 29 percent of jobs for assistants and aides were in hospitals, 23 percent were in offices of occupational therapists, and 21 percent were in nursing and residential care facilities. The rest were primarily in community care facilities for the elderly, home health care services, individual and family services, and State government agencies. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than average as demand for occupational therapy services rises and as occupa tional therapists increasingly use assistants and aides. Job pros pects should be very good for occupational therapist assistants. Job seekers holding only a high school diploma might face keen competition for occupational therapist aide jobs. Employment change. Employment of occupational therapist assistants and aides is expected to grow 25 percent from 2006 to 2016, much faster than the average for all occupations. In the short ran, the impact of proposed Federal legislation impos ing limits on reimbursement for therapy services may adversely affect the job market for occupational therapist assistants and aides. Over the long run, however, demand for occupational therapist assistants and aides will continue to rise because of the increasing number of individuals with disabilities or limited function. The growing elderly population is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions that require therapeutic ser vices. These patients often need additional assistance in their treatment, making the roles of assistants and aides vital. Also, 446 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Occupational therapist assistants and aides Occupational therapist assistants............ Occupational therapist aides................... soc Code 31-2010 31-2011 31-2012 Projected employment, Employment, 2006 2016 41,000 31,000 10,000 33,000 25,000 8,200 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 8,200 6,400 1,800 25 25 22 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. the large baby-boom generation is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, further increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. In addition, future medical developments should permit an increased percentage of trauma victims to survive, creating added demand for therapy services. An increase of sensory disorders in children will also spur de mand for occupational therapy services. Occupational therapists are expected to increasingly utilize assistants and aides to reduce the cost of occupational therapy services. Once a patient is evaluated and a treatment plan is designed by the therapist, the occupational therapist assistant can provide many aspects of treatment, as prescribed by the therapist. Job prospects. Opportunities for individuals interested in becoming occupational therapist assistants are expected to be very good. In addition to employment growth, job openings will result from the need to replace occupational therapist as sistants and aides who leave the occupation permanently over the 2006-16 period. Occupational therapist assistants and aides with prior experience working in an occupational therapy office or other health care setting will have the best job opportunities. However, individuals with only a high school diploma may face keen competition for occupational therapist aide jobs. Related Occupations Occupational therapist assistants and aides work under the su pervision and direction of occupational therapists. Other work ers in the health care field who work under similar supervision include dental assistants; medical assistants; nursing, psychi atric, and home health aides; personal and home care aides; pharmacy aides; pharmacy technicians; and physical therapist assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as an occupational therapist assis tant or aide, and a list of accredited programs, contact: y American Occupational Therapy Association, 4720 Montgomery Lane, Bethesda, MD 20824-1220. Internet: http://www.aota.org Pharmacy Aides (C)*NET 31-9095.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities are expected to be good for full-time and part-time work, especially for those with related work experience. • Many pharmacy aides work evenings, weekends, and holidays. About 82 percent work in retail pharmacies, grocery stores, department stores, or mass retailers. Earnings Median annual earnings of occupational therapist assistants were $42,060 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,130 and $50,230. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,050, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,270. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of occupational therapist assistants in May 2006 were: Offices of physical, occupational and speech therapists, and audiologists................................................................ $45,130 Nursing care facilities........................................................... 43,280 General medical and surgical hospitals.................................40,060 Median annual earnings of occupational therapist aides were $25,020 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,460 and $32,160. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,060, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $44,130. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of occupational therapist aides in May 2006 were: Offices of physical, occupational and speech therapists, and audiologists................................................................ $26,960 General medical and surgical hospitals................................. 26,360 Nursing care facilities........................................................... 25,520 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • Nature of the Work Pharmacy aides perform administrative duties in pharmacies. Aides often are clerks or cashiers who primarily answer tele phones, handle money, stock shelves, and perform other clerical duties. They work closely with pharmacy technicians. Phar macy technicians usually perform more complex tasks than do aides, although in some States the duties and titles of the jobs overlap. (See the statement on pharmacy technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Aides refer any questions regarding prescrip tions, drug information, or health matters to a pharmacist. (See the statement on pharmacists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Pharmacy aides may establish and maintain patient profiles, prepare insurance claim forms, and stock and take inventory of prescription and over-the-counter medications. Accurate re cordkeeping is necessary to help avert dangerous drug interac tions. In addition, because many people have medical insurance to help pay for prescriptions, it is essential that pharmacy aides Service Occupations 447 correspond efficiently and correctly with third-party insurance providers to obtain payment. Pharmacy aides also maintain in ventory and inform the supervisor of stock needs so that the pharmacy does not run out of vital medications that customers need. Some aides also help with the maintenance of equipment and supplies. Work environment. Pharmacy aides work in clean, orga nized, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Most of their workday is spent on their feet. They may be required to lift heavy boxes or to use stepladders to retrieve supplies from high shelves. Aides work the same hours that pharmacists do. These in clude evenings, nights, weekends, and some holidays, particu larly in facilities that are open 24 hours a day such as hospitals and some retail pharmacies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most pharmacy aides are trained on the job. Employers prefer applicants with previous experience and strong customer ser vice skills. Many pharmacy aides go on to become pharmacy technicians. Education and training. Most pharmacy aides receive in formal on-the-job training, but employers favor those with at least a high school diploma. Prospective pharmacy aides with experience working as cashiers may have an advantage when applying for jobs. Employers also prefer applicants with expe rience managing inventories and using computers. Pharmacy aides begin their training by observing a more ex perienced worker. After they become familiar with the store’s equipment, policies, and procedures, they begin to work on their own. Once they become experienced, aides are not likely to receive additional training, except when new equipment is introduced or when policies or procedures change. Other qualifications. Strong customer service and commu nication skills are essential, as pharmacy aides frequently inter act with patients, fellow employees, and other health-care pro fessionals. Aides entering the field also need strong spelling, reading, and mathematics skills. Successful pharmacy aides are organized, dedicated, friendly, and responsible. They should be willing and able to take directions. Candidates interested in becoming pharmacy aides cannot have prior records of drug or substance abuse. Advancement. With experience or certification, many phar macy aides go on to become pharmacy technicians. Some become pharmacists after completing a substantial amount of formal training. • * ' ‘Fin'riir . ■—■— ------------ rftr Pharmacy aides perform administrative duties in pharmacies, such as answering phones and stocking shelves. stores, or mass retailers. About 7 percent of aides worked in hospitals. Job Outlook Employment of pharmacy aides is expected to decline rapidly from 2006 to 2016. Job prospects, however, should be good. Employment change. Employment of pharmacy aides is expected to decline rapidly, decreasing by 11 percent over the 2006 to 2016 period. Demand for pharmacy aides will fall as pharmacy technicians become increasingly responsible for answering phones, stocking shelves, operating cash registers, and performing other administrative tasks. In addition, with in creased training, many pharmacy aides will become pharmacy technicians, which will result in further declines in pharmacy aide jobs. Job prospects. Despite declining employment, job opportu nities for full-time and part-time work are expected to be good. The frequent need to replace workers who leave the occupation will create opportunities for interested applicants. Aides with related work experience in pharmacies, or as cashiers or stock clerks in other retail settings, should have the best opportuni ties. Earnings Median hourly earnings of wage-and-salary pharmacy aides were $9.35 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $7.89 and $11.58; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.92, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $14.64. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of pharmacy aides in May 2006 were: Employment Pharmacy aides held about 50,000 jobs in 2006. About 82 per cent worked in retail pharmacies, most of which were in drug stores but some of which were in grocery stores, department General medical and surgical hospitals................................ $11.53 Grocery stores...........................................................................9.87 Pharmacies and drug stores.......................................................8.97 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Pharmacy aides........................................................... ............................. soc Code 31-9095 Employment, 2006 50,000 Projected employment, 2016 45,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent __ -5,600 -11 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 448 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations The work of pharmacy aides is closely related to that of phar macy technicians, cashiers, and stock clerks and order fillers. Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportunities, contact local employers or local offices of the State employment service. Physical Therapist Assistants and Aides (0*NET 31-2021.00, 31-2022.00) Significant Points • • • • Employment is projected to increase much faster than average. Assistants should have very good job prospects; on the other hand, aides may face keen competition from the large pool of qualified applicants. Aides usually learn skills on the job, while assistants generally have an associate degree; some States re quire licensing for assistants. About 71 percent of jobs were in offices of physical therapists or in hospitals. Nature of the Work Physical therapist assistants and aides help physical therapists to provide treatment that improves patient mobility, relieves pain, and prevents or lessens physical disabilities of patients. A physical therapist might ask an assistant to help patients exer cise or leam to use crutches, for example, or an aide to gather and prepare therapy equipment. Patients include accident vic tims and individuals with disabling conditions such as lowerback pain, arthritis, heart disease, fractures, head injuries, and cerebral palsy. Physical therapist assistants perform a variety of tasks. Un der the direction and supervision of physical therapists, they provide part of a patient’s treatment. This might involve exer cises, massages, electrical stimulation, paraffin baths, hot and cold packs, traction, and ultrasound. Physical therapist assis tants record the patient’s responses to treatment and report the outcome of each treatment to the physical therapist. Physical therapist aides help make therapy sessions produc tive, under the direct supervision of a physical therapist or phys ical therapist assistant. They usually are responsible for keep ing the treatment area clean and organized and for preparing for each patient’s therapy. When patients need assistance moving to or from a treatment area, aides push them in a wheelchair or provide them with a shoulder to lean on. Because they are not licensed, aides do not perform the clinical tasks of a physical therapist assistant in States where licensure is required. The duties of aides include some clerical tasks, such as or dering depleted supplies, answering the phone, and filling out insurance forms and other paperwork. The extent to which an https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis aide or an assistant performs clerical tasks depends on the size and location of the facility. Work environment. Physical therapist assistants and aides need a moderate degree of strength because of the physical exertion required in assisting patients with their treatment. In some cases, assistants and aides need to lift patients. Frequent kneeling, stooping, and standing for long periods also are part of the job. The hours and days that physical therapist assistants and aides work vary with the facility. About 23 percent of all physical therapist assistants and aides work part time. Many outpatient physical therapy offices and clinics have evening and weekend hours, to coincide with patients’ personal schedules. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most physical therapist aides are trained on the job, but most physical therapist assistants earn an associate degree from an accredited physical therapist assistant program. Some States require licensing for physical therapist assistants. Education and training. Employers typically require physi cal therapist aides to have a high school diploma. They are trained on the job, and most employers provide clinical on-thejob training. In many States, physical therapist assistants are required by law to hold at least an associate degree. According to the Amer ican Physical Therapy Association, there were 233 accredited physical therapist assistant programs in the United States as of 2006. Accredited programs usually last 2 years, or 4 semesters, and culminate in an associate degree. Programs are divided into academic study and hands-on clinical experience. Academic course work includes algebra, anatomy and physiology, biology, chemistry, and psychology. Clinical work includes certifications in CPR and other first aid and field experience in treatment centers. Both educators and prospective employers view clinical experience as essential to ensuring that students understand the responsibilities of a phys ical therapist assistant. Licensure. Licensing is not required to practice as a physi cal therapist aide. However, some States require licensure or registration in order to work as a physical therapist assistant. m m % Physical therapist assistants have very good job prospects, but physical therapist aides should experience keen competition for jobs. Service Occupations 449 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Physical therapist assistants and aides Physical therapist assistants........... Physical therapist aides.................... soc Employment, Code 2006 31-2020 31-2021 31-2022 107,000 60,000 46,000 Projected employment, 2016 137,000 80,000 58,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 31,000 29 20,000 32 11,000 24 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. States that require licensure stipulate specific educational and examination criteria. Additional requirements may include certification in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and other first aid and a minimum number of hours of clinical experience. Complete information on regulations can be obtained from State licensing boards. Other qualifications. Physical therapist assistants and aides should be well-organized, detail oriented, and caring. They usually have strong interpersonal skills and a desire to help people in need. Advancement. Some physical therapist aides advance to be come therapist assistants after gaining experience and, often, additional education. Sometimes, this education is required by law. Some physical therapist assistants advance by specializing in a clinical area. They gain expertise in treating a certain type of patient, such as geriatric or pediatric, or a type of ailment, such as sports injuries. Many physical therapist assistants advance to administration positions. These positions might include or ganizing all the assistants in a large physical therapy organiza tion or acting as the director for a specific department such as sports medicine. Other assistants go on to teach in an accred ited physical therapist assistant academic program, lead health risk reduction classes for the elderly, or organize community activities related to fitness and risk reduction. Employment Physical therapist assistants and aides held about 107,000 jobs in 2006. Physical therapist assistants held about 60,000 jobs; physical therapist aides, approximately 46,000. Both work with physical therapists in a variety of settings. About 71 percent of jobs were in offices of physical therapists or in hospitals. Oth ers worked primarily in nursing care facilities, offices of physi cians, home health care services, and outpatient care centers. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow much faster than average because of increasing consumer demand for physical therapy services. Job prospects for physical therapist assistants are ex pected to be very good. Aides should experience keen competi tion for jobs. Employment change. Employment of physical therapist as sistants and aides is expected to grow by 29 percent over the 2006-16 decade, much faster than the average for all occupa tions. The impact of Federal limits on Medicare and Medic aid reimbursement for therapy services may adversely affect the short-term job outlook for physical therapist assistants and aides. However, long-term demand for physical therapist assis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tants and aides will continue to rise, as the number of individu als with disabilities or limited function grows. The increasing number of people who need therapy reflects, in part, the increasing elderly population. The elderly popu lation is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions that require therapeutic services. These patients often need additional assistance in their treatment, making the roles of assistants and aides vital. In addition, the large babyboom generation is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, further increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. Moreover, future medical developments should permit an increased percentage of trauma victims to survive, creating added demand for therapy services. Physical therapists are expected to increasingly use assistants to reduce the cost of physical therapy services. Once a patient is evaluated and a treatment plan is designed by the physical therapist, the physical therapist assistant can provide many parts of the treatment, as approved by the therapist. Job prospects. Opportunities for individuals interested in becoming physical therapist assistants are expected to be very good. Physical therapist aides may face keen competition from the large pool of qualified individuals. In addition to employ ment growth, job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation permanently. Physical ther apist assistants and aides with prior experience working in a physical therapy office or other health care setting will have the best job opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of physical therapist assistants were $41,360 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,840 and $49,010. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,190, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $57,220. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of physical therapist assistants in May 2006 were: Home health care services..................................................$46,390 Nursing care facilities...........................................................44,460 Offices of physical, occupational and speech therapists, and audiologists................................................40,780 General medical and surgical hospitals................................ 40,670 Offices of physicians.............................................................39,290 Median annual earnings of physical therapist aides were $22,060 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,550 and $26,860. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,850, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $32,600. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of physical therapist aides in May 2006 were: 450 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nursing care facilities......................................................... $24,170 Offices of physicians............................................................. 22,680 General medical and surgical hospitals................................. 22,680 Offices of physical, occupational and speech therapists, and audiologists................................................ 21,230 tants; medical assistants; occupational therapist assistants and aides; pharmacy aides; pharmacy technicians; nursing, psychi atric, and home health aides; personal and home care aides; and social and human service assistants. Sources of Additional Information Related Occupations Physical therapist assistants and aides work under the supervi sion of physical therapists. Other workers in the health care field who work under similar supervision include dental assis Career information on physical therapist assistants and a list of schools offering accredited programs can be obtained from: y The American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314-1488. Internet: http://www.apta.org Protective Service Occupations Correctional Officers (Q*NET 33-1011.00, 33-3011.00, 33-3012.00) Significant Points • The work can be stressful and hazardous. • Most correctional officers are employed in State and local government prisons and jails. Job opportunities are expected to be excellent. • Nature of the Work Correctional officers, also known as detention officers, are re sponsible for overseeing individuals who have been arrested and are awaiting trial or who have been convicted of a crime and sentenced to serve time in a jail, reformatory, or peniten tiary. The jail population changes constantly as some are released, some are convicted and transferred to prison, and new offend ers are arrested and enter the system. Correctional officers in local jails admit and process about 12 million people a year, with about 700,000 offenders in jail at any given time. Cor rectional officers in State and Federal prisons watch over the approximately 1.5 million offenders who are incarcerated there at any given time. Correctional officers maintain security and inmate account ability to prevent disturbances, assaults, and escapes. Officers have no law enforcement responsibilities outside the institution where they work. ( For more information on related occupa tions, see the statements on police and detectives and on proba tion officers and correctional treatment specialists, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Regardless of the setting, correctional officers maintain or der within the institution and enforce rules and regulations. To help ensure that inmates are orderly and obey rules, correctional officers monitor the activities and supervise the work assign ments of inmates. Sometimes, officers must search inmates and their living quarters for contraband like weapons or drugs, settle disputes between inmates, and enforce discipline. Correctional officers periodically inspect the facilities, checking cells and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis other areas of the institution for unsanitary conditions, con traband, fire hazards, and any evidence of infractions of rules. In addition, they routinely inspect locks, window bars, grilles, doors, and gates for signs of tampering. Finally, officers inspect mail and visitors for prohibited items. Correctional officers report orally and in writing on inmate conduct and on the quality and quantity of work done by in mates. Officers also report security breaches, disturbances, violations of rules, and any unusual occurrences. They usually keep a daily log or record of their activities. Correctional of ficers cannot show favoritism and must report any inmate who violates the rules. If a crime is committed within their institu tion or an inmate escapes, they help the responsible law en forcement authorities investigate or search for the escapee. In jail and prison facilities with direct supervision of cellblocks, officers work unarmed. They are equipped with communica tions devices so that they can summon help if necessary. These officers often work in a cellblock alone, or with another officer, among the 50 to 100 inmates who reside there. The officers enforce regulations primarily through their interpersonal com munication skills and through the use of progressive sanctions, such as the removal of some privileges. In the highest security facilities, where the most dangerous inmates are housed, correctional officers often monitor the activities of prisoners from a centralized control center with closed-circuit television cameras and a computer tracking sys tem. In such an environment, the inmates may not see anyone but officers for days or weeks at a time and may leave their cells only for showers, solitary exercise time, or visitors. Depending on the offenders’ security classification within the institution, correctional officers may have to restrain inmates in handcuffs and leg irons to safely escort them to and from cells and other areas and to see authorized visitors. Officers also escort prison ers between the institution and courtrooms, medical facilities, and other destinations outside the institution. Bailiffs, also known as marshals or court officers, are law enforcement officers who maintain safety and order in court rooms. Their duties, which vary by location, include enforcing courtroom rules, assisting judges, guarding juries from outside contact, delivering court documents, and providing general se curity for courthouses. Service Occupations 451 Work environment. Working in a correctional institution can be stressful and hazardous. Every year, correctional officers are injured in confrontations with inmates. Correctional officers may work indoors or outdoors. Some correctional institutions are well lighted, temperature controlled, and ventilated, but oth ers are old, overcrowded, hot, and noisy. Although both jails and prisons can be dangerous places to work, prison popula tions are more stable than jail populations, and correctional of ficers in prisons know the security and custodial requirements of the prisoners with whom they are dealing. Correctional officers usually work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week, on rotating shifts. Because prison and jail security must be provided around the clock, officers work all hours of the day and night, weekends, and holidays. In addition, officers may be required to work paid overtime. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Correctional officers learn most of what they need to know for their work through on-the-job training. Qualifications vary by agency, but all agencies require a high school diploma or equiv alent, and some also require some college education or full-time work experience. Education and training. A high school diploma or gradua tion equivalency degree is required by all employers. The Fed eral Bureau of Prisons requires entry-level correctional officers to have at least a bachelor’s degree; 3 years of full-time experi ence in a field providing counseling, assistance, or supervision to individuals; or a combination of the two. Some State and local corrections agencies require some college credits, but law enforcement or military experience may be substituted to fulfill this requirement. Federal, State, and some local departments of corrections provide training for correctional officers based on guidelines established by the American Correctional Association and the American Jail Association. Some States have regional training academies that are available to local agencies. At the conclu- r~rr— it?--*! m W sion of formal instruction, all State and local correctional agen cies provide on-the-job training, including training on legal restrictions and interpersonal relations. Many systems require firearms proficiency and self-defense skills. Officer trainees typically receive several weeks or months of training in an ac tual job setting under the supervision of an experienced offi cer. However, on-the-job training varies widely from agency to agency. Academy trainees generally receive instruction in a number of subjects, including institutional policies, regulations, and operations, as well as custody and security procedures. New Federal correctional officers must undergo 200 hours of formal training within the first year of employment. They also must complete 120 hours of specialized training at the U.S. Federal Bureau of Prisons residential training center at Glynco, GA, within 60 days of their appointment. Experienced officers re ceive annual in-service training to keep abreast of new develop ments and procedures. Some correctional officers are members of prison tactical re sponse teams, which are trained to respond to disturbances, ri ots, hostage situations, forced cell moves, and other potentially dangerous confrontations. Team members practice disarming prisoners wielding weapons, protecting themselves and inmates against the effects of chemical agents, and other tactics. Other qualifications. All institutions require correctional officers to be at least 18 to 21 years of age, be a U.S. citizen or permanent resident, and have no felony convictions. Some require previous experience in law enforcement or the military, but college credits can be substituted to fulfill this requirement. Others require demonstration of job stability, usually by accu mulating 2 years of work experience, which need not be related to corrections or law enforcement. Correctional officers must be in good health. Candidates for employment generally are required to meet formal standards of physical fitness, eyesight, and hearing. In addition, many ju risdictions use standard tests to determine applicant suitability to work in a correctional environment. Good judgment and the ability to think and act quickly are indispensable. Applicants are typically screened for drug abuse, subject to background checks, and required to pass a written examination. Advancement. Qualified officers may advance to the posi tion of correctional sergeant. Correctional sergeants supervise correctional officers and usually are responsible for maintain ing security and directing the activities of other officers dur ing an assigned shift or in an assigned area. Ambitious and qualified correctional officers can be promoted to supervisory or administrative positions all the way up to warden. Promo tion prospects may be enhanced by attending college. Officers sometimes transfer to related jobs, such as probation officer, parole officer, and correctional treatment specialist. Employment Job opportunities for correctional officers should be excellent. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Correctional officers held about 500,000 jobs in 2006. About 3 of every 5 jobs were in State correctional institutions such as prisons, prison camps, and youth correctional facilities. About 18,000 jobs for correctional officers were in Federal correction al institutions, and about 16,000 jobs were in privately owned and managed prisons. 452 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Correctional officers......................................................... First-line supervisors/managers of correctional officers........... .... Bailiffs, correctional officers, and jailers................................... .... Bailiffs.................................................................................... .... Correctional officers and jailers.......................................... .... soc Code Employment, 2006 33-1011 33-3010 33-3011 33-3012 500,000 40,000 460,000 19,000 442,000 Projected employment, 2016 582,000 45,000 537,000 21,000 516,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 82,000 16 5,000 13 77,000 17 2,100 11 75,000 17 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Most of the remaining jobs were in city and county jails or in other institutions run by local governments. Some 300 of these jails, all of them in urban areas, are large, housing over 1,000 inmates. Most correctional officers employed in jails, however, work in institutions located in rural areas with smaller inmate populations. Other correctional officers oversee individuals being held by the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service pending re lease or deportation or work for correctional institutions that are run by private, for-profit organizations. Job Outlook Employment growth is expected to be faster than the average for all occupations, and job opportunities are expected to be excellent. Employment change. Employment of correctional officers is expected to grow 16 percent between 2006 and 2016, faster than the average for all occupations. Increasing demand for correctional officers will stem from population growth and ris ing rates of incarceration. Mandatory sentencing guidelines calling for longer sentences and reduced parole for inmates are a primary reason for historically increasing incarceration rates. Some States are reconsidering mandatory sentencing guidelines because of budgetary constraints, court decisions, and doubts about their effectiveness. Additionally, the Supreme Court re cently ruled to make Federal sentencing guidelines voluntary, rather than mandatory, for judges. It is unclear how many States will change their sentencing policies and how long it will be before any changes affect the prison population. Neverthe less, these developments could moderate future increases in the prison population and cause employment of correctional offi cers to grow more slowly than they have in the past. Some employment opportunities also will arise in the private sector, as public authorities contract with private companies to provide and staff corrections facilities. Both State and Federal corrections agencies are increasingly using private prisons. Job prospects. Job opportunities for correctional officers are expected to be excellent. The need to replace correctional offi cers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force, coupled with rising employment demand, will generate thousands of job openings each year. In the past, some local and State corrections agencies have experienced difficulty in attracting and keeping qualified applicants, largely because of low salaries, shift work, and the concentration of jobs in rural locations. This situation is expected to continue. Layoffs of correctional officers are rare because of increasing offender populations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median annual earnings of correctional officers and jailers were $35,760 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,320 and $46,500. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,600, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,580. Median annual earnings in the public sector were $47,750 in the Federal Government, $36,140 in State government, and $34,820 in local government. In the facilities support services industry, where the relatively small number of officers employed by pri vately operated prisons is classified, median annual earnings were $25,050. Median annual earnings of first-line supervisors/managers of correctional officers were $52,580 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,920 and $67,820. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $33,270, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $81,230. Median annual earnings were $51,500 in State government and $52,940 in local government. Median annual earnings of bailiffs were $34,210 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,130 and $48,010. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,390, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,270. Median an nual earnings were $30,510 in local government. According to the Federal Bureau of Prisons, the starting sala ry for Federal correctional officers was $28,862 a year in 2007. Starting Federal salaries were slightly higher in areas where prevailing local pay levels were higher. In addition to typical benefits, correctional officers employed in the public sector usually are provided with uniforms or a clothing allowance to purchase their own uniforms. Civil ser vice systems or merit boards cover officers employed by the Federal Government and most State governments. Their retire ment coverage entitles correctional officers to retire at age 50 after 20 years of service or at any age with 25 years of service. Related Occupations A number of options are available to those interested in careers in protective services and security. Security guards and gaming surveillance officers protect people and property against theft, vandalism, illegal entry, and fire. Police and detectives main tain law and order, prevent crime, and arrest offenders. Proba tion officers and correctional treatment specialists monitor and counsel offenders and evaluate their progress in becoming pro ductive members of society. Sources of Additional Information Further information about correctional officers is available from: Service Occupations 453 y American Correctional Association, 206 N. Washington St., Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.aca.org ^American Jail Association, 1135 Professional Ct., Hagerstown, MD 21740. Internet: http ://www.corrections.com/aj a Information on entrance requirements, training, and career opportunities for correctional officers at the Federal level may be obtained from the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Internet: http://www.bop.gov Information on obtaining a position as a correctional offi cer with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Fire Fighting Occupations (0*NET 33-1021.00, 33-1021.01, 33-1021.02, 33-2011.00, 33-2011.01, 33-2011.02, 33-2021.00, 33-2021.01,33-2021.02, 33-2022.00) Significant Points • Fire fighting involves hazardous conditions and long, irregular hours. • About 9 out of 10 fire fighting workers were employed by local governments. • Applicants for city fire fighting jobs generally must pass written, physical, and medical examinations. • Although employment is expected to grow faster than the average, keen competition for jobs is expected be cause this occupation attracts many qualified candi dates. Nature of the Work Every year, fires and other emergencies take thousands of lives and destroy property worth billions of dollars. Fire fighters help protect the public against these dangers by responding to fires and a variety of other emergencies. In addition to putting out fires, they are frequently the first emergency personnel at the scene of a traffic accident or medical emergency and may be called upon to treat injuries or perform other vital functions. During duty hours, fire fighters must be prepared to respond immediately to a fire or others emergency. Fighting fires is dan gerous and complex, therefore requires organization and team work. At every emergency scene, fire fighters perform specific duties assigned by a superior officer. At fires, they connect hose lines to hydrants and operate a pump to send water to high-pres sure hoses. Some carry hoses, climb ladders, and enter burning buildings—using systematic and careful procedures—to put out fires. At times, they may need to use tools, like an ax, to make https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis their way through doors, walls, and debris sometimes with the aid of information about a building’s floor plan. Some find and rescue occupants who are unable to safely leave the building without assistance. They also provide emergency medical at tention, ventilate smoke-filled areas, and attempt to salvage the contents of buildings. Fire fighters’ duties may change several times while the company is in action. Sometimes they remain at the site of a disaster for days at a time, rescuing trapped sur vivors, and assisting with medical treatment. Fire fighters work in a variety of settings, including metro politan areas, rural areas with grasslands and forests, airports, chemical plants and other industrial sites. They have also as sumed a range of responsibilities, including emergency medical services. In fact, most calls to which fire fighters respond in volve medical emergencies. In addition, some fire fighters work in hazardous materials units that are specially trained for the control, prevention, and cleanup of hazardous materials, such as oil spills or accidents involving the transport of chemicals. (For more information, see the Handbook section on hazardous material removal workers.) Workers specializing forest fires utilize different methods and equipment than other fire fighters. In national forests and parks, forest fire inspectors and prevention specialists spot fires from watchtowers and report the fires to headquarters by telephone or radio. Forest rangers also patrol to ensure that travelers and campers comply with fire regulations. When fires break out, crews of fire fighters are brought in to suppress the blaze with heavy equipment and water hoses. Fighting forest fires, like fighting urban fires, is rigorous work. One of the most effec tive means of fighting a forest fire is creating fire lines—cut ting down trees and digging out grass and all other combustible vegetation in the path of the fire—to deprive it of fuel. Elite fire fighters called smoke jumpers parachute from airplanes to reach otherwise inaccessible areas. This tactic, however, can be extremely hazardous.When they aren’t responding to fires and other emergencies, fire fighters clean and maintain equipment, study fire science and fire fighting techniques, conduct practice drills and fire inspections, and participate in physical fitness activities. They also prepare written reports on fire incidents and review fire science literature to stay informed about tech nological developments and changing administrative practices and policies. Most fire departments have a fire prevention division, usually headed by a fire marshal and staffed by fire inspectors. Workers in this division conduct inspections of structures to prevent fires by ensuring compliance with fire codes. These inspectors also work with developers and planners to check and approve plans for new buildings and inspect buildings under construction. Some fire fighters become fire investigators, who determine the causes of fires. They collect evidence, interview witnesses, and prepare reports on fires in cases where the cause may be arson or criminal negligence. They often are asked to testify in court. In some cities, these investigators work in police depart ments, and some are employed by insurance companies. Work environment. Fire fighters spend much of their time at fire stations, which are usually similar to dormitories. When an alarm sounds, fire fighters respond, regardless of the weather or hour. Fire fighting involves the risk of death or injury from 454 Occupational Outlook Handbook floors caving in, walls toppling, traffic accidents, and exposure to flames and smoke. Fire fighters also may come into contact with poisonous, flammable, or explosive gases and chemicals and radioactive materials, which may have immediate or long term effects on their health. For these reasons, they must wear protective gear that can be very heavy and hot. Work hours of fire fighters are longer and more varied than the hours of most other workers. Many fire fighters work more than 50 hours a week, and sometimes they may work longer. In some agencies, fire fighters are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In others, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. In addition, fire fighters often work extra hours at fires and other emergencies and are regularly assigned to work on holidays. Fire lieutenants and fire captains often work the same hours as the fire fighters they supervise. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for fire fighting jobs are usually required to have at least a high school diploma, but candidates with some edu cation after high school are increasingly preferred. Most mu nicipal jobs require passing written and physical tests. All fire fighters receive extensive training after being hired. Education and training. Most fire fighters have a high school diploma, however, the completion of community college courses, or in some cases, an associate degree, in fire science may improve an applicant’s chances for a job. A number of colleges and universities offer courses leading to 2- or 4-year degrees in fire engineering or fire science. In recent years, an increasing proportion of new fire fighters have had some educa tion after high school. As a rule, entry-level workers in large fire departments are trained for several weeks at the department’s training center or academy. Through classroom instruction and practical training, the recruits study fire fighting techniques, fire prevention, haz ardous materials control, local building codes, and emergency medical procedures, including first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). They also learn how to use axes, chain saws, fire extinguishers, ladders, and other fire fighting and res cue equipment. After successfully completing this training, the recruits are assigned to a fire company, where they undergo a period of probation. Many fire departments have accredited apprenticeship pro grams lasting up to 4 years. These programs combine formal instruction with on-the-job training under the supervision of experienced fire fighters. Almost all departments require fire fighters to be certified as emergency medical technicians. (For more information, see the section of the Handbook on emergency medical technicians and paramedics.) Although most fire departments require the low est level of certification, Emergency Medical Technician-Basic (EMT-Basic), larger departments in major metropolitan areas increasingly require paramedic certification. Some depart ments include this training in the fire academy, whereas others prefer that recruits earn EMT certification on their own but will give them up to 1 year to do it. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Fire fighters respond to emergencies, such as car accidents and fires. In addition to participating in training programs conducted by local fire departments, some fire fighters attend training ses sions sponsored by the U.S. National Fire Academy. These training sessions cover topics such as executive development, anti-arson techniques, disaster preparedness, hazardous materi als control, and public fire safety and education. Some States also have either voluntary or mandatory fire fighter training and certification programs. Many fire departments offer fire fight ers incentives such as tuition reimbursement or higher pay for completing advanced training. Other qualifications. Applicants for municipal fire fighting jobs usually must pass a written exam; tests of strength, physi cal stamina, coordination, and agility; and a medical examina tion that includes a drug screening. Workers may be monitored on a random basis for drug use after accepting employment. Examinations are generally open to people who are at least 18 years of age and have a high school education or its equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores in all phases of testing have the best chances of being hired. Among the personal qualities fire fighters need are mental alertness, self-discipline, courage, mechanical aptitude, endur ance, strength, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judgment also are extremely important because fire fight ers make quick decisions in emergencies. Members of a crew live and work closely together under conditions of stress and danger for extended periods, so they must be dependable and able to get along well with others. Leadership qualities are nec essary for officers, who must establish and maintain discipline and efficiency, as well as direct the activities of the fire fighters in their companies. Advancement. Most experienced fire fighters continue studying to improve their job performance and prepare for pro motion examinations. To progress to higher level positions, they acquire expertise in advanced fire fighting equipment and techniques, building construction, emergency medical technol ogy, writing, public speaking, management and budgeting pro cedures, and public relations. Opportunities for promotion depend upon the results of writ ten examinations, as well as job performance, interviews, and Service Occupations 455 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Fire fighting occupations....................................................................... First-line supervisors/managers of fire fighting and prevention workers............................................................................................ Fire fighting and prevention workers.............................................. Fire fighters.................................................................................... Fire inspectors................................................................................ Fire inspectors and investigators............................................. Forest fire inspectors and prevention specialists................... SOC Code Employment, 2006 — 361,000 33-1021 33-2000 33-2011 33-2020 33-2021 33-2022 52,000 308,000 293,000 16,000 14,000 1,800 Projected employment, 2016 404,000 58,000 345,000 328,000 17,000 15,000 1,900 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 43,000 12 6,000 37,000 35,000 1,600 1,500 0 11 12 12 10 11 2 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. seniority. Hands-on tests that simulate real-world job situa tions are also used by some fire departments. Usually, fire fighters are first promoted to engineer, then lieutenant, captain, battalion chief, assistant chief, deputy chief, and, finally, chief. For promotion to positions higher than battalion chief, many fire departments now require a bachelor’s degree, preferably in fire science, public admin istration, or a related field. An associate degree is required for executive fire officer certification from the National Fire Academy. Employment In 2006, total paid employment in firefighting occupations was about 361,000. Fire fighters held about 293,000 jobs, first-line supervisors/managers of fire fighting and preven tion workers held about 52,000, and fire inspectors and in vestigators held about 14,000 jobs. These employment fig ures include only paid career fire fighters—they do not cover volunteer fire fighters, who perform the same duties and may constitute the majority of fire fighters in a residential area. According to the U.S. Fire Administration, about 71 percent of fire companies were staffed entirely by volunteer fire fight ers in 2005. About 9 out of 10 fire fighting workers were employed by local government. Some large cities have thousands of career fire fighters, while many small towns have only a few. Most of the remainder worked in fire departments on Federal and State installations, including airports. Private fire fighting companies employ a small number of fire fighters. In response to the expanding role of fire fighters, some mu nicipalities have combined fire prevention, public fire edu cation, safety, and emergency medical services into a single organization commonly referred to as a public safety organi zation. Some local and regional fire departments are being consolidated into countywide establishments to reduce ad ministrative staffs, cut costs, and establish consistent training standards and work procedures. Job Outlook Although employment is expected to grow as fast as the aver age for all jobs, candidates for these positions are expected to face keen competition as these positions are highly attractive and sought after. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment change. Employment of workers in fire fight ing occupations is expected to grow by 12 percent over the 2006-2016 decade, which is as fast as the average for all oc cupations. Most job growth will stem from volunteer fire fighting positions being converted to paid positions. In recent years, it has become more difficult for volunteer fire depart ments to recruit and retain volunteers. This may be the result of the considerable amount of training and time commitment required. Furthermore, a trend towards more people living in and around cities has increased the demand for fire fighters. When areas develop and become more densely populated, emergencies and fires affect more buildings and more people and therefore require more fire fighters. Job prospects. Prospective fire fighters are expected to face keen competition for available job openings. Many people are attracted to fire fighting because, it is challenging and provides the opportunity to perform an essential public service; a high school education is usually sufficient for entry; and a pension is usually guaranteed after 25 years work. Consequently, the number of qualified applicants in most areas far exceeds the number of job openings, even though the written examination and physical requirements eliminate many applicants. This situation is expected to persist in coming years. Applicants with the best chances are those who are physically fit and score the highest on physical conditioning and mechanical aptitude exams. Those who have completed some fire fighter education at a community college and have EMT or paramedic certifica tion will have an additional advantage. Earnings Median annual earnings of fire fighters were $41,190 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,550 and $54,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,660, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $66,140. Median an nual earnings were $41,600 in local government, $41,070 in the Federal Government, and $37,000 in State governments. Median annual earnings of first-line supervisors/managers of fire fighting and prevention workers were $62,900 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $50,180 and $79,060. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,820, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $97,820. First-line supervisors/managers of fire fighting and prevention work ers employed in local government earned a median of about $64,070 a year. 456 Occupational Outlook Handbook Median annual earnings of fire inspectors and investigators were $48,050 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,960 and $61,160 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,840, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,930. Fire inspectors and investigators em ployed in local government earned a median of about $49,690 a year. According to the International City-County Management Association, average salaries in 2006 for sworn full-time posi tions were as follows: Rank Fire chief.......................................... ... Deputy chief..................................... ... Battalion chief.................................. Assistant fire chief............................ ... Fire captain....................................... ... Fire lieutenant.................................. ... Fire prevention/code inspector....... ... Engineer............................................ ... Minimum annual base salary $73,435 66,420 62 199 61,887 51,808 47,469 45,951 43,232 Maximum annual base salary $95,271 84,284 78 611 78,914 62,785 56,511 58,349 56,045 Police and Detectives (0*NET 33-1012.00, 33-3021.00, 33-3021.01, 33-3021.02, 33-3021.03, 33-3021.05, 33-3031.00, 33-3051.00, 33-3051.01, 33-3051.03, 33-3052.00) Significant Points • Police work can be dangerous and stressful. • Education requirements range from a high school di ploma to a college degree or higher. Job opportunities in most local police departments will be excellent for qualified individuals, while com petition is expected for jobs in State and Federal agen cies. • • Applicants with college training in police science or military police experience will have the best oppor tunities. Nature of the Work Fire fighters who average more than a certain number of work hours per week are required to be paid overtime. The hours threshold is determined by the department. Fire fighters often earn overtime for working extra shifts to maintain mini mum staffing levels or during special emergencies. Fire fighters receive benefits that usually include medical and liability insurance, vacation and sick leave, and some paid holidays. Almost all fire departments provide protective cloth ing (helmets, boots, and coats) and breathing apparatus, and many also provide dress uniforms. Fire fighters generally are covered by pension plans, often providing retirement at half pay after 25 years of service or if the individual is disabled in the line of duty. Related Occupations Like fire fighters, emergency medical technicians and para medics and police and detectives respond to emergencies and save lives. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a fire fighter may be obtained from local fire departments and from either of the following organizations: V International Association of Fire Fighters, 1750 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.iaff.org y U.S. Fire Administration, 16825 South Seton Ave., Emmitsburg, MD 21727. Internet: http://www.usfa.dhs.gov Information about professional qualifications and a list of colleges and universities offering 2- or 4-year degree programs in fire science or fire prevention may be obtained from: y National Fire Academy, 16825 South Seton Ave., Emmitsburg, MD 21727. Internet: http://www.usfa.dhs.gov/nfa/index.htm https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis People depend on police officers and detectives to protect their lives and property. Law enforcement officers, some of whom are State or Federal special agents or inspectors, perform these duties in a variety of ways depending on the size and type of their organization. In most jurisdictions, they are expected to exercise authority when necessary, whether on or off duty. Police and detectives pursue and apprehend individuals who break the law and then issue citations or give warnings. A large proportion of their time is spent writing reports and maintain ing records of incidents they encounter. Most police officers patrol their jurisdictions and investigate any suspicious activity they notice. Detectives, who are often called agents or special agents, perform investigative duties such as gathering facts and collecting evidence. The daily activities of police and detectives differ depending on their occupational specialty—such as police officer, game warden, or detective—and whether they are working for a local, State, or Federal agency. Duties also differ substantially among various Federal agencies, which enforce different aspects of the law. Regardless of job duties or location, police officers and de tectives at all levels must write reports and maintain meticulous records that will be needed if they testify in court. Uniformed police officers have general law enforcement du ties, including maintaining regular patrols and responding to calls for service. Much of their time is spent responding to calls and doing paperwork. They may direct traffic at the scene of an accident, investigate a burglary, or give first aid to an ac cident victim. In large police departments, officers usually are assigned to a specific type of duty. Many urban police agencies are involved in community policing—a practice in which an officer builds relationships with the citizens of local neighbor hoods and mobilizes the public to help fight crime. Police agencies are usually organized into geographic dis tricts, with uniformed officers assigned to patrol a specific area such as part of the business district or outlying residential neighborhoods. Officers may work alone, but in large agen Service Occupations 457 cies, they often patrol with a partner. While on patrol, officers attempt to become thoroughly familiar with their patrol area and remain alert for anything unusual. Suspicious circumstances and hazards to public safety are investigated or noted, and offi cers are dispatched to individual calls for assistance within their district. During their shift, they may identify, pursue, and arrest suspected criminals; resolve problems within the community; and enforce traffic laws. Some agencies have special geographic jurisdictions and en forcement responsibilities. Public college and university po lice forces, public school district police, and agencies serving transportation systems and facilities are examples. Most law enforcement workers in special agencies are uniformed officers; a smaller number are investigators. Some police officers specialize in a particular field, such as chemical and microscopic analysis, training and firearms in struction, or handwriting and fingerprint identification. Others work with special units, such as horseback, bicycle, motorcy cle, or harbor patrol; canine corps; special weapons and tactics (SWAT); or emergency response teams. A few local and special law enforcement officers primarily perform jail-related duties or work in courts. (For information on other officers who work in jails and prisons, see correctional officers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs enforce the law on the county level. Sheriffs are usually elected to their posts and perform du ties similar to those of a local or county police chief. Sheriffs’ departments tend to be relatively small, most having fewer than 50 sworn officers. Deputy sheriffs have law enforcement duties similar to those of officers in urban police departments. Police and sheriffs’ deputies who provide security in city and county courts are sometimes called bailiffs State police officers, sometimes called State troopers or highway patrol officers, arrest criminals Statewide and patrol highways to enforce motor vehicle laws and regulations. State police officers often issue traffic citations to motorists. At the scene of accidents, they may direct traffic, give first aid, and call for emergency equipment. They also write reports used to determine the cause of the accident. State police officers are frequently called upon to render assistance to other law enforce ment agencies, especially those in rural areas or small towns. State law enforcement agencies operate in every State except Hawaii. Most full-time sworn personnel are uniformed officers who regularly patrol and respond to calls for service. Others work as investigators, perform court-related duties, or carry out administrative or other assignments. Detectives are plainclothes investigators who gather facts and collect evidence for criminal cases. Some are assigned to in teragency task forces to combat specific types of crime. They conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of suspects, and participate in raids or arrests. Detectives and State and Federal agents and inspectors usually specialize in investi gating one type of violation, such as homicide or fraud. They are assigned cases on a rotating basis and work on them until an arrest and conviction is made or until the case is dropped. Fish and game wardens enforce fishing, hunting, and boating laws. They patrol hunting and fishing areas, conduct search and rescue operations, investigate complaints and accidents, and aid in prosecuting court cases. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The Federal Government works in many areas of law enforce ment. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents are the Government’s principal investigators, responsible for investigat ing violations of more than 200 categories of Federal law and conducting sensitive national security investigations. Agents may conduct surveillance, monitor court-authorized wiretaps, examine business records, investigate white-collar crime, or participate in sensitive undercover assignments. The FBI in vestigates a wide range of criminal activity, including organized crime, public corruption, financial crime, bank robbery, kidnap ping, terrorism, espionage, drug trafficking, and cyber crime. There are many other Federal agencies that enforce particular types of laws. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agents enforce laws and regulations relating to illegal drugs. U. S. marshals and deputy marshals protect the Federal courts and ensure the effective operation of the judicial system. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives agents enforce and investigate violations of Federal firearms and explosives laws, as well as Federal alcohol and tobacco tax regulations. The U.S. Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security special agents are engaged in the battle against terrorism. The Department of Homeland Security also employs numer ous law enforcement officers within several different agencies, including Customs and Border Protection, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and the U.S. Secret Service. U.S. Bor der Patrol agents protect more than 8,000 miles of international land and water boundaries. Immigration inspectors interview and examine people seeking entrance to the United States and its territories. Customs inspectors enforce laws governing imports and exports by inspecting cargo, baggage, and articles worn or carried by people, vessels, vehicles, trains, and aircraft entering or leaving the United States. Federal Air Marshals provide air security by guarding against attacks targeting U.S. aircraft, pas sengers, and crews. U.S. Secret Service special agents and U.S. Job opportunities in most local police departments will be ex cellent, while competition is expectedfor jobs in State and Fed eral agencies. 458 Occupational Outlook Handbook Secret Service uniformed officers protect the President, Vice President, their immediate families, and other public officials. Secret Service special agents also investigate counterfeiting, forgery of Government checks or bonds, and fraudulent use of credit cards. Other Federal agencies employ police and special agents with sworn arrest powers and the authority to carry firearms. These agencies include the Postal Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs Office of Law Enforcement, the Forest Service, and the National Park Service. Work environment. Police and detective work can be very dangerous and stressful. In addition to the obvious dangers of confrontations with criminals, police officers and detectives need to be constantly alert and ready to deal appropriately with a number of other threatening situations. Many law enforcement officers witness death and suffering resulting from accidents and criminal behavior. A career in law enforcement may take a toll on their private lives. The jobs of some Federal agents such as U.S. Secret Service and DEA special agents require extensive travel, often on very short notice. They may relocate a number of times over the course of their careers. Some special agents in agencies such as the U.S. Border Patrol work outdoors in rugged terrain for long periods and in all kinds of weather. Uniformed officers, detectives, agents, and inspectors are usually scheduled to work 40-hour weeks, but paid overtime is common. Shift work is necessary because protection must be provided around the clock. Junior officers frequently work weekends, holidays, and nights. Police officers and detectives are required to work whenever they are needed and may work long hours during investigations. Officers in most jurisdictions, whether on or off duty, are expected to be armed and to exercise their authority when necessary. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most police and detectives learn much of what they need to know on the job, often in their agency’s police academy. Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and de tectives in most States, large municipalities, and special police agencies, as well as in many smaller jurisdictions. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 20 years old, and must meet rigorous physical and personal qualifications. Education and training. Applicants usually must have at least a high school education, and some departments require 1 or 2 years of college coursework or, in some cases, a college degree. Law enforcement agencies encourage applicants to take courses or training related to law enforcement subjects after high school. Many entry-level applicants for police jobs have completed some formal postsecondary education, and a signifi cant number are college graduates. Many junior colleges, col leges, and universities offer programs in law enforcement or administration of justice. Physical education classes and participating in sports are also helpful in developing the competitiveness, stamina, and agility needed for many law enforcement positions. Knowledge of a foreign language is an asset in many Federal agencies and ur ban departments. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many agencies pay all or part of the tuition for officers to work toward degrees in criminal justice, police science, ad ministration of justice, or public administration and pay higher salaries to those who earn such a degree. Before their first assignments, officers usually go through a period of training. In State and large local police departments, recruits get training in their agency’s police academy, often for 12 to 14 weeks. In small agencies, recruits often attend a re gional or State academy. Training includes classroom instruc tion in constitutional law and civil rights, State laws and local ordinances, and accident investigation. Recruits also receive training and supervised experience in patrol, traffic control, the use of firearms, self-defense, first aid, and emergency response. Police departments in some large cities hire high school gradu ates who are still in their teens as police cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and attend classes, usually for 1 to 2 years, until they reach the minimum age requirement and can be ap pointed to the regular force. To be considered for appointment as an FBI agent, an appli cant must be a college graduate and have at least 3 years of pro fessional work experience, or have an advanced degree plus 2 years of professional work experience. An applicant who meets these criteria must also have one of the following: a college major in accounting, electrical engineering, information tech nology, or computer science; fluency in a foreign language; a degree from an accredited law school; or 3 years of related full time work experience. All new FBI agents undergo 18 weeks of training at the FBI Academy on the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia. Most other Federal law enforcement agencies require either a bachelor’s degree or related work experience or a combination of the two. Federal law enforcement agents undergo extensive training, usually at the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia, or the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia. The educational requirements, qualifications, and training information for a particular Federal agency can be found on the agency’s Web site, most of which are listed in the last section of this statement. Fish and game wardens also must meet specific requirements. Most States require at least 2 years of college study. Once hired, fish and game wardens attend a training academy lasting from 3 to 12 months, sometimes followed by further training in the field. Other qualifications. Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and detectives in most States, large mu nicipalities, and special police agencies, as well as in many smaller jurisdictions. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 20 years old, and must meet rigorous physical and per sonal qualifications. Physical examinations for entrance into law enforcement often include tests of vision, hearing, strength, and agility. Eligibility for appointment usually depends on performance in competitive written examinations and previous education and experience. Candidates should enjoy working with people and meeting the public. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, sound judgment, integrity, and a sense of responsibility are especially important in law enforcement, candidates are interviewed by senior officers, and their character traits and backgrounds are Service Occupations 459 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Police and detectives......................................................................... .... First-line supervisors/managers of police and detectives......... .... Detectives and criminal investigators.......................................... .... Fish and game wardens................................................................ .... Police officers................................................................................. .... Police and sheriff’s patrol officers.......................................... .... Transit and railroad police....................................................... .... soc Code Employment, 2006 -- 33-1012 33-3021 33-3031 33-3050 33-3051 33-3052 861,000 93,000 106,000 8,000 654,000 648,000 5,600 Projected employment, 2016 959,000 102,000 125,000 8,000 724,000 719,000 5,900 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 97,000 11 8,500 9 18,000 17 0 0 70,000 11 70,000 11 400 6 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. investigated. In some agencies, candidates are interviewed by a psychiatrist or a psychologist or given a personality test. Most applicants are subjected to lie detector examinations or drug testing. Some agencies subject sworn personnel to random drug testing as a condition of continuing employment. Advancement. Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a probationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. In large departments, promotion may enable an of ficer to become a detective or to specialize in one type of police work, such as working with juveniles. Promotions to corporal, sergeant, lieutenant, and captain usually are made according to a candidate’s position on a promotion list, as determined by scores on a written examination and on-the-job performance. Continuing training helps police officers, detectives, and special agents improve their job performance. Through police department academies, regional centers for public safety em ployees established by the States, and Federal agency training centers, instructors provide annual training in self-defense tac tics, firearms, use-of-force policies, sensitivity and communica tions skills, crowd-control techniques, relevant legal develop ments, and advances in law enforcement equipment. Employment Police and detectives held about 861,000 jobs in 2006. Sev enty-nine percent were employed by local governments. State police agencies employed about 11 percent, and various Federal agencies employed about 7 percent. A small proportion worked for educational services, rail transportation, and contract inves tigation and security services. According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, police and detectives employed by local governments primarily worked in cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large police forces, while thousands of small communities em ploy fewer than 25 officers each. Job Outlook Job opportunities in most local police departments will be ex cellent for qualified individuals, while competition is expected for jobs in State and Federal agencies. Average employment growth is expected. Employment change. Employment of police and detectives is expected to grow 11 percent over the 2006-16 decade, about as fast as the average for all occupations. A more security-con scious society and population growth will contribute to the in creasing demand for police services. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job prospects. Overall opportunities in local police depart ments will be excellent for individuals who meet the psycho logical, personal, and physical qualifications. In addition to openings from employment growth, many openings will be cre ated by the need to replace workers who retire and those who leave local agencies for Federal jobs and private sector security jobs. There will be more competition for jobs in Federal and State law enforcement agencies than for jobs in local agencies. Less competition for jobs will occur in departments that offer relatively low salaries or those in urban communities where the crime rate is relatively high. Applicants with military experi ence or college training in police science will have the best op portunities in local and State departments. Applicants with a bachelor’s degree and several years of law enforcement or mili tary experience, especially investigative experience, will have the best opportunities in Federal agencies. The level of government spending determines the level of employment for police and detectives. The number of job op portunities, therefore, can vary from year to year and from place to place. Layoffs, on the other hand, are rare because retire ments enable most staffing cuts to be handled through attrition. Trained law enforcement officers who lose their jobs because of budget cuts usually have little difficulty finding jobs with other agencies. Earnings Police and sheriff’s patrol officers had median annual earn ings of $47,460 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,600 and $59,880. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,310, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,450. Median annual earnings were $43,510 in Federal Government, $52,540 in State government, and $47,190 in lo cal government. In May 2006, median annual earnings of police and detec tive supervisors were $69,310. The middle 50 percent earned between $53,900 and $83,940. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $41,260, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $104,410. Median annual earnings were $85,170 in Federal Government, $68,990 in State government, and $68,670 in lo cal government. In May 2006, median annual earnings of detectives and crim inal investigators were $58,260. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,920 and $76,350. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,480, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $92,590. Median annual earnings were $69,510 in Federal 460 Occupational Outlook Handbook Government, $49,370 in State government, and $52,520 in lo cal government. Federal law provides special salary rates to Federal employ ees who serve in law enforcement. Additionally, Federal spe cial agents and inspectors receive law enforcement availabil ity pay (LEAP)—equal to 25 percent of the agent’s grade and step—awarded because of the large amount of overtime that these agents are expected to work. For example, in 2007, FBI agents entered Federal service as GS-10 employees on the pay scale at a base salary of $48,159, yet they earned about $60,199 a year with availability pay. They could advance to the GS13 grade level in field nonsupervisory assignments at a base salary of $75,414, which was worth $94,268 with availability pay. FBI supervisory, management, and executive positions in grades GS-14 and GS-15 paid a base salary of about $89,115 and $104,826 a year, respectively, which amounted to $111,394 or $131,033 per year including availability pay. Salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Because Federal agents may be eligible for a special law enforcement benefits package, applicants should ask their recruiter for more information. Total earnings for local, State, and special police and detec tives frequently exceed the stated salary because of payments for overtime, which can be significant. According to the International City-County Management Association’s annual Police and Fire Personnel, Salaries, and Expenditures Survey, average salaries for sworn full-time posi tions in 2006 were: Rank Police chief........................... .............. Deputy chief.......................... .............. Police captain....................... .............. Police lieutenant................... Police sergeant..................... .............. Police corporal..................... .............. Minimum annual base salary $78,547 68.797 65,408 59,940 53,734 44,160 Maximum annual base salary $99,698 87,564 81,466 72,454 63,564 55,183 In addition to the common benefits—paid vacation, sick leave, and medical and life insurance—most police and sher iffs’ departments provide officers with special allowances for uniforms. Because police officers usually are covered by lib eral pension plans, many retire at half-pay after 25 or 30 years of service. For general information about sheriffs and to learn more about the National Sheriffs’ Association scholarship, contact: y National Sheriffs’ Association, 1450 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.sheriffs.org Information about qualifications for employment as a FBI Special Agent is available from the nearest State FBI office. The address and phone number are listed in the local telephone directory. Internet: http://www.fbi.gov Information on career opportunities, qualifications, and train ing for U.S. Secret Service Special Agents and Uniformed Of ficers is available from the Secret Service Personnel Division at (202) 406-5800, (888) 813-877, or (888) 813-USSS. Internet: http://www.secretservice.gov/join Information about qualifications for employment as a DEA Special Agent is available from the nearest DEA office, or call (800) DEA-4288. Internet: http://www.usdoj.gov/dea Information about career opportunities, qualifications, and training to become a deputy marshal is available from: y U.S. Marshals Service, Human Resources Division—Law Enforcement Recruiting, Washington, DC 20530-1000. Internet: http ://www.usmarshals.gov For information on operations and career opportunities in the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, contact: y U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, Office of Governmental and Public Affairs, 650 Massachusetts Ave., NW., Room 8290, Washington D.C., 20226. Internet: http://www.atf.gov Information about careers in U.S. Customs and Border Pro tection is available from: y U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 1300 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20229. Internet: http://www.cbp.gov Information about law enforcement agencies within the De partment of Homeland Security is available from: y U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Washington, DC 20528. Internet: http://www.dhs.gov To find Federal, State, and local law enforcement job fairs and other recruiting events across the country, contact: y National Law Enforcement Recruiters Association, 2045 15th St.North, Suite 210, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.nlera.org Private Detectives and Investigators (Q*NET 33-9021.00) Related Occupations Police and detectives maintain law and order, collect evidence and information, and conduct investigations and surveillance. Workers in related occupations include correctional officers, private detectives and investigators, probation officers and cor rectional treatment specialists, and security guards and gaming surveillance officers. Like police and detectives, firefighters and emergency medical technicians and paramedics provide public safety services and respond to emergencies. Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements may be obtained from Federal, State, and local law enforcement agencies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points Work hours are often irregular, and the work can be dangerous. About 30 percent are self-employed. Applicants typically have related experience in areas such as law enforcement, insurance, the military, or government investigative or intelligence jobs. Keen competition is expected for most jobs despite faster-than-average employment growth. Service Occupations 461 Nature of the Work Private detectives and investigators assist individuals, business es, and attorneys by finding and analyzing information. They connect small clues to solve mysteries or to uncover facts about legal, financial, or personal matters. Private detectives and in vestigators offer many services, including executive, corporate, and celebrity protection; pre-employment verification; and indi vidual background profiles. Some investigate computer crimes, such as identity theft, harassing e-mails, and illegal download ing of copyrighted material. They also provide assistance in criminal and civil liability cases, insurance claims and fraud, child custody and protection cases, missing persons cases, and premarital screening. They are sometimes hired to investigate individuals to prove or disprove infidelity. Private detectives and investigators have many methods to choose from when determining the facts in a case. Much of their work is done using a computer, recovering deleted e-mails and documents, for example. They may also perform computer database searches or work with someone who does. Computers allow investigators to quickly obtain huge amounts of informa tion such as a subject’s prior arrests, convictions, and civil legal judgments; telephone numbers; motor vehicle registrations; as sociation and club memberships; and even photographs. Detectives and investigators also perform various other types of surveillance or searches. To verify facts, such as an individu al’s income or place of employment, they may make phone calls or visit a subject’s workplace. In other cases, especially those involving missing persons and background checks, investiga tors interview people to gather as much information as possible about an individual. Sometimes investigators go undercover, pretending to be someone else to get information or to observe a subject inconspicuously. Most detectives and investigators are trained to perform physical surveillance, which may be high-tech or low-tech. They may observe a site, such as the home of a subject, from an inconspicuous location or a vehicle. Using photographic and video cameras, binoculars, and cell phones, detectives often use surveillance to gather information on an individual; this can be quite time consuming. The duties of private detectives and investigators depend on the needs of their clients. In cases that involve fraudulent workers’ compensation claims, for example, investigators may carry out long-term covert observation of a person suspected of fraud. If an investigator observes him or her performing an ac tivity that contradicts injuries stated in a worker’s compensation claim, the investigator would take video or still photographs to document the activity and report it to the client. Detectives and investigators must be mindful of the law when conducting investigations. They keep up with Federal, State, and local legislation, such as privacy laws and other legal issues affecting their work. The legality of certain methods may be unclear, and investigators and detectives must make judgment calls when deciding how to pursue a case. They must also know how to collect evidence properly so that they do not compro mise its admissibility in court. Private detectives and investigators often specialize. Those who focus on intellectual property theft, for example, investi gate and document acts of piracy, help clients stop illegal activ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ity, and provide intelligence for prosecution and civil action. Other investigators specialize in developing financial profiles and asset searches. Their reports reflect information gathered through interviews, investigation and surveillance, and research, including review of public documents. Computer forensic investigators specialize in recovering, an alyzing, and presenting data from computers for use in investi gations or as evidence. They determine the details of intrusions into computer systems, recover data from encrypted or erased files, and recover e-mails and deleted passwords. Legal investigators assist in preparing criminal defenses, lo cating witnesses, serving legal documents, interviewing police and prospective witnesses, and gathering and reviewing evi dence. Legal investigators also may collect information on the parties to the litigation, take photographs, testify in court, and assemble evidence and reports for trials. They often work for law firms or lawyers. Corporate investigators conduct internal and external in vestigations for corporations. In internal investigations, they may investigate drug use in the workplace, ensure that expense accounts are not abused, or determine whether employees are stealing merchandise or information. External investigations attempt to thwart criminal schemes from outside the corpora tion, such as fraudulent billing by a supplier. Financial investigators may be hired to develop confidential financial profiles of individuals or companies that are prospec tive parties to large financial transactions. These investigators often are certified public accountants (CPAs) who work closely with investment bankers and other accountants. They might also search for assets in order to recover damages awarded by a court in fraud or theft cases. Detectives who work for retail stores or hotels are responsible for controlling losses and protecting assets. Store detectives, also known as loss prevention agents, safeguard the assets of re tail stores by apprehending anyone attempting to steal merchan dise or destroy store property. They prevent theft by shoplift ers, vendor representatives, delivery personnel and even store employees. Store detectives also conduct periodic inspections of stock areas, dressing rooms, and restrooms, and sometimes assist in opening and closing the store. They may prepare loss prevention and security reports for management and testify in court against people they apprehend. Hotel detectives protect guests of the establishment from theft of their belongings and preserve order in hotel restaurants and bars. They also may keep undesirable individuals, such as known thieves, off the premises. Work environment. Many detectives and investigators spend time away from their offices conducting interviews or doing surveillance, but some work in their office most of the day con ducting computer searches and making phone calls. When the investigator is working on a case, the environment might range from plush boardrooms to seedy bars. Store and hotel detec tives work in the businesses that they protect. Investigators generally work alone, but they sometimes work with others during surveillance or when following a subject in order to avoid detection by the subject. Some of the work in volves confrontation, so the job can be stressful and dangerous. Some situations call for the investigator to be armed, such as 462 Occupational Outlook Handbook Despite rapid employment growth, keen competition is expected for private detective jobs. certain bodyguard assignments for corporate or celebrity cli ents. In most cases, however, a weapon is not necessary be cause the purpose of the work is gathering information and not law enforcement or criminal apprehension. Owners of inves tigative agencies have the added stress of having to deal with demanding and sometimes distraught clients. Private detectives and investigators often work irregular hours because of the need to conduct surveillance and contact people who are not available during normal working hours. Early morning, evening, weekend, and holiday work is common. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most private detectives and investigators have some college ed ucation and previous experience in investigative work. In most States, they are required to be licensed. Education and training. There are no formal education re quirements for most private detective and investigator jobs, al though many have college degrees. Courses in criminal justice and police science are helpful to aspiring private detectives and investigators. Although related experience is usually required, some people enter the occupation directly after graduation from college, generally with an associate or bachelor’s degree in criminal justice or police science. The 2006 educational attain ment for private detectives and investigators, in percent, was as follows: Percent High school graduate or equivalent...............................................18 Some college, no degree.............................................................. 26 Associate’s degree.......................................................................... 8 Bachelor’s degree......................................................................... 34 Master’s degree.............................................................................13 Professional degree or PhD............................................................ 3 Most corporate investigators must have a bachelor’s degree, preferably in a business-related field. Some corporate investi gators have a master’s degree in business administration or a law degree; others are CPAs. For computer forensics work, a computer science or account ing degree is more helpful than a criminal justice degree. An accounting degree provides good background knowledge for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis investigating fraud through computer forensics. Either of these two degrees provides a good starting point after which inves tigative techniques can be learned on the job. Alternatively, many colleges and universities now offer certificate programs, requiring from 15 to 21 credits, in computer forensics. These programs are most beneficial to law enforcement officers, para legals, or others who are already involved in investigative work. A few colleges and universities now offer bachelor’s or master’s degrees in computer forensics, and others are planning to begin offering such degrees. Most of the work of private detectives and investigators is learned on the job. New investigators will usually start by learning how to use databases to gather information. The train ing they receive depends on the type of firm. At an insurance company, a new investigator will learn to recognize insurance fraud. At a firm that specializes in domestic cases, a new work er might observe a senior investigator performing surveillance. Learning by doing, in which new investigators are put on cases and gain skills as they go, is a common approach. Corporate investigators hired by large companies, however, may receive formal training in business practices, management structure, and various finance-related topics. Because they work with changing technologies, computer forensic investigators never stop training. They learn the lat est methods of fraud detection and new software programs and operating systems by attending conferences and courses offered by software vendors and professional associations. Licensure. The majority of States and the District of Colum bia require private detectives and investigators to be licensed. Licensing requirements vary, however. Seven States—Alabama, Alaska, Colorado, Idaho, Mississippi, Missouri, and South Da kota—have no Statewide licensing requirements, some States have few requirements, and many others have stringent regula tions. For example, the Bureau of Security and Investigative Services of the California Department of Consumer Affairs re quires private investigators to be 18 years of age or older; have a combination of education in police science, criminal law, or justice and experience equaling 3 years (6,000 hours); pass a criminal history background check by the California Depart ment of Justice and the FBI (in most States, convicted felons cannot be issued a license); and receive a qualifying score on a 2-hour written examination covering laws and regulations. De tectives and investigators in all States who carry handguns must meet additional requirements for a firearms permit. There are no licenses specifically for computer forensic in vestigators, but some States require them to be licensed private investigators. Even where licensure is not required, a private investigator license is useful to some because it allows them to perform follow-up or complementary tasks. Other qualifications. Private detectives and investigators typically have previous experience in other occupations. Some have worked in other occupations for insurance or collections companies, in the private security industry, or as paralegals. Many investigators enter the field after serving in law enforce ment, the military, government auditing and investigative po sitions, or Federal intelligence jobs. Former law enforcement officers, military investigators, and government agents, who are Service Occupations 463 frequently able to retire after 25 years of service, often become private detectives or investigators in a second career. Others enter from jobs in finance, accounting, commercial credit, investigative reporting, insurance, and law. These indi viduals often can apply their prior work experience in a related investigative specialty. Most computer forensic investigators learn their trade while working for a law enforcement agency, either as a sworn officer or a civilian computer forensic analyst. They are trained at their agency’s computer forensics training program. Many people enter law enforcement specifically to get this training and estab lish a reputation before moving to the private sector. For private detective and investigator jobs, most employers look for individuals with ingenuity, persistence, and assertive ness. A candidate must not be afraid of confrontation, should communicate well, and should be able to think on his or her feet. Good interviewing and interrogation skills also are impor tant and usually are acquired in earlier careers in law enforce ment or other fields. Because the courts often are the judge of a properly conducted investigation, the investigator must be able to present the facts in a manner that a jury will believe. The screening process for potential employees typically includes a background check for a criminal history. Certification and advancement. Some investigators receive certification from a professional organization to demonstrate competency in a field. For example, the National Association of Legal Investigators confers the Certified Legal Investigator designation to licensed investigators who devote a majority of their practice to negligence or criminal defense investigations. To receive the designation, applicants must satisfy experience, educational, and continuing-training requirements and must pass written and oral exams. ASIS, a trade organization for the security industry, offers the Professional Certified Investigator certification. To qualify, ap plicants must have a high school diploma or equivalent; have 5 years of investigations experience, including 2 years managing investigations; and must pass an exam. Most private-detective agencies are small, with little room for advancement. Usually, there are no defined ranks or steps, so advancement takes the form of increases in salary and assign ment status. Many detectives and investigators start their own firms after gaining a few years of experience. Corporate and legal investigators may rise to supervisor or manager of the se curity or investigations department. Employment Private detectives and investigators held about 52,000 jobs in 2006. About 30 percent were self-employed, including many for whom investigative work was a second job. Around 34 percent of detective and investigator jobs were in investiga tion and security services, including private detective agencies, while another 9 percent were in department or other general merchandise stores. The rest worked mostly in State and local government, legal services firms, employment services compa nies, insurance agencies, and credit mediation establishments, including banks and other depository institutions. Job Outlook Keen competition is expected for most jobs despite faster-thanaverage employment growth. Employment change. Employment of private detectives and investigators is expected to grow 18 percent over the 2006-16 decade, faster than the average for all occupations. Increased demand for private detectives and investigators will result from heightened security concerns, increased litigation, and the need to protect confidential information and property of all kinds. The proliferation of criminal activity on the Internet, such as identity theft, spamming, e-mail harassment, and illegal down loading of copyrighted materials, will also increase the demand for private investigators. Employee background checks, con ducted by private investigators, will become standard for an in creasing number of jobs. Growing financial activity worldwide will increase the demand for investigators to control internal and external financial losses, to monitor competitors, and to prevent industrial spying. Job prospects. Keen competition is expected for most jobs because private detective and investigator careers attract many qualified people, including relatively young retirees from law enforcement and military careers. The best opportunities for new jobseekers will be in entry-level jobs in detective agencies or stores, particularly large chain and discount stores that hire detectives on a part-time basis. Opportunities are expected to be excellent for qualified computer forensic investigators. Earnings Median annual eamings of salaried private detectives and in vestigators were $33,750 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,180 and $47,740. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,720, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $64,380. Eamings of private detectives and inves tigators vary greatly by employer, specialty, and geographic area. Related Occupations Private detectives and investigators often collect information and protect the property and other assets of companies and in dividuals. Others with related duties include bill and account collectors; claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investi gators; police and detectives; and security guards and gaming surveillance officers. Investigators who specialize in conduct ing financial profiles and asset searches perform work closely Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Private detectives and investigators.............................. ...................... soc Code 33-9021 Employment, 2006 52,000 Projected employment, 2016 61,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 9,400 18 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 464 Occupational Outlook Handbook related to that of accountants and auditors, as well as financial analysts and personal financial advisors. Sources of Additional Information For information on local licensing requirements, contact your State Department of Public Safety, State Division of Licensing, or local or State police headquarters. For information on a career as a legal investigator and about the Certified Legal Investigator credential, contact: y National Association of Legal Investigators, 908 21st St., Sacramento, CA 95814-3118. Internet: http://www.nalionline.org For more information about investigative and other security careers, about the Professional Certified Investigator creden tial, and for a list of colleges and universities offering securityrelated courses and majors, contact: > ASIS, 1625 Prince St., Alexandria, VA 22314-2818. Internet: http://www.asisonline.org Security Guards and Gaming Surveillance Officers (0*NET 33-9031.00, 33-9032.00) Significant Points • Jobs should be plentiful, but competition is expected for higher paying positions at facilities requiring lon ger periods of training and a high level of security, such as nuclear power plants and weapons installa tions. • Because of limited formal training requirements and flexible hours, this occupation attracts many individu als seeking a second or part-time job. • Some positions, such as those of armored car guards, are hazardous. Nature of the Work Security guards, also called security officers, patrol and inspect property to protect against fire, theft, vandalism, terrorism, and illegal activity. These workers protect their employer’s invest ment, enforce laws on the property, and deter criminal activity and other problems. They use radio and telephone communi cations to call for assistance from police, fire, or emergency medical services as the situation dictates. Security guards write comprehensive reports outlining their observations and activities during their assigned shift. They also may interview witnesses or victims, prepare case reports, and testify in court. Although all security guards perform many of the same du ties, their specific tasks depend on whether they work in a “stat ic” security position or on a mobile patrol. Guards assigned to static security positions usually stay at one location for a specified length of time. These guards must become closely acquainted with the property and people associated with their station and must often monitor alarms and closed-circuit TV https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis cameras. In contrast, guards assigned to mobile patrol drive or walk from one location to another and conduct security checks within an assigned geographical zone. They may detain or ar rest criminal violators, answer service calls concerning crimi nal activity or problems, and issue traffic violation warnings. The security guard’s job responsibilities also vary with the size, type, and location of the employer. In department stores, guards protect people, records, merchandise, money, and equip ment. They often work with undercover store detectives to prevent theft by customers or employees, and help apprehend shoplifting suspects prior to the arrival of the police. Some shopping centers and theaters have officers who patrol their parking lots to deter car thefts and robberies. In office build ings, banks, and hospitals, guards maintain order and protect the institution’s customers, staff and property. At air, sea, and rail terminals and other transportation facilities, guards protect people, freight, property, and equipment. Using metal detec tors and high-tech equipment, they may screen passengers and visitors for weapons and explosives, ensure that nothing is sto len while a vehicle is being loaded or unloaded, and watch for fires and criminals. Guards who work in public buildings such as museums or art galleries protect paintings and exhibits by inspecting peo ple and packages entering and leaving the building. In fac tories, laboratories, government buildings, data processing centers, and military bases, security officers protect informa tion, products, computer codes, and defense secrets and check the credentials of people and vehicles entering and leaving the premises. Guards working at universities, parks, and sports stadiums perform crowd control, supervise parking and seat ing, and direct traffic. Security guards stationed at the entrance to bars and nightclubs, prevent access by minors, collect cover charges at the door, maintain order among customers, and pro tect patrons and property. Armored car guards protect money and valuables during transit. In addition, they protect individuals responsible for making commercial bank deposits from theft or injury. They pick up money or other valuables from businesses to transport to another location. Carrying money between the truck and the business can be extremely hazardous. As a result, armored car guards usually wear bulletproof vests. Gaming surveillance officers, also known as surveillance agents, and gaming investigators act as security agents for ca sino managers and patrons. Using primarily audio and video equipment in an observation room, they observe casino op erations for irregular activities, such as cheating or theft, and monitor compliance to rules, regulations and laws. They main tain and organize recordings from security cameras as they are sometimes used as evidence in police investigations. Some casinos use a catwalk over one-way mirrors located above the casino floor to augment electronic surveillance equipment. Surveillance agents occasionally leave the surveillance room and walk the casino floor. All security officers must show good judgment and common sense, follow directions, testify accurately in court, and follow company policy and guidelines. In an emergency, they must be able to take charge and direct others to safety. In larger organi zations, a security manager might oversee a group of security Service Occupations 465 officers. In smaller organizations, however, a single worker may be solely responsible for all security. Work environment. Most security guards and gaming sur veillance officers spend considerable time on their feet, either assigned to a specific post or patrolling buildings and grounds. Guards may be stationed at a guard desk inside a building to monitor electronic security and surveillance devices or to check the credentials of people entering or leaving the prem ises. They also may be stationed at a guardhouse outside the entrance to a gated facility or community and may use a por table radio or cellular telephone to be in constant contact with a central station. The work usually is routine, but guards must be constantly alert for threats to themselves and the property they are protecting. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with other employees and the pub lic. Gaming surveillance officers often work behind a bank of monitors controlling numerous cameras in a casino and thus can develop eyestrain. Guards usually work shifts of 8 hours or longer for 40 hours per week and are often on call in case of an emergency. Some employers offer three shifts, and guards rotate to divide day time, weekend, and holiday work equally. Guards usually eat on the job instead of taking a regular break away from the site. In 2006, about 15 percent of guards worked part time, and some held a second job as a guard to supplement their primary earnings. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, there are no specific education requirements for se curity guards, but employers usually prefer to fill armed guard positions with people who have at least a high school diploma. Gaming surveillance officers often need some education be yond high school. In most States, guards must be licensed. Education and training. Many employers of unarmed guards do not have any specific educational requirements. For armed guards, employers usually prefer individuals who are high school graduates or who hold an equivalent certification. Many employers give newly hired guards instruction before they start the job and provide on-the-job training. The amount of training guards receive varies. Training is more rigorous for armed guards because their employers are legally responsible for any use of force. Armed guards receive formal training in areas such as weapons retention and laws covering the use of force. They may be periodically tested in the use of firearms. An increasing number of States are making ongoing train ing a legal requirement for retention of licensure. Guards may receive training in protection, public relations, report writing, crisis deterrence, first aid, and specialized training relevant to their particular assignment. The American Society for Industrial Security International has written voluntary training guidelines that are intended to provide regulating bodies consistent minimum standards for the quality of security services. These guidelines recommend that security guards receive at least 48 hours of training within the first 100 days of employment. The guidelines also suggest that security guards be required to pass a written or performance examination covering topics such as sharing information with law enforcement, crime prevention, handling evidence, the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Security guards patrol property and buildings to deter crime. use of force, court testimony, report writing, interpersonal and communication skills, and emergency response procedures. In addition, they recommend annual retraining and additional firearms training for armed officers. Guards who are employed at establishments that place a heavy emphasis on security usually receive extensive formal training. For example, guards at nuclear power plants undergo several months of training before going on duty—and even then, they perform their tasks under close supervision for a significant period of time. They are taught to use firearms, administer first aid, operate alarm systems and electronic secu rity equipment, and spot and deal with security problems. Gaming surveillance officers and investigators usually need some training beyond high school but not usually a bachelor’s degree. Several educational institutes offer certification pro grams. Classroom training usually is conducted in a casino like atmosphere and includes the use of surveillance camera equipment. Previous security experience is a plus. Employers prefer either individuals with casino experience and significant knowledge of casino operations or those with law enforcement and investigation experience. Licensure. Most States require that guards be licensed. To be licensed as a guard, individuals must usually be at least 18 years old, pass a background check, and complete classroom training in such subjects as property rights, emergency pro cedures, and detention of suspected criminals. Drug testing often is required and may be random and ongoing. Guards who carry weapons must be licensed by the appro priate government authority, and some receive further certifi cation as special police officers, allowing them to make limited types of arrests while on duty. Armed guard positions have more stringent background checks and entry requirements than those of unarmed guards. 466 Occupational Outlook Handbook Other qualifications. Most jobs require a driver’s license. For positions as armed guards, employers often seek people who have had responsible experience in other occupations. Rigorous hiring and screening programs consisting of back ground, criminal record, and fingerprint checks are becoming the norm in the occupation. Applicants are expected to have good character references, no serious police record, and good health. They should be mentally alert, emotionally stable, and physically fit to cope with emergencies. Guards who have fre quent contact with the public should communicate well. Like security guards, gaming surveillance officers and gam ing investigators must have keen observation skills and excel lent verbal and writing abilities to document violations or sus picious behavior. They also need to be physically fit and have quick reflexes because they sometimes must detain individuals until local law enforcement officials arrive. Advancement. Compared with unarmed security guards, armed guards and special police usually enjoy higher earn ings and benefits, greater job security, and more potential for advancement. Because many people do not stay long in this occupation, opportunities for advancement are good for those who make a career in security. Most large organizations use a military type of ranking that offers the possibility of advance ment in both position and salary. Some guards may advance to supervisor or security manager positions. Guards with manage ment skills may open their own contract security guard agen cies. Guards can also move to an organization with more strin gent security and higher pay. Employment Security guards and gaming surveillance officers held over 1 million jobs in 2006. More than half of all jobs for security guards were in investigation and security services, including guard and armored car services. These organizations provide security on a contract basis, assigning their guards to buildings and other sites as needed. Most other security officers were employed directly by educational services, hospitals, food ser vices and drinking places, traveler accommodation (hotels), department stores, manufacturing firms, lessors of real estate (residential and nonresidential buildings), and governments. Guard jobs are found throughout the country, most commonly in metropolitan areas. Gaming surveillance officers work primarily in gambling industries; traveler accommodation, which includes casino hotels; and local government. They are employed only in those States and on those Indian reservations where gambling is legal. A significant number of law enforcement officers work as security guards when they are off duty, in order to supplement their incomes. Often working in uniform and with the official cars assigned to them, they add a high-profile security pres ence to the establishment with which they have contracted. At construction sites and apartment complexes, for example, their presence often deters crime. (Police and detectives are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Opportunities for security guards and gaming surveillance of ficers should be favorable. Numerous job openings will stem from employment growth, driven by the demand for increased security, and from the need to replace those who leave this large occupation each year. Employment change. Employment of security guards is ex pected to grow by 17 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations. This occupa tion will have a very large number of new jobs arise, about 175,000 over the projections decade. Concern about crime, vandalism, and terrorism continues to increase the need for security. Demand for guards also will grow as private security firms increasingly perform duties—such as providing security at public events and in residential neighborhoods—that were formerly handled by police officers. Employment of gaming surveillance officers is expected to grow by 34 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. Casinos will con tinue to hire more surveillance officers as more States legal ize gambling and as the number of casinos increases in States where gambling is already legal. In addition, casino security forces will employ more technically trained personnel as tech nology becomes increasingly important in thwarting casino cheating and theft. Job prospects. Job prospects for security guards should be excellent because of growing demand for these workers and the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occu pation. In addition to full-time job opportunities, the limited training requirements and flexible hours attract many people seeking part-time or second jobs. However, competition is ex pected for higher paying positions that require longer periods of training; these positions usually are found at facilities that require a high level of security, such as nuclear power plants or weapons installations. Job prospects for gaming surveillance officers should be good, but they will be better for those with experience in the gaming industry. Earnings Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of security guards were $21,530 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Security guards and gaming surveillance officers......................... .... Gaming surveillance officers and gaming investigators.......... .... Security euards............................................................................. .... soc Code Employment, 2006 33-9030 33-9031 33-9032 1.049.000 8,700 1.040.000 Projected employment, 2016 1.227.000 12,000 1.216.000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 178.000 17 2,900 34 175.000 17 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 467 between $17,620 and $27,430. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $35,840. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of security guards were: General medical and surgical hospitals...............................$26,610 Elementary and secondary schools.......................................26,290 Local government................................................................. 24,950 Investigation, guard and armored car services......................20,280 Gaming surveillance officers and gaming investigators had median annual wage-and-salary earnings of $27,130 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,600 and $35,970. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,720, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,940. Related Occupations Guards protect property, maintain security, and enforce regula tions and standards of conduct in the establishments at which they work. Related security and protective service occupations include correctional officers, police and detectives, private de tectives and investigators, and gaming services occupations. Sources of Additional Information Further information about work opportunities for guards is available from local security and guard firms and State employ ment service offices. Information about licensing requirements for guards may be obtained from the State licensing commis sion or the State police department. In States where local juris dictions establish licensing requirements, contact a local gov ernment authority such as the sheriff, county executive, or city manager. Food Preparation and Serving Related Occupations Chefs, Cooks, and Food Preparation Workers (0*NET 35-1011.00, 35-2011.00, 35-2012.00, 35-2013.00, 35-2014.00, 35-2015.00, 35-2019.99, 35-2021.00) Significant Points • Many cooks and food preparation workers are young—37 percent are below the age of 24. • One-third of these workers are employed part time. • Job openings are expected to be plentiful because many of these workers will leave the occupation for full-time employment or better wages. Nature of the Work Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers prepare, season, and cook a wide range of foods—from soups, snacks, and sal ads to entrees, side dishes, and desserts. They work in a variety of restaurants and other food services establishments. Chefs and cooks create recipes and prepare meals, while food prepa ration workers peel and cut vegetables, trim meat, prepare poul try, and perform other duties, such as keeping work areas clean and monitoring temperatures of ovens and stovetops. Specifically, chefs and cooks measure, mix, and cook ingredi ents according to recipes, using a variety of equipment, includ ing pots, pans, cutlery, ovens, broilers, grills, slicers, grinders, and blenders. Chefs and head cooks also are responsible for directing the work of other kitchen workers, estimating food requirements, and ordering food supplies. Food preparation workers perform routine, repetitive tasks under the direction of chefs and cooks. These workers ready the ingredients for complex dishes by slicing and dicing veg etables, and composing salads and cold items. They weigh and measure ingredients, go after pots and pans, and stir and strain https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soups and sauces. Food preparation workers may cut and grind meats, poultry, and seafood in preparation for cooking. They also clean work areas, equipment, utensils, dishes, and silver ware. Larger restaurants and food services establishments tend to have varied menus and larger kitchen staffs. Staffs often in clude several chefs and cooks, sometimes called assistant or line cooks. Each chef or cook works an assigned station that is equipped with the types of stoves, grills, pans, and ingredients needed for the foods prepared at that station. Job titles often reflect the principal ingredient prepared or the type of cook ing performed—vegetable cook, fry cook, or grill cook, for ex ample. These cooks also may direct or work with other food preparation workers. Executive chefs and head cooks coordinate the work of the kitchen staff and direct the preparation of meals. They deter mine serving sizes, plan menus, order food supplies, and over see kitchen operations to ensure uniform quality and presenta tion of meals. An executive chef, for example, is in charge of all food service operations and also may supervise the many kitch ens of a hotel, restaurant group, or corporate dining operation. A chefde cuisine reports to an executive chef and is responsible for the daily operations of a single kitchen. A sous chef, or sub chef, is the second-in-command and runs the kitchen in the absence of the chef. Many chefs earn fame both for themselves and for their kitchens because of the quality and distinctive na ture of the food they serve. Responsibilities depend on where cooks work. Institu tion and cafeteria cooks, for example, work in the kitchens of schools, cafeterias, businesses, hospitals, and other institutions. For each meal, they prepare a large quantity of a limited number of entrees, vegetables, and desserts according to preset menus. Meals generally are prepared in advance so diners seldom get the opportunity to special order a meal. Restaurant cooks usu ally prepare a wider selection of dishes, cooking most orders individually. Short-order cooks prepare foods in restaurants and coffee shops that emphasize fast service and quick food 468 Occupational Outlook Handbook preparation. They grill and garnish hamburgers, prepare sand wiches, fry eggs, and cook French fries, often working on sev eral orders at the same time. Fast-food cooks prepare a limited selection of menu items in fast-food restaurants. They cook and package batches of food, such as hamburgers and fried chicken, to be kept warm until served. {Combinedfood preparation and service workers, who both prepare and serve items in fast-food restaurants, are included with the material on food and beverage serving and related workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) The number and types of workers employed in kitchens also depends on the type of establishment. Small, full-service res taurants offering casual dining often feature a limited number of easy-to-prepare items supplemented by short-order special ties and ready-made desserts. Typically, one cook prepares all the food with the help of a short-order cook and one or two other kitchen workers. Grocery and specialty food stores employ chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers to develop recipes and prepare meals for customers to carry out. Typically, entrees, side dishes, sal ads, or other items are prepared in large quantities and stored at an appropriate temperature. Counter assistants portion and package items according to customer orders for serving at home. Some cooks, called research chefs, combine culinary skills with knowledge of food science to develop recipes for chain restaurants and food processors and manufacturers. They test new formulas and flavors for prepared foods and determine the most efficient and safest way to prepare new foods. Some cooks work for individuals rather than for restaurants, cafeterias, or food manufacturers. These private household cooks plan and prepare meals in private homes according to the client’s tastes or dietary needs. They order groceries and supplies, clean the kitchen, and wash dishes and utensils. They also may serve meals. Private chefs are employed directly by a single individual or family or sometimes by corporations or in stitutions, such as universities and embassies, to perform cook ing and entertaining tasks. These chefs usually live in and may travel with their employer. Because of the sensitive nature of their employment, they are usually required to sign confidenti ality agreements. As part of the job, private chefs often perform additional services, such as paying bills, coordinating sched ules, and planning events. Another type of private household cooks, called personal chefs, usually prepare a week’s worth of meals in the client’s home for the client to heat and serve according to directions throughout the week. Personal chefs are self-employed or em ployed by a company that provides this service. Work environment. Many restaurant and institutional kitch ens have modem equipment, convenient work areas, and air conditioning, but kitchens in older and smaller eating places are often not as well designed. Kitchen staffs invariably work in small quarters against hot stoves and ovens. They are un der constant pressure to prepare meals quickly, while ensuring quality is maintained and safety and sanitation guidelines are observed. Because the pace can be hectic during peak dining times, workers must be able to communicate clearly so that food orders are completed correctly. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis I >; Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers often prepare in gredients ahead of time so that they can be cooked quickly when ordered. Working conditions vary with the type and quantity of food prepared and the local laws governing food service operations. Workers usually must stand for hours at a time, lifting heavy pots and kettles, and working near hot ovens and grills. Job hazards include slips and falls, cuts, and bums, but injuries are seldom serious. Work hours in restaurants may include early mornings, late evenings, holidays, and weekends. Work schedules of chefs, cooks and other kitchen workers in factory and school cafeterias may be more regular. In 2006, about 29 percent of cooks and 44 percent of food preparation workers had part-time schedules, compared to 15 percent of workers throughout the economy. Work schedules in fine-dining restaurants, however, tend to be longer because of the time required to prepare ingredients in advance. Many executive chefs regularly work 12-hour days because they oversee the delivery of foodstuffs early in the day, plan the menu, and prepare those menu items that take the most skill. The wide range in dining hours and the need for fully-staffed kitchens during all open hours creates work opportunities for students, youth, and other individuals seeking supplemental income, flexible work hours, or variable schedules. Eighteen percent of cooks and food preparation workers were 16 to 19 Service Occupations 469 years old in 2006; nineteen percent were age 20 to 24. Ten percent had variable schedules. Kitchen workers employed by schools may work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Similarly, resort establishments usually only offer seasonal employment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement On-the-job training is most common for fast-food cooks, shortorder cooks, and food preparation workers. Chefs and oth ers with more advanced cooking duties often attend cooking school. Vocational training programs are available to many high school students, but advanced positions usually require training after high school. Experience, an ability to develop and enhance cooking skills, and a strong desire to cook are the most common requirements for advancement. Education and training. A high school diploma is not re quired for beginning jobs, but it is recommended for those planning a career as a cook or chef. Most fast-food or shortorder cooks and food preparation workers require little educa tion or training to start because most skills are learned on the job. Training generally starts with basic sanitation and work place safety and continues with instruction on food handling, preparation, and cooking procedures. Training in food han dling, sanitation, and health and safety procedures are manda tory in most jurisdictions for all workers. Those who become proficient and who show an interest in learning complicated cooking techniques may advance to more demanding cooking positions or into supervisory positions. Some high school or vocational school programs offer cours es in basic food safety and handling procedures, cooking, and general business and computer classes that can be helpful for those who might someday want to be a chef or to open their own restaurant. Many school districts, in cooperation with State departments of education, provide on-the-job training and summer workshops for cafeteria kitchen workers who aspire to become cooks. Food service management companies or hotel and restaurant chains, also offer paid internships and summer jobs to those starting out in the field. Internships provide valu able experience and can lead to placement in more formal chef training programs. When hiring chefs and others in advanced cooking positions, however, employers usually prefer applicants who have train ing after high school. These training programs range from a few months to 2 years or more. Vocational or trade-school programs typically offer basic training in food handling and sanitation procedures, nutrition, slicing and dicing methods for various kinds of meats and vegetables, and basic cook ing methods, such as baking, broiling, and grilling. Longer programs leading to a certificate or a 2- or 4-year degree train chefs for fine-dining or upscale restaurants. They offer a wider array of training specialties, such as advanced cooking tech niques; cooking for banquets, buffets, or parties; and cuisines and cooking styles from around the world. A growing number of chefs participate in these longer train ing programs through independent cooking schools, profes sional culinary institutes, 2- or 4-year college degree programs in hospitality or culinary arts, or in the armed forces. Some large hotels and restaurants also operate their own training and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis job-placement programs for chefs and cooks. Executive chefs and head cooks who work in fine-dining restaurants require many years of training and experience and an intense desire to cook. Although curricula may vary, students in culinary train ing programs spend most of their time in kitchens learning to prepare meals by practicing cooking skills. They learn good knife techniques and proper use and care of kitchen equipment. Training programs also include courses in nutrition, menu plan ning, portion control, purchasing and inventory methods, prop er food storage procedures, and use of leftover food to mini mize waste. Students also learn sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Training in food service management, computer accounting and inventory software, and banquet service are featured in some training programs. Most formal training programs also require students to get experience in a commercial kitchen through an internship, apprenticeship, or out-placement program. Many chefs are trained on the job, receiving real work expe rience and training from chef-mentors in the restaurants where they work. Professional culinary institutes, industry associa tions, and trade unions sponsor formal apprenticeship programs in coordination with the U.S. Department of Labor. The American Culinary Federation accredits more than 200 formal academic training programs and sponsors apprentice ship programs around the country. Typical apprenticeships last 2 years and combine classroom training and work experience. Accreditation is an indication that a culinary program meets recognized standards regarding course content, facilities, and quality of instruction. Other qualifications. Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers must be efficient, quick, and work well as part of a team. Manual dexterity is helpful for cutting, chopping, and plating. These workers also need creativity and a keen sense of taste and smell. Personal cleanliness is essential because most States require health certificates indicating that workers are free from communicable diseases. Knowledge of a foreign language can be an asset because it may improve communica tion with other restaurant staff, vendors, and the restaurant’s clientele. Certification and advancement. The American Culinary Federation certifies pastry professionals, personal chefs, and culinary educators in addition to various levels of chefs. Cer tification standards are based primarily on experience and for mal training. Although certification is not required, it can help to prove accomplishment and lead to advancement and higher paying positions. Advancement opportunities for chefs, cooks, and food prep aration workers depend on their training, work experience, and ability to perform more responsible and sophisticated tasks. Many food preparation workers, for example, may move into assistant or line cook positions. Chefs and cooks who demon strate an eagerness to learn new cooking skills and to accept greater responsibility may also move up and be asked to train or supervise lesser skilled kitchen staff. Others may move to larger or more prestigious kitchens and restaurants. Some chefs and cooks go into business as caterers or person al chefs or open their own restaurant. Others become instruc- 470 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers...................... ............. Chefs and head cooks........................................................................ Cooks and food preparation workers.............................. ................ Cooks............................................................................................. Cooks, fast food........................................................................ Cooks, institution and cafeteria............................... ................ Cooks, private household......................................................... Cooks, restaurant....................................................................... Cooks, short order..................................................................... Cooks, all other......................................................................... Food preparation workers............................................................ soc Code Employment, 2006 ... 3,113,000 115,000 2,998,000 2,097,000 629,000 401,000 4,900 850,000 195,000 16,000 902,000 35-1011 35-2000 35-2010 35-2011 35-2012 35-2013 35-2014 35-2015 35-2019 35-2021 Projected employment, 2016 3,464,000 124,000 3,340,000 2,301,000 681,000 445,000 5,400 948,000 205,000 16,000 1,040,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 351,000 11 8 8,700 11 342,000 10 204,000 8 52,000 43,000 11 400 9 12 98,000 9,500 5 3 500 138,000 15 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. tors in culinary training programs. A number of cooks and chefs advance to executive chef positions or food service man agement positions, particularly in hotels, clubs, or larger, more elegant restaurants. (See the section on food service managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers held 3.1 million jobs in 2006. The distribution of jobs among the various types of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers was as follows: Food preparation workers ................................................. 902,000 Cooks, restaurant................................................................ 850,000 Cooks, fast food ................................................................. 629,000 Cooks, institution and cafeteria.......................................... 401,000 Cooks, short order...............................................................195,000 Chefs and head cooks........................................................ 115,000 Cooks, private household....................................................... 4,900 Cooks, all other......................................................................16,000 Two-thirds of all chefs, cooks, and food preparation work ers were employed in restaurants and other food services and drinking places. About 15 percent worked in institutions such as schools, universities, hospitals, and nursing care facilities. Grocery stores, hotels, and gasoline stations with convenience stores employed most of the remainder. Job Outlook Job opportunities for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers are expected to be plentiful because of the continued growth and expansion of food services outlets, resulting in av erage employment growth, and because of the large numbers of workers who leave these occupations and need to be replaced. However, those seeking the highest-paying positions will face keen competition. Employment change. Employment of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers is expected to increase by 11 percent over the 2006-16 decade, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. This occupation will have among the larg est numbers of new jobs arise, about 351,000 over the period. Growth will be spurred by increases in population, household https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis income, and demand for convenience that will lead to more people dining out and taking vacations that include hotel stays and restaurant visits. In addition, employment of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers who prepare meals-to-go, such as those who work in the prepared foods sections of grocery or specialty food stores, should grow faster than average as these stores compete with restaurants for people’s food dol lars. Also, there is a growing consumer desire for convenient, healthier, made-from-scratch meals. Projected employment growth varies by detailed occupa tion. The number of higher-skilled chefs and cooks working in full-service restaurants—those that offer table service and more varied menus—is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations. Much of this increase will come from job growth in more casual dining settings, rather than in up-scale full-service restaurants. Dining trends suggest that an increasing number of meals are eaten away from home, which creates growth in family dining restaurants, but greater lim its on expense-account meals is expected to generate slower growth for up-scale restaurants. Employment of food preparation workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations, reflecting din ers’ desires for convenience as they shop for carryout meals in a greater variety of places, including full-service restaurants, limited-service eating places, and grocery stores. Employment of fast-food cooks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Duties of cooks in fast-food restaurants are limited; most workers are likely to be combined food preparation and serving workers, rather than fast-food cooks. Employment of short-order cooks is expected to increase more slowly than average. Employment of institution and cafeteria chefs and cooks will show growth about as fast as the average. Their employment will not keep pace with the rapid growth in the educational and health services industries—where their employment is concentrated. Offices, schools, and hospitals increasingly con tract out their food services in an effort to make “institutional food” more attractive to office workers, students, staff, visitors, and patients. Much of the growth of these workers will be in contract food service establishments that provide catering services or food management and staff for employee dining Service Occupations 471 rooms, sports complexes, convention centers, and educational or health care facilities. Employment of private household cooks is projected to grow by 9 percent, about as fast as the average. While the employ ment of personal chefs is expected to increase—reflecting the growing popularity and convenience of eating restaurant-qual ity meals at home—the number of private chefs will not grow as fast, reflecting slower growth in private household service employment. Job prospects. Job openings for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers are expected to be plentiful through 2016; however, competition should be keen for jobs in the top kitch ens of higher end restaurants. Although job growth will create many new positions, the overwhelming majority of job open ings will stem from the need to replace workers who leave this large occupational group. Many chef, cook, and food prepa ration worker jobs are attractive to people seeking first-time or short-term employment, additional income, or a flexible schedule. Employers typically hire a large number of part time workers, but many of these workers soon transfer to other occupations or stop working, creating numerous openings for those entering the field. At higher end restaurants, the fast pace, long hours, and high energy levels required to succeed also cause some top chefs and cooks to leave for other jobs, creating job openings. Earnings Earnings of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers vary greatly by region and the type of employer. Earnings usually are highest in elegant restaurants and hotels, where many ex ecutive chefs are employed, and in major metropolitan and re sort areas. Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of chefs and head cooks were $34,370 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,910 and $46,040. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,160, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $60,730. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of chefs and head cooks were: Other amusement and recreations industries .....................$46,460 Traveler accommodation....................................................... 40,020 Special food services............................................................ 36,450 Full-service restaurants ........................................................ 32,360 Limited-service eating places .............................................. 27,560 Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of cooks, private household were $22,870 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,960 and $31,050. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,690, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $55,040. Median annual wage-and-and salary earnings of institution and cafeteria cooks were $20,410 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,280 and $25,280. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,450, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $30,770. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of institution and cafeteria cooks were: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis General medical and surgical hospitals...............................$22,980 Special food services............................................................. 21,650 Community care facilities for the elderly.............................20,910 Nursing care facilities...........................................................20,470 Elementary and secondary schools.......................................18,770 Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of restaurant cooks were $20,340 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,860 and $24,260. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,370, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28,850. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of restaurant cooks were: Traveler accommodations ..................................................$23,400 Full-service restaurants ........................................................20,100 Limited-service eating places .............................................. 18,200 Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of short-order cooks were $17,880 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,960 and $21,820. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,930, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26,110. Median annual earnings in full-service restaurants were $18,340. Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of food prepa ration workers were $17,410 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,920 and $21,230. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,190, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25,940. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of food preparation workers were: Grocery stores..................................................................... $18,920 Full-service restaurants......................................................... 17,390 Limited-service eating places.....................................................15,550 Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of fast-food cooks were $15,410 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $13,730 and $17,700. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,170, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20,770. Median annual earnings were $15,360 in full-service restaurants and $15,350 in limited-service eating places. Some employers provide employees with uniforms and free meals, but Federal law permits employers to deduct from their employees’ wages the cost or fair value of any meals or lodging provided, and some employers do so. Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers who work full time often receive typical benefits, but part-time and hourly workers usually do not. In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees International Union and the Service Employees International Union. Related Occupations People who perform tasks similar to those of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers include those in food processing oc cupations, such as butchers and meat cutters, and bakers. Oth ers who work closely with these workers include food service managers and food and beverage serving and related workers. 472 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Career information about chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers, including a directory of 2- and 4-year colleges that offer courses or training programs is available from: y National Restaurant Association, 1200 17th St.NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.restaurant.org Information on the American Culinary Federation’s appren ticeship and certification programs for cooks and a list of ac credited culinary programs is available from: y American Culinary Federation, 180 Center Place Way, St.Augustine, FL 32095. Internet: http://www.acfchefs.org For information about becoming a personal or private chef, contact: y American Personal & Private Chef Association, 4572 Delaware St., San Diego, CA 92116. Internet: http://www.personalchef.com For information about culinary apprenticeship programs regis tered with the U.S. Department of Labor, contact the local office of your State employment service agency, check the department’s apprenticeship Web site: http://www.doleta.gov/atels_bat or call the toll free helpline: (877) 872-5627. Food and Beverage Serving and Related Workers (0*NET 35-3011.00, 35-3021.00, 35-3022.00, 35-3031.00, 35-3041.00, 35-9011.00, 35-9021.00, 35-9031.00, 35 9099.99) ing areas clean and set for new diners. Most work as part of a team, helping coworkers to improve workflow and customer service. Waiters and waitresses, the largest group of these workers, take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, prepare item ized checks, and sometimes accept payment. Their specific du ties vary considerably, depending on the establishment. In cof fee shops serving routine, straightforward fare, such as salads, soups, and sandwiches, servers are expected to provide fast, ef ficient, and courteous service. In fine dining restaurants, where more complicated meals are prepared and often served over several courses, waiters and waitresses provide more formal service emphasizing personal, attentive treatment and a more leisurely pace. They may recommend certain dishes and iden tify ingredients or explain how various items on the menu are prepared. Some prepare salads, desserts, or other menu items tableside. Additionally, servers may meet with managers and chefs, before each shift to discuss the menu and any new items or specials, review ingredients for any potential food allergies, or talk about any food safety concerns, coordination between the kitchen and the dining room, and any customer service is sues from the previous day or shift. Servers usually also check the identification of patrons to ensure they meet the minimum age requirement for the purchase of alcohol and tobacco prod ucts wherever those items are sold. Waiters and waitresses sometimes perform the duties of other food and beverage service workers. These tasks may include escorting guests to tables, serving customers seated at coun ters, clearing and setting up tables, or operating a cash register. However, full-service restaurants frequently hire other staff, such as hosts and hostesses, cashiers, or dining room attendants, to perform these duties. Bartenders fill drink orders either taken directly from patrons at the bar or through waiters and waitresses who place drink Significant Points • Most jobs are part time and have few educational re quirements, attracting many young people to the oc cupation—more than one-fifth of these workers were 16 to 19 years old, about five times the proportion for all workers. • Job openings are expected to be abundant through 2016, which will create excellent opportunities for jobseekers. • Tips comprise a major portion of earnings, so keen competition is expected for jobs in fine dining and more popular restaurants where potential tips are greatest. Nature of the Work Food and beverage serving and related workers are the front line of customer service in restaurants, coffee shops, and other food service establishments. These workers greet customers, escort them to seats and hand them menus, take food and drink orders, and serve food and beverages. They also answer ques tions, explain menu items and specials, and keep tables and din https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Food and beverage serving and related workers need good in terpersonal skills to deal with customers. Service Occupations 473 orders for dining room customers. Bartenders check the iden tification of customers seated at the bar to ensure they meet the minimum age requirement for the purchase of alcohol and tobacco products. They prepare mixed drinks, serve bottled or draught beer, and pour wine or other beverages. Bartenders must know a wide range of drink recipes and be able to mix drinks accurately, quickly, and without waste. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders stock and prepare garnishes for drinks; maintain an adequate supply of ice, glasses, and other bar supplies; and keep the bar area clean for customers. They also may collect payment, operate the cash register, wash glass ware and utensils, and serve food to customers who dine at the bar. Bartenders usually are responsible for ordering and main taining an inventory of liquor, mixes, and other bar supplies. Most bartenders directly serve and interact with patrons. Bartenders should be friendly and at ease talking with custom ers. Bartenders at service bars, on the other hand, have less contact with customers. They work in small bars often located off the kitchen in restaurants, hotels, and clubs where only wait ers and waitresses place drink orders. Some establishments, especially larger, higher volume ones, use equipment that au tomatically measures, pours, and mixes drinks at the push of a button. Bartenders who use this equipment, however, still must work quickly to handle a large volume of drink orders and be familiar with the ingredients for special drink requests. Much of a bartender’s work still must be done by hand. Hosts and hostesses welcome guests and maintain reserva tion or waiting lists. They may direct patrons to coatrooms, restrooms, or to a place to wait until their table is ready. Hosts and hostesses assign guests to tables suitable for the size of their group, escort patrons to their seats, and provide menus. They also schedule dining reservations, arrange parties, and organize any special services that are required. In some restaurants, they act as cashiers. Dining mom and cafeteria attendants and bartender help ers assist waiters, waitresses, and bartenders by cleaning tables, removing dirty dishes, and keeping serving areas stocked with supplies. Sometimes called backwaiters or runners, they bring meals out of the kitchen and assist waiters and waitresses by distributing dishes to individual diners. They also replenish the supply of clean linens, dishes, silverware, and glasses in the dining room and keep the bar stocked with glasses, liquor, ice, and drink garnishes. Dining room attendants set tables with clean tablecloths, napkins, silverware, glasses, and dishes and serve ice water, rolls, and butter. At the conclusion of meals, they remove dirty dishes and soiled linens from tables. Caf eteria attendants stock serving tables with food, trays, dishes, and silverware and may carry trays to dining tables for pa trons. Bartender helpers keep bar equipment clean and glasses washed. Dishwashers clean dishes, cutlery, and kitchen uten sils and equipment. Counter attendants take orders and serve food in cafeterias, coffee shops, and carryout eateries. In cafeterias, they serve food displayed on steam tables, carve meat, dish out vegetables, ladle sauces and soups, and fill beverage glasses. In lunchrooms and coffee shops, counter attendants take orders from customers seated at the counter, transmit orders to the kitchen, and pick up and serve food. They also fill cups with coffee, soda, and other https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis beverages and prepare fountain specialties, such as milkshakes and ice cream sundaes. Counter attendants also take carryout orders from diners and wrap or place items in containers. They clean counters, write itemized bills, and sometimes accept pay ment. Some counter attendants may prepare short-order items, such as sandwiches and salads. Some food and beverage serving workers take orders from customers at counters or drive-through windows at fast-food restaurants. They assemble orders, hand them to customers, and accept payment. Many of these are combined food prepa ration and serving workers who also cook and package food, make coffee, and fill beverage cups using drink-dispensing ma chines. Other workers serve food to patrons outside of a restaurant environment. They might deliver room service meals in hotels or meals to hospital rooms or act as carhops, bringing orders to parked cars. Work environment. Food and beverage service workers are on their feet most of the time and often carry heavy trays of food, dishes, and glassware. During busy dining periods, they are under pressure to serve customers quickly and efficiently. The work is relatively safe, but care must be taken to avoid slips, falls, and bums. Part-time work is more common among food and beverage serving and related workers than among workers in almost any other occupation. In 2006, those on part-time schedules in cluded half of all waiters and waitresses and 39 percent of all bartenders. Food service and drinking establishments typically maintain long dining hours and offer flexible and varied work opportu nities. Many food and beverage serving and related workers work evenings, weekends, and holidays. Many students and teenagers seek part time or seasonal work as food and beverage serving and related workers as a first job to gain work experi ence or to earn spending money. More than one-fifth of all food and beverage serving and related workers were 16 to 19 years old—about five times the proportion for all workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most food and beverage service jobs require little or no previ ous experience and provide training on the job. Education and training. There are no specific educational requirements for most food and beverage service jobs. Many employers prefer to hire high school graduates for waiter and waitress, bartender, and host and hostess positions, but comple tion of high school usually is not required for fast-food workers, counter attendants, dishwashers, and dining room attendants and bartender helpers. For many people, a job as a food and beverage service worker serves as a source of immediate in come, rather than a career. Many entrants to these jobs are in their late teens or early twenties and have a high school educa tion or less. Usually, they have little or no work experience. Many are full-time students or homemakers. Food and bever age service jobs are a major source of part-time employment for high school and college students. All new employees receive some training from their employer. They learn safe food handling procedures and sanitation prac tices, for example. Some employers, particularly those in fast- 474 Occupational Outlook Handbook https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis better. Some bartenders, hosts and hostesses, and waiters and waitresses advance to supervisory jobs, such as dining room supervisor, maitre d’hotel, assistant manager, or restaurant gen eral manager. A few bartenders open their own businesses. In larger restaurant chains, food and beverage service workers who excel often are invited to enter the company’s formal manage ment training program. (For more information, see the section on food service managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Food and beverage serving and related workers held 7.4 million jobs in 2006. The distribution of jobs among the various food and beverage serving occupations was as follows: Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food ........................................................ 2,503,000 Waiters and waitresses .................................................... 2,361,000 Counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop....................................................................... 533,000 Dishwashers ....................................................................... 517,000 Bartenders ................................................................................... 495,000 Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers.............................................................. 416,000 Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge,and coffeeshop 351,000 Food servers, non restaurant ...............................................189,000 All other food preparation and serving relatedworkers 56,000 . food restaurants, teach new workers using self-study programs, on-line programs, audiovisual presentations, and instructional booklets that explain food preparation and service skills. But most food and beverage serving and related workers pick up their skills by observing and working with more experienced workers. Some full-service restaurants also provide new din ing room employees with some form of classroom training that alternates with periods of on-the-job work experience. These training programs communicate the operating philosophy of the restaurant, help establish a personal rapport with other staff, teach formal serving techniques, and instill a desire to work as a team. They also provide an opportunity to discuss customer service situations and the proper ways of handling unpleasant circumstances or unruly patrons. Some food serving workers can acquire more skills by at tending relevant classes offered by public or private vocational schools, restaurant associations, or large restaurant chains. Some bartenders also acquire their skills by attending a bar tending or vocational and technical school. These programs of ten include instruction on State and local laws and regulations, cocktail recipes, proper attire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some of these schools help their graduates find jobs. Although few employers require any minimum level of educational at tainment, some specialized training is usually needed in food handling and legal issues surrounding serving alcoholic bever ages. Employers are more likely to hire and promote based on people skills and personal qualities rather than education. Other qualifications. Restaurants rely on good food and quality customer service to retain loyal customers and succeed in a competitive industry. Food and beverage serving and re lated workers who exhibit excellent personal qualities—such as a neat clean appearance, a well-spoken manner, an ability to work as a part of a team, and a pleasant way with patrons—will be highly sought after. All workers who serve alcoholic bever ages must be at least 21 years of age in most jurisdictions and should be familiar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. For bartender jobs, many employers prefer to hire people who are 25 or older. Waiters and waitresses need a good memory to avoid confus ing customers’ orders and to recall faces, names, and preferences of frequent patrons. These workers also should be comfortable using computers to place orders and generate customers’ bills. Some may need to be quick at arithmetic so they can total bills manually. Knowledge of a foreign language is helpful to com municate with a diverse clientele and staff. Prior experience waiting on tables is preferred by restaurants and hotels that have rigid table service standards. Jobs at these establishments often offer higher wages and have greater income potential from tips, but they may also have stiffer employment requirements, such as prior table service experience or higher education than other establishments. Advancement. Due to the relatively small size of most food serving establishments, opportunities for promotion are lim ited. After gaining experience, some dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers advance to waiter, waitress, or bartender jobs. For waiters, waitresses, and bartenders, ad vancement usually is limited to finding a job in a busier or more expensive restaurant or bar where prospects for tip earnings are The overwhelming majority of jobs for foodand beverage serving and related workers were found in food services and drinking places, such as restaurants, sandwich shops, and cater ing or contract food service operators. Other jobs were in ho tels, motels, and other traveler accommodation establishments; amusement, gambling, and recreation establishments; educa tional services; grocery stores; nursing care facilities; civic and social organizations; and hospitals. Jobs are located throughout the country but are typically plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. Vacation resorts of fer seasonal employment, and some workers alternate between summer and winter resorts. Job Outlook Average employment growth is expected, and job opportunities should be excellent for food and beverage serving and related workers, but job competition is often keen at upscale restau rants. Employment change. Overall employment of these workers is expected to increase by 13 percent over the 2006-16 decade, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. Food and beverage serving and related workers are projected to have one of the largest numbers of new jobs arise, about 993,000, over this period. The popularity of eating out is expected to increase as the population expands and as customers seek the convenience of restaurants and other dining options. Projected employment growth varies somewhat by job type. Employ ment of combined food preparation and serving workers, which includes fast-food workers, is expected to increase faster than the average in response to the continuing fast-paced lifestyle of many Americans and the addition of healthier foods at many fast-food restaurants. Average employment growth is expected Service Occupations 475 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Food and beverage serving and related workers................................ Food and beverage serving workers................................................ Bartenders...................................................................................... Fast food and counter workers..................................................... Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food................................................................................. Counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop.......................................................................... Waiters and waitresses.................................................................. Food servers, nonrestaurant......................................................... Other food preparation and serving related workers..................... Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers.... Dishwashers................................................................................... Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge, and coffee shop........ Food preparation and serving related workers, all other........... 35-3000 35-3011 35-3020 7,422,000 6,081,000 495,000 3,036,000 Projected employment, 2016 8,415,000 6,927,000 551,000 3,542,000 35-3021 2,503,000 2,955,000 452,000 18 35-3022 35-3031 35-3041 35-9000 35-9011 35-9021 35-9031 35-9099 533,000 2,361,000 189,000 1,341,000 416,000 517,000 351,000 56,000 587,000 2,615,000 219,000 1,488,000 466,000 571,000 388,000 64,000 54,000 255,000 30,000 147,000 49,000 54,000 37,000 7,300 10 11 16 11 12 10 10 13 soc Code — Employment, 2006 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 993,000 13 846,000 14 56,000 11 506,000 17 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. for waiters and waitresses, hosts and hostesses, and bartenders. Restaurants that offer table service, more varied menus, and an active bar scene are growing in number in response to consumer demands for convenience and to increases in disposable income, especially among families who frequent casual family-oriented restaurants; affluent young professionals, who patronize trendier, more upscale establishments; and retirees and others who dine out as a way to socialize. Employment of dishwashers, dining room and cafeteria attendants, and bartender helpers also will grow about as fast as average. Job prospects. Job opportunities at most eating and drinking places will be excellent because many people in service sector occupations change jobs frequently and the number of food ser vice outlets needing food service workers will continue to grow. Many of these workers, such as teens, those seeking part-time employment, or multiple jobholders, do so to satisfy short-term income needs before moving on to jobs in other occupations or leaving the workforce. Keen competition is expected, however, for jobs in popular restaurants and fine dining establishments, where potential earnings from tips are greatest. Earnings Food and beverage serving and related workers derive their earnings from a combination of hourly wages and customer tips. Earnings vary greatly, depending on the type of job and establishment. For example, fast-food workers and hosts and hostesses usually do not receive tips, so their wage rates may be higher than those of waiters and waitresses and bartenders in full-service restaurants but their overall earnings might be low er. In many full-service restaurants, tips are higher than wages. In some restaurants, workers contribute all or a portion of their tips to a tip pool, which is distributed among qualifying work ers. Tip pools allow workers who don’t usually receive tips directly from customers, such as dining room attendants, to feel a part of a team and to share in the rewards of good service. In May 2006, median hourly wage-and-salary earnings (in cluding tips) of waiters and waitresses were $7.14. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.42 and $9.14. The lowest 10 per https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis cent earned less than $5.78, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $12.46 an hour. For most waiters and waitresses, higher earnings are primarily the result of receiving more in tips rather than higher hourly wages. Tips usually average between 10 and 20 percent of guests’ checks; waiters and waitresses working in busy, expensive restaurants earn the most. Bartenders had median hourly wage-and-salary earnings (including tips) of $7.86. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $6.77 and $10.10. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.00, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.56 an hour. Like waiters and waitresses, bartenders employed in public bars may receive more than half of their earnings as tips. Service bartenders often are paid higher hourly wages to offset their lower tip earnings. Median hourly wage-and-salary earnings (including tips) of dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers were $7.36. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.62 and $8.59. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.91, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.60 an hour. Most received over half of their earnings as wages; the rest of their income was a share of the proceeds from tip pools. Median hourly wage-and-salary earnings of hosts and host esses were $7.78. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.79 and $8.97. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.99, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.80 an hour. Wages comprised the majority of their earnings. In some cases, wages were supplemented by proceeds from tip pools. Median hourly wage-and-salary earnings of combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food, were $7.24. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.47 and $8.46. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.79, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.16 an hour. Although some combined food preparation and serving workers receive a part of their earnings as tips, fast-food workers usually do not. Median hourly wage-and-salary earnings of counter atten dants in cafeterias, food concessions, and coffee shops (in cluding tips) were $7.76. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $6.85 and $9.00 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned 476 Occupational Outlook Handbook less than $6.11, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.86 an hour. Median hourly wage-and-salary earnings of dishwashers were $7.57. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.78 and $8.62. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.01, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.00 an hour. Median hourly wage-and-salary earnings of food servers outside of restaurants were $8.70. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.27 and $10.87. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.36, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.81 an hour. Many beginning or inexperienced workers earn the Federal minimum wage of $5.85 an hour. However, a few States set minimum wages higher than the Federal minimum. Under Federal law, this wage will increase to $6.55 in the summer of 2008 and to $7.25 in the summer of 2009. Also, various minimum wage exceptions apply under specific circumstances to disabled workers, full-time students, youth under age 20 in their first 90 days of employment, tipped employees, and student-learners. Tipped employees are those who customar ily and regularly receive more than $30 a month in tips. The employer may consider tips as part of wages, but the employer must pay at least $2.13 an hour in direct wages. Many employers provide free meals and furnish uniforms, but some may deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of any meals or lodging provided. Food and beverage service workers who work full time often receive typical benefits, but part-time workers usually do not. In some large restaurants and hotels, food and beverage serving and related workers be long to unions—principally the Unite HERE and the Service Employees International Union. Related Occupations Other workers who prepare food for diners include chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers. Those whose job in volves serving customers and handling money include ca shiers, flight attendants, gaming services workers, and retail salespersons. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from lo cal employers and local offices of State employment services agencies. A guide to careers in restaurants plus a list of 2- and 4-year colleges offering food service programs and related scholar ship information is available from: y National Restaurant Association, 1200 17th St.NW., Washington, DC20036. Internet: http://www.restaurant.org For general information on hospitality careers, contact: y International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 2810 North Parham Rd., Suite 230, Richmond, VA 23294. Intemet:http://www.chrie.org Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations Building Cleaning Workers (0*NET 37-1011.00, 37-2011.00, 37-2012.00, 37-2019.99) Significant Points • This very large occupation requires few skills to enter and each year has one of the largest numbers of job openings of any occupation. • Most job openings result from the need to replace the many workers who leave these jobs because they pro vide low pay and few benefits, limited opportunities for training or advancement, and often only part-time or temporary work. • Most new jobs will occur in businesses providing jan itorial and cleaning services on a contract basis. Nature of the Work Building cleaning workers—including janitors, maids, house keeping cleaners, window washers, and rug shampooers— keep office buildings, hospitals, stores, apartment houses, hotels, and residences clean, sanitary, and in good condition. Some do only cleaning, while others have a wide range of duties. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Janitors and cleaners perform a variety of heavy cleaning duties, such as cleaning floors, shampooing rugs, washing walls and glass, and removing rubbish. They may fix leaky faucets, empty trash cans, do painting and carpentry, replen ish bathroom supplies, mow lawns, and see that heating and air-conditioning equipment works properly. On a typical day, janitors may wet- or dry-mop floors, clean bathrooms, vacuum carpets, dust furniture, make minor repairs, and exterminate insects and rodents. They may also clean snow or debris from sidewalks in front of buildings and notify management of the need for major repairs. While janitors typically perform most of the duties mentioned, cleaners tend to work for companies that specialize in one type of cleaning activity, such as wash ing windows. Maids and housekeeping cleaners perform any combination of light cleaning duties to keep private households or com mercial establishments, such as hotels, restaurants, hospitals, and nursing homes, clean and orderly. In hotels, aside from cleaning and maintaining the premises, maids and housekeep ing cleaners may deliver ironing boards, cribs, and rollaway beds to guests’ rooms. In hospitals, they also may wash bed frames, make beds, and disinfect and sanitize equipment and supplies with germicides. Janitors, maids, and cleaners use many kinds of equipment, tools, and cleaning materials. For one job they may need standard cleaning implements; another may require an electric floor polishing machine and a spe Service Occupations 477 cial cleaning solution. Improved building materials, chemical cleaners, and power equipment have made many tasks easier and less time consuming, but cleaning workers must learn the proper use of equipment and cleaners to avoid harming floors, fixtures, building occupants, and themselves. Cleaning supervisors coordinate, schedule, and supervise the activities of janitors and cleaners. They assign tasks and inspect building areas to see that work has been done properly; they also issue supplies and equipment and inventory stocks to ensure that supplies on hand are adequate. They may be expected to screen and hire job applicants; train new and ex perienced employees; and recommend promotions, transfers, or dismissals. Supervisors may prepare reports concerning the occupancy of rooms, hours worked, and department ex penses. Some also perform cleaning duties. Cleaners and servants in private households dust and pol ish furniture; sweep, mop, and wax floors; vacuum; and clean ovens, refrigerators, and bathrooms. They also may wash dishes, polish silver, and change and make beds. Some wash, fold, and iron clothes; a few wash windows. General houseworkers also may take clothes and laundry to the cleaners, buy groceries, and perform many other errands. Building cleaning workers in large office and residential buildings, and more recently in large hotels, often work in teams consisting of workers who specialize in vacuuming, picking up trash, and cleaning restrooms, among other things. Supervisors conduct inspections to ensure that the building is cleaned properly and the team is functioning efficiently. In hotels, one member of the team is responsible for reporting electronically to the supervisor when rooms are cleaned. Work environment. Because most office buildings are cleaned while they are empty, many cleaning workers work evening hours. Some, however, such as school and hospital custodians, work in the daytime. When there is a need for 24hour maintenance, janitors may be assigned to shifts. Most full-time building cleaners work about 40 hours a week. Part time cleaners usually work in the evenings and on weekends. Most building cleaning workers work indoors, but some work outdoors part of the time, sweeping walkways, mow ing lawns, or shoveling snow. Working with machines can be i'SIIW®; Building cleaning workers often work indoors and use special ized equipment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis noisy, and some tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms and trash rooms, can be dirty and unpleasant. Janitors may suffer cuts, bruises, and bums from machines, handtools, and chemicals. They spend most of their time on their feet, sometimes lifting or pushing heavy furniture or equipment. Many tasks, such as dusting or sweeping, require constant bending, stooping, and stretching. Lifting the increasingly heavier mattresses at nicer hotels in order to change the linens can cause back in juries and sprains. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most building cleaning workers, except supervisors, have a high school degree or less and mainly learn their skills on the job or in informal training sessions sponsored by their em ployers. Supervisors, though, generally have at least a high school diploma and often some college. Education and training. No special education is required for most entry-level janitorial or cleaning jobs, but workers should be able to perform simple arithmetic and follow instruc tions. High school shop courses are helpful for jobs involving repair work. Most building cleaners leam their skills on the job. Beginners usually work with an experienced cleaner, do ing routine cleaning. As they gain more experience, they are assigned more complicated tasks. In some cities, programs ran by unions, government agencies, or employers teach jani torial skills. Students learn how to clean buildings thoroughly and efficiently; how to select and safely use various cleansing agents; and how to operate and maintain machines, such as wet and dry vacuums, buffers, and polishers. Students leam to plan their work, to follow safety and health regulations, to interact positively with people in the buildings they clean, and to work without supervision. Instruction in minor electrical, plumbing, and other repairs also may be given. Supervisors of building cleaning workers usually need at least a high school diploma, but many have some college or more, especially those who work at places where clean rooms and well-functioning buildings are a necessity, such as in hos pitals and hotels. Other qualifications. Those who come in contact with the public should have good communication skills. Employers usually look for dependable, hard-working individuals who are in good health, follow directions well, and get along with other people. Certification and advancement. A small number of clean ing supervisors and managers are members of the Interna tional Executive Housekeepers Association, which offers two kinds of certification programs for cleaning supervisors and managers: Certified Executive Housekeeper (CEH) and Reg istered Executive Housekeeper (REH). The CEH designa tion is offered to those with a high school education, while the REH designation is offered to those who have a 4-year college degree. Both designations are earned by attending courses and passing exams and both must be renewed every 3 years to ensure that workers keep abreast of new cleaning methods. Those with the REH designation usually oversee the cleaning services of hotels, hospitals, casinos, and other 478 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Building cleaning workers.................................................................... First-line supervisors/managers of housekeeping and janitorial workers........................................................................................... Building cleaning workers................................................................ Janitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners...................................................................................... Maids and housekeeping cleaners................................................ Building cleaning workers, all other........................................... Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 569,000 14 4,154,000 Projected employment, 2016 4,723,000 37-1011 37-2010 282,000 3,872,000 318,000 4,405,000 36,000 533,000 13 14 37-2011 37-2012 37-2019 2,387,000 1,470,000 16,000 2,732,000 1,656,000 18,000 345,000 186,000 2,400 14 13 15 soc Code — Employment, 2006 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. large institutions that rely on well-trained experts for their cleaning needs. Advancement opportunities for workers usually are limited in organizations where they are the only maintenance worker. Where there is a large maintenance staff, however, cleaning workers can be promoted to supervisor or to area supervisor or manager. In many establishments, they are required to take some in-service training to improve their housekeeping techniques and procedures and to enhance their supervisory skills. A high school diploma improves the chances for ad vancement. Some janitors set up their own maintenance or cleaning businesses. Employment Building cleaning workers held about 4.2 million jobs in 2006. More than 7 percent were self-employed. Janitors and cleaners worked in nearly every type of estab lishment and held about 2.4 million jobs. They accounted for more than 57 percent of all building cleaning workers. More than 31 percent worked for firms supplying building mainte nance services on a contract basis, about 20 percent were em ployed in public or private educational services, and 2 percent worked in hotels or motels. Other employers included hos pitals; restaurants; religious institutions; manufacturing firms; government agencies; and operators of apartment buildings, office buildings, and other types of real estate. First-line supervisors of housekeeping and janitorial work ers held more than 282,000 jobs. Approximately 20 percent worked in firms supplying building maintenance services on a contract basis, while approximately 11 percent were employed in hotels or motels. About 4 percent worked for State and lo cal governments, primarily at schools and colleges. Others worked for hospitals, nursing homes and other residential care facilities. Maids and housekeepers held about 1.5 million jobs. Private households employed the most maids and housekeepers—al most 29 percent—while hotels, motels, and other traveler ac commodations employed about the same percentage, almost 29 percent. Hospitals, nursing homes, and other residential care facilities employed large numbers, also. Although clean ing jobs can be found in all cities and towns, most are located in highly populated areas where there are many office build https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ings, schools, apartment houses, nursing homes, and hospi tals. Job Outlook Overall employment of building cleaning workers is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations through 2016, as more office complexes, apartment houses, schools, facto ries, hospitals, and other buildings requiring cleaning are built to accommodate a growing population and economy. Employment change. The number of building cleaning workers is expected to grow 14 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations. This occupation will have, in fact, one of the largest numbers of new jobs arise, about 570,000 over the 2006-16 period. Much of the growth in these occupations will come from cleaning residential properties. As families become more pressed for time, they increasingly hire cleaning and handy man services to perform a variety of tasks in their homes. Also, as the population ages, older people will need to hire cleaners to help maintain their houses. In addition, house keeping cleaners will be needed to clean the growing number of residential care facilities for the elderly. These facilities, including assisted-living residences, generally provide house keeping services as part of the rent. Although there have been some improvements in productivity in the way buildings are cleaned and maintained—using teams of cleaners, for exam ple, and better cleaning supplies—cleaning still is very much a labor-intensive job. As many firms reduce costs by contracting out the cleaning and maintenance of buildings, businesses providing janitorial and cleaning services on a contract basis are expected to have the greatest number of new jobs in this field. Job prospects. In addition to job openings arising due to growth, numerous openings should result from the need to re place those who leave this very large occupation each year. Limited promotion potential, low pay, and the fact that many jobs are part-time and temporary, induce many to leave the oc cupation, thereby contributing to the number of job openings and the need to replace these workers. Building cleaners usually find work by answering newspa per advertisements, applying directly to organizations where they would like to work, contacting local labor unions, or con tacting State employment service offices. Service Occupations 479 Earnings Median annual earnings of janitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners, were $19,930 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,220 and $25,640. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,010 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33,060. Median annual earnings in 2006 in the industries employing the largest numbers of janitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners, were as follows: Elementary and secondary schools.....................................$24,010 Local government................................................................. 23,930 Colleges, universities, and professional schools...................23,170 General medical and surgical hospitals.................................21,670 Services to buildings and dwellings...................................... 17,870 Grounds Maintenance Workers (0*NET 37-1012.00, 37-3011.00, 37-3012.00, 37-3013.00, 37-3019.99) Significant Points • Opportunities should be very good, especially for workers willing to work seasonal or variable sched ules, because of significant job turnover and increased demand for landscaping. • Many beginning jobs have low earnings and are phys ically demanding. • Median annual earnings of maids and housekeepers were $17,580 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,060 and $21,440. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,140, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26,390. Median annual earnings in 2006 in the industries employing the largest numbers of maids and housekeepers were as follows: General medical and surgical hospitals...............................$20,080 Community care facilities for the elderly............................. 17,900 Nursing care facilities............................................................17,690 Services to buildings and dwellings...................................... 17,540 Traveler accommodation........................................................16,790 Median annual earnings of first-line supervisors and man agers of housekeeping and janitorial workers were $31,290 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,230 and $40,670. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,620, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $51,490. Median an nual earnings in May 2006 in the industries employing the larg est numbers of first-line supervisors and managers of house keeping and janitorial workers were as follows: Local government............................................................... $38,170 Elementary and secondary schools....................................... 35,660 Nursing care facilities........................................................... 30,570 Services to buildings and dwellings......................................29,730 Traveler accommodation....................................................... 26,730 Related Occupations Workers who specialize in one of the many job functions of jan itors and cleaners include pest control workers; general mainte nance and repair workers; and grounds maintenance workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about janitorial jobs may be obtained from $tate employment service offices. For information on certification in executive housekeeping, contact: V International Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., 1001 Eastwind Dr., Suite 301, Westerville, OH 43081-3361. Internet: http://www.ieha.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most workers learn through short-term on-the-job training. Nature of the Work Attractively designed, healthy, and well-maintained lawns, gardens, and grounds create a positive impression, establish a peaceful mood, and increase property values. Grounds mainte nance workers perform the variety of tasks necessary to achieve a pleasant and functional outdoor environment. They also care for indoor gardens and plantings in commercial and public fa cilities, such as malls, hotels, and botanical gardens. These workers use handtools such as shovels, rakes, prun ing and handsaws, hedge and bmsh trimmers, and axes, as well as power lawnmowers, chain saws, snowblowers, and electric clippers. Some use equipment such as tractors and twin-axle vehicles. Landscaping and groundskeeping workers at parks, schools, cemeteries, and golf courses may lay sod after prepar ing the ground. Workers at sod farms use sod cutters to harvest sod that will be replanted elsewhere. Grounds maintenance workers can be divided into landscap ing workers and groundskeeping workers, depending on whether they mainly install new landscape elements or maintain existing ones, but their duties often overlap. Other grounds maintenance workers are pesticide handlers and tree trimmers. Landscaping workers install plants and other elements into landscaped areas and often maintain them. They might mow, edge, trim, fertilize, dethatch, water, and mulch lawns and grounds many times during the growing season. They grade property by creating or smoothing hills and inclines, install lighting or sprinkler systems, and build walkways, terraces, pa tios, decks, and fountains. They also transport and plant new vegetation, and transplant, mulch, fertilize, and water existing plants, trees, and shrubs. A growing number of residential and commercial clients, such as managers of office buildings, shop ping malls, multiunit residential buildings, and hotels and mo tels, favor full-service landscape maintenance. Groundskeeping workers, also called groundskeepers, usual ly focus on maintaining existing grounds. They might work on athletic fields, golf courses, cemeteries, university campuses, and parks. In addition to caring for sod, plants, and trees, they rake and mulch leaves, clear snow from walkways and parking lots, and use irrigation methods to adjust the amount of water consumption and prevent waste. They see to the proper upkeep 480 Occupational Outlook Handbook and repair of sidewalks, parking lots, groundskeeping equip ment, pools, fountains, fences, planters, and benches. Groundskeeping workers who care for athletic fields keep natural and artificial turf in top condition, mark out boundaries, and paint turf with team logos and names before events. They must make sure that the underlying soil on fields with natu ral turf has the required composition to allow proper drainage and to support the grasses used on the field. Groundskeeping workers mow, water, fertilize, and aerate the fields regularly. In sports venues, they vacuum and disinfect synthetic turf after its use to prevent the growth of harmful bacteria, and they remove the turf and replace the cushioning pad periodically. Groundskeepers in parks and recreation facilities care for lawns, trees, and shrubs; maintain playgrounds; clean build ings; and keep parking lots, picnic areas, and other public spaces free of litter. They also may erect and dismantle snow fences, and maintain swimming pools. These workers inspect buildings and equipment, make needed repairs, and keep every thing freshly painted. Workers who maintain golf courses are called greenskeepers. Greenskeepers do many of the same things as other grounds keepers, but they also periodically relocate the holes on putting greens to prevent uneven wear of the turf and to add interest and challenge to the game. Greenskeepers also keep canopies, benches, ball washers, and tee markers repaired and freshly painted. Some groundskeepers specialize in caring for cemeteries and memorial gardens. They dig graves to specified depths, gener ally using a backhoe. They mow grass regularly, apply fertil izers and other chemicals, prune shrubs and trees, plant flowers, and remove debris from graves. Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation mix herbicides, fungicides, or insecticides and apply them through sprays, dusts, or vapors into the soil or onto plants. Those working for chemical lawn service firms are more specialized, inspecting lawns for problems and applying fertilizers, pesti cides, and other chemicals to stimulate growth and prevent or control weeds, diseases, or insect infestation. Many practice integrated pest-management techniques. Tree trimmers and pruners cut away dead or excess branches from trees or shrubs to clear roads, sidewalks, or utilities’ equip ment or to improve the appearance, health, and value of trees. Some of these workers also specialize in pruning, trimming and shaping ornamental trees and shrubs for private residences, golf courses, or other institutional grounds. Tree trimmers and pruners use handsaws, pole saws, shears, and clippers. When trimming near power lines, they usually work on truck-mounted lifts and use power pruners. Supervisors of landscaping and groundskeeping workers oversee grounds maintenance work. They prepare cost esti mates, schedule work for crews on the basis of weather condi tions or the availability of equipment, perform spot checks to ensure the quality of the service, and suggest changes in work procedures. In addition, supervisors train workers in their tasks; keep employees’ time records and record work performed; and even assist workers when deadlines are near. Supervisors who own their own business are also known as landscape contrac tors. They also often call themselves landscape designers if https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 'if iMM | ■ ?} iv." if « isi Until $ ' '• ffl P : mus Grounds maintenance workers often use power equipment. they create landscape design plans. Landscape designers also design exterior floral displays by planting annual or perennial flowers. Some work with landscape architects. (Landscape architects, discussed elsewhere in the Handbook, create more technical architectural plans and usually work on larger proj ects.) Supervisors of workers on golf courses are known as su perintendents. Supervisors of tree trimmers and pruners are called arborists. Arborists specialize in the care of individual trees, diagnos ing and treating tree diseases and recommending preventative health measures. Some arborists plant trees. Most can recom mend types of trees that are appropriate for a specific location, as the wrong tree in the wrong location could lead to future problems with crowding, insects, diseases, or poor growth. Arborists are employed by cities to improve urban green space, utilities to maintain power distribution networks, com panies to care for residential and commercial properties, as well as many other settings. Work environment. Many grounds maintenance jobs are seasonal, available mainly in the spring, summer, and fall, when most planting, mowing, trimming, and cleanup are necessary. Most of the work is performed outdoors in all kinds of weath er. It can be physically demanding and repetitive, involving much bending, lifting, and shoveling. Workers in landscaping and groundskeeping may be under pressure to get the job com pleted, especially when they are preparing for scheduled events such as athletic competitions. Those who work with pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemi cals, as well as dangerous equipment and tools such as power lawnmowers, chain saws, and power clippers, must exercise safety precautions. Workers who use motorized equipment must take care to protect their hearing. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most grounds maintenance workers learn on-the-job. However, some occupations may require formal training in areas such as landscape design, horticulture, or business management. Education and training. There usually are no minimum edu cational requirements for entry-level positions in grounds main tenance. In 2006, most workers had a high school education or less. Short-term on-the-job training generally is sufficient Service Occupations 481 to teach new hires how to operate and repair equipment such as mowers, trimmers, leaf blowers, and small tractors and to follow correct safety procedures. They must also learn proper planting and maintenance procedures for their localities. Large institutional employers such as golf courses or municipalities may supplement on-the-job training with coursework in sub jects like horticulture or small engine repair for those employ ees showing ability and willingness to learn. Landscaping supervisors or contractors who own their own business, arborists, and landscape designers usually need for mal training in landscape design, horticulture, arboriculture, or business. A bachelor’s degree may be needed for those who want to become specialists or own their own business. Licensure. Most States require licensure or certification for workers who apply pesticides. Requirements vary but usually include passing a test on the proper use and disposal of insec ticides, herbicides, and fungicides. Some States require that landscape contractors be licensed. Other qualifications. Employers look for responsible, selfmotivated individuals because grounds maintenance workers often work with little supervision. Employers want people who can learn quickly and follow instructions accurately so that time is not wasted and plants are not damaged. Workers who deal directly with customers must get along well with people. Driving a vehicle is often needed for these jobs. If driving is required, preference is given to applicants with a driver’s li cense, a good driving record, and experience driving a truck. Certification and advancement. The Professional Grounds Management Society offers voluntary certification to grounds managers who have a bachelor’s degree in a relevant major with at least 4 years of experience, including 2 years as a supervisor; an associate degree in a relevant major with 6 years of experi ence, including 3 years as a supervisor; or 8 years of experience including 4 years as a supervisor, and no degree. Additionally, candidates for certification must pass an examination covering subjects such as equipment management, personnel manage ment, environmental issues, turf care, ornamentals, and circu latory systems. Certification as a grounds technician is also offered by this organization. The Professional Landcare Network offers six certifications to those who seek to demonstrate specific knowledge in an area of landscaping and grounds maintenance. Obtaining certifica tion may be an asset for career advancement. The Tree Care Industry Association offers four levels of credentials. Currently available credentials include Tree Care Apprentice, Ground Op erations Specialist, Tree Climber Specialist, and Tree Care Spe cialist, as well as a certification program in safety. Laborers who demonstrate a willingness to work hard and quickly, have good communication skills, and take an interest in the business may advance to crew leader or other supervisory positions. Becoming a grounds manager or landscape contrac tor usually requires some formal education beyond high school and several years of progressively more responsible experience. Some workers with groundskeeping backgrounds may start their own businesses after several years of experience. Employment Grounds maintenance workers held about 1.5 million jobs in 2006. Employment was distributed as follows: Landscaping and groundskeeping workers......................1,220,000 First-line supervisors/managers of landscaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers.................... 202,000 Tree trimmers and pruners....................................................41,000 Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation....31,000 Grounds maintenance workers, all other.............................. 28,000 More than one-third of the workers in grounds maintenance were employed in companies providing landscaping services to buildings and dwellings. Others worked for amusement and recreation facilities, such as golf courses and racetracks; educational institutions, both public, and private; and property management and real-estate development firms. Some were employed by local governments, installing and maintaining landscaping for parks, hospitals, and other public facilities. Al most 24 percent of grounds maintenance workers were self-em ployed, providing landscape maintenance directly to customers on a contract basis. About 14 percent of grounds maintenance workers worked part time; about 9 percent were younger than age twenty. Job Outlook Those interested in grounds maintenance occupations should find very good job opportunities in the future. Employment of grounds maintenance workers is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations through the year 2016. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Grounds maintenance workers and related first-line supervisors/ managers............................................................................................. First-line supervisors/managers of landscaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers.............................................................. Grounds maintenance workers......................................................... Landscaping and groundskeeping workers................................ Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation......... Tree trimmers and pruners........................................................... Grounds maintenance workers, all other.................................... Change, 2006-16 Number Percent soc Code Employment, 2006 Projected employment, 2016 — 1,521,000 1,791,000 270,000 18 37-1012 37-3000 37-3011 37-3012 37-3013 37-3019 202,000 1,319,000 1,220,000 31,000 41,000 28,000 237,000 1,554,000 1,441,000 35,000 45,000 33,000 36,000 235,000 221,000 4,300 4,500 4,600 18 18 18 14 11 17 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 482 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment change. Employment of grounds maintenance workers is expected to grow about 18 percent during the 2006 16 decade. Grounds maintenance workers will have among the largest numbers of new jobs arise, around 270,000 over the 2006-16 period. More workers will be needed to keep up with increasing demand by lawn care and landscaping companies. Increased construction of office buildings, shopping malls, and residen tial housing and of highways and parks is expected to increase demand for grounds maintenance workers. In addition, the up keep and renovation of existing landscaping and grounds are continuing sources of demand for grounds maintenance work ers. Major institutions, such as universities and corporate head quarters, recognize the importance of good landscape design in attracting personnel and clients and are expected to use grounds maintenance services more extensively to maintain and upgrade their properties. Grounds maintenance workers working for State and local governments, however, may face budget cuts, which may affect hiring. Homeowners are a growing source of demand for grounds maintenance workers. Many two-income households lack the time to take care of their lawns so they increasingly hire people to maintain them. Also, as the population ages, more elderly ho meowners will require lawn care services to help maintain their yards. In addition, there is a growing interest by homeowners in their backyards and a desire to make yards more attractive for outdoor entertaining. With many newer homes having more and bigger windows overlooking the property, it is becoming more important to maintain and beautify the grounds. Job opportunities for tree trimmers and pruners should also increase as utility companies step up pruning of trees around electric lines to prevent power outages. Additionally, tree trim mers and pruners will be needed to help combat infestations caused by new species of insects from other countries. For ex ample, ash trees from Chicago to Washington, D.C. are under threat by a pest from China, and preventative eradication may be employed to control the pest. Job prospects. Jobs for grounds maintenance workers are in creasing, and because wages for beginners are low and the work is physically demanding, many employers have difficulty at tracting enough workers to fill all openings, creating very good job opportunities. Job opportunities for nonseasonal work are more numerous in regions with temperate climates, where landscaping and lawn services are required all year. Opportunities may vary with lo cal economic conditions. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the larg est numbers of landscaping and groundskeeping workers were as follows: Local government................................................................. $11.64 Services to buildings and dwellings........................................ 10.17 Landscaping services...............................................................10.17 Other amusement and recreation industries..............................9.47 Employment services................................................................ 9.09 Related Occupations Grounds maintenance workers perform most of their work out doors and have some knowledge of plants and soils. Others whose jobs may require that they work outdoors are agricultural workers; farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers; forest, conservation, and logging workers; landscape architects; and biological scientists. Sources of Additional Information For career and certification information on tree trimmers and pruners, contact: y Tree Care Industry Association, 3 Perimeter Rd., Unit I, Manchester, NH 03103-3341. Internet: http://www.treecareindustry.org y International Society of Arboriculture, P.O. Box 3129, Champaign, IL 61826-3129. Internet: http://www.isa-arbor.com/careersInArboriculture/careers.aspx For information on work as a landscaping and groundskeep ing worker, contact the following organizations: y Professional Grounds Management Society, 720 Light St., Baltimore, MD 21230-3816. Internet: http://www.pgms.org y Professional Landcare Network, 950 Herndon Parkway, Suite 450, Herndon, VA 20170-5528. Internet: http://www.landcarenetwork.org/ For information on becoming a licensed pesticide applicator, contact your State’s Department of Agriculture or Department of Environmental Protection or Conservation. Pest Control Workers (Q*NET 37-2021.00) Significant Points Earnings Median hourly earnings in May 2006 of grounds maintenance workers were as follows: First-line supervisors/managers of landscaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers.......................... $17.93 Tree trimmers and pruners.......................................................13.58 Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation...... 12.84 Landscaping and groundskeeping workers............................. 10.22 Grounds maintenance workers, all others................................. 9.82 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • A high school diploma is the minimum educational requirement; however, about 4 in 10 workers • have either attended college or earned a degree. • Laws require pest control workers to be certified through training and examination. • Job prospects should be favorable, especially in warmer climates. Service Occupations 483 Nature of the Work Unwanted creatures that infest households, buildings, or sur rounding areas are pests that can pose serious risks to health and safety. The most common pests are roaches, rats, mice, spiders, termites, fleas, ants, and bees. It is a pest control worker’s job to remove them. Pest control workers locate, identify, destroy, control, and repel pests. They use their knowledge of pests’ biology and habits, along with an arsenal of pest management techniques such as applying chemicals, setting traps, operating equipment, and even modifying structures to alleviate pest problems. The final choice of which type of pest management is used often is decided by the consumer. After a pest management plan is agreed upon, action needs to be taken. Some pests need to be eliminated and require pesti cide application. Pest control workers use two different types of pesticides—general use and restricted use. General use pes ticides are the most widely used and are readily available. They are available to the public in diluted concentrations. Restricted use pesticides are available only to certified professionals for controlling the most severe infestations. Their registration, labeling, and application are regulated by Federal law and in terpreted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), because of their potential harm to pest control workers, custom ers, and the environment. Pesticides are not pest control workers’ only tool. Pest con trol workers increasingly use a combination of pest manage ment techniques, known as integrated pest management. One method involves using proper sanitation and creating physical barriers. Pests cannot survive without food and will not infest a building if they cannot enter it. Another method involves using baits, some of which destroy the pests and others that prevent them from reproducing. Yet another method involves using me chanical devices, such as traps, that remove pests from the im mediate environment. Integrated pest management is popular for several reasons. Pesticides can pose environmental and health risks and some States heavily restrict the application of pesticides. Some pests are becoming more resistant to pesticides in certain situations. Finally, an integrated pest management plan is more effective in the long term than use of a pesticide alone. New technology has been introduced that allows pest control workers to conduct home inspections, mainly of termites, in much less time. The technology works by implanting micro chips in baiting stations, which emit signals that can tell pest control workers if there is termite activity at one of the baiting stations. Workers pick up the signals using a device similar to a metal detector and it allows them to more quickly assess the presence of termites. Most pest control workers are employed as pest control tech nicians, applicators, or supervisors. Position titles vary by State, but the hierarchy—based on the training and responsibil ity required—remains consistent. Pest control technicians identify potential pest problems, conduct inspections, and design control strategies. They work directly with the customer. Some technicians require a higher level of training depending on their task. If certain products https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ’*■ ii < ' • ■-.) ■ V Laws require pest control workers to be certified through train ing and examination. are used, the technician may be required to become a certified applicator. Applicators that specialize in controlling termites are called termite control technicians. They use chemicals and modify structures to eliminate termites and prevent future infestation. To treat infested areas, termite control technicians drill holes and cut openings into buildings to access infestations and in stall physical barriers or bait systems around the structure. Some termite control technicians even repair structural damage caused by termites. Fumigators are applicators who control pests using poison ous gases called fumigants. Fumigators pretreat infested build ings by examining, measuring, and sealing the buildings. Then, using cylinders, hoses, and valves, they fill structures with the proper amount and concentration of fumigant. They also moni tor the premises during treatment for leaking gas. To prevent accidental fumigant exposure, fumigators padlock doors and post warning signs. Pest control supervisors, also known as operators, direct service technicians and certified applicators. Supervisors are licensed to apply pesticides, but they usually are more involved in running the business. Supervisors are responsible for ensur ing that employees obey rules regarding pesticide use, and they must resolve any problems that arise with regulatory officials or customers. Most States require each pest control establishment 484 Occupational Outlook Handbook to have a supervisor. Self-employed business owners usually are supervisors. Work environment. Pest control workers travel to visit cli ents. Pest control workers must kneel, bend, reach, and crawl to inspect, modify, and treat structures. They work both indoors and out, in all weather conditions. During warm weather, ap plicators may be uncomfortable wearing the heavy protective gear; such as respirators, gloves, and goggles that are required for working with pesticides. There are health risks associated with pesticide use. Various pest control chemicals are toxic and could be harmful if not used properly. Health risks are minimized, however, by the ex tensive training required for certification and the use of recom mended protective equipment, resulting in fewer reported cases of lost work. About 47 percent of all pest control workers work a 40-hour week, but 26 percent work more hours. Pest control workers often work evenings and weekends, but many work consistent shifts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Both Federal and State laws require pest control workers to be certified. Although a high school diploma is generally the mini mum educational requirement, about 4 in 10 pest control work ers have either attended college or earned a degree. Most pest control workers begin their careers as apprentice technicians. Education and training. A high school diploma or equiva lent is the minimum qualification for most pest control jobs. Pest control workers must have the basic knowledge needed to pass certification tests. In many States, training usually involves spending 10 hours in the classroom and 60 hours on the job for each category of work that the pest control worker would like to perform. Categories may include general pest control, rodent control, termite control, fumigation, and ornamental and turf control. In addition, technicians must attend general training in pesticide safety and use. After completing the required train ing, workers can provide supervised pest control services. Pest control workers usually begin their careers as apprentice technicians. They receive both formal classroom and on-thejob training provided by the employer, but they also must study on their own. Because pest control methods change, workers must attend continuing education classes to maintain their cer tification, often provided by product manufacturers Licensure and certification. Both Federal and State laws regulate pest control workers. These laws require them to be certified through training and examination. Most pest control firms provide training and help their employees prepare for the examination. Requirements for pest control workers vary by State. To be eligible to become applicators, technicians must have a combination of experience and education and pass a test. This requirement is sometimes waived for individuals who have either a college degree in biological sciences or extensive related work experience. To become certified as applicators, technicians must pass an additional set of category exams. De pending on the State, applicators must attend additional classes every 1 to 6 years to be recertified. The amount of time allowed to pass the basic certification depends on the State. Other qualifications. Because of the extensive interaction that pest control workers have with their customers, employ ers prefer to hire people who have good communication and interpersonal skills. In addition, most pest control companies require their employees to have a good driving record. Some states require a background check for workers prior to certifica tion. Pest control workers must be in good health because of the physical demands of the job, and they also must be able to withstand extreme conditions—such as the heat of climbing into an attic in the summertime or the chill of sliding into a crawlspace during winter. Advancement. Applicators with several years of experience often become supervisors. To qualify as a pest control supervi sor, applicators may have to pass State-administered exams and have relevant experience, usually a minimum of 2 years. Oth ers may choose to take the knowledge and experience that they have gained, and start their own pest management company. Employment Pest control workers held about 70,000 jobs in 2006; about 85 percent of workers were employed in the services to build ings and dwellings industry, which includes pest control firms. About 9 percent of workers were self employed. Jobs are con centrated in States with warmer climates and larger cities, due to the greater number of pests in these areas that thrive year round. Job Outlook With faster-than-average growth and a limited supply of work ers, job prospects should be favorable, especially in warmer climates. Employment change. Employment of pest control workers is expected to grow 15 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations. One factor limiting job growth, however, is the lack of sufficient numbers of work ers willing to go into this field. Demand for pest control work ers is projected to increase for a number of reasons. Growth in the population will generate new residential and commercial buildings that will require inspections by pest control workers. Also, more people are expected to use pest control services as environmental and health concerns, greater numbers of dual income households, and improvements in the standard of living convince more people to hire professionals rather than attempt pest control work themselves. In addition, tougher regulations Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Pest control workers................................................ soc Code Employment, 2006 70.000 Projected employment, 2016 81.000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 11.000 15 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informalion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 485 limiting pesticide use will demand more complex integrated pest management strategies. Concerns about the effects of pesticide use in schools have increasingly prompted more school districts to investigate al ternative means of pest control, such as integrated pest manage ment. Furthermore, use of some newer materials for insulation around foundations has made many homes more susceptible to pest infestation. Finally, continuing population shifts to the more pest-prone Sunbelt States should increase the number of households in need of pest control. Job prospects. Job prospects should be favorable for quali fied applicants because of relatively fast job growth and because the nature of pest control work is not appealing to many people. In addition to job openings arising from employment growth, opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Earnings Median hourly earnings of full-time wage and salary pest con trol workers were $13.41 in May 2006. The middle 50 per cent earned between $10.79 and $16.76. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $8.88, and the top 10 percent earned over $20.85. Pest control supervisors usually earn the most and technicians the least, with earnings of certified applicators fall ing somewhere in between. Some pest control workers earn commissions based on the number of contracts for pest control services they sell. Others may earn bonuses for exceeding per formance goals. Related Occupations Pest control workers visit homes and places of business to pro vide building services. Other workers who provide services to buildings include building cleaning workers; grounds mainte nance workers; various construction trades workers, such as carpenters and hazardous materials removal workers; and heat ing, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and install ers. Similar to pest control workers, pesticide handlers, spray ers, and applicators, vegetation also apply pesticides in a safe manner to lawns, trees, and other plants. Sources of Additional Information Private employment agencies and State employment services offices have information about available job opportunities for pest control workers. For information about the training and certification required in your State, contact your local office of the U.S. Department of Agriculture or your State’s Environmental Protection (or Conservation) Agency. For more information about pest control careers and training, contact: y National Pest Management Association, Suite 301,9300 Lee Hgwy., Fairfax, VA 22031. Internet: http://www.npmapestworld.org/PTPP/ Personal Care and Service Occupations Animal Care and Service Workers (0*NET 39-2011.00, 39-2021.00) Significant Points • Animal lovers get satisfaction in this occupation, but the work can be unpleasant, physically and emotion ally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. • Most workers are trained on the job, but employers generally prefer to hire people who have experience with animals; some jobs require a bachelor’s degree in biology, animal science, or a related field. • Most positions will present good employment oppor tunities; however, keen competition is expected for jobs as zookeepers and marine mammal trainers. • Earnings are relatively low. Nature of the Work Many people like animals. But, as pet owners can attest, taking care of them is hard work. Animal care and service workers— who include animal caretakers and animal trainers—train, feed, water, groom, bathe, and exercise animals and clean, disinfect, and repair their cages. They also play with the animals, provide https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis companionship, and observe behavioral changes that could in dicate illness or injury. Boarding kennels, pet stores, animal shelters, veterinary hospitals and clinics, stables, laboratories, aquariums and natural aquatic habitats, and zoological parks all house animals and employ animal care and service workers. Job titles and duties vary by employment setting. Kennel attendants care for pets while their owners are work ing or traveling out of town. Beginning attendants perform ba sic tasks, such as cleaning cages and dog runs, filling food and water dishes, and exercising animals. Experienced attendants may provide basic animal healthcare, as well as bathe animals, trim nails, and attend to other grooming needs. Attendants who work in kennels also may sell pet food and supplies, assist in obedience training, help with breeding, or prepare animals for shipping. Groomers are animal caretakers who specialize in grooming or maintaining a pet’s appearance. Most groom dogs and a few groom cats. Some groomers work in kennels, veterinary clin ics, animal shelters, or pet-supply stores. Others operate their own grooming business, typically at a salon, or increasingly, by making house calls. Such mobile services are growing rapidly as they offer convenience for pet owners, flexibility of schedules for groomers, and minimal trauma for pets resulting from their being in unfamiliar surroundings. Groomers clean and sanitize equipment to prevent the spread of disease, maintain grooming equipment, and maintain a clean and safe environment for the 486 Occupational Outlook Handbook animals. Groomers also schedule appointments, discuss pets’ grooming needs with clients, and collect information on the pet’s disposition and its veterinarian. Groomers often are the first to notice a medical problem, such as an ear or skin infec tion that requires veterinary care. Grooming the pet involves several steps: an initial brush-out is followed by a first clipping of hair or fur using electric clip pers, combs, and grooming shears; the groomer then cuts the nails, cleans the ears, bathes, and blow-dries the animal, and ends with a final clipping and styling. Animal caretakers in animal shelters perform a variety of duties and work with a wide variety of animals. In addition to attending to the basic needs of the animals, caretakers at shelters also must keep records of the animals received and discharged and any tests or treatments done. Some vaccinate newly admitted animals under the direction of a veterinarian or veterinary technician, and euthanize (painlessly put to death) seriously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals. Animal caretakers in animal shelters also interact with the public, an swering telephone inquiries, screening applicants for animal adoption, or educating visitors on neutering and other animal health issues. Grooms, or caretakers, care for horses in stables. They saddle and unsaddle horses, give them rubdowns, and walk them to cool them off after a ride. They also feed, groom, and exercise the horses; clean out stalls and replenish bedding; polish saddles; clean and organize the tack (harness, saddle, and bridle) room; and store supplies and feed. Experienced grooms may help train horses. In zoos, animal care and service workers, called keepers, prepare the diets and clean the enclosures of animals, and sometimes assist in raising them when they are very young. They watch for any signs of illness or injury, monitor eating patterns or any changes in behavior, and record their obser vations. Keepers also may answer questions and ensure that the visiting public behaves responsibly toward the exhibited animals. Depending on the zoo, keepers may be assigned to work with a broad group of animals such as mammals, birds, or reptiles, or they may work with a limited collection of ani mals such as primates, large cats, or small mammals. Animal trainers train animals for riding, security, perfor mance, obedience, or assisting people with disabilities. Ani mal trainers do this by accustoming the animal to human voice and contact and conditioning the animal to respond to com mands. The three most commonly trained animals are dogs, horses, and marine mammals, including dolphins. Trainers use several techniques to help them train animals. One tech nique, known as a bridge, is a stimulus that a trainer uses to communicate the precise moment an animal does something correctly. When the animal responds correctly, the trainer gives positive reinforcement in a variety of ways: food, toys, play, rubdowns, or speaking the word “good.” Animal training takes place in small steps and often takes months and even years of repetition. During the conditioning process, trainers provide animals with mental stimulation, physical exercise, and husbandry care. A relatively new form of training teaches animals to cooperate with workers giving medical care. Ani https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis IH rmrrnp Most pet groomers work in kennels, veterinary clinics, or pet supply stores, but an increasing number operate their own sa lon or make house calls. mals learn “veterinary” behaviors, such as allowing and even cooperating with the collection of blood samples; physical, xray, ultrasonic, and dental exams; physical therapy; and the administration of medicines and replacement fluids. Training also can be a good tool for facilitating the reloca tion of animals from one habitat to another, easing, for ex ample, the process of loading horses on trailers. Trainers of ten work in competitions or shows, such as circuses or marine parks, aquariums, animal shelters, dog kennels and salons, or horse farms. Trainers in shows work to display the talent and ability of an animal, such as a dolphin, through interactive pro grams to educate and entertain the public. In addition to their hands-on work with the animals, trainers often oversee other aspects of animals’ care, such as prepar ing their diet and providing a safe and clean environment and habitat. Work environment. People who love animals get satisfac tion from working with and helping them. However, some of the work may be unpleasant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. Most animal caretak ers and service workers have to clean animal cages and lift, hold, or restrain animals, risking exposure to bites or scratch es. Their work often involves kneeling, crawling, repeated bending, and lifting heavy supplies like bales of hay or bags of feed. Animal caretakers must take precautions when treat ing animals with germicides or insecticides. They may work outdoors in all kinds of weather, and the work setting can be noisy. Caretakers of show and sports animals travel to com petitions. Animal caretaker and service workers who witness abused animals or who assist in euthanizing unwanted, aged, or hope lessly injured animals may experience emotional distress. Those working for private humane societies and municipal an Service Occupations 487 imal shelters often deal with the public, some of whom might react with hostility to the implication that they are neglecting or abusing their pets. Such workers must maintain a calm and professional demeanor while helping to enforce the laws re garding animal care. Animal care and service workers often work irregular hours. Most animals are fed every day, so caretakers often work weekend and holiday shifts. Some zoo animals skip one meal a week to mimic their lives in the wild. In some animal hospi tals, research facilities, and animal shelters, an attendant is on duty 24 hours a day, which means night shifts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement On-the-job training is the most common way animal caretak ers and service workers learn their work; however, employers generally prefer to hire people who have experience with ani mals. Some preparatory programs are available for specific types of caretakers, such as groomers. Education and training. Animal trainers often need a high school diploma or GED equivalent. Some animal training jobs may require a bachelor’s degree and additional skills. For example, marine mammal trainers usually need a bachelor’s degree in biology, marine biology, animal science, psychol ogy, or a related field. An animal health technician degree also may qualify trainers for some jobs. Most equine trainers learn their trade by working as a groom at a stable. Some study at an accredited private training school. Because large animals are involved, most horse-training jobs have minimum weight requirements for candidates. Many dog trainers attend workshops and courses at com munity colleges and vocational schools. Topics include basic study of canines, learning theory of animals, teaching obedi ence cues, problem solving methods, and safety. Many also offer business training. Many zoos require their caretakers to have a bachelor’s degree in biology, animal science, or a related field. Most require experience with animals, preferably as a volunteer or paid keeper in a zoo. Most pet groomers learn their trade by completing an infor mal apprenticeship, usually lasting 6 to 10 weeks, under the guidance of an experienced groomer. Prospective groomers also may attend one of the 52 State-licensed grooming schools throughout the country, with programs varying in length from 2 to 18 weeks. Beginning groomers often start by taking on one duty, such as bathing and drying the pet. They eventually assume responsibility for the entire grooming process, from the initial brush-out to the final clipping. Animal caretakers in animal shelters are not required to have any specialized training, but training programs and workshops are available through the Humane Society of the United States, the American Humane Association, and the National Animal Control Association. Workshop topics in clude cruelty investigations, appropriate methods of euthana sia for shelter animals, proper guidelines for capturing ani mals, techniques for preventing problems with wildlife, and dealing with the public. Beginning animal caretakers in kennels learn on the job and usually start by cleaning cages and feeding and watering ani mals. Certification and other qualifications. Certifications are available in many animal service occupations. For dog trainers, certification by a professional association or one of the hundreds of private vocational or State-approved trade schools can be advantageous. The National Dog Groomers Association of America offers certification for master status as a groomer. The American Boarding Kennels Association offers a three-stage, home-study program for individuals in terested in pet care. Those who complete the third stage and pass oral and written examinations become Certified Kennel Operators (CKO). All animal caretakers and service workers need patience, sensitivity, and problem solving ability. They also need tact and communication skills. This is particularly true for those in shelters, who often deal with individuals who abandon their pets. The ability to handle emotional people is vital for workers at shelters. Animal trainers especially need problem-solving skills and experience in animal obedience. Successful marine mammal trainers should also have good public speaking skills as semi nars and presentations are a large part of the job. Usually 4 to 5 trainers work with a group of animals at one time, therefore, each trainer should be able to work as part of a team. Marine mammal trainers must also be good swimmers; certification in SCUBA is a plus. Advancement. With experience and additional training, caretakers in animal shelters may become adoption coordina tors, animal control officers, emergency rescue drivers, assis tant shelter managers, or shelter directors. Pet groomers who work in large retail establishments or kennels may, with expe rience, move into supervisory or managerial positions. Expe rienced groomers often choose to open their own salons. Ad vancement for kennel caretakers takes the form of promotion to kennel supervisor, assistant manager, and manager; those with enough capital and experience may open up their own Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Animal care and service workers Animal trainers......................... Nonfarm animal caretakers.... soc Code 39-2000 39-2011 39-2021 Employment, 2006 200,000 43,000 157,000 Projected employment, 2016 238,000 53.000 185,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 39,000 19 9,800 23 29,000 18 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 488 Occupational Outlook Handbook kennels. Zookeepers may advance to senior keeper, assistant head keeper, head keeper, and assistant curator, but very few openings occur, especially for the higher-level positions. Employment Animal caretakers and service workers held 200,000 jobs in 2006. Over 3 out of 4 worked as nonfarm animal caretak ers; the remainder worked as animal trainers. Nonfarm animal caretakers often worked in boarding kennels, animal shelters, stables, grooming shops, pet stores, animal hospitals, and vet erinary offices. A significant number of caretakers worked for animal humane societies, racing stables, dog and horse race track operators, zoos, theme parks, circuses, and other amuse ment and recreations services. Employment of animal trainers is concentrated in animal services that specialize in training and in commercial sports, where they train racehorses and dogs. About 57 percent of animal trainers were self-employed. Job Outlook Because many workers leave this occupation each year, there will be good job opportunities for most positions. Faster-thanaverage employment growth also will add to job openings, in addition to replacement needs. Employment change. Employment of animal care and ser vice workers is expected to grow 19 percent over the 2006-16 decade, faster than the average for all occupations. The com panion pet population, which drives employment of animal caretakers in kennels, grooming shops, animal shelters, and veterinary clinics and hospitals, is expected to increase. Pet owners—including a large number of baby boomers, whose disposable income is expected to increase as they age—are expected to increasingly purchase grooming services, daily and overnight boarding services, training services, and vet erinary services, resulting in more jobs for animal care and service workers. As more pet owners consider their pets part of the family, demand for luxury animal services and the will ingness to spend greater amounts of money on pets should continue to grow. Demand for marine mammal trainers, on the other hand, should grow slowly. Demand for animal care and service workers in animal shel ters is expected to grow as communities increasingly recog nize the connection between animal abuse and abuse toward humans, and continue to commit private funds to animal shel ters, many of which are working hand-in-hand with social ser vice agencies and law enforcement teams. Job prospects. Due to employment growth and the need to replace workers who leave the occupation, job opportunities for most positions should be good. The need to replace work ers leaving the field will create the overwhelming majority of job openings. Many animal caretaker jobs require little or no training and have flexible work schedules, making them suitable for people seeking a first job or for temporary or part time work. The outlook for caretakers in zoos and aquariums, however, is not favorable due to slow job growth and keen competition for the few positions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Prospective mammal trainers will face keen competition as the number of applicants greatly exceeds the number of avail able positions. Prospective horse trainers should anticipate an equally challenging labor market as the number of entry-level positions is limited. Dog trainers, however, should experi ence conditions that are more favorable. Opportunities for dog trainers should be best in large metropolitan areas. Job opportunities for animal care and service workers may vary from year to year because the strength of the economy affects demand for these workers. Pet owners tend to spend more on animal services when the economy is strong. Earnings Earnings are relatively low. Median hourly earnings of non farm animal caretakers were $8.72 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.50 and $10.95. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $6.56, and the top 10 percent earned more than $14.64. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of nonfarm animal caretakers in May 2006 were: Spectator sports........................................................................$9.38 Other personal services............................................................. 8.78 Social advocacy organizations.................................................. 8.31 Other professional, scientific, and technical services...............8.23 Veterinary services.....................................................................8.23 Other miscellaneous store retailers........................................... 8.22 Median hourly earnings of animal trainers were $12.65 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.11 and $17.39. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.66, and the top 10 percent earned more than $22.42. Related Occupations Others who work extensively with animals include farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers; agricultural workers; veterinarians; veterinary technologists and technicians; veteri nary assistants; and biological scientists. Sources of Additional Information For career information and information on training, certifica tion, and earnings of the related occupation of animal control officers, contact: y National Animal Control Association, P.O. Box 1480851, Kansas City, MO 64148-0851. Internet: http://www.nacanet.org For information on becoming an advanced pet care techni cian at a kennel, contact: y American Boarding Kennels Association, 1702 East Pikes Peak Ave., Colorado Springs, CO 80909. Internet: http://www.abka.com/abka For general information on pet grooming careers, including certification information, contact: y National Dog Groomers Association of America, P.O. Box 101, Clark, PA 16113. Internet: http://www.nationaldoggroomers.com Service Occupations 489 Barbers, Cosmetologists, and Other Personal Appearance Workers (0*NET 39-5011.00, 39-5012.00, 39-5091.00, 39-5092.00, 39-5093.00,39-5094.00) Significant Points • A State license is required for barbers, cosmetolo gists, and most other personal appearance workers, although qualifications vary by State. • About 46 percent of workers are self employed; many also work flexible schedules. Nature of the Work Barbers and cosmetologists focus on providing hair care ser vices to enhance the appearance of consumers. Other personal appearance workers, such as manicurists and pedicurists, shampooers, theatrical and performance makeup artists, and skin care specialists provide specialized beauty services that help clients look and feel their best. Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair mostly for male clients. They also may fit hairpieces and offer scalp treatments and facial shaving. In many States, barbers are licensed to color, bleach, or highlight hair and to offer permanent-wave services. Barbers also may provide skin care and nail treat ments. Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists offer a wide range of beauty services, such as shampooing, cutting, color ing, and styling of hair. They may advise clients on how to care for their hair at home. In addition, cosmetologists may be trained to give manicures, pedicures, and scalp and facial treatments; provide makeup analysis; and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. A number of workers offer specialized services. Manicurists and pedicurists, called nail technicians in some States, work exclusively on nails and provide manicures, pedicures, polish ing, and nail extensions to clients. Another group of special ists is skin care specialists, or estheticians, who cleanse and 4-1 W.it Manicurists and pedicurists rank among the fastest growing oc cupations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis beautify the skin by giving facials, full-body treatments, and head and neck massages as well as apply makeup. They also may remove hair through waxing or, if properly trained, laser treatments. Theatrical and performance makeup artists, apply makeup to enhance performing artists’ appearance for movie, television, or stage performances. Finally, in larger salons, shampooers specialize in shampooing and conditioning hair. In addition to working with clients, personal appearance workers may keep records of hair color or skin care regimens used by their regular clients. A growing number actively sell hair, skin, and nail care products. Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers who operate their own sa lons have managerial duties that may include hiring, supervis ing, and firing workers, as well as keeping business and inven tory records, ordering supplies, and arranging for advertising. Work environment. Most full-time barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers put in a 40-hour week, but longer hours are common, especially among self-employed workers. Work schedules may include evenings and weekends, the times when beauty salons and barbershops are busiest. In 2006, about 31 percent of cosmetologists and 19 percent of barbers worked part time, and 16 percent of cosmetologists and 11 percent of barbers had variable schedules. Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers usually work in clean, pleasant surroundings with good lighting and ventilation. Good health and stamina are important, because these workers are on their feet for most of their shift. Prolonged exposure to some hair and nail chemi cals may cause irritation, so protective clothing, such as plastic gloves or aprons, may be worn. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require barbers, cosmetologists, and other person al appearance workers to be licensed, with the exceptions of shampooers and makeup artists. To qualify for a license, most job seekers are required to graduate from a State-licensed bar ber or cosmetology school. Education and training. A high school diploma or GED is required for some personal appearance workers in some States. In addition, most States require that barbers and cosmetologists complete a program in a State-licensed barber or cosmetology school. Programs in hairstyling, skin care, and other personal appearance services can be found in both high schools and in public or private postsecondary vocational schools. Full-time programs in barbering and cosmetology usually last 9 months and may lead to an associate degree, but training for manicurists and pedicurists and skin care specialists requires significantly less time. Makeup artists can attend schools that specialize in this subject, but it is not required. Shampooers generally do not need formal training. Most professionals take advanced courses in hairstyling or other personal appearance services to keep up with the latest trends. They also may take courses in sales and marketing. During their first weeks on the job, new workers may be giv en relatively simple tasks. Once they have demonstrated their skills, they are gradually permitted to perform more complicat ed procedures, such as coloring hair. As they continue to work in the field, more training usually is required to help workers 490 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Personal appearance workers................................................................ Barbers and cosmetologists.............................................................. Barbers................................................................................ .......... Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists................. .......... Miscellaneous personal appearance workers................................. Makeup artists, theatrical and performance.................... .......... Manicurists and pedicurists............................................... .......... Shampooers......................................................................... .......... Skin care specialists........................................................... .......... SOC Code 39-5000 39-5010 39-5011 39-5012 39-5090 39-5091 39-5092 39-5093 39-5094 Employment, 2006 825,000 677,000 60,000 617,000 148,000 2,100 78,000 29,000 38,000 Projected employment, 2016 942,000 755,000 61,000 694,000 187,000 3,000 100,000 33,000 51,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 117,000 14 77,000 11 600 1 77,000 12 39,000 27 900 40 22,000 28 3,900 13 13,000 34 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. learn the techniques particular to each salon and to build on the basics learned in cosmetology school. Personal appearance workers attend training at salons, cosmetology schools, or in dustry trade shows throughout their careers. Licensure. All States require barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers to be licensed, with the exceptions of shampooers and makeup artists. Qualifications for a license vary by State, but generally a person must have a high school diploma or GED, be at least 16 years old, and have graduated from a State-licensed barber or cosmetology school. After graduating from a State approved training program, stu dents take a State licensing examination. The exam consists of a written test and, in some cases, a practical test of styling skills or an oral examination. In many States, cosmetology training may be credited toward a barbering license, and vice versa, and a few States combine the two licenses. Most States require sep arate licensing examinations for manicurists, pedicurists, and skin care specialists. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow licensed barbers and cosmetologists to obtain a license in a different State without additional formal training, but such agreements are uncommon. Consequently, persons who wish to work in a particular State should review the laws of that State before entering a training program. Other qualifications. Successful personal appearance work ers should have an understanding of fashion, art, and technical design. They also must keep a neat personal appearance and a clean work area. Interpersonal skills, image, and attitude play an important role in career success. As client retention and retail sales become an increasingly important part of salons’ revenue, the ability to be an effective salesperson becomes ever more vital for salon workers. Some cosmetology schools consider “people skills” to be such an integral part of the job that they require coursework in that area. Business skills are important for those who plan to operate their own salons. Advancement. Advancement usually takes the form of higher earnings as barbers and cosmetologists gain experience and build a steady clientele. Some barbers and cosmetologists manage salons, lease booth space in salons, or open their own salons after several years of experience. Others teach in barber or cosmetology schools or provide training through vocational schools. Still others advance to become sales representatives, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis image or fashion consultants, or examiners for State licensing boards. Employment Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance work ers held about 825,000 jobs in 2006. Of these, barbers and cosmetologists held 677,000 jobs, manicurists and pedicurists 78,000, skin care specialists 38,000, and shampooers 29,000. Theatrical and performance makeup artists held 2,100 jobs. Most of these workers are employed in beauty salons or bar ber shops, but they also are found in nail salons, day and re sort spas, and nursing and other residential care homes. Nearly every town has a barbershop or beauty salon, but employment in this occupation is concentrated in the most populous cities and States. Theatrical and performance makeup artists work for movie and television studios, performing arts companies, and event promoters. Some apply makeup in retail stores. About 46 percent of all barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers are self-employed. Many of these workers own their own salon, but a growing number of the selfemployed lease booth space or a chair from the salon’s owner. Job Outlook Overall employment of barbers, cosmetologists, and other per sonal appearance workers is projected to grow slightly faster than the average for all occupations. Opportunities for entry level workers should be favorable, while job candidates at highend establishments will face keen competition. Employment change. Personal appearance workers will grow by 14 percent from 2006 to 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations. This growth primarily will be a result of an increasing population and from the growing de mand for personal appearance services, particularly skin care services. Employment trends are expected to vary among the different occupational specialties. Employment of hairdressers, hairstyl ists, and cosmetologists should increase by 12 percent because many now cut and style both men’s and women’s hair and be cause the demand for hair treatment by teens and aging baby boomers is expected to remain steady or even grow. As a result, fewer people are expected to go to barber shops and employ ment of barbers is expected to see relatively little change in employment. Service Occupations 491 Continued growth in the number of nail salons and full-ser vice day spas will generate numerous job openings for mani curists, pedicurists, and skin care specialists. Employment of manicurists and pedicurists will grow by 28 percent, while employment of shampooers will increase by 13 percent. Estheticians and other skin care specialists will see large gains in employment, and are expected to grow 34 percent as more fa cial procedures to improve one’s complexion become available and become more popular in spas and some medical settings. Makeup artists are expected to grow by 40 percent, but because of its relatively small size, the occupation will only add a few hundred jobs over the decade. Job prospects. Job opportunities generally should be good. However, competition is expected for jobs and clients at high er paying salons as applicants compete with a large pool of licensed and experienced cosmetologists for these positions. More numerous than those arising from job growth, an abun dance of job openings will come about from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Opportunities will be best for those with previous experience and for those licensed to pro vide a broad range of services. Earnings Median hourly earnings in May 2006 for salaried hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists, including tips and commission, were $10.25. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.92 and $13.75. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.78. Median hourly earnings in May 2006 for salaried barbers, including tips, were $11.13. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $8.71 and $14.25. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.12, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.56. Among skin care specialists, median hourly earnings, includ ing tips, were $12.58, for manicurists and pedicurists $9.23, and for shampooers $7.78. While earnings for entry-level workers usually are low, earn ings can be considerably higher for those with experience. A number of factors, such as the size and location of the salon, determine the total income of personal appearance workers. They may receive commissions based on the price of the ser vice, or a salary based on the number of hours worked, and many receive commissions on the products they sell. In addi tion, some salons pay bonuses to employees who bring in new business. For many personal appearance workers the ability to attract and hold regular clients are key factors in determining earnings. Although some salons offer paid vacations and medical ben efits, many self-employed and part-time workers in this occu pation do not enjoy such benefits. Some personal appearance workers receive free trail products from manufacturers in the hope that they will recommend the products to clients. Related Occupations Other workers who provide a personal service to clients and are usually professionally licensed or certified include massage therapists and fitness workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For details on State licensing requirements and approved bar ber or cosmetology schools, contact your State boards of bar ber or cosmetology examiners. State licensing board requirements and a list of licensed training schools for cosmetologists may be obtained from: 'y National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences, 4401 Ford Ave., Suite 1300, Alexandria, VA 22302. Internet: http://www.naccas.org Information about a career in cosmetology is available from: y National Cosmetology Association, 401 N. Michigan Ave., 22nd floor, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ncacares.org For information on a career as a barber, contact: y National Association of Barber Boards of America, 2703 Pine Street, Arkadelphia, AR 71923. Internet: http://www.nationaIbarberboards.com An additional list of private schools for several different types of personal appearance workers is available from: y Beauty Schools Directory. Internet: http://www.beautyschoolsdirectory.com Child Care Workers (Q**NET 39-9011.00) Significant Points • About 35 percent of child care workers are self-em ployed, most of whom provided child care in their homes. • Training requirements range from a high school di ploma to a college degree, although a high school di ploma and a little experience are adequate for many jobs. • Many workers leave these jobs every year, creating good job opportunities. Nature of the Work Child care workers nurture and care for children who have not yet entered formal schooling. They also supervise older chil dren before and after school. These workers play an important role in children’s development by caring for them when parents are at work or away for other reasons. In addition to attending to children’s basic needs, child care workers organize activi ties and implement curricula that stimulate children’s physical, emotional, intellectual, and social growth. They help children explore individual interests, develop talents and independence, build self-esteem, and learn how to get along with others. Child care workers generally are classified into three dif ferent groups based on where they work: private household workers, who care for children at the children’s home; family child care providers, who care for children in the provider’s own home; and child care workers who work at separate child care centers. 492 Occupational Outlook Handbook Private household workers who are employed on an hourly basis usually are called babysitters. These child care workers bathe, dress, and feed children; supervise their play; wash their clothes; and clean their rooms. Babysitters also may put chil dren to bed and wake them, read to them, involve them in educa tional games, take them for doctors’ visits, and discipline them. Those who are in charge of infants, sometimes called infant nurses, also prepare bottles and change diapers. Nannies work for a single family. They generally take care of children from birth to age 12, tending to the child’s early education, nutrition, health, and other needs. They also may perform the duties of a housekeeper, including cleaning and laundry. Family child care providers often work alone with a small group of children, though some work in larger settings with mul tiple adults. Child care centers generally have more than one adult per group of children; in groups of older children, a child care worker may assist a more experienced preschool teacher. Most child care workers perform a combination of basic care and teaching duties, but the majority of their time is spent on care giving activities. Workers whose primary responsibility is teaching are classified as preschool teachers. (Teachers—pre school, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) However, many basic care activities also are opportunities for children to learn. For ex ample, a worker who shows a child how to tie a shoelace teaches the child while also providing for that child’s basic needs. Child care workers spend most of their day working with children. However, they do maintain contact with parents or guardians through informal meetings or scheduled conferences to discuss each child’s progress and needs. Many child care workers keep records of each child’s progress and suggest ways in which parents can stimulate their child’s learning and devel opment at home. Some child care centers and before- and af ter-school programs actively recruit parent volunteers to work with the children and participate in administrative decisions and program planning. Young children learn mainly through play. Child care work ers recognize this and capitalize on children’s play to further language development (storytelling and acting games), improve social skills (working together to build a neighborhood in a sand box), and introduce scientific and mathematical concepts (bal ancing and counting blocks when building a bridge or mixing colors when painting). Often a less structured approach is used LJB! Child care workers nurture and care for young children. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to teach young children, including small-group lessons; one-onone instruction; and creative activities such as art, dance, and music. Child care workers play a vital role in preparing children to build the skills they will need in school. Child care workers in child care centers or family child care homes greet young children as they arrive, help them with their jackets, and select an activity of interest. When caring for in fants, they feed and change them. To ensure a well-balanced program, child care workers prepare daily and long-term sched ules of activities. Each day’s activities balance individual and group play, as well as quiet and active time. Children are given some freedom to participate in activities in which they are in terested. As children age, child care workers may provide more guided learning opportunities, particularly in the areas of math and reading. Concern over school-aged children being home alone before and after school has spurred many parents to seek alternative ways for their children to constructively spend their time. The purpose of before- and after-school programs is to watch over school-aged children during the gap between school hours and the end of their parents’ daily work hours. These programs also may operate during the summer and on weekends. Workers in before- and after-school programs may help students with their homework or engage them in other extracurricular activities. These activities may include field trips, sports, or learning about computers, painting, photography, or other fun subjects. Some child care workers are responsible for taking children to school in the morning and picking them up from school in the after noon. Before- and after-school programs may be operated by public school systems, local community centers, or other private organizations. Helping to keep children healthy is another important part of the job. Child care workers serve nutritious meals and snacks and teach good eating habits and personal hygiene. They ensure that children have proper rest periods. They identify children who may not feel well and, in some cases, may help parents lo cate programs that will provide basic health services. Child care workers also watch for children who show signs of emotional or developmental problems and discuss these matters with their su pervisor and the child’s parents. Early identification of children with special needs—such as those with behavioral, emotional, physical, or learning disabilities—is important to improve their future learning ability. Special education teachers often work with preschool children to provide the individual attention they need. (Special education teachers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Work environment. Helping children grow, learn, and gain new skills can be very rewarding. The work is sometimes rou tine but new activities and challenges mark each day. Child care can be physically and emotionally taxing, as workers constantly stand, walk, bend, stoop, and lift to attend to each child’s inter ests and problems. States regulate child care facilities, the number of children per child care worker, staff qualifications, and the health and safety of the children. State regulations in all of these areas vary. To ensure that children in child care centers receive proper super vision, State or local regulations may require a certain ratio of workers to children. The ratio varies with the age of the chil dren. Child development experts generally recommend that a Service Occupations 493 single caregiver be responsible for no more than 3 or 4 infants (less than 1 year old) and toddler’s (1 to 2 years old) or 6 or 7 preschool-aged children (between 2 and 5 years old). In be fore- and after-school programs, workers may be responsible for many school-aged children at a time. Family child care providers work out of their own homes. While this arrangement provides convenience, it also requires that their homes be accommodating to young children. Private household workers usually work in the homes or apartments of their employers. Most live in their own homes and travel to work, though some live in the home of their employer and gen erally are provided with their own room and bath. They often come to feel like part of their employer’s family. The work hours of child care workers vary widely. Child care centers usually are open year round, with long hours so that par ents can drop off and pick up their children before and after work. Some centers employ full-time and part-time staff with staggered shifts to cover the entire day. Some workers are un able to take regular breaks during the day due to limited staffing. Public and many private preschool programs operate during the typical 9- or 10-month school year, employing both full-time and part-time workers. Family child care providers have flex ible hours and daily routines, but they may work long or unusual hours to fit parents’ work schedules. Live-in nannies usually work longer hours than do those who have their own homes. Flowever, although nannies may work evenings or weekends, they usually get other time off. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Licensure and training requirements vary greatly by State, but many jobs require little more than a high school diploma. Education and training. The training and qualifications re quired of child care workers vary widely. Each State has its own licensing requirements that regulate caregiver training. These requirements range from a high school diploma, a national Child Development Associate (CDA) credential to community college courses or a college degree in child development or early child hood education. State requirements are generally higher for workers at child care centers than for family child care provid ers. Child care workers in private settings who care for only a few children often are not regulated by States at all. Child care workers generally can obtain some form of employment with a high school diploma and little or no experience, but certain pri vate firms and publicly funded programs have more demanding training and education requirements. Some employers may pre fer workers who have taken secondary or postsecondary courses in child development and early childhood education or who have work experience in a child care setting. Other employers re quire their own specialized training. An increasing number of employers require an associate degree in early childhood educa tion. Licensure. Many States require child care centers, including those in private homes, to be licensed if they care for more than a few children. In order to obtain their license, child care centers may require child care workers to pass a background check and get immunizations. Furthermore, child care workers may need to be trained in first aid and CPR and receive continuous training on topics of health and safety. Other qualifications. Child care workers must anticipate and prevent problems, deal with disruptive children, provide fair but firm discipline, and be enthusiastic and constantly alert. They must communicate effectively with the children and their parents, as well as with teachers and other child care workers. Workers should be mature, patient, understanding, and articu late and have energy and physical stamina. Skills in music, art, drama, and storytelling also are important. Self-employed child care workers must have business sense and management abili ties. Certification and advancement. Some employers prefer to hire child care workers who have earned a nationally recognized Child Development Associate (CDA) credential or the Certified Childcare Professional (CCP) designation from the Council for Professional Recognition and the National Child Care Associa tion, respectively. Requirements include child care experience and coursework, such as college courses or employer-provided seminars. Opportunities for advancement are limited. However, as child care workers gain experience, some may advance to supervi sory or administrative positions in large child care centers or preschools. Often, these positions require additional training, such as a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Other workers move on to work in resource and referral agencies, consulting with parents on available child services. A few workers become in volved in policy or advocacy work related to child care and early childhood education. With a bachelor’s degree, workers may become preschool teachers or become certified to teach in pub lic or private schools. Some workers set up their own child care businesses. Employment Child care workers held about 1.4 million jobs in 2006. Many worked part time. About 35 percent of child care workers were self-employed; most of these were family child care providers. Child day care services employed about 18 percent of all child care workers and about 20 percent work for private house holds. The remainder worked primarily in educational services; nursing and residential care facilities; religious organizations; amusement and recreation industries; civic and social organi zations; individual and family services; and local government, excluding education and hospitals. Some child care programs are for-profit centers, which may be affiliated with a local or national company. Religious institutions, community agencies, Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, employment, 2006-16 Code 2016 Number Percent Child care workers................................................... ............................. 39-9011 1,388,000 1,636,000 248,000 18 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2006 494 Occupational Outlook Handbook school systems, and State and local governments operate non profit programs. A very small percentage of private industry establishments operate onsite child care centers for the children of their employees. Job Outlook Child care workers are expected to experience job growth that is faster than the average for all occupations. Job prospects will be excellent because of the many workers who leave and need to be replaced. Employment change. Employment of child care workers is projected to increase by 18 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Child care workers will have a very large number of new jobs arise, almost 248,000 over the projections decade. The proportion of children being cared for exclusively by parents or other relatives is likely to continue to decline, spurring demand for additional child care workers. Concern about the safety and supervision of schoolaged children during nonschool hours also should increase de mand for before- and after-school programs and the child care workers who staff them. The growth in demand for child care workers will be moder ated, however, by an increasing emphasis on early childhood education programs, which hire mostly preschool workers in stead of child care workers. While only a few States currently provide targeted or universal preschool programs, many more are considering or starting such programs. A rise in enrollment in private preschools is likely as the value of formal education before kindergarten becomes more widely accepted. Since the majority of workers in these programs are classified as pre school teachers, this growth in preschool enrollment will mean less growth among child care workers. Job prospects. High replacement needs should create good job opportunities for child care workers. Qualified persons who are interested in this work should have little trouble finding and keeping a job. Many child care workers must be replaced each year as they leave the occupation to fulfill family responsibili ties, to study, or for other reasons. Others leave because they are interested in pursuing other occupations or because of low wages. Earnings Pay depends on the educational attainment of the worker and the type of establishment. Although the pay generally is very low, more education usually means higher earnings. Median annual earnings of wage-and-salary child care workers were $17,630 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,790 and $21,930. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,910, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27,050. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of child care workers in 2006 were as follows: Other residential care facilities........................................... $20,770 Elementary and secondary schools....................................... 20,220 Civic and social organizations...............................................16,460 Child day care services..........................................................16,320 Other amusement and recreation industries.......................... 16,300 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings of self-employed child care workers vary depend ing on the number of hours worked, the number and ages of the children, and the location. Benefits vary but are minimal for most child care workers. Many employers offer free or discounted child care to employ ees. Some offer a full benefits package, including health insur ance and paid vacations, but others offer no benefits at all. Some employers offer seminars and workshops to help workers learn new skills. A few are willing to cover the cost of courses taken at community colleges or technical schools. Live-in nannies re ceive free room and board. Related Occupations Child care work requires patience; creativity; an ability to nur ture, motivate, teach, and influence children; and leadership, or ganizational, and administrative skills. Others who work with children and need these qualities and skills include teacher as sistants; teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary; and teachers—special education. Sources of Additional Information For an electronic question-and-answer service on child care, information on becoming a child care provider, and other re sources, contact: y National Child Care Information Center, 243 Church St.NW., 2nd floor, Vienna, VA 22180. Internet: http://www.nccic.org For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child De velopment Associate credential, contact: y Council for Professional Recognition, 2460 16th St., NW., Washington, DC 20009-3575. Internet: http ://www.cdacouncil.org For eligibility requirements and a description of the Certified Childcare Professional designation, contact: X National Child Care Association, 2025 M St., NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nccanet.org For information about a career as a nanny, contact: y International Nanny Association, 191 Clarksville Rd., Princeton Junction, NJ 08550-3111. Telephone (tollfree): 888 878-1477. Internet: http://www.nanny.org State departments of human services or social services can supply State regulations and training requirements for child care workers. Fitness Workers (Q*NET 39-9031.00) Significant Points • Many fitness and personal training jobs are part time, but many workers increase their hours by working at several different facilities or at clients’ homes. • Night and weekend hours are common. • Most fitness workers need to be certified. • Job prospects are expected to be good. Service Occupations 495 f -v Personal trainers usually must have certification to begin work ing with clients. Nature of the Work Fitness workers lead, instruct, and motivate individuals or groups in exercise activities, including cardiovascular exercise, strength training, and stretching. They work in health clubs, country clubs, hospitals, universities, yoga and Pilates studios, resorts, and clients’ homes. Increasingly, fitness workers also are found in workplaces, where they organize and direct health and fitness programs for employees of all ages. Although gyms and health clubs offer a variety of exercise activities such as weightlifting, yoga, cardiovascular training, and karate, fitness workers typically specialize in only a few areas. Personal trainers work one-on-one with clients either in a gym or in the client’s home. They help clients assess their level of physical fitness and set and reach fitness goals. Trainers also demonstrate various exercises and help clients improve their exercise techniques. They may keep records of their clients’ exercise sessions to monitor clients’ progress toward physical fitness. They may also advise their clients on how to modify their lifestyle outside of the gym to improve their fitness. Group exercise instructors conduct group exercise sessions that usually include aerobic exercise, stretching, and muscle conditioning. Cardiovascular conditioning classes are often set to music. Instructors choose and mix the music and choreo graph a corresponding exercise sequence. Two increasingly popular conditioning methods taught in exercise classes are Pilates and yoga. In these classes, instructors demonstrate the different moves and positions of the particular method; they also observe students and correct those who are doing the ex ercises improperly. Group exercise instructors are responsible for ensuring that their classes are motivating, safe, and chal lenging, yet not too difficult for the participants. Fitness directors oversee the fitness-related aspects of a health club or fitness center. They create and oversee programs that meet the needs of the club’s members, including new member orientations, fitness assessments, and workout incentive pro grams. They also select fitness equipment; coordinate personal training and group exercise programs; hire, train, and supervise fitness staff; and carry out administrative duties. Fitness workers in smaller facilities with few employees may perform a variety of functions in addition to their fitness du https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ties, such as tending the front desk, signing up new members, giving tours of the fitness center, writing newsletter articles, creating posters and flyers, and supervising the weight training and cardiovascular equipment areas. In larger commercial fa cilities, personal trainers are often required to sell their services to members and to make a specified number of sales. Some fitness workers may combine the duties of group exercise in structors and personal trainers, and in smaller facilities, the fit ness director may teach classes and do personal training. Work environment. Most fitness workers spend their time indoors at fitness centers and health clubs. Fitness directors and supervisors, however, typically spend most of their time in an office. Those in smaller fitness centers may split their time among office work, personal training, and teaching classes. Di rectors and supervisors generally engage in less physical activ ity than do lower-level fitness workers. Nevertheless, workers at all levels risk suffering injuries during physical activities. Since most fitness centers are open long hours, fitness work ers often work nights and weekends and even occasional holi days. Some may travel from place to place throughout the day, to different gyms or to clients’ homes, to maintain a full work schedule. Fitness workers generally enjoy a lot of autonomy. Group exercise instructors choreograph or plan their own classes, and personal trainers have the freedom to design and implement their clients’ workout routines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For most fitness workers, certification is critical. Personal trainers usually must have certification to begin working with clients or with members of a fitness facility. Group fitness in structors may begin without a certification, but they are often encouraged or required by their employers to become certi fied. Education and training. Fitness workers usually do not re ceive much on-the-job training; they are expected to know how to do their jobs when they are hired. Workers may receive some organizational training to learn about the operations of their new employer. They occasionally receive specialized training if they are expected to teach or lead a specific method of exercise or focus on a particular age or ability group. Be cause the requirements vary from employer to employer, it may be helpful to contact your local fitness centers or other potential employers to find out what background they prefer before pursuing training. The education and training required depends on the specific type of fitness work: personal training, group fitness, or a spe cialization such as Pilates or yoga each need different prepara tion. Persona] trainers often start out by taking classes to be come certified. They then may begin by working alongside an experienced trainer before being allowed to train clients alone. Group fitness instructors often get started by participating in exercise classes until they are ready to successfully audition as instructors and begin teaching class. They also may improve their skills by taking training courses or attending fitness con ventions. Most employers require instructors to work toward becoming certified. 496 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training for Pilates and yoga instructors is changing. Be cause interest in these forms of exercise has exploded in recent years, the demand for teachers has grown faster than the ability to train them properly. However, because inexperienced teach ers have contributed to student injuries, there has been a push toward more standardized, rigorous requirements for teacher training. Pilates and yoga teachers need specialized training in their particular method of exercise. For Pilates, training options range from weekend-long workshops to year-long programs, but the trend is toward requiring more training. The Pilates Method Alliance has established training standards that rec ommend at least 200 hours of training; the group also has standards for training schools and maintains a list of training schools that meet the requirements. However, some Pilates teachers are certified group exercise instructors who attend short Pilates workshops; currently, many fitness centers hire people with minimal Pilates training if the applicants have a fitness certification and group fitness experience. Training requirements for yoga teachers are similar to those for Pilates teachers. Training programs range from a few days to more than 2 years. Many people get their start by taking yoga; eventually, their teachers may consider them ready to assist or to substitute teach. Some students may begin teach ing their own classes when their yoga teachers think they are ready; the teachers may even provide letters of recommenda tion. Those who wish to pursue teaching more seriously usu ally pursue formal teacher training. Currently, there are many training programs through the yoga community as well as programs through the fitness in dustry. The Yoga Alliance has established training standards requiring at least 200 training hours, with a specified number of hours in areas including techniques, teaching methodology, anatomy, physiology, and philosophy. The Yoga Alliance also registers schools that train students to its standards. Because some schools may meet the standards but not be registered, prospective students should check the requirements and decide if particular schools meet them. An increasing number of employers require fitness workers to have a bachelor’s degree in a field related to health or fitness, such as exercise science or physical education. Some employ ers allow workers to substitute a college degree for certifica tion, but most employers who require a bachelor’s degree also require certification. Certification and other qualifications. Most personal train ers must obtain certification in the fitness field to gain em ployment. Group fitness instructors do not necessarily need certification to begin working. The most important character istic that an employer looks for in a new fitness instructor is the ability to plan and lead a class that is motivating and safe. However, most organizations encourage their group instructors to become certified over time, and many require it. In the fitness field, there are many organizations—some of which are listed in the last section of this statement—that offer certification. Becoming certified by one of the top certification organizations is increasingly important, especially for personal trainers. One way to ensure that a certifying organization is https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis reputable is to see that it is accredited by the National Commis sion for Certifying Agencies. Most certifying organizations require candidates to have a high school diploma, be certified in cardiopulmonary resusci tation (CPR), and pass an exam. All certification exams have a written component, and some also have a practical component. The exams measure knowledge of human physiology, proper exercise techniques, assessment of client fitness levels, and de velopment of appropriate exercise programs. There is no par ticular training program required for certifications; candidates may prepare however they prefer. Certifying organizations do offer study materials, including books, CD-ROMs, other au dio and visual materials, and exam preparation workshops and seminars, but exam candidates are not required to purchase materials to take exams. Certification generally is good for 2 years, after which work ers must become recertified by attending continuing education classes or conferences, writing articles, or giving presentations. Some organizations offer more advanced certification, requir ing an associate or bachelor’s degree in an exercise-related subject for individuals interested in training athletes, working with people who are injured or ill, or advising clients on gen eral health. Pilates and yoga instructors usually do not need group ex ercise certifications to maintain employment. It is more im portant that they have specialized training in their particular method of exercise. However, the Pilates Method Alliance does offer certification. People planning fitness careers should be outgoing, excellent communicators, good at motivating people, and sensitive to the needs of others. Excellent health and physical fitness are im portant due to the physical nature of the job. Those who wish to be personal trainers in a large commercial fitness center should have strong sales skills. All personal trainers should have the personality and motivation to attract and retain clients. Advancement. A bachelor’s degree in exercise science, physical education, kinesiology (the study of muscles, espe cially the mechanics of human motion), or a related area, along with experience, usually is required to advance to management positions in a health club or fitness center. Some organizations require a master’s degree. As in other occupations, managerial skills are also needed to advance to supervisory or managerial positions. College courses in management, business adminis tration, accounting, and personnel management may be help ful, but many fitness companies have corporate universities in which they train employees for management positions. Personal trainers may advance to head trainer, with responsi bility for hiring and overseeing the personal training staff and for bringing in new personal training clients. Group fitness in structors may be promoted to group exercise director, respon sible for hiring instructors and coordinating exercise classes. Later, a worker might become the fitness director, who manag es the fitness budget and staff. Workers might also become the general manager, whose main focus is the financial aspects of an organization, particularly setting and achieving sales goals; in a small fitness center, however, the general manager is usu ally involved with all aspects of running the facility. Some Service Occupations 497 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Fitness trainers and aerobics instructors....................... ................. soc Code Employment, 2006 39-9031 235,000 Projected employment, 2016 298,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 63,000 27 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. workers go into business for themselves and open their own fitness centers. these occupations each year. Part-time jobs will be easier to find than full-time jobs. Employment Earnings Fitness workers held about 235,000 jobs in 2006. Almost all personal trainers and group exercise instructors worked in phys ical fitness facilities, health clubs, and fitness centers, mainly in the amusement and recreation industry or in civic and social organizations. About 8 percent of fitness workers were selfemployed; many of these were personal trainers, while oth ers were group fitness instructors working on a contract basis with fitness centers. Many fitness jobs are part time, and many workers hold multiple jobs, teaching or doing personal training at several different fitness centers and at clients’ homes. Median annual earnings of fitness trainers and aerobics instruc tors in May 2006 were $25,910. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,010 and $41,040. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $14,880, while the top 10 percent earned $56,750 or more. These figures do not include the earnings of the selfemployed. Earnings of successful self-employed personal trainers can be much higher. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of fitness workers in 2006 were as follows: Job Outlook Jobs for fitness workers are expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations. Fitness workers should have good opportunities due to rapid job growth in health clubs, fitness facilities, and other settings where fitness work ers are concentrated. Employment change. Employment of fitness workers is ex pected to increase 27 percent over the 2006-2016 decade, much faster than the average for all occupations. These workers are expected to gain jobs because an increasing number of people are spending time and money on fitness, and more businesses are recognizing the benefits of health and fitness programs for their employees. Aging baby boomers are concerned with staying healthy, physically fit, and independent. Moreover, the reduction of physical education programs in schools, combined with par ents’ growing concern about childhood obesity, has resulted in rapid increases in children’s health club membership. Increas ingly, parents are also hiring personal trainers for their chil dren, and the number of weight-training gyms for children is expected to continue to grow. Health club membership among young adults also has grown steadily, driven by concern with physical fitness and by rising incomes. As health clubs strive to provide more personalized service to keep their members motivated, they will continue to offer personal training and a wide variety of group exercise classes. Participation in yoga and Pilates is expected to continue to increase, driven partly by the aging population that demands low-impact forms of exercise and seeks relief from arthritis and other ailments. Job prospects. Opportunities are expected to be good for fitness workers because of rapid job growth in health clubs, fitness facilities, and other settings where fitness workers are concentrated. In addition, many job openings will stem from the need to replace the large numbers of workers who leave https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis General medical and surgical hospitals.............................. $29,640 Local government.................................................................27,720 Fitness and recreational sports centers................................. 27,200 Other schools and instruction............................................... 22,770 Civic and social organizations............................................. 22,630 Because many fitness workers work part time, they often do not receive benefits such as health insurance or retirement plans from their employers. They are able to use fitness facili ties at no cost, however. Related Occupations Other occupations that focus on physical fitness include ath letes, coaches, umpires, and related workers. Physical thera pists also do related work when they create exercise plans to improve their patients’ flexibility, strength, and endurance. Di etitians and nutritionists advise individuals on improving and maintaining their health, like fitness workers do. Also like fit ness workers, many recreation workers lead groups in physical activities. Sources of Additional Information For more information about fitness careers and universities and other institutions offering programs in health and fitness, con tact: ^ IDEA Health and Fitness Association, 10455 Pacific Center Court., San Diego, CA 92121-4339. > National Strength and Conditioning Association, 1885 Bob Johnson Drive, Colorado Springs, CO 80906. Internet: http://www.nsca-lift.org For information about personal trainer and group fitness in structor certifications, contact: y American College of Sports Medicine, P.O. Box 1440, Indianapolis, IN 46206-1440. Internet: http://www.acsm.org > American Council on Exercise, 4851 Paramount Dr., San Diego, CA 92123. Internet: http://www.acefitness.org 498 Occupational Outlook Handbook y National Academy of Sports Medicine, 26632 Agoura Rd., Calabasas, CA 91302. Internet: http://www.nasm.org y NSCA Certification Commission, 3333 Landmark Circle, Lincoln, NE 68504. Internet: http://www.nsca-cc.org For information about Pilates certification and training pro grams, contact: y Pilates Method Alliance, P.O. Box 370906, Miami, FL 33137-0906. Internet: http://www.pilatesmethodalliance.org For information on yoga teacher training programs, contact: y Yoga Alliance, 7801 Old Branch Ave., Suite 400, Clinton, MD 20735. Internet: http://www.yogaalliance.org To find accredited fitness certification programs, contact: y National Commission for Certifying Agencies, 2025 M St., NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.noca.org/ncca/accredorg.htm For information about health clubs and sports clubs, contact: y International Health, Racquet, and Sportsclub Association, 263 Summer St., Boston, MA 02210. Internet: http://www.ihrsa.org Flight Attendants (0*NET 39-6031.00) Significant Points • Competition for positions is expected to remain keen because the opportunity for travel attracts more ap plicants than there are jobs. • Job duties are learned through formal on-the-job train ing at a flight training center. • A high school diploma is the minimum educational requirement; however, applicants with a college de gree and with experience in dealing with the public are likely to have the best job opportunities. Nature of the Work Major airlines are required by law to provide flight attendants for the safety and security of the traveling public. Although the primary job of the flight attendants is to ensure that security and safety regulations are followed, attendants also try to make flights comfortable and enjoyable for passengers. At least 1 hour before each flight, attendants are briefed by the captain—the pilot in command—on such things as emer gency evacuation procedures, coordination of the crew, the length of the flight, expected weather conditions, and special is sues having to do with passengers. Flight attendants make sure that first-aid kits and other emergency equipment are aboard and in working order and that the passenger cabin is in order, with adequate supplies of food, beverages, and any other pro vided amenities. As passengers board the plane, flight atten dants greet them, check their tickets, and tell them where to store carry-on items. Before the plane takes off, flight attendants instruct all pas sengers in the use of emergency equipment and check to see https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis that seatbelts are fastened, seat backs are in upright positions, and all carry-on items are properly stowed. In the air, help ing passengers in the event of an emergency is the most impor tant responsibility of a flight attendant. Safety-related actions may range from reassuring passengers during rough weather to directing passengers who must evacuate a plane following an emergency landing. Flight attendants also answer ques tions about the flight; distribute reading material, pillows, and blankets; and help small children, elderly or disabled persons, and any others needing assistance. They may administer first aid to passengers who become ill. Flight attendants generally serve beverages and other refreshments and, on many flights, especially international, heat and distribute precooked meals or snacks. Prior to landing, flight attendants take inventory of headsets, alcoholic beverages, and moneys collected. They also report any medical problems passengers may have had, the con dition of cabin equipment, and lost and found articles. Lead, or first, flight attendants, sometimes known as purs ers, oversee the work of the other attendants aboard the aircraft, while performing most of the same duties. Work environment. Because airlines operate around the clock and year round, flight attendants may work nights, holi days, and weekends. In most cases, agreements between the airline and the employees’ union determine the total daily and monthly working time. Scheduled on-duty time usually is lim ited to 12 hours per day although some contracts provide daily actual maximums of 14 hours, with somewhat greater maximums for international flying. Attendants usually fly 65 to 90 hours a month and generally spend another 50 hours a month on the ground preparing planes for flights, writing reports following completed flights, and waiting for planes to arrive. Most airlines guarantee a mini mum of 65 to 85 flight hours per month, with the option to work additional hours. Flight attendants receive extra compensation for increased hours. Flight attendants may be away from their home base at least one-third of the time. During this period, the airlines provide hotel accommodations and an allowance for meal expenses. Flight attendants must be flexible and willing to relocate. However, many flight attendants elect to live in one place and commute to their assigned home base. Home bases and routes worked are bid for on a seniority basis. The longer the flight at tendant has been employed, the more likely he or she is to work on chosen flights. Almost all flight attendants start out working on reserve status or on call. On small corporate airlines, flight attendants often work on an as-needed basis and must adapt to varying environments and passengers. The combination of free time and discount airfares provides flight attendants the opportunity to travel and see new places. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. Flight atten dants stand during much of the flight and must remain pleasant and efficient, regardless of how tired they are or how demand ing passengers may be. Occasionally, flight attendants must deal with disruptive passengers. Also, turbulent flights can add to possible difficulties regarding service, including potential in juries to passengers. Working in a moving aircraft leaves flight attendants suscep tible to injuries. For example, back injuries and mishaps can Service Occupations 499 *’* YLs In addition to flying, flight attendants also work on the ground preparing planes for flights, writing reports following complet ed flights, and waiting for planes to arrive. occur when opening overhead compartments or while pushing heavy service carts. In addition, medical problems can arise from irregular sleeping and eating patterns, dealing with stress ful passengers, working in a pressurized environment, and breathing recycled air. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Flight attendants must be certified by the Federal Aviation Ad ministration (FAA). A high school diploma is the minimum educational requirement, but airlines increasingly prefer appli cants who have a college degree. Experience in dealing with the public is important because flight attendants must be able to interact comfortably with strangers and remain calm under duress. Education and training. A high school diploma is the mini mum educational requirement. However, airlines increasingly prefer applicants with a college degree and with experience in dealing with the public. Applicants who attend schools and col leges that offer flight attendant training may have an advantage over other applicants. Highly desirable areas of concentration include people-oriented disciplines such as psychology, com munications, sociology, nursing, anthropology, police or fire science, travel and tourism, hospitality and education. Flight attendants for international airlines generally must speak a for eign language fluently. For their international flights, some of the major airlines prefer candidates who can speak two major foreign languages. Once hired, all candidates must undergo a period of formal training. The length of training, ranging from 3 to 8 weeks, depends on the size and type of carrier and takes place at the airline’s flight training center. Airlines that do not operate train ing centers generally send new employees to the center of an other airline. Some airlines may provide transportation to the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis training centers and an allowance for room, board, and school supplies, while other airlines charge individuals for training. New trainees are not considered employees of the airline un til they successfully complete the training program. Trainees learn emergency procedures such as evacuating an airplane, op erating emergency systems and equipment, administering first aid, and surviving in the water. In addition, trainees are taught how to deal with disruptive passengers and with hijacking and terrorist situations. New hires learn flight regulations and du ties, gain knowledge of company operations and policies, and receive instruction on personal grooming and weight control. Trainees for the international routes get additional instruction in passport and customs regulations. Trainees must perform many drills and duties unaided, in front of the training staff. Throughout training, they also take tests designed to eliminate unsuccessful trainees. Toward the end of their training, students go on practice flights. Upon successful completion of training, flight attendants receive the FAA’s Certificate of Demonstrated Proficiency. Flight attendants also are required to go through periodic retraining and pass an FAA safety examination to con tinue flying. Licensure and certification. All flight attendants must be certified by the FAA. In order to be certified, flight attendants are required to successfully complete training requirements, such as evacuation, fire fighting, medical emergency, and secu rity procedures established by the FAA and the Transportation Security Administration. They also must perform the assigned duties of a cabin crew member and complete an approved pro ficiency check. Flight attendants are certified for specific types of aircraft, regardless of the carrier. Therefore, only 1-day or 2day recurrent training, with the new carrier, is needed for those flight attendants who change airlines, as long as the type of air craft remains the same. Other qualifications. Airlines prefer to hire poised, tact ful, and resourceful people who can interact comfortably with strangers and remain calm under duress. Flight attendants must be in excellent health, and have the ability to speak clearly. Airlines usually have age, physical, and appearance require ments. Applicants usually must be at least 18 to 21 years old, although some carriers may have higher minimum-age require ments. Applicants must meet height requirements for reach ing overhead bins, which often contain emergency equipment, and most airlines want candidates with weight proportionate to height. Vision is required to be correctable to 20/30 or bet ter with glasses or contact lenses (uncorrected no worse than 20/200). Men must have their hair cut above the collar and be clean shaven. Airlines prefer applicants with no visible tattoos, body piercing, or unusual hairstyles or makeup. In addition to education and training, airlines conduct a thor ough background check as required by the FAA, which goes back as many as 10 years. Everything about an applicant is in vestigated, including date of birth, employment history, criminal record, school records, and gaps in employment. Employment is contingent on a successful background check. An applicant will not be offered a job or will be immediately dismissed if his or her background check shows any discrepancies. All U.S. airlines require that applicants be citizens of the United States 500 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Flight attendants....................................................... ........................... soc Employment, Code 2006 39-6031 97,000 Projected employment, 2016 107,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 10,000 11 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. or registered aliens with legal rights to obtain employment in the United States. Advancement. After completing initial training, flight atten dants are assigned to one of their airline’s bases. New flight attendants are placed on reserve status and are called either to staff extra flights or to fill in for crewmembers who are sick, on vacation, or rerouted. When they are not on duty, reserve flight attendants must be available to report for flights on short notice. They usually remain on reserve for at least 1 year but, in some cities, it may take 5 to 10 years or longer to advance from reserve status. Flight attendants who no longer are on reserve bid monthly for regular assignments. Because assign ments are based on seniority, usually only the most experienced attendants get their choice of assignments. Advancement takes longer today than in the past because experienced flight atten dants are remaining in this career longer than in the past. Some flight attendants become supervisors, moving from se nior or lead flight attendant, to check flight attendant, to flight attendant supervisor, then on to base manager, and finally to manager or vice president of in-flight operations. They may take on additional duties such as recruiting, instructing, or de veloping in-flight products. Their experience also may qualify them for numerous airline-related jobs involving contact with the public, such as reservation ticket agent or public relations specialist. Flight attendants who do not want to travel often for various reasons may move to a position as an administrative as sistant. With additional education, some flight attendants may decide to transfer to other areas of the airline for which they work, such as risk management or human resources. Employment Flight attendants held about 97,000 jobs in 2006. Commercial airlines employed the vast majority of flight attendants, most of whom lived in their employer’s home-base city. A small num ber of flight attendants worked for large companies that oper ated aircraft for business purposes. Job Outlook Competition for jobs is expected to remain keen because the op portunity for travel attracts more applicants than there are jobs. Employment change. Employment of flight attendants is expected to grow 11 percent, about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2006-16 projection period. Population growth and an improving economy are expected to boost the number of airline passengers. As airlines expand their capac ity to meet rising demand by increasing the number and size of planes in operation, more flight attendants will be needed. Job prospects. Despite growing demand for flight attendants, competition is expected to be keen because this job usually at tracts more applicants than there are jobs, with only the most qualified eventually being hired. College graduates who have https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis experience dealing with the public should have the best chance of being hired. Job opportunities may be better with the faster growing regional and commuter, low-cost, and charter airlines. There also are job opportunities for professionally trained flight attendants to work for companies operating private aircraft for their executives. The majority of job opportunities through the year 2016 will arise from the need to replace flight attendants who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations, often for higher earnings or a more stable lifestyle. With the job now viewed increasingly as a profession, however, fewer flight attendants leave their jobs, and job turnover is not as high as in the past. The average job tenure of attendants is currently more than 14 years and is increasing. In the long run, opportunities for persons seeking flight atten dant jobs should improve as the airline industry expands. Over the next decade, however, demand for flight attendants will fluctuate with the demand for air travel, which is highly sensi tive to swings in the economy. During downturns, as air traffic declines, the hiring of flight attendants declines, and some ex perienced attendants may be laid off until traffic recovers. Earnings Median annual earnings of flight attendants were $53,780 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,320 and $77,410. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,250, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $99,300. According to data from the Association of Flight Attendants, beginning attendants had median earnings of $15,849 a year in 2006. Beginning pay scales for flight attendants vary by carrier, however. New hires usually begin at the same pay scale regard less of experience, and all flight attendants receive the same future pay increases based on an established pay scale. Some airlines offer incentive pay for working holidays, night and international flights, or taking positions that require addi tional responsibility or paperwork. Flight attendants and their immediate families are entitled to free or discounted fares on their own airline and reduced fares on most other airlines. Some airlines require that the flight at tendant be with an airline for 3 to 6 months before taking ad vantage of this benefit. Other benefits may include medical, dental, and life insurance; 401K or other retirement plan; sick leave; paid holidays; stock options; paid vacations; and tuition reimbursement. Flight attendants also receive a “per diem” allowance for meal expenses while on duty away from home. Flight attendants are required to purchase uniforms and wear them while on duty. The airlines usually pay for uniform re placement items, and may provide a small allowance to cover cleaning and upkeep of the uniforms. The majority of flight attendants hold union membership, pri marily with the Association of Flight Attendants. Other unions Service Occupations 501 that represent flight attendants include the Transport Workers Union of America and the International Brotherhood of Team sters. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve helping people as a safety professional, while requiring the ability to be calm even under trying circum stances, include emergency medical technicians and paramed ics as well as firefighting occupations. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities and qualifications required for work at a particular airline may be obtained by writing to the airline’s human resources office. For further information on flight attendants, contact: y Association of Flight Attendants, 501 Third St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.afanet.org Gaming Services Occupations (0*NET 11 -9071.00, 39-1011.00, 39-1012.00, 39-3011.00, 39-3012.00) Significant Points • • • • Job opportunities are available nationwide and are no longer limited to Nevada and New Jersey. Workers need a license issued by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission. Employment is projected to grow much faster than average. Job prospects will be best for those with a degree or certification in gaming or a hospitality-related field, previous training or experience in casino gaming, and strong interpersonal and customer service skills. Nature of the Work Legalized gambling in the United States today includes casi no gaming, State lotteries, pari-mutuel wagering on contests such as horse or dog racing, and charitable gaming. Gam ing, the playing of games of chance, is a multibillion-dollar industry that is responsible for the creation of a number of unique service occupations. The majority of all gaming services workers are employed in casinos. Their duties and titles may vary from one es tablishment to another. Some positions are associated with oversight and direction—supervision, surveillance, and in vestigation—while others involve working with the games or patrons themselves by tending slot machines, dealing cards or running games, handling money, writing and running tick ets, and other activities. In nearly any gaming job, workers interact directly with patrons, and part of their responsibility is to make those interactions enjoyable. Like nearly every business establishment, casinos have workers who direct and oversee day-to-day operations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Gaming service workers are required to have a license. Gaming supervisors and gaming managers oversee the gam ing operations and personnel in an assigned area. They cir culate among the tables and observe the operations to ensure that all of the stations and games are covered for each shift and workers and gamblers adhere to the rules of the games. Gaming supervisors and gaming managers often explain and interpret the operating rules of the house to patrons who may have difficulty understanding the rules. They also may plan and organize activities to create a friendly atmosphere for the guests staying in casino hotels. Periodically, they address complaints about service. Gaming managers also have additional responsibilities beyond those of supervisors. For example, gaming manag ers prepare work schedules and station assignments for their subordinates. They are responsible for interviewing, hiring, training, and evaluating new workers. Managers supervise a variety of other workers. Some of these workers need specialized skills—dealing blackjack, for example—that are unique to casino work. Others require skills common to most business workers, such as the ability to conduct financial transactions. Slot key persons coordinate and supervise the slot machine department and its workers. Their duties include verifying and handling payoff winnings to patrons, resetting slot ma chines after completing the payoff, and refilling machines with money. Slot key persons must be familiar with a vari ety of slot machines and be able to make minor repairs and adjustments to the machines as needed. If major repairs are required, slot key persons determine whether the slot ma chine should be removed from the floor. Working the floor as frontline personnel, they enforce safety rules and report hazards. Gaming and sportsbook writers and runners assist in the operations of games such as bingo and keno, in addition to taking bets on sporting events. They scan tickets presented by patrons and calculate and distribute winnings. Some writ ers and runners operate the equipment that randomly selects the numbers. Others may announce numbers selected, pick up tickets from patrons, collect bets, or receive, verify, and record patrons’ cash wagers. 502 Occupational Outlook Handbook Gaming dealers operate table games such as craps, black jack, and roulette. Standing or sitting behind the table, deal ers provide dice, dispense cards to players, or run the equip ment. Some dealers also monitor the patrons for infractions of casino rules. Gaming dealers must be skilled in customer service and in executing their game. Dealers determine win ners, calculate and pay winning bets, and collect losing bets. Because of the fast-paced work environment, most gaming dealers are competent in at least two games, usually black jack and craps. Work environment. Most casinos are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and offer 3 staggered shifts. Employ ees can be expected to work weekends and holidays. The atmosphere in casinos is generally filled with fun and often considered glamorous. However, casino work can also be physically demanding. Most occupations require that work ers stand for long periods; some require the lifting of heavy items. The atmosphere in casinos exposes workers to cer tain hazards, such as cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoke. Noise from slot machines, gaming tables, and talking workers and patrons may be distracting to some, although workers wear protective headgear in areas where loud machinery is used to count money. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Each casino establishes its own education, training, and ex perience requirements, but all gaming service workers must obtain a license from a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission. Education and training. There usually are no minimum educational requirements for entry-level gaming jobs, al though most employers prefer workers with at least a high school diploma or GED. Each casino establishes its own requirements for education, training, and experience. Some of the major casinos and slot manufacturers run their own training schools, and almost all provide some form of in-house training in addition to requir ing certification. The type and quantity of classes needed may vary. Many institutions of higher learning give training toward certificates in gaming, as well as offering an asso ciate, bachelor’s, or master’s degree in a hospitality-related field such as hospitality management, hospitality adminis tration, or hotel management. Some schools offer training in games, gaming supervision, slot attendant and slot repair technician work, slot department management, and surveil lance and security. Slot key persons do not need to meet formal educational requirements to enter the occupation, but completion of slot attendant or slot technician training is helpful. As with most other gaming workers, slot key persons receive on-the-job training during the first several weeks of employment. Gaming and sports book writers and runners must have at least a high school diploma or GED. Most of these workers receive on-the-job training. Because gaming and sportsbook writers and runners work closely with patrons, they need ex cellent customer service skills. Most gaming dealers acquire their skills by attending a dealer school or vocational and technical school. They teach the rules and procedures of the games as well as State and local laws and regulations. Graduation from one of these schools does not guarantee a job at a casino, however, as most casinos also require prospective dealers to audition for open positions. During the audition, personal qualities are assessed along with knowledge of the games. For most gaming supervisor and gaming manager posi tions, an associate or bachelor’s degree is beneficial, but it is not required. Most employees in these occupations have experience in other gaming occupations, typically as deal ers, and have a broad knowledge of casino rules, regulations, procedures, and games. Licensure. Gaming services workers are required to be li censed by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission. Applicants for a license must provide photo identification and pay a fee. Some States may require gaming service workers to be residents of that State. Age re quirements vary by State. The licensing application process also includes a background investigation and drug test. Other qualifications. In addition to possessing a license, gaming services workers need superior customer service skills. Casino gaming workers provide entertainment and hospitality to patrons, and the quality of their service con tributes to an establishment’s success or failure. Therefore, gaming workers need good communication skills, an out going personality, and the ability to maintain their compo sure even when dealing with angry or demanding patrons. Personal integrity also is important because workers handle large amounts of money. Gaming services workers who manage money should have some experience handling cash or using calculators or com- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Gaming services occupations........................................................ ....... Gaming managers...................................................................... ....... First-line supervisors/managers of gaming workers..................... Gaming supervisors.............................................................. ....... Slot key persons.................................................................... ....... Gaming dealers..................................................................... ....... Gaming and sports book writers and runners.................... ....... soc Code — 11-9071 39-1010 39-1011 39-1012 39-3011 39-3012 Employment, 2006 174,000 4,000 54,000 34,000 20,000 84,000 18,000 Projected employment, 2016 214,000 5,000 64,000 42,000 22,000 104,000 24,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 40,000 23 24 1,000 19 10,000 7,900 23 2,200 11 20,000 24 28 5,200 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ____________________________________________ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 503 puters. For such positions, most casinos administer a math test to assess an applicant’s level of competency. Gaming supervisors and gaming managers must have strong leadership, organizational, and communication skills. Excellent customer service and employee relations skills also are necessary. Advancement. Advancement opportunities in casino gam ing depend less on workers’ previous casino duties and titles than on their ability and eagerness to learn new jobs. For example, an entry-level gaming worker eventually might ad vance to become a dealer or card room manager or to assume some other supervisory position. Employment Gaming services occupations provided 174,000 jobs in 2006. Gaming services workers are found mainly in the traveler ac commodation and gaming industries. Most are employed in commercial casinos, including riverboat casinos, casino ho tels, and pari-mutuel racetracks—known as “racinos”—that in 20 States offer casino games. The largest number work in casinos in Nevada. Mississippi, which boasts the greatest number of riverboat casinos in operation, employs the most workers in that venue. In addition, there are 28 States with Indian casinos. Legal lotteries are held in 41 States and the District of Columbia, and pari-mutuel wagering is legal in 43 States. Forty-seven States and the District of Columbia also allow charitable gaming. Other States are considering legis lation to permit gambling, but no casinos have been opened as of yet. For most workers, gaming licensure requires proof of resi dency in the State in which gaming workers are employed. But some gaming services workers do not limit themselves to one State or even one country, finding jobs on the small number of casinos located on luxury cruise liners that travel the world. These individuals live and work aboard the ves sel. Job Outlook Employment of gaming service workers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations., Opportuni ties will be best for those with previous casino gaming expe rience, a degree or technical or vocational training in gam ing or a hospitality-related field, and strong customer service skills. Employment change. With demand for gaming showing no sign of waning, employment in gaming services occupa tions is projected to grow by 23 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is much faster than the average for all occupa tions. The increasing popularity and prevalence of Indian casinos and racinos will provide substantial new job open ings. With many States benefiting from casino gambling in the form of tax revenue or agreements with Indian tribes, ad ditional States are reconsidering their opposition to legalized gambling and will likely approve the construction of more casinos and other gaming establishments during the next de cade. Additional job growth will occur in established gam ing areas in Nevada and Atlantic City, New Jersey, as they solidify their positions as tourist destinations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The increase in gaming reflects growth in the population and in its disposable income, both of which are expected to continue. Higher expectations for customer service among gaming patrons also should result in more jobs for gaming services workers. Because of increasing demand in gam ing establishments for additional table games, particularly poker, the largest growth is expected among gaming dealers. Conversely, advancements in slot machine technology, such as coinless slot machines—known as “Ticket-in, Ticket-Out machines”—will limit job growth for slot key persons rela tive to other gaming service occupations. Ticket-in, Ticketout technology reduces the need for slot key persons to pay out jackpots, fill hoppers, and reset machines. Additionally, slot machines linked to a network allow adjustments to be made from a central computer server rather than from the floor by a slot key person. However, there will still be some new jobs for slot key persons because of the casino industry’s focus on customer service and the rising popularity of raci nos and slot machines in States that have recently legalized gambling or are expected to do so in the future. Job prospects. Job prospects in gaming services occupa tions will be best for those with previous casino gaming ex perience, a degree or technical or vocational training in gam ing or a hospitality-related field, and strong interpersonal and customer service skills. In addition to job openings arising from employment growth, opportunities will result from the need to replace workers transferring to other occupations or leaving the la bor force. Despite this, keen competition for jobs as gam ing dealers is expected. There are generally more applicants than jobs. Experienced dealers who are able to attract new or return business will have the best job prospects. Earnings Wage earnings for gaming services workers vary accord ing to occupation, level of experience, training, location, and size of the gaming establishment. The following were median earnings for various gaming services occupations in May 2006: Gaming managers............................................................. $62,820 Gaming supervisors............................................................ 41,160 Slot key persons...................................................................22,720 Gaming and sports book writers and runners................... 18,800 Gaming dealers.................................................................... 14,730 Gaming dealers generally receive a large portion of their earnings from tokes, which are tips in the form of tokens re ceived from players. Earnings from tokes vary depending on the table games the dealer operates, the personal traits of the dealer, and the pooling policies of the casino. Related Occupations Many other occupations provide hospitality and customer service. Some examples of related occupations are security guards and gaming surveillance officers, sales worker super visors, cashiers, gaming change persons and booth cashiers, retail salespersons, gaming cage workers, and tellers. 504 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For additional information on careers in gaming, visit your public library and your State gaming regulatory agency or casino control commission. Information on careers in gaming also is available from: y American Gaming Association, 1299 Pennsylvania Ave. NW„ Suite 1175, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http ://www.americangaming.org Personal and Home Care Aides (0**NET 39-9021.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities are expected to be excellent because of rapid growth in home health care and high replace ment needs. • Skill requirements are low, as is the pay. • About 1 out of 3 personal and home care aides work part time; most aides work with a number of different clients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks. The personal and home care aide’s daily routine may vary. Aides may go to the same home every day for months or even years. Aides often visit four or five clients on the same day. However, some aides may work solely with one client who is in need of more care and attention. In some situations, this may involve working with other aides in shifts so the client has an aide throughout the day and night. Personal and home care aides generally work on their own, with periodic visits by their supervisor. They receive detailed instructions explaining when to visit clients and what services to perform for them. Aides are individually responsible for getting to the client’s home. They may spend a good portion of the work day travel ing from one client to another. Aides must be careful to avoid over-exertion or injury when they assist clients. Work environment. Surroundings differ from case to case. Some homes are neat and pleasant, whereas others are untidy and depressing. Some clients are pleasant and cooperative; oth ers are angry, abusive, depressed, or otherwise difficult. Aides may spend a large portion of each day traveling between clients’ homes. About 33 percent of aides work part time, and some work weekends or evenings to suit the needs of their clients. Nature of the Work Personal and home care aides help people who are elderly, dis abled, ill, and/or mentally disabled to live in their own homes or in residential care facilities instead of in health facilities or institutions. Most personal and home care aides work with el derly or physically or mentally disabled clients who need more extensive personal and home care than family or friends can pro vide. Some aides work with families in which a parent is inca pacitated and small children need care. Others help discharged hospital patients who have relatively short-term needs. (Home health aides—who provide health-related services are discussed in the section on nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Personal and home care aides—-also called homemakers, caregivers, companions, and personal attendants—provide housekeeping and routine personal care services. They clean clients’ houses, do laundry, and change bed linens. Aides may plan meals (including special diets), shop for food, and cook. Aides also may help clients get out of bed, bathe, dress, and groom. Some accompany clients to doctors’ appointments or on other errands. Personal and home care aides provide instruction and psycho logical support to their patients. They may advise families and patients on nutrition, cleanliness, and household tasks. Aides also may assist in toilet training a severely mentally handicapped child, or they may just listen to clients talk. In home health care agencies, a registered nurse, physical therapist, or social worker assigns specific duties and supervises personal and home care aides. Aides keep records of services performed and of clients’ condition and progress. They report changes in the client’s condition to the supervisor or case man ager. In carrying out their work, aides cooperate with health care professionals, including registered nurses, therapists, and other medical staff. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis >V A. . ml Personal and home care aides assist elderly and disabled cli ents with daily tasks, like housekeeping and personal hygiene. Service Occupations 505 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Personal and home care aides.............................. ......................... soc Code Employment, 2006 39-9021 767,000 Projected employment, 2016 1,156,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 389,000 51 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In some States, the only requirement for employment is on-thejob training, which generally is provided by employers. Other States may require formal training, which is available from com munity colleges, vocational schools, elder care programs, and home health care agencies. Education and training. Most personal and home care aides receive short term on-the-job training in a range of job func tions. Aides are instructed on how to properly cook for a cli ent, which includes iinformation on nutrition and special diets. Furthermore, they may be trained on basic housekeeping tasks, such as making a bed and keeping the home sanitary and safe for the client. Generally, they are taught how to respond to an emergency situation, learning basic safety techniques. Employ ers may also train aides to conduct themselves in a professional and courteous manner while in a clients’ home. Other qualifications. Personal and home care aides should have a desire to help people and not mind hard work. They should be responsible, compassionate, patient, emotionally sta ble, and cheerful. In addition, aides should be tactful, honest, and discreet because they work in private homes. Aides also must be in good health. A physical examination, including State-mandated tests for tuberculosis and other diseases, may be required. A criminal background check, credit check, and good driving record may also be required for employment. Addition ally, personal and home care aides are responsible for their own transportation to reach patients’ homes. Certification and advancement. The National Association for Home Care and Hospice (NAHC) offers national certification for personal and home care aides. Certification is a voluntary demonstration that the individual has met industry standards. Certification requires the completion of a 75-hour course, obser vation and documentation of 17 skills for competency assessed by a registered nurse and passing a written exam developed by NAHC. Advancement for personal and home care aides is limited. In some agencies, workers start out performing homemaker duties, such as cleaning. With experience and training, they may take on more personal care duties. Some aides choose to receive additional training to become nursing and home health aides, li censed practical nurses, or registered nurses. Some experienced personal and home care aides may start their own home care agency or work as a self-employed aide. Self-employed aides have no agency affiliation or supervision and accept clients, set fees, and arrange work schedules on their own. households. In 2006, about 8 percent of personal and home care aides were self-employed. Job Outlook Excellent job opportunities are expected for this occupation be cause rapid employment growth and high replacement needs are projected to produce a large number of job openings. Employment change. Employment of personal and home care aides is projected to grow by 51 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. This occupation will be amongst the occupations adding the most new jobs, growing by about 389,000 jobs. The expected growth is due, in large part, to the projected rise in the number of elderly people, an age group that often has mounting health problems and that needs some assistance with daily activities. The elderly and other patients, such as the mentally disabled, increasingly rely on home care. This trend reflects several developments. Inpatient care in hos pitals and nursing homes can be extremely expensive, so more patients return to their homes from these facilities as quickly as possible to contain costs. Patients who need assistance with everyday tasks and household chores rather than medical care can reduce medical expenses by returning to their homes. Fur thermore, most patients—particularly the elderly—increasingly prefer care in their homes rather than in nursing homes or other in-patient facilities. This trend is aided by the realization that treatment can be more effective in familiar surroundings. Fi nally, home care has become easier and more feasible with the development of better medical technologies for in-home treat ment. Job prospects. In addition to job openings created by the in creased demand for these workers, replacement needs are ex pected to lead to many openings. The relatively low skill re quirements, low pay, and high emotional demands of the work result in high replacement needs. For these same reasons, many people are reluctant to seek jobs in the occupation. Therefore, persons who are interested in and suited for this work—particu larly those with experience or training as personal care, home health, or nursing aides—should have excellent job prospects. Earnings Median hourly earnings of wage-and-salary personal and home care aides were $8.54 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.09 and $10.19 an hour. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $6.05, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $11.60 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the indus tries employing the largest numbers of personal and home care aides were as follows: Employment Personal and home care aides held about 767,000 jobs in 2006. The majority of jobs were in home health care services; indi vidual and family services; residential care facilities; and private https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Residential mental retardation facilities.................................$9.54 Services for the elderly and persons with disabilities..............9.18 Home health care services..................................................... 7.19 506 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most employers give slight pay increases with experience and added responsibility. Aides usually are paid only for the time they work in the home, not for travel time between jobs. Employers often hire on-call hourly workers and provide no benefits. __ ■ :- - Related Occupations Personal and home care aides combine the duties of caregivers and social service workers. Workers in related occupations that involve personal contact to help others include childcare work ers; nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides; occupational therapist assistants and aides; physical therapist assistants and aides; and social and human service assistants. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities may be obtained from local hospitals, nursing care facilities, home health care agencies, psychiatric facilities, residential mental health facili ties, social assistance agencies, and local offices of the State employment service. For information about voluntary credentials for personal and home care aides, contact: V National Association for Homecare and Hospice, 228 Seventh St., SE., Washington, DC 20003. Internet: http://www.nahc.org Recreation Workers (0*NET 39-9032.00) Significant Points • The recreation field offers an unusually large number of part-time and seasonal job opportunities. • Educational requirements range from a high school diploma to a graduate degree. • Opportunities for part-time, seasonal, and temporary recreation jobs will be good, but competition will re main keen for full-time career positions. Nature of the Work People spend much of their leisure time participating in a wide variety of organized recreational activities, such as arts and crafts, the performing arts, camping, and sports. Recre ation workers plan, organize, and direct these activities in lo cal playgrounds and recreation areas, parks, community cen ters, religious organizations, camps, theme parks, and tourist attractions. Increasingly, recreation workers also are found in businesses where they organize and direct leisure activities for employees. Recreation workers hold a variety of positions at different levels of responsibility. Workers who provide instruction and coaching in art, music, drama, swimming, tennis, or other ac tivities may be called activity specialists. Camp counselors lead and instruct children and teenagers in outdoor recreation, such as swimming, hiking, horseback rid- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis I asp ■ Many recreation workers are only seasonally employed. ing, and camping. In addition, counselors teach campers spe cial subjects such as archery, boating, music, drama, gymnas tics, tennis, and computers. In residential camps, counselors also provide guidance and supervise daily living and socializa tion. Camp directors typically supervise camp counselors, plan camp activities or programs, and perform the various adminis trative functions of a camp. Recreation leaders, who are responsible for a recreation program’s daily operation, primarily organize and direct par ticipants. They may lead and give instruction in dance, drama, crafts, games, and sports; schedule the use of facilities; keep records of equipment use; and ensure that recreation facilities and equipment are used properly. Recreation supervisors oversee recreation leaders and plan, organize, and manage recreational activities to meet the needs of a variety of populations. These workers often serve as li aisons between the director of the park or recreation center and the recreation leaders. Recreation supervisors with more specialized responsibilities also may direct special activities or events or oversee a major activity, such as aquatics, gymnastics, or performing arts. Directors of recreation and parks develop and manage com prehensive recreation programs in parks, playgrounds, and other settings. Directors usually serve as technical advisors to State and local recreation and park commissions and may be re sponsible for recreation and park budgets. (Workers in a related occupation, recreational therapists, help individuals to recover from or adjust to illness, disability, or specific social problems; this occupation is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Work environment. Recreation workers may work in a va riety of settings—for example, a cruise ship, a woodland rec reational park, a summer camp, or a playground in the center of a large urban community. Regardless of the setting, most recreation workers spend much of their time outdoors and may work in a variety of weather conditions. Recreation directors Service Occupations 507 and supervisors, however, typically spend most of their time in an office, planning programs and special events. Directors and supervisors generally engage in less physical activity than do lower level recreation workers. Nevertheless, recreation work ers at all levels risk suffering injuries during physical activi ties. Some recreation workers work about 40 hours a week. How ever, many people entering this field, such as camp counselors, may have some night and weekend work, irregular hours, and seasonal employment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The educational and training requirements for recreation work ers vary widely depending on the type of job. Full-time career positions usually require a college degree. Many jobs, however, can be learned with only a short period of on-the-job training. Education and training. Educational requirements for rec reation workers range from a high school diploma—or some times less for those seeking summer jobs—to graduate degrees for some administrative positions in large public recreation sys tems. Full-time career professional positions usually require a college degree with a major in parks and recreation or leisure studies, but a bachelor’s degree in any liberal arts field may be sufficient for some jobs in the private sector. In industrial rec reation, or “employee services” as it is more commonly called, companies prefer to hire those with a bachelor’s degree in rec reation or leisure studies and a background in business admin istration. Some college students work part time as recreation workers while earning degrees. Employers seeking candidates for some administrative posi tions favor those with at least a master’s degree in parks and recreation, business administration, or public administration. Most required at least an associate degree in recreation studies or a related field. An associate or bachelor’s degree in a recreation-related dis cipline and experience are preferred for most recreation super visor jobs and are required for most higher level administrative jobs. Graduates of associate degree programs in parks and rec reation, social work, and other human services disciplines also enter some career recreation positions. High school graduates occasionally enter career positions, but this is not common. Programs leading to an associate or bachelor’s degree in parks and recreation, leisure studies, or related fields are of fered at several hundred colleges and universities. Many also offer master’s or doctoral degrees in the field. In 2006, about 100 bachelor’s degree programs in parks and recreation were accredited by the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA). Accredited programs provide broad exposure to the history, theory, and practice of park and recreation manage ment. Courses offered include community organization; super vision and administration; recreational needs of special popula tions, such as the elderly or disabled; and supervised fieldwork. Students may specialize in areas such as therapeutic recreation, park management, outdoor recreation, industrial or commercial recreation, or camp management. Specialized training or experience in a particular field, such as art, music, drama, or athletics, is an asset for many jobs. Some jobs also require certification. For example, a lifesaving certificate is a prerequisite for teaching or coaching water-re lated activities. The large number of seasonal and part-time workers learn through on-the-job training. Licensure and certification. The NRPA certifies individuals for professional and technical jobs. Certified Park and Recre ation Professionals must pass an exam; earn a bachelor’s degree with a major in recreation, park resources, or leisure services from a program accredited by the NRPA or earn a bachelor’s degree and have at least 5 years of relevant full-time work expe rience. Continuing education is necessary to remain certified. Many areas require lifeguards to be certified. Training and certification details vary from State to State and county to coun ty. Information on lifeguards is available from your local Parks and Recreation Department. Other qualifications. People planning recreation careers should be outgoing, good at motivating people, and sensitive to the needs of others. Excellent health and physical fitness are of ten required, due to the physical nature of some jobs. Volunteer experience, part-time work during school, or a summer job can lead to a full-time career as a recreation worker. Advancement. Recreation workers with experience and managerial skills may advance to supervisory or managerial positions. Employment Recreation workers held about 320,000 jobs in 2006, and many additional workers held summer jobs in the occupation. About 32 percent of recreation workers worked for local governments, primarily in park and recreation departments. About 16 percent of recreation workers were employed by nursing and residential care facilities and another 10 percent were employed in civic and social organizations, such as the Boy Scouts or Girl Scouts or the Red Cross. Job Outlook Jobs opportunities for part-time, seasonal, and temporary rec reation workers will be good, but competition will remain keen for career positions as recreation workers. Average growth is expected. Employment change. Overall employment of recreation workers is projected to increase by 13 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is about as fast as the average for all occupa tions. Although people will spend more time and money on Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Recreation workers.................................................. ........................ soc Employment, Code 2006 39-9032 320,000 Projected employment, 2016 360,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 41,000 13 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 508 Occupational Outlook Handbook recreation, budget restrictions in State and local government will moderate the number of jobs added. Many of the new jobs will be in social assistance organizations and in nursing and residential care facilities. Growth will be driven by retiring baby boomers who, with more leisure time, high disposable income, and concern for health and fitness, are expected to increase the demand for rec reation services. Job prospects. Applicants for part-time, seasonal, and tem porary recreation jobs should have good opportunities, but competition will remain keen for career positions because the recreation field attracts many applicants and because the num ber of career positions is limited compared with the number of lower-level seasonal jobs. Opportunities for staff positions should be best for people with formal training and experience in part-time or seasonal recreation jobs. Those with graduate degrees should have the best opportunities for supervisory or administrative positions. Job openings will stem from growth and the need to replace the large numbers of workers who leave the occupation each year. Earnings In May 2006, median annual earnings of recreation workers who worked full time were $20,470. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,360 and $27,050. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $14,150, while the highest paid 10 percent earned $35,780 or more. However, earnings of rec reation directors and others in supervisory or managerial po sitions can be substantially higher. Most public and private recreation agencies provide full-time recreation workers with typical benefits; part-time workers receive few, if any, ben efits. In May 2006, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of recreation workers were as follows: Nursing care facilities ........................................................ $21,510 Individual and family services ............................................. 20,410 Local government................................................................. 20,100 Other amusement and recreation industries......................... 18,810 Civic and social organizations ............................................. 17,920 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The large numbers of temporary, seasonal jobs in the recre ation field typically are filled by high school or college students, generally do not have formal education requirements, and are open to anyone with the desired personal qualities. Employ ers compete for a share of the vacationing student labor force, and although salaries in recreation often are lower than those in other fields, the nature of the work and the opportunity to work outdoors are attractive to many. Part-time, seasonal, and volunteer jobs in recreation include summer camp counselors, craft specialists, and after-school and weekend recreation program leaders. In addition, many teach ers and college students accept jobs as recreation workers when school is not in session. The vast majority of volunteers serve as activity leaders at local day camp programs, or in youth orga nizations, camps, nursing homes, hospitals, senior centers, and other settings. Related Occupations Recreation workers must exhibit leadership and sensitivity when dealing with people. Other occupations that require simi lar personal qualities include counselors; probation officers and correctional treatment specialists; psychologists; recreational therapists; teachers—self enrichment education; athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers; and social workers. Sources of Additional Information For information on jobs in recreation, contact employers such as local government departments of parks and recreation, nurs ing and personal care facilities, the Boy Scouts or Girl Scouts, or local social or religious organizations. For career, certification, and academic program information in parks and recreation, contact: y National Recreation and Park Association, 22377 Belmont Ridge Rd., Ashbum, VA 20148-4501. Internet: http://www.nrpa.org For career information about camp counselors, contact: y American Camping Association, 5000 State Road 67 North, Martinsville, IN 46151-7902. Internet: http://www.acacamps.org Sales and Related Occupations Advertising Sales Agents (0*NET 41-3011.00) Significant Points • Overall earnings are higher than average but vary con siderably because they usually are based on a salary plus performance-based commissions and bonuses. • Pressure to meet monthly sales quotas can be stress ful. Nature of the Work Advertising sales agents—often referred to as account execu tives or advertising sales representatives—sell or solicit ad vertising primarily for newspapers and periodicals, television and radio, websites, telephone directories, and direct mail and outdoor advertisers. Because such a large share of revenue for many of these media outlets is generated from advertising, ad vertising sales agents play an important role in their success. More than half of all advertising sales agents work in the in formation sector, mostly for media firms including television and radio broadcasters, print and Internet publishers, and cable program distributors. Firms that are regionally based often need the help of two types of advertising sales agents, one to handle local clients and one to solicit advertising from national advertisers. Print publications and radio and television stations employ local sales agents who are responsible for sales in an immediate territory, while separate companies known as me dia representative firms sell advertising space or time for media owners at the national level with their own teams of advertising sales agents. Sales agents employed in media representation work exclusively through executives at advertising agencies, called media buyers, who purchase advertising space for their clients that want to initiate national advertising campaigns. When a local television broadcaster, radio station, print, or on line publisher is working with a media representative firm, the media company normally employs a national sales manager to coordinate efforts with the media representative. Local sales agents are often referred to as outside sales agents or inside sales agents. Outside sales agents call on clients and prospects at their places of business. They may have an ap pointment, or they may practice cold calling—arriving without an appointment. For these sales agents, obtaining new accounts is an important part of the job, and they may spend much of their time traveling to and visiting prospective advertisers and current clients. Inside sales agents work on their employer’s premises and handle sales for customers who walk in or tele phone the firm to inquire about advertising. Some may also make telephone sales calls—calling prospects, attempting to sell the media firm’s advertising space or time, and arranging follow-up appointments between interested prospects and out side sales agents. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A critical part of building a relationship with a client is to find out as much as possible about the client. Before the first meeting with a client, sales agents gather background infor mation on the client’s products, current customers, prospec tive customers, and the geographic area of the target market. They then meet with the clients to explain how specific types of advertising will help promote the client’s products or services most effectively. If a client wishes to proceed, the advertising sales agent prepares an advertising proposal to present to the client. This entails determining the advertising medium to be used, preparing sample advertisements, and providing clients with cost estimates for the proposal. Because consolidation among media industries has brought the sales of different types of advertising under one roof, advertising sales are increasingly in the form of integrated packages. This means that advertising sales agents may sell packages that include print and online ad space and time slots with a broadcast subsidiary. After a contract has been established, advertising sales agents serve as the main contact between the advertiser or ad agency and the media firm. They handle communication between the parties and assist in developing sample artwork or radio and television spots, if needed. For radio and television advertise ments, they may also arrange for commercial taping sessions and accompany clients to these sessions. In addition to maintaining sales and overseeing clients’ ac counts, advertising sales agents’ other duties include analyzing sales statistics and audience demographics, preparing reports on client’s accounts, and scheduling and keeping their ap pointments and work hours. They read about new and existing products and monitor the sales, prices, and products of their competitors. In many firms, the advertising sales agent handles the drafting of contracts specifying the advertising work to be performed and its cost, and may undertake customer service responsibilities such as answering questions or addressing any problems the client may have with the proposal. Sales agents are also responsible for developing sales tools, promotional plans, and media kits, which they use to help make the sale. Work environment. Selling can be stressful work because income and job security depend directly on the agent’s abil ity to maintain and expand clientele. Companies generally set monthly sales quotas and place considerable pressure on adver tising sales agents to meet those quotas. The added stress of rejection places more pressure on the agent. Although agents work long and often irregular hours, most have the freedom to determine their own schedule. The Internet and other electronic tools allow agents to do more work from home or while on the road, enabling them to send messages and documents to clients and coworkers, keep up with industry news, and access databases that help them target potential cus tomers. Advertising sales agents use e-mail to conduct much of the business with their clients. Many advertising sales agents work more than 40 hours per week. This frequently involves irregular hours and may also include working on weekends and holidays. However, most ad vertising sales agents are able to set their own schedule. Eleven 509 510 Occupational Outlook Handbook percent of advertising sales agents were employed part time in 2006. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For sales positions that require meeting with clients, large em ployers prefer applicants with a college degree. Smaller com panies generally are more willing to hire individuals with a high school degree. Successful sales experience and the ability to communicate effectively become more important than educa tional attainment once hired. Most training for advertising sales agents takes place informally on the job. Education and training. Some employers, large companies in particular, prefer applicants with a college degree, particular ly for sales positions that require meeting with clients. Courses in marketing, leadership, communication, business, and adver tising are helpful. For those who sell over the telephone or who have a proven record of successfully selling other products, a high school degree may be sufficient. In 2006, the highest level of educational attainment for advertising sales agents was as follows. Percent High school graduate or less........................................................ 20 Some college, no degree...............................................................19 Associate’s degree.........................................................................10 Bachelor’s degree or higher......................................................... 52 Most training, however, takes place on the job, and can be formal or informal in nature. In most cases, an experienced sales manager instructs a newly hired advertising sales agent who lacks sales experience. In this one-on-one environment, supervisors typically coach new hires and observe as they make sales calls and contact clients. Supervisors then advise new hires on ways to improve their interaction with clients. Em ployers may bring in consultants to lead formal training ses sions when agents sell to a specialized market segment. This practice is common when advertising sales agents sell space to automotive dealers and real estate professionals. Other qualifications. Employers look for applicants who are honest and possess a pleasant personality and neat profes sional appearance. After gaining entry into the occupation, successful sales experience and the ability to communicate ef fectively become more important than educational attainment. In fact, when selling or soliciting ad space, personality traits are equally, if not more, important than academic background. In general, smaller companies are more willing to hire unproven individuals. Because they represent their employers to the executives of client organizations, advertising sales agents must have excel lent interpersonal and written communication skills. Being multi-lingual, particularly in English and Spanish, is another trait that will benefit prospective advertising agents as media increasingly seek to market to Hispanics and other foreign-born persons. Self-motivation, organization, persistence, indepen dence, and the ability to multitask are required because adver tising sales agents set their own schedules and perform their duties without much supervision. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many advertising sales agents work long and irregular hours to meet sales goals. Advancement. Advancement in the occupation means taking on bigger, more important clients. Agents with proven leader ship ability and a strong sales record may advance to superviso ry and managerial positions such as sales supervisor, sales man ager, or vice president of sales. Frequent contact with managers of other departments and people in other firms provides sales agents with leads about job openings, enhancing advancement opportunities. In small firms, where the number of supervisory and management positions is limited, advancement may come slowly. Promotion may occur more quickly in larger media firms and in media representative firms. Employment Advertising sales agents held over 170,000 jobs in 2006. Work ers were concentrated in three industries: More than 3 in 10 jobs were in newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers; 3 in 10 in advertising and related services; and nearly 2 in 10 in radio and television broadcasting. Media representative firms are in the advertising and related services industry. A relatively small number of jobs were found in specialized design services, including industrial and graphic designers; printing and related support activities; computer systems design and related ser vices; business support services; and cable and other program distribution. Employment is spread around the country, but jobs in radio and television stations and large, well-known publications are concentrated in big metropolitan areas. Media representative firms are also concentrated in large cities with many advertising agencies, such as New York City. Job Outlook Employment growth of advertising sales agents is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations for the 2006-2016 period. Because of growth in new media outlets, such as the Sales and Related Occupations 511 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Advertising sales agents....................................... ................................ soc Code 41-3011 Employment, 2006 170,000 Projected employment, 2016 205,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 35,000 20 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Internet, advertising agents with an ability to sell, should see good job opportunities. Employment change. Employment of advertising sales agents is expected to increase by 20 percent from 2006 to 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Fast growth in the number of cable channels, online advertisers, and other advertising mediums will create many new opportunities for advertisers. These opportunities, along with increased efforts by media outlets to market to the growing Hispanic population, will lead to the growth of advertising sales agents. The industries employing advertising sales agents, particu larly the newspaper, periodical, radio, and television industries, have experienced considerable consolidation in recent years, which created efficiencies in the sale of advertising and reduced the need for more sales agents. While this trend is expected to continue over the next decade, it should do so at a slower pace and not affect employment of advertising sales agents signifi cantly. While advances in technology have made advertising sales agents more productive, allowing agents to take on additional duties and improve the quality of the services they provide, technological advances have not substantially decreased overall demand for these workers. Productivity gains have had the larg est effect on miscellaneous services that workers provide, such as accounting, proposal creation, and customer service respon sibilities, allowing them to provide faster, improved services to their clients. For example, the use of e-mail has considerably shortened the time it takes to negotiate a sale and place an ad. Sales agents may accomplish more in less time, but many work more hours than in the past, spending additional time on follow up and service calls. Thus, while productivity gains will temper the growth of advertising sales agents, who can now manage more accounts, the increasing growth in advertising across all industries will ensure that new advertising sales agents will continue to be needed in the future. Job prospects. Those interested in ad sales positions can ex pect good job opportunities. This is particularly true for sales people with experience and those with a college degree. For those with a proven sales record in advertising sales, opportuni ties should be excellent. In addition to the job openings gener ated by employment growth, openings will occur each year be cause of the need to replace sales representatives who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Each year, many advertising sales agents discover they are unable to earn enough money and leave the occupation. Advertising revenues are sensitive to economic downturns, which cause the industries and companies that advertise to re duce both the frequency of campaigns and the overall level of spending on advertising. Advertising sales agents must work hard to get the most out of every dollar spent on advertising under these conditions. Therefore, the number of opportunities https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for advertising sales agents fluctuates with the business cycle. So while advertising sales candidates can expect good opportu nities, applicants can expect keen competition for job openings during downturns in advertising spending. Earnings Including commissions, median annual earnings for all adver tising sales agents were $42,750 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,450 and $63,120 a year. The low est 10 percent earned less than $21,460, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $91,280 a year. Median annual earnings for sales agents in the industries in which they were concen trated were: Motion picture and video industries..................................$55,340 Cable and other subscription programming......................... 50,260 Advertising and related services.......................................... 47,640 Radio and television broadcasting....................................... 41,110 Newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers.......36,880 Performance-based pay, including bonuses and commis sions, can make up a large portion of advertising sales agents’ earnings. Most employers pay some combination of salaries, commissions, and bonuses. Commissions are usually based on individual sales numbers, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the performance of all sales work ers in a group or district, or on the performance of the entire company. For agents covering multiple areas or regions, com missions also may be based on the difficulty in making a sale in that particular area. Sales revenue is affected by the economic conditions and business expectations facing the industries that tend to advertise. Earnings from commissions are likely to be high when these industries are doing well and low when com panies decide not to advertise as frequently. In addition to their earnings, advertising sales agents are usu ally reimbursed for entertaining clients and for other business expenses such as transportation costs, meals, and hotel stays. They often receive benefits such as health and life insurance, pension plans, vacation and sick leave, personal use of a com pany car, and frequent flier mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding sales workers. Related Occupations Advertising sales agents must have sales ability and knowl edge of their clients’ business and personal needs. Workers in other occupations requiring these skills include telemarketers; advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; insurance sales agents; purchasing managers, buy ers, and purchasing agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; sales engineers; sales representatives, wholesale and manufac 512 Occupational Outlook Handbook turing; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Sources of Additional Information To learn about opportunities for employment as an advertising sales agent, contact local broadcasters, radio stations, and pub lishers for advertising sales representative positions, or look for media representative firms in your area. For information about advertising sales careers in newspaper publishing, contact: y The Newspaper Association of America, 1921 Gallows Rd., Suite 600, Vienna, VA 22182. Internet: http://www.naa.org H P tMHI a -j Cashiers (0*NET 41-2011.00,41-2012.00) Significant Points • Cashiers need little or no work experience, and are trained on the job. • Overall employment is projected to decline; however, job growth will be strong for gaming cashiers. • Opportunities for full-time and part-time jobs are ex pected to be good because of the need to replace the large number of workers who leave cashier jobs. • Many cashiers start at minimum wage. Nature of the Work Supermarkets, department stores, gasoline service stations, movie theaters, restaurants, and many other businesses em ploy cashiers to register the sale of their merchandise. Almost all cashiers total bills on a cash register, receive money, make change, fill out charge forms, and give receipts. A few still use pencil and paper or an adding machine. Although specific job duties vary by employer, cashiers usu ally are assigned to a register at the beginning of their shifts and are given a drawer containing a specific amount of money with which to start—their “till.” They must count their till to ensure that it contains the correct amount of money and adequate sup plies of change. Cashiers also handle returns and exchanges. They must ensure that returned merchandise is in good condi tion, and determine where and when it was purchased and what type of payment was used. After entering charges for all items and subtracting the value of any coupons or special discounts, cashiers total the custom er’s bill and take payment. Forms of payment include cash, per sonal checks, credit cards, and debit cards. Cashiers must know the store’s policies and procedures for each type of payment the store accepts. For checks and credit and debit card charges, they may request additional identification from the customer or call in for an authorization. They must verify the age of customers purchasing alcohol or tobacco. When the sale is complete, ca shiers issue a receipt to the customer and return the appropriate change. They may also wrap or bag the purchase. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Cashiers total bills on a cash register, handle money, and inter act with customers. At the end of their shifts, cashiers once again count the draw ers’ contents and compare the totals with sales data. An oc casional shortage of small amounts may be overlooked but, in many establishments, repeated shortages are grounds for dis missal. In addition to counting the contents of their drawers at the end of their shifts, cashiers usually separate and total charge forms, return slips, coupons, and any other noncash items. Most cashiers use scanners and computers, but some es tablishments still require price and product information to be entered manually. In a store with scanners, a cashier passes a product’s Universal Product Code over the scanning device, which transmits the code number to a computer. The computer identifies the item and its price. In other establishments, ca shiers manually enter codes into computers and then descrip tions of the items and their prices appear on the screen. Depending on the type of establishment, cashiers may have other duties as well. In many supermarkets, for example, ca shiers weigh produce and bulk food, as well as return unwanted items to the shelves. In convenience stores, cashiers may be required to know how to use a variety of machines other than cash registers, and how to furnish money orders and sell lot tery tickets. Operating ticket-dispensing machines and answer ing customers’ questions are common duties for cashiers who work at movie theaters and ticket agencies. In casinos, gaming change persons and booth cashiers exchange coins and tokens and may issue payoffs. They also may operate a booth in the slot-machine area and furnish change to people or count and audit money in drawers. Work environment. Most cashiers work indoors, usually standing in booths or behind counters. Often, they are not al lowed to leave their workstations without supervisory approval because they are responsible for large sums of money. The work of cashiers can be very repetitious, but improvements in workstation design in many stores are alleviating problems caused by repetitive motion. In addition, the work can some times be dangerous; the risk from robberies and homicides is much higher for cashiers than for other workers, although more safety precautions are being taken to help deter robbers. Gaming change persons and booth cashiers can expect a safer work environment than cashiers in other industries. Howev Sales and Related Occupations 513 er, casinos are not without their hazards such as exposure to fumes from cigarettes, cigars, and pipes and noise from slot machines. About 46 percent of all cashiers work part time. Hours of work often vary depending on the needs of the employer. Gen erally, cashiers are expected to work weekends, evenings, and holidays to accommodate customers’ needs. However, many employers offer flexible schedules. Because the holiday season is the busiest time for most retailers, many employers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving through the begin ning of January. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cashier jobs usually are entry-level positions requiring little or no previous work experience. They require good customer ser vice skills. Education and training. Although there are no specific ed ucational requirements, employers filling full-time jobs often prefer applicants with high school diplomas. Nearly all cashiers are trained on the job. In small business es, an experienced worker often trains beginners. The trainee spends the first day observing the operation and becoming fa miliar with the store’s equipment, policies, and procedures. Af ter this, trainees are assigned to a register—frequently under the supervision of an experienced worker. In larger businesses, trainees spend several days in classes before being placed at cash registers. Topics typically covered in class include a de scription of the industry and the company, store policies and procedures, equipment operation, and security. Training for experienced workers is not common, except when new equipment is introduced or when procedures change. In these cases, the employer or a representative of the equip ment manufacturer trains workers on the job. Licensure. Gaming change persons and booth cashiers are required to obtain a license and background check from their State’s gaming board and must meet an age requirement, usu ally set at 21 years old. Other qualifications. People who want to become cashiers should be able to do repetitious work accurately. They also need basic mathematics skills and good manual dexterity. Be cause cashiers deal constantly with the public, they should be neat in appearance and able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with customers. In addition, some businesses prefer to hire workers who can operate specialized equipment or who have business experience, such as typing, selling, or handling money. Advancement. Advancement opportunities for cashiers vary. For those working part time, promotion may be to a full-time position. Others advance to head cashier or cash-office clerk. In addition, this job offers a good opportunity to learn about an employer’s business and can serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible position. Employment Cashiers held about 3.5 million jobs in 2006. Of these, 27,000 were employed as gaming change persons and booth cashiers. Although cashiers are employed in almost every industry, 26 percent of all jobs were in food and beverage stores. Gasoline stations, department stores, other retail establishments, and res taurants also employed large numbers of these workers. Out side of retail establishments, many cashiers worked in amuse ment, gambling, and recreation industries, local government, and personal and laundry services. Job Outlook Overall cashier employment is expected to decline, but job growth will be strong for gaming cashiers. Opportunities for full-time and part-time jobs are expected to be good because of the need to replace the large number of workers who leave this occupation. Employment change. Employment of cashiers is expected to decline 3 percent between 2006 and 2016. The rising populari ty of purchasing goods online will negatively affect the employ ment growth of cashiers, although many customers still prefer the traditional method of purchasing goods at stores. Also, the growing use of self-service check-out systems in retail trade, especially at grocery stores, should have an adverse effect on employment of cashiers. These self-checkout systems may outnumber checkouts with cashiers in the future in many estab lishments. The impact on job growth for cashiers will largely depend on the public’s acceptance of this self-service technol ogy. Job growth will be strong for gaming cashiers as more States legalize casinos and gaming becomes more popular. An in creasing number of gaming venues will generate new jobs. However, many casinos are finding ways to use less cash in their operations, particularly the slot machines, which now gen erate tickets that can be accepted by other slot machines. Job prospects. Opportunities for full-time and part-time ca shier jobs should continue to be good because of the need to replace the large number of workers who transfer to other occu pations or leave the labor force. There is substantial movement into and out of the occupation because education and training requirements are minimal and the predominance of part-time jobs is attractive to people seeking a short-term source of in come rather than a full-time career. Historically, workers under the age of 25 have filled many of the openings in this occupa tion. In 2006, almost half of all cashiers were 24 years of age or younger. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Cashiers................................................................ Cashiers, except gaming............................... Gaming change persons and booth cashiers SOC Code Employment, 2006 41-2010 3,527,000 41-2011 3,500,000 41-2012________ 27,000 Projected Change, employment, 2006-16 2016_______ Number Percent 3.411.000 -116,000 -3 3.382.000 -118,000 -3 29,000 1,800_________ 7 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 514 Occupational Outlook Handbook Because cashiers are needed in businesses and organizations of all types and sizes, job opportunities are found throughout the country. But job opportunities may vary from year to year be cause the strength of the economy affects demand for cashiers. Companies tend to hire more cashiers when the economy is strong. Seasonal demand for cashiers also causes fluctuations in employment. For information about employment opportunities as a cashier, contact: y National Association of Convenience Stores, 1600 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. y United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, Education Office, 1775 K St.NW., Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.ufcw.org Earnings Many cashiers start at the Federal minimum wage, which was $5.85 an hour in 2007. Some State laws set the minimum wage higher, and establishments must pay at least that amount. Wag es tend to be higher in areas where there is intense competition for workers. Median hourly earnings of cashiers, except gaming in May 2006 were $8.08. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.99 and $9.44 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.18, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $11.64 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of cashiers in May 2006 were: Grocery stores......................................................................... $8.20 Health and personal care stores................................................. 8.15 Department stores..................................................................... 8.10 Other general merchandise stores..............................................8.09 Gasoline stations....................................................................... 7.82 Median hourly earnings for gaming cashiers in May 2006 were $9.94. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.16 and $12.22 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.98, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $14.50 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of gaming cashiers in May 2006 were: Casino hotels......................................................................... $11.64 Traveler accommodation..........................................................11.61 Local government..................................................................... 9.50 Gambling industries.................................................................. 9.45 Benefits for full-time cashiers tend to be better than those for cashiers working part time. In addition to typical benefits, those working in retail establishments often receive discounts on purchases, and cashiers in restaurants may receive free or low-cost meals. Some employers also offer employee stock op tion plans and education reimbursement plans. Related Occupations Cashiers accept payment for the purchase of goods and servic es. Other workers with similar duties include tellers, counter and rental clerks, food and beverage serving and related work ers, gaming cage workers, Postal Service workers, and retail salespersons. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in grocery stores is available from: V Food Marketing Institute, 2345 Crystal Dr., Arlington, VA 22202. Internet: http://www.fmi.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Counter and Rental Clerks (Q*NET 41-2021.00) Significant Points • • • Jobs usually require little or no experience or formal education. Employment is projected to grow much faster than average as businesses strive to improve customer ser vice. Many full-time and part-time job opportunities should be available, primarily because of the need to replace workers who leave this occupation. Nature of the Work Counter and rental clerks take orders for rentals and services. Many rent cars or home improvement equipment, for example. Regardless of where they work, counter and rental clerks must be knowledgeable about the company’s goods and services, policies, and procedures. Depending on the type of establish ment, counter and rental clerks use their knowledge to give ad vice on a wide variety of products and services, ranging from hydraulic tools to shoe repair. For example, in the car rental industry, these workers tell customers about the features of dif ferent types of automobiles and about daily and weekly rental costs. They also ensure that customers meet age and other re quirements for renting cars, and they indicate when and in what condition the cars must be returned. Those in the equipment rental industry have similar duties but also must know how to operate and care for the machinery rented. In drycleaning es tablishments, counter clerks inform customers when items will be ready and about the effects, if any, of the chemicals used on certain garments. In video rental stores, counter clerks ad vise customers about the use of video and game players and the length of the rental period. They scan returned movies and games, restock shelves, handle money, and log daily reports. When taking orders, counter and rental clerks use various types of equipment. In some establishments, they write out tickets and order forms, although most use computers or bar code scanners. Most of these computer systems are user friend ly, require very little data entry, and are customized for each firm. Scanners read the product code and display a description of the item on a computer screen. However, clerks must ensure that the information on the screen matches the product. Work environment. Firms employing counter and rental clerks usually operate nights and weekends for the convenience of their customers. As a result, many employers offer flexible Sales and Related Occupations 515 In video rental stores, counter clerks advise customers about the use of video and game players and the length of a rental, restock shelves, and handle money. schedules. Some counter and rental clerks work 40-hour weeks, but many are on part-time schedules—usually during rush peri ods, such as weekends, evenings, and holidays. Working conditions usually are pleasant; most stores and service establishments are clean, well lighted, and temperature controlled. However, clerks are on their feet much of the time and may be confined behind a small counter area. Some may need to move, lift, or carry heavy machinery or other equipment. The job requires constant interaction with the public and can be stressful, especially during busy periods. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most counter and rental clerk jobs are entry-level positions that require little or no experience and minimal formal education. Education and training. Many employers prefer workers with at least a high school diploma. In most companies, counter and rental clerks are trained on the job, sometimes through the use of videos, brochures, and pamphlets. Clerks usually learn the firm’s policies and procedures and how to operate a firm’s equipment from more experienced work ers. However, some employers have formal classroom training programs lasting between a few hours and a few weeks. Topics covered in this training include the nature of the industry, the company and its policies and procedures, operation of equip ment, sales techniques, and customer service. Counter and rent al clerks also must become familiar with the different products and services rented or provided by their company to give cus tomers the best possible service. Other qualifications. Counter and rental clerks should enjoy working with people and should be tactful and polite, even with difficult customers. They also should be able to handle several tasks at once, while continuing to provide friendly service. In addition, good oral and written communication skills are essen tial. Advancement. Advancement opportunities depend on the size and type of company. Many establishments that employ counter or rental clerks tend to be small businesses, making advancement difficult. In larger establishments, however, jobs such as counter and rental clerks offer good opportunities for workers to learn about their company’s products and business practices. That can lead to more responsible positions. Some counter and rental clerks are promoted to event planner, assis tant manager, or salesperson. Some pursue related positions. A clerk that fixes rented equipment might become a mechanic, for example. In certain industries, such as equipment repair, counter and rental jobs may be an additional or alternative source of income for workers with multiple jobs or for those who are semiretired. For example, retired mechanics could prove invaluable at tool rental centers because of their knowledge of, and familiarity with, tools. Employment Counter and rental clerks held about 477,000 jobs in 2006. About 22 percent of clerks worked in consumer goods rental, which includes video rental stores. Other large employers in cluded drycleaning and laundry services; automotive equipment rental and leasing services; automobile dealers; amusement, gambling, and recreation industries; and grocery stores. Counter and rental clerks are employed throughout the coun try but are concentrated in metropolitan areas, where personal services and renting and leasing services are in greater de mand. Job Outlook Much faster than average employment growth coupled with the need to replace workers who leave this occupation should result in many full-time and part-time job opportunities. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, 2006-16 employment, 2016 Number Percent 109,000 23 41-2021 477,000 586,000 Counter and rental clerks........................................ ............................. NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Code Employment, 2006 516 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment change. Employment of counter and rental clerks is expected to increase by 23 percent during the 2006-16 decade, much faster than the average for all occupations. Be cause all types of businesses strive to improve customer service by hiring more clerks, fast employment growth is expected in most industries; growth in amusement and recreation industries is expected to be especially fast. Job prospects. Many full-time and part-time job opportuni ties should be available, primarily because of the need to re place experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Counter and rental clerks typically start at the minimum wage, which, in establishments covered by Federal law, was $5.85 an hour in 2007. In some States, the law sets the minimum wage higher, and establishments must pay at least that amount. Wages also tend to be higher in areas where there is intense competition for workers. In addition to wages, some counter and rental clerks receive commissions based on the number of contracts they complete or services they sell. Median hourly earnings of counter and rental clerks in May 2006 were $9.41. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.58 and $13.05 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.56 an hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.17 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries em ploying the largest number of counter and rental clerks in May 2006 were: Automobile dealers...............................................................$ 19.15 Automotive equipment rental and leasing.............................. 10.79 Lessors of real estate................................................................10.31 Consumer goods rental..............................................................8.07 Drycleaning and laundry services............................................. 7.95 Full-time workers typically receive health and life insurance, paid vacation, and sick leave. Benefits for counter and rental clerks who work part time or work for independent stores tend to be significantly less than for those who work full time. Many companies offer discounts to full-time and part-time employees on the goods or services they provide. Related Occupations Counter and rental clerks take orders and receive payment for services rendered. Other workers with similar duties include tellers, cashiers, food and beverage serving and related work ers, gaming cage workers, Postal Service workers, and retail salespersons. Sources of Additional Information For general information on employment in the equipment rental industry, contact: y American Rental Association, 1900 19th St., Moline, IL 61265. Internet: http://www.ararental.org For more information about the work of counter clerks in drycleaning and laundry establishments, contact: y International Fabricare Institute, 14700 SweitzerLn., Laurel, MD 20707. Internet: http://www.ifi.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Demonstrators, Product Promoters, and Models (0*NET 41 -9011.00, 41 -9012.00) Significant Points • • • Job openings should be plentiful for demonstrators and product promoters, but keen competition is ex pected for modeling jobs. Most jobs are part time or have variable work sched ules, and many jobs require frequent travel. Formal training is limited and education beyond high school usually is not required. Nature of the Work Demonstrators, product promoters, and models create public interest in buying products such as clothing, cosmetics, food, and housewares. The information they provide helps consum ers make choices among the wide variety of products and ser vices they can buy. Demonstrators and product promoters encourage people and stores to buy a product by demonstrating it to prospective cus tomers and answering their questions. They may sell the dem onstrated merchandise or gather names of prospects to contact later or pass on to sales staff. Demonstrators promote sales of a product to consumers, while product promoters encourage sales to retail stores and help them market products effectively. Demonstrators and product promoters generate sales of both sophisticated and simple products, ranging from computer soft ware to mops. They attract an audience by offering samples, administering contests, distributing prizes and coupons, and using direct-mail advertising. They must greet and catch the attention of possible customers and quickly identify those who are interested and able to buy. They inform and educate cus tomers about the features of products and demonstrate their use with apparent ease to inspire confidence in the product and its manufacturer. They also distribute information, such as bro chures and order forms. Some demonstrations are intended to generate immediate sales through impulse buying, whereas oth ers increase the likelihood of future sales by increasing brand awareness. Demonstrations and product promotions are conducted in retail and grocery stores, shopping malls, trade shows, and outdoor fairs. Locations are selected based on the nature of the product and the type of audience. Demonstrations at large events may require teams of demonstrators to efficiently handle large crowds. Some demonstrators promote products on video tape or on television programs, such as “infomercials” or home shopping programs. Demonstrators and product promoters may prepare the con tent of a presentation and alter it to target a specific audience or to keep it current. They may participate in the design of an exhibit or customize it for particular audiences. Results ob tained by demonstrators and product promoters are analyzed, and presentations are adjusted to make them more effective. Sales and Related Occupations 517 Demonstrators and product promoters also may be involved in transporting, assembling, and disassembling materials used in demonstrations. A demonstrator’s presentation may include visuals, models, case studies, testimonials, test results, and surveys. The equip ment used for a demonstration varies with the product being demonstrated. A food product demonstration might require the use of cooking utensils, while a software demonstration could require the use of a multimedia computer. Demonstrators must be familiar with the product to be able to relate detailed in formation to customers and to answer any questions that arise before, during, or after a demonstration. Therefore, they may research the product presented, the products of competitors, and the interests and concerns of the target audience before con ducting a demonstration. Demonstrations of complex products often need practice. Models pose for photos, paintings, or sculptures. They dis play clothing, such as dresses, coats, underclothing, swimwear, and suits, for a variety of audiences and in various types of media. They model accessories, such as handbags, shoes, and jewelry, and promote beauty products, including fragrances and cosmetics. The most successful models, called supermodels, hold celebrity status and often use their image to sell books, cal endars, fitness videos, and other products. In addition to model ing, they may appear in movies and television shows. Models appear in printed publications, live modeling events, and television to advertise and promote products and services. Most modeling jobs are for printed publications, and models usually do a combination of editorial, commercial, and catalog work. Editorial print modeling uses still photographs of models for fashion magazine covers and to accompany feature articles. Commercial print modeling includes work for advertisements in magazines, newspapers, and billboards. Catalog models ap pear in department store and mail order catalogs. During a photo shoot, a model poses to demonstrate the fea tures of clothing and products. Models make small changes in posture and facial expression to capture the look desired by the client. As they shoot film, photographers instruct models to pose in certain positions and to interact with their physical surroundings. Models work closely with photographers, hair and clothing stylists, makeup artists, and clients to produce the desired look and to finish the photo shoot on schedule. Styl ists and makeup artists prepare the model for the photo shoot, provide touchups, and change the look of models throughout the day. If stylists are not provided, models must apply their own makeup and bring their own clothing. Because the client spends time and money planning for and preparing an advertis ing campaign, the client usually is present to ensure that the work is satisfactory. Editorial printwork generally pays less than other types of modeling but provides exposure for a model and can lead to commercial modeling opportunities. Often, beginning fashion models work in foreign countries where fashion magazines are more plentiful. Live modeling is done in a variety of locations. Live models stand, turn, and walk to demonstrate clothing to a variety of au diences. At fashion shows and in showrooms, garment buyers are the primary audience. Runway models display clothes that https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis either are intended for direct sale to consumers or are the artistic expressions of the designer. High fashion, or haute couture, runway models walk a runway before an audience of photogra phers, journalists, designers, and garment buyers. Live model ing also is done in apparel marts, department stores, and fitting rooms of clothing designers. In retail establishments, models display clothing directly for shoppers and may be required to describe the features and price of the clothing. Other models pose for sketch artists, painters, and sculptors. Models may compete with actors and actresses for work in television and may even receive speaking parts. Television work includes commercials, cable television programs, and even game shows. However, competition for television work is intense because of the potential for high earnings and extensive exposure. Because advertisers need to target very specific segments of the population, models may specialize in a certain area. Petite and plus-size fashions are modeled by women whose dress size is smaller or larger than that worn by the typical model. Models who are disabled may be used to model fashions or products for disabled consumers. “Parts” models have a body part, such as a hand or foot, which is particularly well-suited to model prod ucts such as fingernail polish or shoes. Almost all models work through agents. Agents provide a link between models and clients. Clients pay models, while the agency receives a portion of the model’s earnings for its ser vices. Agents scout for new faces, advise and train new mod els, and promote them to clients. A typical modeling job lasts only 1 day, so modeling agencies differ from other employment agencies in that they maintain an ongoing relationship with the model. Agents find and nurture relationships with clients, ar range auditions called “go-sees,” and book shoots if a model is hired. They also provide bookkeeping and billing services to models and may offer them financial planning services. Rela tively short careers and variable incomes make financial plan ning an important issue for many models. With the help of agents, models spend a considerable amount of time promoting and developing themselves. Models assem ble and maintain portfolios, print composite cards, and travel to go-sees. A portfolio is a collection of a model’s previous work that is carried to all go-sees and bookings. A composite card, contains the best photographs from a model’s portfolio, along with his or her measurements. Increasingly, composite cards are being sent electronically to clients and printed portfolios are being replaced with digital portfolios. Models must gather information before a job. From an agent, they learn the pay, date, time, and length of the shoot. Also, models need to ask if hair, makeup, and clothing stylists will be provided. It is helpful to know what product is being promoted and what image they should project. Some models research the client and the product being modeled to prepare for a shoot. Models use a document called a voucher to record the rate of pay and the actual duration of the job. The voucher is used for billing purposes after both the client and model sign it. Once a job is completed, models must check in with their agency and plan for the next appointment. Work environment. More than half of all demonstrators, product promoters, and models work part time and about 1 in 518 Occupational Outlook Handbook 4 have variable work schedules. Many positions last 6 months or less. Demonstrators and product promoters may work long hours while standing or walking, with little opportunity to rest. Some of them travel frequently, and night and weekend work often is required. The atmosphere of a crowded trade show or State fair is often hectic, and demonstrators and product promoters may feel pressure to influence the greatest number of consum ers possible in a very limited amount of time. However, many enjoy the opportunity to interact with a variety of people. Models work under a variety of conditions, which can often be both difficult and glamorous. The coming season’s fashions may be modeled in a comfortable, climate-controlled studio or in a cold, damp outdoor location. Schedules can be demanding, and models must keep in constant touch with an agent so that they do not miss an opportunity for work. Being away from friends and family, and needing to focus on the photographer’s instructions despite constant interruption for touchups, cloth ing, and set changes can be stressful. Yet, successful models interact with a variety of people and enjoy frequent travel. They may meet potential clients at several go-sees in one day and of ten travel to work in distant cities, foreign countries, and exotic locations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postsecondary education, while helpful, usually is not required for demonstrators, product promoters, and models. Education and training. Demonstrators and product promot ers usually receive on-the-job training. Training is primarily product oriented because a demonstrator must be familiar with the product to demonstrate it properly. The length of training varies with the complexity of the product. Experience with the product or familiarity with similar products may be required for demonstration of complex products, such as computers. During the training process, demonstrators may be introduced to the manufacturer’s corporate philosophy and preferred methods for dealing with customers. Some aspiring models opt to attend modeling schools. Mod eling schools provide training in posing, walking, makeup ap plication, and other basic tasks, but attending such schools does not necessarily lead to job opportunities. In fact, many agents prefer beginning models with little or no previous experience and discourage models from attending modeling schools and purchasing professional photographs. Agents continually scout for new faces, and many of the top models are discovered in this way. Most agencies review snapshots or have “open calls”, during which models are seen in person; this service usually is provided free of charge. Some agencies sponsor modeling contests and searches. Very few people who send in snapshots or attend open calls are offered contracts. Agencies advise models on how to dress, wear makeup, and conduct themselves properly during go-sees and bookings. Be cause models’ advancement depends on their previous work, development of a good portfolio is key to getting assignments. . The higher the quality and currency of the photos in the port folio, the more likely it is that the model will find work. Other qualifications. Employers look for demonstrators and product promoters with good communication skills and a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis •>. v >C. > jt mm ,yv, jtjg -,5 [ s. m Demonstrators and product promoters often provide customers with free samples to encourage them to buy a product. pleasant appearance and personality. Demonstrators and prod uct promoters must be comfortable with public speaking. They should be able to entertain an audience and use humor, sponta neity, and personal interest in the product as promotional tools. Foreign language skills are helpful. Models should be photogenic and have a basic knowledge of hair styling, makeup, and clothing. Some local governments require models under the age of 18 to hold a work permit. An attractive physical appearance is necessary to become a suc cessful model. A model should have flawless skin, healthy hair, and attractive facial features. Specific requirements depend on the client, but most models must be within certain ranges for height, weight, and clothing size in order to meet the practi cal needs of fashion designers, photographers, and advertisers. Requirements may change slightly from time to time as our so ciety’s perceptions of physical beauty change. However, most fashion designers feel that their clothing looks best on tall, thin models. Although physical requirements may be relaxed for some types of modeling jobs, opportunities are limited for those who do not meet these basic requirements. A model’s career depends on preservation of his or her physi cal characteristics, so models must control their diet, exercise regularly, and get enough sleep in order to stay healthy. Hair cuts, pedicures, and manicures are necessary work-related ex penses for models. In addition to being attractive, models must be photogenic. The ability to relate to the camera in order to capture the desired look on film is essential and agents test prospective models us ing snapshots or professional photographs. For photographic and runway work, models must be able to move gracefully and confidently. Training in acting, voice, and dance is useful and allows a model to be considered for television work. Foreign language skills are useful because successful models travel fre quently to foreign countries. Models must interact with a large number of people and personality plays an important role in success. They must be professional, polite, and prompt as every contact could lead to future employment. Organizational skills are necessary to manage personal lives, financial matters, and work and travel Sales and Related Occupations 519 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Models, demonstrators, and product promoters Demonstrators and product promoters.......... Models............................................................... SOC Code Employment, 2006 41-9010 41-9011 41-9012 107,000 105,000 2,000 Projected employment, 2016 126,000 124,000 2,200 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 19,000 18 19,000 18 200 10 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. schedules. Competition for jobs is keen and clients’ needs are very specific so patience and persistence are essential. Advancement. Demonstrators and product promoters who perform well and show leadership abilities may advance to other marketing and sales occupations or open their own busi ness. Models advance by working more regularly and being se lected for assignments that have higher pay. They may begin to appear in magazine, print campaigns, commercials, or run way shows with a higher profile. They may begin to work with clients who will provide them with more national exposure. A model’s selection of an agency is an important factor for ad vancement in the occupation. The better the reputation and skill of the agency, the more assignments a model is likely to get. Prospective clients prefer to work with agents, making it very difficult for a model to pursue a freelance career. Mod eling careers are relatively short and most models eventually transfer to other occupations. Employment Demonstrators, product promoters, and models held about 107,000 jobs in 2006. Of these, models held only about 2,000 jobs in 2006. About 22 percent of all salaried jobs for demon strators, product promoters, and models were in retail trade, especially general merchandise stores, and 14 percent were in administrative and support services—which includes employ ment services. Other jobs were found in advertising and related services. Job Outlook Employment of demonstrators, product promoters, and models is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2016. Job openings for demonstrators and product promoters should be plentiful over the next decade but models should face keen competition for the small number of open ings. Employment change. Demonstrators and product promoters are expected to experience 18 percent growth between 2006 and 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Job growth should be driven by increases in the number and size of trade shows and greater use of these workers in depart ment stores and various retail shops for in-store promotions. Product demonstration is considered a very effective marketing tool. New jobs should arise as firms devote a greater percent age of marketing budgets to product demonstration. However, it is also an expensive method of marketing, which will some what limit growth. Employment of models is expected to grow by 10 percent be tween 2006 and 2016, which is as fast as the average for all oc https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis cupations. Growth in the employment of models will be driven by their continued use in advertising products. Advertisers will continue to use models in fashion shows, catalogs, and print campaigns as a method to increase awareness of their product. Job prospects. Job openings should be plentiful for dem onstrators and product promoters. Employers may have dif ficulty finding qualified demonstrators who are willing to fill part-time, short-term positions. On the other hand, modeling is considered a glamorous occupation, with limited formal en try requirements. Consequently, those who wish to pursue a modeling career can expect keen competition for jobs. The modeling profession typically attracts many more jobseek ers than there are job openings available. Only models who closely meet the unique requirements of the occupation will achieve regular employment. The increasing diversification of the general population should boost demand for models more representative of diverse racial and ethnic groups. Work for male models also should increase as society becomes more re ceptive to the marketing of men’s fashions. Because fashions change frequently, demand for a model’s look may fluctuate. Most models experience periods of unemployment. Employment of demonstrators, product promoters, and mod els is affected by downturns in the business cycle. Many firms tend to reduce advertising budgets during recessions Earnings Demonstrators and product promoters had median hourly earn ings of $10.65 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.77 and $13.91. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.70, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.27. Employers of demonstrators, product promoters, and models generally pay for job-related travel expenses. Median hourly earnings of models were $11.22 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.52 and $14.42. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.67, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.68. Earnings vary for different types of modeling, and depend on the experience and reputa tion of the model. Female models typically earn more than male models for similar work. Hourly earnings can be rela tively high, particularly for supermodels and others in high de mand, but models may not have work every day, and jobs may last only a few hours. Models occasionally receive clothing or clothing discounts instead of, or in addition to, regular earnings. Almost all models work with agents, and pay 15 to 20 percent of their earnings in return for an agent’s services. Models who do not find immediate work may receive payments, called ad vances, from agents to cover promotional and living expenses. Models must provide their own health and retirement benefits. 520 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Demonstrators, product promoters, and models create public interest in buying clothing, products, and services. Others who create interest in a product or service include actors, producers, and directors; insurance sales agents; real estate brokers; retail salespersons; sales representatives, wholesale and manufactur ing; and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For information about modeling schools and agencies in your area, contact a local consumer affairs organization such as the Better Business Bureau. Insurance Sales Agents (0*NET 41-3021.00) Significant Points • In addition to offering insurance policies, agents in creasingly sell mutual funds, annuities, and securities and offer comprehensive financial planning services, including retirement and estate planning. • Agents must obtain a license in the States where they sell. • Job opportunities should be good for college gradu ates who have sales ability, excellent interpersonal skills, and expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. Nature of the Work Most people have their first contact with an insurance company through an insurance sales agent. These workers help individu als, families, and businesses select insurance policies that pro vide the best protection for their lives, health, and property. Insurance sales agents, commonly referred to as “producers” in the insurance industry, sell one or more types of insurance, such as property and casualty, life, health, disability, and long term care. Property and casualty insurance agents sell policies that protect individuals and businesses from financial loss re sulting from automobile accidents, fire, theft, storms, and other events that can damage property. For businesses, property and casualty insurance can also cover injured workers’ compensa tion, product liability claims, or medical malpractice claims. Life insurance agents specialize in selling policies that pay beneficiaries when a policyholder dies. Depending on the policyholder’s circumstances, a cash-value policy can be de signed to provide retirement income, funds for the education of children, or other benefits as well. Life insurance agents also sell annuities that promise a retirement income. Health insur ance agents sell health insurance policies that cover the costs of medical care and loss of income due to illness or injury. They also may sell dental insurance and short-term and long-termdisability insurance policies. Agents may specialize in any one https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of these product areas, or function as generalists, providing multiple products to a single customer. An increasing number of insurance sales agents are offer ing comprehensive financial planning services to their clients. These services include retirement planning, estate planning, and assistance in setting up pension plans for businesses. As a result, many insurance agents are involved in “cross-selling” or “total account development”. Besides offering insurance, these agents may become licensed to sell mutual funds, variable an nuities, and other securities. This practice is most common with life insurance agents who already sell annuities, but many property and casualty agents also sell financial products. (See the statement on securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents elsewhere in the Handbook.) Insurance sales agents also prepare reports, maintain records, and seek out new clients. In the event that policy holders expe rience a loss, agents help them settle their insurance claims. In creasingly, some agents are also offering their clients financial analysis or advice on how to minimize risk. Insurance sales agents working exclusively for one insurance company are referred to as captive agents. Independent insur ance agents, or brokers, represent several companies and match insurance policies for their clients with the company that offers the best rate and coverage. Technology has greatly affected the insurance business, mak ing it much more efficient and giving the agent the ability to take on more clients. Agents’ computers are now linked di rectly to insurance carriers via the Internet, making the tasks of obtaining price quotes and processing applications and service requests faster and easier. Computers also allow agents to be better informed about new products that the insurance carriers may be offering. The growing use of the Internet in the insurance industry has altered the relationship between agent and client. Agents for merly used to devote much of their time to marketing and selling products to new clients. Now, clients are increasingly obtaining insurance quotes from a company’s Web site and then contact ing the company directly to purchase policies. This interaction gives the client a more active role in selecting their policy, while reducing the amount of time agents spend actively seeking new clients. Insurance sales agents also obtain many new accounts through referrals, so it is important that they maintain regular contact with their clients to ensure that the clients’ financial needs are being met. Developing a satisfied clientele that will recommend an agent’s services to other potential customers is a key to success for agents. Increasing competition in the insurance industry has spurred carriers and agents to find new ways to keep their clients satis fied. One solution is to increase the use of call centers, which usually are accessible to clients 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Insurance carriers and sales agents also are hiring customer ser vice representatives to handle routine tasks such as answering questions, making changes in policies, processing claims, and selling more products to clients. The opportunity to cross-sell new products to clients will help agents’ businesses grow. The use of call centers also allows agents to concentrate their efforts on seeking out new clients and maintaining relationships with old ones. (See elsewhere in the Handbook the statements on Sales and Related Occupations 521 - Insurance sales agents carefully review the terms of a new pol icy with their clients. customer service representatives and claims adjusters, apprais ers, examiners, and investigators.) Work environment. Insurance sales agents working as cap tive agents are usually based in small offices, from which they contact clients and provide information on the policies they sell. Independent insurance agents, or brokers, may work in offices of varying sizes, depending on the size of the agency. However, much of their time may be spent outside their offices, traveling locally to meet with clients, close sales, or investigate claims. Agents usually determine their own hours of work and often schedule evening and weekend appointments for the conve nience of clients. Some sales agents may meet with clients dur ing business hours and then spend evenings doing paperwork and preparing presentations to prospective clients. Although most agents work a 40-hour week, some work 60 hours a week or longer. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Every sales agent involved in the solicitation, selling, or ne gotiation of insurance must have a State issued license. Li censure requirements vary by State but typically require some insurance-related coursework and the passing of several exams. Although some agents are hired right out of college, many are hired by insurance companies as customer service representa tives and are later promoted to sales agent. Education and training. For insurance sales agent jobs, many companies and independent agencies prefer to hire col lege graduates—especially those who have majored in business or economics. High school graduates may be hired if they have proven sales ability or have been successful in other types of work. College training can help agents grasp the technical aspects of insurance policies as well as the industry fundamentals and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis operational procedures of selling insurance. Many colleges and universities offer courses in insurance, and a few schools offer a bachelor’s degree in the field. College courses in finance, mathematics, accounting, economics, business law, marketing, and business administration enable insurance sales agents to understand how social and economic conditions relate to the insurance industry. Courses in psychology, sociology, and pub lic speaking can prove useful in improving sales techniques. In addition, familiarity with computers and popular software packages has become very important because computers pro vide instantaneous information on a wide variety of financial products and greatly improve agents’ efficiency. Agents learn many of their job duties on the job from other agents. Many employers have their new agents shadow an ex perienced agent for a period of time. This allows the agent to learn how to conduct their business, how the agency interacts with clients, and how to write policies. Employers also are placing greater emphasis on continuing professional education as the diversity of financial products sold by insurance agents increases. It is important for insurance agents to keep up to date on issues concerning clients. Changes in tax laws, government benefits programs, and other State and Federal regulations can affect the insurance needs of clients and the way in which agents conduct business. Agents can enhance their selling skills and broaden their knowledge of insurance and other financial services by taking courses at colleges and universities and by attending institutes, conferences, and semi nars sponsored by insurance organizations. Licensure. Insurance sales agents must obtain a license in the States where they plan to work. Separate licenses are re quired for agents to sell life and health insurance and property and casualty insurance. In most States, licenses are issued only to applicants who complete specified prelicensing courses and who pass State examinations covering insurance fundamentals and State insurance laws. The insurance industry is increasing ly moving toward uniform State licensing standards and recip rocal licensing, allowing agents who earn a license in one State to become licensed in other States more easily. Most State li censing authorities also have mandatory continuing education requirements focusing on insurance laws, consumer protection, ethics, and the technical details of various insurance policies. As the demand for financial products and financial planning increases, many insurance agents, especially those involved in life insurance, are choosing to gain the proper licensing and cer tification to sell securities and other financial products. Doing so, however, requires substantial study and passing an addition al examination—either the Series 6 or Series 7 licensing exam, both of which are administered by the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD). The Series 6 exam is for individu als who wish to sell only mutual funds and variable annuities, whereas the Series 7 exam is the main NASD series license that qualifies agents as general securities sales representatives. Other qualifications. Previous experience in sales or insur ance jobs can be very useful in becoming an insurance sales agent. In fact, many entrants to insurance sales agent jobs trans fer from other sales related occupations, such as customer ser vice representative positions. In selling commercial insurance, technical experience in a particular field can help sell policies 522 Occupational Outlook Handbook to those in the same profession. As a result, new agents tend to be older than entrants in many other occupations. Insurance sales agents should be flexible, enthusiastic, confi dent, disciplined, hard working, and willing to solve problems. They should communicate effectively and inspire customer confidence. Because they usually work without supervision, sales agents must be able to plan their time well and have the initiative to locate new clients. Certification and advancement. A number of organizations offer professional designation programs that certify agents’ ex pertise in specialties such as life, health, and property and ca sualty insurance, as well as financial consulting. For example, The National Alliance for Education and Research offers a wide variety of courses in health, life and property, and casualty in surance for independent insurance agents. Although voluntary, such programs assure clients and employers that an agent has a thorough understanding of the relevant specialty. Agents are usually required to complete a specified number of hours of continuing education to retain their designation. In the area of financial planning, many agents find it worth while to demonstrate competency by earning the certified fi nancial planner or chartered financial consultant designation. The Certified Financial Planner credential, issued by the Cer tified Financial Planner Board of Standards, requires relevant experience, completion of education requirements, passing a comprehensive examination, and adherence to an enforceable code of ethics. The exam tests the candidate’s knowledge of the financial planning process, insurance and risk management, employee benefits planning, taxes and retirement planning, and investment and estate planning. The Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC) and the Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU) designations, issued by the American College in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, typically require profes sional experience and the completion of an eight-course program of study. Many property and casualty insurance agents obtain the Chartered Property Casualty Underwriter (CPCU) designation, offered by the American Institute for Chartered Property Casu alty Underwriter. The majority of professional designations in insurance have continuing education requirements. An insurance sales agent who shows ability and leadership may become a sales manager in a local office. A few advance to agency managerial or executive positions. However, many who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some—particularly in the property and casualty field—estab lish their own independent agencies or brokerage firms. Employment Insurance sales agents held about 436,000 jobs in 2006. Almost 50 percent of insurance sales agents work for insurance agencies and brokerages. About 23 percent work directly for insurance carriers. Although most insurance agents specialize in life and health insurance or property and casualty insurance, a growing number of “multiline” agents sell all lines of insurance. A small number of agents work for banks and securities brokerages as a result of the increasing integration of the finance and insurance industries. Approximately 26 percent of insurance sales agents are self employed. Insurance sales agents are employed throughout the country, but most work in or near large urban centers. Some are em ployed in the headquarters of insurance companies, but the ma jority work out of local offices or independent agencies. Job Outlook Employment of insurance sales agents is expected to grow about average for all occupations through 2016, and opportuni ties will be favorable for persons who are college graduates and who have sales ability, excellent interpersonal skills, and exper tise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. Employment change. Employment of insurance sales agents is expected to increase by 13 percent over the 2006-16 period, which is about as fast as average for all occupations. Future demand for insurance sales agents depends largely on the vol ume of sales of insurance and other financial products. Sales of health insurance and long-term-care insurance are expected to rise sharply as the population ages. In addition, a growing population will increase demand for insurance for automobiles, homes, and high-priced valuables and equipment. As new busi nesses emerge and existing firms expand their insurance cover age, sales of commercial insurance also should increase, includ ing coverage such as product liability, workers’ compensation, employee benefits, and pollution liability insurance. Employment of agents will not keep up with the rising level of insurance sales, however. Many insurance carriers are trying to contain costs and are shedding their captive agents—those agents working directly for insurance carriers. Instead carri ers are relying more on independent agents or direct marketing through the mail, by phone, or on the Internet. In many ways, the Internet should not greatly threaten agents’ jobs as was widely thought. The automation of policy and claims processing is allowing insurance agents to take on more clients. Most clients value their relationship with their agent and still prefer discussing their policies directly with their agents, rather than through a computer. Insurance and investments are becoming more complex, and many people and businesses lack the time and expertise to buy insurance without the advice of an agent. Job prospects. Multilingual agents should have good job prospects because they can serve a wider range of customers. Additionally, insurance language tends to be quite technical, so agents who have a firm understanding of relevant technical and legal terms will also be desirable to employers. Many begin ning agents fail to earn enough from commissions to meet their Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, employment, 2006-16 Code 2016 Number Percent Insurance sales agents............................................. ............................. 41-3021 436,000 492,000 56,000 13 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational InformaOccupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2006 Sales and Related Occupations 523 income goals and eventually transfer to other careers. Many job openings are likely to result from the need to replace agents who leave the occupation or retire, as a large number of agents are expected to retire over the next decade. Agents may face increased competition from traditional secu rities brokers and bankers as they begin to sell insurance poli cies. Insurance sales agents will need to expand the products and services they offer as consolidation increases among insurance companies, banks, and brokerage firms and as demands increase from clients for more comprehensive financial planning. Independent agents who incorporate new technology into their existing businesses will remain competitive. Agents who use the Internet to market their products will reach a broader client base and expand their business. Agents who offer bet ter customer service also will remain competitive. Carriers and agencies are increasingly using call centers in an effort to offer better service to customers because they provide greater access to clients’ policies and more prompt services. Most individuals and businesses consider insurance a neces sity, regardless of economic conditions, so agents are not likely to face unemployment because of a recession. Earnings The median annual earnings of wage and salary insurance sales agents were $43,870 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,640 and $69,180. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of $24,600 or less, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $115,090. Median annual earnings in May 2006 in the two industries employing the largest number of in surance sales agents were $46,210 for insurance carriers, and $42,950 for agencies, brokerages, and other insurance related activities. Many independent agents are paid by commission only, whereas sales workers who are employees of an agency or an insurance carrier may be paid in one of three ways: salary only, salary plus commission, or salary plus bonus. In general, com missions are the most common form of compensation, especially for experienced agents. The amount of the commission depends on the type and amount of insurance sold and on whether the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. Bonuses usually are awarded when agents meet their sales goals or when an agency meets its profit goals. Some agents involved with financial plan ning receive a fee for their services, rather than a commission. Company-paid benefits to insurance sales agents usually in clude continuing education, training to qualify for licensing, group insurance plans, office space, and clerical support ser vices. Some companies also may pay for automobile and trans portation expenses, attendance at conventions and meetings, promotion and marketing expenses, and retirement plans. In dependent agents working for insurance agencies receive fewer benefits, but their commissions may be higher to help them pay for marketing and other expenses. wholesale and manufacturing; customer service representatives, and advertising sales agents. Other occupations in the insurance industry include insurance underwriters and claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators. Sources of Additional Information Occupational information about insurance sales agents is avail able from the home office of many insurance companies. Infor mation on State licensing requirements may be obtained from the department of insurance at any State capital. For information about insurance sales careers and training, contact: y Independent Insurance Agents and Brokers of America, 127 S. Peyton St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.iiaba.org y Insurance Vocational Education Student Training (InVEST), 127 S. Peyton St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.investprogram.org y National Association of Professional Insurance Agents, 400 N. Washington Street, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.pianet.org For information about health insurance sales careers, contact: y National Association of Health Underwriters, 2000 N. 14th St., Suite 450, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.nahu.org For general information on the property and casualty field, contact: y Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038. Internet: http://www.iii.org For information about professional designation programs, contact: y The American Institute for Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters/Insurance Institute of America, 720 Providence Rd„ P.O. Box 3016, Malvern, PA 19355-0716. Internet: http://www.aicpcu.org y The American College, 270 Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 19010-2195. Internet: http://www.theamericancollege.edu Real Estate Brokers and Sales Agents (0*NET 41-9021.00, 41-9022.00) Significant Points • Real estate brokers and sales agents often work eve nings and weekends and usually are on call to suit the needs of clients. • A license is required in every State and the District of Columbia. • Although gaining a job may be relatively easy, begin ning workers face competition from well-established, more experienced agents and brokers. • Employment is sensitive to swings in the economy, es pecially interest rates; during periods of declining eco nomic activity and rising interest rates, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers fall. Related Occupations Other workers who provide or sell financial products or services include real estate brokers and sales agents; securities, com modities, and financial services sales agents; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; and financial managers. Oc cupations with similar sales duties include sales representatives, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 524 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work One of the most complex and significant financial events in peoples’ lives is the purchase or sale of a home or investment property. Because of this complexity and significance, people typically seek the help of real estate brokers and sales agents when buying or selling real estate. Real estate brokers and sales agents have a thorough knowl edge of the real estate market in their communities. They know which neighborhoods will best fit clients’ needs and budgets. They are familiar with local zoning and tax laws and know where to obtain financing. Agents and brokers also act as inter mediaries in price negotiations between buyers and sellers. When selling property, brokers and agents arrange for title searches to verify ownership and for meetings between buyers and sellers during which they agree to the details of the transac tions and in a final meeting, the new owners take possession of the property. They also may help to arrange favorable financ ing from a lender for the prospective buyer; often, this makes the difference between success and failure in closing a sale. In some cases, brokers and agents assume primary responsibility for closing sales; in others, lawyers or lenders do. Agents and brokers spend a significant amount of time look ing for properties to sell. They obtain listings—agreements by owners to place properties for sale with the firm. When listing a property for sale, agents and brokers compare the listed property with similar properties that recently sold, in order to determine a competitive market price for the property. Following the sale of the property, both the agent who sold it and the agent who obtained the listing receive a portion of the commission. Thus, agents who sell a property that they themselves have listed can increase their commission. Before showing residential properties to potential buyers, agents meet with them to get an idea of the type of home the buyers would like. In this prequalifying phase, the agent deter mines how much the buyers can afford to spend. In addition, the agent and the buyer usually sign a loyalty contract, which states that the agent will be the only one to show houses to the buyer. An agent or broker then generates lists of properties for sale, their location and description, and available sources of financ ing. In some cases, agents and brokers use computers to give buyers a virtual tour of properties that interest them. Agents may meet several times with prospective buyers to discuss and visit available properties. Agents identify and em phasize the most pertinent selling points. To a young family looking for a house, for example, they may emphasize the con venient floor plan, the area’s low crime rate, and the proximity to schools and shopping. To a potential investor, they may point out the tax advantages of owning a rental property and the ease of finding a renter. If bargaining over price becomes necessary, agents must follow their client’s instructions carefully and may have to present counteroffers to get the best possible price. Once the buyer and seller have signed a contract, the real es tate broker or agent must make sure that all special terms of the contract are met before the closing date. The agent must make sure that any legally mandated or agreed-upon inspections, such as termite and radon inspections, take place. In addition, if the seller agrees to any repairs, the broker or agent ensures they are made. Increasingly, brokers and agents are handling environ mental problems as well, by making sure that the properties they https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sell meet environmental regulations. For example, they may be responsible for dealing with lead paint on the walls. Loan of ficers, attorneys, or other people handle many details, but the agent must ensure that they are carried out. Most real estate brokers and sales agents sell residential prop erty. A small number—usually employed in large or specialized firms—sell commercial, industrial, agricultural, or other types of real estate. Every specialty requires knowledge of that par ticular type of property and clientele. Selling or leasing busi ness property requires an understanding of leasing practices, business trends, and the location of the property. Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about the region’s transportation, utilities, and labor supply. Whatever the type of property, the agent or broker must know how to meet the client’s particular requirements. Brokers and agents do the same type of work, but brokers are licensed to manage their own real estate businesses. Agents must work with a broker. They usually provide their services to a licensed real estate broker on a contract basis. In return, the broker pays the agent a portion of the commission earned from the agent’s sale of the property. Brokers, as independent businesspeople, often sell real estate owned by others; they also may rent or manage properties for a fee. Work environment. Advances in telecommunications and the ability to retrieve data about properties over the Internet al low many real estate brokers and sales agents to work out of their homes instead of real estate offices. Even with this con venience, workers spend much of their time away from their desks—showing properties to customers, analyzing properties for sale, meeting with prospective clients, or researching the real estate market. Agents and brokers often work more than a standard 40-hour week. They usually work evenings and weekends and are usu ally on call to respond to the needs of clients. Although the hours are long and frequently irregular, most agents and brokers have the freedom to determine their own schedule. They can arrange their work so that they have time off when they want it. Business usually is slower during the winter season. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In every State and the District of Columbia, real estate brokers and sales agents must be licensed. Prospective agents must be high school graduates, be at least 18 years old, and pass a writ ten test. Education and training. Agents and brokers must be high school graduates. In fact, as real estate transactions have be come more legally complex, many firms have turned to college graduates to fill positions. A large number of agents and brokers have some college training. College courses in real estate, fi nance, business administration, statistics, economics, law, and English are helpful. For those who intend to start their own company, business courses such as marketing and accounting are as important as courses in real estate or finance. More than 1,000 universities, colleges, and community col leges offer courses in real estate. Most offer an associate or bachelor’s degree in real estate; some offer graduate degrees. Many local real estate associations that are members of the National Association of Realtors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses Sales and Related Occupations 525 in mortgage financing, property development and management, and other subjects also are available. Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and experienced agents. Larger firms usually offer more exten sive programs than smaller firms do. Licensure. In every State and the District of Columbia, real estate brokers and sales agents must be licensed. Prospective brokers and agents must pass a written examination. The exami nation—more comprehensive for brokers than for agents—in cludes questions on basic real estate transactions and laws af fecting the sale of property. Most States require candidates for the general sales license to complete between 30 and 90 hours of classroom instruction. To get a broker’s license an individual needs between 60 and 90 hours of formal training and a specific amount of experience selling real estate, usually 1 to 3 years. Some States waive the experience requirements for the broker’s license for applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in real es tate. State licenses typically must be renewed every 1 or 2 years; usually, no examination is needed. However, many States re quire continuing education for license renewals. Prospective agents and brokers should contact the real estate licensing com mission of the State in which they wish to work to verify the exact licensing requirements. Other qualifications. Personality traits are as important as academic background. Brokers look for agents who have a pleasant personality, honesty, and a neat appearance. Maturity, good judgment, trustworthiness, and enthusiasm for the job are required to attract prospective customers in this highly competi tive field. Agents should be well organized, be detail oriented, and have a good memory for names, faces, and business particu lars. They must be at least 18 years old. Those interested in jobs as real estate agents often begin in their own communities. Their knowledge of local neighbor hoods is a clear advantage. Under the direction of an experi enced agent, beginners learn the practical aspects of the job, in cluding the use of computers to locate or list available properties and identify sources of financing. Advancement. As agents gain knowledge and expertise, they become more efficient in closing a greater number of transac tions and increase their earnings. In many large firms, expe rienced agents can advance to sales manager or general man- Real estate brokers and sales agents have knowledge of the real estate market and are on call to suit the needs of clients. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ager. People who earn their broker’s license may open their own offices. Others with experience and training in estimating property value may become real estate appraisers, and people familiar with operating and maintaining rental properties may become property managers. (See the Handbook statements on property, real estate, and community association managers; and appraisers and assessors of real estate.) Experienced agents and brokers with a thorough knowledge of business conditions and property values in their localities may enter mortgage financing or real estate investment counseling. Employment In 2006, real estate brokers and sales agents held about 564,000 jobs; real estate sales agents held approximately 77 percent of these jobs. Many real estate brokers and sales agents worked part time, combining their real estate activities with other careers. About 61 percent real estate brokers and sales agents were self-em ployed. Real estate is sold in all areas, but employment is con centrated in large urban areas and in rapidly growing communi ties. Most real estate firms are relatively small; indeed, some are one-person businesses. By contrast, some large real estate firms have several hundred agents operating out of numerous branch offices. Many brokers have franchise agreements with national or regional real estate organizations. Under this type of arrange ment, the broker pays a fee in exchange for the privilege of us ing the more widely known name of the parent organization. Although franchised brokers often receive help in training sales staff and running their offices, they bear the ultimate responsi bility for the success or failure of their firms. Job Outlook Average employment growth is expected because of the increas ing housing needs of a growing population, as well as the per ception that real estate is a good investment. Beginning agents and brokers face competition from their well-established, more experienced counterparts. Employment change. Employment of real estate brokers and sales agents is expected to grow 11 percent during the 2006-16 projection decade—about as fast as the average for all occupa tions. Relatively low interest rates and the perception that real estate usually is a good investment may continue to stimulate sales of real estate, resulting in the need for more agents and brokers. However, job growth will be somewhat limited by the increasing use of technology, which is improving the productiv ity of agents and brokers. For example, prospective customers often can perform their own searches for properties that meet their criteria by accessing real estate information on the Internet. The increasing use of technology is likely to be more detrimen tal to part-time or temporary real estate agents than to full-time agents because part-time agents generally are not able to com pete with full-time agents who have invested in new technology. Changing legal requirements, such as disclosure laws, also may dissuade some who are not serious about practicing full time from continuing to work part time. Job prospects. In addition to job growth, a large number of job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Real estate 526 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Real estate brokers and sales agents............................. ...................... Real estate brokers..................................................... ...................... Real estate sales agents..................................................................... soc Code 41-9020 41-9021 41-9022 Employment, 2006 564,000 131,000 432,000 Projected employment, 2016 624,000 146,000 478,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 60,000 11 15,000 11 46,000 11 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Infonnation Included in the Handbook. brokers and sales agents are older, on average, than are most oth er workers. Historically, many homemakers and retired people were attracted to real estate sales by the flexible and part-time work schedules characteristic of the field. These individuals could enter, leave, and later return to the occupation, depending on the strength of the real estate market, their family respon sibilities, or other personal circumstances. Recently, however, the attractiveness of part-time real estate work has declined, as increasingly complex legal and technological requirements are raising startup costs associated with becoming an agent. Employment of real estate brokers and sales agents often is sensitive to swings in the economy, especially interest rates. During periods of declining economic activity and rising inter est rates, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers falls. As a result, the earnings of agents and brokers decline, and many work fewer hours or leave the occupation al together. This occupation is relatively easy to enter and is attractive because of its flexible working conditions; the high interest in, and familiarity with, local real estate markets that entrants often have; and the potential for high earnings. Therefore, although gaining a job as a real estate agent or broker may be relatively easy, beginning agents and brokers face competition from their well-established, more experienced counterparts in obtaining listings and in closing an adequate number of sales. Well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy selling—particu larly those with extensive social and business connections in their communities—should have the best chance for success. Offices of real estate agents and brokers............................ $64,350 Lessors of real estate............................................................ 61,030 Activities related to real estate.............................................48,250 Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings of real estate agents and brokers. The rate of commission varies ac cording to whatever the agent and broker agree on, the type of property, and its value. The percentage paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unimproved land is typically high er than the percentage paid for selling a home. Commissions may be divided among several agents and bro kers. The broker or agent who obtains a listing usually shares the commission with the broker or agent who sells the prop erty and with the firms that employ each of them. Although an agent’s share varies greatly from one firm to another, often it is about half of the total amount received by the firm. Agents who both list and sell a property maximize their commission. Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but individual motivation, economic conditions, and the type and location of the property affect earnings, too. Sales workers who are active in community organizations and in local real estate associations can broaden their contacts and increase their earn ings. A beginner’s earnings often are irregular because a few weeks or even months may go by without a sale. Although some brokers allow an agent to draw against future earnings from a special account, the practice is not common with new employ ees. The beginner, therefore, should have enough money to live for about 6 months or until commissions increase. Earnings The median annual earnings, including commissions, of salaried real estate sales agents were $39,760 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,790 and $65,270 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,170, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $111,500. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of real estate sales agents in May 2006 were: Residential building construction........................................ $53,390 Land subdivision................................................................... 49,230 Offices of real estate agents and brokers............................... 39,930 Activities related to real estate.............................................. 36,510 Lessors of real estate............................................................. 32,580 Median annual earnings, including commissions, of salaried real estate brokers were $60,790 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,800 and $102,180 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of real estate brokers in May 2006 were: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Selling expensive items such as homes requires maturity, tact, and a sense of responsibility. Other sales workers who find these character traits important in their work include insurance sales agents; retail salespersons; sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; and securities, commodities, and financial ser vices sales agents. Although not involving sales, others who need an understanding of real estate include property, real estate, and community association managers, as well as appraisers and assessors of real estate. Sources of Additional Information Information on licensing requirements for real estate brokers and sales agents is available from most local real estate organi zations or from the State real estate commission or board. More information about opportunities in real estate is avail able on the Internet site of the following organization: y National Association of Realtors. Internet: http://www.realtor.org Sales and Related Occupations 527 Retail Salespersons (0*NET 41-2031.00) Significant Points • Good employment opportunities are expected because of the need to replace the large number of workers who leave the occupation each year. • Most salespersons work evenings and weekends, par ticularly during sales and other peak retail periods. Employers look for people who enjoy working with others and who have tact, patience, an interest in sales work, a neat appearance, and the ability to communi cate clearly. • Nature of the Work Consumers spend millions of dollars every day on merchandise and often rely on a store’s sales force for help. Whether selling shoes, computer equipment, or automobiles, retail salespersons assist customers in finding what they are looking for and try to interest them in buying the merchandise. Most are able to de scribe a product’s features, demonstrate its use, or show various models and colors. In addition to selling, most retail salespersons—especially those who work in department and apparel stores—make out sales checks; receive cash, checks, debit, and charge payments; bag or package purchases; and give change and receipts. De pending on the hours they work, retail salespersons may have to open or close cash registers. This work may include count ing the money in the register; separating charge slips, coupons, and exchange vouchers; and making deposits at the cash of fice. Salespersons often are held responsible for the contents of their registers, and repeated shortages are cause for dismissal in many organizations. (Cashiers, who have similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Retailers stress the importance of providing courteous and efficient service to remain competitive. For example, when a customer wants an item that is not on the sales floor, the sales person may check the stockroom, place a special order, or call another store to locate the item. For some sales jobs, particularly those involving expensive and complex items, retail salespersons need special knowledge or skills. For example, salespersons who sell automobiles must be able to explain the features of various models, the manufac turers’ specifications, the types of options and financing avail able, and the warranty. Salespersons also may handle returns and exchanges of mer chandise, wrap gifts, and keep their work areas neat. In addi tion, they may help stock shelves or racks, arrange for mailing or delivery of purchases, mark price tags, take inventory, and prepare displays. Frequently, salespersons must be aware of special sales and promotions. They also must recognize security risks and thefts and know how to handle or prevent such situations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Work environment. Most salespersons in retail trade work in clean, comfortable, well-lit stores. However, they often stand for long periods and may need supervisory approval to leave the sales floor. They also may work outdoors if they sell items such as cars, plants, or lumber yard materials. The Monday-through-Friday, 9-to-5 workweek is the excep tion rather than the rule in retail trade. Most salespersons work evenings and weekends, particularly during sales and other peak retail periods. The end-of-year holiday season is the busi est time for most retailers. As a result, many employers limit the use of vacation time between Thanksgiving and the begin ning of January. This occupation offers many opportunities for part-time work and is especially appealing to students, retirees, and others seeking to supplement their income. More than 32 percent of retail salespersons worked part-time in 2006. However, most of those selling big-ticket items work full time and have substan tial experience. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Retail salespeople typically learn their skills through on-thejob training. Although advancement opportunities are limited, having a college degree or a great deal of experience may help retail salespersons move into management positions. Education and training. There usually are no formal educa tion requirements for this type of work, although a high school diploma or the equivalent is often preferred. A college degree may be required for management trainee positions, especially in larger retail establishments. In most small stores, an experienced employee or the store owner instructs newly hired sales personnel in making out sales checks and operating cash registers. In large stores, training programs are more formal and are usually conducted over sev eral days. Topics discussed often include customer service, security, the store’s policies and procedures, and how to work a cash register. Depending on the type of product they are sell ing, employees may be given additional specialized training by sales representatives. For example, those working in cosmetics receive instruction on the types of products the store offers and for whom the cosmetics would be most beneficial. Likewise, salespersons employed by motor vehicle dealers may be in- Retail salespersons must know about the products they are sell ing, and answer questions from customers. 528 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Retail salespersons................................................................................. SOC Code 41-2031 Employment, 2006 4,477,000 Projected employment, 2016 5,034,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 557,000 12 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. structed on the technical details of standard and optional equip ment available on new vehicle models. Since providing the best possible service to customers is a high priority for many employers, employees often are given periodic training to up date and refine their skills. Other qualifications. Employers look for people who en joy working with others and who have the tact and patience to deal with difficult customers. Among other desirable charac teristics are an interest in sales work, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly and effectively. The ability to speak more than one language may be helpful for employ ment in communities where people from various cultures live and shop. Before hiring a salesperson, some employers may conduct a background check, especially for a job selling highpriced items. Advancement. Opportunities for advancement vary. In some small establishments, advancement is limited because one per son—often the owner—does most of the managerial work. In others, some salespersons are promoted to assistant manager. Large retail businesses usually prefer to hire college graduates as management trainees, making a college education increas ingly important. However, motivated and capable employees without college degrees still may advance to administrative or supervisory positions in large establishments. As salespersons gain experience and seniority, they usu ally move to positions of greater responsibility and may be given their choice of departments in which to work. This of ten means moving to areas with higher potential earnings and commissions. The highest earnings potential usually lies in selling “big-ticket” items—such as cars, jewelry, furniture, and electronic equipment—although doing so often requires exten sive knowledge of the product and an extraordinary talent for persuasion. Retail selling experience may be an asset when applying for sales positions with larger retailers or in nonretail industries, such as financial services, wholesale trade, or manufacturing. Employment Retail salespersons held about 4.5 million jobs in 2006. They worked in stores ranging from small specialty shops employ ing a few workers to giant department stores with hundreds of salespersons. In addition, some were self-employed represen tatives of direct-sales companies and mail-order houses. The largest employers of retail salespersons are department stores, clothing and clothing accessories stores, building material and garden equipment and supplies dealers, other general merchan dise stores, and motor vehicle and parts dealers. Because retail stores are found in every city and town, em ployment is distributed geographically in much the same way as the population. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Due to the high level of turnover in this occupation, opportuni ties are expected to be good. The average projected employ ment growth in this occupation reflects the expansion of the economy and consumer spending. Employment change. Employment is expected to grow by 12 percent over the 2006-16 decade, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. In fact, due to the size of this occupation, retail salespersons will have one of the largest numbers of new jobs arise, about 557,000 over the projections decade. This growth reflects rising retail sales stemming from a growing population. Many retail establishments will con tinue to expand in size and number, leading to new retail sales positions. Since retail salespeople must be available to assist customers in person, this is not an occupation that will suffer negative effects from advancements in technology. To the con trary, software that integrates purchase transactions, inventory management, and purchasing has greatly changed retailing, but retail salespersons continue to be essential in dealing with customers. There will also be an increased demand for retail salespersons in warehouse clubs and supercenters, which sell a wide assortment of goods at low prices, since they continue to grow as many consumers prefer these stores. Despite the growing popularity of electronic commerce, the impact of electronic commerce on employment of retail salespersons is expected to be minimal. Internet sales have not decreased the need for retail salespersons. Retail stores commonly use an online presence to complement their in-store sales; there are a limited number of Internet-only apparel and specialty stores. Retail salespersons will remain important in assuring customers, providing specialized service, and increas ing customer satisfaction. Most shoppers continue to prefer to make their purchases in stores, and growth of retail sales will continue to generate employment growth in various retail establishments. Job prospects. As in the past, employment opportunities for retail salespersons are expected to be good because of the need to replace the large number of workers who transfer to other oc cupations or leave the labor force each year. Warehouse clubs and supercenters are expected to have excellent job prospects as they continue to grow in popularity with consumers. In ad dition, many new jobs will be created for retail salespersons as businesses seek to expand operations and enhance customer service. Opportunities for part-time work should be abundant, and demand will be strong for temporary workers during peak sell ing periods, such as the end-of-year holiday season. The avail ability of part-time and temporary work attracts many people seeking to supplement their income. Sales and Related Occupations 529 During economic downturns, sales volumes and the result ing demand for sales workers usually decline. Purchases of costly items, such as cars, appliances, and furniture, tend to be postponed during difficult economic times. In areas of high unemployment, sales of many types of goods decline. How ever, because many retail salespersons constantly transfer to other occupations in search of better pay or career opportuni ties, employers often can adjust employment levels simply by not replacing all those who leave. Earnings Median hourly earnings of retail salespersons, including com missions, were $9.50 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.81 and $12.83 an hour. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $6.79, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.48 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the in dustries employing the largest numbers of retail salespersons in May 2006 were as follows: Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in retail sales may be obtained from the personnel offices of local stores or from State merchants’ as sociations. General information about retailing is available from: > National Retail Federation, 325 7th St.NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. Information about training for a career in automobile sales is available from: y National Automobile Dealers Association, Public Relations Department, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. Internet: http://www.nada.org Sales Engineers (0*NET 41-9031.00) Significant Points Automobile dealers............................................................... $18.70 Building material and suppliesdealers.................................... 11.37 Other general merchandise stores.............................................. 8.79 Department stores......................................................................8.70 Clothing stores...........................................................................8.53 Many beginning or inexperienced workers earn the Federal minimum wage of $5.85 an hour, but many States set minimum wages higher than the Federal minimum. Under Federal law, this wage will increase to $6.55 in the summer of 2008 and to $7.25 in the summer of 2009. In areas where employers have difficulty attracting and retaining workers, wages tend to be higher than the legislated minimum. Compensation systems can vary by type of establishment and merchandise sold. Salespersons receive hourly wages, commissions, or a combination thereof. Under a commission system, salespersons receive a percentage of the sales they make. This system offers sales workers the opportunity to in crease their earnings considerably, but they may find that their earnings strongly depend on their ability to sell their product and on the ups and downs of the economy. Benefits may be limited in smaller stores, but benefits in large establishments usually are comparable to those offered by other employers. In addition, nearly all salespersons are able to buy their store’s merchandise at a discount, with the savings depending on the type of merchandise. Also, to bol ster revenue, employers may use incentive programs such as awards, banquets, bonuses, and profit-sharing plans to promote teamwork among the sales staff. Related Occupations Salespersons use sales techniques, coupled with their knowl edge of merchandise, to assist customers and encourage pur chases. Workers in other occupations who use these same skills include sales representatives, wholesale and manufac turing; securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; counter and rental clerks; real estate brokers and sales agents; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; insurance sales agents; sales engineers; and cashiers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • • • • A bachelor’s degree in engineering usually is required; many sales engineers have previous work experience in an engineering specialty. Projected employment growth will stem from the in creasing numbers of technical products and services for sale. More job opportunities are expected in independent sales agencies. Earnings are typically based on a combination of sal ary and commission. Nature of the Work Many products and services, especially those purchased by large companies and institutions, are highly complex. Sales en gineers—who also may be called manufacturers’ agents, sales representatives, or technical sales support workers—work with the production, engineering, or research and development de partments of their companies, or with independent sales firms, to determine how products and services could be designed or modified to suit customers’ needs. They also may advise cus tomers on how best to use the products or services provided. Sales engineers sell and consult on technologically and sci entifically advanced products. They should possess extensive knowledge of these products, including their components and processes. Sales engineers then use their technical skills to demonstrate to potential customers how and why the products or services they are selling would suit the customer better than competitors’ products. Often, there may not be a directly com petitive product. In these cases, the job of the sales engineer is to demonstrate to the customer the usefulness of the product or service—for example, how much money new production ma chinery would save. Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and mathematics to technical problems. Their work is the link between scientific discoveries and commercial applications. Many sales engineers specialize in products that are related to their engineering specialty. For example, sales engineers sell 530 Occupational Outlook Handbook ing chemical products may have chemical engineering back grounds, while those selling business software or information systems may have degrees in computer engineering, (Informa tion on engineers, including 17 engineering specialties, appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many of the duties of sales engineers are similar to those of other salespersons. They must interest the client in purchasing their products, many of which are durable manufactured prod ucts such as turbines. Sales engineers often are teamed with other salespersons who concentrate on the marketing and sales, enabling the sales engineer to concentrate on the technical as pects of the job. By working on a sales team, each member is able to focus on his or her strengths and expertise. (Informa tion on other sales occupations, including sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, appears elsewhere in the Hand book.) Sales engineers tend to employ selling techniques that are different from those used by most other sales workers. They generally use a “consultative” style; that is, they focus on the client’s problem and show how it could be solved or mitigated with their product or service. This selling style differs from the “benefits and features” method, whereby the salesperson describes the product and leaves the customer to decide how it would be useful. In addition to maintaining current clients and attracting new ones, sales engineers help clients solve any problems that arise when the product is installed. Afterward, they may continue to serve as a liaison between the client and their company. In creasingly, sales engineers are asked to undertake tasks related to sales, such as market research, because of their familiarity with clients’ purchasing needs. Drawing on this same familiar ity, sales engineers may help identify and develop new prod ucts. Work environment. Sales engineers may work directly for manufacturers or service providers, or they may work in small independent sales firms. In an independent firm, they may sell complementary products from several different suppliers. Workers in this occupation can encounter pressure and stress because their income and job security often depend directly on their success in sales and customer service. Many sales engi neers work more than 40 hours per week to meet sales goals and client needs. Although the hours may be long and often irregular, many sales engineers have the freedom to determine their own schedules. Consequently, they often can arrange their appointments so that they can have time off when they want it. Some sales engineers have large territories and travel exten sively. Because sales regions may cover several States, sales engineers may be away from home for several days or even weeks at a time. Others work near their home base and travel mostly by car. International travel to secure contracts with for eign clients is becoming more common. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most sales engineers have a bachelor’s degree in engineering, and many have previous work experience in an engineering spe cialty. New sales engineers may need some on-the-job training in sales or may work closely with a sales mentor familiar with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ..................I mm SYi>v Most sales engineers have a bachelor’s degree in engineering. company policies and practices before they can work on their own. Education and training. A bachelor’s degree in engineering usually is required to become a sales engineer. However, some workers with previous experience in sales combined with tech nical experience or training sometimes hold the title of sales engineer. Also, workers who have a degree in a science, such as chemistry, or even a degree in business with little or no previous sales experience, may be termed sales engineers. Admissions requirements for undergraduate engineering schools include a solid background in mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calculus) and the physical scienc es (biology, chemistry, and physics), as well as basic courses in English, social studies, humanities, and computer science. University programs vary in content, though all require the de velopment of computer skills. Once a university has been se lected, a student must choose an area of engineering in which to specialize. Some programs offer a general engineering curricu lum; students then specialize on the job or in graduate school. Most engineering degrees are granted in electrical, mechanical, or civil engineering. However, engineers trained in one branch may work in related branches. New graduates with engineering degrees may need sales ex perience and training before they can work independently as sales engineers. Training may involve teaming with a sales mentor who is familiar with the employer’s business practices, customers, procedures, and company culture. After the train ing period has been completed, sales engineers may continue to partner with someone who lacks technical skills, yet excels in the art of sales. It is important for sales engineers to continue their engineer ing and sales education throughout their careers. Much of their value to their employers depends on their knowledge of and ability to sell the latest technologies. Sales engineers in hightechnology fields, such as information technology or advanced electronics, may find that technical knowledge rapidly becomes obsolete. Other qualifications. Many sales engineers first work as engineers. For some, engineering experience is necessary to obtain the technical background needed to sell their employers’ products or services effectively. Others move into the occupa tion because it offers better earnings and advancement potential Sales and Related Occupations 531 than engineering or because they are looking for a new chal lenge. Advancement. Promotion may include a higher commission rate, larger sales territory, or elevation to the position of super visor or marketing manager. Alternatively, sales engineers may leave their companies and form independent firms. Indepen dent firms tend to be small, and relatively few sales engineers are self-employed. Employment Sales engineers held about 76,000 jobs in 2006. About 37 per cent were employed in wholesale trade and another 26 percent were employed in the manufacturing industries. Smaller num bers of sales engineers worked in information industries, such as software publishing and telecommunications; professional, scientific, and technical services, such as computer systems de sign and related services; architectural, engineering, and related services; and other industries. Unlike workers in many other sales occupations, very few sales engineers are self-employed. Job Outlook Job growth for sales engineers is projected to be about average through 2016, and opportunities will be good in independent sales agencies because of the increase in outsourcing of sales departments by manufacturers. Employment change. Employment of sales engineers is ex pected to grow by 9 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. Projected employment growth stems from the increasing variety and technical nature of goods and services to be sold. Competi tive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs more frequently and to optimize their manufacturing and sales processes, and thus re quire the services of a sales engineer. In wholesale trade, both outsourcing to independent sales agencies and the use of information technology are expected to create some job growth for sales engineers. Although outsourc ing should lead to more jobs in independent agencies, employ ment growth for sales engineers in wholesale trade likely will be dampened by the increasing ability of businesses to find, order, and track shipments directly from wholesalers through the Internet, without assistance from sales engineers. However, since direct purchases from wholesalers are more likely to be non-scientific or non-technical products, their impact on sales engineers should remain somewhat limited. Job prospects. Manufacturers, especially foreign manufac turers that sell their products in the United States, are expected to continue outsourcing more of their sales functions to inde pendent sales agencies in an attempt to control costs. Addi tionally, since independent agencies can carry multiple lines of products, a single sales engineer can handle more products than the single product line they would have handled under a manufacturer. This should result in more job opportunities for sales engineers in independent agencies. Employment opportunities may fluctuate from year to year because sales are affected by changing economic conditions, legislative issues, and consumer preferences. Prospects will be best for those with the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise, as well as the personal traits necessary for successful sales work. In addition to new positions created as companies expand their sales forces, some openings will arise each year from the need to replace sales engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings, including commissions, of wage and salary sales engineers were $77,720 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $59,490 and $100,280 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $47,010, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $127,680 a year. Median annual earnings of those employed by firms in the computer systems design and related services industry were $90,950. Compensation varies significantly by the type of firm and the product sold. Most employers offer a combination of sal ary and commission payments or a salary plus a bonus. Those working in independent sales companies may solely earn com missions. Commissions usually are based on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the performance of all workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. Earnings from commissions and bonuses may vary greatly from year to year, depending on sales ability, the demand for the company’s products or services, and the overall economy. In addition to their earnings, sales engineers who work for manufacturers usually are reimbursed for expenses such as transportation, meals, hotels, and customer entertainment. In addition to typical benefits, sales engineers may get personal use of a company car and frequent-flyer mileage. Some com panies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding performance. Sales engineers who work in inde pendent firms may have higher but less stable earnings and, of ten, relatively few benefits. Most independent sales engineers do not earn any income while on vacation. Related Occupations Sales engineers must have sales ability and knowledge of the products and services they sell, as well as technical and analyti cal skills. Other occupations that require similar skills include advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; engineers; insurance sales agents; purchasing man- Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Sales engineers......................................................... ............................. soc Code 41-9031 Employment, 2006 76,000 Projected employment, 2016 82,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 6,500 9 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 532 Occupational Outlook Handbook agers, buyers and purchasing agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; sales representatives, wholesale and manufactur ing; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers for manufacturers’ representatives and agents is available from: y Manufacturers’ Agents National Association, P.O. Box 3467, Laguna Hills, CA 92654. Internet: http://www.manaonline.org y Manufacturers’ Representatives Educational Research Foundation, 8329 Cole St., Arvada, CO 80005. Internet: http://www.mrerf.org Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing (0*NET 41-4011.00,41-4012.00) Significant Points • Competition for jobs is expected, but opportunities will be best for those with a college degree, the ap propriate technical expertise, and the personal traits necessary for successful selling. • Job prospects for sales representatives will be bet ter for those working with essential goods, since the demand for these products do not fluctuate with the economy. • Earnings of sales representatives are relatively high and usually are based on a combination of salary and commission. Nature of the Work Sales representatives are an important part of manufacturers’ and wholesalers’ success. Regardless of the type of product they sell, sales representatives’ primary duties are to make wholesale and retail buyers and purchasing agents interested in their merchandise and to address any of their clients’ questions and concerns. Sales representatives demonstrate their products and explain how using those products can reduce costs and in crease sales. Sales representatives may represent one or several manu facturers or wholesale distributors by selling one product or a complementary line of products. The clients of sales represen tatives span almost every industry and include other manufac turers, wholesale and retail establishments, construction con tractors, and government agencies. (Retail salespersons, who sell directly to consumers, and sales engineers, who specialize in sales of technical products and services, are discussed else where in the Handbook.) The process of promoting and selling products can take up to several months. Sales representatives present their products to a customer and negotiate the sale. Whether in person or over the phone, they can make a persuasive sales pitch and often https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis will immediately answer technical and non-technical questions about the products. They may also record any interactions with clients and their respective sales to better match their future needs and sales potential. There are two major categories of products that sales repre sentatives work with: technical and scientific products and all products except technical and scientific products. Technical and scientific products may include anything from agricultural and mechanical equipment to electrical and pharmaceutical goods. Products included in the later category are more everyday items, including goods such as food, office supplies, and apparel. Sales representatives stay abreast of new products and the changing needs of their customers in a variety of ways. They attend trade shows at which new products and technologies are showcased. They also attend conferences and conventions to meet other sales representatives and clients and discuss new product developments. In addition, the entire sales force may participate in company-sponsored meetings to review sales per formance, product development, sales goals, and profitability. Frequently, sales representatives who lack the necessary ex pertise about a given product may team with a technical expert. In this arrangement, the technical expert—sometimes a sales engineer—attends the sales presentation to explain the prod uct and answer questions or concerns. The sales representa tive makes the preliminary contact with customers, introduces the company’s product, and closes the sale. The representative is then able to spend more time maintaining and soliciting ac counts and less time acquiring technical knowledge. After the sale, representatives may make follow-up visits to ensure that the equipment is functioning properly and may even help train customers’ employees to operate and maintain new equipment. Those selling technical goods may also help set up the instal lation. Those selling consumer goods often suggest how and where merchandise should be displayed. When working with retailers, they may help arrange promotional programs, store displays, and advertising. Obtaining new accounts is an important part of the job for all sales representatives. Sales representatives follow leads from other clients, track advertisements in trade journals, participate in trade shows and conferences, and may visit potential clients unannounced. In addition, they may spend time meeting with and entertaining prospective clients during evenings and week ends. Sales representatives have several duties beyond selling prod ucts. They analyze sales statistics; prepare reports; and handle administrative duties, such as filing expense accounts, sched uling appointments, and making travel plans. They also read about new and existing products and monitor the sales, prices, and products of their competitors. Sales representatives, regardless of where they are employed, may work in either inside sales or outside “field” sales. Inside sales representatives may spend a lot of their time on the phone, taking orders and resolving any problems or complaints about the merchandise. These sales representatives typically do not leave the office. Outside sales representatives spend much of their time traveling to and visiting with current clients and pro spective buyers. During a sales call, they discuss the client’s needs and suggest how their merchandise or services can meet Sales and Related Occupations 533 •Ill - - >F"S- ”! mT:; Bl * hours are long and often irregular, many sales representatives working for independent sales companies have the freedom to determine their own schedules. Dealing with different types of people can be stimulating but demanding. Sales representatives often face competition from representatives of other companies. Companies usually set goals or quotas that representatives are expected to meet. Because their earnings depend on commissions, manufacturers’ representatives are also under the added pressure to maintain and expand their clientele. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sales representatives may travel to meet with prospective cli ents to discuss products and their uses. those needs. They may show samples or catalogs that describe items their company stocks and inform customers about prices, availability, and ways in which their products can save money and boost productivity. Given that a number of manufactur ers and wholesalers sell similar products, sales representatives must emphasize any unique qualities of their products and ser vices. Since many sales representatives sell several comple mentary products made by different manufacturers, they may take a broad approach to their customers’ business. For exam ple, sales representatives may help install new equipment and train employees in its use. Sales representatives working at an independent sales agency usually sell several products from multiple manufacturers. Ad ditionally, these firms may only cover a certain territory, rang ing from local areas to several States. These independent firms are called “manufacturers’ representative companies” because their selling is on behalf of the manufacturers. Depending on where they work, sales representatives may have different job titles. Manufacturers’ agents or manufactur ers' representatives, for example, are self-employed sales work ers who own independent firms which contract their services to all types of manufacturing companies. Work environment. Some sales representatives have large territories and travel considerably. Because a sales region may cover several States, representatives may be away from home for several days or weeks at a time. Others work near their home base and travel mostly by car. Sales representatives often are on their feet for long periods and may carry heavy sample products, necessitating some physical stamina. Sales representatives may work more than 40 hours per week because of the nature of the work and the amount of travel. Since sales calls take place during regular working hours, most of the planning and paperwork involved with sales must be com pleted during the evening and on the weekends. Although the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many employers hire individuals with previous sales experi ence who lack a college degree, but hiring candidates with a college degree is becoming increasingly common. Regardless of educational background, factors such as personality, the abil ity to sell, and familiarity with brands are essential to being a successful sales representative. Education and training. Since there is no formal education al requirement for sales representative, their levels of educa tion varies. Having a bachelor’s degree can be highly desirable, especially for sales representatives who work with technical and scientific products. This is because technological advances result in new and more complex products. Additionally, manu facturers’ representatives who start their own independent sales company might have an MBA. As shown in the tabulation be low, in 2006 many sales representatives had a bachelor’s degree, and many others had some college classes. Some, however, had no degree or formal training, but these workers often had sales experience or potential. Percent High school graduate or less........................................................27 Some college, no degree..................................................................... 19 Associate’s degree..........................................................................9 Bachelor’s degree.........................................................................38 Graduate degree.............................................................................6 Many sales representatives attend seminars in sales tech niques or take courses in marketing, economics, communi cation, or even a foreign language to provide the extra edge needed to make sales. Often, companies have formal training programs for beginning sales representatives lasting up to 2 years. However, most businesses accelerate these programs to reduce costs and expedite the returns from training. In some programs, trainees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of production, installation, and distribution of the product. In others, trainees take formal classroom instruc tion at the plant, followed by on-the-job training under the su pervision of a field sales manager. Regardless of where they work, new employees may get training by accompanying experienced workers on their sales calls. As they gain familiarity with the firm’s products and cli ents, the new workers are given increasing responsibility until they are eventually assigned their own territory. As businesses experience greater competition, representatives face more pres sure to produce sales. Other qualifications. For sales representative jobs, compa nies seek the best and brightest individuals who have the per- 534 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing......................... Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, technical and scientific products......................................................................... Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, except technical and scientific products.................................................. Projected employment, 2016 2,155,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 182,000 Code Employment, 2006 41-4000 1,973,000 41 -4011 411,000 462,000 51,000 41 -40121,562,000 1,693,000 131,000 soc 12 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. sonality and desire to sell. Those who want to become sales representatives should be goal oriented, persuasive, and able to work well both independently and as part of a team. A pleas ant personality and appearance, the ability to communicate well with people, and problem-solving skills are highly valued. Patience and perseverance are also keys to completing a sale, which can take up to several months. Sales representatives also need to be able to work with computers since computers are increasingly used to place and track orders and to monitor in ventory levels. Manufacturers’ representatives who operate a sales agency must also manage their business. This requires organizational and general business skills, as well as knowledge of accounting, marketing, and administration. Usually, however, sales repre sentatives gain experience and recognition with a manufacturer or wholesaler before becoming self-employed. Certification and advancement. Certifications are available that provide formal recognition of the skills of sales represen tatives, wholesale and manufacturing. Many obtaining certifi cation in this profession have either the Certified Professional Manufacturers’ Representative (CPMR) or the Certified Sales Professional (CSP), offered by the Manufacturers’ Representa tives Education Research Foundation. Certification typically involves completion of formal training and passing an exami nation. Frequently, promotion takes the form of an assignment to a larger account or territory where commissions are likely to be greater. Those who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to higher level positions such as sales su pervisor, district manager, or vice president of sales. Others find opportunities in purchasing, advertising, or marketing re search. Advancement opportunities typically depend on whether the sales representatives are working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler or if they are working with an independent sales agency. Experienced sales representatives working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler may move into jobs as sales train ers and instruct new employees on selling techniques and com pany policies and procedures. Some leave the manufacturer or wholesaler and start their own independent sales company. Those working for an independent sales company can also ad vance by going into business for themselves or by receiving higher pay. Employment Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives held about 2 million jobs in 2006. About 21 percent worked with technical https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and scientific products. Almost 60 percent of all representatives worked in wholesale trade. Others were employed in manu facturing, retail trade, information, and construction. Because of the diversity of products and services sold, employment op portunities are available throughout the country in a wide range of industries. In addition to those working directly for a firm, some sales representatives are self-employed manufacturers’ agents. They often form small sales firms that may start with just themselves and gradually grow to employ a small staff. Job Outlook Job growth of sales representatives, wholesale and manufactur ing, is expected to be average, but keen competition is expected for these highly paid sales jobs. Employment change. Employment of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, is expected to grow by 9 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. Given the size of this occupation, a large number of new jobs, about 182,000 will arise over the projec tions decade. This is primarily because of continued growth in the variety and number of goods sold throughout the economy. Technological progress will also have an impact on job growth. Sales representatives can help ensure that retailers offer the lat est technology available to their customers or that businesses acquire the right technical products that will increase their efficiency in operations. Advances in technology will there fore lead to more products being demanded and sold, and thus growth in the sales representative profession. At the same time, however, computers and other information technology are also making sales representatives more effective and productive, allowing sales representatives to handle more clients, and thus hindering job growth somewhat. Employment growth will be greatest in independent sales companies as manufacturers and wholesalers continue to out source sales activities to independent agents rather than using in-house or direct sales workers. Independent agent companies are paid only if they sell, a practice that reduces the overhead cost to their clients. Also, by using agents who usually con tract their services to more than one company, companies can share costs of the agents with each other. As the customers of independent agents continue to merge with other companies, independent agent companies and other wholesale trade firms will also merge with each other in response to better serve their clients. Job prospects. Earnings of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing are relatively high, especially for those sell ing technical and scientific products, so keen competition is Sales and Related Occupations 535 likely for jobs. Prospects will be best for those with a solid technical background and the personal traits necessary for suc cessful selling. Opportunities will be better for sales represen tatives working for an independent sales company as opposed to working directly for a manufacturer because manufacturers are expected to continue contracting out field sales duties. Opportunities for sales representatives in manufacturing are likely to be best for those selling products for which there is strong demand. Jobs will be most plentiful in small wholesale and manufacturing firms because a growing number of these companies will rely on agents to market their products as a way to control their costs and expand their customer base. Employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year because sales are affected by changing economic conditions, legislative issues, and consumer preferences. Also, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. depend on individual performance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s per formance. Unlike those working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler, sales representatives working for an independent sales company usually are not reimbursed for expenses. De pending on the type of product or products they are selling, their experience in the field, and the number of clients they have, they can earn significantly more or less than those working in direct sales for a manufacturer or wholesaler. In addition to their earnings, sales representatives working di rectly for a manufacturer or wholesaler usually are reimbursed for expenses such as transportation costs, meals, hotels, and en tertaining customers. They often receive benefits such as health and life insurance, pension plans, vacation and sick leave, per sonal use of a company car, and frequent flyer mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding sales workers. Earnings Related Occupations Median annual earnings of wage and salary sales representa tives, wholesale and manufacturing, technical and scientific products, were $64,440, including commissions, in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,630 and $91,090 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $33,410, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $121,850 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of sales representatives, technical and scientific products, were as follows: Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, must have sales ability and knowledge of the products they sell. Other occupations that require similar skills include advertising, mar keting, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; insur ance sales agents; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; retail salespersons; sales engineers; and securities, commodities, and financial ser vices sales agents. Computer systems design and related services.................. $75,240 Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers......... 69,510 Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers.................................... 67,700 Drugs and druggists’ sundries merchant wholesalers.......... 66,210 Electrical and electronic goods merchant wholesalers........ 61,000 Information on careers for manufacturers’ representatives and sales agents is available from: y Manufacturers’ Agents National Association, One Spectrum Pointe, Suite 150, Lake Forest, CA 92630. Internet: http://www.manaonline.org >• Manufacturers’ Representatives Educational Research Foundation, 8329 Cole St., Arvada, CO 80005. Internet: http://www.mrerf.org Sources of Additional Information Median annual earnings of wage and salary sales represen tatives, wholesale and manufacturing, except technical and scientific products, were $49,610, including commission, in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,460 and $71,650 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $101,030 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of sales representatives, except technical and scientific products, were as follows: Sales Worker Supervisors (0*NET 41-1011.00,41-1012.00) Significant Points • Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers....... $54,900 Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers....................................49,730 Machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers......................................................... 48,620 Grocery and related product wholesalers..............................46,150 Miscellaneous nondurable goods merchant wholesalers..... 42,530 Overall employment is projected to grow more slowly than average. • Applicants with retail experience should have the best job opportunities. • Long, irregular hours, including evenings and week ends, are common. Nature of the Work Compensation methods for those representatives working for an independent sales company vary significantly by the type of firm and the product sold. Most employers use a combination of salary and commissions or salary plus bonus. Commissions usually are based on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sales worker supervisors oversee the work of sales and related workers, such as retail salespersons, cashiers, customer service representatives, stock clerks and order fillers, sales engineers, and wholesale sales representatives. Sales worker supervisors are responsible for interviewing, hiring, and training employ- 536 Occupational Outlook Handbook merchandise to ensure that nothing is outdated. Sales worker supervisors also review inventory and sales records, develop merchandising techniques, and coordinate sales promotions. In addition, they may greet and assist customers and promote sales and good public relations. Sales worker supervisors in non-retail establishments oversee and coordinate the activities of sales workers who sell industrial products, insurance policies, or services such as advertising, fi nancial, or Internet services. They may prepare budgets, make personnel decisions, devise sales-incentive programs, and ap prove sales contracts. In small or independent companies and retail stores, sales worker supervisors not only directly supervise sales associ ates, but they also are responsible for the operation of the entire company or store. Some are self-employed business or store , owners. mm L.. Sales worker supervisors monitor their staff to ensure high quality service to customers. ees. They also may prepare work schedules and assign workers to specific duties. Many of these supervisors hold job titles such as sales manager or department manager. Under the oc cupational classification system used in the Handbook, how ever, workers who mainly supervise workers and who do not focus on broader managerial issues of planning and strategy are classified as supervisors. In retail establishments, sales worker supervisors ensure that customers receive satisfactory service and quality goods. They also answer customers’ inquiries, deal with complaints, and sometimes handle purchasing, budgeting, and accounting. Responsibilities vary with the size and type of establish ment. As the size of retail stores and the types of goods and services increase, supervisors tend to specialize in one depart ment or one aspect of merchandising. Sales worker supervi sors in large retail establishments are often referred to as de partment supervisors or managers. They provide day-to-day oversight of individual departments, such as shoes, cosmetics, or housewares in department stores; produce or meat in gro cery stores; and car sales in automotive dealerships. Depart ment supervisors establish and implement policies, goals, and procedures for their specific departments; coordinate activities with other department heads; and strive for smooth operations within their departments. They supervise employees who price and ticket goods and place them on display; clean and organize shelves, displays, and inventories in stockrooms; and inspect https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Work environment. Most sales worker supervisors have of fices. In retail trade, their offices are within the stores, usually close to the areas they oversee. Although they spend some time in the office completing merchandise orders or arranging work schedules, a large portion of their workday is spent on the sales floor, supervising employees or selling. Work hours of supervisors vary greatly among establish ments because work schedules usually depend on customers’ needs. Supervisors generally work at least 40 hours a week. Long, irregular hours are common, particularly during sales, holidays, and busy shopping seasons and at times when inven tory is taken. Supervisors are expected to work some evenings and weekends but usually are given a day off during the week. Hours can change weekly, and supervisors sometimes must re port to work on short notice, especially when employees are absent. Independent owners often can set their own schedules, but hours must be convenient to customers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sales worker supervisors usually gain knowledge of manage ment principles and practices through work experience. Many supervisors begin their careers on the sales floor as salespersons, cashiers, or customer service representatives. These workers should be patient, decisive, and sales-oriented. Education and training. The educational backgrounds of sales worker supervisors vary widely. Supervisors who have postsecondary education often hold associate or bachelor’s degrees in liberal arts, social sciences, business, or manage ment. Recommended high school or college courses include those related to business, such as accounting, marketing, man agement, and sales, and those related to social science, such as psychology, sociology, and communication. Supervisors also must know how to use computers because almost all cash reg isters, inventory control systems, and sales quotes and contracts are computerized. To gain experience, many college students participate in internship programs that usually are developed jointly by schools and businesses. Having previous sales experience is usually a requirement for becoming a sales worker supervisor. Most sales worker super visors have retail sales experience or experience as a customer service representative. In these positions, they learn merchan Sales and Related Occupations 537 dising, customer service, and the basic policies and procedures of the company. The type and amount of training available to supervisors var ies by company. Many national retail chains and companies have formal training programs for management trainees that include both classroom and on-site training. Training time may be as brief as 1 week or may last more than 1 year, giving train ees experience during all sales seasons. Ordinarily, classroom training includes topics such as inter viewing, customer service skills, inventory management, em ployee relations, and scheduling. Management trainees may work in one specific department while training on the job, or they may rotate through several departments to gain a wellrounded knowledge of the company’s operation. Training pro grams for retail franchises are generally extensive, covering all functions of the company’s operation, including budgeting, marketing, management, finance, purchasing, product prepara tion, human resource management, and compensation. College graduates usually can enter management training programs di rectly, without much experience. Other qualifications. Sales worker supervisors must get along with all types of people. They need initiative, self-discipline, good judgment, and decisiveness. Patience and a conciliatory temperament are necessary when dealing with demanding cus tomers. Supervisors also must be able to motivate, organize, and direct the work of subordinates and communicate clearly and persuasively with customers and other supervisors. Advancement. Supervisors who display leadership and team-building skills, self-confidence, motivation, and decisive ness become candidates for promotion to assistant manager or manager. A postsecondary degree may speed their advance ment into management because employers view it as a sign of motivation and maturity—qualities deemed important for pro motion to more responsible positions. In many retail establish ments, managers are promoted from within the company. In small retail establishments, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a higher management position may come slowly. Large establishments often have extensive career ladder programs and may offer supervisors the opportunity to transfer to another store in the chain or to the central office. Although promotions may occur more quickly in large estab lishments, some managers may need to relocate every several years in order to advance. Supervisors also can become advertising, marketing, pro motions, public relations, and sales managers—workers who coordinate marketing plans, monitor sales, and propose adver tisements and promotions—or purchasing managers, buyers, or purchasing agents—workers who purchase goods and supplies for their organization or for resale. (These occupations are cov ered elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some supervisors who have worked in their industry for a long time open their own stores or sales firms. However, re tail trade and sales occupations are highly competitive, and al though many independent owners succeed, some fail to cover expenses and eventually go out of business. To prosper, owners usually need good business sense and strong customer service and public relations skills. Employment Sales worker supervisors held about 2.2 million jobs in 2006. Approximately 37 percent were self-employed, most of whom were store owners. About 44 percent of sales worker supervi sors were wage-and-salary workers employed in the retail sec tor; some of the largest employers were grocery stores, depart ment stores, motor vehicle and parts dealers, and clothing and clothing accessory stores. The remaining sales worker supervi sors worked in non-retail establishments. Job Outlook Despite slower than average growth, retail sales worker super visors with previous experience in sales are expected to have good job prospects because of the large size of the occupation and the need to replace workers who leave their positions. Employment change. Employment of sales worker supervi sors is expected to grow by 4 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is more slowly than the average for all occupations. Growth in the occupation will be limited as retail companies increase the responsibilities of retail salespersons and existing sales worker supervisors. The Internet and electronic commerce are creating new op portunities to reach and communicate with potential custom ers. Some firms are hiring Internet sales supervisors, who are in charge of maintaining an Internet site and answering inquiries relating to the product, to prices, and to the terms of delivery. However, Internet sales and electronic commerce may reduce the number of additional sales workers needed in stores, thus reducing the total number of additional supervisors required. Overall, the impact of electronic commerce on employment of sales worker supervisors should be minimal. Projected employment growth of sales worker supervisors will mirror, in part, the patterns of employment growth in the industries in which they work. For example, faster-than-average employment growth is expected in many of the rapidly growing service-providing industries. In contrast, the number of self-employed sales worker supervisors is expected to grow slowly as independent retailers face increasing competition from national chains. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, employment, 2006-16 Percent 2016_______ Number Supervisors, sales workers.................................................................... 41-1000 2,206,000 2.296.000 91,000 4 First-line supervisors/managers of retail sales workers................ 41-1011 1,676,000 1.747.000 71,000 4 First-line supervisors/managers of non-retail sales workers......... 41-1012530,000 549,000 19,000__________4 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Occupational Title ' https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis SOC Code Employment, 2006 538 Occupational Outlook Handbook Unlike mid-level and top-level managers, retail store manag ers generally will not be affected by the restructuring and con solidation taking place at the corporate headquarters of many retail chains. Job prospects. Candidates who have retail experience—as a salesperson, cashier, or customer service representative, for example—will have the best opportunities for jobs as supervi sors, especially in retail establishments. Stronger competition for supervisory jobs is expected in non-retail establishments, particularly those with the most attractive earnings and work environment. Some of the job openings over the next decade will occur as experienced supervisors move into higher levels of manage ment, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. However, these job openings will not be great in number since, as with other supervisory and managerial occupations, the sepa ration rate is low. This is the case especially for non-retail sales worker supervisors. Earnings Salaries of sales worker supervisors vary substantially, depend ing on a worker’s level of responsibility and length of service and the type, size, and location of the firm. Salaried supervisors of retail sales workers had median an nual earnings of $33,960, including commissions, in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,490 and $44,570 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,420, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $59,710 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of salaried supervisors of retail sales workers were as follows: Building material and supplies dealers............................... $35,820 Grocery stores....................................................................... 33,390 Clothing stores...................................................................... 33,140 Gasoline stations................................................................... 29,270 Other genera] merchandise stores......................................... 28,870 Salaried supervisors of nonretail sales workers had median annual earnings of, $65,510, including commissions, in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $48,900 and $94,670 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,840, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $135,270 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of salaried supervisors of nonretail sales workers were as follows: to sell their product and the condition of the economy. Those who sell large amounts of merchandise or exceed sales goals often receive bonuses or other awards. Related Occupations Sales worker supervisors serve customers, supervise workers, and direct and coordinate the operations of an establishment. Workers with similar responsibilities include financial man agers, food service managers, lodging managers, office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers, and medical and health services managers. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for sales worker supervisors may be obtained from the employment offices of various retail establishments or from State employment service offices. General information on management careers in retail estab lishments is available from: y National Retail Federation, 325 7th St.NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. Information about management careers and training programs in the motor vehicle dealers industry is available from: y National Automobile Dealers Association, Public Relations Dept., 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. Internet: http://www.nada.org Information about management careers in convenience stores is available from: y National Association of Convenience Stores, 1600 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314-3436. Securities, Commodities, and Financial Services Sales Agents (Q*NET 41-3031.00,41-3031.01, 41-3031.02) Significant Points • • A college degree, sales ability, good interpersonal and communication skills, and a strong desire to succeed are important qualifications. Competition for entry-level jobs usually is keen, es pecially in investment banks; opportunities should be better in smaller firms. Many people leave the occupation because of under performance, but those who are successful have a very strong attachment to their occupation because of high earnings and considerable investment in training. Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers...................................$80,650 Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers..........78,260 Machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers......................................................... 65,660 Postal service........................................................................ 58,640 Business support services..................................................... 45,490 Nature of the Work Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and by merchandise sold. Many supervisors receive a commission or a combination of salary and commission. Under a commission system, supervisors receive a percentage of department or store sales. Thus, these supervisors’ earnings depend on their ability Each day, hundreds of billions of dollars change hands on the major United States securities exchanges. This money is used to purchase stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other financial in struments, called securities. Securities are bought and sold by large institutional investors, wealthy individuals, mutual funds and pension plans, and the general public. In fact, about half of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • Sales and Related Occupations 539 American households own stock. Most securities trades are ar ranged through securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents, whether they are between individuals with a few hundred dollars to invest or between large institutions having millions of dollars. The duties of sales agents vary greatly de pending on occupational specialty. The most common type of securities sales agent is called a broker or stock broker. These are the people who sell securities to everyday people, also known as retail investors. Although only about 2 out of every 10 equities are held by small inves tors, most investors fall into this category. Because there are so many retail investors, they must work through a broker rather than trading directly on an exchange. First, the investor speaks with the broker, discussing the terms of the trade. Then, the broker relays this information to a trader at the company’s head quarters. Because most securities companies are very large, they can often find other company clients who are willing to buy or sell the same security. Otherwise, the stock trader places an order with a floor broker at an exchange, or trades the stock on an electronic network. The broker charges a fee for this ser vice, and may also make money by finding a lower price for the security than was arranged with the investor. The most important part of a broker’s job is finding clients and building a customer base. Thus, beginning securities and commodities sales agents spend much of their time searching for customers, often relying heavily on telephone solicitation. They also may meet clients through business and social con tacts. Agents also join civic organizations and other social groups to expand their networks of possible clients. Many find it useful to contact potential clients by teaching adult education investment courses or by giving lectures at libraries or social clubs. Brokerage firms may give sales agents lists of people with whom the firm has done business in the past. Some agents inherit the clients of agents who have retired. After an agent is established, referrals from satisfied clients are an important source of new business. Investment bankers are sales agents who connect businesses that need money to finance their operations or expansion plans with investors who are interested in providing that funding in exchange for debt (in the form of bonds) or equity (in the form of stock). This process is called underwriting, and it is the main function of the investment bank. Investment bankers have to sell twice: first, they sell their advisory services to help compa nies set up issuing new stock or bonds, and second, they then sell the securities they issue to investors. Perhaps the most important advisory service provided by in vestment banks is to help companies new to the public invest ment arena issue stock for the first time. This process, known as an initial public offering, or IPO, can take a great deal of effort because private companies must meet stringent requirements to become public or be allowed to issue stocks and bonds. Corpo rate finance departments also help private companies sell stock to institutional investors or wealthy individuals. They also ad vise companies that are interested in funding their operations by taking on debt. This debt can be issued in the form of bonds. Unlike a stock, which entitles its holder to partial ownership of a company, a bond entitles its holder to be repaid with a pre determined rate of interest. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Another important advisory service is provided by the merg ers and acquisitions department. Bankers in this area advise companies that are interested in merging with or purchasing other companies. They also help companies that would like to be acquired. Once a potential seller or buyer is found, bankers advise their client on how to execute the agreement. Gener ally both buyers and sellers have investment banks working for them to make sure that the transaction goes smoothly. Investment banking sales agents and traders sell stocks and bonds to investors. Instead of selling their services to com panies for fees, salespeople and traders sell securities to cus tomers for commissions. These sales agents generally work by telephone, calling customers and their agents to discuss new stock and bond issues. When an investor decides to make a purchase, the order goes to the trading floor. Traders execute buy and sell orders from clients and make trades on behalf of the bank itself. Because markets fluctuate so much, trading is a split-second decision making process. If a trader cannot secure the promised price on an exchange, millions of dollars could potentially be lost. On the other hand, if a trader finds a better deal, the bank could make millions more. A small but powerful group of sales agents work directly on the floor of a stock or commodities exchange. When a firm or investor wishes to buy or sell a security or commodity, sales agents relay the order through their firm’s computers to the floor of the exchange. There, floor brokers negotiate the price with other floor brokers, make the sale, and forward the purchase price to the sales agents. In addition to floor brokers, who work for individual securities dealers, there are also independent bro kers. These are similar to floor brokers, except that they are not buyers for specific firms. Instead, they can buy and sell stocks for their own accounts, or corporate accounts that they manage,, or they can sell their services to floor brokers who are too busy to execute all of the trades they are responsible for making. Specialists or market makers also work directly on the exchange floor, and there is generally one for each security or commodity being traded. They facilitate the trading process by quoting prices and by buying or selling shares when there are too many or too few available. Financial services sales agents sell a wide variety of bank ing, accounting, securities, insurance, tax preparation, and other related services. They contact potential customers to explain their services and to ascertain customers’ banking and other fi nancial needs. They also may solicit businesses to participate in consumer credit card programs. Work environment. Most securities and commodities sales agents work in offices under fairly stressful conditions. The pace of work is very fast, and managers tend to be very de manding of their workers since both commissions and advance ment are tied to sales. Stock brokers and investment advisors generally work some what more than 40 hours a week, but they may not work at traditional times. Evening and weekend work is often neces sary, as many of their clients work during the day. A growing number of securities sales agents, employed mostly by discount or online brokerage firms, work in call-center environments. In these centers, hundreds of agents spend much of the day on the telephone taking orders from clients or offering advice and in- 540 Occupational Outlook Handbook : \ Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents spend much of their time on the telephone with clients. formation on different securities. Often, such call centers oper ate 24 hours a day, requiring agents to work in shifts. Investment bankers in corporate finance or mergers and ac quisitions typically work long hours and endure extreme stress, especially at the junior levels. Evening and weekend work is common. Because banks work with companies all over the world, extensive travel is often part of the job. With some ex perience, the workload becomes more manageable, but since higher-level workers generally have more contact with clients, they also tend to travel more. Sales and trading departments typically work somewhat more than 40 hours a week, but not nearly as much as their counterparts in investment banking. They also travel less, and many only travel a few times a year for conferences or training. On the other hand, their jobs are incredibly stressful. For sales agents, every minute of the day that is wasted means they might have made another sale. Since both commissions and advance ment are tied to sales, this can be very stressful. Traders have perhaps the most stressful jobs of all, as split second decisions can lead to millions of dollars being won or lost. Trading floors are very busy and often very loud. Exchange workers, much like traders, have highly stressful jobs because the bulk of their work takes place on the floor of the exchanges. However, ex change traders and workers typically work shorter hours than https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis many other agents since most of their work is done while the market is open. Exchange workers, much like traders, have highly stressful jobs, but the bulk of their work takes place on the floor of the exchanges, so hours are not very long. Trading floors of ex changes are even busier and louder than those inside of invest ment banks. Stress is very high, as millions of dollars are on the line for almost every trade, but workers who have made it to this level are generally up to the task. Financial services sales agents normally work 40 hours a week in a comfortable, less stressful office environment. They may spend considerable time outside the office, meeting with current and prospective clients, attending civic functions, and participating in trade association meetings. Some financial services sales agents work exclusively inside banks, providing service to walk-in customers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most positions require a bachelor’s degree, although few require a specific major. An MBA or professional certification can also be very helpful. Advancement is often very difficult, but those who are successful can have extremely lucrative careers. Education and training. A college education is important for securities and commodities sales agents, especially in larger firms, because they must be knowledgeable about economic conditions and trends. Most workers have a bachelor’s degree in business, finance, accounting, or economics, although this is not necessarily a requirement. Many firms hire summer interns before their last year of college and those who are most success ful are offered full-time jobs after they graduate. After working for a few years, many agents get Master’s de grees in Business Administration (MBA). This degree is a re quirement for many of the high-level positions in the securities industry. Because the MBA is a professional degree designed to expose students to real-world business practices, it is consid ered to be a major asset for jobseekers. Employers often reward MBA-holders with higher-level positions, better compensation, and even large signing bonuses. Most employers provide intensive on-the-job training, espe cially for entry-level employees. While college coursework is helpful, most firms have a specialized business model which employees must learn. New employees must also come to know the large number of products and services offered by most firms. Trainees in large firms may receive classroom in struction in securities analysis, effective speaking, and the finer points of selling. Firms often rotate their trainees among vari ous departments, to give them a broad perspective of the securi ties business. In small firms, sales agents often receive training in outside institutions and on the job. Securities and commodities sales agents must keep up with new products and services and other developments. Because of this, brokers regularly attend conferences and training semi nars. Licensure. Brokers and investment advisors must register as representatives of their firm with the Financial Industry Reg ulatory Authority (FINRA). Before beginners can qualify as registered representatives, they must be an employee of a regis tered firm for at least 4 months and pass the General Securities Sales and Related Occupations 541 Registered Representative Examination—known as the Series 7 Exam—administered by FINRA. The exam takes 6 hours and contains 250 multiple-choice questions; a passing score is above 70 percent. Most States require a second examination—the Uniform Se curities Agents State Law Examination (Series 63 or 66). This test measures the prospective representative’s knowledge of the securities business in general, customer protection require ments, and recordkeeping procedures. Most firms offer train ing to help their employees pass these exams. There are many other licenses available, each of which gives the holder the right to sell different products and services. Most experienced representatives have several. Traders and some other workers also need licenses, although these vary greatly by firm and specialization. Financial services sales agents may also need to be licensed, especially if they sell securities or insurance. Registered representatives must attend periodic continuing education classes to maintain their licenses. Courses consist of computer-based training in regulatory matters and company training on new products and services. Other qualifications. Many employers consider personal qualities and skills more important than academic training. Employers seek applicants who have excellent interpersonal and communication skills, a strong work ethic, the ability to work in a team, and a desire to succeed. The ability to un derstand and analyze numbers is also especially important. Because securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents are entrusted with large sums of money and personal information, employers also make sure that applicants have a good credit history and a clean record. Self-confidence and an ability to handle frequent rejection are important ingredients for success. Maturity and the ability to work independently are important so many employers prefer to hire those who have achieved suc cess in other jobs. Most firms prefer candidates with sales ex perience, particularly those who have worked on commission in areas such as real estate or insurance. Other firms prefer to hire workers right out of college, with the intention of molding them to their corporate image. Advancement. The principal form of advancement for bro kers, investment advisors, and financial services sales agents is an increase in the number and size of the accounts they handle. Although beginners usually service the accounts of individual investors, they may eventually handle very large institutional accounts, such as those of banks and pension funds. After tak ing a series of tests, some brokers become portfolio manag ers and have greater authority to make investment decisions regarding an account. Some experienced sales agents become branch office managers and supervise other sales agents while continuing to provide services for their own customers. A few agents advance to top management positions or become part ners in their firms. Investment bankers who enter the occupation directly after college generally start as analysts. At this level, employees have some contact with clients but spend most of their time producing “pitchbooks,” information booklets used to sell products. They also receive intensive training. After 2 to 3 years, top analysts may be promoted to an associate position or asked to leave. Recent graduates from MBA programs can start as associates, which is similar to the analyst position, but with more responsibilities. Associate may lead a group of analysts and tend to have more contact with clients. After 2 to 3 years, associates are promoted or terminated. Successful associates can become vice presidents, who manage the work of analysts and associates and have a great deal of contact with clients. Vice presidents may advance to become directors, sometimes called executive directors. Employment Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents held about 320,000 jobs in 2006. More than half of jobs were in the securities, commodity contracts, and other financial in vestments and related activities industry. One in 5 worked in the depository and nondepository credit intermediation indus tries, which include commercial banks, savings institutions, and credit unions. About 1 out of 6 securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents were self-employed. Although securities and commodities sales agents are em ployed by firms in all parts of the country, about 1 in 10 jobs were located in New York City, including the majority of those in investment banking. Because of their close relationship to stock exchanges and large banking operations, most of the major investment banks in the United States are based in New York City. Smaller investment banks can be found in many major American cities and some major investment banks have operations in other cities, although most of their business re mains in New York. Job Outlook Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agent jobs are projected to grow rapidly over the next decade, especially in the banking industry. However, the number of applicants will continue to far exceed the number of job openings in this high-paying occupation. Employment change. Employment of securities, commodi ties, and financial services sales agents is expected to grow 25 percent during the 2006-16 decade, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. The replacement of traditional pension plans with self-directed retirement accounts has led more Americans to hold stock in recent years. This change Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents.......... soc Employment, Code 2006 41-3031 320,000 Projected employment, 2016 399,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 79,000 25 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 542 Occupational Outlook Handbook means that where companies were making investments to se cure their employees’ retirements in the past, individuals now save money for their own retirements. About half of American households now own stock, and the number of new investors grows daily. While these individual investors are still only a small part of the total, the nationwide interest in owning securi ties will greatly increase the number of brokers and investment advisors. Members of the baby boomer generation, in their peak sav ings years, will fuel much of this increase in investment. As they begin to retire, the number of transactions they make will go up, fueling the need for more investment advisors and bro kers. The growing demand for brokers will also stem from the increasing number and complexity of investment products, as well as the effects of globalization. As the public and busi nesses become more sophisticated about investing, they are venturing into the options and futures markets. Also, markets for investment are expanding with the increase in global trading of stocks and bonds. The deregulation of financial markets has broken down the barriers between investment activities and banking. The result is that banks now compete with securities companies on all lev els. Many of the major investment banks are now owned by large banks and most major banks also have brokerages, which allow their customers to quickly and easily transfer money be tween their personal banking and investment accounts. This will lead to increased employment of financial services sales agents in banks as they expand their product offerings in order to compete directly with other investment firms. Job prospects. Despite job growth, competition for jobs in this occupation usually is keen with more applicants than jobs, especially in larger companies. Jobs in brokerages are competi tive but are accessible to graduates who have first-rate resumes, strong interpersonal skills, and good grades. Opportunities for beginning sales agents should be better in smaller firms. In vestment banking is especially known for its competitive hir ing process. Having a degree from a prestigious undergraduate institution is very helpful, as are excellent grades in finance, economics, accounting, and business courses. Competition is even greater for positions working in exchanges. Employment in the securities industry is closely connected with market conditions and the state of the overall economy and is highly volatile during recessionary periods. Turnover is high for newcomers, who face difficult prospects no mat ter when they join the industry. Once established, however, securities and commodities sales agents have a very strong at tachment to their profession because of their high earnings and considerable investment in training. Earnings The median annual wage-and-salary earnings of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents were $68,500 in May 2006. The middle half earned between $42,630 and $126,290. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,170, and the highest 10 percent made more than $145,600. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the larg est numbers of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents were: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Other financial investment activities................................. $103,640 Security and commodity contracts intermediation and brokerage......................................................................81,050 Activities related to credit intermediation.............................67,080 Other nondepository credit intermediation...........................53,750 Nondepository credit intermediation....................................52,100 Because this is a sales occupation, many workers are paid a commission based on the amount of stocks, bonds, mutual funds, insurance, and other products they sell. Earnings from commissions are likely to be high when there is much buying and selling, and low when there is a slump in market activity. Most firms provide sales agents with a steady income by pay ing a “draw against commission”—a minimum salary based on commissions they can be expected to earn. Trainee brokers usually are paid a salary until they develop a client base. The salary gradually decreases in favor of commissions as the bro ker gains clients. Investment bankers in corporate finance and mergers and ac quisitions are generally paid a base salary with the opportunity to earn a substantial bonus. At the higher levels, bonuses far exceed base salary. This arrangement works similarly to com missions but gives banks greater flexibility to reward members of the team who were more effective. Since investment bank ers in sales and trading departments generally work alone, they generally work on commissions. Brokers who work for discount brokerage firms that promote the use of telephone and online trading services usually are paid a salary, sometimes boosted by bonuses that reflect the profitability of the office. Financial services sales agents usu ally are paid a salary also, although bonuses or commissions from sales are starting to account for a larger share of their income. Benefits in the securities industry are generally very good. They normally include health care, retirement, and life insur ance. Securities firms may also give discounts to employees on financial services that they sell to customers. Other benefits may include paid lunches with clients, paid dinners for employ ees who work late, and often extensive travel opportunities Related Occupations Other jobs requiring knowledge of finance and an ability to sell include insurance sales agents, real estate brokers and sales agents, financial analysts and personal financial advisors, and loan officers. Sources of Additional Information For information on securities industry employment, contact: y American Academy of Financial Management, 245 Glendale Dr., Metairie, LA 70001. Internet: http://www.aafm.org y Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association, 120 Broadway, 35th Floor, New York, NY 10271. Internet: http://www.sifma.org For information on licensing, contact: y Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA). 1735 K St., NW., Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http ://ww w.flnra.org Sales and Related Occupations 543 Travel Agents (0*NET 41-3041.00) Significant Points • • • Travel benefits, such as reduced rates for transporta tion and lodging, attract people to this occupation. Training at a postsecondary vocational school, col lege, or university is increasingly important. UitOlHLUlS " i COOIliSsj . AM0M Travel agents increasingly specialize in specific desti nations or by type of travel or traveler. Nature of the Work Travel agents help travelers sort through vast amounts of infor mation to help them make the best possible travel arrangements. They offer advice on destinations and make arrangements for transportation, hotel accommodations, car rentals, and tours for their clients. They are also the primary source of bookings for most of the major cruise lines. In addition, resorts and specialty travel groups use travel agents to promote travel packages to their clients. Travel agents are also increasingly expected to know about and be able to advise travelers about their destinations, such as the weather conditions, local ordinances and customs, at tractions, and exhibitions. For those traveling internationally, agents also provide information on customs regulations, re quired papers (passports, visas, and certificates of vaccination), travel advisories, and currency exchange rates. In the event of changes in itinerary in the middle of a trip, travel agents inter cede on the traveler’s behalf to make alternate booking arrange ments. Travel agents use a variety of published and computer-based sources for information on departure and arrival times, fares, quality of hotel accommodations, and group discounts. They may also visit hotels, resorts, and restaurants themselves to evaluate the comfort, cleanliness, and the quality of specific ho tels and restaurants so that they can base recommendations on their own experiences or those of colleagues or clients. Travel agents who primarily work for tour operators and other travel arrangers may help develop, arrange, and sell the company’s own package tours and travel services. They may promote these services, using telemarketing, direct mail, and the Internet. They make presentations to social and specialinterest groups, arrange advertising displays, and suggest com pany-sponsored trips to business managers. Agents face increasing competition from travel and airline websites for low-cost fares, but travelers still prefer using travel agents who can provide customized service and planning for complex itineraries to remote or multiple destinations. To at tract these travelers, many travel agents specialize in specific interest destinations, travel to certain regions, or in selling to particular demographic groups. Work environment. Travel agents spend most of their time behind a desk conferring with clients, completing paperwork, contacting airlines and hotels to make travel arrangements, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 0 ■ Travel agents collect information from clients concerning travel dates and destinations before researching fares and routes on computers. promoting tours. Most of their time is spent either on the tele phone or on the computer researching travel itineraries or up dating reservations and travel documents. Agents may be under a great deal of pressure during travel emergencies or when they need to reschedule missed reservations. Peak vacation times, such as summer and holiday travel periods, also tend to be hec tic. Many agents, especially those who are self-employed, fre quently work long hours. Advanced computer systems and telecommunications networks make it possible for a growing number of travel agents to work at home; however, some agents feel a need to have an office presence to attract walk-in busi ness. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A love of travel and knowledge and enthusiasm for advising people about travel destinations and itineraries are important traits for a travel agent to have. Superb communication and computer skills are essential for talking with clients and making travel reservations. Education and training. The minimum requirement for those interested in becoming a travel agent is a high school di ploma or equivalent; although many travel agencies prefer ap plicants who have a college degree and business or travel expe 544 Occupational Outlook Handbook rience. Much of the training is provided on the job, a significant part of which consists of instruction on how to use reservation systems. Training specific to becoming a travel agent is available at the many vocational schools that offer full-time travel agent programs leading to a postsecondary vocational award. Travel agent courses also are offered in public adult education pro grams, online, and in community colleges. These programs teach students about cruise lines and sales techniques and how to use the reservations systems. They also provide general information about travel destinations. A few colleges offer bachelor’s or master’s degrees in travel and tourism. Some em ployers prefer agents who have backgrounds in computer sci ence, geography, communication, foreign languages, or world history, because these backgrounds suggest an existing inter est in travel and culture and help agents develop a rapport with clients. Courses in accounting and business management also are important, especially for those who expect to manage or start their own travel agencies. Continuing education is critical because the abundance of travel information readily available through the Internet and other sources has resulted in a more informed consumer who wants to deal with an expert when choosing a travel agent. Other qualifications. Travel agents must be well-organized, accurate, and detail-oriented in order to compile information from various sources and to plan and organize their clients’ travel itineraries. Agents also must be professional and courte ous when dealing with travel representatives and clients. Other desirable qualifications include good writing and interpersonal skills and sales abilities. Personal travel experience is an asset because knowledge about a city or foreign country often helps influence a client’s travel plans. Business experience or training increasingly is important because agents need to know how to run a business profitably. As the Internet has become an important tool for making travel arrangements, more travel agencies use websites to provide their services to clients. This trend has increased the importance of computer skills in this occupation. Certification and advancement. Some employees start as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel agencies. With ex perience and some formal training, they can take on greater responsibilities and eventually assume travel agent duties. In agencies with many offices, travel agents may advance to busier offices or to office manager or other managerial position. Those who start their own agencies generally have experi ence in an established agency. These agents must gain formal approval from suppliers or corporations, such as airlines, ship lines, or rail lines to extend credit on reservations and ensure payment. The Airlines Reporting Corporation and the Inter national Airlines Travel Agency Network, for example, are the approving bodies for airlines. To gain approval, an agency must be financially sound and employ at least one experienced man ager or travel agent. The National Business Travel Association offers three types of designations for corporate travel professionals—Corporate Travel Expert, Certified Corporate Travel Executive, and Glob al Leadership Professional. Experienced travel agents can take advanced self-study or group-study courses from the Travel Institute, leading to the Certified Travel Counselor designation. The Travel Institute also offers marketing and sales skills development programs and destination specialist programs, which provide detailed knowledge of regions such as North America, Western Europe, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Rim. With the trend toward more specialization, these and other destination specialist courses are increasingly important. Employment Travel agents held about 101,000 jobs in May 2006 and are found in every part of the country. Nearly two-thirds worked for travel agencies. Another 13 percent were self-employed. The remainder worked for tour operators, visitor’s bureaus, res ervation offices, and other travel arrangers. Job Outlook Employment of travel agents is expected to change little through 2016. Travel agents who specialize in a travel destination, type of traveler, or mode of transportation will have the best chances for success. Employment change. Employment of travel agents is ex pected to increase by 1 percent, which is considered little or no growth. As spending on travel and tourism rebound from recent recessionary periods and as more travelers begin taking more exotic and customized trips, the demands for the specialized services offered by travel agents will offset the service lost to Internet bookings for simpler itineraries. The ease of Internet use and the ready availability of travel and airline websites that allow people to research and plan their own trips, make their own reservations, and purchase their own tickets will result in less demand for travel agents for routine travel arrangements. There will be, however, many consumers who still prefer to use a professional travel agent to plan a complete trip; to deal with more complex transactions; to ensure reliability; to suggest excursions or destinations that might otherwise be missed; to save time; or, in some cases, to save money. In addition, higher projected levels of travel, especially from businesses and retir ing baby boomers will offset the loss of routine transactions. Furthermore, luxury and specialty travel is expected to increase among the growing number of Americans who are seeking out exotic and unique vacations and a growing part of travel agents’ business is organizing and selling tours for the growing number of international visitors. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Travel agents............................................................ ............................. SOC Code 41-3041 Employment, 2006 101,000 Projected employment, 2016 102,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 1,000 1 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sales and Related Occupations 545 Job prospects. Applicants for travel agent jobs should face fair to good job opportunities, depending on one’s qualifica tions and experience. Opportunities should be better for agents who specialize in specific destinations, luxury travel, or par ticular types of travelers such as ethnic groups or groups with a special interest or hobby. The demand for travel is sensitive to economic downturns and international political crises, when travel plans are likely to be deferred. Thus job opportunities for travel agents will fluctu ate with changing economic and political times. Many open ings, though, are expected to occur as agents leave for other occupations or retire. Earnings Experience, sales ability, and the size and location of the agency determine the salary of a travel agent. Median annual earn ings of travel agents were $29,210 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,020 and $36,920. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,100, while the top 10 percent earned more than $46,270. Median earnings in May 2006 for travel agents employed in the travel arrangement and reserva tion services industry were $29,160. Salaried agents usually enjoy standard employer-paid benefits that self-employed agents must provide for themselves. When traveling for personal reasons, agents usually get reduced rates for transportation and accommodations. In addition, agents sometimes take “familiarization” trips, at lower cost or no cost https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to themselves, to learn about various vacation sites. These ben efits often attract people to this occupation. Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly on commissions from travel-related bookings and ser vice fees they charge clients. Often it takes time to acquire a sufficient number of clients to have adequate earnings, so it is not unusual for new self-employed agents to have low earnings. Established agents may have lower earnings during economic downturns. Related Occupations Travel agents organize and schedule business, educational, or recreational travel or activities. Other workers with similar re sponsibilities include tour guides and escorts, travel guides, res ervation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks, retail salespersons, and hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training opportunities, contact: 'y American Society of Travel Agents, Education Department, 1101 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.asta.org For information on training and certification qualifications for business travel management, contact: y National Business Travel Association, 110 North Royal Street, 4th Floor, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: www.nbta.org Office and Administrative Support Occupations Financial Clerks [' /F > i'mm nr" Bill and Account Collectors (0*NET 43-3011.00) Significant Points *t "V [Avf • Almost 1 in 4 collectors works for a collection agen cy; others work in banks, retail stores, government, physicians’ offices, hospitals, and other institutions that lend money and extend credit. • • Most jobs in this occupation require only a high school diploma, though many employers prefer workers with some postsecondary training. Much faster than average employment growth is ex pected as companies focus more efforts on collecting unpaid debts. Nature of the Work Bill and account collectors, often called simply collectors, keep track of accounts that are overdue and attempt to collect payment on them. Some are employed by third-party collec tion agencies, while others—known as “in-house collectors”— work directly for the original creditors, such as department stores, hospitals, or banks. The duties of bill and account collectors are similar across the many different organizations in which they work. First, collectors are called upon to locate and notify customers of delinquent accounts, usually over the telephone, but sometimes by letter. When customers move without leaving a forwarding address, collectors may check with the post office, telephone companies, credit bureaus, or former neighbors to obtain the new address. The attempt to find the new address is called “skip tracing.” New computer systems assist in tracing by au tomatically tracking when customers change their address or contact information on any of their open accounts. Once collectors find the debtor, they inform him or her of the overdue account and solicit payment. If necessary, they review the terms of the sale, service, or credit contract with the customer. Collectors also may attempt to learn the cause of the delay in payment. Where feasible, they offer the customer advice on how to pay off the debts, such as taking out a bill consolidation loan. However, the collector’s prime objective is always to ensure that the customer pays the debt in question. If a customer agrees to pay, collectors record this commit ment and check later to verify that the payment was made. Collectors may have authority to grant an extension of time if 546for FRASER Digitized https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis M Bill and account collectors call customers to ask for payment on late or delinquent bills. customers ask for one. If a customer fails to pay, collectors pre pare a statement indicating the customer’s action for the credit department of the establishment. In more extreme cases, col lectors may initiate repossession proceedings, disconnect the customer’s service, or hand the account over to an attorney for legal action. Most collectors handle other administrative func tions for the accounts assigned to them, including recording changes of address and purging the records of the deceased. Collectors use computers and a variety of automated systems to keep track of overdue accounts. In sophisticated predictive dialer systems, a computer dials the telephone automatically, and the collector speaks only when a connection has been made. Such systems eliminate time spent calling busy or non answering numbers. Many collectors use regular telephones, but others wear headsets like those used by telephone opera tors. Work environment. In-house bill and account collectors typically are employed in an office environment, and those who work for third-party collection agencies may work in a call-center environment. Workers spend most of their time on the phone tracking down and contacting people with debts. The work can be stressful as some customers are confronta tional when pressed about their debts. Still, some appreciate assistance in resolving their outstanding debt. Collectors may also feel pressured to meet targets for debt recovered in a cer tain period. Bill and account collectors often have to work evenings and weekends, when it is easier to reach people. Many collectors work part time or on flexible work schedules, though the ma jority work 40 hours per week. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 547 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Bill and account collectors..................................... .............................. SOC Code 43-3011 Employment, 2006 434,000 Projected employment, 2016 534,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 23 99,000 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. _____________________________________________ Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers require collectors to have at a least a high school diploma and prefer some customer service experience. Employers usually provide on-the-job training to new employ ees. Education and training. Most bill and account collectors are required to have at least a high school diploma. However, employers prefer workers who have completed some college or who have experience in other occupations that involve contact with the public. Once hired, workers usually receive on-the-job training. Un der the guidance of a supervisor or some other senior worker, new employees learn company procedures. Some formal class room training also may be necessary, such as training in specific computer software. Additional training topics usually include telephone techniques and negotiation skills. Workers are also instructed in the laws governing the collection of debt as man dated by the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act, which applies to all third party and some in-house collectors. Other qualifications. Workers should have good communi cation and people skills because they need to speak to customers daily, some of whom may be in stressful financial situations. In addition, collectors should be computer literate, and experience with advanced telecommunications equipment is also useful. Advancement. Collectors most often advance by taking on more complex cases. Some might become team leaders or su pervisors. Workers who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities. Employment Bill and account collectors held about 434,000 jobs in 2006. About 24 percent of collectors work in the business support services industries, which includes collection agencies. Many others work in banks, retail stores, government, physician’s of fices, hospitals, and other institutions that lend money and ex tend credit. Job Outlook Employment of bill and account collectors is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2016. Job prospects are expected to be favorable because growth in the occupation and the many people who leave the occupation are expected to create plentiful openings. Employment change. Over the 2006-16 decade, employment of bill and account collectors is expected to grow by 23 percent, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. Cash flow is becoming increasingly important to companies, which are now placing greater emphasis on collecting unpaid debts sooner. Thus, the workload for collectors is expected to con tinue to increase as they seek to collect not only debts that are relatively old, but also ones that are more recent. In addition, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis as more companies in a wide range of industries get involved in lending money and issuing credit cards, they will need to hire collectors because debt levels will likely continue to rise. Hospitals and physicians’ offices are two of the fastest growing industries requiring collectors. With insurance reimbursements not keeping up with cost increases, the health care industry is seeking to recover more money from patients. Government agencies also are making more use of collectors to collect on everything from parking tickets to child-support payments and past-due taxes. In addition, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) has begun outsourcing the collection of overdue Federal taxes to third-party collection agencies, adding to the need for work ers in this occupation. Despite the increasing demand for bill collectors, employ ment growth may be somewhat constrained by the increased use of third-party debt collectors, who are generally more ef ficient than in-house collectors. Also, some firms are beginning to use offshore collection agencies, whose lower cost structures allow them to collect debts that are too small for domestic col lection agencies. Job prospects. Job openings will not be created from em ployment growth alone. A significant number of openings will result from the many people who leave the occupation and must be replaced. As a result, job opportunities should be favorable. Contrary to the pattern in most occupations, employment of bill and account collectors tends to rise during recessions, re flecting the difficulty that many people have in meeting their financial obligations. However, collectors usually have more success at getting people to repay their debts when the economy is good. Earnings Median hourly earnings of bill and account collectors were $13.97 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.49 and $17.14. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.61, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.12. Many bill and account collectors earn commissions based on the amount of debt they recover. Related Occupations Bill and account collectors review and collect information on accounts. Other occupations with similar responsibilities in clude credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks; loan officers; and interviewers. Sources of Additional Information Career information on bill and account collectors is available from: y ACA International, The Association of Credit and Collection Professionals, P.O. Box 390106, Minneapolis, MN 55439. Internet: http://www.acainternational.org 548 Occupational Outlook Handbook Billing and Posting Clerks and Machine Operators (0*NET 43-3021.00,43-3021.01, 43-3021.02, 43-3021.03) Significant Points • About 35 percent of these workers are employed in the health care industry. • Most jobs in this occupation require only a high school diploma; however, many employers prefer to hire workers who have completed some college courses or a degree. • Slower than average employment growth is expected as increased automation of billing services reduces the need for billing clerks. fer not to use paper copies; this, coupled with the prevalence of electronic payment options, allows a completely paperless billing process. In offices that are not automated, billing ma chine operators produce the bill on a billing machine to send to the customer. In addition to producing invoices, billing clerks may be asked to handle follow-up questions from customers and resolve any discrepancies or errors. Finally, all changes must be entered in the accounting records. Work environment. Billing clerks typically are employed in an office environment, although a growing number—par ticularly medical billers—work at home. Most billing clerks work 40 hours per week during regular business hours, though about 16 percent work part time. Billing clerks use computers on a daily basis, so workers may have to sit for extended peri ods and also may experience eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nature of the Work Billing and posting clerks and machine operators, commonly called billing clerks, calculate charges, develop bills, and pre pare them to be mailed to customers. By reviewing purchasing records and making or verifying calculations, they ensure that even the most complicated bills are accurate. Billing clerks review hospital records, purchase orders, sales tickets, or charge slips to calculate the total amount due from a customer. They must take into account any discounts, special rates, or credit terms. A billing clerk for a trucking company, for example, often needs to consult a rate book to determine shipping costs. A hospital’s billing clerk may need to contact an insurance company to determine what items will be reim bursed. In accounting, law, consulting, and similar firms, bill ing clerks calculate client fees based on the time required to perform the service being purchased. They keep track of the accumulated hours spent on a job, the fees to charge, the type of job performed for a customer, and the percentage of work completed. After billing clerks review all necessary information, they compute the charges, using calculators or computers. They then prepare itemized statements, bills, or invoices used for billing and recordkeeping purposes. In some organizations, the clerk might prepare a bill containing the amount due and the date and type of service; in others, the clerk might produce a more detailed invoice with codes for all goods and services provided. They might also list the items sold, the terms of credit, the date of shipment or of service, and a salesperson’s or doctor’s identification. Computers and specialized billing software allow many clerks to calculate charges and prepare bills in one step. Com puter packages prompt clerks to enter data from handwritten forms and to manipulate the necessary information on quanti ties, labor, and rates to be charged. Billing clerks verify the entry of information and check for errors before the computer prints the bill. After the bills are printed, billing clerks review them again for accuracy. Computer software also allows bills to be sent electronically if both the biller and the customer pre https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Billing clerks generally need at least a high school diploma, but many employers prefer workers who have completed some college courses. Education and training. Most billing clerks need at least a high school diploma. However, many employers prefer to hire ' : ; . V / Billing and posting clerks prepare statements to be sent to cus tomers. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 549 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Billing and posting clerks and machine operators................. ........... soc Code 43-3021 Employment, 2006 542,000 Projected employment, 2016 566,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 24,000 4 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. workers who have completed some college courses or a degree. Workers with an associate or bachelor’s degree are likely to start at higher salaries and advance more easily than those with out degrees. Employers also seek workers who are comfortable using computers, especially billing software programs. Billing clerks usually receive on-the-job training from their supervisor or some other senior worker. Some formal class room training also may be necessary, such as training in the specific computer software used by the company. A number of community and career colleges offer certificate programs in medical billing. Courses typically cover basic biology, anato my, and physiology in addition to training on coding and com puter billing software. Other qualifications. Workers must be careful, orderly, and detail oriented. They must be good at working with numbers to avoid making errors and to recognize errors made by others. Workers also should be discreet and trustworthy because they frequently come in contact with confidential material. Medical billers in particular need to understand and follow the regu lations of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), which were enacted to maintain the confidential ity of patient medical records. Advancement. Billing clerks usually advance by taking on more duties for higher pay or by transferring to a closely related occupation. Some become supervisors because most companies fill supervisory and managerial positions by pro moting individuals from within the organization. Workers who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities. With appropriate experience and education, some billing clerks may become accountants, hu man resource specialists, or buyers. Employment In 2006, billing and posting clerks and machine operators held about 542,000 jobs. Although all industries employ billing clerks, the health care industry employs the most, with over a third of all billing clerks. The wholesale and retail trade industries also employ a large number. Third-party billing companies—companies that provide billing services for other companies—are employing a growing number. Industries that provide this service are the accounting, tax preparation, book keeping, and payroll services industry and administrative and support services industry. These industries currently employ around 11 percent of this occupation, although a portion of these clerks do billing for their employers rather than for an outside client. Another 2 percent—mostly medical billers— were self-employed. occupations through 2016. Despite slow growth, job prospects should be good as workers leave the occupation creating many job openings. Employment change. Employment of billing and posting clerks and machine operators is expected to grow by about 4 percent from 2006 to 2016, which is slower than the average for all occupations. Automated and electronic billing process es have greatly simplified billing and allow companies to send bills out faster without hiring additional workers. In addition, as the billing process becomes simplified, other workers, par ticularly accounting and bookkeeping clerks, are taking on the billing function. More billing clerks will be needed in medi cal billing, however, because medical bills are complicated and health care services are growing. Employment growth for billing clerks will occur in most health care related industries, but growth will be limited as more hospitals and physicians’ offices use contract billing com panies. Contract billing companies generally have much more sophisticated technology and software, enabling each clerk to produce more bills, limiting the need for more clerks. In all industries, including health care, the billing function is becom ing increasingly automated and invoices and statements are au tomatically generated upon delivery of the service or shipment of goods. Bills also are increasingly delivered electronically over the Internet, eliminating the production and mailing of paper bills. Job prospects. Although growth will be limited, many job openings will occur as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. A relatively large number of workers leave jobs in this occupation and must be replaced, as is com mon among entry-level occupations that usually require only a high school diploma. Earnings Median hourly earnings of billing and posting clerks and ma chine operators were $28,850 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,080 and $34,970. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,140, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $41,750. Related Occupations Billing clerks create and process financial records; other occu pations with similar responsibilities include payroll and time keeping clerks; bookkeeping, auditing, and accounting clerks; tellers; and order clerks. Job Outlook Sources of Additional Information Employment of billing and posting clerks and machine opera tors is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all Information on employment opportunities for billing clerks is available from local offices of the State employment service. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 550 Occupational Outlook Handbook Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks (0*NET 43-3031.00) Significant Points • Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks held more than 2.1 million jobs in 2006 and are employed in every industry. • Employment is projected to grow as fast as the aver age due to a growing economy. • The large size of this occupation ensures plentiful job openings, including many opportunities for temporary and part-time work. Nature of the Work Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are financial recordkeepers. They update and maintain accounting records, in cluding those which calculate expenditures, receipts, accounts payable and receivable, and profit and loss. These workers have a wide range of skills from full-charge bookkeepers who can maintain an entire company’s books to accounting clerks who handle specific tasks. All of these clerks make numerous com putations each day and increasingly must be comfortable using computers to calculate and record data. In small businesses, bookkeepers and bookkeeping clerks of ten have responsibility for some or all of the accounts, known as the general ledger. They record all transactions and post debits (costs) and credits (income). They also produce financial state ments and prepare reports and summaries for supervisors and managers. Bookkeepers also prepare bank deposits by compil ing data from cashiers, verifying and balancing receipts, and sending cash, checks, or other forms of payment to the bank. They also may handle payroll, make purchases, prepare invoic es, and keep track of overdue accounts. In large-companies’ accounting departments, accounting clerks have more specialized tasks. Their titles, such as ac counts payable clerk or accounts receivable clerk, often reflect the type of accounting they do. In addition, their responsibili ties vary by level of experience. Entry-level accounting clerks post details of transactions, total accounts, and compute interest charges. They also may monitor loans and accounts to ensure that payments are up to date. More advanced accounting clerks may total, balance, and reconcile billing vouchers; ensure the completeness and accuracy of data on accounts; and code docu ments according to company procedures. Accounting clerks post transactions in journals and on com puter files and update the files when needed. Senior clerks also review computer printouts against regularly maintained journals and make necessary corrections. They may review invoices and statements to ensure that all the information appearing on them is accurate and complete, and they may reconcile computer re ports with operating reports. Auditing clerks verify records of transactions posted by other workers. They check figures, postings, and documents to en https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sure that they are correct, mathematically accurate, and prop erly coded. They also correct or note errors for accountants or other workers to fix. As organizations continue to computerize their financial re cords, many bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks use specialized accounting software, spreadsheets, and databases. Most clerks now enter information from receipts or bills into computers, and the information is then stored either electroni cally or as computer printouts, or both. The widespread use of computers also has enabled bookkeeping, accounting, and au diting clerks to take on additional responsibilities, such as pay roll, procurement, and billing. Many of these functions require these clerks to write letters and make phone calls to customers or clients. Work environment. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks work in an office environment. They may experience eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries from using computers on a daily basis. Clerks may have to sit for extended periods while reviewing detailed data. Many bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks work regular business hours and a standard 40-hour week, although some may work occasional evenings and weekends. About 24 percent of these clerks worked part time in 2006. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks may work lon ger hours to meet deadlines at the end of the fiscal year, dur ing tax time, or when monthly or yearly accounting audits are performed. Additionally, those who work in hotels, restaurants, and stores may put in overtime during peak holiday and vaca tion seasons. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually prefer bookkeeping, accounting, and au diting clerks to have at least a high school diploma and some accounting coursework or relevant work experience. Clerks should also have good communication skills, be detail-oriented, and trustworthy. Education and training. Most bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are required to have a high school degree at a minimum. However, having some college is increasingly important and an associate degree in business or accounting is required for some positions. Although a bachelor’s degree is Sf V'- lls i t 1! ® TV Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks keep records of business and financial documents. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 551 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.................... .............. soc Code 43-3031 Employment, 2006 2,114,000 Projected employment, 2016 2,377,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 264,000 12 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ________________________________ rarely required, graduates may accept bookkeeping, account ing, and auditing clerk positions to get into a particular com pany or to enter the accounting or finance field with the hope of eventually being promoted. Once hired, bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or another more experienced employee, new clerks learn company procedures. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specialized computer software. Other qualifications. Experience in a related job and work ing in an office environment also is recommended. Employers prefer workers who can use computers; knowledge of word pro cessing and spreadsheet software is especially valuable. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks must be care ful, orderly, and detail-oriented in order to avoid making er rors and to recognize errors made by others. These workers also should be discreet and trustworthy because they frequently come in contact with confidential material. They should also have good communication skills because they increasingly work with customers. In addition, all bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks should have a strong aptitude for numbers. Certification and advancement. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks, particularly those who handle all the re cordkeeping for a company, may find it beneficial to become certified. The Certified Bookkeeper (CB) designation, awarded by the American Institute of Professional Bookkeepers, demon strates that individuals have the skills and knowledge needed to carry out all bookkeeping functions, including overseeing pay roll and balancing accounts according to accepted accounting procedures. For certification, candidates must have at least 2 years of bookkeeping experience, pass a four-part examination, and adhere to a code of ethics. Several colleges and universities offer a preparatory course for certification; some offer courses online. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks usually ad vance by taking on more duties for higher pay or by transferring to a closely related occupation. Most companies fill office and administrative support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting individuals from within their organizations, so clerks who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities. With appropriate experience and education, some bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks may become accountants or auditors. among the individual industries employing the largest numbers of these clerks. Employment Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks held more than 2.1 million jobs in 2006. They work in all industries and at all levels of government. Local government and the accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services industry are Earnings In May 2006, the median wage and salary earnings of bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks were $30,560. The middle half of the occupation earned between $24,540 and $37,780. The top 10 percent of bookkeeping, accounting, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Job growth is projected to be average through 2016, and job prospects should be good as a large number of bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are expected to retire or transfer to other occupations. Employment change. Employment of bookkeeping, ac counting, and auditing clerks is projected to grow by 12 percent during the 2006-16 decade, which is as fast as the average for all occupations. Due its size, this occupation will have among the largest numbers of new jobs arise, about 264,000 over the projections decade. A growing economy will result in more financial transac tions and other activities that require recordkeeping by these workers. Additionally, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 calls for more accuracy and transparency in the reporting of financial data for public companies, which will increase the demand for these workers. Moreover, companies will continue to outsource their bookkeeping and accounting departments to independent accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services firms. However, at the same time, the increasing use of tax preparation software in place of the services of tax profession als will hinder growth somewhat. Clerks who can carry out a wider range of bookkeeping and accounting activities will be in greater demand than special ized clerks. Demand for full-charge bookkeepers is expected to increase, for example, because they do much of the work of ac countants and perform a wider variety of financial transactions, from payroll to billing. Technological advances will continue to change the way these workers perform their daily tasks, such as using computer software programs to maintain records, but will not decrease the demand for these workers, especially in smaller establishments. Job prospects. Some job openings are expected to result from job growth, but even more openings will stem from the need to replace existing workers who leave. Each year, numerous jobs will become available as clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The large size of this occupation ensures plentiful job openings, including many opportunities for tem porary and part-time work. Certified Bookkeepers (CBs) and those with several years of accounting or bookkeeping experi ence will have the best job prospects. 552 Occupational Outlook Handbook auditing clerks more than $46,020, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $19,760. Benefits offered by employers may vary by the type and size of establishment, but health insurance and paid leave are com mon. Related Occupations Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks work with finan cial records. Other workers who perform similar duties include accountants and auditors; bill and account collectors; billing and posting clerks and machine operators; brokerage clerks; credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks; payroll and timekeep ing clerks; procurement clerks; and tellers. Sources of Additional Information For information on the Certified Bookkeeper designation, con tact: y American Institute of Professional Bookkeepers, 6001 Montrose Rd., Suite 500, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet; http://www.aipb.org Gaming Cage Workers (0*NET 43-3041.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities are available nationwide and are no longer limited to Nevada and New Jersey. • Most employers prefer applicants who have at least a high school diploma as well as experience in handling money or previous casino employment. • Workers need a license issued by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission; licensure requires a background investigation. laundering. Also, in determining when to extend credit or cash a check, cage workers must follow detailed procedures. Work environment. The atmosphere in casinos is often con sidered glamorous. However, casino work can also be physi cally demanding. This occupation requires workers to stand for long periods with constant reaching and grabbing. Sometimes cage workers may be expected to lift and carry relatively heavy items. The casino atmosphere exposes workers to certain haz ards, such as cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoke. Noise from slot machines, gaming tables, and talking workers and patrons may be distracting to some, although workers wear protective head gear in areas where loud machinery is used to count money. Most casinos are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and of fer 3 staggered shifts. Casinos typically require cage workers to work on nights, weekends, and holidays. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement While there are no mandatory education requirements, gaming cage workers typically receive on-the-job training and are li censed by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission. Education and training. There usually are no minimum ed ucational requirements, although most employers prefer at least a high school diploma or the equivalent. Once hired, gaming cage workers usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or other senior worker, new employees learn company procedures. Some for mal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specific gaming regulations and procedures. Licensure. All gaming workers are required to have a license issued by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission. Applicants for a license must provide photo identification and pay a fee. Some States may require gaming cage workers to be residents of that State. Age require- Nature of the Work Gaming cage workers, more commonly called cage cashiers, work in casinos and other gaming establishments. The “cage” where these workers can be found is the central depository for money, gaming chips, and paperwork necessary to support ca sino play. Cage workers carry out a wide range of financial transactions and handle any paperwork that may be required. They perform credit checks and verify credit references for people who want to open a house credit account. They cash checks according to rules established by the casino. Cage workers sell gambling chips, tokens, or tickets to patrons or to other workers for resale to patrons and exchange chips and tokens for cash. They may use cash registers, adding machines, or computers to calculate and record transactions. At the end of their shift, cage cashiers must balance the books. Because gaming establishments are closely scrutinized, cage workers must follow a number of rules and regulations related to their handling of money. For example, they monitor large cash transactions and report these transactions to the Internal Rev enue Service to help enforce tax regulations and prevent money https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nil Gaming cage workers must be careful, orderly, and detail-ori ented to avoid making errors. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 553 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Gamins cage workers......................................... .................................. SOC Code Projected employment, 2016 20,000 Employment, 2006 43-3041 18,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 2,000 11 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ments vary by State. The licensing application process also in cludes a background investigation and drug test. Other qualifications. Experience in handling money or pre vious casino employment is preferred. Prospective gaming cage workers are sometimes required to pass a basic math test, and they must be careful, orderly, and detail-oriented to avoid making errors and to recognize errors made by others. These workers also should be discreet and trustworthy because they frequently come in contact with confidential material. Good customer service skills and computer proficiency are also nec essary for this occupation. Each casino establishes its own re quirements for education, training, and experience. Advancement. Advancement opportunities in casino gaming depend less on workers’ previous casino duties and titles than on their ability and eagerness to learn new jobs. For example, in addition to advancement opportunities available in the cage, such as head cage cashier or supervisor, cage workers may ad vance onto the floor and become dealers or supervisors. Employment Gaming cage workers held about 18,000 jobs in 2006. All of these individuals work in establishments that offer gaming; em ployment is concentrated in Nevada, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Atlantic City, New Jersey. However, a growing number of States and Indian reservations have legalized gambling, and gaming establishments can now be found in many parts of the country. Job Outlook Employment of gaming cage workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2016. Job seekers should have favorable prospects due primarily to the spread of legalized gambling. Employment change. Employment of gaming cage workers is expected to increase by 11 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. The outlook for gaming cage workers depends on the demand for gaming, which is expected to remain strong. No longer con fined to Nevada and New Jersey, gaming is becoming legalized in more States that consider gaming an effective way to increase revenues. A substantial portion of this growth will come from the construction of new Indian casinos and of “racinos,” which are pari-mutuel racetracks that offer casino games. Gaming cage workers, however, will experience slower growth than others in gaming establishments, as casinos find ways to reduce the amount of cash handled by employees. For example, self-serve cash-out and change machines are common along with automated teller machines. In addition, slot ma chines are now able to make payouts in tickets, instead of coins. Tickets can be read by other slot machines and the amount on the ticket transferred to the new machine. Known as Ticket-in, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Ticket-Out game play, these technologies reduce the number of cash transactions needed to play and speed up the exchange process, which means fewer workers are needed to handle the cage than in the past. Job prospects. In addition to job openings arising from em ployment growth, a fair number of openings will result from high turnover in this occupation caused by the high level of scrutiny workers receive and the need to be accurate. People with good mathematics abilities, previous casino experience, some background in accounting or bookkeeping, and good cus tomer service skills should have the best opportunities. Earnings Earnings for gaming cage workers vary according to level of experience, training, location, and size of the gaming establish ment. Median hourly earnings of gaming cage workers were $11.13 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.49 and $13.52 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.19, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.92 an hour. Related Occupations Many other occupations provide hospitality and customer ser vice. Some examples of related occupations are credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks; gaming services occupations; sales worker supervisors; cashiers; retail salespersons; and tellers. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for gaming cage workers is available from local offices of the State employment service. Information on careers in gaming also is available from; 'y American Gaming Association, 1299 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 1010 East, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.americangaming.org Payroll and Timekeeping Clerks (0*NET 43-3051.00) Significant Points • Payroll and timekeeping clerks are found in every in dustry. • Workers train on the job; employers prefer high school graduates who have computer skills. • Those who have completed a certification program will have an advantage in the job market. 554 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work Payroll and timekeeping clerks perform a vital function: ensur ing that employees are paid on time and that their paychecks are accurate. If inaccuracies occur, such as monetary errors or incorrect amounts of vacation time, these clerks research and correct the records. In addition, they may perform other cleri cal tasks. Automated timekeeping systems that allow employ ees to enter the number of hours they have worked directly into a computer have eliminated much of the data entry and review by timekeepers and have elevated the job of payroll clerks, allowing them to perform more complex tasks. In of fices that have not automated this function, however, payroll and timekeeping clerks still perform many of the traditional job functions. The fundamental task of timekeeping clerks is distribut ing and collecting timecards each pay period. These workers review employee work charts, timesheets, and timecards to ensure that information is properly recorded and that records have the signatures of authorizing officials. In companies that bill clients for the time worked by staff—law or accounting firms, for example—timekeeping clerks make sure that the hours recorded are charged to the correct job so that clients can be properly billed. These clerks also review computer reports listing timecards that cannot be processed because of errors, and they contact the employee or the employee’s super visor to resolve the problem. In addition, timekeeping clerks are responsible for informing managers and other employees about procedural changes in payroll policies. Payroll clerks, also called payroll technicians, screen time cards for calculating, coding, or other errors. They compute pay by subtracting allotments, including Federal and State taxes and contributions to retirement, insurance, and savings plans, from gross earnings. Increasingly, computers perform these calculations and alert payroll clerks to problems or er rors in the data. In small organizations or for new employees whose records are not yet entered into a computer system, clerks may perform the necessary calculations manually. In some small offices, clerks or other employees in the account ing department process payrolls. Payroll clerks record changes in employees’ addresses; close out files when workers retire, resign, or transfer; and advise employees on income tax withholding and other mandatory deductions. These workers also issue and record adjustments to workers’ pay because of previous errors or retroactive in creases. Periodically, they prepare and mail earnings and tax withholding statements for employees’ use in preparing in come tax returns. Payroll clerks need to be aware of changes in tax and deduction laws, so that they can implement them. In small offices, payroll and timekeeping duties are likely to be included in the duties of a general office clerk, a sec retary, or an accounting clerk. However, large organizations employ specialized payroll and timekeeping clerks to perform these functions. In offices that have automated timekeeping systems, payroll clerks perform more analysis of the data, ex amining trends and working with computer systems. They also spend more time answering employees’ questions and processing unique data. Work environment. Payroll and timekeeping clerks usually work in clean, pleasant, and comfortable office settings, but they also may face pressure to meet deadlines. Clerks usually work a standard 35- to 40-hour week; however, longer hours might be necessary during busy periods. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Payroll and timekeeping clerks train on the job. Employers prefer high school graduates who have computer skills. Education and training. Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or GED. Payroll and timekeeping clerks train on the job, gaining skills by watching and learning from other workers. New workers receive training in payroll, timekeeping, personnel issues, workplace practices, and com pany policies. Some also complete training programs in high schools, business schools, or community colleges. Other qualifications. Computer skills are very desirable. In addition, payroll and timekeeping clerks must be able to interact and communicate with individuals at all levels of the organization. Clerks need poise, tactfulness, and diplomacy, and the interpersonal skills to handle sensitive and confidential situations. Certification and advancement. Many professional orga nizations for payroll and timekeeping offer classes to enhance the skills of their members. Some organizations offer certifica tion programs; completion of a certification program can show competence and can enhance advancement opportunities. For example, the American Payroll Association offers two levels of certification, the Fundamental Payroll Certification and the Certified Payroll Professional. The first is open to all individu als who wish to demonstrate basic payroll competency. The second and more advanced credential is available to those who have been employed in the practice of payroll for at least 3 years, among other requirements. Both certifications require experience and a passing score on an exam. Employment Payroll and timekeeping clerks review work charts and timesheets to ensure that employees are paid on time. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Payroll and timekeeping clerks held about 214,000 jobs in 2006. They can be found in every industry, but a growing Office and Administrative Support Occupations 555 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Payroll and timekeeping clerks................................. .......................... soc Code Employment, 2006 43-3051 Projected employment, 2016 214,000 220,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 6,600 3 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. number work for employment services companies as tempo rary employees. Many also work for accounting, tax prepa ration, bookkeeping, and payroll services firms, which in creasingly perform the payroll function as a service to other companies. Approximately 16 percent of all payroll and timekeeping clerks worked part time in 2006. Job Outlook Slower-than-average job growth is expected. Those who have completed a certification program will have an advantage in the job market. Employment change. Employment of payroll and time keeping clerks is expected to grow 3 percent during the 2006 16 decade, slower than the average for all occupations. The increasing use of computers will limit employment growth of payroll and timekeeping clerks. For example, automated time clocks, which calculate employee hours, allow large organi zations to centralize their timekeeping duties in one location. At individual sites, employee hours increasingly are tracked by computer and verified by managers. This information is compiled and sent to a central office to be processed by pay roll clerks. In addition, the growing use of direct deposit will reduce the need to draft paychecks because pay is transferred automatically each pay period. Also, more organizations are allowing employees to update their payroll records electroni cally. In smaller organizations, payroll and timekeeping du ties are being assigned to secretaries, general office clerks, or accounting clerks. As entering and recording payroll and timekeeping infor mation becomes more simplified, the job itself is becoming more varied and complex. For example, companies now of fer a greater variety of pension, 401(k), and other investment plans to their employees. Also, the growing use of wage gar nishment for child support is adding to the complexity. These developments will contribute to job growth for payroll and timekeeping clerks, who will be needed to record and monitor such information. As firms increasingly outsource the payroll function, most job growth is expected to be in companies that specialize in payroll—including companies in the employment services in dustry and the accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services industry. Many of these companies are data processing facilities, but accounting firms also are taking on the payroll function to supplement their accounting work. Job prospects. In addition to job growth, numerous job openings will arise each year as payroll and timekeeping clerks leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Those who have completed a certification program, indicating https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis that they can handle more complex payroll issues, will have an advantage in the job market. Earnings Salaries of payroll and timekeeping clerks may vary consider ably. The region of the country, size of city, and type and size of establishment all influence salary levels. Also, the level of expertise required and the complexity and uniqueness of a clerk’s responsibilities may affect earnings. Median annual earnings of payroll and timekeeping clerks in May 2006 were $32,400. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,190 and $39,420. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,150, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $46,500. Median annual earnings in the industries em ploying the largest numbers of payroll and timekeeping clerks in May 2006 were: Management of companies and enterprises....................... $33,880 Accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services................................................................................ 33,700 Elementary and secondary schools...................................... 33,600 Local government................................................................. 33,490 Employment services............................................................30,290 Some employers offer educational assistance to payroll and timekeeping clerks. Related Occupations Payroll and timekeeping clerks perform a vital financial func tion—ensuring that employees are paid on time and that their paychecks are accurate. In addition, they may perform vari ous other office and administrative support duties. Other fi nancial clerks include bill and account collectors; billing and posting clerks and machine operators; bookkeeping, account ing, and auditing clerks; gaming cage workers; procurement clerks; and tellers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about payroll and timekeeping clerks, contact: y American Payroll Association, 660 North Main Ave., Suite 100, Suite 660, San Antonio, TX 78205-1217. Internet: http://www.americanpayroll.org y WorldatWork, 14040 N. Northsight Blvd., Scottsdale, AZ 85260. Internet: http://www.worIdatwork.org Information on employment opportunities for payroll and timekeeping clerks is available from local offices of the State employment service. 556 Occupational Outlook Handbook Procurement Clerks (0*NET 43-3061.00) Significant Points • • • About 23 percent of procurement clerks work for Fed eral, State, and local governments. Overall employment is expected to experience little or no change as a result of increasing automation, off shoring, and restructuring of business. High school graduates with good communication and computer skills should have the best job opportuni ties. Nature of the Work Procurement clerks compile requests for materials, prepare pur chase orders, keep track of purchases and supplies, and handle inquiries about orders. Usually called purchasing clerks or pur chasing technicians, they perform a variety of tasks related to ordering goods and supplies for an organization. They make sure that what was purchased arrives on schedule and meets the purchaser’s specifications. Automation is having a profound effect on this occupation. Orders for goods now can be placed electronically when supplies are low. However, automation is still years away for many firms, and the role of the procurement clerk is unchanged in many or ganizations. Procurement clerks perform a wide range of tasks. Some clerks perform strictly clerical functions, but others, particularly at small or medium-sized companies, do more complex tasks. In general, procurement clerks process requests for purchas es. They first determine whether there is any of the requested product left in inventory and may go through catalogs or to the Internet to find suppliers. They may prepare invitation-to-bid forms and mail them to suppliers or distribute them for public posting. Procurement clerks may interview potential suppliers by telephone or face-to-face to check on prices and specifica tions and then put together spreadsheets with price comparisons and other facts about each supplier. Upon the organization’s ap proval, clerks prepare and mail purchase orders and enter them into computers. Procurement clerks keep track of orders and determine the causes of any delays. If the supplier has questions, clerks try to answer them and resolve any problems. When the shipment ar rives, procurement clerks may reconcile the purchase order with the shipment, making sure that they match; notify the vendors when invoices are not received; and verify that the bills match the purchase orders. Some purchasing departments, particularly in small compa nies, are responsible for overseeing the organization’s inven tory control system. At these organizations, procurement clerks monitor in-house inventory movement and complete inventory transfer forms for bookkeeping purposes. They may keep inven tory spreadsheets and place orders when materials on hand are insufficient. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Work environment. Procurement clerks usually work a stan dard 40-hour week. Most procurement clerks work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. These workers sit for long periods of time in front of computer terminals, which many cause eyestrain and headaches. Workers in this occupation may sometimes work overtime or on varied shifts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent. To advance to purchasing agent jobs, a bachelor’s degree is usually required and certification is helpful. Education and training. Most employers prefer applicants who have a high school diploma or its equivalent or a mix of education and related experience. Most procurement clerks are trained on the job under close supervision of more experienced employees. Training usually lasts less than a few months. Other qualifications. Employers prefer workers who are com puter-literate and have a working knowledge of word processing and spreadsheet software. Proficiency with computer software is important because most tasks, such as preparing purchase orders, are performed electronically. Certification and advancement. Some procurement clerks who obtain a bachelor’s degree and show a greater understand ing of contracts and purchasing may be promoted to the position of purchasing agent or buyer. Useful fields of study include busi ness, supply management, engineering, and economics. Getting a certification may help procurement clerks demon strate that they have the knowledge and skills necessary to take on more advanced purchasing tasks. There are several recognized credentials for purchasing agents and purchasing managers. The Certified Purchasing Manager (CPM) designation is conferred by the Institute for Supply Management. In 2008, this certification will be replaced by the Certified Professional in Supply Manage ment (CPSM) credential, covering the wider scope of duties now performed by purchasing professionals. The Certified Purchas ing Professional (CPP) and Certified Professional Purchasing Manager (CPPM) designations are conferred by the American Purchasing Society. The Certified Supply Chain Professional (CSCP) and Certified in Production and Inventory Management (CPIM) credentials are conferred by APICS, also known as the Association for Operations Management. In Federal, State, and , <• Procurement clerks prepare purchase orders and make sure that the shipment and the bills agree with the order. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 557 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Procurement clerks............................................. ............................. soc Code Projected employment, Employment, 2006 43-3061 2016 76,000 78,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent -2 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa-1,600 tion Included in the Handbook. local government, the indications of professional competence are Certified Professional Public Buyer (CPPB) and Certified Public Purchasing Officer (CPPO), conferred by the National Institute of Governmental Purchasing. Most of these certifications are awarded only after experience and education requirements are met and written or oral exams are successfully completed. Employment In 2006, procurement clerks held about 78,000 jobs in every industry, including manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, health care, and government. About 23 percent of procurement clerks work for Federal, State, and local governments; most of these work for the Federal Government. Job Outlook Employment in the occupation is expected to experience little or no change. High school graduates with good communication and computer skills should have the best job opportunities. Employment change. Employment of procurement clerks is expected to decline by 2 percent during the 2006-16 decade, which is considered little or no change, as a result of increas ing automation, offshoring, and business restructuring. The need for procurement clerks will be reduced as the use of computers to place orders directly with suppliers—called electronic data interchange—and as ordering over the Internet—known as “eprocurement”—become more commonplace. In addition, pro curement authority for some purchases is now being given to employees in the departments originating the purchase. These departments may be issued procurement cards, which are similar to credit cards that enable a department to charge purchases up to a specified amount. Job prospects. Despite the expected little or no change in em ployment, job openings will arise out of the need to replace work ers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. High school graduates with good communication and computer skills should have the best job opportunities. clerks; secretaries and administrative assistants; receptionists and information clerks; bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; and payroll and timekeeping clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information on obtaining positions as procurement clerks or pro curement technicians with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through US AJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not toll free, and charges may result. State or local government personnel offices and their Web sites can provide information about procurement clerk jobs at those levels of government. Information on employment opportunities for procurement clerks in the public or private sector is available from local offices of the State employment service. Further information about education, training, employment, and certification for purchasing careers is available from: 'y APICS, The Association for Operations Management, 5301 Shawnee Rd., Alexandria, VA 22312-2317. Internet: http://www.apics.org y American Purchasing Society, North Island Center, Suite 203, 8 East Galena Blvd., Aurora, IL 60506. y Institute for Supply Management, P.O. Box 22160, Tempe, AZ 85285-2160. Internet: http://www.ism.ws y National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc., 151 Spring St., Suite 300, Herndon, VA 20170-5223. Internet: http://www.nigp.org Tellers (0*NET 43-3071.00) Earnings Median hourly earnings of procurement clerks in May 2006 were $15.91. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.65 and $19.41. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.16 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.68. Procurement clerks working for the Federal Government had an average annual in come of $41,716 in 2007. Related Occupations Procurement clerks compile information and records to draw up purchase orders for materials and services. Other workers who perform similar duties are purchasing agents and buyers, stock clerks and order fillers, and order clerks. Procurement clerks provide office support services for businesses and other orga nizations. Other workers who perform similar duties are file https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • Tellers should enjoy working with the public, feel comfortable handling large amounts of money, and be discreet and trustworthy. • About 1 out of 4 tellers work part time. • Many job openings will arise from replacement needs because many tellers eventually leave for jobs in other occupations that offer higher pay or more responsibil ity. • Employment of tellers is projected to grow as fast as the average; good job prospects are expected. 558 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work The teller is the worker most people associate with their bank. Among the responsibilities of tellers are cashing checks, accepting deposits and loan payments, and process ing withdrawals. Tellers make up approximately one-fourth of bank employees and conduct most of a bank’s routine transactions. Prior to starting their shifts, tellers receive and count an amount of working cash for their drawers. A supervisor— usually the head teller—verifies this amount. Tellers dis burse this cash during the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate handling. Before leaving, tellers count their cash on hand, list the currency received on a balance sheet making sure that the accounts balance, and sort checks and deposit slips. Over the course of a workday, tellers also may process numerous mail transactions. They also may sell sav ings bonds, accept payment for customers’ utility bills and charge cards, process necessary paperwork for certificates of deposit, and sell travelers’ checks. Some tellers specialize in handling foreign currencies or commercial or business ac counts. Other tellers corroborate deposits and payments to automated teller machines (ATMs). Being a teller requires a great deal of attention to detail. Before cashing a check, a teller must verify the date, the name of the bank, the identity of the person who is to receive payment, and the legality of the document. A teller also must make sure that the written and numerical amounts agree and that the account has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller then must carefully count cash to avoid errors. Some times a customer withdraws money in the form of a cashier’s check, which the teller prepares and verifies. When accept ing a deposit, tellers must check the accuracy of the deposit slip before processing the transaction. As banks begin to offer more and increasingly complex fi nancial services, tellers are being trained to identify custom ers who might want to buy these services. This task requires them to learn about the various financial products and ser vices the bank offers so that they can explain them to custom ers and refer interested customers to appropriate specialized sales personnel. In addition, tellers in many banks are being cross-trained to perform some of the functions of customer service representatives. (Customer service representatives are discussed separately in the Handbook.) Technology continues to play a large role in the job duties of all tellers. In most banks, for example, tellers use com puter terminals to record deposits and withdrawals. These terminals often give them quick access to detailed informa tion on customer accounts. Tellers can use this information to tailor the bank’s services to fit a customer’s needs or to recommend an appropriate bank product or service. In most banks, head tellers manage teller operations. They set work schedules, ensure that the proper procedures are adhered to, and act as mentors to less experienced tellers. In addition, head tellers may perform the typical duties of a front-line teller, as needed, and may deal with the more dif ficult customer problems. They may access the vault, ensure https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis that the correct cash balance is in the vault, and oversee large cash transactions. Work environment. Tellers work in an office environment. They may experience eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries as a result of using computers every day. Tellers may have to sit for extended periods while reviewing detailed data. Many tellers work regular business hours and a standard 40-hour week. Sometimes, they work evenings and week ends to accommodate extended bank hours. About 1 in 4 tellers worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most teller jobs require a high school diploma or higher de gree. Tellers are usually trained on the job. Education and training. Most tellers are required to have at least a high school diploma, but some have completed some college training or even a bachelor’s degree in busi ness, accounting, or liberal arts. Although a college degree is rarely required, graduates sometimes accept teller positions to get started in banking or in a particular company with the hope of eventually being promoted to managerial or other positions. Once hired, tellers usually receive on-the-job training. Un der the guidance of a supervisor or other senior worker, new employees learn company procedures. Some formal class- Tellers must have good customer service skills. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 559 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Tellers.. soc Code Employment, 2006 43-3071 Projected employment, 608,000 2016 689,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 13 82,000 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. room training also may be necessary, such as training in spe cific computer software. Other qualifications. Experience working in an office environment or in customer service, and particularly in cash-handling can be important for tellers. Regardless of experience, employers prefer workers who have good com munication and customer service skills. Knowledge of word processing and spreadsheet software is also valuable. Tellers should enjoy contact with the public. They must have a strong aptitude for numbers and feel comfortable han dling large amounts of money. They should be discreet and trustworthy because they frequently come in contact with confidential material. Tellers also must be careful, orderly, and detail-oriented to avoid making errors and to recognize errors made by others. Advancement. Tellers usually advance by taking on more duties and being promoted to head teller or to another super visory job. Many banks and other employers fill supervi sory and managerial positions by promoting individuals from within their organizations, so outstanding tellers who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their ad vancement opportunities. Tellers can prepare for jobs with better pay or more responsibility by taking courses offered by banking and financial institutes, colleges and universities, and private training institutions. Employment Tellers held about 608,000 jobs in 2006. The overwhelm ing majority of tellers worked in commercial banks, savings institutions, or credit unions. The remainder worked in a va riety of other finance and other industries. Job Outlook Employment of tellers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Overall job prospects should be favorable due to the need to replace workers who retire or otherwise leave the occupation. Employment change. Employment is projected to grow by 13 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. To attract customers, banks are opening new branch offices in a variety of locations, such as grocery stores and shopping malls. Banks are also keeping their branches open longer during the day and on weekends. Both of these trends are expected to increase job opportuni ties for tellers, particularly those who work part time. Despite the improved outlook, automation and technology will continue to reduce the need for tellers who perform only routine transactions. For example, increased use of ATMs, debit cards, credit cards, and the direct deposit of pay and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis benefit checks have reduced the need for bank customers to interact with tellers for routine transactions. Electronic banking—conducted over the telephone or the Internet—also is spreading rapidly throughout the banking industry and will reduce the need for tellers in the long run. Employment of tellers also is being affected by the increas ing use of 24-hour telephone centers by many large banks. These centers allow a customer to interact with a bank repre sentative at a distant location, either by telephone or by video terminal. Such centers usually are staffed by customer ser vice representatives. Job prospects. Job prospects for tellers are expected to be favorable. In addition to job openings expected from growth, most openings will arise from the need to replace the many tellers who transfer to other occupations—which is common for large occupations that normally require little formal edu cation and offer relatively low pay. Prospects will be best for tellers with excellent customer service skills, knowledge about a variety of financial services, and the ability to sell those services. Earnings Salaries of tellers vary with experience, region of the coun try, size of city, and type and size of establishment. Median annual earnings of tellers were $22,140 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,300 and $25,880 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,770, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $30,020 a year in May 2006. Related Occupations Tellers enter data into a computer, handle cash, and keep track of financial transactions. Other clerks who perform similar duties include bill and account collectors; billing and posting clerks and machine operators; bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; gaming cage workers; brokerage clerks; and credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for tellers is avail able from banks and other employers, local offices of the State employment service, and from: y Bank Administration Institute, 1 North Franklin St., Suite 1000 Chicago, IL 60606. Internet: http://www.bai.org 560 Occupational Outlook Handbook Information and Record Clerks Brokerage Clerks (0*NET 43-4011.00) Significant Points • More than 9 out of 10 brokerage clerks worked for securities and commodities firms, banks, and other es tablishments in the financial services industry. • High school graduates qualify for many of these posi tions, but many workers now hold associate or bach elor’s degrees. • Good prospects are expected for qualified jobseek ers as employment grows and as existing brokerage clerks advance to other occupations. Nature of the Work For a typical investor, buying and selling stock is a simple pro cess. Often, it is as easy as calling a broker on the phone or entering the trade into a computer. Behind the scenes, however, buying and selling stock is more complicated, involving trade execution and a fair amount of paperwork. While brokers do some of this work themselves, much of it is delegated to broker age clerks. Brokerage clerks perform a number of different tasks with a wide range of responsibilities. Most involve computing and recording data pertaining to securities transactions. Brokerage clerks may also contact customers, take orders, and inform cli ents of changes to their accounts. Brokerage clerks work in the operations departments of securities firms, on trading floors, and in branch offices. Technology has had a major impact on these positions over the last several years. A significant and growing number of brokerage clerks use custom-designed soft ware programs to process transactions more quickly. Only a few customized accounts are still handled manually. A broker’s assistant, also called a sales assistant, is the most common type of brokerage clerk. These clerks typically assist a small number of brokers, for whom they take client calls, write up order tickets, process the paperwork for opening and closing accounts, record a client’s purchases and sales, and inform cli ents of changes to their accounts. All broker’s assistants must be knowledgeable about investment products so that they can communicate clearly with clients. Those who are licensed by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) can make recommendations to clients at the instruction of the broker. (Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Brokerage clerks in the operations areas of securities firms perform many duties to help the sale and purchase of stocks, bonds, commodities, and other kinds of investments. They also produce the necessary records of all transactions that occur in their area of the business. Purchase-and-sale clerks match or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ders to buy with orders to sell. They balance and verify trades of stock by comparing the records of the selling firm with those of the buying firm. Dividend clerks ensure timely payments of stock or cash dividends to clients of a particular brokerage firm. Transfer clerks execute customer requests for changes to secu rity registration and examine stock certificates to make sure that they adhere to banking regulations. Receive-and-deliver clerks handle the receipt and delivery of securities among firms and institutions. Margin clerks record and monitor activity in cus tomers’ accounts to ensure that clients make payments and stay within legal boundaries concerning their purchases of stock. Work environment. Brokerage clerks work in offices and on trading floors, areas that are clean and well lit but which may be noisy at times. The workload is generally manageable but can become very heavy when the market fluctuates rapidly. Broker age clerks generally work a standard 40-hour week, but they may work overtime during particularly busy periods. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most brokerage clerks learn their jobs through a few months of on-the-job training and experience. Once they have worked in the firm for a few years, many clerks advance to sales represen tative or broker positions. Education and training. Some brokerage clerk positions re quire only a high school diploma, but graduates from 2- and 4year college degree programs are increasingly preferred. Posi tions dealing with the public, such as broker’s or sales assistant, and those dealing with more complicated financial records are especially likely to require a college degree. Most new employees are trained on the job, working under the close supervision of more experienced employees. Some firms offer formal training that may include courses in telephone etiquette, computer use, and customer service skills. They may also offer training programs to help clerks study for the broker licensing exams. , x ",± * Brokerage clerks assist with tasks such as executing trades and filing paperwork. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 561 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Projected Change, 2006-16 employment, Code 2016 Number Percent Brokerage clerks...................................................... ............................. 43-4011 73,000 88,000 15,000 20 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title soc Employment, 2006 tion Included in the Handbook. Licensure. Licenses are not strictly required for most bro kerage clerk positions, but a Series 7 brokerage license can make a clerk more valuable to the broker. This license gives the holder the ability to act as a registered representative of the firm. A registered representative has the right to answer more of a client’s questions and to pass along securities recommenda tions from the broker. In order to receive this license, a clerk must pass the General Securities Registered Representative Ex amination (Series 7 exam), administered by FINRA, and be an employee of a registered firm for at least 4 months. Other qualifications. Brokerage clerk jobs require good organizational and communication skills, as well as attention to detail. Computer skills are extremely important, as most of the work is done by computer. An aptitude for working with numbers is also very helpful, as is a basic knowledge of ac counting. Advancement. Clerks may be promoted to sales representa tive positions or other professional positions within the securi ties industry. Employment as a brokerage clerk may also be a stepping-stone into a position as a broker. Employment Brokerage clerks held about 73,000 jobs in 2006. More than 9 out of 10 worked for securities and commodities, banking, and other financial industries. Job Outlook The job outlook for prospective brokerage clerks is good. As the securities industry grows, the number of clerks will in crease. Opportunities will be abundant relative to other securi ties industry occupations, due to advancement of other clerks and job growth. Employment change. Employment of brokerage clerks is expected to grow by 20 percent during the 2006-16 decade, which is faster than the average for all occupations. With more people investing in securities, brokerage clerks will be required to process larger volumes of transactions. Moreover, regulatory changes have resulted in more legal documentation and record keeping requirements. Demand will be tempered, however, by continually improving technologies that allow increased auto mation of many tasks. Further, clerks are often seen as reduc ing profits, since they do not bring in customers, making them particularly prone to layoffs. Because of intense competition, especially among discount brokerages, companies must con tinually focus on cutting costs, meaning that many responsibili ties formerly handled by clerks are now handled by the brokers themselves. Job prospects. Because brokerage clerks are often entry-level workers, many opportunities will result from the advancement of other clerks. Prospects will be good for qualified workers. New entrants who have strong sales skills and an aptitude for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis understanding numbers will have the best opportunities. While not required, a 4-year degree can also be very helpful. Earnings Median annual earnings of brokerage clerks were $36,390 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,480 and $46,030. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,590 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $57,600. Related Occupations Brokerage clerks compute and record data. Other workers who perform calculations and record data include bill and account collectors; billing and posting clerks and machine operators; bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; and tellers. Sources of Additional Information For more information on employment in the securities industry, contact: y Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association, 120 Broadway, 35th Floor, New York, NY 10271. Internet: http://www.sifma.org For information on licensing, contact: y Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA), 1735KSt. NW. Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.finra.org Credit Authorizers, Checkers, and Clerks (0*NET 43-4041.00, 43-4041.01, 43-4041.02) Significant Points • Most jobs require only a high school diploma. • Employment is expected to decline. Nature of the Work Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks review credit history and obtain the information needed to determine the creditwor thiness of individuals or businesses applying for credit. They spend much of their day on the telephone or on the Internet obtaining information from credit bureaus, employers, banks, credit institutions, and other sources to determine applicants’ credit history and ability to repay what they borrow or charge. Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks process and autho rize applications for credit, including applications for credit cards. Although the distinctions among the three job titles are disappearing, some general differences remain. Credit clerks typically handle the processing of credit applications by verify- 562 Occupational Outlook Handbook Credit authorizers approve charges against customers’ existing accounts. Most charges are approved automatically by computer. However, when accounts are past due, overextended, or invalid, or when they show a change of address, salespersons refer the associated transactions to credit authorizers located in a central office. These authorizers evaluate the customers’ computerized credit records and payment histories and quickly decide whether to approve new charges. Work environment. Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks usually work a standard 40-hour week. However, they may work overtime during particularly busy periods, such as holiday shop ping seasons and store sales. Most credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. These workers sit for long periods of time in front of com puter screens, which may cause eyestrain and headaches. Part time work is available, and temporary workers are often hired during peak workloads. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Credit authorizers review a customer’s credit history. ing the information on the application, calling applicants if ad ditional data are needed, contacting credit bureaus for a credit rating, and obtaining any other information necessary to deter mine applicants’ creditworthiness. If clerks work in a depart ment store or other establishment that offers instant credit, they enter the applicant’s information into a computer at the point of sale. A credit rating is then transmitted from a central office within seconds to indicate whether the application should be re jected or approved. Credit checkers investigate the credit history and current credit standing of a person or business prior to the issuance of a loan or line of credit. Credit checkers also may contact credit depart ments of businesses and service companies to obtain information about an applicant’s credit standing. Credit reporting agencies and bureaus hire checkers to secure, update, and verify infor mation for credit reports. These workers often are called credit investigators or credit reporters. Employers generally prefer workers with a least a high school di ploma or its equivalent and usually provide on-the-job training. Education and training. A high school diploma or its equiv alent is usually the minimum requirement for these workers. Most new employees are trained on the job, working under close supervision of more experienced employees. Some firms offer formal training that may include courses in telephone etiquette, computer use, and customer service skills. Some credit autho rizers, checkers, and clerks also take courses in credit offered by banking and credit associations, public and private vocational schools, and colleges and universities. Experience and other qualifications. Other requirements of the job include good telephone and organizational skills and the ability to pay close attention to details and meet tight deadlines. Computer skills also are important in order to enter and retrieve data quickly. Advancement. These workers typically can advance to super visory positions. They may become loan or credit department supervisor or team leader of a small group of clerks. Employment Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks held about 69,000 jobs in 2006. Nearly half of these workers were employed by finance and insurance industries, mainly firms in credit intermediation and related activities, such as commercial and savings banks; credit unions; and mortgage, finance, and loan companies. Cred it bureaus, collection agencies, and wholesale and retail trade establishments also employ these clerks. Job Outlook Employment for this occupation is expected to decline moder ately through the year 2016. However, job openings will still arise from the need to replace workers leaving the occupation. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks SOC Code Employment, 2006 43-4041________ 69,000 Projected Change, employment, 2006-16 2016______ Number_____ Percent 63,000 -5,800__________ -S_ NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Office and Administrative Support Occupations 563 Employment change. Employment of credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks is expected to decline moderately by about 8 percent between 2006 and 2016. Despite a projected increase in the number of credit applications, technology will allow these applications to be processed, checked, and authorized by fewer workers than were required in the past. Credit scoring is a major development that has improved the productivity of credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks, thus limiting employment growth in the occupation. Companies and credit bureaus now can purchase software that quickly ana lyzes an applicant’s creditworthiness and summarizes it with a “score.” Credit issuers then can easily decide whether to accept or reject an application on the basis of its score, speeding up the authorization of loans or credit. Obtaining credit ratings also has become much easier for credit checkers and authorizers be cause businesses now have computer systems directly linked to credit bureaus that provide immediate access to a person’s credit history. Job prospects. Despite an expected decline in employment, job prospects for credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks will remain good. Openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation for various reasons. How ever, the job outlook is sensitive to overall economic activity. A downturn in the economy or a rise in interest rates usually leads to a decline in demand for credit. Earnings Median hourly earnings of credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks in May 2006 were $14.41. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.25 and $18.10. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.72, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.30. Median hourly earnings in nondepository credit intermediation were $15.21 in 2006, while median earnings in depository cred it intermediation were $15.01. Related Occupations Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks obtain and analyze credit histories. Other workers who review account informa tion include bill and account collectors, loan officers, and insur ance underwriters. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies can provide in formation about job openings for credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks. Customer Service Representatives (0*NET 43-4051.00) Significant Points • Job prospects are expected to be excellent. • Most jobs require only a high school diploma but edu cational requirements are rising. • Strong verbal communication and listening skills are important. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Customer service representatives are employed by many dif ferent types of companies to serve as a direct point of contact for customers. They are responsible for ensuring that their company’s customers receive an adequate level of service or help with their questions and concerns. These customers may be individual consumers or other companies, and their service needs can vary considerably. All customer service representatives interact with customers to provide information in response to inquiries about products or services and to handle and resolve complaints. They communi cate with customers through a variety of means—by telephone; by e-mail, fax, regular mail; or in person. Some customer ser vice representatives handle general questions and complaints, whereas others specialize in a particular area. Many customer inquiries involve routine questions and re quests. For example, customer service representatives may be asked to provide a customer with their credit card balance, or to check on the status of an order. However, other questions are more involved, and may require additional research or fur ther explanation on the part of the customer service representa tive. In handling customers’ complaints, they must attempt to resolve the problem according to guidelines established by the company. These procedures may involve asking questions to determine the validity of a complaint; offering possible solu tions; or providing customers with refunds, exchanges, or other offers, like discounts or coupons. In some cases, customer ser vice representatives are required to follow up with an individual customer until a question is answered or an issue is resolved. Some customer service representatives help people decide what types of products or services would best suit their needs. They may even aid customers in completing purchases or trans actions. Although the primary function of customer service representatives is not sales, some may spend time encouraging customers to purchase additional products or services. (For in formation on workers whose primary function is sales, see the statements on sales and related occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Customer service representatives also may make changes or updates to a customer’s profile or account informa tion. They may keep records of transactions and update and maintain databases of information. Most customer service representatives use computers and telephones extensively in their work. Customer service rep resentatives frequently enter information into a computer as they are speaking to customers. Often, companies have large amounts of data, such as account information, that is pulled up on a computer screen while the representative is talking to a customer so he or she can answer specific questions. Customer service representatives also usually have answers to the most common customer questions, or guidelines for dealing with complaints. In the event that they encounter a question or situa tion to which they do not know how to respond, workers consult with a supervisor to determine the best course of action. They generally use multiline telephone systems, which may route calls directly to the most appropriate representative. However, at times, they must transfer calls to someone who may be better able to respond to the customer’s needs. 564 Occupational Outlook Handbook In some organizations, customer service representatives spend their entire day on the telephone. In others, they may spend part of their day answering e-mails and the remainder of the day taking calls. For some, most of their contact with the customer is face to face. Customer service representatives need to remain aware of the amount of time spent with each customer so that they can fairly distribute their time among the people who require their assistance. This is particularly important for those whose primary activities are answering telephone calls and whose conversations are required to be kept within a set time limit. For those working in call centers, there is usually very little time between telephone calls. When working in call centers, customer service representatives are likely to be under close supervision. Telephone calls may be taped and reviewed by supervisors to ensure that company policies and procedures are being followed. lob responsibilities also can differ, depending on the industry in which a customer service representative is employed. For example, those working in the branch office of a bank may as sume the responsibilities of other workers, such as teller or new account clerk, as needed. In insurance agencies, a customer service representative interacts with agents, insurance compa nies, and policyholders. These workers handle much of the paperwork related to insurance policies, such as policy appli— ■ 1 cations and changes and renewals to existing policies. They answer questions regarding policy coverage, help with report ing claims, and do anything else that may need to be done. Al though they must have similar credentials and knowledge of insurance products as insurance agents, the duties of a customer service representative differ from those of an agent as they are not responsible for seeking potential customers. Customer ser vice representatives employed by utilities and communications companies assist individuals interested in opening accounts for various utilities such as electricity and gas, or for communi cation services such as cable television and telephone. They explain various options and receive orders for services to be installed, turned on, turned off, or changed. They also may look into and resolve complaints about billing and other service. Work environment. Although customer service representa tives work in a variety of settings, most work in areas that are clean and well lit. Many work in call or customer contact cen ters where workers generally have their own workstation or cu bicle space equipped with a telephone, headset, and computer. Because many call centers are open extended hours, beyond the traditional work day, or are staffed around the clock, these positions may require workers to take on early morning, eve ning, or late night shifts. Weekend or holiday work also may be necessary. As a result, the occupation is well suited to flexible work schedules. About 17 percent of customer service repre sentatives work part time. The occupation also offers the op portunity for seasonal work in certain industries, often through temporary help agencies. Call centers may be crowded and noisy, and work may be repetitious and stressful, with little time between calls. Workers usually must attempt to minimize the length of each call, while still providing excellent service. To ensure that these procedures are followed, conversations may be monitored by supervisors, which be stressful. Also, long periods spent sitting, typing, or looking at a computer screen may cause eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries. Customer service representatives working outside of a call center environment may interact with customers through sev eral different means. For example, workers employed by an insurance agency or in a grocery store may have customers ap proach them in person or contact them by telephone, computer, mail, or fax. Many of these customer service representatives work a standard 40-hour week; however, their hours generally depend on their employer’s hours of operation. Work environ ments outside of a call center also vary accordingly. Most cus tomer service representatives work either in an office or at a service or help desk. Customer service representatives may have to deal with dif ficult or irate customers, which can be challenging. However, the ability to resolve customers’ problems has the potential to be very rewarding. '' ■■ Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Customer service representatives answer questions and assist customers over the phone. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most jobs require at least a high school diploma. However, em ployers are increasingly seeking candidates with some college education. Most employers provide training to workers before they begin serving customers. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 565 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Customer service representatives............................... ......................... soc Code 43-4051 Employment, 2006 2,202,000 Projected employment, 2016 2,747,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 545,000 25 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Education and training. Most customer service representa tive jobs require only a high school diploma. However, because employers are demanding a higher skilled workforce, many customer service jobs now require an associate or bachelor’s degree. High school and college level courses in computers, English, or business are helpful in preparing for a job in cus tomer service. Training requirements vary by industry. Almost all customer service representatives are provided with some training prior to beginning work. This training generally includes customer service and phone skills; information on products and services; information about common customer problems; the use of the telephone and computer systems; and company policies and regulations. Length of training varies, but usually lasts at least several weeks. Because of a constant need to update skills and knowledge, most customer service representatives continue to receive training throughout their career. This is particularly true of workers in industries such as banking, in which regulations and products are continually changing. Other qualifications. Because customer service representa tives constantly interact with the public, good communication and problem-solving skills are a must. Verbal communication and listening skills are especially important. For workers who communicate through e-mail, good typing, spelling, and writ ing skills are necessary. Basic to intermediate computer knowl edge and good interpersonal skills also are important qualities for people who wish to be successful in the field. Customer service representatives play a critical role in pro viding an interface between customers and companies. As a result, employers seek out people who are friendly and possess a professional manner. The ability to deal patiently with prob lems and complaints and to remain courteous when faced with difficult or angry people is very important. Also, a customer service representative needs to be able to work independently within specified time constraints. Workers should have a clear and pleasant speaking voice and be fluent in English. However, the ability to speak a foreign language is becoming increasingly necessary. Although some positions may require previous industry, of fice, or customer service experience, many customer service jobs are entry level. However, within insurance agencies and brokerages, these jobs usually are not entry-level positions. Workers must have previous experience in insurance and of ten are required by State regulations to be licensed like insur ance sales agents. A variety of designations are available to demonstrate that a candidate has sufficient knowledge and skill, and continuing education courses and training often are offered through the employer. Advancement. Customer service jobs are often good in troductory positions into a company or an industry. In some cases, experienced workers can move up within the company https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis into supervisory or managerial positions or they may move into areas such as product development, in which they can use their knowledge to improve products and services. As they gain more knowledge of industry products and services, customer service representatives in insurance may advance to other, higher level positions, such as insurance sales agent. Employment Customer service representatives held about 2.2 million jobs in 2006. Although they were found in a variety of industries, about 23 percent of customer service representatives worked in finance and insurance. The largest numbers were employed by insurance carriers, insurance agencies and brokerages, and banks and credit unions. About 14 percent of customer service representatives were employed in administrative and support services. These work ers were concentrated in the business support services industry (which includes telephone call centers) and employment ser vices (which includes temporary help services and employment placement agencies). Another 11 percent of customer service representatives were employed in retail trade establishments such as general merchandise stores and food and beverage stores. Other industries that employ significant numbers of cus tomer service representatives include information, particularly the telecommunications industry; manufacturing, such as print ing and related support activities; and wholesale trade. Job Outlook Customer service representatives are expected to experience growth that is much faster than the average for all occupations through the projection period. Furthermore, job prospects should excellent as workers who leave the occupation will need to be replaced. Employment change. Employment of customer service rep resentatives is expected to increase 25 percent from 2006 to 2016, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. This occupation will have one of the largest numbers of new jobs arise, about 545,000 over the 2006-16 projection period. Beyond growth stemming from expansion of the industries in which customer service representatives are employed, a need for additional customer service representatives is likely to result from heightened reliance on these workers. Customer service is very important to the success of any organization that deals with customers, and strong customer service can build sales, visibil ity, and loyalty as companies try to distinguish themselves from competitors. In many industries, gaining a competitive edge and retaining customers will be increasingly important over the next decade. This is particularly true in industries such as finan cial services, communications, and utilities, which already em ploy numerous customer service representatives. As the trend towards consolidation in industries continues, centralized call 566 Occupational Outlook Handbook centers will provide an effective method for delivering a high level of customer service. As a result, employment of customer service representatives may grow at a faster rate in call centers than in other areas. However, this growth may be tempered by a variety of factors such as technological improvements that make it increasingly feasible and cost-effective for call centers to be built or relocated outside of the United States. Technology is affecting the occupation in many ways. The Internet and automated teller machines have provided custom ers with means of obtaining information and conducting trans actions that do not entail interacting with another person. Tech nology also allows for greater streamlining of processes, while at the same time increasing the productivity of workers. The use of computer software to filter e-mails, generating automatic responses or directing messages to the appropriate representa tive, and the use of similar systems to answer or route telephone inquiries are likely to become more prevalent in the future. Also, with rapidly improving telecommunications, some orga nizations have begun to position their call centers overseas. Despite such developments, the need for customer service representatives is expected to remain strong. In many ways, technology has heightened consumers’ expectations for infor mation and services, and the availability of information online seems to have generated more need for customer service repre sentatives, particularly to respond to e-mail. Also, technology cannot replace human skills. As more sophisticated technolo gies are able to resolve many customers’ questions and con cerns, the nature of the inquiries handled by customer service representatives is likely to become increasingly complex. Furthermore, the job responsibilities of customer service representatives are expanding. As companies downsize or take other measures to increase profitability, workers are be ing trained to perform additional duties such as opening bank accounts or cross-selling products. As a result, employers in creasingly may prefer customer service representatives who have education beyond high school, such as some college or even a college degree. While jobs in some industries—such as retail trade—may be affected by economic downturns, the customer service occupa tion generally is resistant to major fluctuations in employment. Job prospects. Prospects for obtaining a job in this field are expected to be excellent, with more job openings than jobseek ers. Bilingual jobseekers, in particular, may enjoy favorable job prospects. In addition, numerous job openings will result from the need to replace experienced customer service representa tives who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Replacement needs are expected to be significant in this large occupation because many young people work as customer ser vice representatives before switching to other jobs. This occupation is well suited to flexible work schedules, and many opportunities for part-time work will continue to be avail able, particularly as organizations attempt to cut labor costs by hiring more temporary workers. earned less than $8.71 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.11. Earnings for customer service representatives vary according to level of skill required, experience, training, location, and size of firm. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of these workers in May 2006 were: Insurance carriers.................................................................. $15.00 Agencies, brokerages, and other insurance related activities....................................................14.51 Depository Credit Intermediation............................................13.68 Employment services............................................................... 11.74 Telephone call centers..............................................................10.29 In addition to receiving an hourly wage, full-time customer service representatives who work evenings, nights, weekends, or holidays may receive shift differential pay. Also, because call centers are often open during extended hours, or even 24 hours a day, some customer service representatives have the benefit of being able to work a schedule that does not conform to the traditional workweek. Other benefits can include life and health insurance, pensions, bonuses, employer-provided train ing, and discounts on the products and services the company offers. Related Occupations Customer service representatives interact with customers to provide information in response to inquiries about products and services and to handle and resolve complaints. Other oc cupations in which workers have similar dealings with custom ers and the public are information and record clerks; financial clerks, such as tellers and new account clerks; insurance sales agents; securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; retail salespersons; computer support specialists; and gaming services workers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about employment opportunities for customer service represen tatives. File Clerks (0*NET 43-4071.00) Significant Points • About 1 out of 4 file clerks work part time. • A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. Employment is expected to decline through the year 2016. • Earnings Nature of the Work In May 2006, median hourly earnings for wage and salary cus tomer service representatives were $13.62. The middle 50 per cent earned between $10.73 and $17.40. The lowest 10 percent The amount of information generated by organizations contin ues to grow rapidly. File clerks classify, store, retrieve, and update this information. In many small offices, they often have https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Office and Administrative Support Occupations 567 11 ment in these systems, the clerk enters the document’s identi fication code, obtains the location of the document, and gets the document. Accessing files in a computer database is much quicker than locating and physically retrieving paper files. Still, even when files are stored electronically, backup paper or elec tronic copies usually are also kept. Work environment. File clerks usually work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. The work is not overly strenuous but may involve a lot of standing, walking, reaching, pulling, and bending, depending on the method used to retrieve files. Prolonged exposure to computer screens may lead to eye strain for the many file clerks who work with computers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement File clerks are responsible for sorting, storing, and retrieving an organization's records. additional responsibilities, such as entering data, performing word processing, sorting mail, and operating copying or fax machines. File clerks, also called record, information, or record center clerks, examine incoming material and code it numerically, alphabetically, or by subject matter. Paper forms, letters, re ceipts, or reports are stored in files while necessary information may be entered, often electronically, into other storage devices. Some clerks operate mechanized files that rotate to bring the needed records to them; others convert documents to film that is then stored on microfilm or microfiche. A growing number of file clerks use imaging systems that scan paper files or film and store the material on computers. In order for records to be useful, they must be up to date and accurate and readily available. File clerks ensure that new information is added to files in a timely manner and discard outdated materials or transfer them to inactive storage. Clerks also check files at regular intervals to make sure that all items are correctly sequenced and placed. When records cannot be found, file clerks attempt to locate them. As an organization’s needs for information change, file clerks implement changes to the filing system. When records are requested, file clerks locate them and give them to the person requesting them. A record may be a sheet of paper stored in a file cabinet or an image on microform. In the former case, the clerk retrieves the document manually. In the latter case, the clerk retrieves the microform and displays it on a microform reader. If necessary, file clerks make copies of records and distribute them. In addition, they keep track of materials removed from the files to ensure that borrowed files are returned. Increasingly, file clerks use computerized filing and retrieval systems that have a variety of storage devices, such as a main frame computer, CD-ROM, or DVD-ROM. To retrieve a docu File clerks must be alert, accurate, and able to work with others. Most train on the job. Education and training. Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or a GED or a mix of education and related experience. Most new employees are trained on the job under close supervision of more experienced employees. Other qualifications. File clerks must be able to work with others since part of the job is helping fellow workers. Clerks must be alert, accurate, and attentive while performing repeti tive tasks. Willingness to do routine and detailed work is also important. Proficiency with desktop computer software is be coming increasingly important as more files are being stored electronically. Advancement. File clerks can advance to more senior cleri cal office positions such as receptionist or bookkeeping clerk. Employment File clerks held about 234,000 jobs in 2006. Although file clerk jobs are found in nearly every sector of the economy, more than 90 percent of these workers are employed in service-providing industries, including government. Health care establishments employed around 3 out of every 10 file clerks. About 1 out of every 4 file clerks worked part time in 2006. Job Outlook Rapid declines in employment are expected through 2016. Job prospects should be best for jobseekers who have general office skills and who are familiar with personal computers and other office machines. Employment change. Employment of file clerks is expect ed to decline rapidly by 41 percent between 2006 and 2016, largely due to productivity gains from office automation and the consolidation of clerical jobs. Most files are stored digitally and can be retrieved electronically, reducing the demand for file clerks. Job prospects. There will be job openings for file clerks be cause a large number of workers will be needed to replace the Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title File clerks.................................................................. ............................. soc Code 43-4071 Employment, 2006 234,000 Projected employment, 2016 137,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent -97,000 -41 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 568 Occupational Outlook Handbook workers who leave the occupation each year. The high number of separations from file clerk jobs reflects the lack of formal training requirements, limited advancement potential, and rela tively low pay. Organizations across the economy will continue to need to hire file clerks to record and retrieve information. File clerks should find opportunities for temporary or part-time work, especially during peak business periods. Jobseekers who have typing and other secretarial skills and who are familiar with a wide range of office machines, especial ly personal computers, should have the best job opportunities. Earnings Median hourly earnings of file clerks were $10.62 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.64 and $13.31. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.27, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.71. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of file clerks in May 2006 are shown below: Local government ................................................................ $12.18 Legal services...........................................................................11.08 General medical and surgical hospitals................................... 11.02 Employment services...............................................................10.19 Offices of physicians................................................................. 9.50 Related Occupations File clerks classify and retrieve files. Other workers who per form similar duties include receptionists and information clerks and stock clerks and order fillers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies can provide in formation about job openings for file clerks. sponsibilities. They register arriving guests, assign rooms, and check out guests at the end of their stay. They also keep records of room assignments and other registration-related information on computers. When guests check out, desk clerks prepare and explain the charges and process payments. Desk clerks answer questions about services, checkout times, the local community, or other matters of public interest. They report problems with guest rooms or public facilities to mem bers of the housekeeping or maintenance staff. In larger hotels or in larger cities, desk clerks may refer queries about area at tractions to a concierge and may direct more complicated ques tions to the appropriate manager. In some smaller hotels and motels where smaller staffs are employed, clerks may take on a variety of additional responsi bilities, such as bringing fresh linens to rooms, and they are of ten responsible for all front-office operations, information, and services. For example, they may perform the work of a book keeper, advance reservation agent, cashier, laundry attendant, and telephone switchboard operator. Work environment. Hotels are open around the clock, cre ating the need for night and weekend work. About half of all desk clerks work a 40-hour week. Nearly one in five work part time. Others work full-time, but with varying schedules. Most clerks work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet, although lobbies can become crowded and noisy when busy. Many hotels have stringent dress guidelines for desk clerks. Desk clerks may experience particularly hectic times dur ing check-in and check-out times or when convention guests or large groups arrive at once. Moreover, dealing with irate guests can be stressful. Computer failures can further complicate an already busy time and add to stress levels. Hotel desk clerks may be on their feet most of the time and may occasionally be asked to lift heavy guest luggage. Hotel, Motel, and Resort Desk Clerks (0*NET 43-4081.00) Significant Points * • Job opportunities should be good, because of industry growth and substantial replacement needs. • Evening, weekend, and part-time work hours create the potential for flexible schedules. • Professional appearance and personality are more important than formal academic training in getting a job. Nature of the Work Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks are always in the public eye and are usually the first line of customer service for a lodg ing property. Their attitude and behavior greatly influence the public’s impressions of the establishment. Front-desk clerks perform a variety of services for guests of hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments. Regardless of the type of accommodation, most desk clerks have similar re https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks regularly use computers to store and retrieve guest reservation information. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 569 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks............................. ...................... soc Code Employment, 2006 43-4081 219,000 Projected employment, 2016 257,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 38,000 17 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers look for clerks who are friendly and customer-ser vice oriented, well groomed, and display maturity, self confi dence, and good judgment. Education and training. Most hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks receive orientation and training on the job. Orientation may include an explanation of the job duties and information about the establishment, such as the arrangement of guest rooms, availability of additional services, such as a business or fitness center, and location of guest services, such as ice and vending machines, restaurants, and nearby retail stores and at tractions. New employees learn job tasks under the guidance of a supervisor or an experienced desk clerk. They often receive additional training on interpersonal or customer service skills and on how to use the computerized reservation, room assign ment, and billing systems and equipment. Desk clerks often learn new procedures and company policies after their initial training ends. While postsecondary education is not usually re quired for this job, formal training in a hospitality management degree or certificate program may be an advantage for getting positions in larger or more upscale properties. Other qualifications. Desk clerks, especially in high-volume and higher-end properties, should be quick-thinking, energetic, and able to work as a member of a team. Hotel managers typi cally look for these personal characteristics when hiring desk clerks, because personality traits are difficult to teach. A clear speaking voice and fluency in English are essential when talking with guests and using the telephone or public-address systems. Good spelling and computer literacy are also needed because most of the work involves a computer. In addition, speaking a foreign language fluently is increasingly helpful because of the growing international clientele of many properties. Advancement. Large hotel and motel chains may offer bet ter opportunities for advancement than small, independently owned establishments. Large chains have more extensive ca reer ladder programs and may offer desk clerks an opportunity to participate in management training programs. Also, the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Lodging As sociation offers home-study or group-study courses in lodging management, which may help some desk clerks obtain promo tions more rapidly. Employment Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks held about 219,000 jobs in 2006. Almost all were in hotels, motels, and other establish ments in the accommodation industry. Job Outlook Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks will experience faster-thanaverage job growth through the 2006-16 decade because addi tional hotel properties continue to be built and more people are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis expected to travel for business and leisure. Good job opportuni ties are expected. Employment change. Employment of hotel, motel, and re sort desk clerks is expected to grow 17 percent between 2006 and 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations. As more lodging establishments open and as people and com panies have more money and travel more, occupancy rates will increase and create demand for desk clerks. Employment of hotel and motel desk clerks should benefit from steady or increasing business and leisure travel. Shifts in preferences away from long vacations and toward long week ends and other, more frequent, shorter trips also should boost demand for these workers. While many lower budget and ex tended-stay establishments are being built to cater to families and the leisure traveler, many new luxury and resort accom modations also are opening to serve the upscale client. With the increased number of units requiring staff, employment op portunities for desk clerks should be good. Growth of hotel, motel, and resort desk clerk jobs will be moderated somewhat by technology. Automated check-in and check-out procedures and on-line reservations networks free up staff time for other tasks and reduce the amount of time spent with each guest. Job prospects. In addition to job growth, job opportunities for hotel and motel desk clerks are expected to be good because of the need to replace the many clerks who either transfer to other occupations that offer better pay and advancement oppor tunities or who leave the workforce altogether. Opportunities for those willing to work a variable schedule should continue to be plentiful. Employment of desk clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, vacation and business travel declines, and hotels and motels need fewer desk clerks. Simi larly, employment is affected by special events, convention business, and seasonal fluctuations. Earnings Median annual earnings of hotel, motel and resort desk clerks were $18,460 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,930 and $22,220. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,690, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27,030. Earnings of hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks vary by worker characteristics, season, and geographic factors, such as whether the establishment is in a major metropolitan area or a resort community. Earnings also vary according to the size of the hotel and the level of service offered. For example, luxury hotels that offer guests more personal attention and a greater number of services typically have stricter and more demand ing requirements for their desk staff and often provide higher earnings. 570 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Lodging managers, particularly at smaller hotels and lodg ing establishments, may perform some of the same duties as desk clerks. Other occupations that require workers to assist the public include counter and rental clerks, customer service representatives, receptionists and information clerks, and re tail salespersons. Sources of Additional Information Information about the hotel and lodging industry and links to State lodging associations may be obtained from: y American Hotel & Lodging Association, 1201 New York Ave., NW„ #600 Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.ahla.com Information on careers in the lodging industry, as well as information about professional development and training pro grams, may be obtained from: y Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Lodging Association, 800 N. Magnolia Ave., Suite 1800, Orlando, FL 32803. Internet: http://www.ei-ahla.org Human Resources Assistants, Except Payroll and Timekeeping (C)*NET 43-4161.00) Significant Points • About 17 percent work for Federal, State, and local governments. • Employment will grow as human resources assistants assume more responsibilities. • Job opportunities should be best for those with excel lent communication and computer skills and a broad based knowledge of general office functions, as as sistants assume more responsibilities. Nature of the Work Human resources assistants maintain the human resource re cords of an organization’s employees. These records include information such as name, address, job title, and earnings; benefits such as health and life insurance; and tax withhold ing. They also undertake a variety of other personnel and general office related tasks. On a daily basis, these assistants record information and an swer questions about and for employees. They might look up information about absences or job performance, for instance. When an employee receives a promotion or switches health insurance plans, the human resources assistant updates the ap propriate form. Human resources assistants also may prepare reports for managers. For example, they might compile a list of employees eligible for an award. In small organizations, some human resources assistants perform a variety of other clerical duties, including answer ing telephone calls or letters, sending out announcements of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis job openings or job examinations, signing for packages, or dering office supplies, and issuing application forms. When credit bureaus and finance companies request confirmation of a person’s employment, the human resources assistant pro vides authorized information from the employee’s personnel records. Assistants also may contact payroll departments and insurance companies to verify changes to records. Some human resources assistants are involved in hiring. They screen job applicants to obtain information such as their education and work experience; administer aptitude, personal ity, and interest tests; explain the organization’s employment policies and refer qualified applicants to the employing of ficial; and request references from present or past employers. Also, human resources assistants inform job applicants, by telephone, letter, or e-mail, of their acceptance for or denial of employment. In some job settings, human resources assistants have more specific job titles. For example, assignment clerks notify a firm’s existing employees of upcoming vacancies, identify applicants who qualify for the vacancies, and assign those who are qualified to various positions. They also keep track of vacancies that arise throughout the organization, and they complete and distribute forms advertising vacancies. When completed applications are returned, these clerks review and verify the information in them, using personnel records. After a selection for a position is made, they notify all of the appli cants of their acceptance or rejection. As another example, identification clerks are responsible for security matters at defense installations. They compile and record personal data about vendors, contractors, and ci vilian and military personnel and their dependents. The iden tification clerk’s job duties include interviewing applicants; corresponding with law enforcement authorities; and prepar ing badges, passes, and identification cards. Work environment. Human resources assistants usually work in clean, pleasant, and comfortable office settings, but prolonged exposure to video display terminals may lead to eyestrain for assistants who work with computers. They usu ally work a standard 35- to 40-hour week. r L ■ MB Human resources assistants explain the organization’s employ ment policies, screen job applicants, and request references. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 571 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping........ .. soc Code Employment, 2006 43-4161 168,000 Projected employment, 2016 187,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 19,000 11 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer to hire people who have a high school di ploma. Computer, communication, and interpersonal skills are important. Education and training. A high school diploma or GED usually is preferred for these jobs. Generally, training beyond high school is not required. However, training in computers, in filing and maintaining filing systems, in organizing, and in hu man resources practices is helpful. Proficiency using Microsoft Word, Excel, and other computer applications also is very desir able. Many of these skills can be learned in a vocational high school program aimed at office careers, and the remainder can be learned on the job. Formal training is also available at a small number of colleg es, most of which offer diploma programs in office automation. Many proprietary schools also offer such programs. Other qualifications. Human resources assistants must be able to interact and communicate with individuals at all levels of the organization. In addition, assistants should demonstrate poise, tactfulness, diplomacy, and good interpersonal skills in order to handle sensitive and confidential situations. Employment Human resources assistants held about 168,000 jobs in 2006. About 17 percent work for Federal, State, and local govern ments. Other jobs for human resources assistants were in vari ous industries such as health care and social assistance; educa tional services, public and private; management of companies and enterprises; administrative and support services; and fi nance and insurance. Job Outlook Employment of human resources assistants is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations. Job opportunities should be best for those with excellent communication and computer skills and a broad based knowledge of general office functions, as assistants assume more responsibilities. Employment change. The number of jobs for human re sources assistants is expected to grow by 11 percent between 2006 and 2016, as fast as the average for all occupations. In a favorable job market, more emphasis is placed on human re sources departments, thus increasing the demand for assistants. However, even in economic downturns there is demand for as sistants, as human resources departments in all industries try to make their organizations more efficient by determining what type of employees to fire or hire, and strategically filling job openings. Human resources assistants may play an instrumen tal role in their organization’s human resources policies. For example, they may talk to staffing firms and consulting firms, conduct other research, and then offer their ideas on issues https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis such as whether to hire temporary contract workers or full-time staff. As with other office and administrative support occupations, the growing use of computers in human resources departments means that much of the data entry that is done by human re sources assistants can be eliminated, as employees themselves enter the data and send the electronic file to the human resources office. Such an arrangement, which is most feasible in large or ganizations with multiple human resources offices, could limit job growth among human resources assistants. Job prospects. Job opportunities should be best for those with excellent communication and computer skills and a broad based knowledge of general office functions, as assistants as sume more responsibilities. For example, workers conduct Internet research to locate resumes, they must be able to scan resumes of job candidates quickly and efficiently, and they must be increasingly sensitive to confidential information such as salaries and Social Security numbers. In addition to positions arising from job growth, replacement needs will account for many job openings for human resources assistants as they advance within the human resources depart ment, take jobs unrelated to human resources administration, or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings of human resources assistants in May 2006 were $33,750. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,430 and $41,080. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,700 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $48,670. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of human resources assistants in 2006 were: Federal executive branch.....................................................$37,000 Local government.................................................................35,440 Management of companies and enterprises......................... 34,260 Colleges, universities, and professionalschools....................33,870 Employment services............................................................29,330 In 2007, the Federal Government typically paid salaries ranging from $33,336 to $42,236 a year. Beginning human re sources assistants with a high school diploma or 6 months of experience were paid an average annual salary of $26,685. The average salary for all human resources assistants employed by the Federal Government was $37,835 in 2007. Some employers offer educational assistance to human re sources assistants. Related Occupations Human resources assistants maintain the personnel records of an organization’s employees. On a daily basis, these assistants record information and answer questions about employee ab 572 Occupational Outlook Handbook sences and supervisory reports on employees’ job performance. Other workers with similar skills and expertise in interpersonal relations include bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; communications equipment operators; customer service rep resentatives; data entry and information processing workers; order clerks; receptionists and information clerks; secretaries and administrative assistants; stock clerks and order fillers; and tellers. Sources of Additional Information For information about human resources careers, contact: y Society for Human Resource Management, 1800 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.shrm.org Interviewers (0*NET 43-4061.00, 43-4111.00, 43-4131.00) Significant Points • A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. • Familiarity with computers and strong interpersonal skills are very important Nature of the Work Interviewers obtain information from individuals and business representatives who are opening bank accounts, trying to ob tain loans, seeking admission to medical facilities, participat ing in consumer surveys, applying to receive aid from govern ment programs, or providing data for various other purposes. By mail, by telephone, or in person, these workers solicit and verify information, create files, and perform a number of other related tasks. The specific duties and job titles of interviewers depend upon the type of employer. In doctors’ offices and other health care facilities, for example, interviewing clerks also are known as admitting interviewers or patient representatives. These work ers obtain all preliminary information required for a patient’s record or for his or her admission to a hospital, such as the pa tient’s name, address, age, medical history, present medications, previous hospitalizations, religion, people to notify in case of emergency, attending physician, and party responsible for pay ment. In some cases, interviewing clerks may be required to verify that an individual is eligible for health benefits or to work out financing options for those who might need them. Other duties of interviewers in health care include assign ing patients to rooms and summoning escorts to take patients to their rooms; sometimes, interviewers may escort patients themselves. Using the facility’s computer system, interviewers schedule laboratory work, x-rays, and surgeries; prepare admis sion and discharge records; and route these medical records to appropriate departments. They also may bill patients, receive payments, and answer the telephone. In an outpatient or office setting, interviewers schedule appointments, keep track of can cellations, and provide general information about care. In ad dition, the role of the admissions staff, particularly in hospitals, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis is expanding to include a wide range of patient services, from assisting patients with financial and medical questions to help ing family members find hotel rooms. Interviewing clerks who conduct market research surveys and polls for research firms have somewhat different responsi bilities. These interviewers ask a series of prepared questions, record the responses, and forward the results to management. They may ask individuals questions about their occupation and earnings, political preferences, buying habits, satisfaction with certain goods or services sold to them, or other aspects of their lives. Although most interviews are conducted over the telephone, some are conducted in focus groups or by randomly polling people in a public place. More recently, the Internet is being used to elicit people’s opinions. Almost all interviewers use computers or similar devices to enter the responses to ques tions. Eligibility interviewers, government programs, determine the eligibility of individuals applying to receive government assis tance, such as welfare, unemployment benefits, Social Security benefits, and public housing. These interviewers gather the relevant personal and financial information about an applicant and, on the basis of the rules and regulations of the particu lar government program, grant, modify, deny, or terminate an individual’s eligibility for the program. They also help to detect fraud committed by people who try to obtain benefits that they are not eligible to receive. Loan interviewers and clerks review individuals' credit his tory and obtain the information needed to determine the cred itworthiness of applicants for loans and credit cards. These workers spend much of their day on the telephone, obtaining information from credit bureaus, employers, banks, credit in stitutions, and other sources to determine an applicant’s credit history and ability to pay back a loan or charge. Loan interviewers interview potential borrowers; help them fill out applications for loans; investigate the applicant’s back ground and references; verify the information on the applica tion; and forward any findings, reports, or documents to the company’s appraisal department. Finally, interviewers inform the applicant as to whether the loan has been accepted or de nied. . . Interviewers may ask questions over the phone orface-to-face. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 573 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Interviewers................................................................................. Eligibility interviewers, government programs.................. ........... Interviewers, except eligibility and loan............................. ........... Loan interviewers and clerks............................................... ........... soc Code 43-4061 43-4111 43-4131 Employment, 2006 589,000 112,000 221,000 256,000 Projected employment, 2016 612,000 116,000 242,000 254,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 22,000 4 3,500 3 21,000 10 -2,300 -1 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Loan clerks, also called loan processing clerks, loan closers, or loan service clerks, assemble documents pertaining to a loan, process the paperwork associated with the loan, and ensure that all information is complete and verified. Mortgage loans are the primary type of loan handled by loan clerks, who also may have to order appraisals of the property, set up escrow accounts, and secure any additional information required to transfer the property. The specific duties of loan clerks vary by specialty. Loan closers, for example, complete the loan process by gathering the proper documents for signature at the closing, including deeds of trust, property insurance papers, and title commitments. They set the time and place for the closing, make sure that all parties are present, and ensure that all conditions for settlement have been met. After the settlement, the loan closer records all of the documents involved and submits the final package to the owner of the loan. Loan service clerks maintain the payment records on a loan once it is issued. These clerical workers pro cess the paperwork for payment of fees to insurance companies and tax authorities, and also may record changes in clients’ ad dresses and ownership of a loan. When necessary, they answer calls from customers with routine inquiries. Work environment. Working conditions vary for different types of interviewers, but most of these workers work in ar eas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. Most of these workers work a standard 35 to 40 hour week, but evening and weekend work may be required in some establishments. Some interviewers may conduct surveys on the street or in shopping malls, or they may go door to door. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are minimal formal educational requirements for inter viewers, and most new employees receive on-the-job training. Employers seek applicants with strong interpersonal skills, in cluding a pleasant personality, clear voice, and the ability to communicate with others. Education and training. Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent or a mix of educa tion and related experience. New employees generally train on the job, working under the close supervision of more experienced employees, although some firms offer formal training. Some loan interviewers also take courses about credit that are offered by banking and credit associations, public and private vocational schools, and col leges and universities. Other qualifications. Because interviewers deal with the public, they must have a pleasant personality, clear speaking voice, and professional appearance. Familiarity with comput https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ers and strong interpersonal skills are very important. Fluency in a foreign language also can be beneficial. Advancement. Experienced interviewers may advance to po sitions with added responsibilities or supervisory duties. Many organizations fill open supervisory positions by promoting qualified individuals from within the company. Interviewers who obtain additional skills or training will have the best op portunities. For some managerial positions, a college degree may be required. Employment Interviewers held about 589,000 jobs in 2006. Approximately 221,000 were interviewers, except eligibility and loan; 256,000 were loan interviewers and clerks; and 112,000 were eligibil ity interviewers, government programs. About half of all in terviewers, except eligibility and loan, worked in health care and social assistance industries, and about 23 percent of these interviewers worked part time. Most loan interviewers and clerks worked in financial institutions. About 7 out of every 10 eligibility interviewers for government programs, worked in State and local government. Job Outlook Slower than average growth is expected for interviewers during the projection period, but levels of employment change vary significantly with occupational specialty. Prospects will be best for applicants with a broad range of job skills, including good customer service, math, and telephone skills. Employment change. Employment of interviewers is ex pected to grow by 4 percent from 2006 to 2016, which is slower than the average for all occupations. However, the projected change in employment varies by specialty. The number of interviewers, except eligibility and loan, is projected to grow about as fast as average, with the most growth in the health care and social assistance sector. This sector will hire more admissions interviewers as health care facilities con solidate staff and expand the role of the admissions staff and as an aging and growing population requires more visits to health care practitioners. However increases in the use of online sur veys and questionnaires, which are often cheaper than other data collection methods, should reduce the demand for interviewers who conduct market research interviews over the phone relative to other jobs involved in marketing. Employment of eligibility interviewers for government pro grams is projected to grow slower than the average for all oc cupations. The increase in the number of retiring baby boomers becoming eligible for Social Security and other government en titlement programs will be the main cause of growth in this oc 574 Occupational Outlook Handbook cupation. Automation should have an effect on some eligibility interviewers because, as with credit and loan ratings, eligibility for government aid programs can be determined instantaneous ly by entering information into a computer. Little or no change in employment is projected for loan in terviewers and clerks due to advances in technology that are making these workers more productive. Despite a projected in crease in the number of applications for loans, automation will increase productivity so that fewer workers will be required to process, check, and authorize applications than in the past. The effects of automation on employment will be moderated, how ever, by the many interpersonal aspects of the job. Mortgage loans, for example, require loan processors to personally verify financial data on the application, and loan closers are needed to assemble documents and prepare them for settlement. Moreover, employment will be adversely affected by changes in the financial services industry. For example, significant con solidation has occurred among mortgage loan servicing com panies. As a result, fewer mortgage banking companies are involved in servicing loans, making the function more efficient and reducing the need for loan service clerks. Job prospects. Some job openings will come from employ ment growth, but most job openings should arise from the need to replace the numerous interviewers who leave the occupation each year. Prospects for filling these openings will be best for applicants with a broad range of job skills, including good cus tomer service, math, and telephone skills. In addition to open ings for full-time jobs, opportunities also should be available for part-time and temporary jobs. The job outlook for loan interviewers and clerks is sensitive to overall economic activity. A downturn in the economy or a rise in interest rates usually leads to a decline in the demand for loans, particularly mortgage loans and can result in layoffs. Even in slow economic times, however, job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation for various reasons. The job outlook for eligibility interviewers also is sensitive to overall economic activity; a severe slowdown in the economy will cause more people to apply for government aid programs, increasing demand for eligibility interviewers. than $22.66. Median hourly earnings of loan interviewers and clerks in depository credit intermediation was $15.22, while median hourly earnings in nondepository credit intermediation was $14.35. Median hourly wage and salary earnings of interviewers, ex cept eligibility and loan, in May 2006 were $12.64. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.12 and $15.31. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.35, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.57. Median hourly earnings in the in dustries employing the largest number of interviewers, except eligibility and loan, were: State government................................................................... $15.27 Colleges, universities, and professional schools..................... 15.05 General medical and surgical hospitals................................... 12.69 Offices of physicians................................................................12.55 Other professional, scientific, and technical services............. 10.10 Related Occupations Interviewers obtain information from individuals. Other work ers who perform similar duties include procurement clerks, cus tomer service representatives, and bill and account collectors. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about employment opportunities for interviewers. For specific information on a career as a loan processor or loan closer, contact: y Mortgage Bankers Association, 1919 Pennsylvania Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.mortgagebankers.org Library Assistants, Clerical (Q*NET 43-4121.00) Significant Points • Earnings Median hourly wage and salary earnings of eligibility inter viewers, government programs, in May 2006 were $18.05. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.40 and $21.92. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.18, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.30. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number eligibility inter viewers, government programs were: Federal Government.............................................................. $21.20 Local government....................................................................17.52 State government......................................................................16.35 Median hourly wage and salary earnings of loan interview ers and clerks in May 2006 were $14.89. The middle 50 per cent earned between $12.07 and $18.69. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.88, and the highest 10 percent earned more https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • • Flexible schedules and ample opportunities for part time work characterize this occupation. Library assistants train on the job; most libraries use electronic cataloging systems so computers skills are essential. Job prospects should be good. Nature of the Work Library assistants, clerical—sometimes referred to as library media assistants, library aides, or circulation assistants—help librarians and library technicians organize library resources and make them available to users. (Librarians and library techni cians are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) At the circulation desk, library assistants lend and collect books, periodicals, videotapes, and other materials. When an item is borrowed, assistants scan it and the patron’s library card to record the transaction in the library database; they then stamp the due date on the item or print a receipt with the due date. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 575 Library assistants in school libraries work regular school hours. Those in public libraries and college and university libraries also work weekends, evenings, and some holidays. About 60 percent of library assistants work part time, making the job appealing to retirees, students, and others interested in flexible schedules. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Library assistants reshelve books after they are returned. When an item is returned, assistants inspect it for damage and scan it to record its return. Electronic circulation systems auto matically generate notices reminding patrons that their materi als are overdue, but library assistants may review the record for accuracy before sending out the notice. Library assistants also register new patrons and issue them library cards. They answer patrons’ questions or refer them to a librarian. Throughout the library, assistants sort returned books, period icals, and other items and put them on their designated shelves, in the appropriate files, or in storage areas. Before reshelving returned materials, they look for any damage and try to make repairs. For example, they may use tape or paste to repair tom pages or book covers and use other specialized processes to re pair more valuable materials. Assistants also locate materials being lent to a patron or an other library. Because nearly all library catalogs are computer ized, library assistants must be familiar with computers. They sometimes help patrons with computer searches. Some library assistants specialize in helping patrons who have vision problems. Sometimes referred to as braille-andtalking-books clerks, these assistants review the borrower’s list of desired reading materials, and locate those materials or close substitutes from the library collection of large-type or braille volumes and books on tape. Then, they give or mail the materi als to the borrower. Work environment. Library assistants who prepare library materials may sit at desks or computer terminals for long pe riods and can develop headaches or eyestrain. Some duties can be repetitive and boring, such as shelving new or returned materials. Others can be rewarding, such as assisting patrons who are performing computer searches with the use of local and regional library networks. Library assistants may lift and carry books, climb ladders to reach high stacks, and bend low to shelve books on bottom shelves. Library assistants receive most of their training on the job. No formal education is required, although familiarity with comput ers is helpful. Education and training. Training requirements for library assistants are generally minimal; most libraries prefer to hire workers with a high school diploma or GED, although librar ies also hire high school students for these positions. No for mal postsecondary training is expected. Some employers hire individuals with experience in other clerical jobs; others train inexperienced workers on the job. Other qualifications. Given the extensive use of electronic resources in libraries, computer skills are needed for most jobs; knowledge of databases and other library automation systems is especially useful. Library assistants should be able to pay close attention to detail, as the proper shelving or storage of materials is essential. Advancement. Library assistants usually advance by assum ing added responsibilities. Many begin by performing simple jobs such as shelving books or adding new books and periodi cals to the database when they arrive. After gaining experience, they may move into positions that allow them to interact with patrons, such as staffing the circulation desk. Experienced as sistants may be able to advance to library technician positions, which involve more responsibility. Eventually they may ad vance to supervise a public service or technical service area. Advancement opportunities are greater in large libraries. Employment Library assistants held about 116,000 jobs in 2006. More than half of these workers were employed by local governments in public libraries; most of the remaining employees worked in school, college, and university libraries. Many of these jobs are part time. Job Outlook Employment of library assistants is expected to grow about as fast as average. Prospects should be good because many work ers leave these jobs and need to be replaced. Employment change. The number of library assistants is ex pected to increase by 8 percent between 2006 and 2016, about as fast as the average for all occupations. Efforts to contain costs in local governments and academic institutions of all types will slow overall growth in library services, but may result Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Library assistants, clerical....................................... ............................. soc Code 43-4121 Employment, 2006 116,000 Projected employment, 2016 125,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 9,100 8 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa- tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 576 Occupational Outlook Handbook in the hiring of more library support staff, who are paid less than librarians and who take on more responsibility. Because library assistants work for public institutions, they are not directly af fected by the ups and downs of the business cycle, but they may be affected by changes in the level of government funding for libraries. Job prospects. Each year, many people leave this relatively low-paying occupation for other occupations that offer higher pay or full-time work. This creates good job opportunities for those who want to become library assistants. Earnings Median hourly earnings of library assistants were $10.40 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.07 and $13.45. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.77, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.73. Related Occupations Library assistants, store materials and help customers retrieve it. File clerks have similar duties. Library assistants also work closely with library technicians in providing library services to patrons. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a library assistant can be obtained from either of the following organizations: ^ Council on Library/Media Technology, P.O. Box 42048, Mesa, AZ 85274-2048. Internet: http://colt.ucr.edu > American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, 1L 60611. Internet: http://www.ala.org/ala/education/educationcareers.htm Public libraries and libraries in academic institutions also can provide information about job openings for library assistants. Order Clerks (0*NET 43-4151.00) Significant Points • • ceive orders from other workers employed by the same company or from salespersons in the field. In large companies with many worksites, such as automobile manufacturers, clerks order parts and equipment from the company’s warehouses. Many other order clerks, called outside order clerks, receive orders from outside companies or directly from consumers. Or der clerks in wholesale businesses, for instance, receive orders from retail establishments for merchandise that the retailer, in turn, sells to the public. An increasing number of order clerks work for catalog companies and online retailers, receiving or ders from individual customers by telephone, fax, regular mail, or e-mail. Computers provide order clerks with ready access to informa tion such as stock numbers, prices, and inventory. The success ful filling of an order frequently depends on having the right products in stock and being able to determine which products are most appropriate for the customer’s needs. Some order clerks—especially those in industrial settings—must be able to give price estimates for entire jobs, not just single parts. Others must be able to take special orders, give expected arrival dates, prepare contracts, and handle complaints. Many order clerks receive orders directly by telephone, re cording the required information as the customer places the or der. However, a rapidly increasing number of orders now are received through computer systems, the Internet, faxes, and e mail. In some cases, these orders are sent directly from the cus tomer’s terminal to the order clerk’s terminal. Orders received by regular mail are sometimes scanned into a database that is instantly accessible to clerks. Clerks review orders for completeness and clarity. They may fill in missing information or contact the customer for the in formation. Clerks also contact customers if the customers need additional information, such as prices or shipping dates, or if delays in filling the order are anticipated. For orders received by regular mail, clerks remove checks or money orders, sort them, and send them for processing. After an order has been verified and entered, the customer’s final cost is calculated. The clerk then routes the order to the proper department—such as the warehouse—which actually sends out or delivers the item in question. In organizations with sophisticated computer systems, inven tory records are adjusted automatically, as sales are made. In Employment is expected to decline through 2016 due to growth in online retailing and in business-to-business electronic commerce, and because of the increas ing use of automated systems that make placing or ders easy and convenient. A high school diploma or GED is the most common educational requirement. Nature of the Work Order clerks receive and process orders for a variety of goods or services, such as spare parts, consumer appliances, gas and electric power connections, film rentals, and articles of clothing. They sometimes are called order-entry clerks, order processors, or order takers. Orders for materials, merchandise, or services can come from inside or from outside of an organization. Inside order clerks re https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ■HPl ______ Order clerks work in areas that are clean, well lit, and rela tively quiet. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 577 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Order clerks............................................................................................ soc Code Employment, 2006 43-4151 271.000 Projected employment, 2016 205,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent -66,000 -24 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. less automated organizations, order clerks may adjust or verify inventory records. Clerks also may notify other departments when inventories are low or when filling certain orders would deplete supplies. Some order clerks must establish priorities in filling orders. For example, an order clerk in a blood bank may receive a re quest from a hospital for a certain type of blood. The clerk must first find out whether the request is routine or an emergency and then take appropriate action. Work environment. Most order clerks work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. These workers sit for long periods of time in front of computer terminals, which may cause eyestrain and headaches. Order clerks usually work a standard 40-hour workweek. Clerks in retail establishments typically work overtime during peak holiday seasons, when sales volume is high. Some firms may have shifts round-the-clock to accommodate customers’ time zones. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most order clerks are trained on the job. Employers prefer workers who are computer literate and proficient in word-pro cessing and spreadsheet software. Education and training. Employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or GED or a mix of education and related experience. Most order clerks are trained on the job under the close supervision of more experienced employees. Other qualifications. It is helpful for clerks to be comfort able using computers and to have a working knowledge of word-processing and spreadsheet software. Proficiency with computer software is increasingly important because most or ders are being filled and filed electronically. Advancement. By taking on more duties, ambitious order clerks can receive higher pay or become eligible for advance ment opportunities. Some use their experience as an order clerk to move into sales positions. Employment Order clerks held about 271,000 jobs in 2006. Over half of all order clerks were employed in wholesale and retail trade establishments, and another 15 percent were employed in man ufacturing firms. Approximately 1 out every 10 order clerks worked in the electronic shopping and mail order houses sector of retail trade. Other order clerk jobs were in industries such as information, warehousing and storage, couriers, and business support services. expected because some of the clerks who leave the occupation will need to be replaced. Employment change. Employment of order clerks is ex pected to decline rapidly by 24 percent from 2006 to 2016 as improvements in technology and office automation continue to increase worker productivity. Growth in electronic commerce, and the use of automated systems that make placing orders easy and convenient, will decrease demand for order clerks. The spread of electronic data interchange, which enables computers to communicate di rectly with each other, allows orders within establishments to be placed with little human interaction. In addition, internal systems allowing a firm’s employees to place orders directly are becoming increasingly common. Outside orders placed over the Internet often are entered directly into the computer by the customer; the order clerk is not involved in placing the order. Some companies also use automated phone menus to receive orders. Others use answering machines. Developments in voice recognition technology may further reduce the demand for order clerks. Furthermore, increased automation will allow current order clerks to be more productive, with each clerk able to handle an increasingly higher volume of orders. Sophisticated inven tory control and automatic billing systems permit companies to track inventory and accounts with much less help from order clerks than in the past. Job prospects. While overall employment of order clerks is expected to decline through the year 2016, numerous openings will occur each year to replace order clerks who transfer to oth er occupations or leave the labor force. Many of these openings will be for seasonal work, especially in catalog companies or online retailers catering to holiday gift buyers. Earnings Median hourly earnings of order clerks in May 2006 were $12.66. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.91 and $16.22. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.18, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.69. Median hourly earnings in electronic shopping and mail-order houses were $10.50. Related Occupations Order clerks receive and process orders. Other workers who perform similar duties include stock clerks and order fillers and hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks. Job Outlook Overall employment of order clerks is expected to decline rap idly through the year 2016 due to improvements in technology office automation. However, numerous job openings are Digitized for and FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies can provide in formation about job openings for order clerks. 578 Occupational Outlook Handbook Receptionists and information Clerks (0*NET 43-4171.00) Significant Points • Good interpersonal skills are critical. • A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. Employment is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations. • rWMMtns Nature of the Work Receptionists and information clerks are charged with a re sponsibility that may affect the success of an organization: making a good first impression. Receptionists and information clerks answer telephones, route and screen calls, greet visitors, respond to inquiries from the public, and provide information about the organization. Some are responsible for the coordina tion of all mail into and out of the office. In addition, they con tribute to the security of an organization by helping to monitor the access of visitors—a function that has become increasingly important. Whereas some tasks are common to most receptionists and information clerks, their specific responsibilities vary with the type of establishment in which they work. For example, re ceptionists and information clerks in hospitals and in doctors’ offices may gather patients’ personal and insurance informa tion and direct them to the proper waiting rooms. In corporate headquarters, they may greet visitors and manage the schedul ing of the board room or common conference area. In beauty or hair salons, they arrange appointments, direct customers to the hairstylist, and may serve as cashiers. In factories, large corporations, and government offices, receptionists and infor mation clerks may provide identification cards and arrange for escorts to take visitors to the proper office. Those working for bus and train companies respond to inquiries about departures, arrivals, stops, and other related matters. Increasingly, receptionists and information clerks use multi line telephone systems, personal computers, and fax machines. Despite the widespread use of automated answering systems or voice mail, many receptionists and clerks still take messages and inform other employees of visitors’ arrivals or cancellation of an appointment. When they are not busy with callers, most workers are expected to perform a variety of office duties, in cluding opening and sorting mail, collecting and distributing parcels, and transmitting and delivering facsimiles. Other du ties include updating appointment calendars, preparing travel vouchers, and performing basic bookkeeping, word process ing, and filing. Work environment. Receptionists and information clerks who greet customers and visitors usually work in areas that are highly visible and designed and furnished to make a good impression. Most work stations are clean, well lighted, and relatively quiet. The work performed by some receptionists and information clerks may be tiring, repetitious, and stressful https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Receptionists and information clerks must be courteous, profes sional, and helpful when greeting people. as they may spend all day answering continuously ringing tele phones and sometimes encounter difficult or irate callers. The work environment, however, may be very friendly and motivat ing for individuals who enjoy greeting customers face to face and making them feel comfortable. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement, although hiring requirements for re ceptionists and information clerks vary by industry. Good in terpersonal skills and being technologically proficient also are important to employers. Education and training. Receptionists and information clerks generally need a high school diploma or equivalent as most of their training is received on the job. However, employ ers often look for applicants who already possess certain skills, such as prior computer experience or answering telephones. Some employers also may prefer some formal office education or training. On the job, they learn how to operate the telephone system and computers. They also learn the proper procedures for greeting visitors and for distributing mail, fax messages, and parcels. While many of these skills can be learned quickly, those who are charged with relaying information to visitors or customers may need several months to learn details about the organization. Other qualifications. Good interpersonal and customer ser vice skills—being courteous, professional, and helpful—are critical for this job. Being an active listener often is a key qual ity needed by receptionists and information clerks that requires the ability to listen patiently to the points being made, to wait to speak until others have finished, and to ask appropriate ques tions when necessary. In addition, the ability to relay informa tion accurately to others is important. The ability to operate a wide range of office technology also is helpful, as receptionists and information clerks are often asked to work on other assignments during the day. Advancement. Advancement for receptionists generally comes about either by transferring to an occupation with more responsibility or by being promoted to a supervisory position. Receptionists with especially strong computer skills may ad- Office and Administrative Support Occupations 579 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Receptionists and information clerks.................................................. soc Code 43-4171 Projected employment, 2016 1.375,000 Employment, 2006 1,173,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 202,000 17 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ______________________ vance to a better paying job as a secretary or an administrative assistant. Employment Receptionists and information clerks held about 1.2 million jobs in 2006. The health care and social assistance industries— including offices of physicians, hospitals, nursing homes, and outpatient care facilities—employed about 33 percent of all re ceptionists and information clerks. Manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, government, and real estate industries also em ployed large numbers of receptionists and information clerks. More than 3 of every 10 receptionists and information clerks work part time. tween $9.06 and $13.51. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.54, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.23. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of receptionists and information clerks in May 2006 were: Offices of dentists.........................................................................$12.89 General medical and surgical hospitals.......................................11.74 Offices of physicians.......................................................................11.44 Employment services......................................................................10.72 Personal care services...................................................................... 8.57 Related Occupations Job Outlook Employment of receptionists and information clerks is expect ed to grow faster than average for all occupations. Reception ists and information clerks will have a very large number of new jobs arise, more than 200,000 over the 2006-16 period. Additional job opportunities will result from the need to re place workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment change. Receptionists and information clerks are expected to increase by 17 percent from 2006 to 2016, which is faster than the average for all occupations. Employ ment growth will result from rapid growth in the following industries: offices of physicians, legal services, employment services, and management and technical consulting. Technology will have conflicting effects on employment growth for receptionists and information clerks. The increas ing use of voice mail and other telephone automation reduces the need for receptionists by allowing one receptionist to per form work that formerly required several. At the same time, however, the increasing use of other technology has caused a consolidation of clerical responsibilities and growing demand for workers with diverse clerical and technical skills. Because receptionists and information clerks may perform a wide va riety of clerical tasks, they should continue to be in demand. Further, they perform many tasks that are interpersonal in na ture and are not easily automated, ensuring continued demand for their services in a variety of establishments. Job prospects. In addition to job growth, numerous job op portunities will be created as receptionists and information clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force al together. Opportunities should be best for persons with a wide range of clerical and technical skills, particularly those with related work experience. Earnings Median hourly earnings of receptionists and information clerks in May 2006 were $11,01. The middle 50 percent earned be https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Receptionists deal with the public and often direct people to others who can assist them. Other workers who perform simi lar duties include dispatchers, secretaries and administrative assistants, and customer service representatives. Sources of Additional Information State employment offices can provide information on job open ings for receptionists. Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks (0*NET 43-4181.00) Significant Points • Most jobs are found in large metropolitan airports, reservation call centers, and train or bus stations. • A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. • Employment is expected to show little or no growth because of the significant impact of technology on worker productivity. Nature of the Work Each year, millions of people travel by plane, train, ship, bus, and automobile. Many of these travelers rely on the services of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Agents and clerks perform functions as varied as selling tick ets, confirming reservations, checking baggage, and providing useful travel information. Most reservation agents work for airlines or large hotel chains, helping people plan trips and make reservations. They usually work in reservation call centers, answering telephone 580 Occupational Outlook Handbook or e-mail inquiries and offering travel arrangement sugges tions and information such as routes, schedules, fares, and types of accommodations. They also change or confirm trans portation and lodging reservations. Most agents use their own company’s reservation system to obtain information needed to make, change, or cancel traveler reservations. Transportation ticket agents are sometimes known as pas senger service agents, passenger booking clerks, reservation clerks, airport service agents, ticket clerks, or ticket sellers. They work in airports, train stations, and bus stations, selling tickets, assigning seats to passengers, and checking baggage. In addition, they may answer inquiries and give directions, examine passports and visas, or check in pets. They may be required to assist customers who have trouble operating self service ticketing machines or kiosks. Other ticket agents, more commonly known as gate or station agents, work in air port terminals, assisting passengers boarding airplanes. These workers direct passengers to the correct boarding area, check tickets and seat assignments, make boarding announcements, and provide special assistance to young, elderly, or disabled passengers. Travel clerks provide travelers information on points of interest, restaurants, overnight accommodations, and avail ability of emergency services. In some cases, they make rental car, hotel, and restaurant reservations. Clerks also may provide assistance in filling out travel documents and answer other travel-related questions. Work environment. Most reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks work in airports, call centers, and train and bus terminals that generally are clean and safe. Reservation and ticket agents who work in large, centralized reservation centers spend much of their day talking with cus tomers on the telephone and using a computer to plan itinerar ies and to make reservations. The call center environment is often hectic and noisy. Ticket agents, who work at transporta tion sites may stand on their feet for long periods of time, and may have to lift heavy baggage. Although most reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks work a standard 40-hour week, about 14 per cent work part time. Some agents work evenings, late nights, weekends, and holidays. In general, employees with the most seniority tend to be assigned the more desirable shifts. The work performed by reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks may be repetitive and stressful. They often work under stringent time constraints. Agents and clerks must work quickly and accurately to avoid mistakes and angering customers. Difficult or angry customers also can create stressful situations as agents usually bear the brunt of customers’ dissatisfaction. In addition, prolonged com puter use, which is common in this occupation, may lead to eyestrain. Good customer service skills and the ability to work quickly are important. Education and training. A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement for reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Most airline reservation and ticket agents learn their skills through formal company training programs that can last sev eral weeks. They learn company and industry policies as well as ticketing procedures. Trainees also learn to use the airline’s computer system to obtain information on schedules, fares, and the availability of seats; to make reservations for passengers; and to prepare passenger itineraries. In addition, they must become familiar with train, airport, and airline code designations, security regulations, and safety procedures. Af ter completing classroom instruction, new agents work un der the direct guidance of a supervisor or experienced agent. During this time the supervisors may monitor telephone con versations to improve the quality of customer service so that agents learn to provide customer service in a courteous man ner, while limiting the time spent on each call. In contrast to those who work for airlines, reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks who work for bus lines and railroads are trained on the job through short in-house classes that last several days. Other qualifications. Applicants usually must be 18 years of age and older and a valid driver’s license may be required. Also, experience with computers and good typing skills usu ally are required. Agents who handle passenger luggage must be able to lift heavy objects. Many reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks deal directly with the public, so a professional appear ance and a pleasant personality are important. A clear speak ing voice and fluency in English also are essential, because these employees frequently use the telephone or public-ad dress systems. In addition, fluency in a foreign language is becoming increasingly helpful for those who deal with the public, because of the growing number of international and non-English speaking travelers. Advancement. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks may advance by being transferred to a po- IfcVHK ' II a •' Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most reservation and transportation ticket agents spend sev eral weeks in company-sponsored training programs learning the reservation system and other travel-related information. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ___ Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks verify schedules before printing tickets. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 581 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks....... .. soc Code Employment, 2006 43-4181 165,000 Projected employment, 2016 167,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 1,800 1 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ______________________________________________ ______________ sition with more responsibilities or by being promoted to a supervisory position. Many travel companies fill supervisory and managerial positions by promoting individuals within their organization, so those who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their opportunities for ad vancement. Some companies require that candidates for su pervisory positions have an associate degree in a businessrelated field, such as management, business administration, or marketing. Within the airline industry, a ticket agent may advance to lead worker on the shift. Employment Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks held about 165,000 jobs in 2006. About six out of ten agents and clerks are employed by airlines. Others work for tour operators and reservation services, hotels and other lodging places, and other companies that provide transportation ser vices. Although agents and clerks are found throughout the coun try, most work in large metropolitan airports, reservation call centers, and train or bus stations. The remainder work in small, regional airports, or in small communities served only by intercity bus or railroad lines. Job Outlook Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is expected to show little or no growth during the projection period. Additionally, applicants for these jobs are likely to encounter keen competition. Employment change. Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents is expected grow only 1 percent from 2006 to 2016, reflecting little or no change to employ ment. Despite a growing and more mobile population who will likely travel more frequently, newer automated reser vations and ticketing operations will speed transaction time and reduce the need for more workers to handle the expected higher volume of business. Most train stations and airports now have self-service ticket printing machines, or kiosks, which enable passengers to make reservations, purchase tick ets, and check-in for train rides and flights themselves. Many passengers also are able to check travel times and fares, make reservations, purchase tickets, and check-in for most domes tic flights on the Internet. Nevertheless, not all travel-relat ed passenger services can be fully automated, primarily for safety and security reasons, and not all passengers use these automated services. As a result, job openings will continue to become available as increasing numbers of people travel more frequently. Additional growth will result to meet the travel needs of the growing retirement population, particular ly in less traditional transportation centers, such as with boat https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis or cruise operators or with companies who rent recreational vehicles. Job prospects. Job applicants often face competition for these jobs, because entry requirements are relatively low and benefits for those who like to travel, particularly on the air lines, are high. Applicants who have previous experience in the travel industry, in sales, or in customer service should have the best job prospects. Those who possess a pleasant person ality and strong customer service skills also should have good job opportunities. Additional job opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occu pations, retire, or leave the labor force altogether. Employment in these occupations may fluctuate with the economy. During recessions, discretionary passenger travel often declines, and transportation service companies are less likely to hire new workers and may institute layoffs. Earnings Median annual earnings of reservation and transportation tick et agents and travel clerks in May 2006 were $28,540. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,640 and $38,540. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,670, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,400. Many employers offer discounts on travel services to their employees. In May 2006, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of agents were: Scheduled air transportation.................................................... $32,850 Traveler accommodation............................................................. 23,630 Travel arrangement and reservation services.......................... 22,630 Related Occupations Other occupations that provide travel-related services include hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks; travel agents; and flight attendants. Other occupations that make sales and provide information to customers include counter and rental clerks, order clerks, customer service representatives, and reception ists and information clerks. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities as reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks, write to the per sonnel manager of individual transportation companies. Ad dresses of airlines are available from: y Air Transport Association of America, 1301 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.airlines.org 582 Occupational Outlook Handbook Material Recording, Scheduling, Dispatching, and Distributing Occupations Cargo and Freight Agents (0*NET 43-5011.00) Significant Points • • Cargo and freight agents need no more than a high school diploma and learn their duties informally on the job. Faster than average employment growth is expected. undergo informal on-the-job training. They start out by check ing items to be shipped, attaching labels to them, and making sure that addresses are correct. As this occupation becomes more automated, workers may need longer periods of training to master the use of equipment. Other qualifications. Employers prefer to hire people who can use computers. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important. Advancement. Advancement opportunities for cargo and freight agents are usually limited, but some agents may become team leaders or use their hands-on experience to switch to other clerical occupations in the businesses where they work. Nature of the Work Cargo and freight agents arrange for and track incoming and outgoing shipments in airline, train, or trucking terminals or on shipping docks. They expedite shipments by determining the route that shipments will take and by preparing all necessary documents. Agents take orders from customers and arrange for the pickup of freight or cargo and its delivery to loading platforms. Cargo and freight agents may keep records of the cargo, including its amount, type, weight, dimensions, destina tion, and time of shipment. They keep a tally of missing items and record the condition of damaged items. Cargo and freight agents arrange cargo according to its des tination. They also determine any shipping rates and other charges that usually apply to freight. For imported or exported freight, they verify that the proper customs paperwork is in or der. Cargo and freight agents often track shipments electroni cally, using bar codes, and answer customers’ questions about the status of their shipments. Work environment. Cargo and freight agents work in a wide variety of businesses, institutions, and industries. Some work in warehouses, stockrooms, or shipping and receiving rooms that may not be temperature controlled. Others may spend time in cold storage rooms or outside on loading platforms, where they are exposed to the weather. Most jobs for cargo and freight agents involve frequent standing, bending, walking, and stretching. Some lifting and carrying of small items may be involved. Although automated devices have lessened the physical demands of this occupation, not every employer has these devices. The work still can be strenuous, even though mechanical material-handling equip ment is used to move heavy items. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday. Howev er, evening and weekend hours are common in jobs involving large shipments. Employment Cargo and freight agents held about 86,000 jobs in 2006. Most agents were employed in transportation. Approximately 44 percent worked for firms engaged in support activities for the transportation industry, 23 percent were in the air transporta tion industry, 9 percent worked for courier businesses, and 7 percent were in the truck transportation industry. Job Outlook Employment is expected to grow faster than average. Employment change. Employment of cargo and freight agents is expected to increase by 16 percent during the 2006 16 decade, faster than the average for all occupations. A grow ing number of agents will be needed to handle the increasing number of shipments resulting from increases in cargo traffic. 1 I r: Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cargo and freight agents need no more than a high school di ploma and learn their duties informally on the job. Education and training. Many jobs are entry level and re quire only a high school diploma. Cargo and freight agents https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3i#is® Cargo and freight agents determine the route that shipments will take and prepare all necessary documents. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 583 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix soc Occupational Title Code Employment, 2006 Projected employment, 2016 100,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 14,000 16 86,000 43-5011 Cargo and freight agents......................................... ............................. NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. Additional demand will stem from the growing popularity of online shopping and same-day delivery. Job prospects. In addition to new job growth, openings will be created by the need to replace cargo and freight agents who leave the occupation. Earnings Median annual earnings of cargo and freight agents in May 2006 were $37,110. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,750 and $46,440. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,470, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $57,440. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of cargo and freight agents in May 2006 were: Scheduled air transportation............................................... $38,340 Freight transportation arrangement....................................... 37,130 Couriers..................................................................................36,750 General freight trucking........................................................ 34,010 Support activities for air transportation................................23,770 These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Related Occupations Cargo and freight agents plan and coordinate shipments of cargo by airlines, trains, and trucks. They also arrange freight pickup with customers. Others who do similar work are couriers and messengers; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping; truck driv ers and driver/sales workers; and Postal Service workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Couriers and Messengers (Q*NET 43-5021.00) Significant Points • Most jobs do not require more than a high school di ploma. • Employment is expected to have little to no change, reflecting the more widespread use of electronic in formation-handling technologies such as e-mail and fax. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Couriers and messengers move and distribute information, documents, and small packages for businesses, institutions, and government agencies. They pick up and deliver letters, impor tant business documents, or packages that need to be sent or received quickly within a local area. Couriers and messengers use trucks and vans for larger deliveries, such as legal casel oads and conference materials. By sending an item by courier or messenger, the sender ensures that it reaches its destination the same day or even within the hour. Couriers and messen gers also deliver items that the sender is unwilling to entrust to other means of delivery, such as important legal or financial documents, passports, airline tickets, or medical samples to be tested. Couriers and messengers receive their instructions either in person—by reporting to their office—or by telephone, two-way radio, or wireless data service. Then they pick up the item and carry it to its destination. After each pickup or delivery, they check in with their dispatcher to receive instructions. Some times the dispatcher will contact them while they are between stops and reroute them to pick up a new delivery. Consequent ly, most couriers and messengers spend much of their time outdoors or in their vehicle. They usually maintain records of deliveries and often obtain signatures from the people receiving the items. Most couriers and messengers deliver items within a limited geographic area, such as a city or metropolitan area. Mail or overnight delivery service is the preferred delivery method for items that need to go longer distances. Some couriers and mes sengers carry items only for their employer, often a law firm, bank, medical laboratory, or financial institution. Others may act as part of an organization’s internal mail system and carry items mainly within the organization’s buildings or entirely within one building. Many couriers and messengers work for messenger or courier services; for a fee, they pick up items from anyone and deliver them to specified destinations within a local area. Most are paid on a commission basis. Couriers and messengers reach their destination by several methods. Many drive vans or cars or ride motorcycles. A few travel by foot, especially in urban areas or when making deliv eries nearby. In congested urban areas, messengers often use bicycles to make deliveries. Messenger or courier services usu ally employ the bicycle messengers. Work environment. Couriers and messengers spend most of their time alone, making deliveries, and usually are not closely supervised. Those who deliver by bicycle must be physically fit and must cope with all weather conditions and the hazards of heavy traffic. Car, van, and truck couriers must sometimes car ry heavy loads, either manually or with the aid of a hand truck. They also have to deal with difficult parking situations, traffic jams, and road construction. The pressure of making as many 584 Occupational Outlook Handbook some companies have spare bicycles or mopeds that their riders may rent for a short period, almost all two-wheeled couriers own their own bicycle, moped, or motorcycle. Advancement. Couriers and messengers have limited ad vancement opportunities. However, one avenue for advance ment is to learn dispatching or to take service requests by phone. Some independent contractors become master contractors. Master contractors organize routes for multiple independent contractors through courier agencies. Employment Couriers and messengers together held about 134,000 jobs in 2006. About 25 percent were employed in the couriers and messengers industry; 15 percent worked in health care; and 9 percent worked in legal services. About 19 percent were selfemployed independent contractors; they provide their own ve hicles and, to a certain extent, set their own schedules. How ever, they are like employees in some respects, because they often contract with one company. Couriers and messengers spend most of their time making de liveries, and usually are not closely supervised. deliveries as possible to increase one’s earnings can be stressful and may lead to unsafe driving or bicycling practices. The typi cal workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most couriers and messengers train on the job. Communica tion skills, a good driving record, and good sense of direction are helpful. Education and training. Most courier and messenger jobs do not require workers to have more than a high school diplo ma. Couriers and messengers usually learn as they work, train ing with an experienced worker for a short time. Other qualifications. Couriers and messengers need a good knowledge of the area in which they travel and a good sense of direction. Employers also prefer to hire people who are fa miliar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. In addition, good oral and written communication skills are important because communicating with customers and dispatchers is an integral part of some courier and mes senger jobs. Those who work as independent contractors for a messenger or delivery service may be required to have a valid driver’s li cense, a registered and inspected vehicle, a good driving record, and insurance coverage. Many couriers and messengers, who are employees rather than independent contractors, also are re quired to provide and maintain their own vehicle. Although Job Outlook Employment of couriers and messengers should have little to no change through 2016, despite an increasing volume of parcels, business documents, and other materials to be delivered. The need to replace workers who leave the occupation will create some job openings. Employment change. Employment in this occupation is ex pected to remain unchanged during the 2006-16 decade. Em ployment will be unchanged because of the more widespread use of electronic information-handling technologies such as e-mail and fax. Electronic transmission of many documents, forms, and other materials is replacing items that had been hand delivered. Many legal and financial documents, which former ly were delivered by hand because they required a handwrit ten signature, can now be delivered electronically with online signatures. However, for items that are unable to be sent elec tronically—such as blueprints and other oversized materials, securities, and passports—couriers and messengers will still be needed. They still will also be required by medical and dental laboratories to pick up and deliver medical samples, specimens, and other materials. Job prospects. Despite the lack of job growth, some job op portunities will arise out of the need to replace couriers and messengers who leave the occupation. Demand for couriers and messengers may be particularly strong in certain activities, like transporting donor organs for hospitals. Earnings Median annual earnings of couriers and messengers in May 2006 were $21,540. The middle 50 percent earned between Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Couriers and messengers... soc Code Employment, 2006 134,000 Projected employment, 2016 134.000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent -200 0 NOTE. Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Office and Administrative Support Occupations 585 $17,430 and $27,080. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,870, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $34,510. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of couriers and messengers in May 2006 were: Medical and diagnostic laboratories...................................$23,020 Depository credit intermediation.......................................... 20,680 Couriers..................................................................................20,650 Legal services.........................................................................20,610 Local messengers and local delivery.................................... 19,560 Couriers employed by a courier service usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to pur chase them. Most independent contractors do not receive ben efits, but usually have higher earnings. Related Occupations Messengers and couriers deliver letters, parcels, and other items. They also keep accurate records of their work. Others who do similar work are Postal Service workers; truck drivers and driver/sales workers; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; and cargo and freight agents. Sources of Additional Information Local employers and local offices of the State employment ser vice can provide additional information about job opportunities. People interested in courier and messenger jobs also may con tact messenger and courier services, mail-order firms, banks, printing and publishing firms, utility companies, retail stores, or other large companies. Information on careers as couriers and messengers is avail able from: 'y Messengers and Couriers Association of the Americas, 1156 15th St. NW, Suite 900, Washington, DC 20005. Dispatchers (0*NET 43-5031.00, 43-5032.00) Significant Points • Alternative work schedules are necessary to accom modate evening, weekend, and holiday work and 24hour-per-day, 7-day-per-week operations. • Dispatchers generally are entry-level workers who are trained on the job and need no more than a high school diploma. • Many States require specific types of training or cer tification. Nature of the Work Dispatchers schedule and dispatch workers, equipment, or ser vice vehicles to carry materials or passengers. Some dispatch ers take calls for taxi companies, for example, or for police or ambulance assistance. They keep records, logs, and schedules of the calls that they receive and of the transportation vehicles https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A .Jjl Many dispatchers use computer-aided systems. that they monitor and control. In fact, they usually prepare a detailed report on all activities occurring during their shifts. Many dispatchers employ computer-aided dispatch systems to accomplish these tasks. All dispatchers are assigned a specific territory and have responsibility for all communications within that area. Many work in teams, especially dispatchers in large communications centers or companies. The work of dispatchers varies greatly, depending on the industry in which they work. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, also called public safety dispatchers or 911 operators, monitor the location of emergency services personnel from one or all of the jurisdic tion’s emergency services departments. These workers dispatch the appropriate type and number of units in response to calls for assistance. Dispatchers, or call takers, often are the first people the public contacts when emergency assistance is required. If certified for emergency medical services, the dispatcher may provide medical instruction to those on the scene of the emer gency until the medical staff arrives. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers work in a variety of settings—a police station, a fire station, a hospital, or, increas ingly, a centralized communications center. In some areas, one of the major departments serves as the communications center. In these situations, all emergency calls go to that department, where a dispatcher handles their calls and screens the others before transferring them to the appropriate service. 586 Occupational Outlook Handbook When handling calls, dispatchers question each caller care fully to determine the type, seriousness, and location of the emergency. The information obtained is posted either elec tronically by computer or, with decreasing frequency, by hand. The dispatcher then quickly decides the priority of the incident, the kind and number of units needed, and the location of the closest and most suitable units available. When appropriate, dispatchers stay in close contact with other service providers— for example, a police dispatcher would monitor the response of the fire department when there is a major fire. In a medical emergency, dispatchers keep in close touch not only with the dispatched units, but also with the caller. They may give ex tensive first-aid instructions before the emergency personnel ar rive, while the caller is waiting for the ambulance. Dispatchers continuously give updates on the patient’s condition to the am bulance personnel and often serve as a link between the medical staff in a hospital and the emergency medical technicians in the ambulance. (A separate statement on emergency medical tech nicians and paramedics appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other dispatchers coordinate deliveries, service calls, and re lated activities for a variety of firms. Truck dispatchers, who work for local and long-distance trucking companies, coordi nate the movement of trucks and freight between cities. These dispatchers direct the pickup and delivery activities of driv ers, receive customers’ requests for the pickup and delivery of freight, consolidate freight orders into truckloads for specific destinations, assign drivers and trucks, and draw up routes and pickup and delivery schedules. Bus dispatchers make sure that local and long-distance buses stay on schedule. They handle all problems that may disrupt service, and they dispatch other buses or arrange for repairs in order to restore service and schedules. Train dispatchers ensure the timely and efficient movement of trains according to orders and schedules. They must be aware of track switch positions, track maintenance areas, and the loca tion of other trains running on the track. Taxicab dispatchers, or starters, dispatch taxis in response to requests for service and keep logs on all road service calls. Tow-truck dispatchers take calls for emergency road service. They relay the nature of the problem to a nearby service station or a tow-truck service and see to it that the road service is completed. Gas and water ser vice dispatchers monitor gaslines and water mains and send out service trucks and crews to take care of emergencies. Work environment. The work of dispatchers can be very hec tic when many calls come in at the same time. The job of public safety dispatchers is particularly stressful because a slow or an improper response to a call can result in serious injury or further harm. Also, callers who are anxious or afraid may become ex cited and be unable to provide needed information; some may even become abusive. Despite provocations, dispatchers must remain calm, objective, and in control of the situation. Dispatchers sit for long periods, using telephones, comput ers, and two-way radios. Much of their time is spent at video display terminals, viewing monitors and observing traffic pat terns. As a result of working for long stretches with computers and other electronic equipment, dispatchers can experience sig nificant eyestrain and back discomfort. Generally, dispatchers work a 40-hour week; however, rotating shifts and compressed work schedules are common. Alternative work schedules are necessary to accommodate evening, weekend, and holiday work and 24-hour-per-day, 7-day-per-week operations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dispatchers generally are entry-level workers who are trained on the job and need no more than a high school diploma. Many States require specific types of training or certification. Education and training. Workers usually develop the neces sary skills on the job. This informal training lasts from several days to a few months, depending on the complexity of the job. While working with an experienced dispatcher, new employees monitor calls and learn how to operate a variety of commu nications equipment, including telephones, radios, and various wireless devices. As trainees gain confidence, they begin to handle calls themselves. In smaller operations, dispatchers sometimes act as customer service representatives, process ing orders. Many public safety dispatchers also participate in structured training programs sponsored by their employer. In creasingly, public safety dispatchers receive training in stress and crisis management as well as in family counseling. This training helps them to provide effective services to others; and, at the same time, it helps them manage the stress involved in their work. Licensure. Many States require specific types of training or certification from a professional association. Certification of ten requires several months in a classroom for instruction in computer-assisted dispatching and other emerging technologies as well as radio dispatching and stress management. Other qualifications. State or local government civil service regulations usually govern police, fire, and emergency medical dispatching jobs. Candidates for these positions may have to pass written, oral, and performance tests. Also, they may be asked to attend training classes in order to qualify for advance ment. Communication skills and the ability to work under pressure are important personal qualities for dispatchers. Residency in the city or county of employment frequently is required for public safety dispatchers. Dispatchers in transportation indus tries must be able to deal with sudden influxes of shipments and Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title cr,r, Code , ^qo™ , ’ Projected employment, Change, 2006-16 __________ ________________________________________22016NumberPercent Dispatchers............................................................................................. 43-5030 289,000 306,000 16,000 Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers......................................... 43-5031 99,000 113,000 13,000 Dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance............................ 43-5032190,000193,0002,9002_ 6 14 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Office and Administrative Support Occupations 587 disruptions of shipping schedules caused by bad weather, road construction, or accidents. Certification and advancement. Although there are no man datory licensing requirements, some States require that public safety dispatchers possess a certificate to work on a State net work, such as the Police Information Network. Many dispatch ers participate in these programs in order to improve their pros pects for career advancement. Dispatchers who work for private firms, which usually are small, will find few opportunities for advancement. In con trast, public safety dispatchers may become a shift or divisional supervisor or chief of communications, or they may move to higher paying administrative jobs. Some become police offi cers or fire fighters. Employment Dispatchers held 289,000 jobs in May of 2006. About 34 per cent were police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, almost all of whom worked for State and local governments—primarily local police and fire departments. About 28 percent of all dispatch ers worked in the transportation and warehousing industry, and the rest worked in a wide variety of mainly service-providing industries. Although dispatching jobs are found throughout the country, most dispatchers work in urban areas, where large communica tions centers and businesses are located. Job Outlook Employment of dispatchers is expected to grow more slowly than average. In addition to those positions resulting from job growth, many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment change. Employment of dispatchers is expect ed to increase 6 percent over the 2006-16 decade, more slowly than the average for all occupations. Population growth and economic expansion are expected to spur employment growth for all types of dispatchers. The growing and aging population will increase demand for emergency services and stimulate em ployment growth of police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers. Job prospects. In addition to openings due to growth, job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Many districts are consolidating their communications centers into a shared area-wide facility. As the equipment becomes more complex, individuals with computer skills and experience will have a greater opportunity for employment as public safety dis patchers. Employment of some dispatchers is more adversely affected by economic downturns than employment of other dispatchers. For example, when economic activity falls, demand for trans portation services declines. As a result, taxicab, train, and truck dispatchers may experience layoffs or a shortened workweek, and jobseekers may have some difficulty finding entry-level jobs. Employment of tow-truck dispatchers, by contrast, is sel dom affected by general economic conditions, because of the emergency nature of their business. Likewise, public safety dis patchers are unlikely to be affected by economic downturns. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance in May 2006 were $32,190. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,860 and $42,030. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,780, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $53,250. Median annual wage-and-salary earnings of police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers in 2006 were $31,470. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,200 and $39,040. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,010, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $47,190. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve directing and controlling the movement of vehicles, freight, and personnel, as well as dis tributing information and messages, include air traffic control lers, communications equipment operators, customer service representatives, and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training and certification for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers, contact: V Association of Public Safety Communications Officials, International, 351 N. Williamson Blvd., Daytona Beach, FL 32114. Internet: http://www.apco911.org y International Municipal Signal Association, P.O. Box 359, 165 E. Union St., Newark, NY 14513. Internet: http ://www.IMSAsafety.org Information on job opportunities for police, fire, and emer gency dispatchers is available from personnel offices of State and local governments or police departments. Information about work opportunities for other types of dispatchers is avail able from local employers and State employment service of fices. Meter Readers, Utilities (0*NET 43-5041.00) Significant Points • Meter reading is one of the fastest-declining occupa tions, as a result of automated meter reading (AMR) systems that allow meters to be monitored and billed from a central point. • Most meter readers are employed by electric, gas, or water utilities or by local governments. • Many workers begin working as meter readers and ad vance to lineman, power plant operator, or dispatcher jobs. Nature of the Work Meter readers read electric, gas, water, or steam consumption meters and record the volume used. They serve both residential and commercial consumers. The basic duty of a meter reader is 588 Occupational Outlook Handbook S. j * - ^ * 8M*; Most modem meters are electronic and can be read using a remote device. to walk or drive along a route and read customers’ consump tion from a tracking device. Accuracy is the most important part of the job, as companies rely on readers to provide the information they need to bill their customers. Other duties include inspecting the meters and their connec tions for any defects or damage, supplying repair and main tenance workers with the necessary information to fix dam aged meters. They keep track of customers’ average usage and record reasons for any extreme fluctuations in volume. Meter readers are constantly aware of any abnormal behavior or consumption that might indicate an unauthorized connec tion. They may turn on service for new occupants and turn off service for questionable behavior or nonpayment of charges. Work environment. Meter readers work outdoors in all types of weather as they travel through communities and neighbor hoods taking readings. Those traveling on foot may have to walk several miles a day. Dogs can pose a difficulty for meter readers, although they are generally given precautionary de vices to help them avoid encounters. Meter readers generally work 40-hour weeks, although part-time positions are avail able. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Meter readers are entry-level utility employees. Many people start utility careers in this occupation with the goal of advanc ing to more responsible positions. Education and training. Most employers prefer to hire workers who have a high school diploma. Until they demon strate an ability to work alone, inexperienced meter readers usually work with more experienced ones. They learn how to read meters and determine consumption rates on the job and they must also learn the route that they need to travel. Other qualifications. No experience is required for this po sition, but employers prefer to hire those familiar with com puters and other electronic office and business equipment. Be cause routes may change, it is important for readers to be able to understand maps. Typing, recordkeeping and other clerical skills are also useful. Advancement. Meter reading is generally considered an entry-level occupation. Many people start working as meter readers and move up to higher positions in the metering de partment. Others move on to other positions within the utility, such as dispatcher or distributor. They may also become ap prentices to more skilled positions, such as lineman or electri cian. Employment Meter readers held about 47,000 jobs in 2006. About 42 per cent were employed by electric, gas, and water utilities. Most of the rest were employed in local government, reading water meters or meters for other government-owned utilities. Job Outlook Despite declining employment, some job openings are expect ed during the 2006-16 decade. Employment change. Employment of meter readers is ex pected to decline by 10 percent through 2016. New AMR sys tems allow meters to be monitored and billed from a central point, reducing the need for meter readers. Job prospects. It will be many years before AMR systems can be implemented in all locations, so there still will be some openings for meter readers, mainly to replace workers leav ing the occupation. The utilities industry is expecting a large number of retirements from its aging workforce, which should create many job opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of utility meter readers in May 2006 were $30,330. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,580 and $39,320. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,970, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $49,150. Em ployee benefits vary greatly between companies and may not be offered for part-time workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title soc Employment, Code 2006 Projected employment, 2016 42,000 Change, 2006-16 Percent Meter readers, utilities............................................ .......................... 43-5041 47,000 -4,800 -10 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Number Office and Administrative Support Occupations 589 Related Occupations Other workers responsible for the distribution and control of utilities include line installers and repairers, and power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local utilities and offices of State employment services, and from: y International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St.NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.ibew.org Postal Service Workers (0*NET 43-5051.00, 43-5052.00,43-5053.00) Significant Points • • • • Employment of Postal Service workers is expected to experience little or no change overall because of greater efficiencies in the processing and sorting of mail. Keen competition is expected as the number of quali fied applicants usually exceeds the number of job openings. Qualification is based on an examination. Applicants customarily wait 1 to 2 years or more after passing the examination before being hired. Nature of the Work Each week, the U.S. Postal Service delivers billions of pieces of mail, including letters, bills, advertisements, and packages through heat, snow, or rain. To do this in an efficient and timely manner, the Postal Service employs about 615,000 individuals who process, sort, and deliver mail and packages as well as pro vide customer services and supplies in post offices. Most Postal Service workers are clerks, mail carriers, or mail sorters, pro cessors, and processing machine operators. Postal clerks wait on customers at post offices, whereas mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators sort incoming and outgoing mail at post offices and mail processing centers. Mail carri ers deliver mail to urban and rural residences and businesses throughout the United States. Postal Service clerks, also known as window clerks, sell stamps, money orders, postal stationery, and mailing envelopes and boxes in post offices throughout the country. They also weigh packages to determine postage and check that packages are in satisfactory condition for mailing. These clerks regis ter, certify, and insure mail and answer questions about postage rates, post office boxes, mailing restrictions, and other postal matters. Window clerks also help customers file claims for damaged packages. Postal Service mail sorters, processors, and processing ma chine operators prepare incoming and outgoing mail for dis tribution at post offices and at mail processing centers. These Digitized forworkers FRASERare commonly referred to as mail handlers, distribution https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis clerks, mail processors, or mail processing clerks. They load and unload postal trucks and move mail around a mail process ing center with forklifts, small electric tractors, or hand-pushed carts. They also load and operate mail processing, sorting, and canceling machinery. Postal Service mail carriers deliver mail, once it has been processed and sorted, to residences and businesses in cities, towns, and rural areas. Although carriers are classified by their type of route—either city or rural—duties of city and rural carriers are similar. Most travel established routes, delivering and collecting mail. Mail carriers start work at the post office early in the morning, when they arrange the mail in delivery sequence. Automated equipment has reduced the time that car riers need to sort the mail, causing them to spend more of their time delivering it. Mail carriers cover their routes on foot, by vehicle, or a com bination of both. On foot, they carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it on a cart. In most urban and rural areas, they use a car or small truck. Although the Postal Service provides vehicles to city carriers, most rural carriers must use their own automobiles for whose use they are reimbursed. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to roadside mailboxes, and to large buildings such as offices or apartments, which generally have all of their tenants’ mailboxes in one location. Besides delivering and collecting mail, carriers collect mon ey for postage-due and COD (cash-on-delivery) fees and obtain signed receipts for registered, certified, and insured mail. If a customer is not home, the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, car riers return to the post office with mail gathered from homes, businesses, and sometimes street collection boxes, and turn in the mail, receipts, and money collected during the day. Some city carriers may have specialized duties such as de livering only parcels or picking up mail from mail collection boxes. In contrast to city carriers, rural carriers provide a wider range of postal services, in addition to delivering and picking up mail. For example, rural carriers may sell stamps and money orders and register, certify, and insure parcels and letters. All carriers, however, must be able to answer customers’ questions about postal regulations and services and provide change-of-address cards and other postal forms when requested. Work environment. Window clerks usually work in the pub lic portion of post offices. They have a variety of duties and frequent contact with the public, but they rarely work at night. However, they may have to deal with upset customers, stand for long periods, and be held accountable for an assigned stock of stamps and funds. Depending on the size of the post office in which they work, they also may be required to sort mail. Despite the use of automated equipment, the work of mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators can be physically demanding. Workers may have to move heavy sacks of mail around a mail processing center. These workers usu ally are on their feet, reaching for sacks and trays of mail or placing packages and bundles into sacks and trays. Processing mail can be tiring and tedious. Many sorters, processors, and machine operators work at night or on weekends, because most large post offices process mail around the clock, and the largest volume of mail is sorted during the evening and night shifts. 590 Occupational Outlook Handbook *«« 'V*., u ¥ Postal Service workers examine addresses to ensure that mail gets delivered to the correct location. Workers can experience stress as they process mail under tight production deadlines and quotas. Most carriers begin work early in the morning—those with routes in a business district can start as early as 4 a.m. Over time hours are frequently required for urban carriers. Carriers spend most of their time outdoors, delivering mail in all kinds of weather. Though carriers face many natural hazards, such as extreme temperatures, wet and icy roads and sidewalks, and even dog bites, serious injuries are often due to the nature of the work, which requires repetitive movements, as well as constant lifting and bending. These types of repetitive injuries occur as various kinds of injuries to joints and muscles, as well as carpal tunnel syndrome. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All applicants for Postal Service jobs are required to take a postal service examination. After passing the exam, it may take 1 to 2 years or longer before being hired as the number of ap plicants is generally much greater than the number of jobs that open up. Education and training. There are no specific education requirements to become a Postal Service worker; however, all applicants must have a good command of the English language. Upon being hired, new Postal Service workers are trained on https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the job by experienced workers. Many post offices offer class room instruction on safety and defensive driving. Workers re ceive additional instruction when new equipment or procedures are introduced. In these cases, workers usually are trained by another postal employee or a training specialist. Other qualifications. Postal Service workers must be at least 18 years old. They must be U.S. citizens or have been granted permanent resident-alien status in the United States, and males must have registered with the Selective Service upon reaching age 18. All applicants must pass a written examination that measures speed and accuracy at checking names and numbers and the ability to memorize mail distribution procedures. Jobseekers should contact the post office or mail processing center where they wish to work to determine when an exam will be given. Ap plicants’ names are listed in order of their examination scores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran and 10 points are added to the score of a veteran who was wounded in combat or is disabled. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future openings until their eligibility expires—usually 2 years after the examination date. When accepted, applicants must pass a physical examination and drug test, and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing 70 pounds. Applicants for mail carrier positions must have a driver’s license and a good driving record, and must receive a passing grade on a road test. Postal clerks and mail carriers should be courteous and tact ful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiving complaints. A good memory and the ability to read rapidly and accurately are important. Good in terpersonal skills are important, particularly for mail clerks and mail carriers who deal closely with the public. Advancement. Postal Service workers often begin on a part time, flexible basis and become regular or full time in order of seniority, as vacancies occur. Full-time workers may bid for preferred assignments, such as the day shift or a high-level nonsupervisory position. Carriers can look forward to obtain ing preferred routes as their seniority increases. Postal Service workers can advance to supervisory positions on a competitive basis. Employment The U.S. Postal Service employed 80,000 clerks; 338,000 mail carriers; and 198,000 mail sorters, processors, and pro cessing machine operators in 2006. Most of them worked full time. Most postal clerks provide window service at post of fice branches. Many mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators sort mail at major metropolitan post offices; others work at mail processing centers. The majority of mail carriers work in cities and suburbs, while the rest work in rural areas. Postal Service workers are classified as casual, part-time flex ible, part-time regular, or full time. Casuals are hired for 90 days at a time to help process and deliver mail during peak mailing or vacation periods. Part-time flexible workers do not have a regu lar work schedule or weekly guarantee of hours but are called as Office and Administrative Support Occupations 591 Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Postal service workers........................................................................... Postal service clerks.......................................................................... Postal service mail carriers.............................................................. Postal service mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators......................................................................................... soc Code Employment, 2006 43-5050 43-5051 43-5052 615,000 80,000 338,000 43-5053 198,000 Projected employment, 2016 603,000 80,000 341,000 181,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent -12,000 -2 900 1 3,500 1 -17,000 -8 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. the need arises. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule of fewer than 40 hours per week, often replacing regular full-time workers on their scheduled day off. Full-time postal employees work a 40-hour week over a 5-day period. Job Outlook Employment of Postal Service workers is expected to experi ence little or no change through 2016. Still, many jobs will be come available for mail clerks and carriers, which are expected to add workers, and because of the need to replace those who retire or leave the occupation. Employment change. The stable employment overall of Postal Service mail carriers and Postal Service clerks will be offset by declines in Postal Service mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators, which will cause overall employ ment of Postal Service workers to decline 2 percent over the 2006-2016 period. An increasing population, the greater use of third class, or bulk, mail by businesses, and more electronic shopping will generate more business for the Postal Service. However, demand will be moderated by the fact that people are sending out fewer pieces of first class mail because of the grow ing use of electronic communication. These changes will affect Postal Service occupations in dif ferent ways. Efforts by the Postal Service to provide better ser vice and meet the needs of a growing population will increase the demand for Postal Service clerks. However, the declining use of first class mail as the use of electronic communication grows will hold growth in this occupation to a minimum. Employment of mail sorters, processors, and processing ma chine operators is expected to decline moderately because of the increasing use of automated materials handling equipment and optical character readers, barcode sorters, and other auto mated sorting equipment. In addition, companies that mail in bulk have an economic incentive to presort the mail before it arrives at the Post Office to qualify for a reduction in the price. Employment of mail carriers is expected to grow, but only about 1 percent through 2016. As the population continues to rise, the need for mail carriers will grow. In addition, busi nesses are using the mail more to deliver advertising, which is making up for the reduced use of first class mail. Also, the Postal Service is moving toward more centralized mail delivery, such as the use of cluster mailboxes, to cut down on the number of door-to-door deliveries. The best employment opportunities for mail carriers are expected to be in less urbanized areas as the number of addresses to which mail must be delivered con tinues to grow, especially in fast growing rural areas. However, increased use of the “delivery point sequencing” system, which https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis allows machines to sort mail directly by the order of delivery, should reduce the amount of time that carriers spend sorting their mail, allowing them to spend more time on the streets de livering mail. This will mitigate the demand for more mail car riers. Job prospects. Those seeking jobs as Postal Service work ers can expect to encounter keen competition. The number of applicants usually exceeds the number of job openings because of the occupation’s low entry requirements and attractive wages and benefits. The role of the Postal Service as a government-approved mo nopoly continues to be a topic of debate. However, in 2003 the Presidential Commission on Postal Services and in 2006 the Congress both rejected the idea of privatizing the United States Postal Service. Employment and schedules in the Postal Service fluctuate with the demand for its services. When mail volume is high, full-time employees work overtime, part-time workers get additional hours, and casual workers may be hired. When mail volume is low, overtime is curtailed, part-timers work fewer hours, and casual workers are discharged. Earnings Median annual earnings of Postal Service mail carriers were $44,350 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,290 and $48,400. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $34,810, while the top 10 percent earned more than $50,830. Rural mail carriers are reimbursed for mileage put on their own vehicles while delivering mail. Median annual earnings of Postal Service clerks were $44,800 in 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,720 and $47,890. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $38,980, while the top 10 percent earned more than $49,750. Median annual earnings of Postal Service mail sorters, proces sors, and processing machine operators were $43,900 in 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,350 and $47,440. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $25,770, while the top 10 percent earned more than $49,570. Postal Service workers enjoy a variety of employer-provided benefits similar to those enjoyed by Federal Government work ers. The American Postal Workers Union, the National Asso ciation of Letter Carriers, the National Postal Mail Handlers Union, and the National Rural Letter Carriers Association to gether represent most of these workers. Related Occupations Other occupations with duties similar to those of Postal Service clerks include cashiers; counter and rental clerks; file clerks; 592 Occupational Outlook Handbook and shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks. Others with duties related to those of Postal Service mail carriers include couri ers and messengers, and truck drivers and driver/sales workers. Occupations whose duties are related to those of Postal Service mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators in clude inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers, and material moving occupations. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employment service offices can supply details about entrance examinations and specific em ployment opportunities for Postal Service workers. Production, Planning, and Expediting Clerks (0*NET 43-5061.00) Significant Points • Production, planning, and expediting clerks work closely with supervisors who must approve produc tion and work schedules. • Many production, planning, and expediting jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. • Manufacturing firms and wholesale and retail trade establishments are the primary employers. • Slower-than-average employment growth is project ed. Nature of the Work Production, planning, and expediting clerks coordinate and fa cilitate the flow of information, work, and materials within or among offices. Most of their work is done according to pro duction, work, or shipment schedules that are developed by su pervisors who determine work progress and completion dates. Clerks compile reports on the progress of work and on pro duction problems, and also may set worker schedules, estimate costs, schedule the shipment of parts, keep an inventory of ma terials, inspect and assemble materials, and write special orders for services and merchandise. In addition, they may route and deliver parts to ensure that production quotas are met and that merchandise is delivered on the date promised. Production and planning clerks compile records and reports on various aspects of production, such as materials and parts used, products produced, machine and instrument readings, and frequency of defects. These workers prepare work tickets or other production guides and distribute them to other workers. Production and planning clerks coordinate, schedule, moni tor, and chart production and its progress, either manually or electronically. They also gather information from customers’ orders or other specifications and use the information to prepare a detailed production sheet that serves as a guide in assembling or manufacturing the product. Expediting clerks contact vendors and shippers to ensure that merchandise, supplies, and equipment are forwarded on the specified shipping dates. They communicate with transporta tion companies to prevent delays in transit, and they may ar range for the distribution of materials upon their arrival. They may even visit work areas of vendors and shippers to check the status of orders. Expediting clerks locate materials and dis tribute them to specified production areas. They may inspect products for quality and quantity to ensure their adherence to specifications. They also keep a chronological list of due dates and may move work that does not meet the production schedule to the top of the list. Work environment. Although their offices or desks may be near a production plant or warehouse, production, planning, and expediting clerks generally work in clean and environmen tally-controlled conditions. They spend most of their day either on the phone or on the computer while working closely with supervisors who must approve production and work schedules. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for production, planning, and expediting clerks are limited. Usually a high school diploma is sufficient, although computer skills also are essential. Education and training. Many production, planning, and expediting jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. However, applicants who have taken business courses or have specific job-related experience may be preferred. Production, planning, and expediting clerks usually learn the job by doing routine tasks under close supervi sion. They learn how to count and mark stock, and then they start keeping records and taking inventory. Production, plan ning, and expediting clerks must learn both how their company operates and the company’s priorities before they can begin to write production and work schedules efficiently. Other qualifications. Employers prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equip ment. Because communication with other people is an integral part of some jobs in the occupation, good oral and written com munication skills are essential. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repetitive tasks, some times under pressure, are other important characteristics that employers look for in prospective workers. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix soc Occupational Title Production, planning, and expediting clerks....................... Code .......... 43-5061 Employment, 2006 293,000 Projected employment, 2016 305,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent 12,000 4 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Office and Administrative Support Occupations 593 These workers usually receive the same benefits as most oth er workers. Related Occupations Other workers who coordinate the flow of information to assist the production process include cargo and freight agents; ship ping, receiving, and traffic clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; and weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeep ing. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from lo cal employers and from local offices of the State employment service. Production, planning, and expediting clerks monitor reports to ensure a steady flow of materials. Advancement. Advancement opportunities for production, planning, and expediting clerks vary with the place of employ ment, but often require additional education. Shipping, Receiving, and Traffic Clerks (0*NET 43-5071.00) Employment Clerks engaged in production, planning, and expediting activi ties work in almost every sector of the economy, overseeing inventory control and assuring that schedules and deadlines are met. In 2006, production, planning, and expediting clerks held 293,000 jobs. Jobs in manufacturing made up 41 percent. An other 15 percent were in wholesale and retail trade establish ments. Others worked in advertising firms and for telecommu nications companies, among other places. Job Outlook Employment of production, planning, and expediting clerks is expected to increase more slowly than average. Employment change. The number of production, planning, and expediting clerks is expected to grow by 4 percent from 2016 to 2016, slower than the average for all occupations. As a greater emphasis is placed on the timely delivery of goods and services throughout the economy, there will be increasing need for production, planning, and expediting clerks at all levels of the supply chain. However, the expected employment decline in manufacturing will limit the overall growth of this occupa tion. The work of production, planning, and expediting clerks is less likely to be automated than the work of many other ad ministrative support occupations. Job prospects. In addition to openings due to employment growth, job openings will arise from the need to replace produc tion, planning, and expediting clerks who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Opportunities will be better in fields that are experiencing faster growth, such as wholesale trade and warehousing. Earnings Median annual earnings of production, planning, and expedit ing clerks in May 2006 were $38,620. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,560 and $48,900. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,470, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $59,080. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • • • Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks generally are entry-level workers who need no more than a high school diploma. Slower-than-average employment growth is expected as a result of increasing automation; many addition al job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Because of increasing automation, employers prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other elec tronic office and business equipment. Nature of the Work Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks keep records of all goods shipped and received. Their duties depend on the size of the establishment they work for and the level of automation used. Larger companies typically are better able to finance the pur chase of computers, scanners, and other equipment to handle some or all of a clerk’s responsibilities. In smaller companies, a clerk maintains records, prepares shipments, sorts packages, and accepts deliveries. In both environments, shipping, receiv ing, and traffic clerks may lift cartons of various sizes. Shipping clerks keep records of all outgoing shipments. They prepare shipping documents and mailing labels and make sure that orders have been filled correctly. Also, they record items taken from inventory and note when orders were filled. Some times they fill the order themselves, taking merchandise from the stockroom, noting when inventories run low, and wrapping or packing the goods in shipping containers. They also address and label packages, look up and compute freight or postal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. In addition, shipping clerks may prepare invoices and furnish information about shipments to other parts of the company, such as the ac counting department. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may sort and move the goods from the 594 Occupational Outlook Handbook ..'..jHwPl J stretching. Lifting and carrying smaller items also may be involved, especially at small companies with less automation. Although automated devices have lessened the physical de mands of this occupation, their use remains somewhat lim ited. The work still can be strenuous, even though mechanical material handling equipment, such as computerized conveyor systems, is used to move heavy items at a rapid pace. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common in some jobs and may be required when large shipments are involved or during major holiday periods. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks maintain records of all goods shipped and received. warehouse—sometimes by forklift—to the shipping dock or truck terminal and direct their loading. Receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those of shipping clerks. They determine whether orders have been filled cor rectly by verifying incoming shipments against the original order and the accompanying bill of lading or invoice. They make a record of the shipment and the condition of its con tents. In many firms, receiving clerks either use hand-held scanners to record barcodes on incoming products or manually enter the information into a computer. These data then can be transferred to the appropriate departments. An increasing number of clerks at larger, more automated companies use ra dio-frequency identification (RFID) scanners, which store and remotely retrieve data using tags or transponders. Clerks then check the shipment for any discrepancies in quantity, price, and discounts. Receiving clerks may route or move ship ments to the proper department, warehouse section, or stock room. They also may arrange for adjustments with shippers if merchandise is lost or damaged. Receiving clerks in small businesses may perform some duties similar to those of stock clerks. In larger establishments, receiving clerks may control all receiving platform operations, such as scheduling of trucks, recording of shipments, and handling of damaged goods. Traffic clerks maintain records on the destination, weight, and charges on all incoming and outgoing freight. They verify rate charges by comparing the classification of materials with rate charts. In many companies, this work may be automated. Information either is scanned or is entered by hand into a com puter for use by the accounting department or other depart ments within the company. Traffic clerks also keep a file of claims for overcharges and for damage to goods in transit. Work environment. Most jobs for shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks involve frequent standing, bending, walking, and Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks generally are entry-level workers who need no more than a high school diploma. Be cause of increasing automation, however, employers prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Education and training. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks usually learn the job by doing routine tasks under close supervision. They first learn how to count and mark stock, and then they start keeping records and taking inventory. Training in the use of automated equipment usually is done informally, on the job. As these occupations become more automated, however, workers may need longer periods of training to master the use of the equipment and technology. Because of increasing automation, employers prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Other qualifications. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repetitive tasks, sometimes under pres sure, are important characteristics. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs may need to be bonded. Advancement. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks are commonly promoted to head clerk, and those with a broad un derstanding of shipping and receiving may sometimes become purchasing agents or enter a related field, such as industrial traffic management. The Warehousing Education and Re search Council offers online courses in distribution and logis tics, which may enhance a clerk’s potential for advancement. Employment Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks held about 769,000 jobs in 2006. About 71 percent were employed in manufacturing or by wholesale and retail establishments. Although jobs for shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks are found throughout the country, most clerks work in urban areas, where shipping depots in factories and wholesale establishments usually are located. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Change, Projected 2006-16 employment, Code 2016 Number Percent 797,000 28,000 4 769,000 43-5071 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks........................... .................... NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa Occupational Title tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis soc Employment, 2006 Office and Administrative Support Occupations 595 Job Outlook Slower-than-average employment growth is expected as a result of increasing automation. However, many additional job open ings will result from the need to replace shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks who leave the occupation. Employment change. Employment of shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks is expected to grow 4 percent between 2006 and 2016, more slowly than the average for all occupations. Job growth will continue to be limited by automation as all but the smallest firms move to reduce labor costs by using computers and high-technology scanners to store and retrieve shipping and receiving records. Methods of handling materials have changed significantly in recent years. Large warehouses are increasingly becoming automated, with equipment such as automatic sorting systems, robots, computer-directed trucks, and programmed data stor age and retrieval systems. This automation, coupled with the growing use of hand-held barcode and RFID scanners in ship ping and receiving departments, has increased the productivity of shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks. Job prospects. In addition to some openings from employ ment growth, many job openings will occur because of the need to replace shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks who leave the occupation. This is a large entry-level occupation, and many vacancies are created each year as workers leave as part of their normal career progression. Because smaller warehouses, distri bution centers, and trucking terminals will continue to rely on sorting and moving goods by hand, job opportunities at those facilities may be better than at larger, more automated centers. Earnings Median annual earnings of wage-and-salary shipping, receiv ing, and traffic clerks in May 2006 were $26,070. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,670 and $32,840. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,970, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $40,590. These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Stock Clerks and Order Fillers (0*NET 43-5081.00, 43-5081.01, 43-5081.02, 43-5081.03, 43-5081.04) Significant Points • Stock clerks and order fillers generally are entry-lev el workers who learn through short-term on-the-job training. • Despite the projected decline in employment due to the use of automation in factories, warehouses, and stores, numerous job openings are expected due to re placement needs. • Because of automation, applicants who are familiar with computers and other electronic office and busi ness equipment will have the best job prospects. Nature of the Work Stock clerks and order fillers receive, unpack, check, store, track merchandise or materials, and pick up customer orders. They keep records of items entering or leaving the stockroom and inspect damaged or spoiled goods. Stock clerks and order fill ers sort, organize, and mark items with identifying codes, such as price, stock, or inventory control codes, so that inventories can be located quickly and easily. They also may be required to lift cartons of various sizes. In larger establishments, where they may be responsible for only one task, they may be called stock-control clerks, merchandise distributors, or property cus todians. In smaller firms, they also may perform tasks such as packing and mailing items, usually handled by shipping and re- jy wuj Related Occupations Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks record, check, and often store materials that a company receives. They also process and pack goods for shipment. Other workers who perform similar duties are stock clerks and order fillers; production, planning, and expediting clerks; cargo and freight agents; and Postal Ser vice workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities and online courses in distribution, warehousing, and storage systems, contact: y Warehousing Education and Research Council, 1100 Jorie Blvd., Suite 170, Oak Brook, IL 60523. Internet: http://www.werc.org Additional information about job opportunities may be ob tained from local employers and local offices of the State em ployment service. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis BMH sap Numerous job openings for stock clerks and order fillers are expected due to replacement needs. 596 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Stock clerks and order fillers.................................... ............................ soc Code 43-5081 Employment, 2006 1,705,000 Projected employment, 2016 1,574,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent -131,000 -8 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. ceiving clerks. (A separate statement on shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) In many firms, stock clerks and order fillers use hand-held scanners connected to computers to keep inventories up to date. In retail stores, stock clerks bring merchandise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks. In stockrooms and warehouses, stock clerks store materials in bins, on floors, or on shelves. Instead of putting the merchandise on the sales floor or on shelves, order fillers take customers’ orders and either hold the merchandise until the customers can pick it up or send it to them. Work environment. Working conditions vary considerably by employment setting. Most jobs for stock clerks and or der fillers involve frequent standing, bending, walking, and stretching. Some lifting and carrying of smaller items also may be involved. Although automated devices have lessened the physical demands of this occupation, their use remains somewhat limited. Even though mechanical material handling equipment is employed to move heavy items, the work still can be strenuous. Evening and weekend hours are common and may be re quired when large shipments are involved or when inventory is taken. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Stock clerk and order fillers generally are entry-level workers who do not need more than a high school diploma or GED. Short-term on-the-job training is usually adequate for this oc cupation. Education and training. Stock clerks and order fillers usu ally learn the job by doing routine tasks under close supervi sion. They learn how to count and mark stock and later to keep records and take inventory. Training in the use of auto mated equipment usually is done informally, on the job. As this occupation becomes more automated, however, workers may need longer periods of training to master the use of the equipment. Other qualifications. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repetitive tasks, sometimes under pres sure, are important characteristics. Stock clerks and order fillers who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs may be bonded. Employers prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important in some jobs. Advancement. Advancement opportunities for stock clerks and order fillers vary with the place of employment. With ad ditional training, some workers advance to jobs as warehouse leads or supervisors, purchasing agents or other jobs within the facility such as inventory control. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Stock clerks and order fillers held about 1.7 million jobs in 2006. About 78 percent work in wholesale and retail trade. The greatest numbers are found in department stores, followed by grocery stores. Jobs for stock clerks are found in all parts of the country, but most work in large urban areas that have many large suburban shopping centers, warehouses, and fac tories. Job Outlook Employment of stock clerks and order fillers is projected to decline as a result of automation in factories, warehouses, and stores. However, numerous job openings will occur each year due to the need to replace workers who leave the occupation, which is a characteristic of very large occupations with lim ited training requirements. Because of automation, applicants who are familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment will have the best job prospects. Employment change. Employment of stock clerks and or der fillers is expected to decline moderately by 8 percent over the 2006 to 2016 period. The growing use of computers for inventory control and the installation of new, automated equip ment are expected to inhibit growth in demand for stock clerks and order fillers, especially in manufacturing and wholesale trade industries, where operations are most easily automated. In addition to using computerized inventory control systems to sort goods more efficiently, firms in these industries are rely ing more on sophisticated conveyor belts and automatic high stackers to store and retrieve goods. Also, expanded use of battery-powered, driverless, automatically guided vehicles can be expected. The increasing role of large retail outlets and warehouses, as well as catalog, mail, telephone, and Internet shopping ser vices, however, should bolster employment of stock clerks and order fillers in these sectors of retail trade. Job prospects. Despite declining employment, numerous job openings will occur each year due to replacement needs. Because of automation, applicants who are familiar with com puters and other electronic office and business equipment will have the best job prospects. Since much of the work of stock clerks and order fillers who work in grocery, general merchan dise, apparel, accessory, and department stores is done manu ally and is difficult to automate, workers in these industries should be less affected by automation than workers in manu facturing. Earnings In May 2006, median annual wage-and-salary earnings of stock clerks and order fillers in were $20,440. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,670 and $26,440. The lowest 10 percent Office and Administrative Support Occupations 597 earned less than $14,490, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $34,200. These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Related Occupations Workers who also handle, move, organize, store, and keep re cords of materials include shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; production, planning, and expediting clerks; cargo and freight agents; and procurement clerks. ■tTiWim Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for stock clerks and order fillers. Information obtained by these workers needs to be accurate. Weighers, Measurers, Checkers, and Samplers, Recordkeeping (0*NET 43-5111.00) Significant Points • Many jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. • Employment of weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers is expected to decline because of the in creased use of automated equipment that performs the function of these workers. Nature of the Work Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers weigh, measure, and check materials, supplies, and equipment in order to keep accurate records. Most of their duties are clerical. Using ei ther manual or automated data-processing systems, they verify the quantity, quality, and overall value of the items they are re sponsible for and check the condition of items purchased, sold, or produced against records, bills, invoices, or receipts. They check the items to ensure the accuracy of the recorded data. They prepare reports on warehouse inventory levels and on the use of parts. Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers also check for any defects in the items and record the severity of the defects they find. These workers use weight scales, counting devices, tally sheets, and calculators to get and record information about products. They usually move objects to and from the scales with a handtruck or forklift. They issue receipts for products when needed or requested. Work environment. Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers work in a wide variety of businesses, institutions, and industries. Some work in warehouses, stockrooms, or shipping and receiving rooms that may not be temperature controlled. Others may spend time in cold storage rooms or on loading platforms that are exposed to the weather. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most jobs do not require more than a high school diploma. However preference is given to applicants familiar with com puters. Education and training. Many weigher, measurer, checker, and sampler jobs are entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma or a GED, its equivalent. Other qualifications. Employers prefer to hire individuals familiar with computers. Applicants who have specific job-re lated experience may also be preferred. Typing, filing, record keeping, and other clerical skills are important. Advancement. Advancement opportunities vary with the place of employment. Employment Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers held about 79,000 jobs in 2006. Their employment is spread across many indus tries. Retail trade accounted for 14 percent of those jobs, manu facturing accounted for about 22 percent, and wholesale trade employed another 18 percent. Job Outlook Despite rapid declines in overall employment due primarily to automation, job opportunities should arise from the need to replace workers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping........ .. soc Employment, Code 2006 43-5111 79,000 Projected employment, 2016 70,000 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent -9,000 -11 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 598 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment change. Employment of weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers is expected to decline rapidly by 11 per cent from 2006 through 2016 because of the increased use of automated equipment that now performs the function of these workers. Job prospects. Despite employment declines, job opportuni ties should arise from the need to replace workers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Earnings Median wage-and-salary earnings of weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers in May 2006 were $12.20. The mid dle 50 percent earned between $9.66 and $15.83. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.03, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.78. These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Related Occupations Other workers who determine and document characteristics of materials or equipment include cargo and freight agents; pro duction, planning, and expediting clerks; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; and procure ment clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Other Office and Administrative Support Occupations Communications Equipment Operators (0*NET 43-2011.00, 43-2021.00, 43-2099.99) Significant Points • Switchboard operators hold 7 out of 8 jobs. • Workers train on the job. • Employment is expected to decline rapidly, but job prospects should be good. Nature of the Work Most communications equipment operators work as switch board operators for a wide variety of businesses, such as hos pitals, hotels, telephone call centers, and government agencies. Switchboard operators use private branch exchange (PBX) or voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) systems to relay incoming, outgoing, and interoffice calls. They also may frequently han dle other clerical duties, such as supplying information, taking messages, and greeting and announcing visitors. Technological improvements have automated many of the tasks handled by switchboard operators. New systems auto matically connect outside calls to the correct destination or to automated directories, and voice-mail systems take messages without the assistance of an operator. Despite the increasing automation of telephone call routing, however, some callers still require the assistance of an operator. Many callers have general requests, but do not know the person or department with whom they wish to speak. Switchboard operators use their knowledge of the duties and responsibilities of different departments to correctly direct calls. Telephone operators assist customers in making telephone calls. Some telephone operators are central office operators who help customers to complete local and long-distance calls, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis usually under special circumstances. Other telephone opera tors are directory assistance operators who provide customers with information such as telephone numbers or area codes. When callers dial “0,” they usually reach a central office operator. Most of these operators work for telephone compa nies, and many of their responsibilities have been automated. For example, callers can make international, collect, and credit card calls without the assistance of a central office operator. Even so, callers still need a central office operator for a limited number of tasks, including placing person-to-person calls or interrupting busy lines if an emergency warrants the disrup tion. When natural disasters such as storms or earthquakes occur, central office operators provide callers with emergency phone contacts. They also assist callers who are having dif ficulty with automated phone systems. For example, an op erator monitoring an automated system that aids a caller in placing collect calls may intervene if a caller needs assistance with the system. When callers dial information, they usually reach a direc tory assistance operator who provides callers with informa tion such as telephone numbers, addresses, and business list ings. Most directory assistance operators work for telephone companies; increasingly, they also work for companies that provide business services. Automated systems now handle many of the functions once performed by directory assistance operators. The systems prompt callers for a listing and may even connect the call after providing the telephone number. Directory assistance operators, however, are still needed to monitor many of the calls received by automated systems. The operators listen to recordings of the customer’s request and then key information into electronic directories to access the correct telephone numbers. Directory assistance operators also provide personal assistance to customers having difficulty using the automated system. Other communications equipment operators include work ers who operate satellite communications equipment, tele Office and Administrative Support Occupations 599 graph equipment, and a wide variety of other communications equipment. Work environment. Most communications equipment op erators work in pleasant, well-lighted surroundings. Because communications equipment operators spend much time seated at keyboards and video monitors, employers often provide workstations designed to decrease glare and other physical discomforts. Such improvements reduce the incidence of eye strain, back discomfort, and injury due to repetitive motion. An operator’s work may be quite repetitive and the pace hec tic during peak calling periods. To maintain operators’ effi ciency, supervisors at telephone companies often monitor their performance, including the amount of time they spend on each call. The rapid pace of the job—handling up to 1000 calls in a day—and frequent monitoring may cause stress. Switchboard operators generally work the same hours as other clerical employees at their company. In most organiza tions, full-time operators work regular business hours over a 5-day workweek. Work schedules are more irregular in hotels, hospitals, and other organizations that require round-the-clock operator services. In these companies, switchboard operators may work in the evenings and on holidays and weekends. Telephone operators must be accessible to customers 24 hours a day; therefore, they work a variety of shifts. Some operators work split shifts, coming on duty during peak calling periods in the late morning and early evening and going off duty during the intervening hours. Telephone companies nor mally assign shifts by seniority, allowing the most experienced operators the first choice of schedules. As a result, entry-level operators may have less desirable schedules, including late evening, split-shift, and weekend work. However, companies may allow operators the flexibility to swap shifts with other operators. Telephone company operators may work overtime. Approximately 1 in 5 communications equipment operators work part time. Because of the irregular nature of telephone operator schedules, many employers seek part-time workers for those shifts that are difficult to fill. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training for communications equipment operators is normally a mix of on-the-job training and classes lasting a few hours to a few weeks. Education and training. Communications equipment opera tors generally receive their training on the job, so a high school diploma is usually sufficient for most operators. Switchboard operators usually receive informal on-the-job training, lasting only a few days or weeks. Because they are often the first contact with the public or client, switchboard operators often receive some training in customer service. Training may vary by place of employment—a switchboard operator in a hospital would learn how to handle different emergencies, for example. Since switchboard operators’ duties may include clerical work, training in basic computer and writing skills may also be re quired. Entry-level telephone operators at telecommunications com panies may receive both classroom and on-the-job instruction that can last a couple of weeks. These operators may be paired with experienced personnel who provide hands-on instruction. New employees in both specialties are trained in the opera tion of their equipment and in procedures designed to maxi mize efficiency. They are familiarized with company policies, and instructors monitor both the time and quality of trainees’ responses to customer requests. Supervisors may continue to monitor new employees closely after they complete their initial training session. Other qualifications. Applicants should have clear speech, good hearing, and strong reading, spelling, and numerical skills. Computer literacy and typing skills also are important, and familiarity with a foreign language is helpful for some po sitions. Candidates for positions may be required to take an examination covering basic language, computer, data entry, and math skills. Employers emphasize customer service and seek operators who will remain courteous to customers while working quickly and handling difficult customers. Advancement. After 1 or 2 years on the job, communications equipment operators may advance to other positions within a company. Many switchboard and telephone operators enter clerical occupations, such as customer service representative, dispatcher, and receptionist, in which their operator experience is valuable. (See the Handbook sections on these occupations.) Telephone operators interested in more technical work may train for positions in installing and repairing equipment. (See the sections of the Handbook on radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers, and line installers and re pairers.) Promotion to supervisory positions is also possible. Employment Communications equipment operators held about 209,000 jobs in 2006. About 7 out of 8 worked as switchboard operators. Employment was distributed as follows: Switchboard operators, including answering service..........177,000 Telephone operators..............................................................27,000 All other communications equipment operators.................... 4,300 Switchboard operators direct calls within a business. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Switchboard operators work in almost all industries, but they are concentrated in telephone call centers, hospitals, hotels, and the Federal Government. Many work as temporary employees in the employment services industry. Telephone operators are concentrated in the telecommunications industry. 600 Occupational Outlook Handbook Projections data from the National Employment Matrix Occupational Title Communications equipment operators.................................... ...... Switchboard operators, including answering service........... ...... Telephone operators........................................................... ...... Communications equipment operators, all other................. ...... soc Code Employment, 2006 43-2000 43-2011 43-2021 43-2099 209,000 177,000 27,000 4,300 Projected employment, 2016 183,000 163,000 16,000 4,700 Change, 2006-16 Number Percent -25,000 -12 -15,000 -8 -11,000 -40 300 7 NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook. Job Outlook Employment of communications equipment operators is pro jected to decline rapidly. Virtually all job openings will result from the need to replace communications equipment operators who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force, but job prospects are expected to be good. Employment change. Employment of communications equipment operators is projected to decline rapidly by 12 per cent between 2006 and 2016. Switchboard operators are pro jected to decline moderately by 8 percent. Telephone operators are expected to decline rapidly by 40 percent. Declining em ployment will be due largely to new labor-saving communica tions technologies, the movement of jobs to foreign countries, and consolidation of telephone operator jobs into fewer loca tions. Developments in communications technologies—in particu lar, voice recognition systems—will continue to significantly reduce demand for communications equipment operators. Voice recognition technology allows automated telephone systems to recognize human speech. Callers speak directly to the system, which interprets the speech and then connects the call. Voice recognition systems do not require callers to input data through a telephone keypad so they are easier to use than touch-tone systems. Voice recognition systems are increas ingly able to understand sophisticated vocabulary and gram matical structures; however, many companies will continue to employ operators so that those callers who do have problems can access a live employee if they desire. The proliferation of cell phones has negatively affected em ployment of both telephone operators and switchboard opera tors. Cell phones have reduced the demand for directory assis tance and collect calls, and have resulted in decreasing use of pay phones that often required operators to assist with the call. The increasing use of cell phones also have reduced demand for switchboard operators in hotels because hotel guests now use in-room phones less frequently. Internet directory assistance services are reducing the need for directory assistance operators. With Internet access in creasingly available on cell phones, the decline in demand for directory assistance services will continue. As communications technologies have improved and the price of long-distance service has fallen, companies are finding other ways to reduce costs by consolidating operator jobs in low cost locations. Increasingly this has included the move ment of telephone operator jobs to other countries with lower prevailing wage rates. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job prospects. Despite declining employment, job prospects should be good. There are frequent job openings due to turn over. Many communications equipment operator leave the oc cupation each year, and some must be replaced. Earnings Median hourly earnings of wage-and-salary switchboard oper ators, including answering service, were $10.88 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.14 and $13.29. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.71, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.93. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of switchboard operators are: Offices of physicians............................................................. $11.40 General medical and surgical hospitals................................... 11.07 Automobile dealers..................................................................10.04 Business support services......................................................... 9.60 Telephone call centers............................................................... 9.55 Median hourly earnings of wage-and-salary telephone oper ators in May 2006 were $16.41. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.67 and $20.59. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.44, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.44. Some telephone operators working at telephone companies are members of the Communications Workers of America or the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. For these operators, union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the time required to advance from one pay step to the next. Median hourly earnings of all other wage-and-salary com munications equipment operators in May 2006 were $15.23. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.04 and $19.91. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.91, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.58. Related Occupations Other workers who provide information to the general public include dispatchers; hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks; cus tomer service representatives; and receptionists and informa tion clerks. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact companies in the industries that employ communications equipment operators.
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